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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael%20Parkinson
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Michael Parkinson
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Sir Michael Parkinson (28 March 1935 – 16 August 2023) was an English television presenter, broadcaster, journalist and author. He presented his television talk show Parkinson from 1971 to 1982 and from 1998 to 2007, as well as other talk shows and programmes both in the UK and internationally. He also worked in radio and was described by The Guardian as "the great British talkshow host".
Early life
Parkinson was born on 28 March 1935 in the village of Cudworth, near Barnsley. The son of a miner, he was educated at Barnsley Grammar School after passing the eleven-plus and in 1951 passed two O-Levels: in art and English language. He was a club cricketer and both he and his opening partner at Barnsley Cricket Club, Dickie Bird, had trials for Yorkshire together with Geoffrey Boycott. He once kept Boycott out of the Barnsley Cricket Club team by scoring a century and 50 in two successive matches. A young Michael Parkinson World XI played at the Scarborough Festival between 1988 and 1990.
Parkinson began his career as a journalist on local newspapers straight after leaving school. He worked as a features writer for the Manchester Guardian, working alongside Michael Frayn and later on the Daily Express in London. In the course of his two years' National Service, which began in July 1955, he received a commission as an officer in the Royal Army Pay Corps, becoming the youngest captain in the British Army at the time. He saw active service in Egypt in the Suez Crisis as a British Army press liaison officer.
Career
Television
During the 1960s, Parkinson moved into television, working on current-affairs programmes for the BBC and Manchester-based Granada Television. He was one of the presenters on the five-times-a-week news show Twenty-Four Hours on BBC1 from March 1966 until January 1968. From 1969 he presented Granada's Cinema, a late-night film review programme, before in July 1971 presenting his BBC series Parkinson, which ran until April 1982 and from January 1998 until December 2007, leaving the BBC for ITV1 midway through the second run, which concluded after 31 series. By his own reckoning, he had interviewed 2,000 of the world's celebrities. Parkinson was one of the original "Famous Five" line-up of TV-am's Good Morning, Britain in 1983, with Angela Rippon, Anna Ford, David Frost and Robert Kee. Parkinson presented the weekend edition of the programme until February 1984.
He also took over as host of Thames Television's Give Us a Clue from Michael Aspel from 1984, while in 1985, he stood in for Barry Norman as presenter of Film 85.
In 1987 and 1988, Parkinson hosted fifteen episodes of Parkinson One to One for Yorkshire Television, a series of interview programmes which continued in the style of his BBC talk show but with each episode dedicated to a single celebrity guest.
On Halloween 1992, Parkinson appeared as himself in the television drama Ghostwatch as the studio link during a fictional, apparently live, paranormal investigation. However, the cinéma vérité style in which it was shot led to complaints from viewers who believed it depicted real events. From 1995 to 1999, he hosted the BBC One daytime programme Going for a Song. He again appeared as himself in Richard Curtis's 2003 romantic comedy film, Love Actually, interviewing the character Billy Mack, played by Bill Nighy. In October 2003, Parkinson had a controversial interview with Meg Ryan while she was in the UK to promote In the Cut, which he called his most difficult television moment.
On 26 June 2007, Parkinson announced his retirement:
After three enjoyable and productive years at ITV, and after 25 years of doing my talk show I have decided that this forthcoming series will be my last. I'm going to take next year off to write my autobiography and consider other television projects. My thanks go out to all those who have worked on the shows down the years and the viewers for their loyal support and occasional kind words.
In 2007, Parkinson appeared in the Australian soap Neighbours as himself. On 24 November 2007, during recording of the final regular edition of his ITV chat show, broadcast on 16 December, Parkinson fought back tears as he was given an ovation. By December 2008 Parkinson held 458 credits as a presenter on his own and with others.
Parkinson was a flagship of the BBC's prime-time schedule, attracting top names before the chat show circuit was part of the promotional mill. He was able to interview wartime variety stars while attracting up-and-coming comedians such as Billy Connolly. He was not afraid to allow an interviewee time to be themself, sometimes, as with Fred Astaire, Orson Welles, Sir Alec Guinness, Sir Paul McCartney, Muhammad Ali, George Michael, Madonna, John Cleese and Mel Gibson, devoting an entire programme to a guest who was considered especially noteworthy. Parkinson stated that "If I could save one interview from the thousands I have done, it would be the one-man show with Professor Jacob Bronowski."
He stated that the most remarkable man he ever interviewed was Muhammad Ali, and regretted never interviewing Frank Sinatra or Sir Don Bradman.
Parkinson returned to hosting television in November 2012 with his new show Parkinson: Masterclass on Sky Arts.
Radio
Parkinson took over BBC Radio 4's Desert Island Discs for the 1986 series after the 1985 death of its creator, Roy Plomley, whose widow was unhappy with Parkinson replacing him. After six shows, he was criticised by the BBC Board of Management for "a Yorkshire bias in the choice of castaways" despite the fact that only one of his guests was born in the county. Parkinson claimed that the criticism was "a rearguard action by the establishment against the perceived desecration of an institution by an outsider". Parkinson stayed for two years until handing duties over to Sue Lawley.
Between 1994 and 1996 he hosted Parkinson on Sport on BBC Radio 5 Live. Between 1996 and 2007, he presented a morning show on BBC Radio 2 called Parkinson's Sunday Supplement; it featured newspaper and entertainment summaries with the help of journalists and a lengthy interview with a media personality. These were interspersed with music that demonstrated his penchant for jazz and big band. In October 2007, a few months after announcing his retirement from his television series, Parkinson said his radio show would also end. The last programme was broadcast on Sunday 2 December 2007. Parkinson presented a mid-morning programme on London's LBC Newstalk 97.3FM. He was considered responsible for the promotion of jazz singers to a more mainstream audience during the run of his BBC radio show.
Writing
Parkinson's first article for The Sunday Times Colour Section, "Living in a Museum" (about the Suffolk village of Lavenham), appeared on 8 July 1962. In 1965, The Sunday Times invited him to write a regular sports column, drawing on characters from his days in cricket and football. These Sunday Times pieces and his articles for Punch magazine later formed the basis for two books, Cricket Mad and Football Daft. In the 1980s, Parkinson wrote a series of children's books called The Woofits about a family of anthropomorphic dog-like creatures in the fictional Yorkshire coal-mining village of Grimeworth. The books led to a TV series, which he narrated. He wrote a sports column for The Daily Telegraph and was president of the Sports Journalists' Association.
His autobiography, Parky, was published on 2 October 2008 by Hodder & Stoughton. In April 2009, Parkinson wrote about the recently deceased Jade Goody in the Radio Times and described her as "barely educated, ignorant and puerile", adding: "When we clear the media smokescreen from around her death, what we're left with is a woman who came to represent all that's paltry and wretched about Britain today." Bishop Jonathan Blake, who had presided over Goody's wedding, took exception to Parkinson's comments.
Other work
In 1971, Parkinson was nominated as a candidate for the position of Rector of the University of Dundee. In one of the closest-ever contests for that position, he was very narrowly defeated by incumbent Peter Ustinov after two recounts. The result was controversial, as it was alleged earlier results indicated Parkinson had won and a further recount should have taken place to confirm the result. As a result, pressure grew for the poll to be rerun. While the university decreed that the original result was to stand, a new poll was organised by the Students' Association, which also featured the candidature of a goat. However, this time Ustinov won a decisive victory over Parkinson, the goat and Paul Foot.
Parkinson is on the cover of the 1973 Paul McCartney and Wings album Band on the Run. Paul McCartney told Parkinson that he would appear on his show if Parkinson appeared on the album cover, although it was not until 1999 that McCartney fulfilled his promise.
In 2005, Parkinson appeared with comedian Peter Kay on the music video of the re-released "Is This the Way to Amarillo" for Comic Relief, which became a number one single.
On 29 September 2008, Parkinson launched his website, which included online interviews. The site also includes a blog, giving Parkinson's views on news events as well as information about his compilation album, Michael Parkinson: My Life in Music, featuring favourite songs performed by Frank Sinatra, Michael Bublé, Dionne Warwick and others.
Parkinson gave the keynote address in Sydney on Australia Day 2011, the first non-Australian to do so. Parkinson used the publicity surrounding his Australia Day appearance to promote the abolition of the Australian monarchy.
After finishing his talk show, Parkinson appeared in commercials for SunLife Guaranteed Over 50 Plan life insurance, stating that he liked "its no-nonsense approach to business". His role in advertising the scheme was criticised by financial journalist Martin Lewis, who argued in 2012 that the plan was "poor value" for customers.
Views
Parkinson was a critic of the apartheid system governing South Africa until the 1990s and wrote a monthly sports column for Anti-Apartheid News, the official newspaper of the Anti-Apartheid Movement, upon its launch in 1965. He was particularly vocal on the topic of accommodating the wishes of the apartheid government in the sphere of international cricket, accusing the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) of being "racialists of the worst kind" in his Sunday Times column for initially excluding the South African-born mixed-race England cricketer Basil D'Oliveira from the England team touring South Africa in 1968–69. He also opposed a planned South African tour of England in 1970, characterising the MCC's defence of the tour as "a rag-bag of cliche, red herring, zig-zagging, bobbing and weaving", and judging their justification of it as having "all the watertight qualities of a string bag". He went on to write the foreword to Colin Shindler's history of the campaign against the 1970 tour, Barbed Wire and Cucumber Sandwiches. He was also a founding sponsor of the Anti-Nazi League in 1977.
In 2009, Parkinson bemoaned the state of television generally, saying in a Radio Times interview that he was "fed up with the rise of celebrities hosting shows, ridiculously titled documentaries and property shows", and also saying: "In my television paradise there would be no more property programmes, no more police-chasing-yobbos-in-cars programmes and, most of all and please God, no more so-called documentary shows with titles like My 20-Ton Tumour, My Big Fat Head, Wolf Girl, Embarrassing Illnesses and The Fastest Man on No Legs." On 11 October 2010, Parkinson appeared on Richard Bacon's Radio 5 Live show, and was particularly critical of comedian and actor Russell Brand, saying: "I don't see the point of him."
In 2013, Parkinson again criticised the course British television had taken, comparing series such as The One Show unfavourably with the broadcasting of the recently deceased Alan Whicker and David Frost, as well as stating the "cult of youth" had "distorted the standards". Parkinson spoke fondly of the time when "producers were unencumbered by such irksome obstacles as compliance, health and safety and frustrating commissioning procedures". Alex Jones, presenter of The One Show, rejected Parkinson's criticism.
In August 2014, Parkinson was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian expressing their hope that Scotland would vote to remain part of the United Kingdom in September's referendum on that issue.
Parkinson had declined to apologise to Helen Mirren over an interview he conducted in 1975, where he implied that serious actors could not have large breasts. Mirren later described him as a "sexist old fart". On Piers Morgan's Life Stories, Morgan suggested the comments were sexist. Parkinson replied: "Well, maybe. But nobody got hurt, nobody died."
Personal life, illness and death
On 22 August 1959, he married Mary Heneghan, who was from Doncaster. They had three children, including a son, Michael Jr., who married the comedian and actress Fiona Allen. In the 1970s, Parkinson campaigned in support of birth control, having had a vasectomy in 1972 to allow his wife to stop taking oral contraceptive pills.
Parkinson was a cricket fan and in 1990 hosted a World XI team against Yorkshire. Parkinson and his wife lived in Bray, Berkshire. He met his friend Michel Roux when rowing down the River Thames on a Sunday to The Waterside Inn, then owned by Roux. Parkinson acquired a Michelin-starred restaurant near his home in Berkshire in 2001. In an interview with Irish broadcaster Gay Byrne on the RTÉ religious programme The Meaning of Life, he stated that he was an agnostic atheist.
In 2010, the National Portrait Gallery acquired a painted portrait of Parkinson, which it had commissioned from the artist Jonathan Yeo, for its permanent collection.
In 2013, Parkinson announced that he had been diagnosed with prostate cancer. In 2015 he was given the all-clear from the disease.
Parkinson died at home on 16 August 2023 following a brief illness, aged 88.
Honours and awards
In 1999, he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Lincoln and he also received an honorary D.Litt. from the University of Huddersfield in 2008. He was invested as a Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) by Prince Charles in November 2000 for services to broadcasting, awarded in the 2000 Birthday Honours. Parkinson was made a Knight Bachelor in the 2008 New Year's Honours List; he remarked that he was "not the type to get a knighthood" coming as he did "from Barnsley. They give it to anyone nowadays."
Parkinson was ranked eighth in a list of the 100 Greatest British Television Programmes drawn up by the British Film Institute in 2000, voted for by industry professionals. In April 2006, Parkinson was awarded honorary patronage of the University Philosophical Society of Trinity College Dublin. He was voted number 20 in ITV's "TV's 50 Greatest Stars". On 4 June 2008 he was knighted by Queen Elizabeth II at Buckingham Palace.
On 11 November 2008, he became the first Chancellor of Nottingham Trent University; the role included representing the university and conferring degrees at graduation ceremonies. Upon receiving the honour he said, "I am honoured to be offered the chancellorship at Nottingham Trent University. In television I have always worked with young, ambitious people and I am keen to be involved in this university which helps to realise the aspirations of the young. It will also give me an opportunity to see what I missed!". Parkinson had served as president of the Sports Journalists' Association of Great Britain since 2005, the largest national organisation of sports journalists in the world.
References
External links
Michael Parkinson at the MBC's Encyclopedia of Television ()
1935 births
2023 deaths
20th-century British Army personnel
20th-century British journalists
20th-century English writers
21st-century English memoirists
BBC Radio 2 presenters
BBC television presenters
Best Entertainment Performance BAFTA Award (television) winners
British military personnel of the Suez Crisis
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
English autobiographers
English children's writers
English game show hosts
English male journalists
English radio presenters
English sportswriters
English television presenters
English television talk show hosts
Knights Bachelor
Military personnel from Yorkshire
People educated at Holgate School, Barnsley
People from Bray, Berkshire
People from Cudworth, South Yorkshire
Royal Army Pay Corps officers
Television personalities from South Yorkshire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1971%20Indianapolis%20500
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1971 Indianapolis 500
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The 55th 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was a motor race held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Saturday, May 29, 1971. Al Unser Sr. won for the second consecutive year, dominating most of the race. Unser became the fourth driver to win the Indy 500 in back-to-back years, and it was his second of a record-tying four Indy victories.
The race was marred by a crash involving the pace car at the start. Eldon Palmer, a local Indianapolis-area Dodge dealer, lost control of the Dodge Challenger pace car at the south end of the pit area, and it crashed into a photographers' stand, injuring 29 people, two seriously.
Peter Revson started on the pole with a record speed of , more than a mile per hour faster than any other qualifier, with defending Indy 500 winner and USAC National Champion Al Unser in the middle of the second row. Mark Donohue, who qualified in the middle of the front row, took the lead at the start of the race and led the first 50 laps. A mechanical issue ended his day, however, on lap 66, at which time Unser assumed the lead. He and Joe Leonard swapped the lead several times during the middle portion of the race, but Unser led for the final 83 laps, giving him a win for the second year in a row. He was the first to successfully defend his title since Bill Vukovich won in 1953–1954.
Unser became the first and only driver to-date to win the race on his birthday (32nd); which was also coincidentally the first time the race had ever been held on May 29, and he also became the first winner to celebrate in the new victory lane. The new winner's area, now featuring black and white checkered ramps, was moved from the south end of the pits to the "horseshoe" area immediately below the Master Control Tower, near the start/finish line.
The 1971 Indy 500 was part of the newly re-organized USAC Marlboro Championship Trail, in which dirt tracks were separated from the paved ovals and road courses. From then on, the Gold Crown championship schedule would consist solely of paved tracks (both ovals and road courses), giving the national championship a decidedly new look for the 1970s and beyond. In addition, with 500-mile races at Ontario and Pocono now on the schedule, Indy car racing formed its first "triple crown."
The city of Indianapolis celebrated its Sesquicentennial in 1971, and the occasion was reflected on the bronze and silver pit badges for the month of May. During the week leading up to the race, Indianapolis was also the site of 1971 NATO International Conference of Cities.
Race schedule
In the days leading up to the race, Speedway officials announced that female reporters would be allowed in the pit area and garage area for the first time.
For this race, and again in 1972, the race was scheduled for the Saturday of Memorial Day weekend. The Uniform Monday Holiday Act had taken effect in 1971, and the Speedway moved the race off of its original traditional fixed date of May 30. Through 1970, Memorial Day was a fixed date holiday observed on May 30 regardless of the day of the week. From 1911 to 1970, the race was scheduled for May 30, regardless of the day of the week, unless May 30 fell on a Sunday. In those cases, the race would be scheduled for Monday May 31. In 1973, it was scheduled for Monday (but rain delayed it until Wednesday), and from 1974 onward, it was scheduled for the Sunday of Memorial Day weekend.
For 1971, the traditional Carburetion Day practice, held on Wednesday May 26, was officially open to the public for the first time.
Time trials
For the first time, USAC firmed up the rules regarding pole day qualifying. As had been done in previous years, a blind draw would be held to determine the order of qualifying on pole day. However, starting in 1971, all drivers/cars in the original qualifying draw order would be allowed the opportunity to make at least one attempt in the pole round regardless if rain halted the session and pushed it off to another day. Previously, if rain interrupted the qualifying line on pole day, any cars left in the original qualifying order at the time the track closed because of weather or the track closing at 6:00 p.m. were deemed to qualify on the next round.
During practice, McLaren arrived at the track with the new M16 chassis, drawing attention and some controversy due to presence of a large rear wing affixed to the engine cover. USAC rules through 1971 required that any aerodynamic devices were to be an integral part of the bodywork. After inspection, officials ultimately approved the device, as McLaren argued it was part of the engine cover. The engine cover was not much more than a flat, plate-like shape that ran along the top of the engine, with the wing affixed to the rear. As practice began, the McLaren entries quickly established themselves as favorites for the pole position.
Pole Day - Saturday May 15
McLaren M16 cars dominated qualifying during a record-shattering afternoon. The chassis took 1st, 2nd, and 4th starting positions, but the results were not without some surprise. Mark Donohue in the Penske-owned McLaren had broken the 180 mph barrier during practice on Thursday, establishing himself as the favorite for the pole. Donohue lucked out with an early draw on Pole Day, going out third in line. He posted a four-lap average of 177.087 mph to sit on the provisional pole. It was a new track record, but a little disappointing compared to the 180 mph lap he had two days earlier.
Later in the day, Peter Revson, driving a works McLaren, bumped Donohue from the pole with a four-lap average of 178.696 mph. The pole position far out of reach for the rest of the field. Donohue reportedly suffered handling problems with his car during his run, purportedly as a result of his crew refusing to dial it in as he requested. Donohue then confided with his friend Revson, who then clandestinely borrowed Donohue's chassis set-up advice to knock him off the pole. Bobby Unser in an Eagle chassis, squeezed between the three McLaren cars by qualifying third.
Second Day - Sunday May 16
Three drivers completed runs, with Bud Tingelstad (170.156 mph) the fastest of the afternoon. Mike Mosley returned after two crashes the previous day, and qualified solidly over 169 mph.
Third Day - Saturday May 22
A busy day saw the field filled to 33 cars car. The day concluded with Steve Krisiloff bumping out rookie Sam Posey.
Bump Day - Sunday May 23
Strong winds kept speeds down, and only three drivers successfully bumped their way into the field. The windy conditions led to six crashes, and hopefuls waited until the final 45 minutes before they took to the track. The session started out with Mel Kenyon bumping out Carl Williams. Bob Harkey bumped Dick Simon, and Art Pollard got back into the field by bumping Jim McElreath.
Jim Hurtubise once again tried to qualify his front-engined roadster, but on his second lap, hit the outside wall at the head of the main stretch. His first two laps would not have been fast enough to bump his way in. The day ended as Dick Simon (waved off) and Jerry Grant (waved off) made unsuccessful attempts.
After qualifying, car owner Dick Simon announced he was going to take over the machine qualified by John Mahler. By rule, the car must move to the rear of the grid (33rd) on race day.
Pace car crash
For 1971, none of the Big Three auto manufacturers chose to supply a pace car for the Indianapolis 500, as the muscle car market had dried up and marketing efforts were shifted elsewhere. Four local Indianapolis-area Dodge dealers, spearheaded by Eldon Palmer, stepped up to supply the fleet of pace cars. The vehicle chosen was the Dodge Challenger 383-4V. Palmer was chosen to drive the pace car at the start of the race.
In preparation for the race, Palmer or an aide supposedly set up an orange flag (sometimes reported as an orange traffic cone) in the pit lane to provide himself with a braking reference point. However, there has been some dispute regarding the existence of the marker at all. One account claimed it had not been there for several days. During the parade and pace lap, Tony Hulman, ABC broadcaster Chris Schenkel, and John Glenn served as passengers in the car. Palmer practiced the run the day before the race.
As the field came down the main stretch for the start, Palmer pulled into the pits and accelerated down the pit lane. Palmer continued to accelerate, under the impression that he was required to cross the start/finish line in the pit area prior to, or at the same time, as the race cars doing so out on the track. His reference flag (or cone) had been removed and he missed his planned braking spot. Moving upwards of perhaps , Palmer realized he was going too fast, and rather than perilously veering back on to the racing surface, he braked heavily and lost control. Palmer had refused to blame the car, stating afterwards that "the equipment was good, disc brakes. I just didn't have enough track to stop." However, testimony during a 1974 civil trial stated that the pace car was supposed to be ordered with power disc brakes, but was built and delivered to the track with only manual drum brakes. Furthermore, Palmer's attorney added that a security guard running out of the way effectively blocked the exit to the pits.
The car swerved and skidded to the end of the pit lane, and crashed into a photographers' stand. The stand toppled and collapsed, injuring 29 people, but no one was killed. Dr. Vicente Alvarez, a freelance photographer from Argentina, was one of two on the stand who were seriously injured. Alvarez survived, and died in the late 1990s. Tony Hulman suffered a sprained ankle, and a shaken Schenkel sat out the remainder of the ABC broadcast.
Palmer maintained possession of the car, and eventually it was repaired and restored. Ultimately, Palmer himself was largely exonerated. Indiana businessman Steven Cage purchased the vehicle in 2006, and it currently is displayed at his RPM Collection in Fishers, Indiana. Reactions of the accident were very critical afterwards, and for the next several years, the pace car drivers selected were either former Indy drivers or people with racing experience.
Race details
First half
Despite the pace car crash near the exit of the pits, the green light came on, and the race continued underway. Mark Donohue grabbed the lead from the middle of the front row.
On lap 12, Steve Krisiloff blew an engine, spilling oil in turn three. Mel Kenyon slid in the oil making contact with the turn three wall. Gordon Johncock and Mario Andretti continued to race each other through three yellow lights. When they arrived at turn three, track workers were on the scene beside the Kenyon machine. Having not heeded the yellow lights, both Johncock and Andretti slid in the oil with Johncock crashing into the Kenyon car, running over the top of it and destroying both cars. Kenyon, fortunately, had seen Johncock coming and dropped back down into the cockpit of his race car. Johncock's car left a tire mark on the top of Kenyon's helmet. The only injury received by Kenyon was a small cut on his shin from the dash board being pushed down onto his legs. All four cars were out of the race, and the yellow light was on for 19 minutes to clean up the accident.
Donohue led the first 50 laps, then the lead traded hands during pit stops between Joe Leonard, Bobby Unser, as well as Al Unser. After leading a total of 52 laps, Mark Donohue dropped out on lap 66 with broken gears. He came to a stop in turn four, and parked the car in the infield, just north of the entrance to the pits.
Lloyd Ruby led at the halfway point.
Second half
On lap 111, David Hobbs blew an engine on the main stretch. Rick Muther spun in the oil, his car veered to the inside wall, then bounced across the track, hitting Hobbs, and lifting up on two wheels. Hobbs' car was pushed head-on into the wall, but he was not seriously injured. Both cars slid down the main stretch, and came to a rest just beyond the start/finish line. The track was blocked except for a narrow portion on the inside where other cars were able to skirt by. The incident happened right in front of Al Unser, who was the leading the race at the moment. The yellow light came on for 12 minutes to clean up the crash.
After a series of pit stops by the leaders under the yellow, the green eventually came back out with Al Unser leading.
With less than 40 laps to go, Al Unser continued to lead, with Peter Revson second, Bobby Unser third, and A. J. Foyt fourth.
On lap 167, Mike Mosley lost a wheel in turn 4. He smacked the outside wall in turn four hard, then bounced across the track and hit the inside wall. Leader Al Unser was ahead of the crash, and second place Peter Revson just slipped by. Third place Bobby Unser spun to avoid Mosley, and hit the outside wall. Mosley's car then crashed into the parked cars of Mark Donohue and Steve Krisiloff, that were sitting near the entrance to the pits. A fire broke out, at which time 8th running Gary Bettenhausen stopped his car, and ran to the scene to help. Fire crews quickly doused the flames, and Mosley suffered a broken leg. Bill Vukovich II also spun to avoid the crash, but he was able to continue. The yellow remained on for 22 minutes to clean up the crash.
The green light came back on with less than 20 laps to go. Al Unser held a comfortable lead, and won his second 500 in a row. Despite four yellows for 53 minutes (about 48 laps), the average speed of 157.735 mph was a new record at the time. Bettenhausen, who finished 10th, was given a cheer at the finish for stopping to help Mosley and Unser on lap 164.
Race results
Alternates
First alternate: Jim McElreath (#14, #46)
Failed to Qualify
Tony Adamowicz (#17)
Ronnie Bucknum (#17, #97)
Larry Cannon (#47)
Jimmy Caruthers (#64)
Jerry Grant (#17, #78, #92)
Jim Hurtubise (#56)
Bruce Jacobi (#71)
Bobby Johns (#97)
Dee Jones (#51)
Jerry Karl (#71)
Arnie Knepper (#19, #29, #30, #65)
Al Loquasto (#26, #31)
John Mahler (#44) - Replaced by Dick Simon
John Martin (#69)
Sam Posey (#78)
Bill Puterbaugh (#30)
Les Scott (#50)
Bill Simpson (#28)
Jigger Sirois (#65)
Dave Strickland (#50)
Bruce Walkup (#94, #97, #98)
Salt Walther (#77) - Failed rookie test
Greg Weld (#31, #35)
Carl Williams (#77)
LeeRoy Yarbrough (#42, #48)
Race statistics
Qualifying chronology
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. It was carried on over 1,200 affiliates, including shortwave transmission to Europe, Asia, and Vietnam. The broadcast reached an estimated 100 million listeners worldwide. Sid Collins served as chief announcer and Len Sutton served as "driver expert." At the conclusion of the race, Lou Palmer reported from victory lane.
The entire on-air crew remained mostly consistent from 1966 to 1970. Bob Forbes was assigned as "wireless" microphone, covering the garages and roving reports. The pre-race coverage was 30 minutes long. In a departure from previous years, Sid Collins decided to eliminate booth interviews with celebrities during the race. The only exception was an interview with Hugh Downs, but that was during the post-race coverage. In addition, Luke Walton interviewed Evel Knievel in the pit area during the early stages of the race. Knievel was making his first visit to the 500, as a guest of the A. J. Foyt team.
Television
For the first time, the race was carried in the United States the same day the race was held, on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. The race was held in the afternoon, and the broadcast aired in prime time later in the day.
The broadcast totaled two hours, and came on-air at 8:30 p.m. (eastern). Among the notable appearances, was David Letterman, at the time employed by then-ABC Indianapolis affiliate WLWI, who served as a roving turn reporter. Letterman interviewed Mario Andretti after he dropped out of the race.
Chris Schenkel began what would be a decade-long tenure as host, while Jim McKay anchored the broadcast as play-by-play announcer. But Schenkel's day as host was short. Riding in (and broadcasting from) the pace car at the start of the race, he was slightly injured when the pace car crashed after coming into the pits at the start of the race.
The broadcast was re-aired numerous times on ESPN Classic from February 2002 until the network's shutdown at the end of 2021.
Notes
See also
1971 USAC Championship Car season
References
Works cited
1971 Indianapolis 500 Press Information - Daily Trackside Summary
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site
1971 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1972%20Indianapolis%20500
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1972 Indianapolis 500
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The 56th 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana, on Saturday, May 27, 1972. The race is notable in that for the first time, the cars were permitted bolt-on wings, and speeds climbed dramatically. Bobby Unser won the pole position at a then-remarkable speed of for four laps, breaking Peter Revson's track record of from 1971 by – the largest one-year track record increase in Indy history. The race average speed of was also a new record, which stood until 1984.
Gary Bettenhausen led 138 laps until his car suffered ignition trouble on lap 176, and he coasted to the pits. Jerry Grant took over the lead, but pitted for a new tire and fuel on lap 188 in teammate Bobby Unser's pit - for which he was later disqualified. Bettenhausen's Penske teammate Mark Donohue won the race, after leading only the final 13 laps. It was owner Roger Penske's first of eighteen Indy 500 victories (as of 2019) and the first victory for a McLaren chassis at Indy. Al Unser Sr., who won the race in 1970 and 1971, was looking to become the first driver in history to "three-peat" at the Indianapolis 500. He fell short, but his runner-up finish ties for the best three-year span (1st-1st-2nd) in Indy history.
For the first time, Jim Nabors was invited to sing "Back Home Again in Indiana" during the pre-race ceremonies. Nabors accepted and performed with little rehearsal and was warmly received. It was the beginning of a 36-year tradition, where Nabors performed nearly every year from 1972 through 2014.
The 1972 race was the first to utilize the Electro-PACER Light system to facilitate the yellow light periods. Speedway officials still did not utilize the pace car during cautions, and this enforcement tool would be used at Indy for seven years, albeit not without controversy in subsequent races. This system was similar in concept to systems such as the Virtual Safety Car and the "Slow zone" that became popular in the 2010s. Although the technology for the Electro-PACER system was primitive compared to the later systems used over forty years later.
After the decade of the 1960s saw numerous drivers from Europe and other nationalities, the 1972 race was the first since 1962 and the last to have an all-American lineup. Mario Andretti who was born in Istria (part of Italy at the time) was a naturalized U.S. citizen at the time of this race.
Race schedule
Following the pattern set in 1970 and 1971, the race was scheduled for the Saturday of Memorial Day weekend. This would be the final Indy 500 scheduled for a Saturday (the 1986 race was held on a Saturday due to a week-long rain delay). Falling on May 27, it was also the earliest calendar date that race had been held up to that point. In 1973, the race would be scheduled for Monday, and starting in 1974, the race would permanently move to the Sunday of Memorial Day weekend.
On Sunday May 28, the annual 500 Victory Banquet was held at the newly completed Indiana Convention Center for the first time.
Practice and time trials
In 1972, for the first time, USAC allowed bolt-on wings to be affixed the cars. Previously, "wings" were required to be integral parts of the car's bodywork. Downforce levels increased by significant margins, and speeds climbed substantially during practice. During a tire test in March, Bobby Unser reportedly drove a lap of 190.8 mph, the first driver ever to lap the Speedway unofficially at over 190 mph.
The existing official track record going into the month had been set by Peter Revson in 1971 at 179.354 mph. During the first week of practice, the stage was set for record speeds early on. During the first day the track was available, Sunday April 30, Jim Malloy became the first driver to break the 180 mph barrier in practice, at 181.415 mph. Later in the week, Malloy ran a practice lap of 188.048 mph, by far an unofficial track record. By the end of the first week of practice, 11 drivers had practiced over 180 mph.
During the second week of practice, Gary Bettenhausen turned a lap of 190.315 mph on Sunday May 7. He became the first driver ever of the month to break 190 mph. Two days later, Bettenhausen was over 191 mph. Not to be upstaged, on Wednesday May 10, Bobby Unser blistered the track at 194.721 mph.
By the eve of pole day, three drivers had cracked the 190 mph barrier in practice, and more than a dozen had practiced faster than the existing qualifying record.
First day time trials – Saturday May 13
Pole day time trials were scheduled for Saturday May 13, however, rain kept the track closed most of the day. The track opened briefly for practice, and at 5:50 p.m. time trials began. Three cars made it on the track, but none of them completed runs. A. J. Foyt was the last car out, but he blew his engine in turn two right after taking the green flag.
Second day time trials – Sunday May 14
Pole qualifying was moved into Sunday, and the qualifying line picked up where it had left off the day before. The track opened for practice promptly at 9 a.m. At 10:21 a.m., Jim Malloy slid high exiting turn 3, and hit the outside wall in the north short chute. He suffered fractured arms and legs, burns, and was in critical condition. Four days later, Malloy would die from his injuries.
After the Malloy crash, rain closed the track until 2:30 p.m. Bill Vukovich II was the first driver to make a qualifying attempt. His first lap of 185.797 mph was a new one-lap track record, and the first official lap at Indy over 180 mph. However, he did a 360° spin in turn one, and came to rest against the outside wall on the second lap, and the run was for naught. Mike Mosley went out next, but the car quit on the final lap. More rain fell, and the track closed for another hour to wait out the shower.
At 4:15 p.m., Joe Leonard (185.223 mph) became the first driver to complete a qualifying run. He set one and four-lap records, but they would not last long. Mario Andretti (187.617 mph) was the next car out, and he took over the top spot temporarily, also breaking the track record in the process.
Shortly before 5 p.m., Bobby Unser took to the track. He set new all-time one and four-lap qualifying records, becoming the first driver to officially break the 190 mph barrier at Indianapolis.
Lap 1 – 46.17 seconds, 194.932 mph (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 2 – 45.91 seconds, 196.036 mph (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 3 – 45.76 seconds, 196.678 mph (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 4 – 45.89 seconds, 196.121 mph
Total – 3:03.73, 195.940 mph (new 4-lap track record)
Unser established himself as the man to beat for the pole position. He shattered the previous year's track record by over 17 mph. Twelve cars completed runs and the 6 o'clock gun closed the track with six cars still left in line. The pole position round would be stretched into the following weekend. Among those not yet on the track were Mark Donohue and Peter Revson. After blowing his engine Saturday, A. J. Foyt was ineligible for the pole, and was not yet in the field either.
Third Day – Saturday May 20
Six cars entered the day still eligible for the pole round, and five of those made attempts. Mark Donohue put himself on the front row with a run of 191.408 mph. Moments later, Peter Revson put himself second with a run of 192.885 mph. Bobby Unser held on to the pole position, and the front of the field was set. For the first time since 1940–1941, the same three drivers qualified on the front row in consecutive years. Unser, Revson, and Donohue started on the front row (albeit in different order) in 1971 as well.
At 11:30 a.m., "third day" qualifying commenced. A. J. Foyt put his car solidly in the field with 188.996 mph. Two-time defending race winner Al Unser, Sr. also qualified. The fastest of the "third day" qualifiers would be Jerry Grant, with a run of 189.294 mph.
At the end of the day, the field was filled to 27 cars.
Bump Day – Sunday May 21 (Jim Hurtubise "Beer engine")
After blowing five engines during the month, Gordon Johncock finally put a car in the field. His speed of 188.511 mph would be the fastest of the day (8th-fastest overall), and he qualified in 26th.
At 5 p.m., Salt Walther filled the field to 33 cars. Wally Dallenbach (178.423 mph) was now on the bubble. Dallenbach survived three attempts, but was eventually bumped by Cale Yarborough with a half-hour remaining. Yarborough (178.864 mph) beat Dallenbach's time by a mere 0.50 seconds, however, Yarborough himself was now on the bubble. An agonizing final 25 minutes saw six drivers try to bump him out. One by one, they each fell short. Seconds before the 6 o'clock gun, Wally Dallenbach got in a back-up car for one last chance. His first two laps were just shy of bumping in, and on his third lap, the car began smoking. He was forced to pull into the pits and wave off the run. The field was set with Yarborough holding on to make the field. All 33 cars in the field qualified faster than the pole car from the previous year.
As the attention on the track was focusing on Cale Yarborough, Jim Hurtubise wheeled his Gohr Distributing-sponsored Mallard roadster in the qualifying line shortly before the closing deadline of 6 p.m. Gohr Distributing was a Buffalo-area beer distributor for various brands of beer, and they promoted the Miller High Life brand on the car. Since Hurtubise had already qualified himself, when asked why he was putting the car in line, he claimed he 'might put someone else in it,' a practice that was commonplace at the time. Hurtubise had become known for last-minute (unsuccessful) qualifying efforts in his obsolete front-engined roadster, usually to the delight of fans, but sometimes drawing the ire of others. Time expired before the Mallard got anywhere near the front of the line. In fact, Hurtubise purposely queued the car late on purpose so it would not make it to the front. The engine cover was then removed to reveal that car had no engine. Instead it had a plastic-lined trough filled with ice and a number of chilled bottles of his sponsor's product, which he shared with the other pit crews and race officials. Most in attendance found the gesture to be humorous, however, some officials were not amused. Some were even becoming skeptical before he opened the cover, as already melting ice was leaving a trail of water visible on the pit lane beneath the car. It would be the first of several run-ins Hurtubise would have with USAC officials. This type of stall tactic infuriated officials, which made further rule changes to prevent this ruse. (In modern times, alcohol is prohibited in the pit area owing to WADA Code that prohibits alcohol among participants in motorsport events.) As a result, cars are now subject to cursory inspection, even before arriving at the official technical inspection area, and must obtain a sticker from officials to notify officials the car has been approved before entering the qualifying line.
Carburetion Day
During practice on May 16, Art Pollard wrecked his qualified car. The team was forced to replace it with a back-up car. Pollard, however, suffered a fractured leg, and was out for the remainder of the month. The team hired Wally Dallenbach (who had been bumped) to drive as a substitute. For race day, the car was moved to the 33rd starting position due to the car/driver change.
The final practice session was scheduled for Wednesday May 24 from 1-4 p.m. Gordon Johncock (186.4 mph) was the fastest car of the day. No accidents were reported, and two drivers (John Mahler and Carl Williams) skipped the session altogether.
Electro-PACER Light System / Rule changes
The Carburetion Day practice session was expanded to allow the drivers more opportunity to practice under the new Electro-PACER Light system. The new devices were installed around the track to facilitate enforcement of the caution periods. At the time, the pace car was not utilized during caution periods, nor did the field pack up under yellow.
The PACER system featured a series of eight message panels situated around the track at equal intervals. They were programmed to enforce an 80 mph speed limit during caution periods. Drivers were instructed to hold their position under yellow, and each message board around the track would display a number from 1 to 9, illustrating the gap between themselves and the car in front of him. The goal and the requirement was to keep the numbers consistent at all of the boards around the entire circuit. For instance, if a driver saw a "7" on the first board he encountered, he was to drive at such a speed that would display a "7" at all of the boards around the circuit for the remainder of the caution period. If he saw a "6" on the next board, it indicated that he was going too fast, and he would have to slow down a bit. If it displayed an "8" on the next board, that meant he was driving too slow, and needed to speed up slightly. Officials were stationed around the track to observe and issue penalties for violating the PACER system, which could mean a one-lap penalty for repeated abuse.
The Electro-PACER Light system would be used at Indianapolis from 1972 through 1978. Despite its seemingly simple format and instructions, it would be the source of ire and controversy during the years that it was used. Some drivers discovered and exploited loopholes in the system, and officials would find it more difficult to police than they expected. The PACER system would be a primitive precursor to later systems such as the Virtual Safety Car and "Slow Zones" introduced in the 2010s in Formula One and at Le Mans, respectively. In the end, the drivers themselves lobbied for the pack-up rule during caution periods, and it was finally adopted in 1979.
One additional rule change for 1972 involved the mandatory pit stops. A minimum of four pit stops (fuel hookup required) was required for 1972. The change was up from two pit stops in 1965–1967, and up from three in 1968–1971. Individual tire changes were still optional, but the rapidly increasing speeds from 1972 on would generate greater tire wear. As a result, tire changes became increasingly necessary and more common. Several drivers won the race in the 1960s without changing any tires, but no longer would that be practical nor feasible.
Race summary
Pre-race ceremonies — Jim Nabors
On race morning, track president Tony Hulman was reportedly chatting with William F. Harrah, owner of Harrah's casino. Jim Nabors was accompanying Harrah as a guest at the race. Hulman recognized Nabors, and asked him if he wanted to 'sing the song' during the pre-race ceremonies. Believing that Hulman was talking about "The Star-Spangled Banner", Nabors agreed, and walked over to arrange with the Purdue Band. Nabors asked the band leader what key they were going to play, and it was not until that moment that he was informed he was going to be singing "Back Home Again in Indiana". A surprised Nabors quickly jotted the lyrics down on a sheet of paper, climbed up on a ladder, and performed the song unrehearsed. Although some contemporary accounts vary, it was nevertheless the beginning of a 36-year tradition that would see Nabors perform the song at Indianapolis nearly every year through 2014.
Start
Tony Hulman gave the command to start engines, and the field began to pull away for two pace laps. After the pace car crash a year earlier, the veteran driver Jim Rathmann was assigned the pace car driving duties. The passengers in the Hurst/Olds pace car included Tony Hulman, astronaut Pete Conrad, Chris Schenkel of ABC Sports, Bob Draper (Hurst), and Dolly Cole (wife of GM executive Ed Cole), believed to be the first woman ever to ride in the pace car.
As the field pushed off from the starting grid, A. J. Foyt's car stalled and failed to pull away. His crew hurriedly wheeled the car to the south end of the pit, and tried to figure out what was wrong with the machine. With the rest of the field gone, Foyt was possibly out of the race before the green flag. As the field was coming out of turn four, the starter held up one finger, indicating that the pace car should take the field on a second pace lap. However, at that moment the crew got Foyt's car running, and quickly pushed him away. The starter waved the pace car off the track and abruptly dropped the green flag, catching many drivers in the wrong gear to go racing and making for a ragged start. With Foyt slowly coming up to speed on the apron, the field blasted by him into turn one. Just as the race went green, rookie Salt Walther dropped out from a parts failure.
First half
Bobby Unser grabbed the lead in the first turn, and led the first 30 laps. Unser set a blistering pace with Mark Donohue and Jerry Grant running close behind. On lap 31, Bobby Unser slowed and headed to the pits with a broken ignition rotor. Unser was out of the race, and Gary Bettenhausen took the lead.
A. J. Foyt was forced to play catch-up from the onset, but was running fast laps in the 180 mph range. His day was short, however, as he blew the turbocharger. After several lengthy pit stops, Foyt dropped out of the race. Among the early outs were Peter Revson (started 2nd) and Johnny Rutherford (started 8th). During a pit stop around lap 42, Jerry Grant and Mark Donohue battled side-by-side as they exited their stalls, and Donohue nearly crashed into the scoring pylon. Meanwhile, a fire broke out in the pit area of Wally Dallenbach, but he was able to continue.
Mike Mosley took the lead on lap 54. Two laps later, he lost a wheel and crashed into the outside wall in turn four. The impact ruptured the fuel tank, and the car caught fire as it slid down the mainstretch. Mosley unbuckled before the car came to a rest and jumped from the car trying to put out the flames. Mosley suffered burns but was not seriously injured. It was the second year in a row Mosley wrecked out in the fourth turn.
On lap 81, for the second time, Wally Dallenbach had a fire in the pits.
At the halfway point, 13 cars were out of the race. Gary Bettenhausen continued to dominate the race, and led at the halfway point. After completing 94 laps, Jim Hurtubise ran out of fuel in turn two. When the safety truck went to tow him back to the pits, they proceeded to tow him through the infield and the garage area gate rather than directly around the track back to his pit stall. He refueled and rejoined the race, but was subsequently disqualified for leaving the race track. Some feel it was a "payback" gesture by USAC for Hurtubise's antics on bump day regarding his 'beer engine.'
Second half
Gary Bettenhausen continued to lead, pushing record speeds. Attrition began to take its toll on the field. By the 400-mile mark, eighteen cars were out of the race.
Lee Kunzman lost a wheel in turn two, bringing out a yellow light on the leader's lap 147.
Wally Dallenbach had his third fire in the pits on lap 151. The final round of scheduled pit stops occurred for the leaders around laps 160-165. Bettenhausen pitted first on lap 162, briefly giving the lead over to Jerry Grant. When Grant pitted four laps later, his long pit stop relinquished the lead back to Bettenhausen. Grant himself later theorized that, because he was running a high line to improve his Eagle-Offy's handling, he might have picked up debris that caused a puncture of his right-front tire.
The yellow light came on with about 27 laps to go for debris on the backstretch. When the green light came back on, Gary Bettenhausen's car seemed to hesitate. With 25 laps to go, Bettenhausen suddenly started slowing in the north end of the track. After leading 138 laps, his car quit with ignition trouble. Bettenhausen later reported that the car had also suffered a pinhole puncture in the radiator earlier in the race. Slowly losing water, the engine temperature stayed in a mostly safe range while at racing speed, but during the yellow caution period, it overheated. He limped around very slowly for a handful of laps, then parked the car in the pits for a 14th place finish.
Jerry Grant blasted by to take the lead, and Bettenhausen's Penske teammate Mark Donohue was now p to second place.
Finish
With 13 laps to go, Jerry Grant led Mark Donohue and Al Unser Sr. Grant was forced to make a pit stop on lap 188 to change a bad tire. Grant entered the pit area, but he overshot his own pit stall and instead pulled into the pit box of his teammate Bobby Unser (Unser was already out of the race). Grant's crew carried their equipment to Unser's pit box and serviced Grant's right front tire. In the confusion, Unser's crew refueled Grant's car with fuel from Unser's pitside tank. By the time Grant went back out on the race track he had lost the lead.
With Grant's unscheduled pit stop, Mark Donohue took the lead on lap 188. Grant dropped to second place on the track. Donohue had about a one-lap lead over Grant, and third place Al Unser was two laps down. Mike Hiss spun in the south shortchute between turns 1 and 2 on lap 194, but did not hit the wall. Hiss continued, and the yellow light was on for less than one minute. The green flag came back out with five laps to go.
Donohue led the final 13 laps, and scored his first Indy 500 victory, and the first Indy victory for car owner Roger Penske. Per the rules of the time, the remainder of the field was permitted to continue racing for about five minutes after Donohue took the checkered flag. During that time, Sam Posey and Mario Andretti made pit stops, with Posey taking on fuel and returning to the track to finish 5th. Andretti was out of fuel, and dropped from 5th to 8th in the final standings.
In the immediate aftermath of the finish, USAC official Frank Delroy announced there would be no penalty for Grant pitting in the wrong stall. The initial ruling was that no fuel actually flowed into the tank. However, the decision would be further investigated during the evening, and a final ruling would be made when official results posted at 8:00 a.m. the next morning.
Post race
Jerry Grant penalty
The morning after the race, USAC officials penalized Jerry Grant for taking fuel from Bobby Unser's pit tank. They disqualified him from that point on, and erased the final 12 laps from his tally. He was officially scored as out of the race with 188 laps completed. The penalty elevated Al Unser Sr. to second place, and dropped Grant to 12th finishing position. According to the rules, each car was allotted a strict limit of only 250 gallons of methanol in their pit-side tank (not including the fuel in the car at the start of the race) to complete the full 500 miles.
The details of the pit snafu were never fully explained, and remains a topic of discussion among historians and fans. The team maintained that fueling the car was an unintentional mistake, however, others felt otherwise. It has been reported by some witnesses that Grant was directed into Unser's pit stall by the crew, while others believe Grant simply overshot his own stall. Several possible theories emerged, with one prevailing opinion suggesting that Grant's car was out of fuel, and his pit-side tank was also empty, due to him running high turbocharger boost during the race. Grant supposedly needed a splash of fuel to make it to the finish, and since Bobby Unser dropped out early, his pit-side tank was still mostly full. It was thought that Grant deliberately stopped in Unser's pit, aware of the predicament, and knowing Unser's tank would fill his car sufficiently and quicker. Another claim was made to Grant's defense that while the fuel hose was admittedly hooked up, no fuel actually flowed into the car. This claim was quickly dismissed. Grant maintained later in life the infraction was unintentional, maintained his innocence, and felt the penalty was unjust.
Post-race notes
Mark Donohue won the race leading only the final 13 laps, the third-lowest total in Indy history to that point (Joe Dawson led two laps in 1912, and Graham Hill led ten laps in 1966). The race was slowed five times for cautions for only 20 minutes. Donohue's average speed of 162.962 mph set a new race record that would last until 1984.
Vanguard Racing (of which Leonard W. Miller was involved), became the first African American-owned team to enter a car in the Indy 500. John Mahler (who was white) served as the driver. He dropped out after 99 laps with a broken piston.
Race results
Donohue finished the race distance with a time of 3:04:05.54. The top four racers were given additional time after his finish to complete the 500 mile race distance; 5th place and below was flagged off the track without having done so.
Note: Jim Hurtubise completed 171 laps which would have unofficially placed him 16th, but he was penalized for being towed through the infield on lap 94, and all subsequent laps were disallowed. Car owner Dick Sommers filed a protest, but it was denied.
Alternates
First alternate: Wally Dallenbach (#10, #73)
Failed to qualify
Merle Bettenhausen (#35)
Tom Bigelow (#70)
Lee Brayton (#61)
Larry Dickson (#19)
George Eaton (#25) – Failed rookie test
Bob Harkey (#20, #99)
David Hobbs (#83) – Did not arrive
Parnelli Jones (#49) – Did not arrive
Jerry Karl (#4, #16, #58, #99)
Arnie Knepper (#90)
Al Loquasto (#43)
Jim Malloy (#16) – Fatal accident
Jim McElreath (#73)
Rick Muther (#38)
Art Pollard (#40) – Withdrew, injured
Bill Puterbaugh (#91)
Bill Simpson (#28)
Jigger Sirois (#20, #50, #91, #97)
Bud Tingelstad (#33)
Bruce Walkup (#97)
Bentley Warren (#36)
Race statistics
Qualifying chronology
Pace car
The Pace Car was a 1972 Hurst/Olds convertible with a Hurst Performance modified 455 cubic inch W-30 engine built to pre-smog high compression 1970 specs. It was equipped with a TH-400 transmission and a "His and Hers" Hurst Dual Gate shifter, plus a 3.42 rear axle ratio. An all aluminum W-27 differential cover was used for weight and cooling purposes. Mark Donohue was given the car for winning the race that day. About 629 of these cars were built for public consumption of which 130 were convertibles, 220 with sunroofs and the remaining 279 being hardtops. Almost all of these Pace Car replicas had the less powerful L-75 455 engine and 3.23 axle. A W-30 (L-77) could be ordered but only with 1972 specs netting 300HP with only 8.5 compression. All were painted Cameo white and carried unique 3M Firefrost Gold reflective fade out(pin dotted) laser stripes. In addition to this package, special Indy Pace Car decals with festival stickers could be ordered with large H/O stickers adorning the quarter panels.
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. It was carried on over 1,200 affiliates, including shortwave transmission to Japan, Vietnam, the Arctic and Antarctic. The broadcast reached an estimated 100 million listeners worldwide. Sid Collins served as chief announcer and Len Sutton served as "driver expert" for the seventh and final time. At the conclusion of the race, Lou Palmer reported from victory lane.
Sid Collins celebrated his milestone 25th year as chief announcer. During the pre-race coverage, Governor Edgar Whitcomb presented Collins with the Distinguished Hoosier Award, a recognition from American Forces Network, and a personalized letter of recognition from President Richard Nixon. Indianapolis mayor Dick Lugar likewise presented Collins with a silver microphone and declared May 27, 1972, as "Sid Collins Day."
The entire on-air crew remained mostly consistent from 1966–71. Bob Forbes was assigned as "wireless" microphone, covering the garages and roving reports. For 1972, the pre-race coverage expanded from 30 minutes to 45 minutes and came on-air at 10:15 a.m. local time. Howdy Bell's vantage point in turn two (an observation spot against the outside of the retaining wall), would be the final time reporting from that location. Starting in 1973, the vantage point would move to the new VIP Suites.
Jim Shelton (born May 27, 1919), who was reporting his 23rd race on the crew, was also celebrating his 53rd birthday.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. The race was held in the afternoon, and the broadcast aired in prime time later in the day. The two and a half hour broadcast was hosted by Chris Schenkel. Jim McKay and Jackie Stewart served as booth announcers. Chris Economaki was one of the pit reporters. Keith Jackson and Stu Nahan hosted a separate 30-minute trackside report before the ABC telecast that was available to some viewers on the west coast.
Gallery
Notes
References
Works cited
1972 Indianapolis 500 Press Information - Daily Trackside Summary
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site
1972 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
See also
1972 USAC Championship Car season
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1972 in American motorsport
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1973 Indianapolis 500
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The 57th 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana, on Wednesday, May 30, 1973. The race was held over three days due to rain and suffered two major accidents. Three competitors - two drivers and one pit crew member - died from injuries suffered as a result of accidents that occurred during the month, another driver was critically injured, and over a dozen spectators suffered injuries and/or burns. After 133 laps (), rain halted the race, and Gordon Johncock was declared the winner, the first of his two Indy triumphs (1973, 1982).
Going into the month, the mood was bright and excitement was high for record speeds. Competitors, media, and fans were eagerly anticipating the possibility of breaking the elusive and daunting barrier during time trials. The month took a tragic turn, however, when driver Art Pollard died in a crash during a practice session on May 12, 1973. Later that same day, Johnny Rutherford set a new track record during time trials. His best lap at fell just short of breaking the highly sought-after speed barrier. Despite Rutherford's headlines on pole day, the mood meanwhile around the garage area was becoming anxious and uncertain. Fears were growing about rising speeds and safety. Inclement weather was also interfering.
The race was scheduled for Monday May 28, but was aborted due to a major accident at the start. Driver David "Salt" Walther was critically injured and numerous spectators in the track boxes and first few rows of the Paddock grandstands with burns, required hospitalization, some in critical condition; with the blast of heat felt as much as 100 yards away. Although it doesn't show up on the TV broadcasts and films, the fireball actually was a somewhat bluish flame, from eyewitness accounts. Also, rain mercifully washed out the day during the red flag period, as two vertical stanchions of the outside catchfence were broken and needed to be repaired before any racing could resume. Rain also washed out any chance to hold the race on Tuesday May 29 as well. Only a fraction of the typical Indy crowd arrived to watch the race by the time it was run on Wednesday May 30; and in fact since schools were closed in Speedway and within a few miles around west Indianapolis due to traffic, many hundreds of schoolkids and parents were bussed in to fill the grandstands for free.
The Wednesday race suffered two separate fatal accidents. The first involved driver David "Swede" Savage; the second, Armando Teran, a pit crew member for Graham McRae, the STP teammate to Savage, when Teran stepped out into the pit lane and was hit by a safety truck going in the wrong direction. Both occurred at lap 59 of the race. Owing to the tragic circumstances, relentless weather problems, rain-shortened finish, and overall glum mood during the month, the 1973 race is widely considered the worst year for the running of the Indianapolis 500. In contemporary accounts, the race had been called "jinxed" by Dan Gurney, Chris Economaki, and Jim McKay. Statistically, it was the track's deadliest month of May since 1937.
National media opinions, as well as those from team owners and crew, were highly critical in the aftermath of the race, focusing mainly on inadequate safety measures. The circumstances led to sweeping rule changes by USAC, some made effective for the Schaefer 500 at Pocono Raceway four weeks later. Numerous safety improvements were made to the Indianapolis Motor Speedway track itself that were completed for 1974.
Off the track, the Speedway had completed construction of its first VIP Suites outside of turn two. Following in the footsteps of Ontario Motor Speedway, Indianapolis becomes the second major racing facility to feature luxury boxes.
Race schedule
In 1971, the Uniform Monday Holiday Act took effect, moving Memorial Day from the fixed date of May 30 to the final Monday in May. For 1971 and 1972, the race was held on the Saturday of Memorial Day weekend. The Speedway still maintained a policy of not holding the race on a Sunday, and for 1973, the race was scheduled for the Monday Memorial Day holiday itself (May 28). The change was made after requests from spectators, many complaining that it was inconvenient to the many people who had to work on Saturdays.
The 500 Festival Committee had a desire to move their annual parade downtown to Saturday afternoon. Since its inception in 1957, in most years the parade was held at night during the week. For 1973, the parade was held Saturday, the public driver's meeting was scheduled for Sunday, and the race was scheduled for Monday. This schedule would stay in place for only one year. A decision was made that starting in 1974, the race would permanently move to Sunday.
Practice and time trials
Practice
Just one year prior, USAC began allowing bolt-on wings. The increased downforce increased lap speeds nearly in just three years. The dramatic rise went from in 1970, to flirting with the barrier for 1973. During Goodyear tire tests in late March, Gordon Johncock set an unofficial track record of . Experts and officials agree that the safety features in the cars were not prepared for the speeds attained. In addition, engine development with the turbocharged version of the venerable I-4 Offenhauser had resulted in horsepower readings in high-boost qualifying trim in excess of . According to Mario Andretti, this was sufficient to induce rear wheelspin on the "short chutes" between turns 1 and 2 and turns 3 and 4—an unnerving sensation for even the bravest, most skilled and experienced of drivers.
The track opened on Saturday April 28 with Gary Bettenhausen earning the honor of first driver on the track. Rain and winds plagued practice during the first week, while drivers started creeping up the speed chart. On Monday April 30, chief steward Harlan Fengler lifted the speed limit and speeds climbed quickly. Gordon Johncock set an unofficial lap of over to set the early pace. Johnny Rutherford was another member of the "190 mph club" with several laps in the mid-190 mph range. On May 5, Swede Savage upped the speed chart to , inching closer to the elusive mark.
On Sunday May 6, three drivers left the grounds to race in the NASCAR Winston 500 at Talladega. A huge crash, described as the worst crash in the history of NASCAR, put Bobby Allison and Gordon Johncock out of that race. Dick Simon, however, escaped the incident, with Simon coming home 7th. All three returned to qualify at Indy.
Rain and high winds kept speeds down in the second week of practice. Mario Andretti turned a lap of on Thursday May 10. The final day of practice before pole day was Friday May 11. From April 28 – May 11, there were only three accidents reported in practice that involved wall contact, none of which caused serious injuries.
By the eve of pole day, no drivers had eclipsed the barrier according to published reports, but conditions were favorable for pole day, and anticipation was high.
Pole Day – Saturday May 12 – Death of Art Pollard
Pole day dawned sunny with high temperatures in the . Brief showers caused officials to turn on the yellow light a few times during the day, but they did not significantly affect the proceedings. An enormous crowd estimated at 250,000 arrived, anticipating the first ever 200 mph lap at Indy. Practice opened promptly at 9:00 a.m., but was quickly marred by the crash of Art Pollard. At 9:37 a.m., Pollard hit the outside wall in turn 1, spun to the inside, then flipped over, coming to a rest in turn two with flames and heavy damage. Pollard's injuries were reported to include pulmonary damage due to flame inhalation, third degree burns on both hands, face and neck, a fractured right arm, a fractured leg, and a severe spinal injury. He was pronounced dead at Methodist Hospital one hour and three minutes after the crash.
Despite the crash, time trials began on time at 11 a.m. Peter Revson was the first driver in the field, with a fast run of . The next car out, Gary Bettenhausen, upped the mark to , just short of the existing track record.
At 12:29 p.m., Swede Savage took to the track, and was the first to set records. His first lap of set a one-lap record, and his four-lap speed of was also a record. The result put him tentatively on the pole.
At 1:37 p.m., Johnny Rutherford took to the track, and electrified the crowd into a frenzy. His third lap of was just 0.21 seconds shy of the elusive barrier. his four-lap average of secured the pole position.
Lap 1 – 45.30 seconds, (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 2 – 45.49 seconds,
Lap 3 – 45.21 seconds, (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 4 – 45.44 seconds,
Total – 3:01.44, (new 4-lap track record)
Defending race winner Mark Donohue squeezed onto the front row with a run of . In the final hour, Bobby Unser was the last driver of the day with a shot at history. He came close to Rutherford, but his four-lap average of was good enough only for second starting position.
At the end of the day, the field was filled to 24 cars. A. J. Foyt () and Sam Posey () were the two slowest. Foyt, who was over during the week, waved off once, and had to settle for a slow run.
Second day – Sunday May 13
A fairly busy second day of time trials saw six cars added to the field without incident. John Martin () was the fastest of the day. Posey and Foyt were still the two slowest cars in the field.
Third Day – Saturday May 19
Rain kept cars off the track for most of the day. Lightning, hail, and a tornado warning, emptied the grandstands at 3 p.m. In the final ten minutes, two cars (Tom Bigelow and Sammy Sessions) made it out on the track for qualifying attempts, but neither were successful. Bigelow spun on his warm up lap, and Sessions waved off.
Bump Day – Sunday May 20
With three spots left open in the field, the final day of time trials was expected to be busy, but saw only moderate action. Sammy Sessions was the first car out, and completed his run, slightly slower than his run a day earlier. After a down period in the mid-afternoon, the field was filled to 33 cars at 5:37 p.m. Tom Bigelow was on the bubble.
With 15 minutes left in the day. Jim McElreath bumped out Tom Bigelow. Sam Posey was now on the bubble. Next out was Jim Hurtubise, but he was too slow. With one minute left before the 6 o'clock gun, George Snider got in a Foyt backup car. A fast run of bumped Posey, and the field was set.
Starting grid
Alternates
First alternate: Sam Posey (#34) – Bumped (Posey was disqualified and stripped of first alternate status after being caught disguising his #34 entry as another car in order to make a second qualifying attempt to avoid being bumped.)
Second alternate: Tom Bigelow (#27)
Failed to qualify
Lee Brayton (#61)
Larry Cannon (#59)
Larry Dickson (#58)
Jim Hurtubise (#56)
Bruce Jacobi (#78)
Dee Jones (#51)
Arnie Knepper (#45, #58)
Al Loquasto (#86)
John Mahler (#35)
Larry McCoy (#63)
Rick Muther (#23, #97)
Johnny Parsons (#58, #94)
Crockey Peterson (#38, #96) – Failed rookie test
Art Pollard (#64) – Fatal accident on Pole Day during practice
Bill Puterbaugh (#61)
Eldon Rasmussen (#52) – Failed rookie test
Billy Shuman (#52, #53) – Failed rookie test
Bill Simpson (#17)
Jigger Sirois (#47)
Tom Sneva (#39)
Bentley Warren (#36, #58, #76)
Greg Weld (#75)
Rain delays
Monday May 28 – Salt Walther crash
On race day, a crowd estimated at 350,000 waited as morning rain delayed the proceedings for four hours and four minutes from its original scheduled time of 11:00 a.m. Tony Hulman gave the command to start engines just after 3:00 p.m., and the field pulled away for the pace laps. Bob Harkey's car did not fire, and his crew wheeled the car back to the pits. It was discovered earlier that morning that the engine had failed. Rather than withdraw (and forfeit their starting spot to Tom Bigelow, the first alternate), the crew kept the engine issue secret, and gridded the car as normal. They worked on the car briefly to give the impression that the engine failed when the starting command was given.
At the start, an 11-car accident unfolded on the main stretch approximately 200 yards past the start/finish line, which halted the race immediately. As the green flag fell, Steve Krisiloff's car developed ignition problems and slowed on the front straightaway, falling back to parallel with the fifth row by the time he crossed the start/finish line. This caused the rest of the field behind Krisiloff to shuffle towards the outside to avoid the slowing car. Seconds later in the sixth row, just past the start/finish line, Salt Walther tangled wheels with Jerry Grant, climbed over Grant's left-front wheel, overturned in the air and slammed into the catch fence. The car cut a section out of the fence on impact, breaking two 4-inch steel stanchions before being thrown back onto the track by the reinforcing cables positioned behind the fence. The impact ripped open both of Walther's fuel tanks, sending 75 gallons of flaming methanol in a massive pale blue fireball (not apparent on TV or film footage) and dousing many spectators, with the blast of heat felt at least 100 yards away in the Paddock grandstand and Track Boxes, per eyewitness accounts. Eleven grandstand spectators were injured, and nine required hospitalization. As the front of Walther's car dug into the fence, the nose was also sheared off and Walther's legs were exposed. The car landed back on the racing surface upside-down, and spun wildly down the main stretch, spraying burning fuel in all directions. The spinning car was hit by at least two other cars, and a total of at least ten other cars became involved in the crash, including: Wally Dallenbach, Mike Hiss, Lee Kunzman, John Martin, David Hobbs, Mike Mosley, Jim McElreath and Dick Simon. Several cars were damaged extensively, and debris and burning fuel now littered the track. Kunzman later recalled that he thought he had been blinded by hitting the burning fuel until his car stopped and he flipped up his visor, as the intense heat had crinkled it so severely, he could not see where he was going.
Walther's car came to rest upside-down near the pit exit. Walther suffered severe burns and injuries to his hands. Meanwhile, Bobby Unser had grabbed the race lead going into turn one, ahead of pole-sitter Johnny Rutherford. The race was immediately red-flagged, and the start was negated. The cars that had avoided the wreck parked at the head of the front stretch, and were eventually wheeled back to the pits. Safety crews attended to the crash scene, aided injured spectators, and also started repairing the catch fence and stanchions. The other drivers involved in the crash suffered only minor injuries (one report listed John Martin, Mike Hiss and Lee Kunzman as being treated for minor injuries at the track field hospital and released); Walther was transported to Methodist Hospital and remained hospitalized for months thereafter. Before all the cleanup and the repairs to the catchfence and two broken stanchions completed, rain began to fall again. The rest of the day was washed out, and officials rescheduled the start for 9:00 a.m. Tuesday.
Tuesday May 29
On Tuesday May 29, the scheduled start time of the race was 9:00 a.m. At dawn, the skies were reported as clear, but soon after, rain fell in the morning hours, delaying any attempt to start until 10:15 a.m. Attendance was visibly down from Monday and estimated at 175,000–200,000.
Officials announced that the race would restart from scratch, and the single lap driven by some of the cars on Monday would not count in the scoring. Cars were gridded in their original starting positions, without Walther, who was credited with 33rd place. All cars involved in Monday's crash were allowed to make repairs, and Bob Harkey's team installed a new engine. Therefore, Tuesday's race start had 32 of the 33 race entrants ready.
A heated pre-race meeting was held with the drivers and officials, and the subject of the crash and the speed of the pace car at the start was the focus. Drivers were complaining that the pace of the start () was too slow, and pointed to the ragged start of 1972 as well as reason to increase the pace car speed to .
The command to fire engines was given shortly after 10 o'clock, and the field of 32 pulled away for the warm-up laps. On the second parade lap, a light rain began to fall, and the track was red-flagged again. The cars were halted on the main stretch to wait out the shower. Rain continued to fall most of the day. Many fans headed for the exits, and crews wheeled the cars back to the garage area yet again. During the delay, a pick-up soccer game broke out on the pit lane. At 1:48 p.m., the race was postponed until Wednesday.
Wednesday May 30
On Wednesday, morning rain threatened to wash out the race for an unprecedented third day in a row. The start time was once again slated for 9:00 a.m., but again the participants and spectators had to wait. Estimates put the Wednesday attendance as low as 20,000, 35,000, or 50–60,000, and rain check tickets were no longer asked for at the gate. However, at least one estimate put the total attendance at 125,000 once the race got going. In addition since schools were closed on the west side of Indianapolis and in the town of Speedway due to traffic jams, school busloads of kids and parents were offered free rides to the Speedway to help fill the grandstands. After over two days of rainy revelry, the infield was overwhelmed with mud and garbage. The grandstands and bathrooms were littered with trash, and the walkways and grass parking lots were flooded. The infamous Snake Pit was described as a "bog". The health department overseeing the event even threatened to keep the race from running at all if it was rained out again on Wednesday, due to the deteriorating conditions of the infield.
The mood around the garage area was glum. Crews were exhausted, and drivers were apprehensive. It was now the longest rain delay in Indy 500 history to-date. Johnny Rutherford later quipped that if a poll had been taken around the garage area, the consensus would have been to leave and move on to the next race (Milwaukee). Media had already nicknamed the race the "72 Hours of Indianapolis", a play on the 24 Hours of Le Mans. The cars had sat mostly idle for the past nine days (except for the traditional Carburetion Day practice), raising separate concerns about potential mechanical and handling problems.
The delays at Indianapolis were beginning to have cascade effects on the schedule. Owing to the delay, USAC elected to postpone the next race of the season, the Rex Mays 150 at Milwaukee from June 3 to 10. Hotels, motels, and restaurants, as well as bus transit companies, airlines, and car rental companies were all jammed and some were overbooked. Local schools reported high absenteeism, and a handful of schools close to the track closed due to traffic congestion.
Around midday, the sun finally came out for a few hours, and the track surface dried enough for a race start at 2:10 p.m.
Race running
Start
On the pace lap, the car of David Hobbs began smoking heavily. He pitted, and later rejoined the race.
The first 58 laps were run with only two brief cautions, for minor incidents. However, there was considerable attrition. Bobby Unser took the lead at the start, and led the first 39 laps. Bobby Allison blew his engine at the completion of the first lap, Peter Revson brushed the wall in turn four on lap 3, and Mario Andretti broke a piston on lap 4.
The first yellow light came out on lap 17 when Bob Harkey's engine seized. It spilled oil, causing him to spin out and stall on the backstretch. Mark Donohue was the only one of the leaders that chose to pit during the yellow. Bobby Unser continued to lead, with Gordon Johncock running second, and Johnny Rutherford third. A. J. Foyt coasted to a stop in the pits after 37 laps with a broken rod bolt. Bobby Unser made his first pit stop on lap 40, briefly handing the lead to Johncock. Unser's pit stop dragged on for almost 45 seconds, and Swede Savage took over third.
Johncock led laps 40–42, then made a pit stop. The lead was assumed by Swede Savage on lap 43, with Al Unser now second. Joe Leonard brought out the yellow for two minutes when he spun on lap 45 in the north chute between turns 3 and 4. Savage and Al Unser battled closely for several laps, with the lapped car of Roger McCluskey also in the mix. Unser was able to get by McCluskey on the backstretch on lap 53. He then made a slingshot pass around Savage for the lead going into turn one on lap 54.
On lap 55, Johnny Rutherford was given the black flag and went to the pits to check for leaking fluid. At the same time, Mark Donohue's car slowed and he went to the pits (and later dropped out) with a bad piston in what was his final 500.
By lap 57, only 22 cars of the starting field of 33 were on track.
Swede Savage crash and death of Armando Teran
On the 57th lap, Swede Savage made a pit stop. His car was filled with of methanol and fitted with a new right rear tire. On lap 59, Savage was in 2nd place, a few seconds behind race leader Al Unser. As Unser committed to a lap 59 pit stop ahead of him, Savage lost control of his car as he exited turn four. The car twitched back and forth, and then slid across to the inside of the track at nearly top speed. It hit the angled inside wall nearly head-on. The force of the impact, with the car carrying a full load of fuel in both tanks, caused the car to explode in a plume of flame. The force of the fuel exploding was so great that some structural rivets were blown rearward out of the car. The engine and transaxle tumbled end-over-end to the pit lane entrance while Savage, still strapped in his seat, was thrown back across the circuit. Savage came to rest adjacent to the outer retaining wall, fully conscious and completely exposed while he sat in a pool of flaming methanol fuel. The other cars on the track quickly stopped in turn four, as the track was completely blocked with debris and fire. A now third red flag was displayed at the flag stand which stopped the race at 3:05 p.m..
Track and safety crews immediately descended onto the crash scene to aid Savage. One fire truck, driven by fire/safety truck driver Jerry Flake, was signaled to head to the scene by Cleon Reynolds, the Chief of the Speedway Fire Department. Flake was stationed at the south end of the pits, and had to traverse the pit lane 'against traffic' to reach the Savage crash as quickly as possible. Driving a safety vehicle against the flow of racing and pit traffic was permissible in the USAC safety rules of 1973, and Reynolds' hand signal to Flake specifically instructed him to do exactly this. Flake reported "laying on the horn" and slow progress through the pit lane as people were in the way.
As Flake began speeding toward Savage's crash via the pit lane, numerous pit crew members from several teams moved to cross pit lane, toward the grass infield at trackside. Among those who did was George Bignotti, chief mechanic for Gordon Johncock, and 22-year-old Armando Teran, pit board man for Graham McRae. "I had just crossed the lane", Bignotti begins. Flake, driving northbound in pit lane at high speed, describes what he saw: "All of a sudden things cleared up on the pit road and I had a clear shot all the way up to Savage's car which I could see burning. Then out of nowhere, a guy was in front of me..."
Flake's truck struck Teran, his body tossed about , an impact violent enough to knock him out of his shoes. As Bignotti relays it, "I heard the car coming, and — whap — it hit him". The incident was easily seen by thousands of spectators, as it occurred on the pit lane at the start/finish line. Teran suffered crushed ribs and a broken skull, and although he lived through the initial impact, he died shortly afterward after being transported to Methodist Hospital.
It was erroneously reported by media that Flake was at fault in the Teran collision because of driving against racing traffic; in 1973, safety trucks were permitted by USAC to drive in the opposite direction of the racing cars as Flake had done. The following year, USAC specifically prohibited safety trucks from driving in the opposite direction. For Teran's part, there was no rule forbidding him from leaving the pit wall, as a team's pit board, or "chalkboard" man, either.
Finish
Savage was taken to the hospital with third degree burns and flame inhalation, but was in stable condition. One hour and eleven minutes after the accident, the debris was cleaned up, and the race was resumed. After witnessing the Savage crash, a disconsolate George Snider decided to climb out of his car for the day, and turned it over to A. J. Foyt, his car owner. Foyt himself had already dropped out on lap 37, and was standing by in case he was needed for relief.
The race restarted with Al Unser leading, and attrition continued to take a toll on the field. On lap 73, Jimmy Caruthers blew his engine, and a connecting rod flew out, punctured, and violently blew his right front tire on the main stretch. He was able to maintain control of the car, and coasted around to the pit area. Al Unser's day ended with a blown engine on lap 75, and Gordon Johncock, another of Savage's Patrick Racing/STP teammates, assumed the lead.
In quick succession, seven cars dropped out between laps 91 and 101, including Bobby Unser, A. J. Foyt (in George Snider's car), and Dick Simon. The race finally reached the halfway point, and became official upon the completion of lap 101. By this time, only eleven cars were still running, just two on the lead lap. Gordon Johncock was leading and Bill Vukovich II had climbed all the way up to second position. Track officials began assembling victory lane, as dark skies were looming, evening was soon approaching, and they did not expect the race to go the full distance.
Jerry Karl, after about two hours of repairs in the pits, rejoined the race running over 100 laps down. He was able to move up to 26th place.
On the 129th lap a light rain began to fall, and the yellow light came on with Gordon Johncock leading. Only eleven cars were still on the track. After 133 laps, at about 5:30 p.m., the rain started to fall much harder, forcing the fourth and final red flag to come out. Although officials had not yet decided to call the race, it was obvious to everyone that the race was over; when the rain came, it was near-dusk, and the track was soon "lost" to the moisture, necessitating a lengthy drying period, which the remaining daylight would not provide. Johncock's Patrick Racing crew began to celebrate, along with a post-race winner's interview with a mostly despondent co-owner Andy Granatelli. Minutes after Granatelli's interview, officials declared the race complete, with Johncock the winner. Johncock led the most laps with a total of 64.
The 1973 race was the shortest "500" on record at the time (), with the exception of the 1916 race, which was actually scheduled for . Three years later, the 1976 race was halted at an even shorter distance of , just past the halfway point when the race became official on lap 101.
The traditional victory banquet was canceled earlier in the day, and the victory lane celebration was fairly brief and muted. Johncock left the track soon after the race to visit Savage at the hospital, along with team owner Pat Patrick. Johncock and Patrick, and a few other crew members ended the day with a "victory dinner" which consisted of fast food hamburgers at the Burger Chef just east of the Speedway on Georgetown Road. BorgWarner gave Johncock a ceremony for his 1973 win in August 2021 at his forestry mill in South Branch, Michigan to celebrate his 85th birthday, with the trophy (riding in a Verizon 200 marked van) visiting landmarks in the city in addition to his forestry mill.
The Johncock family -- featuring Gordon, his wife Sue, children, grandchildren, and great-grandchildren, along with surviving crew members of both the 1973 and 1982 wins, were given an official victory celebration for the 1973 win on April 24, 2023. The Speedway museum rolled out his 1982 race winner, and the family was given a tour of the oval on a Speedway bus. Following the museum tour, the formal victory banquet for the 1973 win was held at Binkley's Kitchen and Bar on North College Avenue in Indianapolis, where BorgWarner presented Gordon with the Champion Driver's Trophy, awarded to winners since 1988, and in more recent years given to drivers on milestone anniversaries of their race wins, and Sue a bouquet of flowers.
Aftermath
The race and its safety concerns caused immediate uproar among racing owners, crew, and track owners. Two days after the race, team owner Andy Granatelli (whose car, driven by Johncock, won the race), declared that he would withdraw from USAC racing in 1974 unless changes were made. On June 2, Dr. Joseph Mattioli, owner of Pocono International Raceway, was calling for USAC to make changes "(restricting) speeds of the race car so that we can once again have auto races that are competitive, exciting, and relatively safe" for the next 500-mile race on the USAC schedule in early July.
USAC acted quickly. On the evening of June 2, 1973, the weekend after the race, USAC held an unscheduled meeting, revising rules. The large rear wings used in 1972–73 were cut back in size from , fuel tank capacity was drastically reduced from with the single tank mandated to be placed in the left sidepod, and the allowable fuel to be consumed in a 500-mile race was reduced from . Those changes were designed to slow the cars down. USAC also created a rule specifically disallowing the pit sign carrier from leaving his post as Teran did, for the duration of a race. (The pit signs have since been replaced by two-way radio communication, and after 2013 were prohibited during the race.) All of these rule changes were effective as of the Pocono 500 at Pocono Raceway to be held on July 1, 1973. USAC also delayed the Rex Mays 150 race in Milwaukee one week, to June 9–10, because of the lengthy delay in running the Indianapolis 500 race.
On July 2, 33 days after his on track injury, Swede Savage died in the hospital from complications arising from his injuries and treatment. The true cause of his death remains a point of dispute. It had been widely reported that Savage's death was caused by kidney failure, while others have said that Savage died from lung failure due to flame inhalation. Dr. Steve Olvey, Savage's attending physician (and later CART's director of medical affairs), claimed in his book Rapid Response that the real cause of death was complications related to contaminated plasma. Olvey claimed that Savage contracted hepatitis B from a transfusion, causing his liver to fail. According to Savage's father, the percentage of oxygen they were giving Swede just prior to his death, due to the damage to his lungs from the flames inhaled from the accident, was such that there was no way he could have survived, even if he had not contracted hepatitis B. Lung failure was repeated as the cause of death by Savage's daughter Angela in a May 2015 interview.
At the Indianapolis Motor Speedway, several safety changes were made for the 1974 race. The angled inside wall at the northwest corner of the track (which had also played a role in the Dave MacDonald/Eddie Sachs double-fatality in 1964) was removed, and the pit entrance was widened. Retaining walls were heightened and catch fences were improved around the track. A flag stand for the race starter and other officials was built over the outside wall of the track directly above the start-finish line (previously the starter was positioned down at the inside wall of the track itself). In addition, some spectator areas were moved back away from the track, and all of the rows of Track Box seats along the front stretch were removed. There was not another on-track fatality at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway until 1982 in which Gordon Smiley died in qualifying. Gordon Johncock also won that race.
As of 2023, Savage's death in 1973 is the last driver fatality at the Speedway that occurred as a result of a crash during the race itself.
Box score
Race statistics
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. Sid Collins served as chief announcer and Fred Agabashian served as "driver expert", replacing Len Sutton. Fred Agabashian returned after a six-year absence. The race was held over three days, and the network covered activities live on all three days.
This would be Mike Ahern's final race with the network crew. For 1973, the turn two reporting location was moved to the new VIP Suites, which had just been constructed. Bob Forbes served as wireless roving reporter, concentrating on the garage area.
At the conclusion of the race, Lou Palmer reported from victory lane.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. The race was scheduled to air on Monday May 28 at 9 p.m. EDT for a two-hour same-day tape delay broadcast. However, the race suffered the crash of Salt Walther and rain prevented it from being restarted. The network showed a brief clip of Walther's crash, then filled the rest of the timeslot with a movie instead. On Tuesday May 29, the race was to be rescheduled for 9 a.m., but it was again rained out as well. On Wednesday May 30, the race was finally held, and ABC planned to air the broadcast in primetime on Wednesday night at 8 p.m. EDT. The broadcast featured a rebroadcast of Monday's aborted attempt at a start, as well as the conclusion on Wednesday.
Analyst Jackie Stewart was to be the color commentator, but was only able to be at the grounds on Monday and Tuesday as he left the Speedway Wednesday for Formula One commitments at the 1973 Monaco Grand Prix which he won. Chris Economaki substituted for Stewart in the booth on Wednesday. On Wednesday, Chris Schenkel rode and reported from inside the pace car.
Because of the long delay after Swede Savage's accident, some of the later portions of the race were still being edited as the beginning of the race was being broadcast.
The race was billed on ABC as "Goodyear Presents the Indianapolis 500 Race".
The broadcast re-aired on ESPN Classic for the first time on August 12, 2011. The broadcast was slightly edited from the original airing, as a scene in the immediate aftermath of Armando Teran's fatal accident was omitted (but is still available on YouTube). The broadcast was shown again on ESPN Classic on May 30, 2013 (the 40th anniversary).
Documentary films
Several documentary films were also produced discussing the 1973 Indianapolis 500. These include:
The 200 MPH Barrier, narrated by Ralph Camargo, Dynamic Films (for Ashland Oil)
Catastrophe (1977), narrated by William Conrad (the 1973 Indianapolis 500 is one of the film's subjects)
Fire and Rain, for the STP-sponsored Patrick Racing teams (Johncock, McRae, Savage), Allend'or Productions
The Longest May, narrated by Tom Carnegie, McGraw-Hill productions
The Indianapolis 500: The 70s, narrated by Tom Carnegie (1973 was featured including interviews by the drivers who were there)
Notes
References
Works cited
1973 Indianapolis 500 Press Information - Daily Trackside Summary
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site
1973 Indianapolis 500 at RacingReference.info
1973 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1973 in American motorsport
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1974 Indianapolis 500
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The 58th 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday, May 26, 1974. Johnny Rutherford, in his eleventh attempt, won the race from the 25th starting position, the farthest back since Louis Meyer in 1936. It was the first of his three Indy victories, and started a three-year stretch where he finished 1st-2nd-1st.
The race was run relatively clean, with no major crashes or injuries, a sharp contrast from the tragic 1973 event. In order to increase safety, significant improvements were made to the track and cars. Wings were reduced in size, fuel tank capacity was reduced, and pop-off valves were added to the turbocharger plenums in order to reduce horsepower and curtail speeds.
For the first time in Indy history, the race was scheduled for the Sunday of Memorial Day weekend. This ended the "never on a Sunday" policy previously held from 1911 to 1973. At the time, it was also the earliest calendar date (May 26) that the race had ever been held. With the implementation of the Uniform Monday Holiday Act in 1971, the holiday was now observed on the last Monday of May (25–31), creating a three-day weekend (Saturday–Monday) every year.
On race day, A. J. Foyt broke the all-time record for most career starts at Indianapolis. The 1974 race was his 17th Indy 500 start (all consecutive), breaking the record of 16 previously held by Cliff Bergere and Chet Miller. Foyt would go on to start a total of 35 consecutive races (1958–1992), and as of 2023, still holds the record for most starts.
Race schedule
Background
Schedule changes
The race was run in the wake of the energy crisis, which precipitated several changes to the schedule. During the offseason, government officials were pressuring sports and recreational organizations to curtail their energy consumption. Track management did not want to shorten the traditional 500-mile race distance, but agreed to voluntarily curtail other track activities. In the first half of 1974, NASCAR decided to trim all of their race distances by 10%, as well as scale back practice and ancillary events. Earlier in the year, the Daytona 500 was notably trimmed by 20 laps (the race officially started on lap 21), and the race ran a distance of only 450 miles. Furthermore, the 24 Hours of Daytona and 12 Hours of Sebring were canceled outright.
USAC opted to cut a week of practice out of the schedule for the Indy 500. Previously, the track would open for practice on May 1 (or as early as the Saturday before May 1). For 1974, the track opened three weeks before the race. Time trials were cut back from four days to two. Pole day would be held on the Saturday two weeks before the race, and Bump Day would be held on the Saturday one week before the race.
In addition, the track would begin opening on practice days around 12 noon, rather than the previous 9 a.m. Normally, the first few hours of practice were quiet and leisurely with few cars taking advantage of the track time. Thus they were deemed superfluous and excessive on resources and operating costs. This change was also introduced because it made logical sense to have drivers practicing on the track at the same time of day as they would be running in time trials and the race itself (theoretically it would better mimic the conditions encountered on those days).
The reduced on-track time was seen as a way to reduce overall fuel consumption – fewer days that fans would drive their cars to the track – but a mostly insignificant reduction of the actual methanol fuel used by the race cars.
Safety improvements
After the tragic 1973 race, several changes were made to the course, as well as the car rules. The pit lane was widened, and lengthened to the north by about 400 feet. In addition, the inside wall from turn 4 to the pit entrance, which had played a part in the fatal 1973 crash that killed Swede Savage and the 1964 crash that killed Dave MacDonald and Eddie Sachs, was moved in, which allowed cars to have a much easier entrance into the pit lane as asphalt replaced grass in that area. The heights of the inside and outside retaining walls were also raised and set at a uniform height, a second safety fence was added to the existing fencing throughout, and several rows of trackside seats on the main straightaway were removed.
Also part of the improvements were a new flagstand and officials' booth. Tom Binford, the new chief steward for 1974, requested the construction of an elevated booth, to be located on the outside of the track at the start/finish line. The flagging duties were moved to the new perch. Previously they were done from a small trackside platform on the inside grass along the pit lane, and prior to that, on the race track itself. Though flagman Pat Vidan did not particularly like the confines of the new flagstand (it constricted his grandiose waving style), the officials preferred their improved view of the track and the isolation the booth provided (previously the officials were stationed on the pit lane, in full ear of the often confrontational participants).
Just three days after the 1973 race, USAC held an urgent meeting to draft emergency rule changes in time for the Pocono 500. Rear wings were reduced in size from 64 inches to 55 inches. On-board fuel capacity was reduced from down to , and fuel tanks were only allowed on the left side of the car, with the exception of a 2 gallon pick-up tank. An energy-absorbing material was to be placed in the spot formerly occupied by the right-side tank, and total fuel allotment for the 500 miles was reduced from 375 to 340 gallons. By May 1974, the rules were changed once more, further reducing the total fuel allotment to 280 gallons, and rear wings down to 43 inches.
During time trials, all cars were required to carry a pop-off valve to control turbocharger "boost." Maximum boost levels were set at 80 inHG. The reduction of boost, reduction of wing sizes, and other technical changes lowered speeds by about 8–10 mph from 1973. As a result, top speeds would be around 190 mph, and the elusive 200 mph barrier would be out-of-reach for 1974.
Rule changes
In response to the fatal accident of pit crew member Armando Teran in 1973, safety trucks were prohibited from driving on the racing surface in the opposite direction of the racing cars. Teran was struck by a fire truck rushing to the scene of Swede Savage's accident.
During time trials, a new safety rule was put into place to convey to the officials the start of a qualifying attempt. When a driver was on his three warm-up laps, a crew member(s) from his team was now stationed at the north end of the mainstretch, and provided with two flags (green and yellow). When the car came around after the third and final warm-up lap, the crew member was instructed to wave a green flag in the air to signify the driver will begin the run. If the crew waves a yellow flag, or waves no flag, the run does not start, the car returns to the pits, and the attempt does not count. As in previous years, each car was still permitted up to three official qualifying attempts.
Previously, the driver himself would make the decision on whether to start the qualifying run. He would do so by raising his hand in the air as he approached the start/finish line. Due to the significantly rising speeds, and the awkwardness of doing so in the increasingly confined cockpits, this practice was abandoned. For instance, during qualifying in 1970, Lloyd Ruby raised his hand to make his attempt, but officials did not see it, and inadvertently waved him off. After he persuaded the officials for a do-over, he burned a piston. It was also in the interest of safety, reflecting upon an incident that involved Bobby Grim during the 1959 race. Grim suffered magneto failure and began coasting to the pits. As was customary for drivers of the time, he raised his arm to signify to the other drivers he had lost power. However, due to the high speed he was still traveling, he painfully dislocated his arm in the process.
This new arrangement also made it simpler for the crew to "wave off" an unsatisfactory attempt already in progress. At any time during the four-lap run, if the crew was dissatisfied with the performance, they could wave a yellow flag, and officials would immediately abort the run. Crews could now wave off a run without needing input from, or conveying the message to, the driver out on the track. Previously the only way to wave off a run was to pull into the pits. Typically, crew members would use hand-held stopwatches and clock their car from a reference point in turn four. That would give them enough time to estimate their forthcoming lap time, and decide whether to abort the run before the car crossed the start/finish line. Furthermore, the rules made it clear that the instant the yellow flag was waved by the crew, the run was aborted, irrespective of the position of the car out on the track. If the car continued down the mainstretch, it would not matter if he/she proceeded to cross the finish line. Previously, if a car physically crossed the finish line, the run counted and was locked in, even if the team was intending to wave off the run. That situation made for some precarious maneuvers to the pit lane or to cars stopping out on the track to avoid crossing the finish line and 'locking in' the undesirable qualifying time.
Departure of Firestone
The 1974 race would be the last, temporarily, for Firestone, who dropped out of Indy car competition effective at the end of the season. Firestone had been a fixture at the Indianapolis 500 dating back to 1911. Firestone-shod cars had won the Indianapolis 500 a total of 48 times to date, including the first race and 43 consecutive from 1920 to 1966. By the mid-1960s, Goodyear had joined the sport, and began a fiercely-competitive "tire war". Firestone had not won the 500 since Al Unser won back-to-back in 1970-1971. Starting in 1975, Goodyear became the lone tire supplier for Championship Car racing and the Indy 500 - an arrangement that would continue through 1994. Firestone made a heralded return to Indy car competition in 1995, and eventually became the exclusive tire supplier starting in 2000.
Time trials
Qualifying was scheduled for two days (Saturday May 11 & Saturday May 18). Each day was slated to have two separate sessions, an early session from 11:00 a.m. to 2:30 p.m., followed by a late session from 2:30 p.m. to 6:00 p.m. The four total sessions were intended to mimic the traditional four days of time trials which had been scaled back for 1974 due to the energy crisis. The pole position was to be the fastest driver before 2:30 p.m. on the first day (May 11), or once the original qualifying draw had exhausted. Officials announced that the pole round would be extended beyond 2:30 p.m. only if all cars had not yet had their opportunity to make their allotted attempt. Qualifiers from the late session would line up behind the qualifiers from the early session, and so on.
Rain, however, threw a wrench into the plan on both days. Pole qualifying ended up stretching in to the second day. Once the pole round was finally completed, bump day qualifying immediately commenced, and the four sessions plan was scrapped.
Pole day
Pole Day was scheduled for Saturday May 11. A. J. Foyt drew the first spot in the qualifying draw, and was the first car to make an attempt when the track opening at 11 a.m. His four-lap speed of 191.632 mph placed him tentatively on the pole position.
Wally Dallenbach completed a run of 189.683 mph, which put him in second starting position. His car featured a controversial "king sized" turbocharger, which some competitors complained was too large to be controlled by the standard issue pop-off valves. Ultimately, Dallenbach's blower was deemed legal, but USAC ruled that the team had to use the same turbo in the race. They would not be allowed to swap it out for the more fuel-conservative smaller turbo on race day.
At 12:25 p.m. rain halted qualifying. Only nine cars had completed an attempt.
At 3:35 p.m., the track was dried, and qualifying resumed. Five more cars were able to take to the track, but rain returned, and the track was closed for the day at 4:20 p.m. The field was only filled to 15 cars, and several drivers, including Mario Andretti and Gordon Johncock were still in line and eligible for the pole. Al Unser and Johnny Rutherford, however, both suffered blown engines during the day, and had to forfeit their spots in the qualifying line. Both would be ineligible for the pole, and would have to be second-day qualifiers.
Bump day
The track opened for time trials on Saturday May 18 with eleven cars still eligible for the pole position round. Gordon Johncock was the first driver out, and he completed a run of 186.287 mph. The next car out was Mike Hiss, who qualified third at 187.490 mph. Andretti was the last driver who was a factor for the pole, but he ended up fifth. At 12:30 p.m., the pole round was officially over, with A. J. Foyt holding on to the pole position. The field officially was filled to 24 cars. As soon as the pole round had concluded, rain fell, closing the track for almost four hours.
At 4:20 p.m., the track was dried and re-opened for Bump Day time trials. Rutherford, who missed out on the pole round, qualified at 190.446 mph, the second-fastest car in the field. Since he was a second day qualifier, however, he was forced to line up behind the first-day qualifiers in 25th position.
With fifteen minutes left in the day, the field was filled to 33 cars. Johnny Parsons bumped Jigger Sirois out of the field with nine minutes left. The final car to make an attempt was rookie Jan Opperman, who qualified for the 32nd position, bumping Denny Zimmerman. Sammy Sessions and others were left waiting in line at the 6 o'clock gun. A protest was filed by owners representing nine cars that were not able to make an attempt (mostly due to the numerous rain delays), but it was dismissed.
Starting grid
Alternates
First alternate: Denny Zimmerman (#31) — Bumped
Second alternate: Jigger Sirois (#25) — Bumped
Failed to Qualify
John Mahler (#69, #74) — Wave off
Al Loquasto (#86) — Incomplete attempt
Larry McCoy (#63) — Incomplete attempt
Bentley Warren (#26, #94) — Incomplete attempt
Sammy Sessions (#30) — Waiting in qualifying line when closing gun sounded
Lee Brayton (#76)
John Cannon (#53)
Bruce Jacobi (#53)
Mel Kenyon (#19)
Bill Puterbaugh (#38)
Eldon Rasmussen (#58)
Larry Rice (#39)
Race summary
Start
At the start, Wally Dallenbach blasted from the middle of the front row to take the lead into turn one. His aforementioned "king-sized" turbocharger was credited for the fast start, but its reliability was a source of considerable concern. Dallenbach set a new race record for one-lap of 191.408 mph on lap 2, as he pulled out to a sizable lead. The lead was short-lived, however, as Dallenbach broke a piston and coasted to a stop on lap 3. Attrition was very high early on, as eight cars dropped out with mechanical problems by lap 11. Mario Andretti and Gary Bettenhausen each broke a valve, and Mike Mosley blew an engine. Rick Muther pulled into the pits with problems during the pace lap, but rejoined the race, only to lose a piston after 11 laps.
A. J. Foyt took the lead when Dallenbach dropped out. Rutherford was charging dramatically from the 25th starting position. By lap 23, he was running third, and on lap 24, he passed Bobby Unser to take 2nd position.
First half
The top five consisted of Foyt, Rutherford, Bobby Unser, rookie Tom Sneva and Al Unser. By lap 45, Rutherford was driving very aggressively in traffic, and caught up to Foyt. The two cars ran nose-to-tail over the next several laps.
During the second sequence of pit stops around lap 50, teammates Gordon Johncock and Steve Krisiloff both ran out of fuel. They coasted back to the pits and lost considerable time on the track. Bobby Unser also ran out of fuel, and top of that, had a 39 second pit stop. On lap 62, the first caution came out when Larry Cannon stalled on the backstretch. Under the yellow, A. J. Foyt had a terrible pit stop of 53 seconds, which allowed Rutherford to take the lead for the first time on lap 65.
The green came out on lap 68, but only lasted three laps, as Jimmy Caruthers blew an engine, and dropped oil on the track. Five laps later, Pancho Carter lightly brushed the wall exiting turn four, but the car did not suffer significant damage.
On the next green flag pit stop around lap 90, Rutherford was on the receiving end of good luck. He ducked into the pits under green, but seconds later the caution came out for a spin by Jan Opperman, which allowed Rutherford to pit with little time lost.
Second half
Jerry Karl crashed in turn 3 after completing 115 laps. During the caution, Johnny Rutherford exited the pits right in front of second place A. J. Foyt, and held the lead. Seconds later, the green light came back on while the drivers were in the southchute. Foyt got the jump on the restart, and passed Rutherford for the lead in turn 2.
At lap 130, Foyt, Rutherford, and Bobby Unser were running 1st-2nd-3rd. Al Unser dropped out on lap 131 with a broken valve, bringing out the caution for a tow-in. Foyt ducked into the pits, and Rutherford was now the leader again.
On lap 138, the green light came back on. Foyt came through traffic and passed Rutherford for the lead down the mainstretch. A lap later though, Foyt's car began smoking, and he was issued the black flag due to leaking oil. After two pit stops, Foyt dropped out with a broken turbocharger scavenger pump.
Rutherford took over the lead on lap 141, and seemed to have the race in hand. Bobby Unser was the only other car on the lead lap, but was between 15-20 second behind. Rutherford had a close call in turn one while attempting to pass lap traffic. As he was lapping Pancho Carter and Jim McElreath, Carter spun right next to him in turn one. McElreath narrowly avoided him, and all three cars continued.
Rutherford gave up the lead only one more time on lap 176 during a pit stop. He led the final 24 laps to win his first Indianapolis 500. David Hobbs' 5th-place finish was the only top ten at Indianapolis for a foreign driver in the 1970s (except Andretti, who was born in Italy but was a naturalized U.S. citizen).
Immediately after the checkered flag was waved for Johnny Rutherford, a multitude of fans streamed onto the active track in turn 3. This forced the race steward to immediately halt the race, rather than give lapped drivers five extra minutes to complete the race distance as had been the custom since 1964 (before 1964, the time allowed was even longer). The fan incursion caused the Indianapolis 500 race rules to be changed for 1975 and beyond, so that the winner crossing the line ends the race, and all competitors behind the race winner are allowed only to finish their current running lap under green.
Race results
Race statistics
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. The broadcast reached an estimated 1,200 affiliates and carriers. Sid Collins served as chief announcer and Fred Agabashian served as "driver expert." At the conclusion of the race, Lou Palmer reported from victory lane. The broadcast opened with a 45-minute prerace.
Several shuffles occurred amongst the reporters and locations, the most significant changes in almost a decade. Mike Ahern retired from the crew and his prestigious turn one location. Veteran Ron Carrell moved from turn three to take over turn one. Among the newcomers was Paul Page, who debuted as a pit reporter. The reporting location for turn three was moved to a platform on the "L" grandstand. Doug Zink took over turn three, and rookie Jerry Baker made his 500 radio debut on the backstretch.
For the first time, there were five pit/garage reporters on the crew. For the 1974 race, the length of the pit road was increased, and the additional reporter was added to help cover the expansion. Bob Forbes was once again the "wireless" roving reporter.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. Jim McKay returned as announcer, but Jackie Stewart was in Monaco for coverage of the grand prix. Former driver Sam Posey joined the crew as booth analyst.
The broadcast has re-aired on ESPN Classic since May 2011.
Since April 25, 2019 the full race broadcast was made available on the official Indianapolis Motor Speedway YouTube channel.
Notes
See also
1974 USAC Championship Car season
References
Works cited
1974 Indianapolis 500 Press Information – Daily Trackside Summary
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats – Official Site
1974 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
1974 in American motorsport
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1976 Indianapolis 500
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The 60th 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday, May 30, 1976. Polesitter Johnny Rutherford took the lead on lap 80, and was leading when rain halted the race on lap 103. Two hours later, the race was about to be resumed, but rain fell again. USAC officials called the race at that point, reverted the scoring back to the completion of lap 102, and Johnny Rutherford was declared the winner. Rutherford famously walked to Victory Lane, his second career Indy 500 triumph, having completed only , the shortest official race on record. Janet Guthrie became the first female driver to enter the Indianapolis 500. However, her team was underfunded, and she experienced numerous mechanical and engine problems during the month. While she managed to pass her rookie test, and ran numerous practice laps in multiple cars, she was unable to make an attempt to qualify. She would return with a successful effort a year later in 1977.
Hours after the race, IMS Vice President Elmer George was shot and killed during a confrontation. He had been in charge of the IMS Radio Network and was the son-in-law of IMS owner Tony Hulman. The confrontation was unrelated to the running of the race. In addition, 1976 would be the final Indy 500 for longtime radio anchor Sid Collins. After a surgery to repair a disk in his neck, Collins was still suffering muscular and neurological ailments, which made his work at the 1976 race physically difficult. He was later diagnosed with ALS, and committed suicide on May 2, 1977.
Rutherford's victory would be the final win at Indy for the venerable Offenhauser engine. It was the beginning of the end of an era which had seen 27 Indy 500 victories for the Offy powerplant.
The month of May 1976 was highlighted by the grand opening of the new Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum. Located in the track infield, the new museum replaced a much smaller facility on the corner of 16th Street and Georgetown Road. It was also the 30th anniversary of the first 500 under Tony Hulman's ownership, the 50th year since the incorporation of the Town of Speedway, and coincided with the year-long United States Bicentennial celebration.
Race schedule
On May 2, six days before the race cars took to the track, former Governor of California Ronald Reagan visited the Speedway. Reagan was in town campaigning for the 1976 Indiana Republican primary to be held on May 4. Reagan met with Tony Hulman, toured the Speedway, and drove around the track in one of the Buick pace cars.
Practice and time trials
The biggest story of practice was the appearance of Janet Guthrie, who was attempting to become the first female driver to qualify for the Indianapolis 500. Considerable media attention followed her through the month, however, the first two weeks of practice were plagued with various troubles. In addition, her participation was met with resistance by some fellow competitors. Upon her arrival at the airport, her flight lost her luggage (which included her helmet and driving suit). On the first day of practice, teammate Dick Simon was shaking the car down, but suffered an oil leak. On the second day, he burned a piston and had a turbocharger fire. Guthrie was unable to take to the track until Monday. Her first foray in the machine was short-lived, as she too burned a piston after only seven laps at speed.
On Tuesday, Guthrie started her rookie test, and despite low oil pressure and overheating, she made it through the first phase. On Thursday, she was trying to finish the second phase, but rain cut the run short. She finally completed her rookie test on Monday May 17, with a top lap of 171.429 mph.
Practice for the veterans was led by Johnny Rutherford, Al Unser and A. J. Foyt. In the third year of a rules package crafted to slow the cars down, there were no expectations of record speeds for 1976. Top speeds were in the high 180 mph range, with the best lap (189.833 mph) going to Rutherford. The existing track record (set in 1973) of 199.071 mph would stand for yet another year.
The most serious crash of practice was that of rookie Eddie Miller. He lost control coming out of turn one, and spun to the inside. The car hit an earth embankment, flipped over wildly, cleared two fences, then came to rest upside-down near the bleachers. Miller suffered a neck fracture, and would never return to Indy.
Pole day – Saturday May 15
Overnight rain delayed the start of time trials until 2:30 p.m. During practice, Johnny Rutherford finally broke the 190 mph barrier for the month, making him the favorite for the pole position.
At 3:30 p.m., Gordon Johncock (188.531 mph) put himself tentatively on the pole, and his speed would comfortably put him on the front row. About an hour later, Johnny Rutherford (188.957 mph) bumped Johncock off the top spot and would hold on to win the pole position. A. J. Foyt settled for fifth (185.261 mph), and Tom Sneva (186.355 mph) qualified for the outside of the front row.
Qualifying closed at 6 p.m. with nine cars in the field. Five drivers were still eligible for the pole round, however, none of those left in line were considered a contender for the pole. The day closed with the front row consisting of Rutherford, Johncock, and Sneva.
Second day – Sunday May 16
Only two cars that were eligible for the pole round made runs, and the field was filled to 11 cars. Moments later, the "second day" of time trials officially commenced. Mario Andretti, who had left Indianapolis to compete in the Belgian Grand Prix, dropped out of that race. Andretti would be back at the track soon, planning to put a car in the field on the second weekend of time trials.
Mike Mosley (187.588 mph) and Bobby Unser (187.520 mph) were the quickest of the day, but as "second day" qualifiers, they lined up 12th and 13th, respectively.
Third day – Saturday May 22
Mario Andretti returned to Indianapolis after competing in the Belgian Grand Prix. Andretti was expected to get up to speed quickly, and did not disappoint. His qualifying speed of 189.404 mph was faster than the pole speed, and Andretti became the fastest qualifier in the field. However, since he was a "third day" qualifier, he was forced to line up behind the previous days' qualifiers. On race day, he would start in 19th position.
A busy day of time trials saw the field filled to 33 cars at 5:37 p.m. The day ended with two cars bumped, and at least five drivers looking to make the field on Bump day.
Among those who did not make an attempt yet was Janet Guthrie. Still having problems finding speed in her #27 entry, her best practice lap of 173.611 mph was still too slow to bump her way in. A rumor was already circulating around the garage area that Foyt was going to lend her one of his backup cars (#1) – a car in which he practiced at over 190 mph on Friday.
Bump Day – Sunday May 23
The story of the day was Janet Guthrie, who arranged a deal with A. J. Foyt to borrow his #1 entry for practice. Shortly after 10 a.m., Guthrie was in the car shaking it down. Her lap of 180.796 mph was easily her fastest lap of the month. Despite her considerable gains in speed, Guthrie did not end up making an attempt to qualify.
As the afternoon was winding down, the attention shifted to the cars trying to bump their way into the field in the final hour. David Hobbs bumped his way in at 4:55 p.m. Eldon Rasmussen was now on the bubble. Rasmussen survived three attempts, but at 5:59 p.m., Jan Opperman took to the track. Opperman's run of 181.717 mph bumped Rasmussen from the field, and the lineup was set.
After creating a media and fan frenzy, Janet Guthrie left the track without making the field. With the spotlight still on her, she quickly found herself an alternative. Promoter Humpy Wheeler consummated a deal for Guthrie to acquire a car from NASCAR owner Ralph Moody, and within 48 hours, flew her to Charlotte to qualify instead for the World 600.
Starting grid
Alternates
First alternate: Eldon Rasmussen (#58) – Bumped
Failed to qualify
Bill Simpson (#38) – Bumped
Bobby Olivero (#78) – Bumped
Jim McElreath (#65, #76) – Bumped
Mike Hiss (#11) – Spun during qualifying attempt
Bill Engelhart (#44) – Waved off
Mel Kenyon (#61) – Waved off
Janet Guthrie (#1, #17, #27) – Practiced, but did not attempt to qualify
Larry Dickson (#65)
Jim Hurtubise (#56)
Jerry Karl (#8)
Lee Kunzman (#65)
John Mahler (#19, #91, #92)
Rick Muther (#99)
Ed Crombie (#67) – Wrecked during driver's test
Eddie Miller (#46) – Wrecked during practice
Woody Fisher (#52)
Gary Allbritain (#75) – Entry declined
Race summary
Start
Race day dawned with blue skies and temperatures in the 60s. Rain was in the forecast for later in the afternoon. Tony Hulman gave the command to start engines at 10:53 a.m. EST, and the field pulled away for one parade lap and one pace lap. Country singer, and part-time NASCAR driver Marty Robbins drove the Buick pace car.
At the start, polesitter Johnny Rutherford took the lead into turn one, and led the first three laps. A. J. Foyt moved up to second, then passed Rutherford for the lead on lap 4. Back in the pack, Mario Andretti charged quickly from 19th starting position to 7th in two laps.
Moments later, Dick Simon blew an engine and stalled on the backstretch, bringing out the first caution. By lap ten, Simon, Spike Gehlhausen, Bill Vukovich II, and David Hobbs were all out of the race early with engine-related problems.
The green came back out on lap 7 with Foyt leading. On lap 10, Roger McCluskey lost control in turn three, hit the outside wall, then spun to the infield grass. Several leaders pitted under the caution. At lap 10, the top five was Foyt, Rutherford, Johncock, Sneva, and Dallenbach. A. J. Foyt was among those who went to the pits. As he pulled away, he snagged the crewman's wing adjuster, and he drove away with the long extension wrench still attached. Foyt was about to be black-flagged, but the adjuster fell off harmlessly. The debris lengthened the yellow light period for an additional three laps.
First half
Gordon Johncock took over the lead on lap 20, following Foyt's mishap. Johnny Rutherford ran second, and Foyt had dropped to third.
At lap 50, Johnny Rutherford was now leading, with Foyt second, and Johncock fading to third. Pancho Carter and Wally Dallenbach were running in the top five, with Tom Sneva close behind. Also climbing into the top ten was Salt Walther, in his best run at Indy thus far.
After running in the top ten early on, Gary Bettenhausen dropped out on lap 52 with a broken turbo wastegate.
Johnny Parsons lost a right front wheel on lap 60, bringing out the yellow. Rutherford had already made a pit stop, while Foyt had not. Foyt was able to pit under the caution, and gained enough track position to take the lead for the restart on lap 65. This was ultimately to set the tone of the race, which ultimately became a "Texas shootout" between Dallas native Rutherford, and Houston native Foyt.
Foyt led Rutherford by about 9.5 seconds on lap 70. At that point, Rutherford began to close the gap. The sky was darkening, and rain was being reported in nearby Brownsburg. Rutherford charged to take the lead on lap 80, and began to pull away. At the same time, Foyt was beginning to suffer from handling problems.
Jerry Grant ran out of fuel on lap 91, bringing out the yellow. The green came back out on lap 95 with Rutherford first and Foyt second. Rain was quickly approaching. The yellow came out for drizzle on lap 100. On lap 103, the rain began to fall harder, and the red flag was displayed, halting the race. The race was stopped at approximately 12:42 p.m. local time.
Rain delay
The cars were parked in the pits and covered with tarps, with Rutherford leading and Foyt second. In order for the race to be ruled official, it had to complete one lap beyond the halfway point (101 laps). Since the race was on lap 103, it could be deemed official, and if the rains continued the rest of the afternoon, USAC could call the race at that point.
Since it was only 12:45 p.m., and with 97 laps still remaining, officials decided not to call the race prematurely. However, they did begin assembling the Victory Lane platform. By 1:15 p.m., it appeared that the rain had stopped, and track drying efforts were underway in earnest. About a half hour later, some light rain began to fall again.
Under the red flag, A. J. Foyt's team discovered a broken anti-roll bar linkage, and were able to make repairs. The team expected the car's handling to improve if and when the race was resumed.
At about 2:15 p.m., the rain had stopped, and the sun was shining through the clouds. With safety trucks and a jet dryer circulating, the track was almost dry. At 2:45 p.m., chief steward Tom Binford announced that the race will resume in about twenty minutes, and the focus shifted to the restart procedure. The decision was made to restart the race in single file, and give the field three or four warm up laps.
At 3:00 p.m. the call was made for the cars to line up in the grid, anticipating a restart. Some drivers began climbing into their machines.
Finish
With the cars lining up in the pit lane for a restart, observers around the circuit reported a dry track, but intermittent rain drops were falling at various locations. Some drivers were already in their cockpits. Soon after, umbrellas started opening up, and the rain began to fall harder around the track. Some fans began to look for cover, and the crews quickly covered up the cars again with tarps.
At roughly 3:15 p.m., the rain was falling harder, and the officials decided that the track was "lost." They judged there was not sufficient time left in the day to wait out the shower, dry the track once again, and complete the final 97 laps. At that time, they declared the race official. The scoring was reverted to the completion of lap 102, and Johnny Rutherford was declared the winner.
Before his crew was able to wheel the car to Victory Lane, Johnny Rutherford was surrounded by media and reporters, and famously walked to Victory Lane.
Box score
Race statistics
Legacy
Rutherford capped off a three-year stint with finishes of 1st-2nd-1st from 1974–1976, tied for the best three-year span in Indy history. It was equaled by Wilbur Shaw in 1937–1940 (1st–2nd–1st–1st), Al Unser in 1970–1972 (1st–1st–2nd) and by Hélio Castroneves in 2001–2003 (1st–1st–2nd).
As of 2023, the 1976 race is the shortest Indy 500 on record, completing only 102 laps (255 miles) out of the scheduled 200 laps. By USAC rule, the race was required to complete 101 laps – one lap beyond the halfway point – to be considered official and full points, unlike most motorsport that use a rule under the FIA Code requiring just three green flag laps for an official race with a percentage of points on a sliding scale with three-fourths distance required for full points. It is also regarded as the "shortest" 500 mile race in a major U.S. series. Among other rain-shortened 500-mile races, the 1980 CRC Chemicals Rebel 500 that was the 105th and final win by David Pearson went 189 laps (258.67 miles) because of darkness after a weather delay caused by rain and hail lasting more than two-hours on Lap 106 of 367, and NASCAR attempted to restart the race with only one hour before sunset in order to reach the minimum distance, the only other 500 mile race that ran less than 260 miles.
At one lap beyond official rate status, a 2002 NASCAR Xfinity Series race at Darlington Raceway is the shortest race with similar rules. The 147-lap, 200.8 mile race won by Jeff Burton in August 2002 ran only to the minimum -- 74 laps. There have been a NASCAR Xfinity Series and Craftsman Truck Series race each that have ended at less than half distance, but declared official because both points-paying interval laps were completed -- Sheldon Creed's 2020 win at Kentucky Speedway, which was flagged for lightning after two 35-lap stages were completed of the 150-lap race, and Noah Gragson's 2022 Kansas Speedway win, which ended because of rain after two 45-lap stages of the 200-lap race were completed,
The 1976 race was the third race in four years (1973, 1975, 1976) to end rain-shortened. There would not be another rain-shortened Indy 500 until 2004. Rutherford's win from the pole was also somewhat trend-setting - only three other drivers had done so in the previous 22 years. In the next six years, the polesitter would finish either 1st or 2nd.
This was also the final 500 victory for the four-cylinder Offenhauser engine. Starting in 1977, the V-8 engines (from both Cosworth and Foyt) would start to make the four cylinder engine obsolete. 1980 was the real last hurrah for the engine, as the DGS version placed third with Gary Bettenhausen. No four-cylinder engine would qualify for the race beginning in 1981.
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. The network celebrated its 25th anniversary. Sid Collins served as chief announcer for the 25th time. Unbeknownst to all involved, 1976 would be the final Indy 500 for Collins. After a surgery to repair a disk in his neck, Collins was still suffering muscular and neurological ailments, which made his work at the 1976 race physically difficult. He was later diagnosed with ALS, and committed suicide on May 3, 1977.
This would be the third and final time Paul Page reported from the pit area. The following year he would be elevated to the chief announcer position. In addition, third-year veteran Jerry Baker would report from the backstretch for the final time, starting in 1977 he was a pit reporter. Bob Forbes served as the wireless roving reporter in the garages. The broadcast reached over 1,200 affiliates, including foreign language translations into Spanish, French, Italian, and Portuguese. It was picked up by Armed Forces Radio, and also transmitted to Japan, Central America and South America.
Collins customarily ended his broadcasts with "words of wisdom," vignettes, or a set-piece monologue for the listeners. His final broadcast was closed with the following sign-off quote:
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. Jim McKay returned to anchor the broadcast, after sitting out the 1975 race. Analyst Jackie Stewart was absent from the broadcast, as he was in Monte Carlo for coverage of the Monaco Grand Prix, to be aired on ABC's Wide World of Sports the following weekend. Stewart, however, did record interviews during the month that aired during the Indy 500 broadcast. Stewart was paired with Keith Jackson at Monaco, the same pairing that had called the previous year's "500" on ABC in 1975. Former driver Sam Posey joined McKay at Indianapolis, his second time on the crew as booth analyst, and third year overall.
"Heavy Action" was used in an "Indianapolis 500" opening credits for the first time as Monday Night Football Producers Roone Arledge and Chuck Howard along with Directors Larry Kamm and Don Ohlmeyer also did work on this broadcast.
Notes
See also
1976 USAC Championship Car season
References
Works cited
1976 Indianapolis 500 Press Information - Daily Trackside Summary
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site
1976 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
May 1976 sports events in the United States
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1977 Indianapolis 500
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The 61st 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday, May 29, 1977. Considered one of the most historically significant editions of the Indianapolis 500, several sidebar stories complemented the unprecedented accomplishment of race winner A. J. Foyt. Foyt became the first driver to win the Indianapolis 500 four times. As of 2023, Foyt's record has been tied by Al Unser Sr., Rick Mears and Hélio Castroneves, but still stands as an Indy 500 record. Foyt's victory is also the last time the winning car (both chassis and engine) was built entirely within the United States.
The race was sanctioned by USAC, and was part of the 1977 USAC National Championship Trail. After rain-shortened races in three of the past four years (1973, 1975, 1976), the 1977 race was run the full distance under hot and sunny conditions.
Two major stories headlined qualifying. During time trials, Tom Sneva won the pole position with a new track record. He became the first driver to break the 200 mph barrier at the Speedway. On the final day of time trials, Janet Guthrie broke the gender barrier by becoming the first female driver to qualify for the Indy 500.
During the summer of 1976, the entire track was repaved in asphalt. It marked the first time since the original brick surface was laid in the fall of 1909 that the Indianapolis Motor Speedway was repaved in its entirety. The surface was allowed to cure over the winter, and during a tire test in March, Gordon Johncock ran a lap of 200.401 mph, an unofficial track record.
This would be the final Indy 500 for track owner Tony Hulman, who would die of heart failure on October 27, 1977. IMS Radio Network anchor Sid Collins did not call the race for the first time since 1951. Collins committed suicide on May 2, just five days before opening day, after being diagnosed with ALS. Collins was replaced by new "Voice of the 500" Paul Page. Then less than a year later, eight USAC officials would be killed in a plane crash.
Other historical milestones during the month included the first grandson of a former driver entering (Teddy Pilette) and the first father and son combination attempting to qualify for the same race (Jim and James McElreath Jr.). However, neither Pilette (grandson of 1913 competitor Théodore Pilette) nor McElreath Jr. succeeded in making the field.
Race schedule
Time trials
Pole Day – Saturday May 14
During the first week of practice, several drivers flirted with the elusive 200 mph barrier. Mario Andretti, A. J. Foyt, and Johnny Rutherford all ran unofficial practice laps over 200 mph. All three became immediate favorites for the pole position. Going into the month, the official one-lap track record was still 199.071 mph, set by Johnny Rutherford back in 1973.
Pole day was sunny and warm, and an estimated 200,000 spectators arrived anticipating a record-setting day. No drivers broke the 200 mph barrier during practice on the morning of pole day, but participants and observers expected the record to fall during official time trials. At 11:00 a.m., A. J. Foyt was the first driver to make an attempt. His four-lap speed of 193.465 mph was far short of the record. About a half hour later, Al Unser Sr. (195.950 mph) went faster and knocked Foyt off of the top spot.
At 11:51 a.m., Tom Sneva took to the track. He set new all-time one-lap and four-lap track records. He became the first driver to break the 200 mph barrier at Indianapolis.
Lap 1 – 44.91 seconds, 200.401 mph (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 2 – 44.88 seconds, 200.535 mph (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 3 – 45.54 seconds, 197.628 mph
Lap 4 – 45.68 seconds, 197.032 mph
Total – 3:01.01, 198.884 mph (new 4-lap track record)
Though his last two laps dropped off, Sneva's four-lap average was fast enough to secure the pole position. Sneva was rewarded by having 200 silver dollars poured into his helmet. The symbolic gesture, performed by Phil Hedback of Bryant Heating and Cooling Company, mimicked Parnelli Jones, who broke the 150 mph barrier in 1962, and was awarded with 150 silver dollars poured into his helmet.
About an hour later, USAC officials retracted A. J. Foyt's qualifying time. During post-inspection, they discovered that his pop-off valve was fractured and malfunctioned. Since the infraction was not Foyt's fault, he was allowed to re-qualify. Foyt's speed of 194.563 mph was faster than his previous attempt, and he would line up 4th.
Bobby Unser (197.618 mph) put himself in the middle of the front row, bumping his brother Al to the outside. Johnny Rutherford, an early favorite for the front row, waved off his first run, then stalled on his second run. The day ended with the field filled to 16 cars, with Rutherford among those not qualified. Sneva was the only driver to run any laps over 200 mph all afternoon.
Second Day – Sunday May 15
Johnny Rutherford (197.325 mph) put in the third-fastest speed in the field, but as a second day qualifier, he was forced to line up behind the first day qualifiers in 17th position.
Five cars completed runs, filling the field to 21 cars. Clay Regazzoni wrecked during his attempt, but was not seriously injured. Regazzoni was planning on running both Indy and the Monaco Grand Prix, but the crash complicated his travel schedule.
Third Day – Saturday May 21
Clay Regazzoni started the day in Monte Carlo, but rain washed out his chance to qualify for the Monaco Grand Prix. Car owner Teddy Yip made plans to fly him back to Indy and attempt to qualify for the 500. Mario Andretti, who put in a safe qualifying time at Indy the weekend before, remained in Monaco to compete in the race, he would finish 5th.
Qualifying was sparse during the early parts of the day, with at least 12 cars taking to the track, but only two attempts run to completion. At the end of the day, the field was filled to 27 cars. Clay Regazzoni did not make it to the Speedway in enough time, and he would have to wait until Sunday.
Bump Day – Sunday May 22
The final day of time trials became a historic milestone in auto racing history. Janet Guthrie was the first car to take the track, and she became the first female driver to qualify for the Indianapolis 500. Her four-lap average of 188.403 mph put her safely in the field, and she was the fastest car of the afternoon. Like he did for Tom Sneva a week earlier, Phil Hedback poured 188 silver dollars in her helmet, matching her qualifying speed, which was also a female closed-course speed record.
After a hectic travel burden, Clay Regazzoni finally put a car in the field.
At about 3:30 p.m., Salt Walther (184.549 mph) completed a run, followed later by Bubby Jones (184.938 mph), and the field was filled to 33 cars. Cliff Hucul (187.198 mph) bumped out Walther. With about an hour to go, Eldon Rasmussen bumped out Vern Schuppan, and John Mahler bumped out Joe Saldana.
The final hour of qualifying saw several drivers try, but fail, to bump their way in. Young rookie Rick Mears was too slow on his two attempts, and he failed to qualify. Jim Hurtubise once again was the center of attention for a few minutes, as he rolled out his Mallard/Offy to the qualifying line. After one slow lap he waved off, and it was the final qualifying attempt ever made by a front-engined car at Indy.
As the 6 o'clock gun fired, James McElreath, Jr. was the final car on the track, but his speed was too slow to make the field. Jim and James, Jr. were trying to become the first father and son to qualify for the same Indy 500. James, Jr. fell short, however, and would die in a sprint car crash later in the year, never having a chance to race together.
Carburetion Day – Thursday May 26
After qualifying closed, the team of Salt Walther purchased the qualified car of Bill Puterbaugh from owner Lee Elkins. Salt's father George and brother Jeff were responsible for the purchase, and paid a reported $60,000 for the entry, and subsequently fired Puterbaugh from the ride. Salt Walther was named the new driver for the car, and it was repainted in his livery. According to the rules, the car would have to move to the rear of the field on race day. Almost immediately, the situation received significant negative criticism. A day later, Puterbaugh was reinstated to the ride, therefore Puterbaugh was reinstated to his 28th starting position.
The final practice day saw Johnny Rutherford (194.533 mph) set the fastest lap. Mike Mosley was the only incident of the day, suffering a broken piston. Later in the afternoon, Jim McElreath's #73 Carrillo team won the first annual Miller Pit Stop Contest.
Starting lineup
Grid
Alternates
First alternate: Joe Saldana (#64)
Failed to qualify
Larry Cannon (#67) (Drove relief during the race)
Ed Crombie (#67)
Larry Dickson (#80)
Ed Finley (#70)
Tom Frantz (#88)
Spike Gehlhausen (#19)
Todd Gibson (#22, #96)
Jerry Grant (#69, #75)
Bob Harkey (#88)
Jim Hurtubise (#56)
Gary Irvin (#23)
Jerry Karl (#37, #57, #88)
Mel Kenyon (#88)
John Martin (#28)
Larry McCoy (#63)
James McElreath (#26)
Graham McRae (#33)
Rick Mears (#90)
Teddy Pilette (#91)
Vern Schuppan (#15, #85)
Bill Simpson (#38)
Salt Walther (#33, #77)
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner
Race summary
Pre-race
After Janet Guthrie became the first female driver to qualify for the Indianapolis 500, controversy began to surround the famous starting command, "Gentlemen, start your engines!" Speedway management did not want to alter the traditional phrase. During the week before the race, the management announced that they would not change the wording of the command, but numerous suggestions were being offered by various promoters and members of the media around the country. Looking for an excuse, the management insisted that the cars were actually started by male crew members with an electric hand-held starter from behind the car. Guthrie and her crew were quite displeased by the stubbornness of the Speedway management, considering her unprecedented accomplishment. The crew reacted by assigning Kay Bignotti (wife of George Bignotti) as the crew member to operate the inertial starter at the back of Guthrie's car. The Speedway's argument fell apart, and they decided upon a special amended command for that year. They did not announce beforehand what the special command would be, and Hulman's highly anticipated phrase was the following:
The issues with the starting command were not Guthrie's only troubles. On the morning of the race, an official inspecting the pit area discovered that Guthrie's pit side fuel tank hose was leaking. Dripping methanol fuel was observed under the tank, and officials threatened to disqualify the team if they could not contain the leak. A hasty repair was made by wrapping a plastic bag around the hose, and the officials were satisfied.
First half
At the start, Al Unser swept from the outside of the front row, and led into turn one. Polesitter Tom Sneva grabbed second. Bobby Unser settled into third. Johnny Rutherford over-revved the engine, and dropped out with gearbox failure. Janet Guthrie was in the pits early with engine trouble. She would suffer a long day of numerous frustrating pits stops.
Gordon Johncock took the lead for the first time on lap 18. After Johncock pitted, A. J. Foyt led laps 27–51.
Lloyd Ruby crashed in turn two and brought out the yellow on lap 49. It would be Ruby's final Indy 500. During the sequence of pit stops, Gordon Johncock came to the lead, and led most of the laps to the midpoint.
Eldon Rasmussen brought out the yellow for a spin on lap 69. He was able to continue. It was only the second, and would be the last, on-track incident of the race. At the halfway point, attrition had taken its toll during the hot day. Only 17 cars were still running.
Second half
Gordon Johncock was the dominating leader in the second half. He took the lead again on lap 97, and led through lap 179. A. J. Foyt, Tom Sneva, and Al Unser were the closest pursuers.
A long stretch of green flag racing continued until lap 159, when George Snider and Pancho Carter stalled on the track.
After numerous attempts to re-join the race, Janet Guthrie finally dropped out on the leader's lap 149, having completed only 27 laps. On one of the many pit stops, fuel from the overflow hose leaked out and spilled into the cockpit. Guthrie's crew had to escort her back to the garage area and find a place for her to shower off in private (there were no women's restrooms in the garage area at the time) to clean off the spilled fuel prior to addressing the media.
Two cycles of pit stops remained for the leaders. Gordon Johncock continued to lead A. J. Foyt. Tom Sneva was also still on the lead lap. The three leaders made the next-to-last pits stops within one lap of each other. Johncock was beginning to complain of dehydration and heat exhaustion, and the crew doused him with water. Johncock, however, managed to return to the track with a lead of about 15–20 seconds.
Finish
With 20 laps to go, Johncock still led Foyt by 10 seconds. Sneva was lurking in third place. With Johncock physically ailing, A. J. Foyt began to close the margin. Johncock made his final stop on lap 181. He took on fuel only, and the crew again doused him with water. He pulled away after a 14.7 second stop. Two laps later, Foyt made his final stop. Foyt took on right side tires and fuel, and was away in only 12.9 seconds. Johncock re-assumed the lead, but it was down to only 7 seconds.
Suddenly as Johncock hit the mainstretch the next time around to complete lap 184, a huge cloud of smoke came from his car and he veered to the inside. Johncock parked the car in turn one with a broken crankshaft. Foyt inherited the lead with only 16 laps to go. Johncock climbed from his car, and hopped into the infield creek to splash some water on himself to cool off.
Foyt now held a nearly 30-second lead over second place Tom Sneva. Foyt was able to cruise comfortably over the final 15 laps and became the first driver to win the Indianapolis 500 four times.
Post race
The historic accomplishment was highly celebrated, and Foyt invited track owner Tony Hulman to ride with him in the pace car to salute the fans. It was one of the very few times that Tony Hulman rode with the winner of the race, and his last, as he died the following October.
Tom Sneva bettered his 6th-place finish from the previous year to a solid 2nd place. It was his first of three runner-up finishes prior to his 1983 victory. He would ride this momentum by winning the Pocono 500 later in the season, and won the 1977 USAC National Championship. His brother Jerry Sneva came home tenth, and won rookie of the year honors.
Race results
Box score
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner
All cars utilized Goodyear tires.
Race statistics
Source:
Points standings after the race
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. Following the suicide of chief announcer Sid Collins on May 2, Paul Page was elevated to the anchor position and became the new "Voice of the 500." Lou Palmer reported from victory lane. Fred Agabashian returned for his 12th and final year as the "driver expert." At the opening of the broadcast, veteran Jim Shelton reported on the death of Collins to the worldwide listening audience, then introduced Page as the new anchor.
Paul Page had been groomed by Sid Collins to be his eventual replacement. Despite the bereavement of the crew regarding Collins’ death, the broadcast was a flawless affair, and ushered in a new era for the network. In the coming years, Page would upgrade the workings of the broadcast, including enhanced communication with the reporters, and new talent at the positions.
This would be the 30th year for Jim Shelton on the crew, reporting from his familiar fourth turn position. Darl Wible debuted on the crew in 1977, reporting from the backstretch location. Bob Forbes served as the wireless roving reporter in the garages. Among the celebrities interviewed in the pits were Evel Knievel, Sam Hanks, and Formula One commentator Anthony Marsh.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. "Heavy Action" was used in an "Indianapolis 500" opening credits for the second time as Monday Night Football Producers Roone Arledge and Chuck Howard along with Directors Chet Forte and Larry Kamm also did work on this broadcast. Jim McKay anchored the broadcast. The broadcast took place in the midst of the National Association of Broadcast Employees and Technicians strike at ABC. Unlike previous years during this era, ABC-TV got the first interview with the race winner, as Bill Flemming spoke with A. J. Foyt prior to Lou Palmer.
The broadcast has re-aired in partiality on ESPN Classic since May 2011.
The broadcast is also available for free via the official IndyCar Series and official Indianapolis Motor Speedway YouTube channels.
Gallery
Notes
See also
1977 USAC Championship Car season
References
Works cited
1977 Indianapolis 500 Press Information - Official Track Report
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats - Official Site
1977 Indianapolis 500 at RacingReference.info
1977 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1977 in American motorsport
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1978 Indianapolis 500
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The 62nd 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana on Sunday, May 28, 1978. Danny Ongais dominated the early stages of the race but eventually dropped out with a blown engine. Al Unser Sr. dominated the second half, and held a large lead late in the race. However, Unser bent the front wing of his Lola during a pit stop on lap 180, causing his handling to go away over the final twenty laps. Second place Tom Sneva charged to catch Unser's crippled Lola but came up 8 seconds short at the finish line – the second-closest finish in Indy history to that point. Unser held off the challenge, and became a three-time winner of the 500. It was Al Unser's third Indy victory in the decade of the 1970s, and the fifth of nine overall victories by the Unser family.
Al Unser Sr. entered the month having won the 1977 California 500 at Ontario the previous September. Later in the 1978 season, Unser would go on to win the Pocono 500 and the California 500, sweeping the "triple crown" of Indy car racing. As of 2019 he is the only driver in history to do so in the same season, and coupled with the win at Ontario in 1977, set a record by winning four straight 500-mile Indy car races.
Second year driver Janet Guthrie finished ninth, and it was later revealed she drove with a broken wrist. It was the highest finish for a female driver in Indy history until Danica Patrick finished in fourth place in 2005. During time trials, Tom Sneva, who had broken the barrier a year earlier, bettered his own record. This time he managed to complete all four qualifying laps over , setting once again new one and four lap records.
Tony Hulman, the popular owner and president of the track since 1945, died the previous October. His widow Mary F. Hulman was named the chairperson of the board of the Speedway, and for the first time she delivered the famous starting command. Along with the death of Tony Hulman, the race was held just five weeks after eight USAC officials were killed in a plane crash. With dissent increasing among the participants about organizational issues and poor revenue, the 1978 race would be the final Indy 500 contested prior to the formation of CART and prior to the first open wheel "split."
Al Unser's victory was the first Indy triumph for the Cosworth DFX V8 engine. The British-based engine building company would go on to win the Indianapolis 500 for ten consecutive years.
Race schedule
Practice and time trials
On Wednesday May 10, Mario Andretti turned a practice lap of , faster than the track record. Minutes later, Danny Ongais upped the best speed to . On Thursday May 11, rookie Rick Mears () also joined the coveted " club" in practice. Johnny Rutherford () and A. J. Foyt () were also within striking distance.
On Friday May 12, the final day of practice before pole qualifying was scheduled to be held, Mario Andretti shattered the unofficial track record, turning a lap of . Also over were Mears, Rutherford, and Foyt. Tom Sneva, the driver who broke the barrier a year earlier, was the slowest of the three Penske cars, managing only a lap during practice.
The first weekend of time trials was scheduled for May 13–14. Rain washed out the entire first weekend, and pole qualifying was moved to Saturday May 20.
The rainout complicated the schedule for Mario Andretti. He was forced to leave the track and fly to Zolder for the Grand Prix of Belgium. Arrangements were being made for another driver to qualify the car for him, and he would return to the cockpit for race day. With no track activity possible at Indy for Sunday, A. J. Foyt flew to Talladega and finished third in the NASCAR Winston 500.
During the second week of practice, Pancho Carter and Tom Sneva joined the " club." Sneva had a hand-timed lap of about , inching closer to Andretti's mark from the previous week. Danny Ongais destroyed his primary car in a crash in turn four on Tuesday May 16. He was not seriously injured, but would have to qualify with his back-up car.
Pole Day – Saturday May 20
Pole day dawned with temperatures in the high 70s and low 80s. Qualifying started promptly at 11:00 a.m., with Johnny Rutherford first out on the track. He fell short of the barrier on all four laps, and settled for an average of .
At 12:03 p.m., Tom Sneva took to the track. Following in his own footsteps from the previous year, he set new all-time one and four lap track records. This time becoming the first driver in Indy history to complete all four qualifying laps over .
Lap 1 – 44.20 seconds, (new 1-lap track record)
Lap 2 – 44.43 seconds,
Lap 3 – 44.60 seconds,
Lap 4 – 44.85 seconds,
Total – 2:58.08, (new 4-lap track record)
Due to changes in the rules in subsequent years, his one and four lap track records would stand until 1982. Sneva's four-lap average secured the pole position, his second pole in a row.
Sneva's Penske teammate, rookie Rick Mears, was the next car out. Mears completed three laps over , and his four-lap average of was a rookie speed record, and would be good enough for the front row.
Janet Guthrie returned for her second start, and qualified strongly at . At 12:39 p.m., Danny Ongais made it an "all " front row, securing second starting position at .
After practicing over , A. J. Foyt was forced to wave off his run, and missed his chance to qualify in the pole round. Mike Hiss was hired by Penske to drive substitute for Mario Andretti during time trials. He qualified the car with a respectable speed of (8th). However, on race day, Andretti would get back in the car, and he would be forced to line up in the 33rd starting position due to the driver switch.
Rain late in the day hampered the qualifying attempts. The trip through the original qualifying line exhausted at 5 p.m., and Tom Sneva officially secured the pole position. Several drivers including Bobby Unser, A. J. Foyt, and Pancho Carter, were unable to qualify during the pole round. At 5 p.m., the "third day" of time trials officially commenced, and those drivers would line up behind the cars from the pole round.
The day ended with the field filled to twenty cars. Bobby Unser finished his run as a "third day" qualifier in the rain. The track was closed for the day as soon as Unser returned to the pits at 5:11 p.m.
Bump Day – Sunday May 21
The final day of time trials opened with 13 spots unfilled. A. J. Foyt at was the fastest of the day. His speed was tied for second-fastest, but as a final day qualifier, he would line up 20th.
Roger Rager was the only major on-track incident of the day. On his second warm-up lap, he hit the outside wall in turn four, suffering an injured hand. He would miss the race. Larry Cannon brushed the wall on his second qualifying lap, and Dick Simon brushed the wall on the main stretch shaking down a car for Bill Puterbaugh. The car lost two wheels and it was too late in the day for the car to be repaired.
In the final hour, there was one spot left in the field when Bob Harkey was preparing to make his attempt. Jim Hurtubise, who had once again entered his now-infamous Mallard/Offy front-engined car, had been denied the permission to qualify, due to lack of speed. USAC had decided to set a minimum speed in order to pass "final" inspection, receive the appropriate sticker, and be allowed to make a qualifying attempt. They deemed Hurtubise ineligible, claiming he had not broken , despite some claiming he had lapped over . Hurtubise considered the ruling a personal harassment, lies, and an effort by USAC, Goodyear, and the Speedway to single him out and keep him from qualifying. After being a popular fixture amongst the fans for many years, several episodes of antics had caused some to begin to view Hurtubise unfavorably. Hurtubise got into a heated exchange with chief steward Tom Binford, then proceeded to climb into Harkey's car, shouting "If I can't qualify, no one can!" After a few minutes, Hurtubise was coaxed out of the car, and Harkey climbed in to crank it up. With some encouragement from the crowd, Hurtubise then jumped in front of Harkey, preventing him from pulling out of the pits. He had to be restrained by safety patrol members, and Harkey managed to pull away. While Harkey was on the backstretch of his warm-up lap, Hurtubise jumped over the pit wall and ran out on the race track in order to disrupt and halt the qualifying attempt. Running down the main stretch, several guards chased after him. Hurtubise was tackled by John Martin and was then detained by police. By this time, the crowd's opinion had changed, and they began booing and jeering Hurtubise for going too far by disrupting qualifying. Hurtubise was banned from the track for the remainder of the month.
Harkey managed to finish his qualifying attempt without incident, but his speed was not fast enough to stand. Within twenty minutes, Harkey was bumped by Joe Saldana. The day closed with Cliff Hucul bumping Graham McRae with two minutes left in the day.
After missing time trials, Mario Andretti won the Grand Prix of Belgium. He traveled back to Indianapolis during the week, and would be back in time for Carburetion Day "tests."
Starting lineup
Grid
Driver Mike Hiss qualified Mario's car for him while he was in Belgium winning the Belgian Grand Prix. After qualifying Mike Hiss stepped aside from the ride so Mario would race the car on race day. Because of the driver change USAC rules stated the entry must start at the rear of the field (33rd)
Alternates
First alternate: Graham McRae (#33, #34) – Bumped
Second alternate: Bob Harkey (#42) – Bumped
Failed to qualify
Al Loquasto (#86) – Bumped
Larry "Boom Boom" Cannon (#85) – Too slow
Bill Vukovich Jr. (#18, #93) – Incomplete qualifying run
John Martin (#28) – Incomplete qualifying runs
Bubby Jones (#18) – Incomplete qualifying runs
Gary Irvin (#9) – Incomplete qualifying run
Roger Rager (#9, #97) – Wrecked during qualifying attempt
Mike Hiss (#7, #66) – qualified 8th, but turned the car over to Mario Andretti
Lee Kunzman (#90)
Bobby Olivero (#78)
Eldon Rasmussen (#58)
Jim Hurtubise – Barred from making a qualifying attempt due to lack of speed; detained by police after running out onto the track to disrupt time trials.
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner
Race summary
Start
Race day dawned hot and humid, with temperatures in the high 80s (°F). After the death of Tony Hulman, the starting command was recited by his widow Mary F. Hulman. With Janet Guthrie in the field once again, the traditional command was again tweaked. This time command was worded "Lady and Gentlemen, start your engines!"
During the pace laps, Gary Bettenhausen pulled into the pits with mechanical trouble, and missed the start. At the green flag, Danny Ongais darted into the lead, with Tom Sneva falling in line behind him in second. Rick Mears suddenly faded and pulled to the outside, and was passed by several cars. Ongais completed the first lap at a record speed of .
Sheldon Kinser stalled on the backstretch, and brought out the yellow light for three laps. Rick Mears ducked into the pits for an unscheduled stop. He had neglected to fasten his helmet strap properly, and nearly lost his helmet at the start of the race. He was able to properly fasten his helmet, and returned to the race.
The green came back out on lap 5, with Ongais pulling out to a comfortable lead. Cliff Hucul went to pits, and was out of the race with a broken oil line.
First half
Mario Andretti quickly charged from last starting position to run as high as 13th in the early going. However, he was forced to pit to change a bad spark plug wire. He lost 8 laps, and was effectively out of contention for the rest of the day.
On lap 26, Spike Gehlhausen crashed exiting turn 2, and came to rest along the outside wall on the backstretch. Leader Danny Ongais was in the pits when the yellow came out, which gave the lead temporarily to Steve Krisiloff. However, under the yellow light condition, Krisiloff violated the PACER light rules, and was penalized one lap. That gave the lead to Tom Sneva. With Ongais in second right behind Sneva, the green light came back on down the backstretch on lap 31. Sneva led for barely a lap, and Ongais passed him for the lead the next time by.
Salt Walther dropped out with a bad clutch, and proceeded to rant his frustration of his chief mechanic Tommy Smith during a heated television interview. It was reported that Smith made a change to the throttling system the night before the race; while Walther's team worked on repairing the car, Smith reportedly left the track, having parted ways with the team.
Danny Ongais led 68 of the first 75 laps. The team reported that Ongais had lost his two-way radio, and was forced to communicate only by sign boards for the rest of the race.
Al Unser Sr. took the lead for the first time on lap 76. he held the lead at the halfway point. A. J. Foyt, who had charged near the front early on, started to fade, and after long pit stops, was laps down to the leaders. Janet Guthrie, on the other hand, was moving up into the top ten.
Second half
Rookie Rick Mears dropped out after 103 laps with a blown engine. By lap 120, thirteen cars were out of the race, with hot conditions contributing to the attrition.
Al Unser Sr. led, with Danny Ongais and Tom Sneva in the top three. Unser continued to hold a small lead over Ongais, with his crew's efficient and quick pit stops increasing the margin.
Suddenly on lap 145, second place Danny Ongais came into the pits with smoke pouring from the car. After having led 71 laps (nearly half the race up to that point), Ongais was out with a blown engine.
Finish
Al Unser Sr. led second place Tom Sneva by over 20 seconds. Those were the only two cars left on the lead lap. On lap 180, Unser came onto the pits for his final stop. Unser overshot his pit box by a few feet, and hit a spare tire with his front wing. The team decided not to change tires, and filled the car with fuel only. His stop was 17 seconds, his worst pit stop of the day.
One lap later, Tom Sneva pitted, taking fuel only. His pit stop, however, was not fast, and he did not immediately gain ground on Unser. With a 30-second lead, Unser had 19 laps to victory. However, his front wing was damaged from hitting the tire, and Unser's handling was starting to go away. Sneva began cutting away at his lead, by about a second per lap.
With three laps to go, Sneva had cut the lead to 14 seconds. Then with one lap to go, it was down to 10 seconds.
On the final lap, third place Gordon Johncock slipped by Unser to get one of his laps back. Unser nursed the car around on the final lap, and won this third Indy 500. Second place for the second year in a row Tom Sneva finished 8.09 seconds behind, the second-closest finish in Indy history to that point.
Wally Dallenbach and A. J. Foyt both stalled on the course out of fuel, but both finished strongly, 5th and 7th, respectively. Janet Guthrie finished 9th, and revealed after the race that she drove with a fractured wrist. Two days before the race, she fell during a charity tennis match, suffering the injury.
Late in the race, the Patrick Racing Wildcats of Gordon Johncock and Steve Krisiloff were penalized one lap by stewards - Johncock for running over an air-hose, and Krisiloff for speeding too fast under caution. If the penalties had not happened, Johncock would have barely finished runner-up behind Al Unser, and Krisiloff would have still finished fourth, but would have been the only driver one lap down. George Bignotti announced his intentions to protest Johncock's penalty, claiming that officials overlooked Unser running over his air-hose, and did not treat both drivers equally. However, post-race footage showed that Unser, although coming very close, did not run over his air-hose, and the team declined to protest.
Results
Box score
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner
Statistics
Points standings after the race
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. Paul Page served as anchor for the second year despite what happened on December 1, 1977. On that day while he was doing a helicopter traffic report, Page was nearly killed in an accident, as the helicopter he was riding aboard crashed near Speedway Senior High School in Speedway, Indiana. Page would fully recover to call the race. Lou Palmer reported from victory lane. Mike Hiss, who had served as a substitute driver for Mario Andretti during time trials, served as the "driver expert."
This would be the 31st and final year for Jim Shelton on the crew. After eleven previous appearances, Fred Agabashian also had departed from the crew.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. Billed as an "ABC Sports Exclusive", the race was introduced with the 1977 song African Symphony, written by Van McCoy, and performed by Saint Tropez. Jim McKay anchored the broadcast.
The broadcast has re-aired on ESPN Classic since May 2011.
The full race broadcast has been available since May 10, 2018 on the official IndyCar Series Youtube channel.
Gallery
Notes
See also
1978 USAC Championship Car season
References
Works cited
1978 Indianapolis 500 Official Track Report
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats – Official Site
1978 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1978 in American motorsport
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1979 Indianapolis 500
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The 63rd 500 Mile International Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway in Speedway, Indiana, on Sunday May 27, 1979. Second-year driver Rick Mears took the lead for the final time with 18 laps to go, and won his first of four Indianapolis 500 races. It was also Mears' first of a record six Indy 500 pole positions. Brothers Al and Bobby Unser combined to lead 174 of the 200 laps, but Al dropped out around the midpoint, and Bobby slipped to 5th place at the finish nursing mechanical issues. It was also Roger Penske's second Indy 500 victory as a car owner.
The race was sanctioned by USAC, and was part of the 1979 USAC National Championship. However, many of the participants entered the race only as a one-off, and instead broke off and took part in the inaugural 1979 SCCA/CART Indy Car Series. It was the beginning of the first open-wheel "split".
The month of May 1979 was filled with controversy on and off the track. A court injunction was issued after USAC initially denied entries by some teams that were part of the CART series. During time trials, several cars were disqualified due to illegal wastegate exhaust pipes. Qualifying closed with the traditional 33 cars in the field. However, the day before the race a special qualifying session was held to allow certain entries a last chance to qualify. Two additional cars were added to the field, for a total of 35 cars (the most since 1933).
The high tensions and technical squabbles during the month attracted considerable negative criticism from sports writers and media. The race itself, however, was competitive and entertaining, and completed without major incident or controversy.
Among those in attendance was former president Gerald Ford. Ford also served as the grand marshal of the 500 Festival Parade. The 1979 race is also notable in that it was the first to utilize the "pack-up" rule during caution periods, eliminating the virtual safety car rules ("Electro-PACER") used from 1972 to 1978. The pace car, which started the race, would now lead the field under the yellow flag.
Race schedule
A fifth day of time trials (May 26) was added to resolve a controversy that arose during qualifying (see below).
Controversies
USAC/CART "Split"
Following the death of Indianapolis Motor Speedway president Tony Hulman in 1977, and the tragic 1978 USAC plane crash, owners and participants in Indy car racing were anxious to reorganize the sport. By 1978, a growing dissent amongst the participants was based on many factors, including poor promotion and low revenue. In addition, the venerable 4-cylinder turbo Offenhauser (a favorite of the USAC-loyal teams) was at a horsepower disadvantage to the new V8 Cosworth DFX. USAC began retooling turbocharger boost rules to ensure the Offy and the "stock block" engines remained competitive, which caused new disagreements about equivalency formulas and favoritism. Though some think the plane crash was used as an opportunistic way to force change in the sport, it was merely a coincidence, more aptly described as a concomitant result. The seed of dissent had been growing for several years before the accident, and claims the crash was an immediate cause for the 1979 USAC/CART "split" are considered for the most part unfounded.
Indy car events outside of Indianapolis were suffering from poor attendance, and few events were even televised. Robin Miller even accused the Speedway of offering a purse that was too low considering the stature of the event and the costs of racing at the time. In late 1978, several existing Indy car owners broke off and created the CART series, with some initial assistance from the SCCA (in order to be recognized by ACCUS). Immediately there was conflict and disagreement. Further complicating the issue were rumors that Goodyear was considering pulling out of the sport. Driver, owner, and advocate Dan Gurney then published his infamous "White Paper," lobbying several complaints and charges against USAC and IMS, concluding that new organization (i.e., CART) was necessary to ensure the success of Indy car racing into the future.
The first major salvo was made on March 25, 1979, when the CART-based teams boycotted the USAC Datsun Twin 200 at Ontario. A. J. Foyt, who at first sided with the CART contingent, retracted his loyalty, and crossed back over to the USAC side. After the boycott, Foyt suggested that USAC should penalize the CART-based teams, and refuse their entries to the Indy 500. Among the drivers affected were Bobby Unser, Al Unser, Johnny Rutherford, Danny Ongais, Gordon Johncock, Steve Krisiloff, and Wally Dallenbach – some of the top names in the sport.
Three days before the published deadline, CART president U. E. "Pat" Patrick delivered a block of 44 entries to the 1979 Indianapolis 500 for the CART-based teams. On April 19, however, the USAC board of directors voted unanimously to reject the entries of six key teams: Penske, Patrick, McLaren, Fletcher, Chaparral, and Gurney. These six teams (19 cars) were alleged to be "harmful to racing" and "not in good standing with USAC." USAC sent the owners a telegram informing them of the situation while they were participating in the CART race at Atlanta, the Gould Twin Dixie 125s.
On April 26, the "rejected six" teams filed suit in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Indiana, requesting an injunction to allow the teams to compete in the 1979 Indy 500. They cited antitrust and restraint of trade. On May 5, judge James Ellsworth Noland issued the injunction, but restrained the teams from disrupting or interfering with the running of the event.
Illegal wastegate manifolds
During the month, a second controversy erupted regarding the technical regulations of the turbocharger wastegate. The specifications called for wastegate exhaust pipes to be a minimum of 1.470 inches (inside diameter). The standard pipe diameter was typically 2 inches. In addition, the pop-off valves affixed to the cars were to be set at 50 inHg of "boost" for qualifying (down from 80 inHg). USAC issued a last-minute ruling that in-car adjustments of the boost dial would be banned during time trials.
A few teams discovered what they considered a "loophole" in the rules. They utilized a larger diameter wastegate pipe, but welded a washer inside of it that had a circular opening of exactly 1.470 inches. This had the effect of creating back pressure, in hopes of over-riding the pop-off valve, and thus over-boosting the engine, and increasing horsepower.
On May 19 (the third day of time trials) the cars of Dick Ferguson, Steve Krisiloff, and Tom Bigelow were disqualified and fined $5,000 because they "had altered their wastegate exhaust pipes by the addition of restrictions which significantly affect the air flow." USAC charged that the teams had tampered with the wastegate exhaust pipe, thus illegally over-riding the pop-off valve, and potentially over-boosting the engine. An appeal was made the next morning, but USAC denied the appeal. Furthermore, they released a memo which stated that any cars qualifying on Sunday May 20 must have unrestricted wastegate pipes (no washers were allowed to be welded inside) that are exactly 1.470 inches in diameter or greater.
The ruling created controversy in the garage area, as a further examination of the rules showed a "gray area" regarding the inlet opening configuration. In addition, several complaints surfaced when teams charged USAC with essentially changing the rules in the middle of qualifying – a move which actually affected other already-qualified cars from the first weekend.
The controversy ultimately led to a fifth day of time trials, held the day before the race. Eleven entries that were identified as being denied a fair attempt to qualify were allowed to participate. Each car was allowed one attempt, and if they completed their run faster than the slowest car already in the field, they would qualify for the starting grid. The ruling allowed for a potential 44-car field on race day. Only two cars accomplished the feat, and they were added to the back of the grid for a field of 35 cars.
Practice – Week 1
Saturday May 5
Opening Day saw sparse activity. Only three cars took to the track, with Larry "Boom Boom" Cannon earning the honor of first car on the track. Later in the day, judge James Ellsworth Noland issued the injunction requested by the CART teams, and all entries were allowed to practice. Dick Simon, who was subpoenaed to testify downtown at the hearing, spent enough time at the track to run a lap of , the fastest of the day.
Sunday May 6
Hurley Haywood was the fastest of the day with a lap at . The previously rejected CART teams arrived at the garage area, but none took to the track.
Monday May 7
The "Rejected Six" CART teams took their first laps of the month, with Rick Mears turning the fastest lap of the day at . Danny Ongais was a close second at . Spike Gehlhausen had the only incident of the day, when a water line broke, spewing hot fluid into the cockpit. He suffered first and second degree burns, but was cleared to drive.
Tuesday May 8
Rick Mears ran the fastest speed of the month thus far, with a hand-timed lap of .
Wednesday May 9
A. J. Foyt moved to the top of the speed chart, completing a lap at . Al Unser was second-fastest at .
Thursday May 10
A. J. Foyt bettered his speed from Wednesday at , maintaining his grasp on the fastest lap of the month.
Friday May 11
Bobby Unser became the latest driver over , and Al Unser, Sr. was the fastest of the afternoon at . Moisture kept the track closed until 1:10 p.m., meaning only 2 hours and 10 minutes were lost due to weather all month thus far. A. J. Foyt finished the week with the top practice speed, and Rick Mears had several hand-timed laps in the range.
Time Trials – Weekend 1
Pole Day – Saturday May 12
Rain kept the track closed on pole day until after 4 p.m. At 4:19 p.m., the track opened for practice, with the temperature and winds up to . During the first practice session, Danny Ongais, a favorite for the front row, wrecked in turn 4 after completing a lap of . He was pinned in the car for over twenty minutes, and suffered a concussion. He was taken to Methodist Hospital for observation, and returned to his home in Costa Mesa, California, for a few days to recuperate.
The crash by Ongais kept the track closed for 40 minutes as crews extricated him from the car and cleaned up the debris. Two other yellows closed the track for another ten minutes, and the day came to a close at 6 p.m. without a single car being able to make a qualifying attempt.
Second Day – Sunday May 13
Pole qualifying shifted to Sunday, with partly sunny skies and temperatures in the mid-60s. Due to the new technical rules for 1979, including pop-off valve settings and wastegate regulations, the speeds in time trials were not expected to reach those set in 1977–1978 (over ). A hectic, non-stop day of qualifying occurred, with no less than 45 cars pulling away for qualifying attempts.
Johnny Rutherford was the first driver to complete a run at , and became the coveted 'first driver in the field.' Wally Dallenbach was the next car out, and temporarily put himself on the pole with a speed of . Shortly before 1 p.m. Al Unser Sr. took over the provisional pole position with a four-lap average of . A little over an hour later, Al's brother Bobby Unser put himself temporarily in second position at .
At 4 p.m., Tom Sneva (who won the pole position in 1977–1978) took to the track looking for his record third consecutive Indy 500 pole. He took over the top spot with a four-lap average of . There were only two cars left in line with a legitimate shot for the pole: A. J. Foyt and Rick Mears.
At 4:32 p.m., Foyt's run of was far short of being fast enough for the pole, but secured him a spot in row 2. The final qualifier for the pole round was Rick Mears. His four-lap average of won him his first of what would be record six career Indy 500 pole positions. Sneva was bumped to second on the grid.
At 4:50 p.m., the original pole qualifying round was over, and "Second Day" qualifying commenced. At the end of the day, the field was filled to 25 cars.
Practice – Week 2
Monday May 14
USAC announced that for the first time, the "pack-up rule" would be used during caution periods at the Indy 500. Like the format used in NASCAR and at other Indy car races, when the caution flag came out, the pace car would enter the track and pick up the leader. The remainder of the field would bunch up behind the pace car. The previous system, the Electro-PACER Light system, was scrapped.
Johnny Rutherford, who was already in the field, posted the fastest lap at . Bobby Unser shook down a Penske back-up car, which some speculated would be for Mario Andretti. Andretti was participating in Formula One full-time in 1979 to defend his 1978 World Championship, and a scheduling conflict with Monaco was expected to keep Mario away from Indy in 1979.
Tuesday May 15
Vern Schuppan was the fastest of the non-qualified drivers at . Bobby Unser continued to practice in the back-up car, but insisted it was to test nose configurations and not being prepared for another driver.
Wednesday May 16
Eldon Rasmussen crashed in turn three, but was not injured. Later, Roger Rager spun in turn 3, but did not make contact. Johnny Rutherford was the fastest of the day at .
Thursday May 17
Billy Engelhart wrecked in turn 1, suffering a broken leg, and was sidelined for the rest of the month. Speeds dropped off for the day, with A. J. Foyt having the best lap of the day at . Heavy activity amongst the numerous non-qualified cars was noted.
Friday May 18
The final full day of practice saw heavy activity with no incidents reported. Danny Ongais returned to the track to get ready to qualify, but Dr. Thomas A. Hanna, the Speedway medical director, would not clear him to drive for the day.
Despite some unfounded rumors circulating around the garage area, Mario Andretti decided not to skip Monaco, and would miss the Indy 500 for the first time since arriving as a rookie in 1965. Meanwhile, Indy rookie and NASCAR regular Neil Bonnett flew to Dover to qualify for the Mason-Dixon 500. He planned on putting in a qualifying time for the Winston Cup race on Friday, then returning Saturday to Indianapolis in order to qualify for the Indy 500. However, it rained in Dover on Friday, washing out Cup qualifying. NASCAR qualifying was shifted to Saturday, and due to the time constraints, Bonnett decided to withdraw from Indy. Jerry Sneva took over the car. Bonnett went on to win the Dover NASCAR race, and never returned to Indy.
Time Trials – Weekend 2
Third Day – Saturday May 19
The third day of time trials saw heavy activity. The day opened with 8 spots available on the grid. Hurley Haywood was the first car to go out, and he ran his first lap over . His second and third laps, however, dropped off drastically, and his crew waved off.
Several cars went out in the first hour, and at 1:15 p.m., Jim McElreath filled the field to 33 cars. Larry Cannon was the first car on the bubble. Dick Simon bumped him out with ease. Tom Bigelow was now on the bubble. He survived three wave offs, but Jerry Sneva managed to bump him out at 2 p.m. Jerry Sneva's run was not without excitement, as he suffered a stuck throttle. Rather than wave off, he managed to control the engine with the kill switch, and completed the four laps without incident.
With John Martin now on the bubble, Dick Ferguson took to the track. His speed of bumped Martin from the field. However, in post-inspection, Ferguson was disqualified and fined $5,000 for an illegal wastegate inlet. Rather than welding a washer inside of the wastegate like others had done, his mechanic Wayne Woodward had welded a complete obstruction in the pipe, attempting to illegally over-ride the popoff valve. Martin was re-instated to the field. Meanwhile, Tom Bigelow bumped out Steve Krisiloff as this was going on.
Martin didn't last long, as Steve Krisiloff got into his backup car and bumped him out a few minutes later. The day concluded with Larry Rice bumping out John Mahler.
After the track closed, USAC disqualified Steve Krisiloff and Tom Bigelow for the same infraction that Dick Ferguson was disqualified for earlier – illegal wastegate exhaust pipes and attempting to over-ride the pop-off valve. As a result, the bumped cars of John Mahler and John Martin were re-instated to the field.
Bump Day – Sunday May 20
After the disqualification of three cars on Saturday, USAC issued a memo clarifying their wastegate specifications. Some teams began to voice their complaints that it was not fair for USAC to essentially change the rules midway through time trials. With the increased scrutiny on the wastegate inlets, drivers claimed it was difficult for a legal car to bump out a car already in the field that had cheated, and that the officials were not policing it properly.
The final day scheduled for qualifying began on time around noon. Bill Alsup was the first car to make an attempt, and John Martin was bumped out of the field once again. Danny Ongais, who returned to the cockpit after his crash last weekend, followed suit by "re-bumping" John Mahler. Ongais had complained that USAC officials were deliberately preventing him from returning to the cockpit after his injury. However, after lobbying from his co-competitor and friend Al Unser, officials finally cleared him to drive.
Tom Bigelow and Steve Krisiloff, both whom were disqualified on Saturday, returned to the track, and bumped their way into the field. Dick Ferguson, however, was too slow, and exhausted his three attempts. Further complicating the day, USAC disqualified Bill Alsup for using the same engine that Bobby Unser had already qualified with.
The day ended with John Mahler taking the track at 5:59 p.m., and bumping his way back into the field.
Carburetion Day – Thursday May 24
After qualifying was closed, eight teams that failed to qualify filed a protest on Monday May 21. They charged that the turbocharger wastegate inlet rules were unfair, and there was too much of a gray area to begin with. In addition, they claimed that many cars that qualified during the first weekend of time trials were technically illegal, but that officials were only closely checking the cars that made attempts on the second weekend.
The protest was denied, but USAC president Dick King announced that the 11 cars that were bumped from the field would be allowed a special qualifying session if all 33 cars in the field signed a special agreement. Dick Ferguson was not among the 11 drivers named as eligible for the special session, so his car owner filed suit in county court on Tuesday to have the race halted until his car was re-instated. Part of the suit called for all 33 qualified cars to be summoned to court to have their wastegate pipes measured. The suit was dropped.
On Carb Day, Gordon Johncock led the speed chart with a lap of . A total of 34 cars took laps, without any major incidents. Howdy Holmes blew an engine, Mike Mosley blew a transmission, and Salt Walther suffered a broken oil scavenger pump.
Of the 33 cars thus qualified, 31 took practice laps. Bill Vukovich II and Dana Carter were assigned as the alternates, and both took practice laps as well. Bob Harkey, however, was not eligible to practice, and pulled out on the track anyway. USAC officials black-flagged him, and made him return to the garage area.
By mid-day Thursday, only 31 of the 33 cars in the field signed the waiver agreeing to extend time trials. The proposal offered Monday was considered void since two teams refused to sign on.
Also that day the 3rd annual Miller Pit Stop Challenge was held. Team McLaren with driver Johnny Rutherford and Chief Mechanics Phil Sharp and Steve Roby won the contest. Runner up was team Jerry O'Connell with driver Tom Sneva.
Special Qualifying Session – Saturday May 26
On Friday May 25, USAC reversed their decision, and declared that in the best interest of the event, they would hold a special qualifying session Saturday morning for the 11 cars that were bumped from the field. The 33 cars that were already in the field were "locked in," and could not be bumped. Each of the eleven cars would be allowed only one attempt. There were no wave offs allowed, and if the run was incomplete, or if the driver missed their turn in line, the attempt was forfeited. If the driver completed the four-lap qualifying run faster than the slowest car in the field (Roger McCluskey at ), he would be added to the rear of the grid. That potentially meant that up to a record 44 cars could start on race day.
Only two cars, Bill Vukovich II and George Snider ran fast enough, and the final grid comprised 35 cars. Despite the record number of entries and expanded field, only one rookie, Howdy Holmes, qualified for the race. He would win the rookie of the year award by default.
Starting Lineup
Grid
Failed to Qualify
Participated in the special qualifying session
First alternate: Dana Carter (#30) – Too slow
Bill Alsup (#19, #41, #68 – Disqualified) – Wrecked during special time trials session
Al Loquasto (#39) – Too slow
Jerry Karl (#38) – Too slow
Larry "Boom Boom" Cannon (#95) – Too slow
John Martin (#20) – Too slow
Others
Dick Ferguson (#81) – Owner went to court to overturn disqualification; unsuccessful
Todd Gibson (#75) – Wrecked on third and final qualifying attempt
Tom Frantz (#16) – Spun during qualifying attempt
Billy Scott (#28) – Waved off
Hurley Haywood (#51) – Too slow
Gary Bettenhausen (#44, #98) – Too slow
Jim Hurtubise (#56) – Incomplete Run
Bill Puterbaugh (#35) – Incomplete run
Neil Bonnett (#73) – Blew engine morning of qualifying, did not make attempt
Billy Engelhart (#83) – Wrecked in practice, broken leg
Frank Weiss (#50) – Incomplete rookie test
Tony Bettenhausen Jr. (#23, #26)
Earle Canavan
Ed Finley (#62)
Woody Fisher (#52)
Bob Harkey (#19)
Larry McCoy (#93)
Jerry Miller (#97)
Jan Opperman (#81)
Roger Rager (#66)
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner
Race summary
First half
Rain fell the night before the race, and the weather forecast for race day was bleak. However, in the morning, the skies cleared, the track dried, and the race began on-time as scheduled.
At the start, Al Unser Sr. swept from the outside of the front row, and led the field into turn one. Unser was driving Jim Hall's radical new Chaparral 2K chassis. He pulled out to a commanding lead, and proceeded to lead the first 24 laps. Heavy attrition early on saw seven cars out with mechanical problems by lap 22.
Cliff Hucul stalled on lap 28, bringing out the first caution during the first sequence of pit stops. As the field went back to green, Al Unser again dominated. On lap 43, Wally Dallenbach lost a wheel down the backstretch, and had to precariously guide his car back to the pits on three wheels.
With Al Unser still dominating, the rest of the top five was Rick Mears, Bobby Unser, and Johnny Rutherford.
Rutherford then headed to the pits with a broken gear. After lengthy repairs, he returned to the race. Leader Al Unser came in for a routine pit stop under the caution on lap 97. Moments later, he was back into the pits after it was reported that something may have been leaking or smoking from the back of the car. Still under the caution, after a quick consultation, Unser returned to the track. The green flag back came out with Bobby Unser now leading.
Second half
On lap 103, Al Unser Sr. was running second to Bobby Unser when heavy smoke and flames started coming from the back of the car. The Chaparral 2K experienced a failed transmission oil fitting, and Unser was out of the race. After mutual differences, Unser decided to leave the team at the end of the season.
With Al out, his brother Bobby was now in control. Rick Mears was holding second, and A. J. Foyt was moving up to third, one lap down.
The first crash of the day involved Larry Rice on lap 156.
With twenty laps to go, Bobby Unser led his Penske teammate Rick Mears by a few car lengths. A. J. Foyt was running third, one lap down. Suddenly on lap 181, Bobby Unser veered to the inside of the track. He was off the pace with gearbox trouble. That handed the lead to Rick Mears with 19 laps to go. Less than a lap later, A. J. Foyt (now in second) got by Mears to un-lap himself. Bobby Unser would stay out on the track and nursed his ailing car to a 5th-place finish in third gear.
Finish
Rick Mears made his final pit stop from the lead on lap 185. He took on fuel only, and no tires. A. J. Foyt followed, completing a fast 8.5-second pit stop. The leaders pits stops were over, and Mears now held a 38-second lead over Foyt.
Suddenly with 8 laps to go, Tom Sneva wrecked in turn four, bringing out the yellow, and bunching up the field. The green came back out for one last sprint to the finish with four laps to go. Rick Mears led, with A. J. Foyt at the tail-end of the pack. Mike Mosley was one lap down in third place, however, an early-race scoring error was tentatively showing him two laps down in 5th place. Foyt was mired in heavy traffic, and needed to pass at least 14 cars to catch up to Mears. With Foyt struggling to make up the ground, his engine lost a cylinder. Down on power, Foyt began to slow. Third-place Mosley, fighting to stay ahead of fourth-place Danny Ongais, un-lapped himself on the final lap and continued to charge. Meanwhile, Mears cruised unchallenged to the finish line. Mears in only his second start, won his first of four Indy 500 victories.
Coming off of turn four with the checkered flag waving, A. J. Foyt's engine quit. He pulled to the inside and was coasting down the frontstretch towards the finish line. Mike Mosley was storming down the frontstretch at full speed, but Foyt nipped him at the finish line by 2.3 seconds to hold on to second position. Though it was not known at the moment, Mosley's charge on the final lap nearly gave him second place. After the race, officials discovered a scoring error, and realized that Mosely was not credited with a lap at the start of the race. In the official results, Mosely was credited with third place, just behind Foyt.
Bill Vukovich II, who was one of only two drivers to make the field during the special Saturday qualifying session, charged all the way from 34th starting position to 8th at the finish.
Born in 1951, Rick Mears became the first Indy 500 winner born after World War II. It was also the last checkered flag for USAC chief starter/flagman Pat Vidan. This would be the final Indianapolis 500 participation for Team McLaren who left Indy car racing as a team all together until their return in 2017.
Race results
Box Score
= Indianapolis 500 rookie = Former Indianapolis 500 winner Indicates diver eligible for CART Championship points only. Indicates driver eligible for USAC Championship Trail points only.
Race statistics
CART Points standings after this race
Note: Only the top 10 are listed
Rick Mears would ride the wave of this victory to the Inaugural CART Championship.
USAC Points standings after this race
Note: Only the top 10 are listed
This was one of two races Foyt would not win during the USAC Season as he won the other five out of seven races to easily take his seventh and final championship.
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the IMS Radio Network. Paul Page served as anchor for the third year. Lou Palmer reported from victory lane. Billy Scott, who failed to qualify for the race, served as the "driver expert."
After 31 years on the broadcast, fourth turn reporter Jim Shelton retired from the crew. Bob Jenkins debuted on the backstretch, while Darl Wible moved to the vacant turn four position. Bob Forbes' primary duties again involved covering the garage area and roving reports. For 1979, a third level was added to the Turn Two Suites. Howdy Bell's vantage point on the roof of the suites building moved slightly higher than previous years.
Television
The race was carried in the United States on ABC Sports on a same-day tape delay basis. On-air color commentator Jackie Stewart was selected to drive the pace car at the start of the race. Stewart reported live while driving the Ford Mustang pace car.
The broadcast has re-aired on ESPN Classic since May 2011.
Gallery
Notes
See also
1979 USAC Championship Car season
1979 SCCA/CART Indy Car Series
References
Works cited
1979 Indianapolis 500 Official Track Report
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats – Official Site
1979 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Indianapolis Motor Speedway Radio Network
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1979 in American motorsport
May 1979 sports events in the United States
Indianapolis 500 1979
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1946 Indianapolis 500
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The 30th International 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Thursday, May 30, 1946. This was the first Indianapolis 500 presided over by new track owner Tony Hulman. The track had closed in late 1941 due to World War II, and over the next four years, the facility fell into a terrible state of disrepair. Hulman purchased the Speedway in November 1945, and quickly went to work cleaning up the grounds, which had become overwhelmed by overgrowth and weeds. The Speedway re-opened, and the 1946 race was considered a rousing success.
Race winner George Robson would be killed in a racing crash just months after the victory.
The 1946 running of the 500 was the first of sixty-one consecutive years (1946-2006) that featured popular fixture Tom Carnegie on the Speedway public address system.
During the pre-race ceremonies, James Melton performed the song "Back Home Again in Indiana." It was the first time the traditional song had been performed before the start of the race.
Sale of the Speedway
On December 7, 1941, the attack on Pearl Harbor launched the United States into World War II. On December 29, 1941, then-president of the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Eddie Rickenbacker announced that the 1942 Indianapolis 500 was cancelled, and the race would remain suspended throughout the duration of the war. The Speedway gates were locked, and the facility was abandoned. The race would not be held from 1942 to 1945. During the period in which the track was closed, it fell into a terrible state of disrepair. Grass and weeds overwhelmed the brick racing surface, and the old wooden grandstands became frail and unsuitable and inhospitable.
Tony Hulman announced the Indianapolis 500 would resume on its traditional date of Memorial Day for 1946. The AAA Contest Board subsequently announced that the specifications and rules would remain largely unchanged from 1941.
In mid-December, Indiana Lieutenant Governor Richard T. James, while on an official trip to Europe, formally extended invitations to European racing teams to enter for the 500.
Race schedule
The deadline for entries to be received was midnight on May 1, along with a $125 entry fee. As had been customary, the track was made available for practice beginning May 1. Some teams, however, began arriving and setting up at the track as early as mid-March. Due to the ongoing renovations and construction, spectators were not allowed through the gates until May 11; only participants and press were allowed to enter the gates before then. In addition, practice over the first ten days of May was limited to 4:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. daily. On May 11, the track was opened to spectators for the first time during the month for a charge of 50¢ per person. Also on May 11, practice time was extended from 9:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m.
Time trials was tentatively scheduled for five days - the two weekends leading up to race day, along with the Tuesday two days before the race. However, rain and the lingering shortage of necessary parts kept many of the cars off the track. Eventually, eight total days were made available for qualifying in order to fill the field to the traditional 33 cars.
Race preparations
January
The rules announced were largely carried over from 1941, with few changes. Prize money was set at $20,000 for first place, and the traditional 33 cars would make up the starting grid.
February
Tickets for the 1946 Indianapolis 500 officially went on sale on February 1. Mail orders had been pouring steadily in since the track was sold in November. Some eager fans sent requests for tickets as early as August (shortly after V-J Day) anticipating the track would reopen. Even though at the time there were no plans yet in place to reopen the track, much less hold the race.
Numerous announcements were made with regard to officials and personnel. Seth Klein returned as the chief starter, Chester Ricker returned as the director of timing and scoring, and Henry Ford II was named the driver of the Lincoln Continental pace car. Kirkpatrick studio was signed on as the official photographers of the 500-mile race. The Indiana State Police was assigned to crowd control duties.
Entries slowly began to arrive, bringing the total to six by the end of the month. Cliff Bergere and Joie Chitwood were the first two drivers to be entered. Cars were entered for Russ Snowberger, Ted Horn and George Connor. On February 7, Harry McQuinn flew into the Speedway, landing his Aeronca Champion airplane on the backstretch, arriving to personally deliver his entry for the race. Construction workers at the track briefly halted work to watch the plane land. Though not yet entered, driver Al Putnam was preparing for the race.
March
Speedway officials continued to rebuild staff for the race. Clifford M. Rigsbee was appointed head of a new technical group at the Speedway. A welcoming committee with the local chamber of commerce was formed, in order to re-acclimate spectators to the event after the hiatus during the war. In addition, the Speedway announced Dr. E. Rogers Smith as the chief of the track medical staff.
The $300,000 renovation project at the track was reported to be on-schedule. The grounds were now mostly cleaned up, and the biggest item of work was the pouring of concrete for the new Paddock grandstand across from the Pagoda. Excavation for the new G grandstand was underway, and many new parquet seats were already in place behind the pit area. The old diner adjacent to Gasoline Alley had been razed and a new restaurant was to be built in its place. With less than two months until race day, advanced reserved tickets sales were reported as brisk.
By the end of the month, the entry list was up to 15 cars. Cars were entered for Al Putnam, Steve Truchan, and Arthur M. Sims entered the machine that Wilbur Shaw drove to victory in the 1937 race, but a driver was not yet named. One other car was entered by Ed Walsh without a driver named. Three-time pole position holder and 1941 National Champion Rex Mays was slated to drive the Bowes Seal Fast Special, the same car he drove to second place in 1941. Despite facing financial and transportation difficulties, at least five European drivers were inquiring about submitting entries.
Early in the month, a minor controversy loomed. It was reported some drivers, particularly those from the U.S. West Coast, were expressing concern about the perceived low purse announced for the race.
April
With less than a month to go before the track officially opened for practice, entries continued to pour in. Cars were entered for Harry O'Reilly Schell, "Raph", Emil Andres, George Barringer, Joel Thorne, Cliff Bergere, Rudolf Caracciola, Tazio Nuvolari, Chet Miller, and several others. By the end of the month, the entry list was up to 44 cars.
Refurbishment of the facility continued, including the near-completion of new grandstands. On April 6, the Speedway Golf Course opened for business. Officials announced that a small number of tickets were still available.
George Barringer arrived with his car on April 22, and two days later on April 24, Barringer became the first driver to take to the track for the year. Barringer's supercharged rear-engined machine completed laps over 115 mph. Track president Wilbur Shaw, George Connor, Chet Miller, and others were on hand to watch. The following day, April 25, Tony Bettenhausen became the second driver to take laps.
Off the track, Roy E. Cole, vice-president in charge of engineering at Studebaker, was named the chairman of the technical committee for the race. Also, the Lap Prize Fund was accumulating, and the prize fund was announced at $60,000, quelling some of the concern about a low purse.
Practice
The track officially opened for practice on Wednesday May 1. However, practice time was limited to 4:00 pm to 7:00 pm for the first ten days in order to allow construction crews extra time to finish refurbishing the facility. In addition, spectators were not allowed inside the gates until May 11. The deadline for entries to be received was midnight on May 1, and any entries postmarked on or before May 1 were accepted. Numerous entries came in just before the deadline, bringing the total to 56 cars.
During the first week, many drivers and mechanics had arrived at the track, often seen hanging out at the restaurant in Gasoline Alley, and working on cars. However, few cars took to the track yet. At least ten cars were already in the garage area by Saturday May 4, with more arriving each day. At the end of the first week, Tazio Nuvolari announced he was withdrawing from the race, due to the death of his son. Achille Varzi was named his replacement, but the car would ultimately fail to qualify.
Practice started in earnest beginning on May 11. The track was now open from 9:00 a.m. to 7:00 p.m., and spectators were allowed to attended.
Time trials
Time trials was originally scheduled for five days (May 18–19, 25–26, and 28), but rain delays took away available track time. In addition, post-war shortages of certain replacement parts delayed some cars from being able to participate in practice sessions. Officials eventually would make the track available for qualifying on three additional days in order to fill the field to the traditional 33 cars. The minimum speed to qualify was set at 115 mph. Approximately 56 entries were expected to make attempts to qualify.
Officials retained the four lap (10-mile) qualifying runs that were traditional from 1920–1933 and from 1939–1941. The fastest qualifier on the first day of time trials ("pole day") would win the pole position. Cars that qualified on the second day would line up behind the first qualifiers, and so on. Prior to World War II, on time trials days the track would typically be open until "sundown." But for 1946, the times were standardized such that the track would close each day at 5:30 p.m., except for the final day - unless weather interfered.
Saturday May 18
The first day of time trials was scheduled for Saturday May 18. The track would be open from 10:30 a.m. to 5:30 p.m. The favorites for the front row included Harry McQuinn, Cliff Bergere, Rex Mays, and Ted Horn. Since many teams were lacking practice time, and some lacking parts, less than a dozen cars were expected to take to the track on Saturday.
Over 20,000 spectators arrived for the first significant track action in nearly five years. However, rain threatened most of the afternoon, and allowed only six cars to complete runs. During a practice run, Frank McGurk in the Shoof Special spun coming out of turn four and hit the outside wall. The car hit the outside rail a second time, then slid across the track hitting the inside guardrail. McGurk was not seriously injured. The car was not seriously damaged, and was expected to be repaired. Pole favorites Rex Mays and Ted Horn suffered engine problems, preventing them from going out Saturday. Horn broke a water pump, while Mays suffered broken connecting rods and bearings.
Indy veteran Cliff Bergere won the pole position with a speed of 126.471 mph. At age 49, Bergere became the oldest pole winner in Indy history up to that point. Paul Russo, driving a unique twin-four-cylinder engine machine, qualified second to sit in the middle of the front row. On Russo's car, one engine drove the front axle, and the second engine drove the rear axle. Russo was on pace to take the pole through three laps, but on his fourth and final lap, one of his superchargers got too hot, and dropped the speed down. Sam Hanks rounded out the front row, despite leaking oil which obscured his goggles. Rear-wheel drive cars swept two spots on the front row, with Jimmy Jackson (5th) the highest front-wheel-drive-only machine.
Rain closed the track for nearly two hours, prompting officials to extend qualifying until 7:30 p.m. Still, only seven cars made runs, and only six were completed. Mauri Rose had a fast first lap that could have put him on the front row, but the engine threw a rod on lap two.
Source: The Indianapolis Star
Sunday May 19
Time trials was scheduled for 12:00 p.m. to 7:30 p.m. A crowd of 40,000-60,000 spectators arrived but not a single car made a qualifying attempt. High winds kept most cars off the track early on, and later rain washed out most of remainder of the afternoon. Some cars did practice, but when the rains came, most spectators departed. Officials announced that Monday May 20 would be designated for qualifying, in order to make up for lost track time over the weekend.
Monday May 20
After weather interfered on Sunday, officials made Monday May 20 available for qualifications. Three cars completed runs in front of a small crowd of only 3,000 spectators. Ted Horn (driving Wilbur Shaw's 1940 winning car) was the fastest of the day. Horn's car, prepared by "Cotton" Henning, ran two identical laps, and put him on the inside of row three.
Officials announced that Tuesday May 21 would not be available for qualifications.
Tuesday May 21
Charles VanAcker crashed. Duke Nalon made an exhibition run.
Wednesday May 22
Qualifying resumed on Wednesday May 22. Approximately 20,000 spectators saw five cars complete runs, and the field was filled to 14 cars. Mauri Rose, who threw a rod on his first attempts, returned Wednesday with a different engine, was the fastest car of the day.
During a practice run for his driver's test, Hal Robson broke an axle in turn two, lost a wheel, and spun out. Robson was not injured, and completed the test later on in a different car.
Saturday May 25
After two days of practice only, time trials resumed on Saturday May 25. With a speed of 128.861 mph, Rex Mays tentatively became the fastest qualifier in the field. As a qualifier on the fourth day, however, Mays would line up in 14th starting position. Mays was followed by George Robson and Jimmy Wilburn, both over 125 mph. Wilburn had passed his rookie driver's test just two hours prior to making his attempt. A crowd of about 12,500 witnessed the afternoon.
Sunday May 26
Ralph Hepburn shattered the one-lap and four-lap track records and became the fastest qualifier in the field. Hepburn returned to the track a day after his car quit during his first attempt. Under cold weather and threatening skies, about 22,500 spectators saw fours drivers complete runs, and the field was filled to 22 cars.
Hepburn's fourth lap was the fastest, a track record , and his four-lap average was a record . Hepburn drove the 8-cylinder front-wheel drive Novi Governor Special, entered by W.S. Winfield.
Monday May 27
At the request of many teams, time trials was extended into yet another day, with the track open from 1:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. Four cars completed runs, tentatively filling the field to 27 cars. Hal Robson joined his brother George in the field, but the speeds were noticeably down from Sunday's record-breaking efforts.
With only one day remaining to qualify, six positions were tentatively left to be filled.
Tuesday May 28
The deadline for qualifications was set at sundown (8:08 p.m.) on Tuesday May 28. When the day opened, six spots were left open in the field. Tony Bettenhausen withdrew his previously-qualified car due to a broken crankshaft. He would re-qualify a new car to be the fastest driver of the day.
During a practice run, Caracciola, in one of the Thorne Engineering Specials, lost control and crashed in turn two. He was thrown from the machine, which was badly damaged. Caracciola was seriously injured, and rushed to the hospital. After his release from the hospital, track owner Tony Hulman invited Caracciola to recuperate at his home in Terre Haute.
Danny Kladis was the first driver to complete a run during the afternoon, at a relatively slow pace of . He slipped down the standings as the day progressed, but his speed would hold up and he barely held on to qualify 33rd. Late in the afternoon, Charles Van Acker completed his required four laps at an average of 115.666 mph to fill the field at 33 cars. Buddy Rusch was now "on the bubble", the slowest car in the field. Steve Truchan was the next car out, but he pulled into the pits after only three laps.
Just minutes before sundown, three cars took to the track in an effort to bump their way into the field. Tony Bettenhausen, Billy Devore and George Connor all took to the track at the same time in order to make it in before the deadline. Bettenhausen earned a new spot in the field after withdrawing his previous car. Connor and Devore bumped Buddy Rusch and Charles Van Acker, respectively. One final car, Freddy Winnai made a last-ditch effort to make the field, but the car quit before completing a lap.
Starting grid
Alternates
First alternate: Buddy Rusch (#37) – Bumped ()
Failed to Qualify
Charles Van Acker (#62) – Bumped ()
Steve Truchan (#28) – Incomplete run
Freddy Winnai (#71) – Incomplete run
Robert Arbuthnot (#57)
Zora Arkus-Duntov (#49)
Harold Bailey (#58)
Bud Bardowski (#37)
Gerald Brisko (#18)
Jim Brubaker (#68)
Arvol Brunmeier (#67)
Rudolf Caracciola (#44, #72)
Bruce Denslow (#56)
Louis Gerard (#36)
Tommy Hinnershitz (#34)
Joe Langley (#55)
Frank McGurk (#17)
Al Miller (#9)
Wally Mitchell (#43)
Ray Richards (#27)
Bud Rose (#69)
Harry Schell (#46)
Joel Thorne (#44)
Achille Varzi (#53)
Bus Wilbert
Doc Williams
Dioscoride Lanza (#74) - Did not appear
"Raph" (#35) - Did not arrive
Joe Silvia - Did not appear
Race summary
At the start, Mauri Rose tied an Indy record by leading the first lap from the 9th starting position. Attrition was high in the first race after World War II, as three of the first four cars on the grid were out before the 50 mile mark (20 laps).
George Robson took the lead for good on lap 93. His six-cylinder Sparks was the first 6-cylinder winning car since Ray Harroun in 1911. Rookie Jimmy Jackson finished second, at the relatively close margin of 44 seconds.
Ted Horn made two lengthy pit stops and fell seven laps behind the last running car. Horn returned to the track, and charged all the way up to third place at the finish. Horn was the fastest car on the track in the second half, and he completed the entire 500 miles, but was 12 minutes behind Robson.
A mild controversy came about after the race, as race winner Robson was accused of breaking the rules by not exiting the cockpit of the car during pit stops. A protest was filed, but it was later dismissed.
Box score
Statistics
Broadcasting
Radio
The race was carried live on the Mutual Broadcasting System. The broadcast was sponsored by Perfect Circle Piston Rings and Bill Slater served as the anchor. The broadcast featured live coverage of the start, the finish, and live updates throughout the race.
See also
1946 AAA Championship Car season
Works cited
Indianapolis 500 History: Race & All-Time Stats – Official Site
1946 Indianapolis 500 Radio Broadcast, Mutual: Re-broadcast on "The All-Night Race Party" - WFNI (May 28, 2011)
References
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1946 in American motorsport
May 1946 sports events in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography%20of%20Canadian%20history
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Bibliography of Canadian history
|
This is a bibliography of major works on the History of Canada.
Scholarly journals focused on Canadian history
Acadiensis, covers Atlantic Canada
Alberta history
American Review of Canadian Studies
British Columbia History
Canada's History, Formerly The Beaver (1920–2010)
Canadian Historical Review, the major scholarly journal
Histoire sociale/Social History, focus on Canada
Labour/Le Travail
London Journal of Canadian Studies
Manitoba History
Ontario History
Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française focus on Quebec
Saskatchewan History
Urban History Review - Revue d'histoire urbaine
Atlases, geography, environment
Historiography
on human uses and control of fires
Surveys (overviews)
Recommended place to start
Web listing of Canadian history sources
1650 short entries
Chronicles of Canada series
also at Archive.org
Republished
Provinces and territories
Cities
Indigenous
online
X
Prior to 1763
thousands of scholarly biographies of those who died by 1930
Bannister, Jerry. "Atlantic Canada in an Atlantic World? Northeastern North America in the Long 18th Century." Acadiensis 43.2 (2014) online.
University textbook
Marshall, Bill, ed. France and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History (3 Vol 2005)
1763–1867
, thousands of scholarly biographies of those who died by 1930
influential scholarly biography
Primary sources
1867–1920
the standard survey
Influential scholarly biography
-
standard history
First World War homefront
First World War
16 essays by leading scholars
Millman, Brock. Polarity, Patriotism, and Dissent in Great War Canada, 1914–1919 (University of Toronto Press, 2016).
looks at farmers near Lethbridge, Alberta, shopkeepers in Guelph, Ontario, and civic workers in Trois-Rivières, Québec
Historiography and memory
; historiography
; bibliography
; cultural history
1921–1957
Overviews
Creighton, Donald. The Forked Road: Canada 1939–1957 (McClelland and Stewart Limited, 1976), general survey.
standard scholarly survey
Politics
-
standard biography
A primary source
Great Depression
-
well-written popular history
Primary sources
describes life in Winnipeg during the depression
includes recollections of the 1930s
sociological study
DAI 2003 63(7): 2644-2645-A. DANQ70191 Fulltext in ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
standard economic history; has data on public and private investment in the major sectors of the economy
with articles on Aberhart, George McCullagh, Pattullo and the Reconstruction Party.
Second World War
Granatstein; J. L. The Generals: The Canadian Army's Senior Commanders in the Second World War (University of Calgary Press, 2005) online
standard survey
collection of more than 140,000 newspaper clippings
Cold War
Bothwell, Robert. The Big Chill: Canada and the Cold War (Concord: Irwin Publishing, 1998).
Campbell, Isabel. Unlikely Diplomats: The Canadian Brigade in Germany, 1951-64 (UBC Press, 2013).
Chapnick, Adam. The Middle Power Project: Canada and the Forming of the United Nations (UBC Press, 2005).
Eayrs, James. In Defence of Canada: Peacemaking and Deterrence (U of Toronto Press, 1972).
English, John. The Worldly Years: The Life of Lester Pearson, Volume II: 1949–1972 (Vintage Books Canada, 1993).
Holmes, John W. The Shaping of Peace: Canada and the Search for World Order 1943–1957 (2 vol. U of Toronto Press, 1979–82).
Pearson, Geoffrey. Seize the Day: Lester B. Pearson and Crisis Diplomacy (Carleton UP, 1993).
Smith, Denis. Diplomacy of Fear: Canada and the Cold War, 1941–1948 (U of Toronto Press, 1988).
Teigrob, Robert. Warming up to the Cold War: Canada and the United States' coalition of the willing, from Hiroshima to Korea (U of Toronto Press, 2009.
Thompson, John Herd and Stephen J. Randall. Canada and the United States: Ambivalent Allies (University of Georgia Press, 1994).
Whitaker, Reginald, and Gary Marcuse. Cold War Canada: The making of a national insecurity state, 1945–1957 (U of Toronto Press, 1994).
Since 1957
Overviews
Specific
Contemporary
Military history
Granatstein, J.L. and Dean F. Oliver. (2010). The Oxford companion to Canadian military history. (Toronto: Oxford University Press).
historiography
Granatstein; J.L. The Generals: The Canadian Army's Senior Commanders in the Second World War (University of Calgary Press, 2005).
Granatstein, J.L. and David Bercuson. War and Peacekeeping: From South Africa to the Gulf- Canada's Limited Wars (Toronto: Key Porter Books, 1991).
Granatstein, J.L. and David Stafford. Spy Wars: Espionage and Canada from Gouzenko to Glasnost (Key Porter Books, 1990).
Grey, Jeffrey. The Commonwealth Armies and the Korean War: An Alliance Study (Manchester UP, 1988).
Harris, Stephen. (1988). Canadian Brass: The making of a professional army, 1860–1939 (Toronto: U. of Toronto Press).
Horn, Bernd and Stephen Harris, eds. (2001). Warrior chiefs: Perspectives on senior Canadian military leaders. (Toronto: Dundurn Press).
Humphries, Mark Osborne, ed. (2008). The selected papers of Sir Arthur Currie: Diaries, letters, and report to the Ministry, (1917–1933. (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press).
Kasurak, Peter. A National Force: The Evolution of Canada's Army, 1950–2000 (Vancouver: UBC Press, 2013).
Maloney, Sean. Canada and UN Peacekeeping: Cold War by Other Means (St. Catherines: Vanwell Publishing, 2002).
Maloney, Sean. Learning to Love the Bomb: Canada's Nuclear Weapons During the Cold War (Potomac Books, Inc., 2007).
Melady, John. Korea: Canada's Forgotten War (Macmillan of Canada, 1983).
Meyers, Edward C. Thunder in the Morning Calm: The Royal Canadian Navy in Korea: 1950–1955. (St. Catherines: Vanwell, 1992)
Milner, Marc. Canadian military history. (Toronto: Copp Clark Putnam, 1993).
Milner, Marc. Canada's navy: The first century. 2nd edition. (University of Toronto Press, 2010).
Morton, Desmond. A Military History of Canada: From Champlain to the Gulf War (McClellan and Stewart Inc., 1992).
Morton, Desmond. (1981). Canada and war: A military and political history. Toronto: Butterworths
Nicholson, Gerald W. L. The fighting Newfoundlanders: A history of the Royal Newfoundland Regiment. (2nd ed. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2006,).
Rickard, John. Politics of Command: Lieutenant-General A.G.L. McNaughton and the Canadian Army, 1939–1943 (2009)
Stanley, George F.G. Canada's soldiers: The military history of an unmilitary people. (Toronto: Macmillan, 1974)
First World War
Dancocks, Daniel G. (1985). Sir Arthur Currie: A biography. (Toronto: Methuen)
Dancocks, Daniel G. (1986). Legacy of Valour: The Canadians at Passchendaele. (Edmonton: Hurtig Publishers).
Dancocks, Daniel G. (1988). Welcome to Flanders Fields, the first Canadian battle of the Great War: Ypres, 1915. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart.
Duguid, A.F. (1938). Official history of the Canadian forces in the Great War, 1914–1919. Vol. 1. (Ottawa: King's Printer.
Evans Shaw, Susan. (2011). Canadians at war: A guide to the battlefields of World War I. (Fredericton: Goose Lane Editions)
Freeman, Bill and Richard Nielson. (1999). Far from home: Canadians in the First World War. (Toronto: McGraw-Hill Ryerson)
Granatstein, J.L. (2004). Hell's corner: An illustrated history of Canada's Great War 1914–1918. Vancouver/(Toronto: Douglas and McIntyre)
Gray, David. (2012). "Carrying Canadian troops: The story of RMS Olympic as a First World War troopship," Canadian Military History, Vol. 11(1), 54-70.
Hadley, Michael L. and Roger Sarty. (1991). Tin-pots and pirate ships: Canadian naval forces and German sea raiders, 1880–1918. (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press).
Haycock, Ronald G. (1986). Sam Hughes: The public career of a controversial Canadian, 1885–1916. (Wilfrid Laurier University Press).
Hayes, Geoffrey, Andrew Iarocci and Mike Bechthold. eds. (2007). Vimy Ridge: A Canadian reassessment. (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press).
Hyatt, A.M.J. (1987). General Sir Arthur Currie: A military biography (Toronto. U. of Toronto Press).
Iarocci, Andrew, and Mike Bechthold, eds. Vimy Ridge: A Canadian reassessment (Waterloo: Wilfrid Laurier University Press)
Iarocci, Andrew. (2009). "On the threshold of modernity: Canadian horsepower on the Western Front, 1914–18," Journal of the Society for Army Historical Research pp 59–83.
Mackenzie, David, ed. Canada and the First World War (2005); 16 specialized essays by scholars
Macphail, Andrew. (1925). Official history of the Canadian forces in the Great War, 1914–19. The Medical Services, ((Ottawa: King's Printer)
Morton, Desmond. (1979). "Junior but sovereign allies': The transformation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, 1914–1918," Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 8#1 pp: 56-67.
Morton, Desmond. (1992). Silent battle: Canadian prisoners of war in Germany, 1914–1919. (Toronto: Lester Publishing.
Morton, Desmond. (1993). When your number's up: The Canadian soldier in the First World War. (Toronto: Random House of Canada)
Morton, Desmond. (2007). A military history of Canada. (Toronto: McClelland & Stewart).
Morton, Desmond and J.L. Granatstein. (1989). Marching to Armageddon: Canadians and the Great War 1914–1919. (Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys)
Tennyson, Brian Douglas. Canada's Great War, 1914–1918: How Canada Helped Save the British Empire and Became a North American Nation (2014).
- Total pages: 771 (Also published in French under the title: Les aviateurs canadiens dans la Première Guerre mondiale)
Official histories
First World War
Second World War
Korea
Economic history
General
List of Economic Surveys of Canada 1961-present - by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development
Baldwin, John R., and Petr Hanel. Innovation and Knowledge Creation in an Open Economy: Canadian Industry and International Implications (2007)
Berton, Pierre. The Great Depression: 1929–1939 (1990) is a popular account
Burton, F. W. "Wheat in Canadian History," The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science Vol. 3, No. 2 (May, 1937), pp. 210–217
Glazebrook, G. P. de T. A History of Transportation in Canada (1938)
Innis, Harold. A., and A. R. M. Lower; Select Documents in Canadian Economic History, 1783–1885 University of Toronto Press, 1933, primary sources
Mackintosh, W.A. "The Laurentian Plateau in Canadian Economic Development," Economic Geography, Vol. 2, No. 4 (Oct., 1926), pp. 537–549
Marr, William L. and Donald Patterson. Canada: An Economic History, 1980.
Neill, Robin (1991) A history of Canadian economic thought, Routledge
Norrie, Kenneth, Douglas Owram, and J.C. Herbert Emery. A History of the Canadian Economy 4th ed. (2007)
Russell, Peter A. Farming in the Nineteenth Century (2012), 400pp; covers Ontario, Quebec and Manitoba
Sandwell, R. W. "Notes toward a history of rural Canada, 1870-1940." in Social Transformation in Rural Canada: Community, Cultures, and Collective Action (2013): 21-42.
Business history
Bliss, Michael. Northern Enterprise: Five Centuries of Canadian Business. McClelland and Stewart, (1987).
Bordo, Michael D., Angela Redish, and Hugh Rockoff. "Why Didn't Canada Have a Banking Crisis in 2008 (or in 1930, or 1907, or . . .)?" Economic History Review 68#1 (2015): 218–43
Fleming, Keith R. Power at Cost: Ontario Hydro and Rural Electrification, 1911–1958. McGill-Queen's U. Press, (1992). 326 pp.
Frost, James D. Merchant princes: Halifax's first family of finance, ships, and steel (2003)
Klassen, Henry C. A Business History of Alberta (1999) 362 pp.
Kottman, Richard N. "Herbert Hoover and the Smoot–Hawley Tariff: Canada, A Case Study", Journal of American History (1975), 62#3 pp 609–635 in JSTOR
Laxer, Gordon. Open for Business: The Roots of Foreign Ownership in Canada. (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1989).
Lingenfelter, Richard E., ed. The Mining West: A Bibliography & Guide to the History & Literature of Mining in the American & Canadian West. 2 vol Scarecrow, 2003. 1550 pp
McDonald, Judith; O'Brien, Anthony Patrick; Callahan, Colleen. "Trade Wars: Canada's Reaction to the Smoot–Hawley Tariff", Journal of Economic History (1997), 57#4 pp 802–826, in JSTOR
Myers, Gustavus (1972), A history of Canadian wealth, Lewis and Samuel online, on the super-rich
Naylor, Tom. The History of Canadian Business. 1867–1914 2 vol (1976)
Porter, John. "Concentration of Economic Power and the Economic Elite in Canada," The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 22, No. 2 (May, 1956), pp. 199–220
Roberts, David. In the Shadow of Detroit: Gordon M. McGregor, Ford of Canada, and Motoropolis. Wayne State U. Press, 2006. 320 pp.
Santink, Joy L. Timothy Eaton and the Rise of His Department Store. U. of Toronto Press, 1990. 319 pp.
Taylor, Graham D. and Peter Baskerville. A Concise History of Business in Canada (1994)
Watts, George. The Bank of Canada: Origins and Early History (Carleton University Press, 1993)
Williams, Glen. Not for Export: The International Competitiveness of Canadian Manufacturing. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart, 3rd edition, 1994.
Natural resources, energy, oil, lumber
Desbiens, Caroline. Power from the North: Territory, Identity, and the Culture of Hydroelectricity in Quebec (2014)
Foster, Peter. The Blue-Eyed Sheiks: The Canadian Oil Establishment. Collins, 1979.
Froschauer, Karl. White gold: Hydroelectric Power in Canada. Vancouver: UBC Press, 1999. excerpt and text search
Gillis, Robert Peter. "The Ottawa lumber barons and the conservation movement 1880–1914." Journal of Canadian Studies 9#1 (1974): 14-30. online
Le Riche, Timothy. Alberta's Oil Patch - The People, Politics & Companies (2006)
Lower, A.R.M. The North American Assault on the Canadian Forest (1938).
Nelles, H. V. The Politics of Development: Forests, Mines, and Hydro-Electric Power in Ontario, 1849-1941. Archon Books, 1974.
Pratt, Larry. The Tar Sands: Syncrude and the Politics of Oil. Hurtig, 1976.
Sweeny, Alastair. Black Bonanza: Alberta's Oil Sands and the Race to Secure North America's Energy Future. John Wiley & Sons, 2010.*
Labour and working class
Abella, Irving M. On strike; six key labour struggles in Canada, 1919–1949 (James, Lewis & Samuel 1974)
Babcock, Robert H. Gompers in Canada: a study in American continentalism before the First World War (1974) online at ACLS e-books
Bradbury, Bettina. Working families: Age, gender, and daily survival in industrializing Montreal (1993)
Craig Heron. The Canadian Labour Movement: A Brief History, 1996.
Craven, Paul, ed., Labouring lives: work and workers in nineteenth-century Ontario (1995)
Davis, Angela E. (1995) Art and work: a social history of labour in the Canadian graphic arts industry to the 1940s McGill-Queen's University Press
Frager, Ruth A., and Carmela K. Patrias, eds. Discounted Labour: Women Workers in Canada, 1870–1939 (2005) online
Forsey, Eugene Alfred. Trade unions in Canada, 1812–1902 (1982).
Frank, David. J. B. McLachlan: A Biography: The Story of a Legendary Labour Leader and the Cape Breton Coal Miners (1999)
Haddow, Rodney, and Thomas Klassen. Partisanship, Globalization, and Canadian Labour Market Policy: Four Provinces in Comparative Perspective (2006)
Heron, Craig. The Canadian Labour Movement: A Brief History, (1996).
Hertel; D. W. History of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees: Its Birth and Growth, 1887–1955 . (1955)
Horowitz, Gad. Canadian Labour in Politics (1968), Covers 1930–1965
Jamieson, Stuart. Times of Trouble: Labour Unrest and Industrial Conflict in Canada, 1900–1966 (1968), Detailed coverage of strikes
Kealey, Gregory S. Dreaming of what might be: the Knights of Labor in Ontario, 1880–1900 (1982) excerpt and text search
Kealey, Greg. "Writing about Labour" in Schultz, ed. Writing About Canada: A Handbook for Modern Canadian History (1990), pp 145–74
Lipton, Charles. The Trade Union Movement in Canada 1827–1959 (1966), a standard history from a Marxist perspective
Logan, Harold. Trade Unions in Canada (1948), large amount of factual information
MacEwan, Paul. Miners and Steelworkers: Labour in Cape Breton (1976)
Morton, Desmond. Working People: An Illustrated History of the Canadian Labour Movement (1999)
Ogmundson, Richard, and Michael Doyle. "The rise and decline of Canadian Labour/1960 to 2000: Elites, power, ethnicity and gender." Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie (2002): 413-454.
Palmer, Bryan D. Working Class Experience: Rethinking the History of Canadian Labour, 1800–1991 (1992)
Robin, Martin. Radical Politics and Labour in Canada (1968), left-wing politics 1880–1930
Historiography
Abella, Irving M. "Labour and working-class history" in * Granatstein and Stevens, eds. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: Confederation to the Present (1982) pp 114–36.
Kealey, Gregory S. "Labour and working-class history in Canada: Prospects in the 1980s." Labour/Le Travail (1981): 67-94.
Morton, Desmond. "Some millennial reflections on the state of Canadian labour history." Labour/Le Travail (2000): 11-36. online
Palmer, Bryan D. "Working-Class Canada: Recent Historical Writing." Queen's Quarterly 86.4 (1979): 594+
Vaisey, G. Douglas (1980) The Labour Companion: A Bibliography Of Canadian Labour History Based On Materials Printed From 1950 To 1975, James Lorimer & Company
Railways
Andreae, Christopher. Lines of Country: An Atlas of Railway and Waterway History in Canada (1996)
Berton Pierre. The Last Spike: The Great Railway, 1881–1885 (2001) excerpt and text search, popular history
Brown, Ron. The Train Doesn't Stop Here Any More (1998) an illustrated history of railway stations in Canada
Currie, A. W. The Grand Trunk Railway of Canada. University of Toronto Press, 1957. 556 pp, the standard history
Fleming, R. B. The Railway King of Canada: Sir William Mackenzie, 1849–1923 University of British Columbia Press, 1991
Fournier, Leslie T. Railway Nationalization in Canada: The Problem of the Canadian National Railways (1937)
Freeman, Kenneth D. et al. The Growth and Performance of the Canadian Transcontinental Railways 1956–1981 (1987)
Hertel; D. W. History of the Brotherhood of Maintenance of Way Employees: Its Birth and Growth, 1887–1955 (1955) online
Hofsommer, Don L. Grand Trunk Corporation: Canadian National Railways in the United States, 1971–1992. 1995. 227 pp. online
Kaye, Lamb W. History of the Canadian Pacific Railway. (1977).
Leonard, Frank. A Thousand Blunders: The Grand Trunk Pacific Railway and Northern British Columbia University of British Columbia Press, 1996
den Otter, A.A. The Philosophy of Railways: The Transcontinental Railway Idea in British North America University of Toronto Press, 1997.
Regehr, T. D. The Canadian Northern Railway Macmillan of Canada 1976
Stevens, G. History of the Canadian National Railways Macmillan Company 1973
Weaver, R. Kent. The Politics of Industrial Change: Railway Policy in North America (1985)
Willson, Beckles. The Life of Lord Strathcona and Mount Royal 1915.
Company histories
Banks
Denison, Merrill. Canada's First Bank: A History of the Bank of Montreal. McClelland and Stewart, 1966.
Schull, Joseph. 100 Years of Banking in Canada: A History of the Toronto-Dominion Bank. Copp Clark, 1958.
Schull, Joseph and J. Douglas Gibson. The Scotiabank Story: A History the Bank of Nova Scotia, 1832-1982. Macmillan, 1982.
Skelton, Oscar. The Dominion Bank, 1871-1921: Fifty Years of Banking Service. The Dominion Bank, 1922.
Various authors. A History of the Canadian Bank of Commerce (vol. 1-3); A History of Canadian Imperial Bank of Commerce (vol. 4-5).
Brewing
Bellamy, Matthew. Brewed in the North: A History of Labatt's. McGill-Queen's University Press, 2019.
Denison, Merrill. The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story. McClelland and Stewart, 1955.
Shea, Albert. Vision in Action: The Story of Canadian Breweries Limited from 1930 to 1955. Canadian Breweries, 1955.
Insurance
Bennett, Richard. A House of Quality It Has Ever Been: History of the Great-West Life Assurance Company. Great West Life, 1992.
Campbell, James, and Edward Tufts. The Story of the London Life Insurance Company. London Life, 1966.
Cruickshank, W. H. Our First 75 Years: Crown Life Insurance Company, 1900-1975. Crown Life Insurance, 1976.
Manufacturers Life Insurance Company. The First Sixty Years, 1887-1947: A History of the Manufacturers Life Insurance Company. Manufacturers Life, 1947.
McQueen, Rod. Who Killed Confederation Life? The Inside Story. McClelland and Stewart, 1996.
Schull, Joseph. The Century of the Sun: The First Hundred Years of Sun Life Assurance Company of Canada. Macmillan, 1972.
Tyrwhitt, Janice. Small Things Grow Great: The First 150 Years of the Canada Life Assurance Company. Canada Life, 1996.
Trusts
Collard, Edward. A Very Human Story: A Brief History of the Royal Trust Company, Its First 75 Years. Royal Trust, 1975.
Smith, Philip. The Trust-Builders: The Remarkable Rise of Canada Trust. Macmillan, 1989.
Skodyn, Basil (ed.). The Permanent Story, 1855-1980. Canada Permanent Mortgage Corporation, 1980.
Stevens, George. The Canada Permanent Story, 1855-1955. Canada Permanent Mortgage, 1955.
Petroleum and pipelines
Consumers Gas Company. A Tradition of Service: The Story of Consumers Gas. Consumers Gas Company, 1993.
Foster, Peter. From Rigs to Riches: The Story of Bow Valley Industries. Bow Valley Industies, 1985.
Gray, Earle. Wildcatters: The Story of Pacific Petroleums and Westcoast Transmission. McClelland and Stewart, 1982.
Hudson's Bay Oil and Gas Company. The New Company at 50: 1926-1976. Hudson's Bay Oil and Gas, 1976.
Kilbourn, William. Pipeline: TransCanada and the Great Debate, a History of Business and Politics. Clarke Irwin, 1970.
Lauriston, Victor. Blue Flame of Service: A History of the Union Gas Company and the Natural Gas Industry in Southwestern Ontario. Union Gas Company, 1961.
Lyon, Jim. Dome: The Rise and Fall of the House that Jack Built. Macmillan, 1983.
Magladry, Ray. Shell in Canada: The Path of Growth, 1911-1986. Shell Canada Limited, 1986.
McKenzie-Brown, Peter. The Richness of Discovery: Amoco's First 50 Years in Canada, 1948-1998. Amoco Canada Petroleum, 1998.
PanCanadian Petroleum. Railways to Resources: The Evolution of PanCanadian Petroleum. PanCanadian Petroleum Limited, 1966.
Penner, David. The Story of Ranger Oil. GRP Enterprises, 2004.
Smith, Philip. The Treasure-Seekers: The Men Who Built Home Oil. Macmillan, 1978.
Taylor, Graham. Imperial Standard: Imperial Oil, Exxon, and the Canadian Oil Industry from 1880. University of Calgary Press, 2019.
Metals and mining
Campbell, Duncan. Global Mission: The Story of Alcan. Alcan Aluminium, 1990.
Girdwood, Charles P.; Jones, Lawrence F.; Lonn, George. The Big Dome: Over Seventy Years of Gold Mining in Canada. Cybergraphics Company, 1983.
Kilbourn, William. The Elements Combined: A History of the Steel Company of Canada. Clarke, Irwin, 1960.
McDowell, Duncan. Steel at the Sault: Francis H. Clergue, Sir James Dunn and the Algoma Steel Corporation, 1901-1956. University of Toronto Press, 1984.
Row, William. The Illustrated History of Kerr Addison Gold Mines Limited, Kerr Addison Mines Limited and Subsidiaries. Kerr Addison Mines Limited, 1984.
Thompson, John F. and Norman Beasley. For the Years to Come: A Story of International Nickel of Canada. Putnam, 1960.
Pulp, paper, and power
Boothman, Barry. Corporate Cataclysm: Abitibi Power & Paper and the Collapse of the Newsprint Industry, 1912-1946. University of Toronto Press, 2020.
Denison, Merrill. The People's Power: The History of Ontario Hydro. McClelland and Stewart, 1960.
Smith, Philip. Brinco: The Story of Churchill Falls. McClelland and Stewart, 1975.
White, Clinton. Power for a Province: A History of Saskatchewan Power. Canadian Plains Research Center, 1976.
Others
Ashley, Charles. The First Twenty-Five Years: A Study of Trans-Canada Air Lines. Macmillan, 1963.
Collard, Edward. Passage to the Sea: The Story of Canada Steamship Lines. Doubleday, 1991.
Denison, Merrill. Harvest Triumphant: The Story of Massey-Harris. McClelland and Stewart, 1949.
MacKay, Donald. Empire of Wood: The MacMillan Bloedel Story. Douglas and McIntyre, 1982.
Sweeny, Alastair. BlackBerry Planet: The Story of Research in Motion and the Little Device that Took the World by Storm. John Wiley & Sons, 2009.
Technology
Political and legal
Argyle, Ray. Turning Points: The Campaigns That Changed Canada - 2011 and Before (2011) excerpt and text search, ch 5
Auger, Michel; Edwards, Peter (2004), The encyclopedia of Canadian organized crime: from Captain Kidd to Mom Boucher, Marks & Spencer
Cook, Ramsay, ed. French-Canadian Nationalism; An Anthology (Macmillan of Canada, 1969).
Courtney, John C; David E. Smith. The Oxford handbook of Canadian politics (Oxford University Press, 2010)
Craik, Neil et al., eds. Public Law: Cases, materials, and commentary (Toronto: Emond Montgomery Publications, 2006).
Dyck, Rand. Canadian Politics, Concise Fifth Edition (Cengage Learning, 2011)
Fierlbeck, Katherine. Political Thought in Canada: An Intellectual History, Broadview Press, 2006
Greene, Ian The Charter of Rights (1989), James Lorimer and Company,
Jones, Richard. Community in crisis : French-Canadian nationalism in perspective (McClelland and Stewart, 1967).
McKay, Ian. Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History, Between the Lines, 2006.
Mann, Susan. Action Française: French Canadian nationalism in the twenties (University of Toronto Press, 1975).
Monet, Jacques. The Last Cannon Shot; A Study of French-Canadian Nationalism, 1837–1850 (University of Toronto Press, 1969).
Morton, Frederick Lee. Law, politics, and the judicial process in Canada (University of Calgary Press, 2002).
Schneider, Stephen. Iced: The Story of Organized Crime in Canada (Wiley, 2009)
British roles
Buckner, Phillip Alfred. The transition to responsible government: British policy in British North America, 1815–1850 (1985).
Jasanoff, Maya. Liberty’s Exiles: The Loss of America and the Remaking of the British Empire (2011).
Kaufman, Will, and Heidi Slettedahl Macpherson, eds. Britain and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History (3 vol 2005), 1157pp; encyclopedic coverage.
Lyon, Peter. Britain and Canada: Survey of a Changing Relationship (1976)
Martin, Ged. "Attacking the Durham Myth: Seventeen Years On." Journal of Canadian Studies 25.1 (1990): 39-59.
Martin, Ged. Britain and the Origins of Canadian Confederation, 1837-67 (2001).
Messamore, Barbara Jane. Canada's Governors General, 1847–1878: Biography and Constitutional Evolution (U of Toronto Press, 2006).
Smith, Andrew. "Patriotism, self-interest and the ‘Empire effect’: Britishness and British decisions to invest in Canada, 1867–1914." Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 41.1 (2013): 59-80.
Cultural history, popular culture
Blair, Jennifer; (2005) ReCalling Early Canada: Reading the Political in Literary and Cultural Production. U. of Alberta Press
Clarke, George Elliott. Odysseys Home: Mapping African-Canadian Literature. U. of Toronto Press, 2002. 491 pp.
2001 ed. ; 2010 ed. .
Druick, Zoë. Aspa Kotsopoulos (2008) Programming reality: perspectives on English-Canadian television, Wilfrid Laurier University Press
Feldman, Seth and Nelson, Joyce, ed. Canadian Film Reader. Toronto: Martin, 1977. 405 pp.
Francis, Daniel. The Imaginary Indian: The Image of the Indian in Canadian Culture. Vancouver: Arsenal Pulp, 1992. 260 pp.
Hammill, Faye. Literary Culture and Female Authorship in Canada 1760–2000. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2003. 245 pp.
Keith, W. J. Canadian Literature in English. London: Longman, 1985. 287 pp.
Kesterton, W.H. A History of Journalism in Canada (1979)
Lerner, Loren R. and Williamson, Mary F., eds. Art and Architecture in Canada: A Bibliography and Guide to the Literature = Art et Architecture au Canada: Bibliographie et Guide de la Documentation U. of Toronto Press, 1991. 998 pp.
MacDonald, Mary Lu. Literature and Society in the Canadas, 1817–1850. Mellen, 1992. 360 pp.
Marshall, Bill, ed. France and the Americas: Culture, Politics, and History (3 Vol 2005)
Melnyk, George. One Hundred Years of Canadian Cinema. U. of Toronto Press, 2004. 361 pp.
Morris,Peter (1978). Embattled shadows: a history of Canadian cinema, 1895–1939, McGill-Queen's University Press,
New, W. H., ed. Literary History of Canada: Canadian Literature in English. (1990). 492 pp.
Ord, Douglas. The National Gallery of Canada: Ideas, Art, Architecture. (2003). 500 pp.
Perron, Paul. Narratology and Text: Subjectivity and Identity in New France and Québécois Literature. (2003). 338 pp.
Simpson-Housley, Paul and Norcliffe, Glen, ed. Few Acres of Snow: Literary and Artistic Images of Canada. (1992). 277 pp.
Stich, K. P., ed. Reflections: Autobiography and Canadian Literature. (1988). 176 pp.
Smith, Judith E. Visions of Belonging: Family Stories, Popular Culture, and Postwar Democracy, 1940–1960. (2004). 444 pp.
Thom, Ian, and Alan Elder. A Modern Life: Art and Design in British Columbia 1945–1960 (2004)
Toye, William, ed. The Oxford Companion to Canadian Literature. (1983). 843 pp.
Weiss, Jonathan, and Jane Moss. French-Canadian Literature (1996)
Wise, Wyndham, ed. Essential guide to Canadian film. 2001
Education
Axelrod, Paul. The Promise of Schooling: Education in Canada, 1800–1914 (1997)
Bruno-Jofré, Rosa. "History of education in Canada: historiographic 'turns' and widening horizons." Paedagogica Historica (2014), 50#6, pp 774–785
Burke, Sara Z., and Patrice Milewski, eds. Schooling in Transition: Readings in Canadian History of Education (2012) 24 articles by experts
Clark, Lovell. ed The Manitoba School Question: majority rule or minority rights? (1968) historians debate the battle over French language schools
Di Mascio, Anthony. The Idea of Popular Schooling in Upper Canada: Print Culture, Public Discourse, and the Demand for Education (McGill-Queen's University Press; 2012) 248 pages; building a common system of schooling in the late-18th and early 19th centuries.
Gidney, R.D. and W.P.J. Millar. How Schools Worked: Public Education in English Canada, 1900–1940 (2011) 552pp; additional details
Harris, Robin S. A history of higher education in Canada, 1663–1960 (1976) in ERIC
Shook, Laurence K. Catholic Post-Secondary Education in English-Speaking Canada: A History (University of Toronto Press, 1971).
Sports
Barclay, James A. Golf in Canada: A History (1992)
Bouchier, Nancy. For the love of the game: Amateur sport in small-town Ontario, 1838–1895 (2003)
Boyd, Bill. All Roads Lead to Hockey: Reports from Northern Canada to the Mexican Border. (2006). 240 pp
Brown, D., 'The Northern Character Theme and Sport in Nineteenth Century Canada', Canadian Journal of History of Sport, 1989, 20(1), 47-56.
Burstyn, V. The Rites of Men: Manhood, Politics, and The Culture of Sport. (1999).
Charters, David A. The Chequered Past: Sports Car Racing and Rallying in Canada, 1951 - 1991 (2007) excerpt and text search
Coakley, Jay and Peter Donnelly, Sports in Society: Issues and Controversies, (2003), 576pp
Dauphinais, Paul R., 'A Class Act: French-Canadians in Organized Sport, 1840–1910', International Journal of the History of Sport, 1992 7(3): 432-442.
Howell, Colin D. Blood, Sweat, and Cheers: Sport and the Making of Modern Canada (2001).
Morrow, Don, and Kevin Wamsley. Sport in Canada: A History. (2nd ed. 2009) 392 pp.
Robidoux, Michael A. (2002) "Imagining a Canadian Identity Through Sport: A Historical Interpretation of Lacrosse and Hockey," Journal of American Folklore, 115/456
Social
Friedland, Martin L. University of Toronto: A History. (2002). 777pp
Humphries, Mark Osborne. The Last Plague: Spanish Influenza and the Politics of Public Health in Canada (University of Toronto Press; 2013) examines the public-policy impact of the 1918 epidemic, which killed 50,000 Canadians.
Ethnicity and immigration
Akenson, Donald H. The Irish in Ontario: A Study in Rural History (McGill-Queen's University Press, 1984)
Bloemraad, Irene. Becoming a Citizen: Incorporating Immigrants and Refugees in the United States and Canada (2006)
Campey, Lucille H. Ignored But Not Forgotten: Canada's English Immigrants (Dundurn, 2014)
Campey, Lucille H. After the Hector: The Scottish Pioneers of Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, 1773–1852 (Dundurn, 2007)
Campey, Lucille H. Les Écossais: The Pioneer Scots of Lower Canada, 1763–1855 (Dundurn, 2006)
Campey, Lucille H. With Axe and Bible: The Scottish Pioneers of New Brunswick, 1784–1874 (Dundurn, 2007)
Campey, Lucille H. Planters, Paupers, and Pioneers: English Settlers in Atlantic Canada (2010)
Campey, Lucille H. Seeking a Better Future: The English Pioneers of Ontario and Quebec (2012)
Grekul, Lisa. Leaving Shadows: Literature in English by Canada's Ukrainians (2005)
Grenke, Arthur. The German Community in Winnipeg 1872 to 1919 (1991)
Hoerder, Dirk. Creating Societies: Immigrant Lives in Canada. (2000) 416 pp.
Iacovetta, Franca, Paula Draper, and Robert A. Ventresca. A Nation of Immigrants: Readings in Canadian History, 1840s–1960s (1998)
Kelley, Ninette, and Michael J. Trebilcock. The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy (1998)
Kukushkin, Vadim. From Peasants to Labourers: Ukrainian and Belarusan Immigration from the Russian Empire to Canada (2007)
McDougall, Duncan M. "Immigration into Canada, 1851–1920," The Canadian Journal of Economics and Political Science, Vol. 27, No. 2 (May, 1961), pp. 162–175 in JSTOR
McKay, Ian. "Tartanism Triumphant. The Construction of Scottishness in Nova Scotia, 1933–1954." Acadiensis 21, no. 2 (Spring 1992): 5-47.
Magocsi, Paul R. ed. Encyclopedia of Canadas Peoples (1999), detailed guides to all groups
Makabe, Tomoko. The Canadian Sansei (1998), 3rd generation of Japanese descent
Messamore, Barbara, ed. Canadian Migration Patterns from Britain and North America (2004) 300pp; essays by scholars
Petryshyn, Jaroslav. Peasants in the Promised Land: Canada and the Ukrainians (1985)
Pivato, Joseph. The Anthology Of Italian-Canadian Writing (1998)
Poy, Vivienne, ed. Passage to Promise Land: Voices of Chinese Immigrant Women to Canada (2013) Table of Contents
Ramirez, Bruno. On the move: French-Canadian and Italian migrants in the North Atlantic economy 1860–1914 (1991). French-Canadians moving to New England & Italians to Montreal
Riedel, Walter. The Old world and the new: Literary perspectives of German-speaking Canadians (1984)
Roy, Patricia. A White Man's Province: British Columbia Politicians and Chinese and Japanese Immigrants, 1858–1914 (1989)
Schryer, Frans J. The Netherlandic Presence in Ontario: Pillars, Class and Dutch Ethnicity. (1998). 458 pp. focus is post WW2
Swyripa, Frances. Storied Landscapes: Ethno-Religious Identity and the Canadian Prairies (University of Manitoba Press, 2010) 296 pp.
Wagner, Jonathan. A History Of Migration From Germany to Canada, 1850–1939 (2005)
Religion
Bean, Lydia, Marco Gonzalez, and Jason Kaufman. "Why doesn't Canada have an American-style Christian right? A comparative framework for analyzing the political effects of evangelical subcultural identity." Canadian Journal of Sociology/Cahiers canadiens de sociologie 33.4 (2008): 899-943. online
Carrington, Philip. The Anglican Church in Canada: A History (Collins, 1963)
Christie, Nancy, and Michael Gauvreau. Christian Churches and Their Peoples, 1840–1965: A Social History of Religion in Canada (2010), 176pp excerpt and text search
Clark, Samuel Delbert. Church and sect in Canada (U of Toronto Press, 1948.
Clifford, N. Keith. The Resistance to Church Union in Canada, 1904–1939 (U of British Columbia Press, 1985)
Emery, George. Methodist Church on the Prairies, 1896–1914 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2001)
Fay, Terence J. A History of Canadian Catholics: Gallicanism, Romanism, and Canadianism (2002) excerpt and text search
Fraser, Brian J. The Social Uplifters: Presbyterian Progressives and the Social Gospel in Canada 1875–1915 (Wilfrid Laurier Univ. Press, 1988)
Gardaz, Michel. "Religious studies in Francophone Canada." Religion 41#1 (2011): 53-70.
Gidney, Catherine. Long Eclipse: The Liberal Protestant Establishment and the Canadian University, 1920–1970 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2004)
Grant, John Webster, et al. The Church in the French Era; The Church in the British Era; The Church in the Canadian Era (3 vol. 1972; 1988); general history of Catholicism and Protestantism in Canada
Grant, John Webster. Moon of Wintertime: Missionaries and the Indians of Canada in Encounter since 1534 (U of Toronto Press, 1984)
Healey, Robynne Rogers. From Quaker to Upper Canadian: Faith and Community Among Yonge Street Friends, 1801–1850 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2006)
Lahey, Raymond J. The First Thousand Years: A Brief History of the Catholic Church in Canada (2002)
McGowan, Mark. Michael Power: The Struggle to Build the Catholic Church on the Canadian Frontier (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2005)
Marshall, David. Secularizing the Faith: Canadian Protestant Clergy and the Crisis of Belief, 1850–1940 (1992)
Miedema, Gary. For Canada's sake: Public religion, centennial celebrations, and the re-making of Canada in the 1960s (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2005)
Moir, John S. Enduring witness: a history of the Presbyterian Church in Canada (3rd ed. Presbyterian Church in Canada, 1987)
Moir, John S. Church and State in Canada, 1627–1867; Basic Documents (McClelland and Stewart, 1967), Primary sources
Morice, A G. History of the Catholic Church in Western Canada: From Lake Superior to the Pacific (1659–1895) (1910) online
Murphy, Terrence, and Gerald Stortz, eds, Creed and Culture: The Place of English-Speaking Catholics in Canadian Society, 1750 – 1930 (1993), articles by scholars
Murphy, Terrence, and Roberto Perin, eds. A Concise History of Christianity in Canada (1996).
, A wide-ranging general survey.
Opp, James William. The Lord for the Body: Religion, Medicine, and Protestant Faith Healing in Canada, 1880–1930 (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 2005)
Perin, Roberto. Rome in Canada: the Vatican and Canadian affairs in the late Victorian age (U of Toronto Press, 1990)
Semple, Neil. Lord's Dominion: The History of Canadian Methodism (McGill-Queen's Press-MQUP, 1996)
Webster, Thomas. History of the Methodist Episcopal Church in Canada (1870) online
Wilson, Robert S. "Patterns of Canadian Baptist Life in the Twentieth Century," Baptist History & Heritage (2001) 36# 1/2, pp 27–60. Covers the educational, social, political, missionary, and theological trends; notes that the years 1953–2000 were marked by the union of different Baptist groups.
Women, gender, family
Historiography and guides to the scholarly literature
Berger, Carl. Writing Canadian History: Aspects of English Canadian Historical Writing since 1900 (2nd ed. 1986), 364pp evaluates the work of most of the leading 20th century historians of Canada.
Berger, Carl, ed. Contemporary Approaches to Canadian Writing (1987)
Buckner, Phillip and John G. Reid, eds. Remembering 1759: The Conquest of Canada in Historical Memory (U of Toronto Press, 2012)
Careless, J. M. S. "Canadian Nationalism — Immature or Obsolete?" Report of the Annual Meeting of the Canadian Historical Association / Rapports annuels de la Société historique du Canada (1954) 33#1 pp: 12–19. online
Edwards, Justin D.l and Douglas Ivison. Downtown Canada: Writing Canadian Cities (2005)
Fulford, Robert, David Godfrey, and Abraham Rotstein. Read Canadian: a book about Canadian books (1972) 275pp; topical chapters that comment on the best historical and current studies
Gagnon, Serge. Quebec and its Historians: 1840 to 1920 (English ed. 1982; French ed. 1978)
Gagnon, Serge. Quebec and its Historians: The Twentieth Century (English ed. 1985)
Glassford, Larry A. "The Evolution of 'New Political History' in English-Canadian Historiography: From Cliometrics to Cliodiversity." American Review of Canadian Studies. 32#3 (2002).
Granatstein, J. L. and Paul Stevens, eds. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: Confederation to the Present (1982)
Muise, D. A. ed., A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: i, Beginnings to Confederation (1982); historiography
Granatstein and Stevens, eds. A Reader's Guide to Canadian History: Confederation to the Present v2 (1982); historiography
Taylor, M. Brook, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 1. Doug Owram, ed. Canadian History: A Reader's Guide. Vol. 2. Toronto: 1994. historiography
Rudin, Ronald. Making History in Twentieth Century Quebec (1997)
Schultz, John. ed. Writing About Canada: A Handbook for Modern Canadian History (1990), chapters by experts on politics, economics, ideas, regions, agriculture, business, labor, women, ethnicity and war.
Strong-Boag, Veronica, Mona Gleason, and Adele Perry. Rethinking Canada: The Promise of Women's History (2003)
Warkentin, John, ed. So Vast and Various: Interpreting Canada's Regions in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries (2010); looks at 150 years of writings about Canada's regions.
Wright, Donald. The Professionalization of History in English Canada (2005) 280pp
Primary sources
Canadian Studies: A Guide to the Sources
The CanText text library contains a library of documents divided by time period.
Canada: Literature and History 347 e-books
Blackwell, John D. "Canadian Studies: A Core Collection," CHOICE: Current Reviews for Academic Libraries 35 (September 1997): 71-84,
Browne, G. P., ed. Documents on the Confederation of British North America (1969).
; 707pp
Morris, Alexander. 1880. The Treaties of Canada with the Indians of Manitoba and the North-West Territories: including the negotiations on which they were based, and other information relating thereto. Belfords, Clarke, and Co. Reprint: Prospero Books, Toronto, 2000.
Pickersgill, J.W., and Donald F. Forster, The Mackenzie King Record. 4 vols. Vol. 1: 1939–1944 and Vol. 2: 1944–1945 (University of Toronto Press, 1960); and Vol. 3: 1945–1946 and Vol. 4: 1946–1947(University of Toronto Press, 1970). from King's diary
485pp; short excerpts from primary sources covering 200 major topics
Riddell, Walter A. ed; Documents on Canadian Foreign Policy, 1917–1939 (Oxford University Press, 1962) 806pp
Talman, James J. ed; Basic Documents in Canadian History (1959)
Thorner, Thomas, and Thor Frohn-Nielsen, eds. "A Few Acres of Snow": Documents in Pre-Confederation Canadian History, and "A Country Nourished on Self-Doubt": Documents on Post-Confederation Canadian History (3rd ed. (2010).
Historical statistics
Statistics Canada. Historical Statistics of Canada. 2d ed., Ottawa: Statistics Canada, 1983.
Canada Year Book (CYB) annual 1867–1967
Cantril, Hadley and Mildred Strunk, eds. Public Opinion, 1935–1946 (1951), massive compilation of many public opinion polls from Canada and USA
See also
Historiography of Canada
Bibliography of Canada
Outline of Canada#Bibliographies
Bibliography of Canadian military history
List of books about the War of 1812
List of conflicts in Canada
Bibliography of Canadian provinces and territories
Bibliography of science and technology in Canada
Bibliography of Nova Scotia
Bibliography of Saskatchewan history
Bibliography of Alberta history
Bibliography of British Columbia
Bibliography of the 1837-1838 insurrections in Lower Canada
Lists of books
List of bibliographies
List of books about prime ministers of Canada
References
External links
Events of National Historic Significance
National Historic Sites of Canada
Canadiana: The National Bibliography of Canada
CBC Archives - Canadian Broadcasting Corporation
Canadian History & Knowledge – Association for Canadian Studies
History
Canada
Historiography of the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919%20Indianapolis%20500
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1919 Indianapolis 500
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The 7th Liberty 500-Mile Sweepstakes was held at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway on Saturday, May 31, 1919.
After a two-year hiatus due to World War I, the Indianapolis 500 returned to competition in 1919. Howdy Wilcox won, accompanied by riding mechanic Leo Banks. More than half the field (19 of 33 cars) consisted of rookie drivers, tied for the most ever, excluding the inaugural race where all 40 cars were considered "rookies." Ralph DePalma, the 1915 winner, and the driver who suffered a defeat in 1912, again put in a strong performance. DePalma led 93 of the first 102 laps, and drove the first half at record-breaking speed. Tire problems, however, necessitated a long pit stop, and DePalma finished in 6th place.
Rain was a factor during practice, limiting available track time in the days immediately leading up to time trials. Since most teams did not arrive until later in the month, some cars had very limited preparation time. Qualifying was supposed to be held on just one day, but officials decided to add two additional days due to the lost track time.
The first half of the race was marred by three fatalities. Driver Arthur Thurman died in a crash on lap 45. On lap 96, Louis LeCocq and his riding mechanic Robert Bandini wrecked in turn two, and both were burned to death.
Race background
Over two years had gone by since the last competitive events had been held at the Speedway. The 1916 race was followed by the Harvest Auto Racing Classic, at which point the track was closed due to the escalation of World War I. When the Armistice was signed in November 1918, the Speedway management was anxious to begin planning for the resumption of the 500-mile race for 1919. Some early rumors circulated that the race may change dates to July 4, or even expand to 1,000 miles. These rumors were briefly entertained when the AAA Contest Board announced that both May 30 and July 4 were being set aside on the calendar for the event.
On December 6, 1918, Speedway business manager T.E. "Pop" Myers announced that the 1919 Indianapolis 500 would be scheduled for Friday, May 30. It was decided to keep the traditional date, and likewise return the race to a distance of 500 miles. The 1916 race had been scheduled for 300 miles (a decision that management later mostly regretted), the only such time which the race was scheduled for less than 500 miles. AAA would return as the sanctioning body. An editorial the following day in the Indianapolis News, however, sharply criticized the choice of Memorial Day. It was going to be the first "Decoration Day" holiday following the end of the "Great War", and they believed that the holiday should be left alone to properly honor the many thousands of war casualties. About a week later, Speedway management announced that they would change the date to Saturday May 31. The race was deliberately moved off Memorial Day (Friday May 30) and pushed to Saturday so as not to detract from the holiday.
The race was given a new name for 1919, the Liberty Sweepstakes as a gesture to the peacetime brought on by victory and the end of the war. The new title was used for only one year. Without hesitation, Cliff Durant submitted the first entry on December 16.
Race schedule
Practice
The deadline for entries to be submitted was midnight on Thursday May 1. A total of 43 cars were entered, including three entries by the Indianapolis Motor Speedway. The AAA Contest Board confirmed that the maximum starting field rule of 33 cars would apply.
Thursday May 1: Omar Toft arrived in Indianapolis after a nine-day drive from Los Angeles. He arrived in just enough time to deliver his entry to the Speedway headquarters. Three other last-minute entries also arrived.
Friday May 2: Jean Chassagne arrived in town from Wolverhampton, England along with his chief mechanic Thomas Harrison.
Saturday May 3: Howdy Wilcox was seen perusing the track, in search of a ride. He was rumored to be in line to drive one of the I.M.S. entries.
Sunday May 4: Jean Chassagne made his first visit to the Speedway. The Sunbeam cars of Chassagne and Dario Resta had reportedly arrived in New York from England. The cars were expected to arrive at the Speedway soon.
Monday May 5: The Sunbeam cars of Chassagne and Resta arrived in Indianapolis. They were immediately being unpacked and readied for testing on the Speedway.
Tuesday May 6: Howdy Wilcox became the first driver to take to the track for the month. Wilcox drove one of the I.M.S. Premier entries for several laps over 100 mph. Among those on hand to observe were Arthur Chevrolet, Jules Goux, and Jean Chassagne. Goux's car was being overhauled, while Chassagne's car was expected to arrive at any time.
Wednesday May 7: Eddie Rickenbacker was named the honorary referee.
Thursday May 8: The 1916 winner and 1916 National Champion Dario Resta arrived at the Speedway for the Sunbeam entry. He was expected to take the track for preparation soon. Much fanfare was being made that four former winners (Resta, René Thomas, Ralph DePalma, Jules Goux) were expected to attempt to qualify.
Friday May 9: As the first full week of track availability was coming to an end, still only two non-local teams had arrived at the Speedway. The Ballot team out of France, and the Sunbeam team out of England. Poised to be spirited rivals, both were at the track with their full complement of drivers. The only Americans at the track thus far were Howdy Wilcox, and Elmer T. Shannon.
Saturday May 10: Visiting the Speedway was Barney Oldfield, in town for his tire company. Oldfield was planning to return later in the month to start his preparations.
Sunday May 11: No track activity on Sunday. The prevailing topics of discussion for the week focused on the number of foreign entries and foreign drivers vying for the field.
Monday May 12: Greek driver George Buzane was mentioned as a possible driver for one of the I.M.S. Premier entries. Louis Wagner and Eddie Pullen were among drivers mentioned as possible qualifiers.
Tuesday May 13: Dario Resta took practice laps for the first time during the month. Carl G. Fisher and James A. Allison were among those watching in attendance. J. J. McCoy arrived at the track, and was expected to start taking laps as soon as his McCoy Special was unpacked. With the prestigious French Grand Prix still not yet revived after the war, Indianapolis was being ranked as the biggest motor race of the year.
Wednesday May 14: Predictions were being made of record speeds during the race.
Thursday May 15: Dario Resta was practicing his Ballot entry, but nearly crashed. The shock absorbers were not affixed properly, and when the car hit a bump in turn one, it became airborne. The car jumped a foot off the ground, but Resta was able to slow the car down and keep it from crashing over the embankment. Resta and his crew made repairs, and he was soon back out on the track running several hot laps. Art Klein, Arthur Thurman, and J. M. Reynolds arrived at the Speedway. The expectations were that practice would begin to pick up by Saturday and Sunday.
Friday May 16: Of discussion was the budding rivalry between the American and European entries. The 7th 500 would be the "rubber match" between the two factions, each of whom had won the race three times apiece.
Saturday May 17: Rene Thomas was clocked with a lap of 1 minute and 32 seconds, for an average speed of 97 mph. Louis Disbrow took the Detroit Special for a few laps around the track.
Sunday May 18: More drivers arrived from Europe, including André Boillot, Paul Bablot, and Louis Wagner. Also arriving in town was Ralph DePalma. The track was open for practice, but closed to the public on Sunday. About four or five cars took to the track including Dario Resta and Jean Chassagne in the Sunbeam cars. Resta took some hot laps, while Chassagne took his time. Rene Thomas in the Ballot was observed opening up the throttle down the backstretch, but "loafing" in the turns. George Buzane took some hot laps in one of the I.M.S. Premiers late Sunday afternoon, leading some to think he may attempt to qualify.
Monday May 19: Howdy Wilcox was officially named to an I.M.S. entry as a teammate to Jules Goux. The Indianapolis Star published a photograph, purported to be the first-ever picture of the track taken from an airplane. Several drivers, including Tommy Milton, were at Uniontown Speedway for another race, and were expected to arrive at Indianapolis soon.
Tuesday May 20: The Sunbeam cars for Jean Chassagne and Dario Resta were ruled ineligible after it was discovered their engines were oversized. Chief engineer Louis Coatalen discovered the infraction, and informed speedway officials that the team was withdrawing from the event. Tom Alley and A. E. Cotey arrived at the Speedway on Tuesday.
Wednesday May 21: Many drivers and teams were arriving at the Speedway, but rain and foggy weather was limiting available track time. Charles Kirkpatrick was named to the Detroit Special.
Thursday May 22: Rain kept cars off the track. After losing his ride with the withdrawn Sunbeam team, Dario Resta joined the Ballot team, possibly to serve as a relief driver on race day.
Friday May 23: Jesse G. Vincent was named the driver of the pace car. Two entries were scratched, the Jay-Bee Special for P.W. Monaghan, and the Hudson for C.W. Johnson.
Saturday May 24: The fastest practice lap was made by Ralph DePalma at 98 mph. After many days of rainy weather, sunny conditions saw heavy track activity, including many drivers taking their first laps of the month.
Sunday May 25: George Buzane crashed and flipped over in the south turns. Buzane and his riding mechanic Carl Weinbrecht were not seriously injured. The track was closed to the public on Sunday.
Monday May 26: Denny Hickey blew a tire coming out of turn 2, spun the car around three times, and backed into the inside wall on the backstretch. The car suffered only minor damage. During the afternoon, Howdy Wilcox and Jules Goux took to the track together for many laps over the 90 mph range. Ira Hall was also out on the track. Monday was the final full day of practice available before elimination trials began.
Time trials
Time trials were scheduled for three days, May 27–29. Elimination trials consisted of one timed lap. This would be the final time single-lap qualifying runs were used at Indianapolis. In 1920, four-lap time trial runs would be introduced. For the first time, qualifiers would line up in the grid by speed based on the day they qualified. All cars that qualified on the first day would line up by speed rank first, with the fastest qualifier starting on the pole position. The remaining cars that qualified on subsequent days would line up by speed rank behind the first day qualifiers. The cars from the second and third days, however, were merged on the grid. This format was adopted in order to encourage more drivers to qualify early on, instead of waiting until the last minute.
Originally it was planned for all elimination trials to be held on Tuesday, but due to inclement weather, the schedule was expanded to allow Wednesday and Thursday as well. The minimum speed to qualify was set at 80 mph, and the field was set at a maximum of 33 cars. Based on the entries prepared at the track, the expectation was that about six cars would fail to qualify.
In an effort to foil the "bootleg" programs that were being printed and sold in and around the Speedway, car numbers were not assigned until race morning.
Tuesday May 27
The first day of time trials was held Tuesday May 27 starting at 10:00 a.m. Ralph DePalma (98.2 mph) was the first car in the field. Former winner René Thomas shattered the track record with a lap of 104.7 mph to secure the pole position. Thomas went out late in the afternoon, deciding to wait out windy conditions. A total of eleven cars completed runs, all over 90 mph. Howdy Wilcox went out after Thomas, and qualified second with a speed of 100.0 mph.
Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.
Sources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News
Wednesday May 28
The second day of time trials was held Wednesday May 28. The qualifiers on the second and third day would line up behind the qualifiers from the first day. Louis Chevrolet drove a Frontenac at a speed of 103.1 mph to be the fastest car of the day. Tommy Milton was on his way to qualifying over 101 mph, but his car slowed, and he managed a lap of only 89.9 mph.
During a practice run, Omar Toft spun in the south turns, but avoided contact and was able to continue around. Two cars, Al Cotey and Dave Lewis, made an attempt but failed to qualify. Cotey was too slow (below the 80 mph minimum) and Lewis suffered engine failure. Both drivers were eligible to try again on Thursday.
A total of 13 cars completed qualifying runs Wednesday, filling the field to 24 cars. The final starting positions, however, for those 13 cars would not be finalized until qualifying was completed on Thursday.
Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.
Sources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News
Thursday May 29
The third and final day of time trials was held Thursday May 29. The day opened with nine spots available in the field.
The 1913 winner Jules Goux was the final car to qualify. During a practice run on Thursday, he suffered a broken piston and broken connecting rod, which blew a hole in the Peugeot's engine block. The Premier team offered him a spare engine, and Goux spent the entire day working to install it. Late in the day, just minutes before sundown, Goux took the car to the track. After one single warm-up lap, he signaled to officials to start the run. His lap of 95 mph bumped James Reynolds, and Goux surprisingly made the field. Not as lucky was Dave Lewis. A day after suffering engine problems, Evans was on his qualifying lap, running over 100 mph. Two-thirds of the way through the lap, the bearings in the engine burned out, and broke the crankcase.
During an exhibition run, Ralph DePalma attempted to set track records in a 950-c.i.d. car, the same car he set records in at Daytona. He failed to break René Thomas's one-lap record from Tuesday, but he did set 5-mile and 10-mile distance speed records.
Note: Car numbers not assigned until race morning.
Sources: The Indianapolis Star, The Indianapolis News
Starting grid
Alternates
First alternate: James M. Reynolds
Failed to qualify
Al Cotey – Too slow
Dave Lewis – Incomplete attempt
P.W. Monaghan – Withdrew (engine failure)
H.C. Simmons – Withdrew (engine failure)
George Buzane – practice crash
Race recap
The start of the race was scheduled for Saturday May 31 at 11:00 a.m. local time. The facility was closed to the public on Friday, but participants were allowed a brief period of practice time on Friday morning for last-minute preparations. The rest of the day was spent prepping the track by scrubbing the brick surface of oil and debris.
Maurice Becker, the riding mechanic for Howdy Wilcox during the month, was disallowed by his family from participating in the race. He was replaced for the race by Leo Banks just hours before the start.
A crowd estimated at 120,000 arrived at the Speedway on a hot and sunny Saturday morning. At 8 a.m., the Purdue Band entertained fans. Pace car driver Jesse G. Vincent, with passenger Eddie Rickenbacker, took the field around for one unscored warm-up lap. At a speed of about 80 mph, the field was released for the start. André Boillot's car initially failed to pull away, but eventually got started, and sprinted to catch up to the rest of the field.
First half
The first half of the race belonged to 1915 winner Ralph DePalma. Depalma led the first 65 laps, and raced at a record pace. With an average speed of over 92 mph, DePalma was shattering existing track records. Though the pace was incredible, his lead was not large. His closest contenders stayed within reach. Louis Chevrolet took the lead for lap 66–74, before giving it back to DePalma. Also in the top five were Earl Cooper, Howdy Wilcox, and René Thomas.
Two fatal accidents, taking the lives of three competitors, marred the first half of the race. On lap 45, Arthur Thurman lost control at about 90 mph, swerved to the inside wall on the backstretch, then flipped over three times. Thurman was thrown from the car, and landed about twenty-five feet away. He died about ten minutes later as he was being taken to the hospital. His riding mechanic Nicholas Molinaro suffered a fractured skull, but survived.
On the 96th lap, Louis LeCocq and his riding mechanic Robert Bandini lost control and turned over in the exit of turn two. The fuel tank ruptured and burst into flames. Both LeCocq and Bandini were pinned underneath the car, doused with gasoline, and burned to death at the scene. With other cars whizzing by, flaming gasoline was spread in all directions, as crews attempted to extinguish the flames.
Second half
After dominating most of the first half, Ralph DePalma gave up the lead on lap 103 to make a pit stop. DePalma was experiencing tire trouble, and was forced to make long stop to make repairs. DePalma lost about ten laps in the pits, and fell out of contention.
Howdy Wilcox took the lead on lap 103, and led the rest of the way. After major crashes and high attrition in the first half, the second half of the race settled down into a steady pace. Only three cars dropped out in the second half, leaving 14 cars running to complete 500 miles. Wilcox made a pit stop for tires and fuel at some point after the 400 mile mark. He came out of the pits with a two-lap lead over Eddie Hearne, and cruised the rest of the way.
Late in the race, Louis Chevrolet reportedly came into the pits on three wheels. He made repairs, and finished in 7th place. After losing much time in the pits, Ralph DePalma worked his way back up to finish 6th. DePalma nipped Chevrolet at the scoring line by a fraction of a second in the battle for 6th-7th. DePalma led 93 laps, bringing his career total so far to 425 laps led - by far the most of any driver during that era. (DePalma would lead 613 laps in his career).
Box score
Statistics
Race details
For 1919, riding mechanics were required.
It is written that a band played the song "Back Home Again in Indiana" as Crawfordsville, Indiana native Howdy Wilcox led in the final stages of the race, eventually to become not only the first Indiana native, but first American, to win since Joe Dawson in 1912, the year before European cars and drivers had begun entering the race in earnest. It is believed that this the first time the song was performed at the race, which would later become a traditional fixture of the pre-race ceremonies.
Howdy Wilcox would be the last Indianapolis 500 winner to use Goodyear tires until A. J. Foyt in 1967.
Notes
See also
AAA Contest Board
Works cited
Indianapolis 500 Historical Stats: 1919
ChampCarStats.com - 1919 Liberty 500 Mile Sweepstakes
References
Indianapolis 500 races
Indianapolis 500
Indianapolis 500
1919 in American motorsport
May 1919 sports events
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5196869
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1990 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1990 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher (Conservative) (until 28 November), John Major (Conservative) (starting 28 November)
Parliament – 50th
Events
January
1 January
Glasgow begins its year as European Capital of Culture, the first designated in the British Isles.
Television debut of Rowan Atkinson's Mr. Bean in a Thames Television special.
13 January – Some 50,000 people demonstrate on the streets of London in support of Britain's ambulance workers, as the ongoing ambulance crew strike continues four months after it began.
18 January – The first MORI poll of the decade shows that Labour have a 12-point lead over the Conservatives with 48% of the vote. Liberal support is at its lowest for more than a decade as the Liberal Democrats gain just 5% of the vote.
19 January – Police in Johannesburg, South Africa, break up a demonstration against the cricket match played by rebel English cricketers led by Mike Gatting.
25 January – Burns' Day Storm: hurricane-force winds are reported to have killed 39 people in England and Wales.
29 January – Lord Justice Taylor publishes his report in the Hillsborough disaster, which claimed the lives of 95 Liverpool F.C. supporters on 15 April last year. He recommends that all top division stadiums are all-seater by 1994 and that the rest of the Football League follows suit by 1999, but rules out the government's proposed ID card scheme to combat football hooliganism as "unworkable".
February
9 February – Ayatollah Khamenei of Iran renews his predecessors' fatwa on British author Salman Rushdie, which was imposed last year following controversy over the author's book: The Satanic Verses.
15 February
The UK and Argentina restore diplomatic relations after eight years. Diplomatic ties were broken off in response to Argentina's invasion of the Falkland Islands in 1982.
Neil Kinnock's dream of being Prime Minister appears closer to becoming reality as the latest MORI poll shows Labour on 51% with a 17-point lead over the Conservatives.
20 February – Three people are injured in Leicester city centre by a bomb explosion.
26 February – Fourteen people are killed as storms hit Britain. One of the worst-hit areas is Towyn in North Wales, where approximately 2,000 people are evacuated from their homes after huge waves smash a 200-yard hole in the sea wall and cause a major flood.
27 February – Economists warn that house prices could fall by up to 10% this year.
March
1 March – The Official Secrets Act 1989 comes into force.
7 March – Halifax Building Society reveals that house prices rose by 0.3% last month – the first monthly rise since July last year.
9 March – 37 people are arrested and 10 police officers injured in Brixton, London, during rioting against the new Community Charge.
13 March – The ambulance crew dispute ends after six months when workers agree to a 17.6% pay rise.
15 March
Iraq hangs British journalist Farzad Bazoft for spying. Daphne Parish, a British nurse, is sentenced to fifteen years in prison for being an accomplice to Mr Bazoft.
Britain's unemployment is now down to 1,610,000 – the lowest since 1978. However, it is a drop of just 2,000 on January's total and economists fear that a sharp rise in unemployment could soon begin as there are widespread fears of a recession.
20 March – Chancellor John Major delivers the first budget to be broadcast on television.
23 March – The Duke and Duchess of York's second daughter, Princess Eugenie of York, is born.
31 March – Poll Tax Riots in London as 200,000 people protest in the week preceding official introduction of the Community Charge.
April
1–25 April – 1990 Strangeways Prison riot in Manchester.
2 April – An earthquake measuring 5.1 on the Richter scale and centred on the Shropshire town of Bishop's Castle is felt throughout much of England and Wales.
4 April – Dr Raymond Crockett is struck off the medical register for using kidneys from Turkish immigrants who had been paid to donate them.
5 April – Aldi, a German discount food supermarket chain, opens its first store in Britain, in Stechford, Birmingham.
9 April – Four Ulster Defence Regiment soldiers are killed by an IRA bomb in County Down.
10 April – With nineteen inmates at Strangeways Prison in Manchester still staging a rooftop protest against prison conditions, rioting has broken out at prisons in Cardiff and Bristol.
11 April – Customs and Excise officers seize parts of an Iraqi supergun in Middlesbrough.
19 April – Labour have a 23-point lead over the Conservatives in the latest MORI poll.
29 April – Stephen Hendry, 21, becomes the youngest ever world snooker champion.
May
May – Rover Group launches a new version of its popular Metro supermini, now branded as a Rover which has been the best-selling BL/Austin Rover car since its 1980 launch. At the same time, Vauxhall launches the Calibra, built by Opel in Germany, onto the UK market.
3 May – The end of house price inflation is declared by Halifax Building Society, two years after the housing market peaked.
4 May – Local council elections see Labour win more local council seats than the Conservatives. Neil Kinnock's hopes of victory in the next general election are further boosted by the fact that Labour have finished ahead in most of opinion polls for the last 12 months.
7 May – The Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) travel to Budapest for the first postwar British royal visit there.
8 May – Billy Cartman, a 33-year-old grouter, becomes the sixth Briton to die in the construction of the Channel Tunnel when he is crushed by heavy machinery.
11 May – Inflation now stands at 9.4% – the highest level for eight years.
12 May – The final of the FA Cup ends in a 3–3 draw between Manchester United and Crystal Palace at Wembley Stadium.
17 May – Manchester United win the FA Cup final replay 1–0 at Wembley Stadium, with the only goal of the game being scored by defender Lee Martin. Manchester United have now won the FA Cup seven times, equalling the record already held by Aston Villa and Tottenham Hotspur.
19 May
British agriculture Minister John Gummer publicly feeds a hamburger to his five-year-old daughter to counter rumours about the spread of Bovine spongiform encephalopathy and its transmission to humans.
Unemployment is reported to have risen for the first time in nearly four years.
24 May – Bobby Robson announces that he will not be renewing his contract as manager of the England national football team after the World Cup in Italy this summer.
25 May – The "rump" Social Democratic Party (consisting of members who backed out of the merger with the Liberal Party which formed the Liberal Democrats two years ago) finishes behind the Monster Raving Loony Party in the Bootle by-election, where Labour retain power under new MP Michael Carr. The by-election resulted from the death on 21 March of Allan Roberts, the previous Labour MP for the constituency, of cancer aged 46.
30 May – France prohibits British beef and live cattle imports as a precaution against fears of BSE being spread.
June
1 June – An army recruit is shot dead and two others are wounded by two suspected IRA gunmen in Lichfield, Staffordshire.
2 June – The long-serving actor Sir Rex Harrison dies of cancer aged 82 at his home in Manhattan, New York City.
3 June – The "rump" Social Democratic Party is wound up, two years after a splinter group refused to join up in the merger with the Liberal Democrats.
7 June – France, Italy and West Germany lift bans on British beef imposed during the BSE outbreak.
14 June
The proposed high-speed rail link between London and the Channel Tunnel is shelved.
Unemployment rises for the second month running, though by just over 4,000 to a total of 1,611,000 in May.
20 June – Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major proposes the "hard ecu", a currency which would circulate into parallel with national currencies as an alternative to full monetary union.
26 June – The Carlton Club in central London is bombed by the IRA, killing one and injuring 20.
July
2 July – Girobank is privatised by sale to the Alliance & Leicester Group.
4 July – England's hopes of World Cup glory are ended by a penalty shootout defeat in the semi-final against West Germany after a 1–1 draw in Turin.
10 July
The first Hampton Court Palace Flower Show is opened by Princess Anne.
UEFA lifts the ban on English football clubs in European competitions, five years after all teams were excluded due to the Heysel disaster.
11 July – Labour MP's accuse the Conservative government of "fraud" amid allegations that the 1,600,000 fall in unemployment since 1986 includes a million people leaving the list without finding work.
14 July – Trade and Industry Secretary Nicholas Ridley resigns following an interview in The Spectator in which he likened the European Community to Hitler's Germany.
16 July
An official report reveals that High Street sales are at their lowest since 1980, sparking further fears of a recession.
Nigel Mansell, Britain's most successful racing driver of the last 10 years, announces that he is to retire from Grand Prix races at the end of the 1990 season.
Graham Taylor, the manager of Aston Villa F.C., is appointed as the England team's new manager.
17 July – German food superstore chain Aldi opens its first British store in Birmingham and plans to have up to 200 stores across the country by 1993.
19 July – Saddam Hussein, dictator of Iraq, frees Daphne Parish from prison for "humanitarian reasons" and she returns to Britain.
20 July
An IRA bomb explodes at Stock Exchange Tower, the base of the London Stock Exchange.
Michael Carr, Labour MP for Bootle, dies after just 57 days in parliament from a heart attack at the age of 43.
24 July – A Roman Catholic nun and three police officers are killed by an IRA landmine in County Armagh.
30 July – An IRA car bomb kills British MP Ian Gow, a staunch unionist, after he assured the IRA that the British government would never surrender to them.
31 July – The England cricket team defeats the India national cricket team in a high-scoring Lord's test match totalling 1,603 runs.
August
1 August – British Airways Flight 149 is seized by the Iraqi Army at Kuwait International Airport following the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait.
3 August – The 1990 heat wave peaks with a temperature of 37.1 °C (98.8 °F) recorded at Cheltenham, Gloucestershire.
5 August – Margaret Thatcher announces her desire for a new Magna Carta to guarantee basic rights for all European citizens.
14 August – A survey carried out by the BBC reveals that 20% of taxpayers in England and Wales had not paid their Community Charge by 30 June this year.
16 August – A MORI poll shows that Labour now has a 15-point lead over the Conservatives with 50% of the vote, while support for the Liberal Democrats has doubled to 10% over the last seven months.
22 August – James MacMillan's symphonic piece The Confession of Isobel Gowdie premieres at The Proms in London.
23 August
British hostages in Iraq are paraded on TV.
Ford launches the fifth generation of its Escort hatchback, estate and cabriolet and Orion saloon. The two models have combined sales figures which account more than 10% of new cars sold in Britain. Sales of the two new models begin in Britain and the rest of Europe next month. However, the new generation models are widely panned by the motoring press due to their bland styling and driving experience as well as an old engine range from their predecessors.
24 August – Irish hostage Brian Keenan is released in Beirut, Lebanon, after being held a hostage there for more than four years.
27 August
Four investors are found guilty in the Guinness share-trading fraud trial.
The BBC begins broadcasting on Radio 5, its first new station for 23 years.
September
September – The new Ford Escort and Orion go on sale, as does a new model from Nissan, the Primera which replaces the Bluebird and is produced in Sunderland.
8 September – Historian, author and broadcaster A. J. P. Taylor, 84, dies from Parkinson's disease in a London nursing home.
8 September – York City footballer David Longhurst, 24, collapses and dies during a Football League Fourth Division match.
10 September – Pegasus, a leading British travel operator, goes bankrupt.
18 September – Air Chief Marshal Sir Peter Terry survives a murder attempt by IRA terrorists at his home near Stafford.
22 September – John Banham, Director General of the Confederation of British Industry, warns that most of Britain is now affected by a recession and that there is worse to come. The latest CBI prediction is also the gloomiest since 1980, the last time Britain was in recession. Fears of a recession have been growing across most of the world since the autumn of last year. However, chancellor John Major denies that Britain is on the verge of a recession.
26 September – Margaret Thatcher joins in with the politicians who are denying that the British economy is slumping into recession, despite manufacturers reporting their biggest drop in output since 1982, as well as a growing number of bankruptcies.
October
2 October – Neil Kinnock cites education and training as key areas needing an improvement in standards when he addresses his party's conference in Blackpool.
8 October
Pound sterling joins the European Exchange Rate Mechanism.
First members of the Women's Royal Naval Service to serve officially on an operational warship board Type 22 frigate HMS Brilliant.
18 October – Eastbourne by-election in East Sussex takes place. David Bellotti of the Liberal Democrats wins the "safe" Eastbourne Conservative seat. The by-election results from the murder of Ian Gow by the IRA.
23 October
Treasury officials state that a "brief, technical" recession in the British economy is now inevitable.
Edward Heath, the former British prime minister, leaves Baghdad on a plane bound for Heathrow Airport with 33 freed hostages. Saddam Hussein has promised to release a further 30 hostages in the near future.
27 October – Economists predict that the current economic downturn will be confined to the second half of this year.
29 October – Premiere of the BBC One comedy Keeping Up Appearances, which stars Patricia Routledge, Clive Swift and Geoffrey Hughes.
November
November
Government produces Planning Policy Guidance 16: Archaeology and Planning to advise local authorities on the treatment of archaeology within the planning process. Site developers are required to contract with archaeological teams to have sites investigated in advance of development.
Neil Kinnock, who has been leader of the Labour Party since October 1983, is now the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
1 November
Geoffrey Howe, Deputy Prime Minister, resigns over the government's European policy.
Broadcasting Act makes bidding for independent television franchises more commercially based and relaxes regulation of television and radio broadcasting.
Courts and Legal Services Act introduces major reforms of the legal profession and Courts of England and Wales.
Employment Act prohibits the closed shop and solidarity action in industrial disputes.
2 November
Neil Kinnock announces his support for the adoption of a single European currency.
British Sky Broadcasting (BSkyB) founded as a merger between Sky Television and British Satellite Broadcasting.
8 November – The second Bootle by-election of the year sees Labour hold onto the seat once more with new MP Joe Benton gaining nearly 80% of the votes.
12 November – The Football Association deducts Arsenal two points and Manchester United one point and fines both clubs £50,000 for a mass player brawl in a Football League match between the two clubs last month in a league match at Old Trafford.
13 November – Geoffrey Howe makes a dramatic resignation speech in the House of Commons, attacking the Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher's hostility towards the EC.
14 November
The CBI confirms that the whole of Britain is now in recession, with every region now reporting a fall in output.
Former cabinet minister Michael Heseltine announces that he will challenge Margaret Thatcher's leadership.
15 November – Despite constant disputes in the government and widespread doubt over Thatcher's position as prime minister and party leader, combined with recent by-election defeats and anger over the poll tax, the Conservatives have cut Labour's lead in the opinion polls to four points as they gain 41% of the vote in the latest MORI poll.
19 November – Major job cuts are reported to be on the way at the Rover Group, Britain's largest independent carmaker.
20 November – Margaret Thatcher fails to win outright victory in a leadership contest for the Conservative Party.
22 November – Margaret Thatcher announces her resignation as Leader of the Conservative Party and therefore as Prime Minister, having led the government for more than 11 years and the Conservative Party for over 15 years. She is the longest serving prime minister of the 20th century.
23 November – The best-selling children's author Roald Dahl dies of cancer aged 74 in Oxford.
26 November – Plastic surgeons Michael Masser and Kenneth Paton are murdered in Wakefield, West Yorkshire.
27 November – John Major is elected leader of the Conservative Party and becomes Britain's new Prime Minister, defeating Douglas Hurd and Michael Heseltine. At 47, Major will be the youngest British Prime Minister of the 20th century until 1997. He is to be officially appointed Prime Minister tomorrow at Buckingham Palace.
28 November – John Major is officially appointed Prime Minister by the Queen, as Margaret Thatcher officially tenders her resignation after leaving 10 Downing Street for the last time.
December
1 December
Channel Tunnel workers from the United Kingdom and France meet 40 metres beneath the English Channel seabed, establishing the first land connection between the United Kingdom and the mainland of Europe for around 8,000 years.
The CBI predicts that the recession will last longer than predicted, and that GDP is likely to fall by at least 1% in 1991.
3 December – The mother of Gail Kinchin is awarded £8,000 in High Court, a decade after her pregnant 16-year-old daughter was killed by a police marksman who intervened with a siege at the Birmingham flat where she was being held hostage by her boyfriend.
6 December
Saddam Hussein announces that all British hostages in Iraq are to be released.
House price inflation has returned and stands at 0.2% for November, the first year-on-year rise in house prices since February.
8 December –
The UK grinds to a halt following heavy snow overnight. Large parts of the country are without power after snowfall brings down power lines, disrupting the electricity supply. Many rural areas are cut off for several days, while the Army is called out to help restore power.
There is grim news for the retail industry as a CBI survey reports that retail sales have hit a standstill and High Street employment will fall.
11 December
The first British hostages from Iraq released by Saddam Hussein arrive back in the UK.
The government makes £42 million compensation available to the 1,200 British haemophiliacs infected with the AIDS virus through blood transfusions.
12 December – The new chancellor Norman Lamont rules out an early cut in interest rates which critics, including opposition MP's, claim would be a quick route out of recession.
13 December
Russell Bishop is sentenced to life imprisonment for the abduction, indecent assault and attempted murder of a seven-year-old girl in Brighton in February this year. He was cleared of the murder of two young girls in Brighton four years ago but will be convicted for that crime in 2018.
Poundland, a supermarket chain selling all items for £1, opens its first store at Burton-upon-Trent, Staffordshire.
Netto, a Danish discount food supermarket chain, launches its first UK store in Leeds.
The sharpest rise in unemployment since 1981 has taken it to more than 1,700,000, with 155,000 jobs having been lost in Britain since April. Economists blame high interest rates; a government method to combat inflation.
19 December – Tony Adams, the Arsenal captain and England defender, is sentenced to four months in prison for a drink-driving offence committed near his home in Southend-on-Sea on 6 May this year. He is also fined £500 and banned from driving for two years.
20 December
British women Karyn Smith (aged 19) and Patricia Cahill (aged 20) receive 25-year prison sentences in Thailand for heroin smuggling after being arrested in Bangkok five months ago. Their lawyers are planning to ask for a Royal pardon.
An era ends in the Rhondda, South Wales, when the last coalmine closes after more than 100 years of heavy coalmining in the region. 300 miners have lost their jobs and just seventeen will remain employed in the industry elsewhere in the valley.
23 December – The nine-month-old daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York is christened Eugenie Victoria Helena.
25 December – Storms on Christmas Day leave more than 100,000 British homes without power.
26 December – The fatwa (order to kill) against Satanic Verses author Salman Rushdie is upheld by Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, more than one year after it was first issued. Rushdie is still living in hiding.
27 December – The latest MORI poll shows that Conservative support has been boosted by the appointment of John Major, with his party now just four points behind Labour – eight months after Labour had peaked with a 23-point lead.
29 December – Leading economists warn that the recession creeping upon Britain will deepen during 1991 and unemployment is likely to increase to well over 2,000,000 from the current total of over 1,700,000.
30 December – An opinion poll shows Labour slightly ahead of the Conservatives for the first time since John Major became Prime Minister.
31 December – 89-year-old romantic novelist Barbara Cartland becomes a Dame in the New Year's Honours.
Undated
Inflation reached 9.5% for the first time since 1981.
Publications
Iain M. Banks' novel Use of Weapons.
Louis de Bernières' novel The War of Don Emmanuel's Nether Parts.
A. S. Byatt's novel Possession: A Romance.
Elizabeth Jane Howard's novel The Light Years, first of the Cazalet series.
Hanif Kureishi's novel The Buddha of Suburbia.
Ian McEwan's novel The Innocent.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Eric and Moving Pictures and The Bromeliad novels Diggers and Wings.
Terry Pratchett and Neil Gaiman's novel Good Omens.
Births
9 January – Jonathan Gullis, politician
11 January – Mark Wood, cricketer
14 January – Oli London, internet troll
15 January – Paul Blake, English sprinter
1 February
Dan Gosling, English footballer
Laura Marling, English folk-pop singer-songwriter
6 February – Dominic Sherwood, English actor and model
8 February
Jonathan Page, English footballer
Emily Scarratt, English rugby union player
13 February – Olivia Allison, swimmer
17 February – Alex Banfield, operatic tenor
19 February – Luke Pasqualino, actor
20 February – Anjli Mohindra, actress
28 February – Georgina Leonidas, actress
1 March – James Lomas, actor
2 March – Cadet, English rapper (d. 2019)
5 March – Danny Drinkwater, English footballer
10 March - Olivia Blake, Labour politician
19 March – Maddy Hill, actress
23 March – Princess Eugenie of York, daughter of The Duke and Duchess of York
28 March – Zoe Sugg, YouTuber and vlogger
10 April
Ben Amos, English footballer
Alex Pettyfer, actor
20 April – Abby Mavers, English actress
21 April – Chris Broad, YouTuber
23 April – Dev Patel, actor
27 April – Martin Kelly, footballer
6 May – Craig Dawson, footballer
16 May – Thomas Sangster, actor
20 May – Josh O'Connor, actor
28 May – Kyle Walker, footballer
31 May – Chris Dobey, darts player
2 June – Jack Lowden, actor
9 June – Lauren Socha, actress
13 June – Aaron Taylor-Johnson, actor
16 June – John Newman, singer
17 June
Jordan Henderson, footballer
Laura Wright, singer
5 July – Nikki Patel, actress
7 July – Joe Marler, English rugby union player
15 July – Olly Alexander, actor and singer
21 July – Chris Martin, footballer
24 July
Jay McGuiness, English pop singer
Dean Stoneman, English racing driver
29 July – Joey Essex, reality TV personality
30 July – Chris Maxwell, Welsh footballer
3 August
James Baxter, actor
Jourdan Dunn, model
10 August – Tai Woffinden, speedway rider
13 August – Jamal Edwards, music entrepreneur (d. 2022)
27 August – Madison Welch, glamour model
14 September – Alex and Sam Lowes, twin brother motorcycle racers
18 September – Michael Smith, darts world champion
21 September – Rob Cross, darts player
27 September – Lola Kirke, English-born American actress and singer
1 October – Charlie McDonnell, YouTube personality
8 October – Karl Darlow, English footballer
12 October – Henri Lansbury, English footballer
18 October – Danny Mayor, English footballer
20 October – Jamie George, English rugby union player
14 November – Josh Warrington, boxer
26 November – Danny Welbeck, footballer
28 November – Holly Hale, model
10 December – Bryony Page, trampolinist
13 December − Joseph Garrett, YouTuber, gamer, author, actor, voice actor, and stop-motion animator
17 December – John Rooney, footballer
20 December – Bugzy Malone, English grime rapper
26 December
Heather Knight, cricketer
Aaron Ramsey, footballer
30 December – Joe Root, cricketer
Deaths
January
2 January – Reginald Paget, Baron Paget of Northampton, lawyer and politician (born 1908)
3 January – William Wells, lawyer and politician (born 1908)
4 January – Lydia Bilbrook, actress (born 1888)
6 January – Ian Charleson, actor (born 1949)
7 January
Gerald Gardiner, Baron Gardiner, Lord Chancellor (1964–1970) (born 1900)
Edwin McAlpine, Baron McAlpine of Moffat, construction magnate (born 1907)
8 January – Terry-Thomas, actor (born 1911)
9 January – Sir Roger Bower, Army lieutenant-general (born 1903)
14 January
Rosalind Pitt-Rivers, biochemist (born 1907)
John Witty, actor (born 1915)
15 January – Gordon Jackson, actor (born 1923)
16 January – Ruskin Spear, artist (born 1911)
17 January – Simon Nicholson, artist (born 1934)
18 January
Melanie Appleby, singer (born 1966)
Elke Mackenzie, explorer and botanist (born 1911)
19 January – Alberto Semprini, pianist (born 1908)
20 January – Robert Donington, musicologist (born 1907)
22 January – Bill Ferrar, mathematician (born 1893)
23 January – Derek Royle, actor (born 1928)
24 January – John Blacking, anthropologist (born 1928)
26 January – Bob Gerard, racing driver (born 1914)
27 January – Pit Corder, linguist (born 1918)
28 January – F. W. Winterbotham, RAF officer and World War II spy (born 1897)
February
1 February – Peter Racine Fricker, composer (born 1920)
2 February – Kathleen Hamilton, Duchess of Abercorn, Mistress of the Robes to Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother (born 1905)
6 February – John Merivale, actor (born 1917, Canada)
8 February
Rhys Adrian, playwright and screenwriter (born 1928)
Charles Maclean, Baron Maclean, Lord Chamberlain to the Queen (1971–1984) (born 1916)
Sir Ernest Titterton, nuclear physicist (born 1916)
10 February – Sir John Arthur Pilcher, diplomat (born 1912)
11 February – Colin Henderson Roberts, classical scholar (born 1909)
12 February – Harold McCusker, Ulster Unionist Member of Parliament (born 1940)
15 February – Norman Parkinson, photographer (born 1913)
16 February – J. C. Trewin, journalist (born 1908)
18 February
Margaret Craske, ballet dancer and choreographer (born 1892)
Joe Erskine, boxer (born 1934)
19 February
Laura Spencer-Churchill, Duchess of Marlborough, socialite (born 1915)
Michael Powell, filmmaker (born 1905)
25 February – Henry Fairlie, political journalist (born 1924)
26 February – Sir Julian Gascoigne, Army major-general (born 1903)
28 February
Fabia Drake, actress (born 1905)
Colin Milburn, English cricketer (born 1941)
Greville Wynne, engineer and businessman (born 1919)
March
2 March – Arthur Fleischmann, sculptor (born 1896, Austria-Hungary)
5 March – Timothy Mason, Marxist historian of Nazi Germany (born 1940); suicide in Italy
7 March – Ruth Glass, sociologist and urban planner (born 1912, German Empire)
8 March – Jack Lindsay, writer (born 1900, Australia)
10 March
Michael Stewart, Baron Stewart of Fulham, politician (born 1906)
Lance Tingay, tennis journalist (born 1915)
11 March – Dean Horrix, English footballer (born 1961); car accident
12 March
Wallace Breem, author (born 1926)
Jane Grigson, cookery writer (born 1928)
Rosamond Lehmann, novelist and translator (born 1901)
Harry South, jazz pianist and composer (born 1929)
13 March – Hugh Cholmondeley, 6th Marquess of Cholmondeley, peer and Lord Great Chamberlain (born 1919)
14 March – Aubrey Wisberg, filmmaker (born 1909)
15 March – Farzad Bazoft, journalist (born 1958, Iran); executed in Iran
17 March – Ric Grech, rock musician (born 1945)
18 March – Eileen Soper, artist (born 1905)
20 March
Sir Kenneth Mather, geneticist (born 1911)
Victor Rothschild, 3rd Baron Rothschild, banker, intelligence officer and zoologist (born 1910)
21 March – Allan Roberts, Labour Member of Parliament (born 1943)
22 March – Geoffrey Ostergaard, political scientist (born 1926)
23 March – John Dexter, theatre director (born 1925)
27 March – Sir Alfred Earle, RAF air marshal (born 1907)
April
2 April
Vanda Godsell, actress (born 1922)
Peter Jones, radio broadcaster (born 1930)
6 April
James MacNabb, Olympic rower (1924) (born 1901)
Peter Doherty, Northern Irish footballer (born 1913)
10 April – Sir Hugh Trefusis Brassey, Army colonel and magistrate (born 1915)
12 April – Sir Geoffrey Harrison, diplomat (born 1908)
15 April – Jock Bruce-Gardyne, politician (born 1930)
20 April
N. H. Gibbs, academic (born 1910)
Alex McCrindle, actor (born 1911)
George Reindorp, former Bishop of Salisbury (born 1911)
21 April – R. B. Braithwaite, philosopher and theologian (born 1900)
22 April – Rosalind Moss, Egyptologist (born 1890)
23 April – Charlie Wilson, criminal (Great Train Robbery) (born 1932); murdered in Spain
28 April – Peter Fuller, art critic (born 1947); car accident
30 April – Ken Chisholm, Scottish footballer (born 1925)
May
2 May
Ann Casson, actress (born 1915)
David Rappaport, actor (born 1951); suicide
4 May – John Ormond, poet and filmmaker (born 1923)
5 May – Sir Reginald Goodall, orchestral conductor (born 1901)
7 May – Ann Bishop, biologist (born 1899)
8 May – Tomás Ó Fiaich, cardinal (born 1923)
9 May – George Kennedy Young, politician and merchant banker (born 1911)
15 May – Peter Grimwade, television director and screenwriter (born 1942)
18 May
Jill Ireland, actress and singer (born 1936)
Lorna Johnstone, equestrian (born 1902)
21 May
Mrs Victor Bruce (Mary Petre), racing driver (born 1895)
Max Wall, comedian and actor (born 1908)
22 May
Pat Reid, Army officer and historian (born 1910)
Leslie Spriggs, politician (born 1910)
24 May – John Kendall-Carpenter, English rugby union player (born 1925)
27 May – Jessie MacWilliams, mathematician (born 1917)
28 May – Ralph Bagnold, geologist (born 1896)
30 May – Charles Morris, Baron Morris of Grasmere, philosopher (born 1898)
June
1 June – Eric Barker, comedy actor (born 1912)
2 June – Sir Rex Harrison, actor (born 1908)
3 June
Robert Edwards, politician (born 1905)
Ivor Raymonde, musician (born 1926)
6 June
Albert Alderman, cricketer and footballer (born 1907)
Joe Loss, bandleader (born 1909)
7 June – Sir Robert Perceval Armitage, colonial administrator (born 1906)
9 June
James Carreras, film producer (born 1909)
Eric Fletcher, Baron Fletcher, politician (born 1903)
Angus McBean, photographer (born 1904)
12 June – Terence O'Neill, politician, Prime Minister of Northern Ireland (1963–1969) (born 1914)
13 June
Antony Andrewes, historian (born 1910)
Thomas Ponsonby, 3rd Baron Ponsonby of Shulbrede, peer and politician (born 1930)
15 June
Raymond Huntley, actor (born 1904)
Leonard Sachs, actor (born 1909, South Africa)
16 June
Thomas Cowling, astronomer (born 1906)
Dame Eva Turner, opera singer (born 1892)
17 June – Ronald F. Tylecote, archaeologist (born 1916)
20 June – Sir Tom Hopkinson, journalist (born 1905)
21 June – Cedric Belfrage, journalist (born 1904)
22 June – Elizabeth Harwood, opera singer (born 1938)
23 June – Frank Gatliff, actor (born 1927, Australia)
24 June – Sean Hughes, Labour Member of Parliament (born 1946)
26 June – Sidney Smith, snooker player (born 1908)
30 June
Lynne Carol, actress (born 1914)
Brian Tiler, footballer, manager and director (born 1943); car accident in Italy
July
1 July
Anna Palk, actress (born 1941)
Eric M. Rogers, physicist (born 1902)
8 July – Malcolm Hilton, English cricketer (born 1928)
14 July – Philip Leacock, television and film director (born 1917)
15 July
Alison Leggatt, actress (born 1904)
Margaret Lockwood, actress (born 1915)
16 July – Sidney Torch, composer and conductor (born 1908); suicide
17 July – Wilf Grant, English footballer (born 1920)
20 July – Michael Carr, Labour Member of Parliament for 57 days (born 1947)
22 July – Ray Mawby, politician (born 1922)
24 July – Alan Clarke, filmmaker (born 1935)
27 July – Elizabeth Allan, actress (born 1910)
28 July
Maurice Braddell, actor and author (born 1900)
Jill Esmond, actress (born 1908)
30 July
Victor Cavendish-Bentinck, 9th Duke of Portland, peer and diplomat (born 1897)
Launcelot Fleming, Anglican bishop and polar explorer (born 1906)
Ian Gow, Conservative Member of Parliament (born 1937)
August
1 August
Michael Glenny, author and translator (born 1927)
Graham Young, convicted serial killer (born 1947)
2 August – Edwin Richfield, actor (born 1921)
5 August – Ivan Blatný, poet (born 1919, Czechoslovakia)
6 August – Pat Wall, politician (born 1933)
9 August – Joe Mercer, footballer and manager (born 1914)
12 August
Dorothy Mackaill, actress (born 1903)
Roy Williamson, songwriter (born 1936)
15 August – Billy Hume, Scottish footballer (born 1935)
17 August
Roderick Cook, actor and playwright (born 1932)
Graham Williams, television producer and screenwriter (born 1945); accidentally killed
20 August – Tim Barrett, actor (born 1929)
24 August – Francis Hastings, 16th Earl of Huntingdon, peer, artist and politician (born 1901)
25 August – David Hampshire, racing driver (born 1917)
26 August – Sir Peter Agnew, 1st Baronet, Royal Navy commander and politician (born 1900)
31 August – Bert Assirati, wrestler (born 1908)
September
2 September – John Bowlby, psychologist (born 1907)
3 September – Elizabeth Douglas-Home, Baroness Home of the Hirsel, socialite and wife of Alec Douglas-Home (born 1909)
5 September
Allen Adams, politician (born 1946)
Hugh Foot, Baron Caradon, colonial administrator (born 1907)
Jack Hildyard, cinematographer (born 1908)
Graham Hough, literary critic (born 1908)
6 September – Len Hutton, cricketer (born 1916)
7 September – A. J. P. Taylor, historian (born 1906)
8 September
Kathleen Gough, anthropologist (born 1925)
Denys Watkins-Pitchford, writer (born 1905)
9 September – Molly Adair, actress (born 1905)
11 September – F. F. Bruce, biblical scholar (born 1910)
12 September – Athene Seyler, actress (born 1889)
16 September – Harold Palin, English rugby league player (born 1916)
18 September
Richard Eric Holttum, botanist (born 1895)
Walter Thompson Welford, physicist (born 1916)
22 September – Michael Swann, Baron Swann, biologist (born 1920)
27 September – John Aldam Aizlewood, Army major-general (born 1895)
28 September – Dan Davin, author (born 1913, New Zealand)
30 September – W. F. R. Hardie, philosopher (born 1902)
October
1 October
John Stewart Bell, physicist, discoverer of Bell's theorem (born 1928)
Sir Edmund George Irving, Royal Navy admiral and hydrographer (born 1910)
4 October
Alyn Ainsworth, singer, composer and orchestral conductor (born 1924)
Jill Bennett, actress (born 1931)
Avis Bunnage, actress (born 1923)
Peter Taylor, English footballer and manager (born 1928)
8 October – B. J. Wilson, rock drummer (born 1947)
9 October – Richard Murdoch, actor (born 1907)
10 October – Kenneth Cross, paediatrician and physiologist (born 1916)
12 October – Bridget Bate Tichenor, Surrealist painter (born 1917)
15 October – Gwen Nelson, actress (born 1901)
16 October – Roger Powell, bookbinder (born 1896)
18 October – Sir Ben Lockspeiser, scientific administrator (born 1891)
20 October – Freda Jackson, actress (born 1907)
21 October – Jo Ann Kelly, blues singer and guitarist (born 1944)
23 October
Norman Buchan, politician (born 1922)
Berthold Lubetkin, architect (born 1901, Russian Empire)
29 October – Emrys Roberts, politician (born 1910)
31 October – Harold Caccia, Baron Caccia, diplomat (born 1905, India)
November
3 November
Valerie French, actress (born 1928)
George Gale, journalist (born 1927)
4 November – Sir David Stirling, Army lieutenant-colonel and founder of the SAS (born 1915)
5 November – Erich Heller, essayist (born 1911, Austria-Hungary)
6 November – Rodrigo Moynihan, painter (born 1910)
7 November
Lawrence Durrell, writer (born 1912)
Josephine Wilson, Baroness Miles, actress and wife of Bernard Miles, Baron Miles (born 1904)
10 November – Tommy Sale, English footballer (born 1910)
13 November
Don Chaffey, film director (born 1913)
Rowland Emett, kinetic sculptor (born 1906)
Richard Lewis, operatic tenor (born 1914)
14 November – Malcolm Muggeridge, journalist, author and media personality (born 1903)
16 November – Jill Day, singer and actress (born 1930)
18 November
Fred Daly, Northern Irish golfer (born 1911)
Beatrice Shilling, aeronautical engineer (born 1903)
21 November – Vernon Ellis Cosslett, microscopist (born 1908)
22 November – Jack Petersen, boxer (born 1911)
23 November – Roald Dahl, author (born 1916)
24 November – Dodie Smith, novelist and playwright (born 1896)
26 November – Edward Pearce, Baron Pearce, judge (born 1901)
December
7 December – Oscar Millard, screenwriter (born 1908)
11 December – David Turner, playwright (born 1927)
12 December
Jack Harley, botanist (born 1911)
Sir Ian Trethowan, journalist and broadcaster (born 1922)
15 December – Frederic Seebohm, Baron Seebohm, banker and social work innovator (born 1909); road accident
18 December – Arthur Roy Clapham, botanist (born 1904)
19 December
Basil Henson, actor (born 1918)
Michael Oakeshott, philosopher (born 1901)
20 December
Andrea Dunbar, playwright (born 1961)
John Hewetson, newspaper editor (born 1913)
22 December – Robin Friday, English footballer (born 1952)
24 December
Judith Ledeboer, architect (born 1901, the Netherlands)
Gwyn Williams, writer (born 1904)
25 December – Dodo Watts, actress (born 1910)
29 December – David Piper, curator and novelist (born 1918)
31 December – Donald Kingaby, World War II air ace (born 1920)
See also
1990 in British music
1990 in British television
List of British films of 1990
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20CW%20Plus
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The CW Plus
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The CW Plus is a secondary national broadcast television syndication service feed of The CW (which is 75% owned by Nexstar Media Group, with Paramount Global and Warner Bros. Discovery each owning 12.5%). It is intended primarily for American television markets ranked #100 and above by Nielsen Media Research estimates. The service is primarily carried on digital subchannels and multichannel subscription television providers, although it maintains primary affiliations on full-power and low-power stations in certain markets.
Along with airing the network's prime time, Saturday morning and Live Sports programming, The CW Plus offers a master schedule of first-run, off-network and brokered programs available for syndication distribution that are acquired by The CW to occupy the remainder of the feed's weekly schedule. The CW handles programming and promotional services for The CW Plus at its corporate headquarters in Burbank, California (marketing services were handled through a separate division for the service until March 2008, when these operations were transferred to The CW's marketing department due to layoffs); centralcasting operations for the CW Plus affiliates are hubbed at the California Video Center in Los Angeles.
History
Background (The WB 100+ Station Group)
The CW Plus traces its existence to The WB 100+ Station Group (initially known as The WeB until March 1999), a similar national feed of CW co-predecessor, The WB, which began operations on September 21, 1998. Conceived under the same concept as Foxnet (developed by WB network co-founder and original president Jamie Kellner during his preceding tenure as the original president of the Fox network), The WB 100+ was designed to distribute WB programming to small- and select medium-sized "white area" markets, primarily Designated Market Areas (DMA) ranked #100 and higher under annual Nielsen Market Universe estimates, that had five or fewer commercial television stations licensed within the designated market area through local cable providers (which owned affiliates of the feed individually or in consortiums, often entering into agreements with a local broadcast station to handle advertising and other management services for the WB 100+ outlet), or stations The WB refused to make affiliation offers to due to overall low broadcasting quality standards or giving a priority to another network.
By its design, the initial cable-only composition of The WB 100+ Station Group’s affiliate body acted as a workaround to issues that The WB had encountered since its December 1993 founding with securing broadcast affiliates; these difficulties resulted in The WB having to rely on the national superstation feed of Chicago affiliate WGN-TV (later WGN America, relaunched as NewsNation in March 2021) to distribute its programming to markets without existing over-the-air WB affiliates. (In certain “white area” markets, the only option for over-the-air carriage was to maintain a secondary affiliation with an existing network outlet, subjecting WB programs to being aired via tape delay outside of key timeslots.) Beginning in 2002, The WB 100+ added conventional broadcast affiliations in the few eligible markets that had at least five commercial stations; the feed continued to operate until The WB ended operations on September 17, 2006.
Development and concept
On February 24, 2006, one month after CBS Corporation (later ViacomCBS, now Paramount Global) and Time Warner (later WarnerMedia, now Warner Bros. Discovery) announced the launch of the new network, The CW formally released a proposal to prospective affiliates announcing the creation of The CW Plus, a similar single-network feed for smaller markets – covering the same areas that were served by The WB 100+. While there was no guarantee that existing affiliates of The WB 100+ would automatically join The CW Plus, most of them (particularly cable-only affiliates) ultimately did join the new service, and programming transitioned seamlessly from The WB 100+ to The CW Plus.
Since The WB 100+ was created before digital television was easily available in the United States, most WB 100+ stations were distributed exclusively via local cable television providers, with a few main channel affiliations on broadcast television stations. With its launch, The CW (along with MyNetworkTV) became among the first conventional broadcast networks in the U.S. to fully utilize digital multicasting to gain over-the-air coverage in markets that did not have enough television stations to maintain a traditional main channel affiliation (Fox, The WB and fellow CW predecessor UPN had a few subchannel-only affiliates shortly before The CW launched; however, over-the-air distribution in this manner was very limited at the time).
In several markets served by a CW Plus station, the current affiliate may not be the same as the prior WB 100+ affiliate. Many local CW Plus outlets located in markets where the predecessor WB 100+ affiliate was cable-exclusive are instead carried on a digital subchannel of a local broadcast station, usually an affiliate of a competing "Big Four" network (ABC, NBC, CBS or Fox). This distribution method resulted in an unusual quirk for The CW itself in Florence–Myrtle Beach, South Carolina, in which WWMB programmed its main channel as a conventional CW outlet (airing the network’s base schedule, accompanied by syndicated and paid programs that were acquired and slotted by the station) while simultaneously offering the CW Plus feed (a byproduct of former WWMB owner SagamoreHill Broadcasting inheriting the assets of cable-only WB 100+ affiliate "WFWB”) over its DT2 subchannel. (WWMB’s main CW affiliation moved to the DT2 subchannel of ABC-affiliated sister WPDE-TV on September 20, 2021, with Dabl replacing CW network and syndicated programs previously shown on its main channel and TBD replacing The CW Plus on WWMB-DT2.) Certain cable-only affiliates of The WB 100+ have been replaced completely by either a subchannel or main channel broadcast affiliation when The CW launched or joined The CW Plus only for a broadcast station that managed or acquired it to begin carrying it over-the-air at some point after its launch.
As with The WB 100+, CW Plus programming is delivered through a data server network that originally digitally transmitted locally and national advertisements, promos, station identifications and customized logo bugs for each individual affiliate to headends within the master control facilities of a local station or the offices of the multichannel television provider operating the local affiliate. That was the case with The WB 100+, promotions for syndicated programs aired on The CW Plus omit affiliate references – either in the form of verbal identification or use of the affiliate's logo – in favor of network branding; the timeslot cards also only list airtimes based on Eastern and Central Time Zone scheduling, with the announcer being used to read the promo's airtime card only identifying that the program airs "[today/tonight/day of week] on The CW."
Programming is relayed to a wireless PC-based system that downloads (through a data feed distributed via satellite), stores and inserts advertising during program breaks controlled via a playlist over the satellite-delivered national feed to the individual affiliate's home market; the units also transfer program feeds via address headers disseminated to each affiliate based on their call letters, transmit advertisements and program promotions, and generate a log of ads that have previously aired. The cost of these units is partially reimbursed by The CW, with no more than 50% of the purchase cost paid by the affiliate. Affiliates sent log files of local advertisements over the Internet to a traffic management system located at The CW's corporate offices in Burbank, which handles trafficking, dissemination of the program feed and specified local insertion of advertisements and promotions to each affiliate. After The CW stopped providing support for the traffic system and commercial server in September 2009, responsibility for ad trafficking and insertion was transferred to The CW Plus' individual affiliates, although The CW continues to handle programming and transmission operations.
CW Plus stations are generally managed and promoted by a local affiliate of a larger over-the-air television station, which may produce some local programming (such as morning and/or prime time newscasts), telecasts of local sports events, or syndicated national sports broadcasts from either ESPN Regional Television or the ACC Network (or on some affiliates, from 2014 to 2016, the American Sports Network); some affiliates, however, are operated by a local cable provider.
CW Plus affiliates each have their own local branding, which is usually a combination of the CW name with either the parent station/cable franchise's city of license or a regional descriptor of the area (such as "Northland" for Duluth and northeastern Minnesota, as seen in the logo to the above left). Unlike its predecessor, The WB 100+ Station Group, The CW Plus does not use call signs used solely for branding and/or supplementary identification purposes in a widespread fashion; while many cable-only WB 100+-turned-CW Plus affiliates have stopped using fictional call signs (which were not assigned by the Federal Communications Commission, as the agency does not issue licenses to cable channels), a few have continued to use the ones they had used while part of The WB 100+ Station Group, mainly doing so merely for identification purposes in local Nielsen diary-tabulated ratings reports.
The CW Plus originally maintained a separate website featuring promotions for CW network programs, search maps for CW Plus affiliates, programming schedules customizable to an affiliate's local time zone, and still promotional ads for CW network shows and syndicated programs are seen on the CW Plus feed. In May 2014, YourCWTV.com was discontinued as a standalone website, redirecting to The CW's main website at CWTV.com. However, the websites of all CW Plus affiliates continue to be hosted on the YourCWTV.com domain, featuring much of the aforementioned content seen on the national website; as well as links to websites and social media pages operated by the affiliate or a parent over-the-air station, and links to the affiliate's contact information, advertising services and (where applicable) the main website of a parent broadcast affiliate. A separate website for the service was reinstated in September 2017, under the CWPlusTV.com domain.
On January 5, 2022, The Wall Street Journal reported that Paramount Global (at the time ViacomCBS) and WarnerMedia (who was splitting off from AT&T and merging with Discovery, Inc.) were exploring a possible sale of either a majority stake or all of The CW, and that Nexstar Media Group (which became The CW's largest affiliate group when it acquired former WB co-owner Tribune Broadcasting in 2019) was considered a leading bidder. Network president/CEO Mark Pedowitz confirmed talks of a potential sale in a memo to CW staffers, but added that "It's too early to speculate what might happen" and that the network "must continue to do what we do best". Nexstar CEO Perry Sook, for his company's part, hinted only that "I wouldn’t be surprised if we owned a broadcast network" and other cable networks that could "layer on top of our local content foundation" (Nexstar's network properties include the NewsNation cable network and broadcast diginets Antenna TV and Rewind TV). In late June 2022, the WSJ indicated a purchase of The CW by Nexstar was close, with the company acquiring a 75% majority, while the remaining 25% would be shared equally by Paramount and Warner Bros. Discovery. Nexstar confirmed the deal on August 15; on the same day, it took over The CW's operations as the sale did not need any regulatory approval. Nexstar intended to make The CW profitable by 2025 by broadening the network's appeal - including sitcoms, older-targeting dramas, and procedurals in the lineup - and seeking cost-conscious programming, such as unscripted and syndicated programming. The CW Plus was included in the deal, which was closed on October 3.
Programming
The CW Plus operates three separate feeds for the Eastern/Central, Mountain and Pacific Time Zones (the latter also acts as an hour-behind timeshift feed for the Alaska Time Zone with timeslot modifications for network daytime and certain syndicated weekend programs), and designs the master schedules of each feed so that The CW's broadcast affiliate feed aligns with the regional start time of the network's prime time programming slot; as such, the One Magnificent Morning educational block – which is designed to be tape-delayed – airs one hour early, compared to its preferred scheduling, on affiliates in the Central and Alaska time zones. (The CW Daytime, which was also designed to be tape-delayed, had followed this scheduling as well until the block was discontinued on September 3, 2021, as a trade-off to the network's affiliates tied to its October 2 expansion of prime time programming to Saturdays.) Syndicated programs broadcast on The CW Plus during non-network programming hours include Maury, The Steve Wilkos Show, Nick Cannon, Black-ish, Family Guy, The Goldbergs, MacGyver, American Ninja Warrior, Schitt’s Creek, Bob's Burgers and Judge Jerry.
Like the predecessor WB 100+ Station Group, The CW Plus utilizes a dual programming structure differing from the traditional American broadcast programming model used by CW-affiliated stations in all but a couple of the Nielsen-ranked "top 100" television markets. To fill dayparts on The CW Plus not reserved to the main network feed, The CW – asserting programming acquisition duties traditionally handled by the local affiliate operator – purchases cash- and barter-sold programs distributed for first-run and off-network syndication to occupy most daytime and evening timeslots throughout the week, syndicated feature film packages to occupy afternoon and late access timeslots on Saturdays and Sundays, and paid programming purchased through time-buys with direct response infomercial production firms and teleministries to occupy overnight and some early afternoon timeslots. The network's handling of these duties, along with the master schedule composition of the CW Plus feed, relieves the local affiliate's operator from needing to acquire and budget for syndicated programming to fill timeslots not occupied by The CW's base network schedule. Individual CW Plus affiliate operators handle advertising sales for local commercials inserted into the corresponding feed during designated ad breaks within network and syndicated programs aired on the service.
Prior to the debut of the Litton Entertainment-produced One Magnificent Morning block on the network in October 2014, the remaining two hours of programming that fulfill FCC educational programming guidelines which were not covered by The CW's predecessor children's program blocks – Kids' WB, The CW4Kids/Toonzai and Vortexx – was also taken care of by The CW Plus. However even after the debut of One Magnificent Morning, The CW Plus continued to offer syndicated educational programs on Saturday early afternoons immediately after the conclusion of the block, resulting the feed airing a net surplus of seven hours of E/I programming each week (five hours provided by The CW, and two hours supplied by The CW Plus) that far exceeded the FCC’s minimum three-hour requirement. The feed’s supplementary E/I content was reduced to just one half-hour in September 2015 (consisting solely of Elizabeth Stanton's Great Big World) and was concurrently shifted to a Saturday late-night timeslot; the supplementary syndication E/I window was eliminated in September 2016, leaving the shows aired within the One Magnificent Morning block as the only educational programming offered by the feed (which later reduced its runtime to three hours since 2017).
Operators of local CW Plus affiliates (whether a parent broadcast station or cable franchisee) can substitute syndicated programs on the feed’s schedule with alternative programming if the local syndication rights to a particular program on the CW Plus master schedule are held by the parent station’s main channel (if it is not already affiliated with The CW Plus), by any additional subchannels offered by the parent station or by a competing station within the DMA. Optionally, CW Plus broadcast affiliates may offer programming from a multicast-originated network (such as MeTV, This TV or Antenna TV) on a part-time basis during the feed’s designated paid programming time, particularly if the network being sourced lacks an existing full-time affiliate within the DMA. (Monroe, Louisiana affiliate KCWL-LD – the only CW Plus affiliate to maintain a secondary affiliation with that service – has carried CW competitor MyNetworkTV in the subfeed’s late-night paid programming slot since 2017, as late-night slotting increasingly became a common fate for MyNetworkTV in the years since its 2009 conversion from a television network to a programming service.)
The CW Plus offers three designated "Live Local News Windows" – a weekday morning window from 7:00–8:00 a.m. in all time zones and half-hour evening windows scheduled, depending on the time zone, nightly at 10:00 (ET/PT) or 9:00 p.m. (CT/MT/AT) and weekend evenings at 6:00 (ET/PT) or 5:00 p.m. (CT/MT/AT) – as options for affiliates to air local newscasts (either produced by the parent station or a station co-managed with the local CW Plus outlet, or via a news share agreement with a competing network affiliate) at their discretion. Although The CW has never carried any national news programming of its own, The CW Plus had served as a national carrier of syndicated morning news/talk program The Daily Buzz, which aired on the feed from September 2006 until September 2014, eight months prior to the program's April 2015 cancellation. (The predecessor WB 100+ Station Group had originally acquired the national syndication rights for the program, which aired on that feed from September 2002 until its conversion into The CW Plus.)
Availability
, The CW Plus has current and pending affiliation agreements with 123 television outlets encompassing 44 states and the U.S. territories of Guam, Puerto Rico, and the United States Virgin Islands, consisting of 121 broadcast affiliates (109 of which serve as subchannel-only affiliates and the remaining 18 being primary channel affiliations) and five cable-only affiliates. Counting mainly over-the-air affiliates of the service, The CW Plus covers an estimated national audience reach of 73,120,898 U.S. residents or 23.40% of all households with at least one television set.
Availability of CW Plus stations through pay television services varies depending on the provider; while CW Plus outlets are usually carried by major cable, fiber optic and IPTV providers (including multiple-system and private cable operators) in markets served by a subchannel or cable-only affiliate of the service, some rural pay television franchises that do not carry a local CW Plus affiliate via an existing distribution agreement with a broadcast affiliate or through the absence of an agreement with the operator of a cable-only affiliate carry CW stations from adjacent larger markets.
In certain markets, satellite providers DirecTV and Dish Network carry stations that maintain primary affiliations with The CW Plus – and in some cases, also carry a subchannel-only affiliate of the service – as part of their local station tiers; however in areas served by a cable-only or subchannel affiliate, subscribers of both providers can only receive out-of-market broadcast affiliates and owned-and-operated stations of The CW (DirecTV carries affiliates from neighboring markets that have main channel affiliations with the network in some smaller markets, with the provider's West Coast network outlet KTLA in Los Angeles, which is available in lieu of a local or nearby affiliate in others; Dish Network provides CW programming to its subscribers in smaller markets through de facto network flagship WPIX—New York City, O&Os WDCW—Washington, D.C., KTLA—Los Angeles and KWGN-TV—Denver, and E. W. Scripps Company-owned affiliate WSFL-TV—Miami, (all of which were previously owned by Tribune Broadcasting until the closure of Nexstar's acquisition of its corporate parent, Tribune Media, in September 2019)), which are available as part of its a la carte superstation tier, which is no longer offered to new customers.
Since the conversion of the CW Plus feeds to a high definition schedule in June 2012, many of The CW Plus's stations have converted to carrying the high definition feed on an over-the-air signal, though it is usually transmitted in 720p rather than the network's 1080i master resolution due to technical considerations for their parent station's main network feed – except in the few markets where a CW Plus broadcast affiliate does not also have an affiliation with a major broadcast network – on their primary channel. Before that, the parent stations also carried the main CW signal in HD mixed with the CW Plus schedule to provide high definition programming from the network to local cable and satellite providers.
List of The CW Plus affiliates
Designated market area (DMA) rankings are based on Nielsen estimates for the 2022–23 television season.
N Call letters used by the Nielsen Company are the same as their FCC-licensed callsign or are used for a cable-only WB affiliate for identification and diary registration purposes.
++ This station is a CW+ owned-and-operated station since Nexstar acquired 75% of The CW on October 3, 2022.
1 These stations carry The CW Plus on a digital subchannel. In some of these cases, the channel listed is the actual digital channel (e.g. "13", not a virtual channel such as "27.2", for WKYT).
2 Cable channel already operational, but not yet broadcasting via a digital subchannel. See also note 1.
3 Local affiliate formerly operated as a cable-only channel.
4 Local affiliate formerly operated as the main channel affiliation.
5 KCWE is available over-the-air in the St. Joseph market, as are other local stations originating from Kansas City; KNPG-LD formerly operated as cable-only "WBJO" from its 1998 sign-on as part of The WB 100+ Station Group until News-Press & Gazette Company took over operational and advertising control of the channel and added it to KNPN's third digital subchannel in June 2012; it was then spun off into a separately licensed station as KBJO-LD owned by News-Press & Gazette in April 2014.
6 WWMB is the only CW Plus subchannel affiliate that also maintains a primary CW affiliation on its main channel, the latter of which maintains a separate schedule of syndicated programming outside of CW network programming hours.
Former affiliates
See also
The WB 100+ Station Group – a predecessor of The CW Plus; most of the remaining cable-only channels and some over-the-air stations that are outlets of The CW Plus formerly served as affiliates of The WB 100+ Station Group
CW-W – a standard definition-only feed of KTLA/Los Angeles for markets without a CW affiliate carried on DirecTV
CW-E – a standard definition-only feed of WDCW/Washington, D.C. for markets without a CW affiliate carried on DirecTV
WGN America – a general entertainment cable and satellite network in the United States, which originally served as the national superstation feed of former WB/CW affiliate WGN-TV/Chicago; it served as a de facto affiliate of CW predecessor The WB for U.S. markets without an over-the-air affiliate from January 1995 to October 1999; it was relaunched as NewsNation in 2021
Foxnet – a similar cable-only network for markets without a Fox affiliate, that operated from 1991 to 2006
Univision – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
UniMás – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Telemundo – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Azteca América – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
Estrella TV – American Spanish-language network that offers a national cable/satellite feed for markets without a local affiliate
CTV 2 Alberta – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV 2 in the Canadian province of Alberta; formerly Access
CTV 2 Atlantic – a similar cable-only affiliate of CTV 2 in Atlantic Canada; formerly the Atlantic Satellite Network (ASN) and A Atlantic
Citytv Saskatchewan – a similar cable-only affiliate of Citytv in the Canadian province of Saskatchewan
Notes
References
External links
CWTV.com – Official website for The CW
CWTVLink.com (requires log-in information)
Plus
Television channels and stations established in 2006
Television networks in the United States
2006 establishments in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient%20coding%20hypothesis
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Efficient coding hypothesis
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The efficient coding hypothesis was proposed by Horace Barlow in 1961 as a theoretical model of sensory coding in the brain. Within the brain, neurons communicate with one another by sending electrical impulses referred to as action potentials or spikes. One goal of sensory neuroscience is to decipher the meaning of these spikes in order to understand how the brain represents and processes information about the outside world. Barlow hypothesized that the spikes in the sensory system formed a neural code for efficiently representing sensory information. By efficient Barlow meant that the code minimized the number of spikes needed to transmit a given signal. This is somewhat analogous to transmitting information across the internet, where different file formats can be used to transmit a given image. Different file formats require different number of bits for representing the same image at given distortion level, and some are better suited for representing certain classes of images than others. According to this model, the brain is thought to use a code which is suited for representing visual and audio information representative of an organism's natural environment .
Efficient coding and information theory
The development of the Barlow's hypothesis was influenced by information theory introduced by Claude Shannon only a decade before. Information theory provides the mathematical framework for analyzing communication systems. It formally defines concepts such as information, channel capacity, and redundancy. Barlow's model treats the sensory pathway as a communication channel where neuronal spiking is an efficient code for representing sensory signals. The spiking code aims to maximize available channel capacity by minimizing the redundancy between representational units. H. Barlow was not the very first one to introduce the idea: it already appears in a 1954 article written by F. Attneave.
A key prediction of the efficient coding hypothesis is that sensory processing in the brain should be adapted to natural stimuli. Neurons in the visual (or auditory) system should be optimized for coding images (or sounds) representative of those found in nature. Researchers have shown that filters optimized for coding natural images lead to filters which resemble the receptive fields of simple-cells in V1. In the auditory domain, optimizing a network for coding natural sounds leads to filters which resemble the impulse response of cochlear filters found in the inner ear.
Constraints on the visual system
Due to constraints on the visual system such as the number of neurons and the metabolic energy required for "neural activities", the visual processing system must have an efficient strategy for transmitting as much information as possible. Information must be compressed as it travels from the retina back to the visual cortex. While the retinal receptors can receive information at 10^9 bit/s, the optic nerve, which is composed of 1 million ganglion cells transmitting at 1 bit/sec, only has a transmission capacity of 10^6 bit/s. Further reduction occurs that limits the overall transmission to 40 bit/s which results in inattentional blindness. Thus, the hypothesis states that neurons should encode information as efficiently as possible in order to maximize neural resources. For example, it has been shown that visual data can be compressed up to 20 fold without noticeable information loss.
Evidence suggests that our visual processing system engages in bottom-up selection. For example, inattentional blindness suggests that there must be data deletion early on in the visual pathway. This bottom-up approach allows us to respond to unexpected and salient events more quickly and is often directed by attentional selection. This also gives our visual system the property of being goal-directed. Many have suggested that the visual system is able to work efficiently by breaking images down into distinct components. Additionally, it has been argued that the visual system takes advantage of redundancies in inputs in order to transmit as much information as possible while using the fewest resources.
Evolution-based neural system
Simoncelli and Olshausen outline the three major concepts that are assumed to be involved in the development of systems neuroscience:
an organism has specific tasks to perform
neurons have capabilities and limitations
an organism is in a particular environment.
One assumption used in testing the Efficient Coding Hypothesis is that neurons must be evolutionarily and developmentally adapted to the natural signals in their environment. The idea is that perceptual systems will be the quickest when responding to "environmental stimuli". The visual system should cut out any redundancies in the sensory input.
Natural images and statistics
Central to Barlow's hypothesis is information theory, which when applied to neuroscience, argues that an efficiently coding neural system "should match the statistics of the signals they represent". Therefore, it is important to be able to determine the statistics of the natural images that are producing these signals. Researchers have looked at various components of natural images including luminance contrast, color, and how images are registered over time. They can analyze the properties of natural scenes via digital cameras, spectrophotometers, and range finders.
Researchers look at how luminance contrasts are spatially distributed in an image: the luminance contrasts are highly correlated the closer they are in measurable distance and less correlated the farther apart the pixels are. Independent component analysis (ICA) is an algorithm system that attempts to "linearly transform given (sensory) inputs into independent outputs (synaptic currents) ". ICA eliminates the redundancy by decorrelating the pixels in a natural image. Thus the individual components that make up the natural image are rendered statistically independent. However, researchers have thought that ICA is limited because it assumes that the neural response is linear, and therefore insufficiently describes the complexity of natural images. They argue that, despite what is assumed under ICA, the components of the natural image have a "higher-order structure" that involves correlations among components. Instead, researchers have now developed temporal independent component analysis (TICA), which better represents the complex correlations that occur between components in a natural image. Additionally, a "hierarchical covariance model" developed by Karklin and Lewicki expands on sparse coding methods and can represent additional components of natural images such as "object location, scale, and texture".
The chromatic spectra as it comes from natural light, but also as it is reflected off of "natural materials" can be easily characterized with principal components analysis (PCA). Because the cones are absorbing a specific amount of photons from the natural image, researchers can use cone responses as a way of describing the natural image. Researchers have found that the three classes of cone receptors in the retina can accurately code natural images and that color is decorrelated already in the LGN. Time has also been modeled: natural images transform over time, and we can use these transformations to see how the visual input changes over time.
A padegogical review of efficient coding in visual processing --- efficient spatial coding, color coding, temporal/motion coding, stereo coding, and the combination of them --- is in chapter 3 of the book "Understanding vision: theory, models, and data". It explains how efficient coding is realized when input noise makes redundancy reduction no longer adequate, and how efficient coding in different situations are related to each other or different from each other.
Hypotheses for testing the efficient coding hypothesis
If neurons are encoding according to the efficient coding hypothesis then individual neurons must be expressing their full output capacity. Before testing this hypothesis it is necessary to define what is considered to be a neural response. Simoncelli and Olshausen suggest that an efficient neuron needs to be given a maximal response value so that we can measure if a neuron is efficiently meeting the maximum level. Secondly, a population of neurons must not be redundant in transmitting signals and must be statistically independent. If the efficient coding hypothesis is accurate, researchers should observe is that there is sparsity in the neuron responses: that is, only a few neurons at a time should fire for an input.
Methodological approaches for testing the hypotheses
One approach is to design a model for early sensory processing based on the statistics of a natural image and then compare this predicted model to how real neurons actually respond to the natural image.
The second approach is to measure a neural system responding to a natural environment, and analyze the results to see if there are any statistical properties to this response.
A third approach is to derive the necessary and sufficient conditions under which an observed neural computation is efficient, and test whether empirical stimulus statistics satisfy them.
Examples of these approaches
1. Predicted model approach
In one study by Doi et al. in 2012, the researchers created a predicted response model of the retinal ganglion cells that would be based on the statistics of the natural images used, while considering noise and biological constraints. They then compared the actual information transmission as observed in real retinal ganglion cells to this optimal model to determine the efficiency. They found that the information transmission in the retinal ganglion cells had an overall efficiency of about 80% and concluded that "the functional connectivity between cones and retinal ganglion cells exhibits unique spatial structure...consistent with coding efficiency.
A study by van Hateren and Ruderman in 1998 used ICA to analyze video-sequences and compared how a computer analyzed the independent components of the image to data for visual processing obtained from a cat in DeAngelis et al. 1993. The researchers described the independent components obtained from a video sequence as the "basic building blocks of a signal", with the independent component filter (ICF) measuring "how strongly each building block is present". They hypothesized that if simple cells are organized to pick out the "underlying structure" of images over time then cells should act like the independent component filters. They found that the ICFs determined by the computer were similar to the "receptive fields" that were observed in actual neurons.
2. Analyzing actual neural system in response to natural images
In a report in Science from 2000, William E. Vinje and Jack Gallant outlined a series of experiments used to test elements of the efficient coding hypothesis, including a theory that the non-classical receptive field (nCRF) decorrelates projections from the primary visual cortex. To test this, they took recordings from the V1 neurons in awake macaques during "free viewing of natural images and conditions" that simulated natural vision conditions. The researchers hypothesized that the V1 uses sparse code, which is minimally redundant and "metabolically more efficient". They also hypothesized that interactions between the classical receptive field (CRF) and the nCRF produced this pattern of sparse coding during the viewing of these natural scenes. In order to test this, they created eye-scan paths and also extracted patches that ranged in size from 1-4 times the diameter of the CRF. They found that the sparseness of the coding increased with the size of the patch. Larger patches encompassed more of the nCRF—indicating that the interactions between these two regions created sparse code. Additionally as stimulus size increased, so did the sparseness. This suggests that the V1 uses sparse code when natural images span the entire visual field. The CRF was defined as the circular area surrounding the locations where stimuli evoked action potentials. They also tested to see if the stimulation of the nCRF increased the independence of the responses from the V1 neurons by randomly selecting pairs of neurons. They found that indeed, the neurons were more greatly decoupled upon stimulation of the nCRF. In conclusion, the experiments of Vinje and Gallant showed that the V1 uses sparse code by employing both the CRF and nCRF when viewing natural images, with the nCRF showing a definitive decorrelating effect on neurons which may increase their efficiency by increasing the amount of independent information they carry. They propose that the cells may represent the individual components of a given natural scene, which may contribute to pattern recognition
Another study done by Baddeley et al. had shown that firing-rate distributions of cat visual area V1 neurons and monkey inferotemporal (IT) neurons were exponential under naturalistic conditions, which implies optimal information transmission for a fixed average rate of firing. A subsequent study of monkey IT neurons found that only a minority were well described by an exponential firing distribution. De Polavieja later argued that this discrepancy was due to the fact that the exponential solution is correct only for the noise-free case, and showed that by taking noise into consideration, one could account for the observed results.
A study by Dan, Attick, and Reid in 1996 used natural images to test the hypothesis that early on in the visual pathway, incoming visual signals will be decorrelated to optimize efficiency. This decorrelation can be observed as the '"whitening" of the temporal and spatial power spectra of the neuronal signals". The researchers played natural image movies in front of cats and used a multielectrode array to record neural signals. This was achieved by refracting the eyes of the cats and then contact lenses being fitted into them. They found that in the LGN, the natural images were decorrelated and concluded, "the early visual pathway has specifically adapted for efficient coding of natural visual information during evolution and/or development".
Extensions
One of the implications of the efficient coding hypothesis is that the neural coding depends upon the statistics of the sensory signals. These statistics are a function of not only the environment (e.g., the statistics of the natural environment), but also the organism's behavior (e.g., how it moves within that environment). However, perception and behavior are closely intertwined in the perception-action cycle. For example, the process of vision involves various kinds of eye movements. An extension to the efficient coding hypothesis called active efficient coding (AEC) extends efficient coding to active perception. It hypothesizes that biological agents optimize not only their neural coding, but also their behavior to contribute to an efficient sensory representation of the environment. Along these lines, models for the development of active binocular vision, active visual tracking, and accommodation control have been proposed.
The brain has limited resources to process information, in vision this is manifested as the visual attentional bottleneck. The bottleneck forces the brain to select only a small fraction of visual input information
for further processing, as merely coding information efficiently is no longer sufficient. A subsequent theory, V1 Saliency Hypothesis, has been developed on exogenous attentional selection of visual input information for further processing guided by a bottom-up saliency map in the primary visual cortex.
Criticisms
Researchers should consider how the visual information is used:
The hypothesis does not explain how the information from a visual scene is used—which is the main purpose of the visual system. It seems necessary to understand why we are processing image statistics from the environment because this may be relevant to how this information is ultimately processed. However, some researchers may see the irrelevance of the purpose of vision in Barlow's theory as an advantage for designing experiments.
Some experiments show correlations between neurons:
When considering multiple neurons at a time, recordings "show correlation, synchronization, or other forms of statistical dependency between neurons". However, it is relevant to note that most of these experiments did not use natural stimuli to provoke these responses: this may not fit in directly to the efficient coding hypothesis because this hypothesis is concerned with natural image statistics. In his review article Simoncelli notes that perhaps we can interpret redundancy in the Efficient Coding Hypothesis a bit differently: he argues that statistical dependency could be reduced over "successive stages of processing", and not just in one area of the sensory pathway. Yet, recordings by Hung et al. at the end of the visual pathway also show strong layer-dependent correlations to naturalistic objects and in ongoing activity. They showed that redundancy of neighboring neurons (i.e. a 'manifold' representation) benefits learning of complex shape features and that network anisotropy/inhomogeneity is a stronger predictor than noise redundancy of encoding/decoding efficiency.
Observed redundancy:
A comparison of the number of retinal ganglion cells to the number of neurons in the primary visual cortex shows an increase in the number of sensory neurons in the cortex as compared to the retina. Simoncelli notes that one major argument of critics in that higher up in the sensory pathway there are greater numbers of neurons that handle the processing of sensory information so this should seem to produce redundancy. However, this observation may not be fully relevant because neurons have different neural coding. In his review, Simoncelli notes "cortical neurons tend to have lower firing rates and may use a different form of code as compared to retinal neurons". Cortical Neurons may also have the ability to encode information over longer periods of time than their retinal counterparts. Experiments done in the auditory system have confirmed that redundancy is decreased.
Difficult to test:
Estimation of information-theoretic quantities requires enormous amounts of data, and is thus impractical for experimental verification. Additionally, informational estimators are known to be biased. However, some experimental success has occurred.
Need well-defined criteria for what to measure:
This criticism illustrates one of the most fundamental issues of the hypothesis. Here, assumptions are made about the definitions of both the inputs and the outputs of the system. The inputs into the visual system are not completely defined, but they are assumed to be encompassed in a collection of natural images. The output must be defined to test the hypothesis, but variability can occur here too based on the choice of which type of neurons to measure, where they are located and what type of responses, such as firing rate or spike times are chosen to be measured.
How to take noise into account:
Some argue that experiments that ignore noise, or other physical constraints on the system are too simplistic. However, some researchers have been able to incorporate these elements into their analyses, thus creating more sophisticated systems.
However, with appropriate formulations, efficient coding can also address some of these issues raised above. For example, some quantifiable degree of redundancies in neural representations of sensory inputs (manifested as correlations in neural responses) is predicted to occur when efficient coding is applied to noisy sensory inputs. Falsifiable theoretical predictions can also be made, and some of them subsequently tested.
Biomedical applications
Possible applications of the efficient coding hypothesis include cochlear implant design. These neuroprosthetic devices stimulate the auditory nerve by an electrical impulses which allows some of the hearing to return to people who have hearing impairments or are even deaf. The implants are considered to be successful and efficient and the only ones in use currently. Using frequency-place mappings in the efficient coding algorithm may benefit in the use of cochlear implants in the future. Changes in design based on this hypothesis could increase speech intelligibility in hearing impaired patients. Research using vocoded speech processed by different filters showed that humans had greater accuracy in deciphering the speech when it was processed using an efficient-code filter as opposed to a cochleotropic filter or a linear filter. This shows that efficient coding of noise data offered perceptual benefits and provided the listeners with more information. More research is needed to apply current findings into medically relevant changes to cochlear implant design.
References
Neural coding
Biological hypotheses
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edge%20Hill%20University
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Edge Hill University
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Edge Hill University is a campus-based public university in Ormskirk, Lancashire, England, which opened in 1885 as Edge Hill College, the first non-denominational teacher training college for women in England, before admitting its first male students in 1959. In 2005, Edge Hill was granted Taught Degree Awarding Powers by the Privy Council and became Edge Hill University on 18 May 2006.
The University has three faculties: Arts and Sciences, Education, and Health and Social Care; these teach at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
History
Edge Hill College opened on 24 January 1885 on Durning Road, Edge Hill, Liverpool, by a group of seven Liverpool businessmen and philanthropists. It was named after the district in which it was sited, It was the first non-denominational teacher training college for women in England. By 1892, Edge Hill was one of only two colleges in England combining teacher training and degree course study. As student numbers increased, Edge Hill quickly outgrew its surroundings. The institution was handed over to the Lancashire Education Committee, with the foundation stone for the present Ormskirk campus laid on 26 October 1931 by J.T. Travis-Clegg, Chairman of Lancashire County Council. The main buildings comprised a main education block, four halls of residence (named Stanley, Clough, Lady Margaret and John Dalton), an Assembly Hall, a library, craft room, gymnasium, lecture theatres, classrooms and a music room.
Between 1939 and 1946, the college was evacuated to Bingley in Yorkshire, and the Ormskirk site was requisitioned for use by the military.
The Durning Road premises were destroyed in a bombing raid on 17 November 1940, during the Liverpool Blitz, which killed 166 people.
Edge Hill became a mixed college, admitting its first male students in October 1959, when it had about 500 students in total. In 1963 the university recorded having 660 students and 59 members of staff.
The institution has since expanded further, with further developments at Ormskirk and the absorption of the former Sefton School of Health Studies.
In 2005, Edge Hill was granted Taught Degree Awarding Powers by the Privy Council. On 18 May 2006 the institution became Edge Hill University and in August 2008 the university was granted the power to award research degrees.
Campus
Edge Hill University is based on a campus in Ormskirk, the administrative centre of West Lancashire. It is midway between Liverpool and the county town of Preston.
The University used to operate from the Woodlands campus based in Chorley, central Lancashire where it offered continuing professional development programmes and part-time study. However, in recent years operations have been centralised back to the main University campus.
Most of the University's subjects and departments are based in specialist buildings developed since the 1990s: Faculty of Education, Faculty of Health and Social Care, Business School, BioSciences, GeoSciences, Creative Edge (Media and Social Sciences), Performing Arts, the Wilson Centre (Sport and Physical Activity) and Psychology. The Tech Hub was opened in 2016 by entrepreneur Sir Robin Saxby.
The university also operates a campus in Manchester City centre in the St. James Buildings, Manchester mainly for medical science courses.
The Student Hub
This building opened in 2011 as a central student area, containing retail and catering outlets and IT facilities, as well as providing new accommodation for the Edge Hill Students' Union. The building was formally opened by Her Royal Highness the Countess of Wessex on 15 October 2012.
Sports Centre
The current indoor and outdoor sports complex was opened in 2015 by Olympic heptathlete Katarina Johnson-Thompson.
Arts Centre
The Arts Centre houses the University’s Performing Arts Department and the Rose and Studio Theatres. The Arts Centre was officially opened by British screenwriter and writer of the London 2012 Summer Olympics opening ceremony Frank Cottrell Boyce who is an Honorary Doctor of Literature at the University. The Arts Centre includes a 234-seat professional theatre (The Rose Theatre) and a 140-seat Studio Theatre.
Catalyst
Catalyst serves as the Students' library on the Ormskirk campus, as well as the student services and information centre. The original library, which opened in the 1990s, was replaced with a new purpose-built multi-storey building, located on the old running track, adjacent to the Wilson Centre, and equidistant between the Student Hub and Creative Edge Buildings, as part of a £36 million development. The £26 million building houses a study space that is 8,000 square metres, which is 50% larger than the old Library building. The development began in December 2016, when the old racing track was dug up. Catalyst opened on 9 July 2018.
Halls of Residence
The original Halls of Residence were 'named Stanley, Clough, Lady Margaret and John Dalton "in honour" of the Derby Family' and "of three individuals famous in the history of Lancashire and of Education" (Anne Jemima Clough was a pioneer of higher education for women, having founded Newnham College, Cambridge)'
Five Halls, opened in 1963 by Princess Margaret, are named after Lady Openshaw, Katherine Fletcher (Chairs of Governors), EM Butterworth, Margaret Bain (Principals) and Eleanor Rathbone, a noted social reformer. Lancashire Hall was demolished in 1999 to make way for the Wilson Centre (Edge Hill Sport), but was originally built to house male students. Forest Court (Ash, Beech, Cedar, Elm, Holly, Larch, Maple, Oak, Rowan and Willow) added 300 bedrooms in the early 1990s.
More recent Halls include Founders Court, named after the institution's founders Crosfield (William Crosfield); McDairmid (S. McDairmid); Matheson (Thomas Matheson); Smith (Samuel Smith (1836–1906)), Balfour (Alexander Balfour); Sinclair (WP Sinclair); and Sarah Yelf (the first Principal); and Graduates Court, named after alumni: Ainsworth (Joe Ainsworth), Annakin (Ethel Annakin), Maconie (Stuart Maconie), Normanton (Helena Normanton) and Pryce (Jonathan Pryce).
In 2012 Chancellors Court was opened, adding Halls named after individuals associated with the institution including Chairs of the Board of Governors: Blake, Booth, Bradshaw, Fulton, Millner, Pinfold, Tomkins, and Wilson as well as Byron (Tanya Byron, the first Chancellor of the University), and Williams (politician Shirley Williams). Additional Halls added in 2013 are, in Chancellors Court: Binns (Sir Arthur Lennon Binns), Boyce (J.S.B Boyce), Lord (Sir Percy Lord), and Meadon (Sir Percival Edward Meadon); and in Founders Court: Dewhurst (M. K. Dewhurst), Fenemore (Mildred Fenemore), Feuchsel (Harriet D Feuchsel) and Holt (George Holt (merchant)).
Chancellors South, an additional 246 accommodation units to complete the Chancellors Court blocks on the Eastern side of the campus, was completed in summer 2014. The Halls are named after individuals associated with the institution including Laverty (Bernard Laverty, Pro-Chancellor and chair of the Edge Hill University Board of Governors since 2014, Chartered Accountant and Director of Lancashire textile company David Whitehead & Sons Limited), Jenkins (Miss JA Jenkins, Vice-Principal of Edge Hill from 1906 and Acting Principal from 1909–10), Millins (Mr PKC 'Ken' Millins was the first male Principal of Edge Hill, leading the institution between 1964 and 1979 and was awarded an Honorary Doctorate in 2010), Aitken (Sir James Aitken served on the Education Committee of Lancashire County Council from 1921 to 1948, and was chair of the Council from 1946 to 1948) and Welch (John Welch was chair of the Education Committee of Lancashire County Council between 1955 and 1958).
Palatine Court Halls are named after prominent individuals associated with the historic Lancashire County Palatine: Carrington (artist Leonora Carrington), Glazebrook (physicist Richard Glazebrook), Pankhurst (campaigner for women's suffrage Emmeline Pankhurst), Roscoe (abolitionist and historian William Roscoe), Lowry (artist L. S. Lowry), Peel (Prime Minister and architect of the modern police force Robert Peel) and Wilkinson (politician, sometime Minister for Education Ellen Wilkinson).
Organisation and governance
Governance
The University's Chancellor is Dawn Airey, appointed in 2023. The founding Chancellor was Tanya Byron, a clinical psychologist, journalist, author and broadcaster. Byron served in the role from 2008 to 2018.
The Pro-Chancellor is Clive Edwards who also serves as chair of the Board of Governors.
The current Vice-Chancellor is John Cater, who has held the post since 1993. He received a CBE in the 2015 Queen's birthday honours. As a social geographer, he has published extensively on race, housing, economic development and public policy and co-authored major research studies for the Social Science Research Council, the Commission for Racial Equality and their successor bodies. The current Deputy Vice-Chancellor is Steve Igoe. The current Pro Vice-Chancellors are Mark Allanson who joined the University in August 2014 after working for Higher Education Funding Council for England and Lynda Brady who joined in April 2014, having previously worked for Open University.
Faculties and departments
The University has three Faculties:
Faculty of Arts and Sciences
The Faculty comprises Departments of:
Biology
Business (Edge Hill Business School)
Computer Science
English, History & Creative Writing
Geography and Geology
Language Centre
Law & Criminology
Media
Performing Arts (incl Musical Theatre)
Psychology
Social Sciences
Sport & Physical Activity
Faculty of Education
The Faculty runs initial teacher training programmes for the age phases of education in the UK, together with Continuing Professional Development for the school workforce. The most recent Ofsted Initial Teacher Education inspection report (2011) awarded Grade 1 in all 33 cells covering the phases of initial teacher training: Primary & Early Years, Secondary and Post-Compulsory Education and Training.
The Faculty comprises Departments of:
Early Years Education
Children, Education and Communities
Professional Learning
Secondary and Further Education
Faculty of Health and Social Care
The Faculty delivers pre-registration training for nurses, midwives, operating department practitioners and paramedics; qualifying social work degrees; and professional development in the fields of health and social care.
The Faculty comprises Departments of:
Applied Health and Social Care
Medicine
Midwifery
Nursing
Operating Department Practice
Paramedic Practice
Social Work
Postgraduate & Professional Development Courses
CPD Modules
Graduate school
The Graduate School supports research students on MRes, MPhil and PhD programmes and their supervisors.
Coat of arms
The university received a grant of arms in 2007.
The coat of arms consists of a shield, a crest, a badge and a motto. The colours used are those of the suffragettes, and " reflect the commitment to the equality of women that drove the formation of the institution".
The university's origins are represented by the three red roses of Lancashire in the shield and by the Liver bird in the crest, which refers to its original location in Liverpool. The coat of arms contains a sun, a quill, peacock feathers and a lion. The University's motto – "In Scientia Opportunitas" – translates as "In knowledge there is opportunity".
The Mace
The Mace is the symbol of the University's authority to award degrees. Edge Hill University commissioned its mace in 2007, from silversmith Clive Burr. Inspired by the University Coat of Arms and the campus architecture, the mace took six months to produce and is crafted from sterling silver. At the head is an 18-carat yellow gold dome enamelled by Jane Short, with a hand-engraved inscription of the University motto running around the silver edge. The main body has a hand-engraved decoration running around it, the design inspired by the acanthus leaves and stone columns of the entrance to the original University building.
Academic profile
Courses
Edge Hill University's undergraduate courses include BA/BSc and LLB degrees, health pre-registration qualifications and teacher training degrees. Postgraduate provision includes PGCEs, Masters programmes, MBA, MPhil and PhD research degrees and MRes programmes.
Students
According to the Higher Education Statistical Agency, in the academic year there were undergraduate students and postgraduate students. The statistics may not show international students.
Record label
In 2013 Senior Lecturer and bassist in The Farm, Carl Hunter, launched a not-for-profit record label in association with the students of Edge Hill University called The Label Recordings. The Label has released and promoted music by acts including The Inkhearts, Hooton Tennis Club, Oranj Son, Feral Love and Youth Hostel. The Label operates like an industry placement for students and was 'highly commended' in the 2016 Times Higher Education Awards.
Short story prize
The Edge Hill Short Story Prize is purported to be the only UK award that recognises excellence in a single author, published short story collection. The prize attracts established authors who compete alongside relative newcomers. Previous winners have been John Burnside, Kevin Barry, Colm Tóibín, Claire Keegan, Chris Beckett, Jeremy Dyson, Graham Mort, Sarah Hall and Jessie Greengrass. The prize is co-ordinated by Ailsa Cox, Reader in Creative Writing and English, and has three categories, the main literary award of £5,000 as well as a £1,000 Reader’s Prize judged by BA Creative Writing students, and a £500 award for students on the University's MA Creative Writing course.
Research
The university returned twelve units of assessment in the UK's Research Excellence Framework (REF) 2014 and has established three interdisciplinary research institutes through which to manage the impact and external engagement of research carried out.
Institute for Creative Enterprise
The Institute for Creative Enterprise is Edge Hill University’s interdisciplinary research forum which connects the University with the digital and creative economy and with cultural institutions. Directed by Roger Shannon.
Institute for Public Policy and Professional Practice
The Institute for Public Policy and Professional Practice (I4P) is a cross-disciplinary research and knowledge exchange initiative established at Edge Hill University in 2013.
Postgraduate Medical Institute
The Postgraduate Medical Institute is a partnership between Edge Hill University and regional health professionals and providers seeking to improve the quality of health and social care in the North West through education, research and innovation.
The Institute’s main themes are primary care, fertility, neurology and psychiatry, orthopaedics and biomechanics, and biosciences.
Student life
Students' Union
Edge Hill University Students' Union is the representative body of students at the university run by four elected, sabbatical officers and student trustees who sit on the board. The Sabbatical officers are the SU President, Vice President of Activities, Vice President of Academic Representation and Vice President of Welfare. All students at the university are automatically enrolled into the Students' Union which seeks to promote the interests of its members, act as a representative channel between students and the university, and to provide advice and recreational activities for its members.
The Students' Union has over 70 societies which students can join including a range of sports teams, subject related groups and social societies. 'Team Edge Hill' is the SU's sport brand which encompasses all sport teams and individuals who compete for the university within the British Universities and Colleges Sport (BUCS) leagues including football, rugby, cycling, netball, swimming, tennis, hockey, golf, American Football, and many more. VibeMedia is the Students' Union’s media platform which comprises Vibe Radio and Vibe TV, a radio and television channel run by student volunteers.
In 2012, Edge Hill SU was shortlisted for the national NUS Small Students' Union of the Year Award. In 2019, it won NUS Trans Campaign of the year.
Notable people
Chancellors
2008-2018: Tanya Byron
2023-date: Dawn Airey
Vice-chancellor/ Principals
Until university status was awarded in 2006, the Vice-Chancellor was known as the principal.
1885-1890: Sarah Jane Yelf
1890-1920: Sarah Jane Hale
1920-1941: Eva Marie Smith
1941-1946: E M Butterworth
1946-1964: Dr Margaret Bain
1964-1978: Ken Millins
1978-1982: Marjorie Stanton
1982-1989: Harry Webster
1989-1993: Ruth Gee
1993-date: John Cater
Alumni
Joe Ainsworth (Scriptwriter for BBC drama Holby City)
Liam Colbon (Rugby League player)
Julie Cooper MP (Member of Parliament and Shadow Health Minister)
Murray Dron (TV reporter/presenter)
Mark Edwardson (TV news presenter, BBC North West Tonight)
Danny Howard (Radio 1 DJ)
Kerry Howard (Actress)
Eric Hughes (Rugby League player)
Simon Kerrigan (Cricketer)
Stuart Maconie (Author, DJ and television presenter)
Ruth Madeley (Actress)
Nazia Mogra (News presenter)
Helena Normanton QC (First woman to practise as a barrister in the UK)
Paul Nuttall (Former UKIP Leader)
Jonathan Pryce (Actor)
Steve Sinnott (General Secretary of the National Union of Teachers)
Sue Smith (Footballer)
Ethel Snowden née Annakin (Socialist, feminist and wife of former Chancellor of the Exchequer Philip Snowden)
Stuart Stokes (Steeplechaser)
Andrew Sumner (Movie journalist, publisher and TV presenter)
Staff
Geoffrey Beattie
Rodge Glass
Carl Hunter
Richard Witts
See also
Armorial of UK universities
College of Education
List of universities in the UK
References
Further reading
A history of the University, A Vision of Learning: Edge Hill University 1885–2010, by Mark Flinn and Fiona Montgomery, was published in 2010 (Third Millennium Publishing Ltd ). This follows earlier historical surveys written by Fiona Montgomery.
A history of the University in Ormskirk Wide Horizons: Eighty Years in Ormskirk 1933–2013, by Mark Flinn, published in 2013 (Edge Hill University ).
Buildings and structures in the Borough of West Lancashire
Teacher training colleges in the United Kingdom
Universities UK
Universities and colleges established in 1885
1885 establishments in England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy%20Rain
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Heavy Rain
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Heavy Rain is a 2010 action-adventure video game developed by Quantic Dream and published by Sony Computer Entertainment. The game features four protagonists involved with the mystery of the Origami Killer, a serial killer who uses extended periods of rainfall to drown his victims. The player interacts with the game by performing actions highlighted on screen related to motions on the controller, and in some cases, performing a series of quick time events. The player's decisions and actions during the game affect the narrative.
Game developer David Cage wrote the 2,000-page script, acted as director for the four years of development, travelled to Philadelphia to research the setting, and intended to improve upon what was flawed in his 2005 game Fahrenheit. Composer Normand Corbeil wrote the score, which was recorded at Abbey Road Studios. The game was released for PlayStation 3 in February 2010, PlayStation 4 in 2016, and Windows in 2019. It is considered one of the greatest video games ever made, receiving praise for its emotional impact, visuals, writing, controls, and music, though some critics faulted the controls, voice acting, and plot inconsistencies. Heavy Rain was a commercial success, selling 5.3 million units by January 2018.
Gameplay
Heavy Rain is an interactive drama and action-adventure game in which the player controls four different characters from a third-person perspective. Each playable character may die depending on the player's actions, which create a branching storyline; in these cases, the player is faced with quick time events. The game is divided into multiple scenes, each centering on one of the characters.
Holding down R2 moves the character forward and the left analogue stick controls the direction. Interaction with the environment is done by pressing on-screen, context-sensitive prompts, using the right analogue stick, and performing Sixaxis control movements with the DualShock 3 or 4. Also featured are difficulty levels that the player can change at any point during the game. A chapter-select screen offers the function of playing scenes over again. With PlayStation Move, the player wields either the motion and navigation controllers, or the DualShock and motion controllers.
Plot
The day after celebrating his son Jason's tenth birthday, Ethan Mars (Pascal Langdale) and his family go shopping. Jason and Ethan are hit by a car; Jason dies, and Ethan falls into a six-month coma. After he wakes from the coma, Ethan, blaming himself for Jason's death, divorces his wife Grace and moves into a small suburban house while experiencing mental trauma and blackouts. Two years later, Ethan blacks out at the park with his other son Shaun. When he wakes up, he discovers that Shaun has been kidnapped by the "Origami Killer," a serial killer whose modus operandi consists of abducting young boys during the fall season, drowning them in rainwater, and leaving an orchid on their chests and an origami figure nearby. Norman Jayden (Leon Ockenden), an FBI profiler struggling with addiction to a drug called Triptocaine, investigates the death of another Origami victim and concludes that he died the same day as a violent rainstorm, which flooded the cell where he was kept. He estimates that Shaun has only three days to live based on weather patterns.
Besieged by reporters, Ethan checks into a motel. He receives a letter from the killer, which leads to a shoebox containing a mobile phone, a handgun, and five origami figures. The killer calls him and explains that each figure contains instructions on completing tests that will determine how much Ethan loves his son. Every time he completes one, he will receive a piece of the address where Shaun is held. The tests include driving against traffic at speed on the highway, crawling through broken glass and active electrical pylons, cutting off one of his fingers, murdering drug dealer Brad Silver, and drinking poison on camera. Ethan meets Madison Paige (Jacqui Ainsley/Judi Beecher), a journalist who sometimes uses the motel to deal with her insomnia. She decides to conduct her own investigation into the Origami Killer. Jayden and his partner Lieutenant Carter Blake investigate suspects, but nothing pans out until Grace arrives at the station, fearing that her former husband is involved in Shaun's disappearance. After Ethan's psychiatrist, Conrad Dupre, reveals that his patient has a history of blackouts, Blake and his superiors put out a warrant for his arrest. Unconvinced, Jayden continues to investigate other leads. Meanwhile, private investigator Scott Shelby (Sam Douglas) meets the families of the Origami Killer's victims, collecting the letters and other items they received when their loved ones were abducted. Prostitute Lauren Winter, the victim's mother, persuades Scott to let her accompany him. Their investigation leads them to Gordi Kramer, who claims to be the killer, but when they attempt to question him, they are knocked out and wake up in a car sinking to the bottom of a river. After either saving or failing to rescue Lauren, Scott tracks down Gordi's father, Charles, and forces him to confess that his son was responsible for an earlier incident in which a boy was killed.
Endings
Throughout the game, the player experiences two separate flashbacks that reveal the true nature of the Origami Killer. The first occurs 34 years earlier, with twin brothers playing on a construction site. One of the two, John Sheppard, falls into a broken pipe and gets his leg trapped just as a rainstorm causes the pipe to begin filling with water. The second occurs shortly after, with John's brother running home to warn their father, only to find him too drunk to help. Scared and confused, the boy could only watch helplessly as his brother drowned. Thus, the Origami Killer was born: a killer who searches for a father willing to sacrifice himself. He kills his victims the same way his brother died. The boy is revealed to be Scott, who was adopted soon after his brother's death. His actions as an investigator are not meant to get justice for his victims; instead, he needs to collect the evidence of his crimes, which he burns in his office wastebasket.
Ethan, Madison, and Norman all have the opportunity to find the warehouse where Shaun is, rescue him, and stop Scott. Ethan can arrive through his trials; Madison must survive and find the address in the killer's apartment, while Norman must survive and find the killer using ARI evidence detecting system's clues. If Ethan goes alone, he will save Shaun and either spare or kill Scott. Regardless of what he does, he will be shot dead by the police when he tries to escape. If all three make it, Ethan and Madison will have to save Shaun while Norman deals with Scott. If Ethan fails to arrive, Madison will fight Scott while Norman saves Shaun; if Norman does not come, Madison will perform the rescue. Once the chapter is complete, the player will learn what happened to the characters. Each ending is determined by what occurred in the final chapter. The most positive shows Ethan and his son starting a new life with Madison, Norman retiring from the FBI to focus on treating his addiction, and Lauren spitting on Scott's grave after cursing his memory. The most negative sees Madison and Shaun dead, Norman overdosing on Triptocaine over the guilt of not saving Shaun, and Ethan being successfully framed as the Origami Killer by Blake. At the same time, Scott escapes and remains at large if Lauren dies. Giving in to his pain, Ethan commits suicide in his cell.
Development
Prior to Sony's involvement, the game was pitched to Microsoft, which rejected it for its themes of child abduction. At E3 2006, developer Quantic Dream revealed Heavy Rain: The Casting, a tech demo running on the PlayStation 3. It was created in less than three months, including the game engine, script, casting, motion capture, and R&D. The demo, though not intended for the public eye, made its appearance at Sony's behest. Impressed with the actress involved, writer and director David Cage gave Aurélie Bancilhon the part of Lauren Winter.
Taking over four years to make, it had a development, marketing, and distribution budget of €40 million, and a 2,000-page long script. Heavy Rain required 170 days of shooting, more than seventy actors and stuntmen, and sixty additional days to animate the faces of fifty actors. It had also sixty sets and 30,000 animations. Guillaume de Fondaumière (CFO of Quantic Dream) claimed it was the most ambitious motion capture project for a game yet. The beginning of the game was inspired by an incident where Cage briefly lost his son in a mall, which made him reflect on "what it means to love your son"; this led to the tagline "How far are you prepared to go to save someone you love?" Cage structured the game like a film, and wanted to solve the frustration he had with the "game over" message by allowing the story to continue after the death of a playable character. Each character was made to look like their actor counterpart; Madison Paige was modelled after Jacqui Ainsley, who also offered body motion capture and her likeness, while Judi Beecher provided the voice and facial motion capture. To keep the game from being boring, scenes were intentionally short. The user interface was done with Omegame Menus Master. The quick-time event system was based on that of Shenmue. The first design for Heavy Rain was a makeshift motion controller; however, it was not thought feasible at the time. Different difficulty levels were implemented to appeal to a broader sample of players.
Cage's intention with Heavy Rain was to continue the interactive storytelling and rectify the flaws of Fahrenheit. Though the game is set in a nameless city, he conducted field research in Philadelphia and hired a location scout who worked on the film of the same name, asking to be escorted to poor areas where he could speak to locals, take pictures, and film. Cage was struck by the despondency he found there and incorporated the presence of large factories near houses into the game. His inspiration included art of many kinds, but came mostly from real life. Cage researched serial killers by reading books, deciding the modus operandi and background of the Origami Killer. He based the finger amputation scene on a childhood accident.
Normand Corbeil, who previously worked with Cage on Fahrenheit, was chosen as the composer for Heavy Rain. He was given two months from 5 June 2009 to do everything. Corbeil was instructed by the director on the importance of representing the characters' points of view, leading him to employ the piano for Ethan Mars, a chamber orchestra for Madison Paige, a symphony orchestra for Norman Jayden, and brass and flutes for Scott Shelby. Recording at Abbey Road Studios, the composer delivered nearly 300 cues; he played the piano himself.
Release
Heavy Rain became a PlayStation 3-exclusive, following its development for Xbox 360 and PC in 2006. Having first been scheduled for a late 2008 release, it was delayed to 23 February 2010 in North America, 24 February in Europe, 25 February in Australia and New Zealand, and 26 February in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Leading up to the release was an Internet-based viral marketing campaign that involved people in finding four pieces of evidence concerning a serial killer, and in the end being rewarded the game demo (before it released on 11 February). Heavy Rain Edition Modifiée, a modified version released in France in 2011, was aimed toward a younger audience. Quantic Dream later announced that a remaster of Heavy Rain would be released for PlayStation 4 on 1 March 2016 in North America via PlayStation Network, followed by physical versions on 2 March in Europe, Australia and New Zealand, and on 4 March in the United Kingdom. That same month, it was released with Quantic Dream's next game Beyond: Two Souls as The Heavy Rain & Beyond: Two Souls Collection. It was included on PlayStation Plus for the month of July 2018. During the March 2019 Game Developers Conference, it was announced that Quantic Dream would publish Heavy Rain along with Beyond: Two Souls and Detroit: Become Human for Windows. Exclusively available for one year on the Epic Games Store, they were self-published by Quantic Dream on 24 June 2019.
The Heavy Rain Chronicles, initially planned as downloadable content with multiple scenes, only produced one featuring Madison Paige called The Taxidermist, first showcased at E3 2008. The rest were cancelled due to the PlayStation Move edition, which was released in October 2010, and included The Taxidermist, three dynamic themes, the soundtrack, and nine making-of videos. The slipcased collector's edition has the same content as the Move edition, excluding two themes, the making-of videos, and Move support.
Reception
Heavy Rain was included in the book 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die. Out of a focus group of seventy, it was determined that none had assessed who the killer was before the game revealed it.
David Ellis of 1UP.com praised the quality and detail of the sets as "spectacular", noting that the world felt "lived-in and genuine"; the characters were said to have a similar "gritty realness". Ellis' view was that the game relayed an emotional subtlety that "very few games have ever succeeded at", and that knowing the characters bore potentially fatal outcomes added "a stressful layer" to an otherwise tense experience. Edge staff complimented Heavy Rain on its unmatched "compulsive pull", writing that the "gruesome curiosity" of the challenges was reminiscent to that of the Saw franchise. The realism, "aptly conjured" with quality lighting, and "filmic cliché", only considered effective for its sparse use, were observed as treading a "fine line". Eurogamers Tom Bramwell saw the writing as full of "compassion and bravery" and commented that it was a game "where pulling the trigger makes you really feel something". Joe Juba at Game Informer commended the "astounding detail" and computer facial animation of the characters. Juba enjoyed the "moody musical score" as well as the voice actors, some of whom he called "exceptional". Declaring the game a "masterpiece", he also praised the storytelling and character development for demonstrating the "untapped potential" of interactive entertainment. The controls were lauded for contributing to the more poignant scenes. Lark Anderson, writing for GameSpot, termed Heavy Rain an "absorbing experience" that showed, in meticulous fashion, the characters' tension, urgency, surprise, and tragedy. Like Juba, he liked how the controls lent themselves to developing the emotional states of the characters. The story, Anderson felt, was its greatest strength, complemented by "outstanding" visual design and "hyperrealistic" character models. The orchestral score and "mostly great voice acting" were also subject to approval. Anthony Gallegos from GameSpy stated that Heavy Rain had produced "the most intense emotional experience I've had with a controller in my hand". Gallegos said the quick time events were of intuitive value and gave credit to Quantic Dream for making "incredible-looking character models". Chris Roper of IGN found the control mechanics praiseworthy, citing the choice and influence of the button prompts as a "key element" to how it distinguished itself from other games. He admired the main characters for being well developed, interesting, and integral to the story. The script was dubbed "easily amongst the best" among games.
Conversely, Ellis thought the "cumbersome" control scheme was the least appealing aspect, a complaint repeated by Edge staff, who also found the scene structure to be confusing. Bramwell mentioned that the writing occasionally lacked "poetry or restraint", noticing a trend of clichés in the dialogue as well as broken English from the voice actors. In agreement with Edge staff and Bramwell, Juba indicated plot holes within the story and poorly articulated voice acting. Anderson concurred, accusing the narrative inconsistencies of reducing the immersion. The control system was perceived as "clumsy and imprecise". Despite the realistic character models, Gallegos acknowledged a sense of unease evoked by the uncanny valley. Roper disparaged the graphics of clothes, hands, and objects for not being as detailed as hoped, and followed in the view that non-American accents from American characters sounded "weird".
Sales and accolades
Heavy Rain debuted in Japan in sixth place, selling 27,000 units, and topped the UK charts the same week. According to The NPD Group, it was the tenth best-selling retail game of February, with over 219,000 units sold. Two months later, it had passed one million sales, outperforming Cage's pre-release estimate of 200,000 to 300,000. By August 2013, the game had sold three million copies, which rose to 4.5 in 2017 and 5.3 in 2018 in collective sales on PlayStation 3 and 4. It is one of the best-selling PlayStation 3 video games, with Sony profiting over €100 million from it.
At E3 2009, Heavy Rain won GameSpots Best Adventure Game award and was a finalist for Game of the Show, Best PS3 Game, and Best Graphics. It was a runner-up for Best of E3 PS3 Game at 1UP.com, and nominated for PS3 Game and Adventure Game of Show at GameSpy. The Game Critics Awards nominated it for Best Original Game. GameSpy declared it Adventure Game and PlayStation 3 Game of the year; IGN placed it in the latter category. In 2011, Adventure Gamers named Heavy Rain the 26th best adventure game. IGN later ranked the game as one of the best of the generation, while Empire listed it among the greatest of all time.
Film adaptation
On 15 May 2006, the rights to make Heavy Rain into a film were optioned by New Line Cinema, just after the reveal of Heavy Rain: The Casting. These were later auctioned off to Unique Features, a production company formed by two former New Line executives, Bob Shaye and Michael Lynne. Shaye and Lynne purchased the film rights with their own funds despite having a "first-look deal" in place at Warner Bros., which had bought New Line prior to their departure. David Milch, writer for NYPD Blue and Deadwood, was slated to adapt it under the title Rain.
Notes
References
External links
Heavy Rain PlayStation 3 website
Heavy Rain PlayStation 4 website
2010 video games
Action-adventure games
Augmented reality in fiction
BAFTA winners (video games)
Detective video games
Fiction with unreliable narrators
Interactive movie video games
Japan Game Award winners
Kidnapping in fiction
Neo-noir video games
Fiction about origami
PlayStation 3 games
PlayStation 4 games
PlayStation Move-compatible games
Psychological thriller video games
Cancelled Xbox 360 games
Quantic Dream
Single-player video games
Sony Interactive Entertainment games
Video games about police officers
Video games developed in France
Video games featuring female protagonists
Video games scored by Normand Corbeil
Video games set in 1977
Video games set in 2009
Video games set in 2011
Video games set in the United States
Windows games
Works about child death
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1989%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1989 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1989 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher (Conservative)
Parliament – 50th
Events
January
4 January – A memorial service is held for the 270 people who died in the Lockerbie air disaster two weeks ago. Margaret Thatcher and several other world political leaders are among more than 200 people present in the church service at the village of Old Dryfesdale near Lockerbie.
8 January – 44 people are killed in the Kegworth air disaster.
11 January
Accident investigators say that the Kegworth air disaster was caused when pilot Kevin Hunt, who survived the crash, accidentally shut down the wrong engine.
Abbey National building society offers free shares to its 5,500,000 members.
14 January – Muslims demonstrate in Bradford against The Satanic Verses, a book written by Salman Rushdie, burning copies of the book in the city streets.
19 January – Unemployment fell by 66,000 in December, to a nine-year low of just over 2 million. It was last at this level in 1980.
25 January – John Cleese wins a libel case after the Daily Mirror described him as having become like his character Basil Fawlty in the sitcom Fawlty Towers.
27 January – Aviation pioneer Sir Thomas Sopwith dies aged 101 at his home in Hampshire.
February
5 February – At 6.00pm, the world's first commercial DBS system, Sky Television goes on air. Three new services – Sky News, Sky Movies and Eurosport – with the fourth being Sky Channel.
11 February – ITV airs the first episode of Home and Away, an Australian soap which was launched in its homeland last year.
12 February – Belfast lawyer Pat Finucane is murdered by the Ulster Defence Association.
14 February – Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini of Iran places a fatwa with an order to kill on author Salman Rushdie following the publication of his controversial book The Satanic Verses, which has caused outrage among the Islamic community of Britain.
19 February – The Industrial Society offices at 3 Carlton House Terrace in London is severely damaged by fire.
20 February – Clive Barracks bombing: A Provisional Irish Republican Army bomb attack damages Clive Barracks in Shropshire.
23 February
27-year-old William Hague wins the Richmond (North Yorkshire) by-election for the Conservative Party following the departure of Leon Brittan to the European Commission.
Den Watts, the hugely popular character played by Leslie Grantham in the BBC's soap opera EastEnders, departs from the series (which he joined at its inception four years ago) as the character is apparently killed in an episode watched by over 20 million viewers.
March
4 March – Purley rail crash: two trains collide at Purley, Surrey killing six people.
6 March – Glasgow Bellgrove rail accident: two trains collide in Scotland, killing two people.
7 March – Iran breaks off diplomatic relations with the UK over Salman Rushdie's controversial book The Satanic Verses.
16 March – Unemployment is now below 7% for the first time in eight years, but still remains marginally over 2 million.
17 March – The three men convicted of murdering paperboy Carl Bridgewater in Staffordshire 10 years ago have their appeals rejected. A fourth man convicted in connection with the killing died in prison in 1981.
20 March – Chief Superintendent Harry Breen and Superintendent Bob Buchanan of the Royal Ulster Constabulary are killed by the IRA.
26 March – Nigel Mansell wins the Brazilian Grand Prix.
April
5 April – 500 workers on the Channel Tunnel go on strike in a protest against pay and working conditions.
6 April – The government announces an end to the legislation which effectively guarantees secure work for more than 9,000 dockers over the remainder of their working lives.
10 April – Nick Faldo becomes the first English winner of the Masters Tournament in golf.
14 April – Ford launches the third generation of its Fiesta, the first to offer a 5-door version which is being built at the Dagenham plant in England and the Valencia plant in Spain.
15 April – 94 people are killed this day in the Hillsborough disaster during the FA Cup semi-final at the Hillsborough Stadium in Sheffield during the FA Cup semi-final between Nottingham Forest FC and Liverpool F.C.; three more will die later of serious injuries received and around 300 others are hospitalized. The death toll is the worst of any sporting disaster in Britain. The youngest victim is a 10-year-old boy, the oldest is 67-year-old Gerard Baron, brother of the late former Liverpool player Kevin Baron. Not until 1996 does a second coroner's inquest determine these to be unlawful killings.
16 April – Denis Howell, a former Labour sports minister, urges that the FA Cup final should go ahead this season despite consideration by the Football Association for it to be cancelled due to the Hillsborough disaster.
17 April – Home Secretary Douglas Hurd announces plans to make all-seater stadiums compulsory for all Football League First Division clubs to reduce the risk of a repeat of the Hillsborough tragedy.
18 April
The European Commission accuses Britain of failing to meet standards on drinking water.
The Hillsborough disaster claims its 95th victim when 14-year-old Lee Nicol dies in hospital as a result of his injuries. He had been visited in hospital by Diana, Princess of Wales, hours before he died.
Tottenham Hotspur remove perimeter fencing from their White Hart Lane stadium as the first step towards avoiding a repeat of the Hillsborough disaster in English football.
19 April
The Sun newspaper sparks outrage on Merseyside about the Hillsborough Disaster with an article entitled "The Truth", supported by South Yorkshire police and locally based news agencies, which claims that spectators robbed and injured dead spectators, and attacked police officers when they were helping the injured and dying. Other newspapers including the Daily Star and Daily Mirror, as well as several regional newspapers, have also printed similar allegations.
Channel Tunnel workers end their 14-day strike.
Novelist Dame Daphne du Maurier dies aged 81 at her home in Par, Cornwall.
20 April
The London Underground is at virtual standstill for a day as most of the workers go on strike in protest against plans for driver-only operated trains.
A MORI poll shows Conservative and Labour support equal at 41%.
24 April – The BBC's Ceefax teletext is only running as a partial service today due to a strike by broadcasting unions.
27 April – Security Service Act for the first time places MI5 on a statutory basis.
28 April
John Cannan, of Sutton Coldfield, is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released after being found guilty of murdering one woman and sexually assaulting two others.
Fourteen Liverpool fans are convicted of manslaughter and receive prison sentences of up to three years in Brussels, Belgium, in connection with the Heysel disaster at the 1985 European Cup Final in which 39 spectators (most of them Italian) died. A further eleven Liverpool fans are cleared.
May
1–3 May – 54 prisoners stage a three-day protest on the roof of Risley Detention Centre before giving themselves up.
4 May – Margaret Thatcher completes ten years as Prime Minister – the first British Prime Minister of the 20th century to do so.
5 May – The Vale of Glamorgan constituency in South Wales is seized by the Labour Party in a by-election after 38 years of Conservative control.
8 May – More than 3,000 British Rail employees launch an unofficial overtime ban, walking out in protest at the end of their eight-hour shifts.
14 May – A public inquiry, headed by Lord Justice Taylor of Gosforth, begins into the Hillsborough disaster.
18 May – Unemployment is now below 2,000,000 for the first time since 1980. The Conservative government's joy at tackling unemployment is, however, marred by the findings of a MORI poll which shows Labour slightly ahead of them for the first time in almost three years.
19 May – Walshaw Dean Lodge, West Yorkshire, enters the UK Weather Records with the Highest 120-min total rainfall at 193 mm. As of July 2006 this record still stands.
20 May – Liverpool win the FA Cup final with a 3–2 victory over their Merseyside rivals Everton. It is the second all-Merseyside cup final in four seasons, and as happened in 1986, Ian Rush is on the scoresheet for Liverpool twice. Liverpool have won the trophy four times now.
24 May
Sonia Sutcliffe, wife of "Yorkshire Ripper" Peter Sutcliffe, is awarded £600,000 in High Court damages against the satirical magazine Private Eye.
A police raid on a suspected drugs operation at a public house in the Heath Town district of Wolverhampton, leads to a riot in which up to 500 people throw missiles and petrol bombs at police officers.
26 May – Arsenal F.C. win the First Division league title against Liverpool, with a goal from Michael Thomas in the last minute of the last game of the season. Arsenal have now been league champions 9 times but until now hadn't been league champions for 18 years.
30 May – Passport office staff in Liverpool begin an indefinite strike in protest against staffing levels.
June
13 June – The sixteenth James Bond film, Licence to Kill, premieres in London. The first Bond film not to use or paraphrase the title of an Ian Fleming story, it is also the second and last to star Timothy Dalton as the fictional spy.
19 June – Labour wins 45 of Britain's 78 European Parliament constituencies in the European elections, with the Conservatives gaining 32 seats. The Green Party of England and Wales gains 2,300,000 votes (15% of the vote) but fails to gain a single seat. This is the first national election won by the Labour Party since its last general election win 15 years ago.
22 June
Police arrest 260 people celebrating the summer solstice at Stonehenge.
London Underground workers stage their second one-day strike of the year.
24 June – A riot takes place in Dewsbury.
July
1 July – Fears of a property market downturn are heightened when it is reported that many homeowners looking to move are cutting the asking price of their homes by up to 20% in an attempt to speed up the sale of their property, following the property boom of the last 3 years where the price of many homes doubled at the very least.
2 July – An IRA bomb kills a British soldier in Hanover, West Germany.
10 July – House prices in the south of England have fallen for the second successive quarter, but are continuing to rise in Scotland as well as the north of England.
11 July
Britain's dock workers go on strike in protest against the abolition of the Dock Labour Scheme.
Actor and film legend Laurence Olivier, Lord Olivier, dies aged 82 at his home in Ashurst, West Sussex.
13 July – The fall in unemployment continues, with the tally now standing at slightly over 1,800,000 – the lowest in nearly a decade.
17 July – 1,500 British tourists are delayed for up to eight hours by French air traffic control strikes.
19 July – The BBC programme Panorama accuses Shirley Porter, Conservative Leader of Westminster City Council, of gerrymandering.
20 July – Labour's lead in the opinion polls has increased substantially, with the latest MORI poll putting them nine points ahead of the Conservatives on 45%.
25 July – The Princess of Wales opens the Landmark Aids Centre, a day centre for people with AIDS, in London.
28 July – The industrial action by British Rail drivers is reported to be coming to an end as most of the train drivers have ended their overtime ban.
August
1 August – Charlotte Hughes of Marske-by-the-Sea in Cleveland, believed to be the oldest living person in England, celebrates her 112th birthday.
4 August – David Duckenfield, the chief superintendent who took control of the FA Cup semi-final game where the Hillsborough disaster occurred on 15 April this year, is suspended from duty on full pay after an inquiry by Lord Justice Taylor blames him for the tragedy in which 95 people died. Two victims of the tragedy, Andrew Devine (aged 22) and Tony Bland (aged 19) are still unconscious in hospital.
5 August – A train derails near West Ealing station in London, but the passengers escape without serious injuries.
14 August – The West Midlands Police Serious Crime Squad is disbanded when 50 CID detectives are transferred or suspended after repeated allegations that the force has fabricated confessions.
17 August – Introduction of electronic tagging to monitor and supervise crime suspects.
18 August – Manchester United chairman Martin Edwards agrees to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £10million.
20 August – Marchioness disaster: A pleasure boat is in collision with a dredger on the Thames in London in the early hours; 51 people are killed.
26 August – Betteshanger, the last colliery in Kent, closes, signalling the end of the Kent Coalfield after 93 years.
29 August – Stone-throwing youths cause mayhem at the Notting Hill Carnival in London, in which many innocent bystanders are injured.
30 August – The National Trust's house at Uppark in West Sussex is severely damaged by fire.
31 August – Buckingham Palace confirms that The Princess Royal and Captain Mark Phillips are separating after 16 years of marriage.
September
2 September – Economy experts warn that a recession could soon be about to hit the United Kingdom. This would be the second recession in a decade.
7 September – Heidi Hazell, the 26-year-old wife of a British soldier, is shot dead in Dortmund, West Germany.
8 September – The IRA admits responsibility for the murder of Heidi Hazell. The act is condemned as "evil and cowardly" by British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher and as "the work of a psychopath" by Opposition Leader Neil Kinnock.
12 September – 19,000 ambulance crew members across Britain go on strike.
15 September – SLDP leader Paddy Ashdown addresses his party's annual conference in Brighton with a vow to "end Thatcherism" and achieve a long-term aim of getting the SLDP into power.
22 September – Eleven Royal Marines bandsmen are killed in the Deal barracks bombing carried out by the IRA.
27 September – David Owen, leader of the Social Democratic Party "rump" which rejected a merger with the Social and Liberal Democrats, admits that his party is no longer a national force.
29 September – House prices in London have fallen by 3.8% since May, and are now 16% lower than they were at the height of the property boom last year.
October
2 October – Three clergy from the British Council of Protestants cause a disturbance at an Anglican church service in Rome at which the Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie is preaching in protest at his suggestion that the Pope could become the spiritual leader of a united church, while Ian Paisley joins protests outside the service.
8 October – The latest CBI findings spark fear of a recession.
10 October – The World Wrestling Federation holds its first UK event, at the London Arena.
11 October
The Rover Group, Britain's largest independent carmaker, launches its new medium-sized hatchback, the second generation 200 Series which replaces the small four-door saloon of the same name and gives buyers a more modern and upmarket alternative to the ongoing Maestro range which has declined in popularity recently.
The England national football team qualifies for next Summer's FIFA World Cup in Italy when drawing 0–0 with Poland in Warsaw.
12 October – Michael Knighton drops his bid to buy Manchester United.
15 October – Recession fears deepen as stock market prices continue to fall dramatically.
16 October – The Social and Liberal Democrats, formed last year from the merger of the Social Democratic Party and Liberal Party, are renamed the Liberal Democrats.
19 October
The Guildford Four are released from prison after the High Court quashes their convictions for the 1975 terrorist atrocity.
Labour now has a 10-point lead over the Conservatives in the last MORI poll, with 48% of the vote.
21 October – Thousands of people attend a memorial service for Laurence Olivier at Westminster Abbey, during which his ashes are laid to rest in Poets' Corner.
23 October – The police force are now taking medical emergency 999 calls in London due to the ongoing strike by ambulance crews.
26 October – Nigel Lawson resigns as Chancellor of the Exchequer; replaced by John Major, while Douglas Hurd becomes Foreign Secretary.
31 October – British Rail announces that the proposed high-speed rail link to the Channel Tunnel is being postponed for at least one more year.
November
4 November – First showing of the clay animation film A Grand Day Out, introducing the characters Wallace and Gromit, at a film festival in Bristol.
7 November – General Assembly of the Church of England votes to allow ordination of women.
8 November – British Army and Royal Air Force troops are now manning London's ambulance services as the regular ambulance crews are still on strike.
10 November – Margaret Thatcher visits Berlin the day after the fall of the Berlin Wall, which brings the reunification of Germany forward after Germans were allowed to travel between West and East Berlin for the first time since the wall was built in 1961, and between West and East Germany for the first time since the partition of the country after the war.
14 November – The Merry Hill Shopping Centre on the Dudley Enterprise Zone in the West Midlands becomes fully operational with the opening of the final shopping mall. The development, which now employs around 6,000 people, first opened to retailers four years ago with several retail warehousing units, and has gradually expanded to become Europe's largest indoor shopping centre. Construction has now begun on the Waterfront office and leisure complex, also within the Enterprise Zone and overlooking the shopping centre, which will open to its first tenants next year. On 7 November, Don and Roy Richardson, the Centre's developers, had announced plans to build the world's tallest building – a 2,000-foot tower including a hotel and nightclub – on land adjacent to the shopping complex; this never takes place.
16 November – Children Act alters the law in regard to children in England and Wales; in particular, it introduces the notion of parental responsibility in access and custody matters.
21 November
The House of Commons is televised live for the first time.
Nigel Martyn, 23, becomes Britain's first £1million goalkeeper when he is transferred from Bristol Rovers to Crystal Palace.
23 November – 69-year-old backbencher Sir Anthony Meyer challenges Margaret Thatcher's leadership of the Conservative Party, reportedly fearing that the party will lose the next general election after falling behind Labour in several recent opinion polls. Her leadership has never been challenged before in almost 15 years as party leader, more than 10 of which have been spent as prime minister.
30 November – Russell Shankland and Dean Hancock, serving eight-year prison sentences for the manslaughter of taxi driver David Wilkie in South Wales during the miners strike, are released from prison on the fifth anniversary of the crime.
December
December
The M42 motorway is completed when the final section opens, giving the town of Bromsgrove in Worcestershire (some 10 miles south of Birmingham) a direct link with the M5. Also completed this month is the section of the M40 between Warwick and the interchange with the M42 just south of Solihull. The rest of the M40, between Warwick and Oxford, will open next winter.
Last coypu in the wild in Britain is trapped in East Anglia.
The Beer Orders restrict the number of tied pubs that can be owned by large brewery groups to two thousand and require large brewer landlords to allow a guest ale to be sourced by tenants from someone other than their landlord.
3 December
Margaret Thatcher, along with American president George Bush and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, declare the end of the Cold War after over 40 years.
9,000 workers at British carmaker Vauxhall threaten to go on strike – a move which could end Britain's hopes of becoming to a £200million engine plant for General Motors.
A new-look Band Aid forms for a new version of the Do They Know It's Christmas? charity single for African famine relief.
5 December – Margaret Thatcher defeats Anthony Meyer in a leadership election for the Conservative Party, but 60 MPs do not vote for her.
6 December – the original run of Doctor Who is ended by the BBC after 26 years.
8 December – ITV attracts a new record audience of nearly 27,000,000 for the episode of Coronation Street in which Alan Bradley (Mark Eden) is fatally run over by a Blackpool tram.
12 December – Shares in newly privatised regional water industry utility companies (including the largest, Thames Water) achieve premiums of up to 68% in the first day of trading on the Stock Exchange.
18 December
The Labour Party abandons its policy on closed shops.
The second phase of the M40 motorway, linking north Oxfordshire with the Warwickshire/Worcestershire border on the outskirts of the West Midlands conurbation, is opened. The final phase, which links this new motorway with the original London-Oxford section, is due to open within the next year.
23 December – Band Aid II gain the Christmas Number One with their charity record. 5 years ago, the original Band Aid single reached number 1 and achieved the highest sales of any single ever released in the UK.
24 December – The iconic British Airways Face advert is first aired. Made by advertising firm Saatchi & Saatchi, having been written by Graham Fink and Jeremy Clarke, with Hugh Hudson as director, it is often considered to became a classic television commercial.
27 December – SDP leader David Owen predicts another 10 years of Conservative rule, despite Neil Kinnock's Labour Party having a seven-point lead over the Conservatives with 46% of the vote in the final MORI poll of the decade.
30 December – 22 people involved in the Lockerbie disaster are among those recognised in the New Year's Honours list, while there are knighthoods for former Liberal leader David Steel and the actress Maggie Smith becomes a Dame. Recipients of sporting honours include the boxer Frank Bruno and the golfer Tony Jacklin, both of whom are credited with MBEs.
Undated
Inflation increases significantly this year, standing at 7.8% – the highest for seven years.
Fears of a recession are deepened by the economy's overall growth rate dropping to 1.7%, the lowest since 1981.
House prices in London fall to an average of £86,800 this year – a 10% decrease on the 1988 average.
After spending most of the decade closed down, Whiteleys in London reopens as a shopping centre.
Remains of The Rose and Globe Theatre discovered in London.
Permanent gates are installed across Downing Street in London by the end of the year.
Red kites reintroduced to England and Scotland.
A record of more than 2.3 million new cars are sold in Britain this year. The Ford Escort is Britain's best selling car for the eighth year running, managing more than 180,000 sales, while the Volkswagen Golf is Britain's most popular foreign car with well over 50,000 sales. Ford achieves the largest sales of any carmaker in Britain for the 15th year in a row, helped by the launch of the third-generation Fiesta in April while Vauxhall has now overtaken the Rover Group as Britain's second best selling carmaker. The UK new car sales record has been broken six times in the last seven years.
Britain experiences its worst flu epidemic since the winter of 1975–76, with cases peaking in mid-November. Over a million infections are recorded by December, with an increase in flu-related deaths, while hospitals are forced to cancel surgery.
Publications
Iain Banks' novel Canal Dreams.
Julian Barnes' novel A History of the World in 10½ Chapters.
Julie Burchill's novel Ambition.
William Golding's novel Fire Down Below, third in the To the Ends of the Earth trilogy.
Roger Penrose's book The Emperor's New Mind: Concerning Computers, Minds and The Laws of Physics.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Pyramids and Guards! Guards!; and The Bromeliad novel Truckers.
Rose Tremain's novel Restoration
Births
1 January – Zoe Boyle, actress
3 January
Alex Hales, cricketer
Anthony Wordsworth, footballer
6 January – Andy Carroll, English footballer
9 January – Jordan Turner, English rugby league player
11 January – Chris Perry-Metcalf, actor
13 January – Matt Stokoe, English actor
17 January – Hollie-Jay Bowes, actress
21 January – Katie Griffiths, actress
23 January – April Pearson, actress
26 January
Hannah Arterton, actress
Imogen Cairns, gymnast
27 January – Daisy Lowe, fashion model
28 January – Carly Paoli, mezzo-soprano
7 February – Louisa Lytton, English actress and dancer
8 February – Dani Harmer, actress
17 February – Rebecca Adlington, Olympic gold medal-winning swimmer
24 February – Daniel Kaluuya, actor and screenwriter
27 February
Lloyd Rigby, footballer
Sam Sweeney, folk musician
2 March
Nathalie Emmanuel, actress
Chris Woakes, cricketer
13 March
Peaches Geldof, performer (d. 2014)
Harry Melling, English actor
16 March – Theo Walcott, footballer
21 March – Rochelle Humes, singer and TV presenter
25 March – Scott Sinclair, English footballer
26 March – Sam Pepper, internet personality
28 March – David Goodwillie, Scottish footballer
1 April – Royce Pierreson, actor
5 April – Lily James, English actress
19 April – Sam Tordoff, racing driver
22 April
Catherine Banner, author
James McClean, Northern Irish footballer
5 May – Larissa Wilson, actress
21 May – Kate Phillips, actress
31 May – Sean Thornley, tennis player
3 June – Imogen Poots, actress
8 June – Richard Fleeshman, actor
12 June – Dale Stephens, footballer
23 June – Lauren Bennett, singer, dancer, painter, photographer and model
25 June – Sam Ryder, singer-songwriter
26 June – Magid Magid, Somali-born British politician and activist
27 June – Matthew Lewis, actor
1 July
Mitch Hewer, actor
Hannah Murray, actress
2 July – Tom Zanetti, DJ and rapper
11 July – Aden Flint, footballer
16 July – Gareth Bale, Welsh footballer
21 July
Juno Temple, actress
Jamie Waylett, actor
23 July – Daniel Radcliffe, actor (Harry Potter films)
9 August – Lucy Dixon, English actress
20 August – Judd Trump, snooker player
21 August – Rob Knox, English actor (died 2008)
29 August – Charlotte Ritchie, actress and singer
1 September – Daniel Sturridge, footballer
7 September
Holly Colvin, cricketer
Hugh Mitchell, actor
14 September – Jessica Brown Findlay, actress
18 September – Chris Eubank Jr, boxer
21 September – Ben Mee, footballer
22 September – Michael Heaver, English politician, MEP
25 September – Vick Hope, television and radio presenter
26 September
Emma Rigby, actress
Kieran Gibbs, English footballer
Jonny Bairstow, English cricketer
15 October – Anthony Joshua, boxer
20 October – Jess Glynne, pop singer-songwriter
30 October – Ashley Barnes, footballer
3 November
Elliott Tittensor, actor
Luke Tittensor, actor
5 November – Andrew Boyce, English footballer
9 November
Jennifer Pike, violinist
Murugan Thiruchelvam, chess player
10 November – Taron Egerton, Welsh actor. born in england
15 November – Joe Westerman, rugby league player
18 November – Marc Albrighton, English footballer
21 November – Fabian Delph, English footballer
26 November – Junior Stanislas, footballer
27 November – Freddie Sears, footballer
28 November
Claire Brookin, darts player
Ayesha Gwilt, actress
Martin Hare, handball player
7 December – Nicholas Hoult, actor
12 December – Harry Eden, actor
15 December – Lady Leshurr, rapper, singer and producer
18 December – Emily Atack, actress
28 December – Harry Arter, footballer
Unknown date – Roshonara Choudhry, Islamic terrorist convicted of the attempted murder of MP Stephen Timms
Deaths
January
1 January – Joseph Petre, 17th Baron Petre, peer (born 1914)
3 January – Errol Le Cain, artist (born 1941, Singapore)
6 January – Rhoda Sutherland, linguist (born 1906)
7 January – Frank Adams, mathematician (born 1930)
10 January – Beatrice Lillie, actress, singer and comedic performer
11 January
George Abell, civil servant (born 1904)
Peter Nichols, journalist (born 1928)
Sir Geoffrey Tuttle, RAF air marshal (born 1906)
14 January – Richard Warner, actor (born 1911)
15 January – Wendy Foster, architect (born 1937)
16 January – Joseph Henry Lynch, artist (born 1911)
18 January – Bruce Chatwin, novelist and travel writer (born 1940)
19 January – Norma Varden, actress (born 1898)
20 January – John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton, Army general (born 1896)
21 January – Chris Greenham, film sound engineer (born 1923)
23 January
John Lyon-Dalberg-Acton, 3rd Baron Acton, peer and soldier (born 1907)
Michael Layton, 2nd Baron Layton, peer (born 1912)
Angus Morrison, pianist (born 1902)
27 January
Arthur Marshall, writer and broadcaster (born 1910)
Sir Thomas Sopwith, aviation pioneer and yachtsman (born 1888)
31 January – Audrey Beecham, poet, teacher and historian (born 1915)
February
1 February – Sir James Drake, civil engineer (born 1907)
3 February – Sir John Davis, RAF air marshal (born 1911)
11 February
T. E. B. Clarke, screenwriter (born 1907)
Margery Hurst, businesswoman (born 1913)
12 February – Pat Finucane, Northern Irish lawyer (murdered by the Provisional IRA) (born 1949)
14 February – Vincent Crane, musician (born 1944)
17 February – Ian Fraser, Baron Fraser of Tullybelton, judge (born 1911)
18 February
John Bailey, actor (born 1912)
Dixie Deans, RAF pilot (born 1914)
Ann Davidson Kelly, social worker (born 1912)
21 February – Denys Corley Smith, author and journalist (born 1922)
22 February – Sir Raymond Gower, Conservative Party MP (born 1916)
25 February – Richard Sidney Sayers, economist and historian (born 1908)
26 February – Joseph Fenton, Northern Irish estate agent (murdered by the Provisional IRA) (born c. 1953)
28 February – Sir Douglas Kendrew, Army major-general and rugby player (born 1910)
March
5 March – Alice Garnett, geographer (born 1903)
6 March – Harry Andrews, actor (born 1911)
12 March – Maurice Evans, actor (born 1901)
13 March – L. E. Baynes, aeronautical engineer (born 1902)
15 March – Henry Cass, film director (born 1903)
16 March
Alan Redpath, clergyman and author (born 1907)
Marcus Morris, publisher and Anglican priest (born 1915)
18 March – Sir Harold Jeffreys, mathematician (born 1891)
19 March – Charles Lamb, actor (born 1900)
22 March
Margaret Kidd, lawyer and politician (born 1900)
Peta Taylor, cricketer (born 1912)
23 March – Bob McTaggart, Labour Party MP (born 1945)
24 March – Sir Edmund Stockdale, banker (born 1903)
April
1 April
Richard Austin, orchestral conductor (born 1903)
George Robledo, Chilean-born footballer based in Britain (born 1926)
4 April
Keith Andrews, art historian (born 1920)
John Gretton, 3rd Baron Gretton, peer (born 1941)
John W. Todd, physician (born 1912)
5 April – Geoffrey Binnie, civil engineer (born 1908)
10 April – Joan Barry, actress (born 1903; died in Spain)
11 April – Sir Alexander Giles, colonial administrator (born 1915)
12 April – Gerald Flood, actor (born 1927)
15 April – William Samuel Fyffe, Northern Irish politician (born 1914)
19 April – Dame Daphne du Maurier, novelist (born 1907)
20 April – Lydia Sherwood, actress (born 1906)
22 April – Paul Beard, violinist (born 1901)
25 April
George Coulouris, actor (born 1903)
Alan Robertson, geneticist (born 1920)
28 April – Stanley Roy Badmin, artist (born 1906)
29 April – Leonard Redshaw, shipbuilder (born 1911)
May
3 May – Roland Robinson, 1st Baron Martonmere, Conservative politician and Governor of Bermuda (1964–1972) (born 1907)
17 May – Jeffrey Thomas, Labour politician (born 1933)
18 May
Geoffrey Gilbert, flautist (born 1914)
Felicity Shaw, writer (born 1916)
19 May – C. L. R. James, writer and journalist (born 1901)
20 May – John Hicks, economist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1904)
22 May – George Ian Scott, Scottish ophthalmic surgeon (born 1907)
24 May – George Lambert, 2nd Viscount Lambert, politician (born 1909)
26 May – Don Revie, footballer, manager of Leeds United and the England national football team (born 1927)
27 May – Ronald Gibson, physician (born 1909)
29 May – Nora Barlow, Lady Barlow, botanist and geneticist (born 1885)
June
4 June – Cecil Collins, artist (born 1908)
6 June – Richard Kahn, Baron Kahn, economist (born 1905)
7 June – Steve Henshaw, motorcycle racer (killed while racing) (born 1954)
9 June – James Lawrence Isherwood, artist (born 1917)
11 June – Ronald Eric Bishop, aircraft engineer and designer (de Havilland Mosquito, de Havilland Comet) (born 1903)
14 June
Pete de Freitas, rock musician, drummer with band Echo and the Bunnymen (born 1961)
William Stephenson, psychologist (born 1902)
15 June
Geoffrey Alexander, actor (born 1921)
Richard Byron, 12th Baron Byron, peer and Army officer (born 1899)
16 June – John Westbrook, actor (born 1922)
25 June – Idris Cox, Welsh communist activist and journalist (born 1899)
27 June
Sir Alfred Ayer, philosopher (born 1910)
Samuel Newby Curle, mathematician (born 1930)
July
1 July
Joan Cooper, actress and wife of Arthur Lowe (born 1922)
Dora Gaitskell, widow of Labour Party leader Hugh Gaitskell (born 1901)
2 July – Ben Wright, actor (born 1915)
4 July – Jack Haig, actor (born 1913)
5 July – Berthold Wolpe, German-born calligrapher, typographer and illustrator (born 1905)
10 July – Tommy Trinder, comedian and actor (born 1909)
11 July – Laurence Olivier (Lord Olivier), actor, director and producer (born 1907)
14 July – Frank Bell, linguist and academic (born 1916)
15 July
Laurie Cunningham, English footballer based in Spain (born 1956)
Leonard Harrison, RAF officer (born 1905)
Dennis Wilson, composer (born 1920)
16 July – Sir Brynmor Jones, academic (born 1903)
19 July
J. M. Cohen, translator (born 1903)
Colin Crowe, diplomat (born 1913)
23 July
Charles Edward Foister, botanist (born 1903)
Henry Raynor, musicologist (born 1917)
Michael Sundin, Blue Peter presenter (born 1961)
28 July – B. V. Bowden, Baron Bowden, scientist (born 1910)
31 July – Francis Lane Fox, Army lieutenant-colonel (born 1899)
August
1 August – John Ogdon, pianist (born 1937)
2 August – Euphemia Cunningham, munitions worker in World War I (born 1892)
4 August
Maurice Colbourne, actor (born 1939)
Geoffrey Cross, Baron Cross of Chelsea, judge (born 1904)
8 August
Brian Naylor, racing driver (born 1923)
Audrey Russell, journalist (born 1906)
10 August – Isabella Forshall, pediatric surgeon (born 1900)
15 August – William Sydney Atkins, engineer and entrepreneur (born 1902)
17 August – Harry Corbett, magician, puppeteer and television presenter, creator of Sooty (born 1918)
22 August – Charles Hill, Baron Hill of Luton, physician and politician (born 1904)
23 August – R. D. Laing, psychiatrist (born 1927)
24 August – Marjorie Pratt, Countess of Brecknock, courtier and socialite (born 1900)
29 August – Peter Scott, ornithologist, conservationist and painter, son of Captain Robert Falcon Scott (born 1909)
September
2 September – Clifton Parker, composer (born 1905)
4 September – William Taylor, ophthalmologist (born 1912)
5 September
Philip Baxter, chemical engineer (born 1905)
William Mann, music critic (born 1924, India)
8 September – Ann George, actress (born 1903)
10 September – James Shaw, Baron Kilbrandon, judge (born 1906)
13 September
Kathleen Bliss, theologian (born 1908)
Jenny Hyslop, community leader (born 1898)
14 September – Raymond Codling, police inspector (murdered) (born 1939)
18 September – Alexander Fletcher, Conservative politician (born 1929)
19 September – Vera Barclay, author and Scouting pioneer (born 1893)
27 September – Dorothea Ramsey, social worker (born 1904)
28 September – Francis Ronald Swain, RAF air commodore (born 1903)
October
1 October
Eric Ball, composer (born 1903)
David Lindesay-Bethune, 15th Earl of Lindsay, peer and soldier (born 1926)
4 October – Graham Chapman, comedian (born 1941)
7 October – George Green, trade union leader (born 1908)
8 October – Anne Dawson, World War I spy (born 1896)
20 October – Sir Anthony Quayle, actor (born 1913)
22 October – Ewan MacColl, singer-songwriter and activist (born 1915)
27 October – Allan Campbell McLean, writer and political activist (born 1922)
28 October – Henry Hall, bandleader (born 1898)
31 October – Roger Scott, radio presenter (born 1943)
November
1 November
Peter Childs, actor (born 1939)
Leslie Runciman, 2nd Viscount Runciman of Doxford, peer (born 1900)
2 November – Frederick Gordon-Lennox, 9th Duke of Richmond, peer (born 1904)
8 November – Olive Henry, artist (born 1902)
11 November – Nicholas Freeman, Conservative politician (born 1939)
14 November – Jimmy Murphy, footballer and coach (born 1910)
17 November – David Blundy, journalist (born 1945; murdered in Ecuador)
21 November
Edward Bawden, artist (born 1903)
Peter Burton, actor (born 1921)
22 November – Billy Milton, actor (born 1905)
29 November – Gubby Allen, Australian-born England cricketer and cricket administrator (born 1902)
December
2 December – William Taylour, archaeologist (born 1904)
4 December
Elwyn Jones, Baron Elwyn-Jones, Labour politician (born 1909)
Kathleen Manners, Duchess of Rutland, aristocrat (born 1894)
5 December – Sir John Pritchard, conductor (born 1918)
6 December – Joyce Howard Barrell, composer (born 1917)
7 December – Sirima (Sirima Nicole Waratunga), singer (born 1964; murdered)
10 December – Sam Barkas, footballer (born 1910)
11 December – Howard Lang, actor (born 1911)
13 December – Roderick Mackenzie, 4th Earl of Cromartie, Scottish peer and soldier (born 1904)
15 December – Edward Underdown, actor (born 1908)
16 December – Marjorie Westbury, actress (born 1905)
17 December
Edward Boyd, scriptwriter (born 1916)
J. Alastair Montgomerie, businessman (born 1914)
Sir Charles Norris, Royal Navy vice-admiral (born 1900)
19 December – Stella Gibbons, novelist, journalist, poet and short-story writer (born 1902)
21 December
Sir Hugh Elliott, 3rd Baronet, ornithologist and conservationist (born 1913)
Elsie Griffin, opera singer (born 1895)
23 December
Peter Bennett, actor (born 1917)
John Cavendish, 5th Baron Chesham, politician (born 1916)
24 December – Charles Moore, 11th Earl of Drogheda, peer (born 1910)
26 December
Sir Lennox Berkeley, composer (born 1903)
Walter Bromley-Davenport, Conservative politician (born 1903)
Sybil Cholmondeley, Marchioness of Cholmondeley, aristocrat (born 1894)
Denis Garrett, mycologist and plant pathologist (born 1906)
Paul Jennings, author and humorist (born 1918)
Peggy Thorpe-Bates, actress (born 1914)
27 December
John Monteath Robertson, Scottish chemist (born 1900)
Edmund Warwick, actor (born 1907)
28 December – William Scott, Ulster Scots painter (born 1913)
30 December – Madoline Thomas, actress (born 1890)
31 December – Margaret Gordon, illustrator (born 1939)
See also
1989 in British music
1989 in British television
List of British films of 1989
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5198908
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Spanish%20language
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History of the Spanish language
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The language known today as Spanish is derived from spoken Latin, which was brought to the Iberian Peninsula by the Romans after their occupation of the peninsula that started in the late 3rd century BC. Today it is the world's 4th most widely spoken language, after English, Mandarin Chinese and Hindi. Influenced by the peninsular hegemony of Al-Andalus in the early middle ages, Hispano-Romance varieties borrowed substantial lexicon from Arabic. Upon the southward territorial expansion of the Kingdom of Castile, Hispano-Romance norms associated to this polity displaced both Arabic and the Mozarabic romance varieties in the conquered territories, even though the resulting speech also assimilated features from the latter in the process. The first standard written norm of Spanish was brought forward in the 13th century by Alfonso X the Wise (who used Castilian, i.e. Spanish, along Latin as language of the administration), probably drawing from the speech of the upper classes of Toledo. Features associated with the Castilian patterns of Hispano-Romance also spread west and east to the kingdoms of León and Aragón for the rest of the middle ages, owing to the political prestige achieved by the Kingdom of Castile in the peninsular context and to the lesser literary development of their vernacular norms. From the 1560s onward the standard written form followed Madrid's.
The Spanish language expanded overseas in the Early Modern period in the wake of the Spanish conquests in the Americas (as well as the Canary Islands). Besides the Caribbean, the colonial administration in the new territories had its main centres of power located in Mexico City and Lima, which retained more features from the central peninsular norm than other more peripheral territories of the Spanish Empire, where adoption of patterns from the southern peninsular norm of Seville (the largest city of the Crown in the 16th century and the port linking to the Americas) was more pervasive, even though in other regards the influence from the latter norm (associated to Andalusian Spanish) came to be preponderant in the entire Americas. Spanish varieties henceforth borrowed influence from Amerindian languages, primarily coming from the Caribbean, the Central-Andean and Mesoamerican regions. Today it is the official language of 20 countries, as well as an official language of numerous international organizations, including the United Nations.
Main distinguishing features
The development of Spanish phonology is distinguished from those of other nearby Romance languages (e.g. Portuguese, Catalan) by several features:
diphthongization of Latin stressed short E and O in closed syllables as well as open (, vs. Portuguese )
devoicing and further development of the medieval Spanish sibilants, producing (1) the velar fricative in words such as , , , and (2)—in many dialects of Spain, including the prestige varieties of Madrid, Toledo, etc.—the interdental in words such as , , and
debuccalization and eventual loss of Latin initial in most contexts, marked in modern spelling by the silent ⟨h⟩ of words such as , , (from Latin , , and respectively. Also in Gascon: , huelha)
early fricativization of palatal (from Vulgar Latin -LJ-, -CL-, -GL-), first into palatal and ultimately into velar , e.g., →, * → , * → ; cf. Portuguese )
development of initial PL-, CL-, FL- into palatal in many words, e.g., → , → , → ; cf. Portuguese , Catalan )
Vulgar Latin initial (from J-, DJ-, G(E)-, G(I)-) remains before , and , subsequently disappearing in an unstressed syllable (→, →, →, →, →, → vs. Portuguese )
The following features are characteristic of Spanish phonology and also of some other Ibero-Romance languages, but not the Romance languages as a whole:
palatalization of Latin -NN- and -LL- into and (año, caballo) (also in Catalan: any, cavall).
the phonemic merger of and , making, for example, the noun tubo and the verb tuvo phonetically equivalent (in all contexts except those of hypercorrection or spelling pronunciation) (also in Galician, Northern European Portuguese and some Catalan and Occitan varieties)
spirantization of , , and → , and —not only from original Latin B, D, and G (as in Sp. probar, sudar, legumbre), but also from Latin *V, P, T, and C (as in Sp. tuvo, sabe, vida, lago) (also in Galician, European Portuguese, Catalan and parts of Occitan)
The Latin system of four verb conjugations (form classes) is reduced to three in Spanish. The Latin infinitives with the endings -ĀRE, -ĒRE, and -ĪRE become Spanish infinitives in -ar, -er, and -ir respectively. The Latin third conjugation—infinitives ending in -ĔRE—are redistributed between the Spanish -er and -ir classes (e.g. facere → hacer, dicere → decir).
Spanish verbal morphology continues the use of some Latin synthetic forms that were replaced by analytic ones in spoken French and (partly) Italian (cf. Sp. lavó, Fr. il a lavé), and the Spanish subjunctive mood maintains separate present and past-tense forms.
Spanish syntax provides overt marking for some direct objects (the so-called "personal a", see differential object marking for the general phenomenon), and uses clitic doubling with indirect objects, in which a "redundant" pronoun (le, les) appears even in the presence of an explicit noun phrase. (Neither feature occurs in other Western Romance languages, but both are features of Romanian, with pe < PER corresponding to Spanish a.) With regard to subject pronouns, Spanish is a pro-drop language, meaning that the verb phrase can often stand alone without the use of a subject pronoun (or a subject noun phrase). In some cases, such as with impersonal verbs referring to meteorological (llover, to rain; nevar, to snow) or other natural phenomena (amanecer, to get light out; anochecer, to get dark out), it is ungrammatical to include a subject. Compared to other Romance languages, Spanish has a somewhat freer syntax with relatively fewer restrictions on subject-verb-object word order.
Due to prolonged language contact with other languages, the Spanish lexicon contains loanwords from Basque, Hispano-Celtic (Celtiberian and Gallaecian), Iberian, Germanic (Gothic), Arabic and indigenous languages of the Americas.
Accents—used in Modern Spanish to mark the vowel of the stressed syllable in words where stress is not predictable from rules—came into use sporadically in the 15th century, and massively in the 16th century. Their use began to be standardized with the advent of the Spanish Royal Academy in the 18th century. See also Spanish orthography.
External history
The standard Spanish language is also called Castilian in its original variant, and in order to distinguish it from other languages native to parts of Spain, such as Galician, Catalan, Basque, etc. In its earliest documented form, and up through approximately the 15th century, the language is customarily called Old Spanish. From approximately the 16th century on, it is called Modern Spanish. Spanish of the 16th and 17th centuries is sometimes called "classical" Spanish, referring to the literary accomplishments of that period. Unlike English and French, it is not customary to speak of a "middle" stage in the development of Spanish.
Origins
Castilian Spanish originated (after the decline of the Roman Empire) as a continuation of spoken Latin in several areas of northern and central Spain. Eventually, the variety spoken in the city of Toledo around the 13th century became the basis for the written standard. With the Reconquista, this northern dialect spread to the south, where it almost entirely replaced or absorbed the local Romance dialects, at the same time as it borrowed many words from Andalusi Arabic and was influenced by Mozarabic (the Romance speech of Christians living in Moorish territory) and medieval Judaeo-Spanish (Ladino). These languages had vanished in the Iberian Peninsula by the late 16th century.
The prestige of Castile and its language was propagated partly by the exploits of Castilian heroes in the battles of the Reconquista—among them Fernán González and Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar (El Cid)—and by the narrative poems about them that were recited in Castilian even outside the original territory of that dialect.
The "first written Spanish" was traditionally considered to have appeared in the Glosas Emilianenses located in San Millán de la Cogolla, La Rioja. These are "glosses" (translations of isolated words and phrases in a form more like Hispanic Romance than Latin) added between the lines of a manuscript that was written earlier in Latin. Nowadays the language of the Glosas Emilianenses is considered to be closer to the Navarro-Aragonese language than to Spanish proper. Estimates of their date vary from the late 10th to the early 11th century.
The first steps toward standardization of written Castilian were taken in the 13th century by King Alfonso X of Castile, known as Alfonso el Sabio (Alfonso the Wise), in his court in Toledo. He assembled scribes at his court and supervised their writing, in Castilian, of extensive works on history, astronomy, law, and other fields of knowledge.
Antonio de Nebrija wrote the first grammar of Spanish, Gramática de la lengua castellana, and presented it, in 1492, to Queen Isabella, who is said to have had an early appreciation of the usefulness of the language as a tool of hegemony, as if anticipating the empire that was about to be founded with the voyages of Columbus.
Because Old Spanish resembles the modern written language to a relatively high degree, a reader of Modern Spanish can learn to read medieval documents without much difficulty.
The Spanish Royal Academy was founded in 1713, largely with the purpose of standardizing the language. The Academy published its first dictionary in six volumes over the period 1726–1739, and its first grammar in 1771, and it continues to produce new editions of both from time to time. (The Academy's dictionary is now accessible on the Internet.) Today, each of the Spanish-speaking countries has an analogous language academy, and an Association of Spanish Language Academies was created in 1951.
America
Beginning in the late fifteenth century, the discovery and colonization of the Americas by Spanish explorers brought the language across the Atlantic and to Mexico, Central America, and western and southern South America. Under the Spanish Crown, the language was used as a tool for colonization by Spanish soldiers, missionaries, conquistadors, and entrepreneurs. In the coming centuries, their descendants continued to spread the language.
Use of the language in the Americas was continued by descendants of the Spaniards: Spanish criollos and Mestizos. After the wars of independence fought by these colonies in the 19th century, the new ruling elites extended their Spanish to the whole population, including the Amerindian majority, to strengthen national unity, and nowadays it is the first and official language of the resulting republics, except in very isolated parts of the former Spanish colonies.
In the late 19th century, the still-Spanish colonies of Cuba and Puerto Rico encouraged more immigrants from Spain, and similarly other Spanish-speaking countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, and to a lesser extent Chile, Colombia, Mexico, Panama and Venezuela, attracted waves of European immigration, Spanish and non-Spanish, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. There, the countries' large (or sizable minority) population groups of second- and third-generation descendants adopted the Spanish language as part of their governments' official assimilation policies to include Europeans. In some countries, they had to be Catholics and agreed to take an oath of allegiance to their chosen nation's government.
When Puerto Rico became a possession of the United States as a consequence of the Spanish–American War, its population—almost entirely of Spanish and mixed Afro-Caribbean/Spanish (mulatto and mestizo) descent—retained its inherited Spanish language as a mother tongue, in co-existence with the American-imposed English as co-official. In the 20th century, more than a million Puerto Ricans migrated to the mainland U.S. (see Puerto Ricans in the United States).
A similar situation occurred in the American Southwest, including California, Arizona, New Mexico and Texas, where Spaniards, then criollos (Tejanos, Californios, etc.) followed by Chicanos (Mexican Americans) and later Mexican immigrants, kept the Spanish language alive before, during and after the American appropriation of those territories following the Mexican–American War. Spanish continues to be used by millions of citizens and immigrants to the United States from Spanish-speaking countries of the Americas (for example, many Cubans arrived in Miami, Florida, beginning with the Cuban Revolution in 1959, and followed by other Latin American groups; the local majority is now Spanish-speaking). Spanish is now treated as the country's "second language," and over 5 percent of the U.S. population are Spanish-speaking, but most Latino/Hispanic Americans are bilingual or also regularly speak English.
Africa
The presence of Spanish in Equatorial Guinea dates from the late 18th century, and it was adopted as the official language when independence was granted in 1968.
Spanish is widely spoken in Western Sahara, which was a protectorate/colony of Spain from the 1880s to the 1970s.
Judaeo-Spanish
In 1492 Spain expelled its Jewish population. Their Judaeo-Spanish language, called Ladino, developed along its own lines and continues to be spoken by a dwindling number of speakers, mainly in Israel, Turkey, and Greece.
In the Pacific
In the Marianas, the Spanish language was retained until the Pacific War, but is no longer spoken there by any significant number of people. As part of Chile since 1888, Spanish is spoken by most people in Easter Island along with Rapa Nui language.
Spain
Language politics in Francoist Spain declared Spanish as the only official language in Spain, and to this day it is the most widely used language in government, business, public education, the workplace, cultural arts, and the media. But in the 1960s and 1970s, the Spanish parliament agreed to allow provinces to use, speak, and print official documents in three other languages: Catalan for Catalonia, Balearic Islands and Valencia; Basque for the
Basque provinces and Navarre, and Galician for Galicia. Since 1975, following the death of Franco, Spain has become a multi-party democracy and decentralized country, constituted in autonomous communities. Under this system, some languages of Spain—such as Aranese (an Occitan language of northwestern Catalonia), Basque, Catalan/Valencian, and Galician—have gained co-official status in their respective geographical areas. Others—such as Aragonese, Asturian and Leonese—have been recognized by regional governments.
International projection
When the United Nations organization was founded in 1945, Spanish was designated one of its five official languages (along with Chinese, English, French, and Russian; a sixth language, Arabic, was added in 1973).
The list of Nobel laureates in Literature includes eleven authors who wrote in Spanish (José Echegaray, Jacinto Benavente, Gabriela Mistral, Juan Ramón Jiménez, Miguel Ángel Asturias, Pablo Neruda, Vicente Aleixandre, Gabriel García Márquez, Camilo José Cela, Octavio Paz, and Mario Vargas Llosa).
Influences
The mention of "influences" on the Spanish language refers primarily to lexical borrowing. Throughout its history, Spanish has accepted loanwords, first from pre-Roman languages (including Basque, Iberian, Celtiberian and Gallaecian), and later from Greek, from Germanic languages, from Arabic, from neighboring Romance languages, from Native American languages, and from English.
The most frequently used word that entered Spanish from (or through) Basque is "left". Basque is perhaps most evident in some common Spanish surnames, including García and Echeverría. Basque place names also are prominent throughout Spain, because many Castilians who took part in the Reconquista and repopulation of Moorish Iberia by Christians were of Basque lineage. Iberian and Celtiberian likewise are thought to have contributed place names to Spain. Words of everyday use that are attributed to Celtic sources include camino "road", carro "cart", colmena "hive", and cerveza "beer". Suffixes such as -iego: mujeriego "womanizer" and -ego: gallego "Galician" are also attributed to Celtic sources.
Influence of Basque phonology is credited by some researchers with softening the Spanish labiodentals: turning labiodental to bilabial , and ultimately deleting labiodental . Others negate or downplay Basque phonological influence, claiming that these changes occurred in the affected dialects wholly as a result of factors internal to the language, not outside influence. It is also possible that the two forces, internal and external, worked in concert and reinforced each other.
Some words of Greek origin were already present in the spoken Latin that became Spanish. Additionally, many Greek words formed part of the language of the Church. Spanish also borrowed Ancient Greek vocabulary in the areas of medical, technical, and scientific language, beginning as early as the 13th century.
The influence of Germanic languages is very little on phonological development, but rather is found mainly in the Spanish lexicon. Words of Germanic origin are common in all varieties of Spanish. The modern words for the cardinal directions (norte, este, sur, oeste), for example, are all taken from Germanic words (compare north, east, south and west in Modern English), after the contact with Atlantic sailors. These words did not exist in Spanish prior to the 15th century. Instead, "north" and "south" were and respectively (both virtually obsolete in Modern Spanish as nouns, unlike their not uncommon adjectival counterparts septentrional and meridional), while "east" was oriente (or levante), and "west" was occidente (or poniente). These older words for "east" and "west" continue to have some use in Modern Spanish.
In 711 the Iberian Peninsula was invaded by Moors, who brought in the Arabic language. For about eight hundred years, until the fall of the Emirate of Granada (1492), Spanish borrowed thousands of words from Andalusi Arabic, such as alcalde "mayor", álgebra "algebra", aceite "oil", zanahoria "carrot", alquiler "rent", achacar "to blame", adelfa "oleander", barrio "neighbourhood", chaleco "vest", to name just a few; making up 8% of the Spanish dictionary—the second largest lexical influence on Spanish after Latin. It is thought that the bilingualism of the Mozarabs facilitated the large transfer of vocabulary from Arabic to Castilian.
The neighboring Romance languages—such as Galician/Portuguese, Catalan, French, and Occitan—contributed greatly to the Spanish lexicon throughout the Middle Ages and into the modern era. Borrowing from Italian occurred most frequently in the 16th and 17th centuries, due largely to the influence of the Italian Renaissance.
The creation of the Spanish Empire in the New World led to lexical borrowing from indigenous languages of the Americas, especially vocabulary dealing with flora, fauna, and cultural concepts unique to the Americas.
Borrowing from English has become especially strong, beginning in the 20th century, with words borrowed from many fields of activity, including sports, technology, and commerce.
The incorporation into Spanish of learned, or "bookish" words from its own ancestor language, Latin, is arguably another form of lexical borrowing through the influence of written language and the liturgical language of the Church. Throughout the Middle Ages and into the early modern period, most literate Spanish-speakers were also literate in Latin; and thus they easily adopted Latin words into their writing—and eventually speech—in Spanish. The form of Latin that Spaniards spoke and the loanwords came from was Classical Latin, but also Renaissance Latin, the form of Latin used in original works of the time.
Internal history
Spanish shares with other Romance languages most of the phonological and grammatical changes that characterized Vulgar Latin, such as the abandonment of distinctive vowel length, the loss of the case system for nouns, and the loss of deponent verbs.
Syncope
Syncope in the history of Spanish refers to the loss of an unstressed vowel from the syllable immediately preceding or following the stressed syllable. Early in its history, Spanish lost such vowels where they preceded or followed R or L, and between S and T.
*Solitario, which is derived from sōlitārium, is a learned word; cf. the alternate form soltero. As also "fábula" from "fabulam", although this last one has a different meaning in Spanish.
Later, after the time of intervocalic voicing, unstressed vowels were lost between other combinations of consonants:
Words capital, computar, hospital, recitar and vindicar are learned words; cf. capitālem, computāre, hospitālem, recitāre, and vindicāre and alternate forms caudal, contar, hostal, rezar, and vengar.
Elision
While voiceless intervocalic consonants regularly became voiced, many voiced intervocalic stops (d, g, and occasionally b) were dropped from words altogether through a process called elision. Latin between vowels usually changed to in Old Spanish (e.g. habēre > aver), while Latin became (sapere > saber). In modern times the two phonemes merged into (haber, saber), realized as between vowels (see Betacism). Latin voiced stops—, , and , which are represented orthographically as B, D, and G respectively—and also occurred in intervocalic positions also underwent lenition: , , and , but appeared in Spanish also through learned words from Classical Latin.
Many forms with d and g preserved, e.g. ligar, legal, dígito, crudo, are learned words (Latinisms); cf. the alternate forms liar, leal, dedo and Old Spanish cruo and its Latin origin crūdus.
An exemption to the rule: The retention of the d and g is due to the invalidity of the -ao, -aa, -oo, and -oa hiatuses in Old Spanish that would result from dropping it.
Voicing and spirantization
In virtually all the Western Romance languages, the Latin voiceless stops—, , and , which are represented orthographically as P, T, and C (including Q) respectively—where they occurred in an "intervocalic" environment (qualified below), underwent one, two, or three successive stages of lenition, from voicing to spirantization to, in some cases, elision (deletion). In Spanish these three consonants generally undergo both voicing and spirantization, resulting in voiced fricatives: , , and , respectively. Although it was once speculated that this change came about as a transfer of phonological features from substrate Celtic and Basque languages, which were in geographical proximity to Iberian Vulgar Latin (see Sprachbund), it is now widely recognized that such change is a natural internal development. Intervocalic , , and reappeared in Spanish through learned words from Classical Latin and also appeared in Spanish through consonant cluster simplification from Vulgar Latin (see below), and Latin voiced stops—, , and , which are represented orthographically as B, D, and G respectively—and also occurred in intervocalic positions also underwent lenition: , , and , but appeared in Spanish also through learned words from Classical Latin and also appeared in Spanish through consonant cluster simplification from Vulgar Latin.
The phonological environment of these changes is not only between vowels but also after a vowel and before a sonorant consonant such as (Latin patrem > Spanish padre)—but not the reverse (Latin partem > Spanish parte, not *parde).
1Latin superāre produced both sobrar and its learned doublet superar.
2Latin lucrum produced both logro and its learned doublet lucro.
The verb decir, in its various conjugated forms, exemplifies different phonetic changes, depending on whether the letter <c> (Latin ) was followed by a front vowel or not. The Latin changes ultimately to Spanish when followed by the front vowels ( or —thus dice, decimos, etc.), but in other forms, before a back vowel, is voiced to and, in the modern language, realized as a spirant (as in digo, diga). This also is the pattern of a few other Spanish verbs ending in -cer or -cir, as in the table below:
Diphthongization in open and closed syllables
It is commonly thought that the reflexes of stressed short E and O of Latin were realised, after the loss of phonemic quantity, as the low-mid vowels /ɛ/ and /ɔ/ respectively in the Western Romance languages, contrasting with close-mid /e/ and /o/, which would have originated from the mergers between long E and short I and between long O and short U, respectively; this change would explain the similarity of the vowel systems in modern Romance languages such as Portuguese, Catalan and Italian. These low-mid vowels subsequently would have undergone diphthongization in many of the Western Romance languages. In Spanish this change occurs regardless of syllable shape (open or closed), in contrast to French and Italian, where it takes place only in open syllables, and in greater contrast to Portuguese where this diphthongization does not occur at all. As a result, Spanish phonology exhibits a five-vowel system, not the seven-vowel system that is typical of many other Western Romance languages. The stressed short and reappeared in Spanish through learned words from Classical Latin and also evolved from short vowels and from Vulgar Latin, and was retained from long vowels and from Vulgar Latin.
Learned words and consonant cluster simplification
Learned words—that is, "bookish" words transmitted partly through writing and thus affected by their Latin form—became increasingly frequent with the works of Alfonso X in the mid-to-late 13th century. Many of these words contained consonant clusters which, in oral transmission, had been reduced to simpler consonant clusters or single consonants in previous centuries. This same process affected many of these new, more academic, words, especially when the words extended into popular usage in the Old Spanish period. Some of the consonant clusters affected were -ct-, -ct[i]-, -pt-, -gn-, -mn-, -mpt-, and -nct-. Most of the simplified forms have since reverted to the learned forms or are now considered to be uneducated.
Most of these words have modern forms which more closely resemble Latin than Old Spanish. In Old Spanish, the simplified forms were acceptable forms which were in coexistence (and sometimes competition) with the learned forms. The Spanish educational system, and later the Real Academia Española, with their demand that all consonants of a word be pronounced, steadily drove most simplified forms from existence. Many of the simplified forms were used in literary works in the Middle Ages and Renaissance (sometimes intentionally as an archaism), but have since been relegated mostly to popular and uneducated speech. Occasionally, both forms exist in Modern Spanish with different meanings or in idiomatic usage: for example afición is a 'fondness (of)' or 'taste (for)', while afección is 'illness'; Modern Spanish respeto is '(attitude of) respect', while con respecto a means 'with regard to'.
Most words with consonant clusters in syllable-final position are loanwords from Classical Latin, examples are: transporte , transmitir , instalar , constante , obstante , obstruir , perspectiva , istmo . A syllable-final position cannot be more than one consonant (one of n, r, l, s or z) in most (or all) dialects in colloquial speech, reflecting Vulgar Latin background. Realizations like , , , , , , and are very common, and in many cases, they are considered acceptable even in formal speech.
Another type of consonant cluster simplification involves "double" (geminate) plosives that reduced to single: -pp-, -tt-, -cc-, -bb-, -dd-, -gg- > -p-, -t-, -c-, -b-, -d-, -g- . The simplified Spanish outcomes of the Latin voiced series -bb-, -dd-, -gg- remain voiced, inducing phonemic merger with intervocalic /b/, /d/, /g/ that issued from voicing of Latin /p/, /t/, /k/, so that all are subject to the same phonetic realization as voiced fricatives: , , and , respectively.
Vocalization
The term "vocalization" refers to the change from a consonant to the vowel-like sound of a glide. Some syllable-final consonants, regardless of whether they were already syllable-final in Latin or brought into that position by syncope, became glides. Labials (b, p, v) yielded the rounded glide (which was in turn absorbed by a preceding round vowel), while the velar c () produced the palatal glide (which could palatalize a following and be absorbed by the resulting palatal affricate). (The forms debda, cobdo, and dubdar are documented in Old Spanish; but the hypothetical forms *oito and *noite had already given way to ocho and noche by the time Castilian became a written language.)
Betacism
Most Romance languages have maintained the distinction between a phoneme and a phoneme : a voiced bilabial stop and a voiced, usually labiodental, fricative, respectively. Instances of the phoneme could be inherited directly from Latin (unless between vowels), or they could result from the voicing of Latin between vowels. The phoneme was generally derived either from an allophone of Latin between vowels or from the Latin phoneme corresponding to the letter ⟨v⟩ (pronounced in Classical Latin but later fortified to the status of a fricative consonant in Vulgar Latin). In most Romance-speaking regions, had labiodental articulation, but in Old Spanish, which still distinguished /b/ and /v/, the latter was probably realized as a bilabial fricative . The contrast between the two phonemes was neutralized in certain environments, as the fricative also occurred as an allophone of /b/ between vowels, after a vowel, and after certain consonants in Old Spanish. The similarity between the stop and fricative resulted in their complete merger by the end of the Old Spanish period (16th century). In Modern Spanish, the letters ⟨b⟩ and ⟨v⟩ represent the same phoneme (usually treated as in phonemic transcription), which is generally realized as the fricative except when utterance-initial or after a nasal consonant, when it is realized as the stop . The same situation prevails in northern Portuguese dialects and in Galician, but the other Portuguese dialects maintain the distinction. The merger of and also occurs in Standard Catalan in eastern Catalonia, but the distinction is retained in most varieties of Valencian and in some areas in southern Catalonia, in the Balearic dialect, as well as in Algherese.
In Modern Spanish, from the 16th century onward, the choice of orthographic ⟨b⟩ or ⟨v⟩ depends mainly on the etymology of the word. The orthography attempts to mimic the Latin spelling, rather than to keep the pronunciation-based spelling of Old Spanish. Thus, Old Spanish bever "to drink", bivir/vivir "to live" become beber, vivir, respectively, following the Latin spelling bibere, vīvere. The Spanish placename Córdoba, often spelled Cordova in Old Spanish (the spelling that prevailed in English until the 20th century), now reflects the spelling used by the city's Roman founders, "Corduba".
Latin f- to Spanish h- to null
F was almost always initial in Latin words, and in Spanish most phonemes /f/ followed by a simple vowel passed through a stage in which the consonant eventually developed to and then was lost phonologically. Spelling conventions have grapheme ⟨h⟩ used in words such as humo 'smoke', hormiga 'ant', hígado 'liver' (compare Italian fumo, formica, fegato, with intact), but in terms of both structure and pronunciation, the initial consonant has been lost: , , . It is thought that ⟨f⟩ represented the labiodental in Latin, which underwent a series of lenitions to become, successively, bilabial and then glottal (hence the modern spelling), and it was then lost altogether in most varieties; ⟨h⟩ is assumed to have been "silent" in Vulgar Latin. The first written evidence of the process dates from 863, when the Latin name Forticius was written as Ortiço, which might have been pronounced with initial but certainly not . (The same name appears as Hortiço in a document from 927.) The replacement of ⟨f⟩ by ⟨h⟩ in spelling is not frequent before the 16th century, but that is thought not to reflect preservation of . Rather, ⟨f⟩ was consistently used to represent until the phoneme reappeared in the language (around the 16th century, as a result of loanwords from Classical Latin). Then, it became necessary to distinguish both phonemes in spelling.
The change from to occurred in the Romance speech of Old Castile, eastern Asturian, and Gascon, but nowhere else nearby. Since much of this area was historically bilingual with Basque, and Basque once had but no , it is often suggested that the change was caused by Basque influence. However, this is contested by many linguists.
Most current instances of /f/ are either learned words (those influenced by their written Latin form, such as forma, falso, fama, feria), loanwords of Arabic and Greek origin, or words whose initial ⟨f⟩ in Old Spanish is followed by a non-vowel (⟨r⟩, ⟨l⟩, or the glide element of a diphthong), as in frente, flor, fiesta, fuerte. That, along with the effect of preservation of regionally (Asturian fumu 'smoke', formiga 'ant', fégadu 'liver'), accounts for modern doublets such as Fernando (learned) and Hernando (inherited) (both Spanish for "Ferdinand"), fierro (regional) and hierro (both "iron"), fastidio and hastío (both Spanish for "boredom"), and fondo and hondo (fondo means "bottom" and hondo means "deep"). Also, hacer ("to make") is the root word of satisfacer ("to satisfy"), and hecho ("made") is the root word of satisfecho ("satisfied") (cf. malhechor and fechorías).
As mentioned above, was not lost in all varieties. As of the late 20th century, word-initial was pronounced as an in lower-class, predominantly rural speech in a number of western regions of Spain, specifically western Andalusia and Extremadura, the Canary Islands, part of western Salamanca, part of Cantabria, a northeastern area in León, and in the Asturian language as spoken in eastern Asturias, as well as in much of Latin America, where it similarly tends to be confined to lower-class and rural speech. The distribution of this pronunciation throughout so much of western Spain suggests that its spread was due in large part to the role of eastern Asturians in the reconquest of these zones. At least in Latin America, the Canaries, Andalusia, and Extremadura, this is merged with the phoneme , which comes from medieval and .
Fabulāri is translated as "make stories", opposed to its Spanish derivative hablar which means "speak" or "to talk".
Silent Latin h-
'H' is originally pronounced in Classical Latin, but became silent in Vulgar Latin. Thus, words were spelled without any such consonant in Old Spanish; in Modern Spanish, from the 16th century onward, it attempts to mimic the Latin spelling rather than continue Old Spanish orthography.
Modern development of the Old Spanish sibilants
During the 16th century, the three voiced sibilant phonemes—dental , apico-alveolar , and palato-alveolar (as in Old Spanish fazer, casa, and ojo, respectively) lost their voicing and merged with their voiceless counterparts: , , and (as in caçar, passar, and baxar respectively). The character ⟨ç⟩, called ⟨c⟩ cedilla, originated in Old Spanish but has been replaced by ⟨z⟩ in the modern language.
Additionally, the affricate lost its stop component, to become a laminodental fricative, . As a result, the sound system then contained two sibilant fricative phonemes whose contrast depended entirely on a subtle distinction between their places of articulation: apicoalveolar, in the case of the , and laminodental, in the case of the new fricative sibilant , which was derived from the affricate . The distinction between the sounds grew in the dialects of northern and central Spain by paradigmatic dissimilation, but dialects in Andalusia and the Americas merged both sounds.
The dissimilation in the northern and central dialects occurred with the laminodental fricative moving forward to an interdental place of articulation, losing its sibilance to become . The sound is represented in modern spelling by ⟨c⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩ and by ⟨z⟩ elsewhere. In the south of Spain, the deaffrication of resulted in a direct merger with , as both were homorganic, and the new phoneme became either laminodental ("seseo", in the Americas and parts of Andalusia) or ("ceceo", in a few parts of Andalusia). In general, coastal regions of Andalusia preferred , and more inland regions preferred (see the map at ceceo).
During the colonization of the Americas, most settlers came from the south of Spain; that is the cause, according to almost all scholars, for nearly all Spanish speakers in the New World still speaking a language variety derived mainly from the Western Andalusian and Canarian dialects.
Meanwhile, the alveopalatal fricative , the result of the merger of voiceless (spelled ⟨x⟩ in Old Spanish) with voiced (spelled with ⟨j⟩ in some words and in others with ⟨g⟩ before ⟨e⟩ or ⟨i⟩), was moved backward in all dialects, to become (depending on geographical variety) velar , uvular (in parts of Spain) or glottal (in Andalusia, Canary Islands, and parts of the Americas, especially the Caribbean region).
Interchange of the liquids /l/ and /r/
One unusual feature of Spanish etymology is the way in which the liquids and have sometimes replaced each other in words derived from Latin, French and other sources. For example, Spanish milagro, "miracle", is derived from Latin miraculum. More rarely, this process has involved consonants like and (as in alma, from Latin anima). Here is an incomplete list of such words:
ancla, "anchor", Latin ancora
albedrío, "will, whim, fancy", Latin arbitrium, "judgment, decision, will" (arbitrio is a learned form, i.e.: loanword from Classical Latin)
algalia, "catheter", ergaleía, "tools"
alimaña, "pest", almaje "livestock", Latin animalĭa, "animals"
alma, "soul", Latin anima
alondra, "lark", Latin alaudula
altramuz, "lupin", Hispanic Arabic at-tarmūs
árbol, "tree", Latin arbor
Argelia, "Algeria (nation)"
azufre, sulfur, Latin sulphur
azul, "blue", lāzaward "lapis lazuli" (cf. medieval Latin azura, French azure)
blandir, "to brandish", French brandir
bolsa, "bag, purse", Latin bursa
cárcel, "prison", Latin carcer (cf. English "incarcerate")
calambre, "cramp, electric shock", French crampe
Catalina, Latin Catharina (proper name; Catarina is a learned form; i.e. loanword from Classical Latin)
chaflán, "chamfer", French chanfrein.
cilantro, "coriander", Latin coriandrum
cimbrar, "shake (a stick), sway, swish", Latin cymula, "sprout, shoot (of plant)"
coronel, "colonel", French colonel, from Italian colonnello
Cristóbal, Germanic Christoffer, from Latin Christopherus (proper name)
cuartel, "quarter", French quartier
dintel, "lintel", Old French lintel
escolta, "escort", Italian scorta
espuela, "spur", Gothic *spaúra (cf. French éperon)
estrella, "star", from Latin stella (cf. Italian stella, French étoile)
flete, "freight, cargo", French fret
fraile, "friar", Provençal fraire, from Latin frater, "brother"
franela, "flannel", French flanelle
frasco, "flask", Germanic flasko
guirnalda, "garland", older Spanish guirlanda, cf. French guirlande
golondrina, "swallow (bird)", Latin hirundo
lirio, "lily, iris", Latin lilium
mármol, "marble", Latin marmor
miércoles, "Wednesday", Latin Mercuri [dies], "Mercury's [day]"
milagro, "miracle", Latin miraculum
nivel, "level", Latin libellum, "little balance", from libra, "balance"
olor, "smell, scent", Latin odor
papel, "paper", Catalan paper, Latin papyrus
palabra, "word", Latin parabola
peligro, "danger", Latin periculum (cf. English "peril")
plática, "chat, conversation", Latin practica
quilate, "carat", qīrāṭ "carat" < "carob seed" (cf. Italian carato)
recluta, "recruit", French recrute
regaliz(a), "liquorice", Late Latin liquiritia
roble, "oak", Latin robur, "strong"
silo, "silo", Latin sirus from Greek siros, "pit for storing grain"
surco, "groove, furrow", Latin sulcus
taladro, "drill", Latin tarātrum < Celtic tarātron
temblar, "tremble", Latin tremulāre
templar, "temper, warm up", Latin temperō"
tiniebla(s), "darkness", Latin tenebraeYeísmo
Documents from as early as the 15th century show occasional evidence of sporadic confusion between the phoneme (generally spelled ⟨y⟩) and the palatal lateral (spelled ⟨ll⟩). The distinction is maintained in spelling, but in most dialects of Modern Spanish, the two have merged into the same, non-lateral palatal sound. Thus, for example, most Spanish-speakers have the same pronunciation for haya (from the verb haber) as for halla (from hallar). The phonemic merger is called yeísmo, based on one name for the letter ⟨y⟩.
Yeismo is a trait of the Andalusian dialect, among others. Since more than half of the early settlers of Spanish America came from Andalusia, most Spanish-speaking regions of the Americas have yeísmo, but there are pockets in which the sounds are still distinguished. Native-speakers of neighboring languages, such as Galician, Astur-Leonese, Basque, Aragonese, Occitan and Catalan, usually do not feature yeísmo in their Spanish since those languages retain the phoneme.
A related trait that has also been documented sporadically for several hundred years is rehilamiento'' (literally "whizzing"), the pronunciation of as a sibilant fricative or even an affricate , which is common among non-native Spanish speakers as well. The current pronunciation varies greatly depending on the geographical dialect and sociolect (with , especially, stigmatized except at the beginning of a word). Rioplatense Spanish (of Argentina and Uruguay) is particularly known for the pronunciation of both and original . A further development, the unvoiced pronunciation , during the second half of the twentieth century came to characterize the speech of "most younger residents of Buenos Aires" and continues to spread throughout Argentina.
See also
Cantar de Mio Cid
Hispano-Celtic languages
Iberian language
Iberian Romance languages
Influences on the Spanish language
List of Spanish words of Indigenous American Indian origin
List of Spanish words of Philippine origin
List of English words of Spanish origin
Romance languages
Spanish dialects and varieties
Spanish phonology
Old Spanish language
Paleohispanic languages
Middle Spanish
Vulgar Latin
Rafael Lapesa
References
Sources
External links
An explanation of the development of Medieval Spanish sibilants in Castile and Andalusia (archived 29 December 2009)
A recording of the sibilants, as they would have been pronounced in medieval Spanish (archived 28 February 2009)
A History of the Spanish language (sample from the second edition, 2002), by Ralph Penny
Tesoro de los diccionarios históricos de la lengua española
Linguistic Time Machine Check the historic evolution of Latin words to modern Spanish.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African%20Standby%20Force
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African Standby Force
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The African Standby Force (ASF) (French: Force africaine en attente) is an international, continental African, and multidisciplinary peacekeeping force with military, police and civilian contingents that acts under the direction of the African Union. The ASF is to be deployed in times of crisis in Africa. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, serves as the Force's Headquarters. Douala, Cameroon, was selected in 2011 as the site of the AU's Continental Logistics Base (LOGBASE).
In 2003, a 2010 operational date for the force was set.
Origins
Before the founding of the African Union (AU) in 2001, its predecessor Organisation of African Unity (OAU) did not provide appropriate tools for a collective and comprehensive acting of African states in times of violent crisis, mostly due to the shared value of non-interference into the internal affairs of states. During the 1990s, a series of violent conflicts in Africa, most importantly the 1994 Genocide in Rwanda, urged the African states for a change in their common security collaboration. After the establishment of the AU in 2001, the non-interference clause of OAU was not longer valid. The Constitutive Act now gave the AU the right to intervene in a member state in grave circumstances, namely war crimes, genocide and crimes against humanity.
The same year, a new African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA) was presented, in order to build and strengthen African capacities for managing and resolving conflicts on the continent. The APSA comprises five pillars that complement one another: A Peace and Security Council, a Continental Early Warning System, a Panel of the Wise, a Peace Fund, and an African Standby Force. The ASF is therefore a constituting element of the APSA.
The establishment of the ASF was directed by the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, which was signed in July 2002 and entered into force in December 2003. The key document explicitly recognized the roles of the RECs in promoting peace and security in Africa.
For that reason, the final concept for the ASF, presented in the Maputo Report of July 2003, at the time provided for five regional Standby Brigade forces: A North Africa Regional Standby Brigade (NASBRIG), an East Africa Standby Brigade (EASBRIG); a Force Multinationale de l'Afrique Centrale (FOMAC); a Southern Africa Standby Brigade (SADCBRIG); and an ECOWAS Standby Brigade (ECOBRIG). The same document defined six ASF deployment Scenarios. The organization at that time agreed on force levels of about 15,000 soldiers continentwide.
The ASF Policy Framework Document from May 2003 aimed the development of the ASF in two phases:
Phase One (up to 30 June 2005): The AU's envisaged the establishment a strategic level management capacity for the management of Scenarios 1-2 missions, while Regional Economic Communities (RECs)/Regions would complement the African Union (AU) by establishing regional standby forces up to a brigade size to achieve up to Scenario 4.
Phase Two (1 July 2005 to 30 June 2010): By the year 2010, the AU planned to have developed the capacity to manage complex peacekeeping operations, while the RECs/Regions will continue to develop the capacity to deploy a Mission Headquarters (HQs) for Scenario 4, involving AU/Regional peacekeeping forces.
Three ASF Roadmaps were developed to guide the operalization of ASF:
Roadmap I (adopted in March 2005) covered the period from June 2006 to March 2008
Roadmap II (adopted in April 2008) covered the period from April 2008 to December 2010
Roadmap III (adopted in December 2010) covered the period from December 2010 to December 2015
The ASF Roadmap III recognized that most goals of Phase One were not met until 2010 and therefore set the date for the achievement of the Full Operational Capability (FOC) to 2015. In December 2013, an assessment of the African Standby Force by an AU Panel of Experts concluded that the ASF is unlikely ro achieve FOC in 2015 without major efforts made by all stakeholders.
Composition
Article 13 of the Protocol Relating to the Establishment of the Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the African Union (AU) foresaw an ASF to be composed of standby multidisciplinary contingents, with civilian and military components in their countries of origin and ready for rapid deployment at appropriate notice. For that purpose, the protocol urged the member states to take steps to establish
standby contingents for participation in peace support missions decided on by the PSC or intervention authorized by the AU Assembly. The strength and types of such contingents, their degree of readiness and general location should be determined in so-called Peace Support Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs), and shall be subject to periodic reviews depending on prevailing crisis and conflict situations.
Mandate
According to the PSC Protocol, signed in 2002, the ASF should enable the PSC to perform its responsibilities. Article 13 of the protocol specifically directs the following functions to the ASF:
observation and monitoring missions;
other types of peace support missions;
intervention in a Member State in respect of grave circumstances or at the request of a Member State in order to restore peace and security, in accordance with Article 4(h) and (j) of the Constitutive Act;
preventive deployment in order to prevent
i. a dispute or a conflict from escalating,
ii. an ongoing violent conflict from spreading to neighboring areas or States, and
iii. the resurgence of violence after parties to a conflict have reached an agreement.;
peace-building, including post-conflict disarmament and demobilization;
humanitarian assistance to alleviate the suffering of civilian population in conflict areas and support efforts to address major natural disasters; and
any other functions as may be mandated by the Peace and Security Council or the Assembly.
According to the protocol, the ASF is suggested to cooperate with the United Nations and its Agencies, other relevant international organizations and regional organizations, as well as with national authorities and NGOs, where appropriate. The detailed tasks of the ASF and its modus operandi for each authorized mission are to be considered and approved by the Peace and Security Council upon recommendation of the commission.
Mission Scenarios
The Maputo Report and The Policy Framework for the Establishment of the ASF from May 2003 mentions six scenarios for the deployment of the regional contingents of the Force in Peace Support Operations (PSOs), ascending in their complexity of structures, management efforts and resources for deployment and sustainment.
Scenario 1: AU/Regional military advice to a political mission
Scenario 2: AU/Regional observer mission co-deployed with a UN mission
Scenario 3: Stand-alone AU/Regional observer mission
Scenario 4: AU/Regional Peacekeeping force for Chapter VI and preventive deployment missions (and peace-building)
Scenario 5: AU peacekeeping force for complex multi-dimensional peacekeeping missions, including those involving low-level spoilers
Scenario 6: AU intervention, e.g. in genocide situations where the international community does not act promptly
As long-term goals for the deployment of the Force, it was planned that scenario 1-4 should be able to deploy in 30 days (possible only if pre-mandate actions have been taken), scenario 5 should complete deployment in 90 days, with the military component being able to deploy in 30 days (possible only if pre-mandate actions have been undertaken), and finally, Scenario 6, implied that will be important the AU can deploy a robust military force in 14 days.
The ASF Roadmap III demanded the six mission scenarios for PSOs to be revised and adopted to new paradigms of Peacekeeping.
Rapid Deployment Capability
The ASF Policy Framework and the Roadmap for the Operationalization of the ASF called for the establishment of a "Rapid Deployment Capability" (RDC) capable of intervening, within fourteen days, in cases of Genocide and gross human rights abuses under Scenario 6. The RDC was decided to be an integral part of the regional Standby Forces to be deployed at the entry point, as a precursor to the deployment of a larger mission. At the end of 2013, the Expert Panel of the AU stated that the goal, recommended in Roadmap III, to test, evaluate and operationalize the RDC by 2012, was not met.
Current Status
Exercises
From 2008 until 2010, the training and capacity building cycle AMANI AFRICA I (meaning “peace in Africa,” in Swahili), designed to evaluate the effectiveness ASF for an AU mandated peace support operation (PSO) was conducted by the African Union in collaboration with the European Union. It climaxed in the first continental exercise, called a Command Post Exercise (CPX), of this kind in Addis Ababa. AMANI AFRICA I focused mostly on validating policies and processes, at the continental strategic level, in employing the African Standby Force within the broader African Peace and Security Architecture (APSA). According to the AU, it provided objective evidence to support proposals for further organizational and operational developments of training, procedures and multidimensional capacities of the ASF.
The African Union Commission (AUC) is planning to conduct a field training exercise (FTX) in October 2014 in Lesotho at the climax of an ongoing training cycle known as AMANI AFRICA II. According to the AU, the AMANI AFRICA II cycle aims at enabling the ASF to achieve its FOC by 2015 and especially at "validating the capacity of the African Union to grant a mandate for the use of a Rapid Deployment Capability, as an initial operation for scenario six and lead in the process, a fully-fledged multidimensional peace operation (scenario 5)."
Each regional force is not on the same level of development.
In January 2006 Ishaya Hassan of Nigeria was promoted to major general and assigned as the chief of the standby force staff, located in Addis Ababa. Hassan later died, and as of 2007(?) (2013?) no replacement had been found. The position was vacant for at least three years.
North African Regional Capacity
The North African Regional Capacity or North African Region Capability was created to fill a sub-regional vacuum in North Africa. The Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) has been dormant since its establishment in 1989. Throughout the last two decades, revitalizing the AMU proved to be very difficult due to political dynamics amongst member states. Thus, there was a need to create a regional mechanism to enable North African countries to contribute to the African Standby Force. This is why in mid 2007 a memorandum of understanding was drafted to establish NARC.
In the absence of a joint secretariat to coordinate cooperation amongst NARC member states, Libya voluntarily played this role during the initial phase of starting up NARC which lasted for three years (2005-2008). Later on, the second meeting of NARC Ministers of Defence held in Tripoli in December 2008 approved a recommendation to establish an executive secretariat to be located in Tripoli. Subsequently, the NARC Executive Secretariat and Planning Element were inaugurated in April 2009. It was however, expected that staff from other member states will join the Executive Secretariat and PLANELM in September 2010. While both Egypt and Algeria had identified staff for the two elements, these countries were yet to sign the hosting agreement with Libya, and in some cases the deployment of staff was constrained by domestic considerations including promotions and retirements. Meanwhile, progress in generating the civilian officers for the PLANELM lagged even further behind; this essentially meant that the NARC PLANELM was purely military in 2010.
While the Brigade HQ to be located in Cairo and the two logistic depots to be located in Algiers and Cairo have been identified, they have yet to be made operational, due to political and bureaucratic constraints within the member states. Furthermore, it seems that creating, rostering and deploying a civilian component is somewhat problematic due to the voluntary and individualistic nature of this component and the lack of AU strategic guidance in this regard.
It was reported via the Africa Research Bulletin that U.S. Army Africa's commanding general, Major General William B. Garrett III, had made a visit in early May 2010 to Tripoli to discuss relationships between the United States and Libyan land forces. He met Libya's chief of staff for Army Mechanised Units and executive director of the NARC, Major General Ahmed Oun.
On 28 May 2010, the NARC Executive Secretary, Major-General Ahmed Oun, signed, on behalf of NARC, the memorandum of understanding on cooperation between the African Union, the Regional Economic Communities and the Regional Standby Brigades of Eastern Africa and Northern Africa, at the Headquarters of the African Union in Addis Ababa.
It was reported in January 2011 by Magharebia that Algeria was to host the NARC headquarters. Under an agreement made on Tuesday, January 25, 2011, Algeria was planned to become the seat of both NARC headquarters and the force's administration.
The "Arab Spring" (2011) led to a major setback in the establishment of the NARC.
Members include Algeria, Egypt, Libya, and Western Sahara. Morocco and Mauritania are now more closely associated with ECOWAS peace efforts, and Tunisia did not become actively involved in the NARC.
ECOWAS Standby Force
Members: Ghana, Nigeria, Benin, Togo, Côte d'Ivoire, Guinea, Guinea Bissau, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Mali, Senegal, Niger, Burkina Faso, Gambia, and Cape Verde
The ECOWAS Standby Force (ESF) is a standby arrangement made up of military, police and civilian components and which is consistent with Chapter VIII of the United Nations Charter which provides for regional peace and security arrangements. A partial legal basis is given by Article 21 of the ECOWAS Protocol Relating to the Mechanism for Conflict
Prevention, Management, Resolution, Peacekeeping and Security of December 1999.
In 2005, a team of ECOWAS P3 Development Partners (AU, EU, USA, UK, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany and Netherlands), the UN Standby High-Readiness Brigade (SHIRBRIG) together with the ECOWAS Mission Planning Management Cell (MPMC) met and produced an overarching framework document for the operationalisation of the ESF. The ECOWAS Operational Framework phased the process by first of all establishing an ESF Task Force (ESFTF) with 2773 soldiers of all ranks which was certified in 2009 in the form of a logistics exercise. The Task Force is structured into two infantry battalions (Western and Eastern) and a composite logistics battalion. The Western Battalion is led by Senegal while the Eastern Battalion is led by Nigeria.
The ECOWAS Main Force was intended to number 3727, to build to complete a brigade of 6500 of all ranks to be ready by 2010. The initial Task Force is intended to be rapidly deployed and then the more robust, long-term Main Force is required afterwards.
There is no formal memorandum of understanding between the ECOWAS Secretariat and the ECOWAS members states on Force generation. However, the memorandum of understanding has been drafted, and meanwhile (2010), there is a firm commitment of the different states leaders to provide personnel and facilities to facilitate any deployment of the Force.
The headquarters (HQ) of both the ESF and the ESFTF are co-located in Abuja, Nigeria. However, the Planning Element of the ESF is weak compared to the Task Force PLANELM. For now (2010), the PLANELM of ESF has no civilian component. The military and police components are fully operational. The Logistic Depot of the Force, still to be built, is planned to be established at Freetown, Sierra Leone. Land has been allocated in this regard by the government of Sierra Leone, and the US government is providing support for the establishment of the Logistics depot.
In the violent conflict in Mali since 2012, ESF could not operate in a timely manner to prevent a further escalation of violence in the country.
ECCAS Standby Force
Members include São Tomé and Príncipe, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Chad, Equatorial Guinea, Republic of the Congo, Angola, Burundi, and Democratic Republic of the Congo.
The ECCAS Standby Force, or in French, Force Multinationale de l’Afrique Centrale (FOMAC), was established in 2006 at the ECCAS Yaoundé Summit. It was established under the framework of ECCAS’ Peace and Security Council, known as COPAX. The COPAX is the decision making organ of the ECCAS on all issues concerning peace and security.
The absence of a formal memorandum of understanding between ECCAS and its Members States relating to FOMAC remains a big obstacle. The only binding legal framework governing the FOMAC is the document known as "Catalo 2010", signed February 28, 2008 in Libreville, Gabon by Member States. Under this arrangement, Members States pledged a force of 4800 (police, military and civilians) personnel and 6 airlift aircraft.
The Planning Element (PLANELM) of the FOMAC was established in July 2006 in Libreville, and it consists of representatives from the various ECCAS member states. ECCAS has opted for a big multidimensional Planning Element of 36 out of which 24 are already sitting. ECCAS has opted for a non-permanent Brigade headquarters. In their view, the brigade headquarters would be established when a peace operation is authorized and would then be led by an individual State or a group of States, in coordination with the PLANELM. ECCAS has not developed yet a Rapid Deployment Capability (RDC).
Eastern Africa Standby Force
Members: Burundi, Comoros, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Seychelles, Somalia, Sudan and Uganda
In the East of the continent, the regional agent of ASF is known as the Eastern Africa Standby Force (EASF), since 2007 led by a Coordination Mechanism (EASFCOM). While ECOWAS, SADC and ECCAS have established PLANELMs within their respective regional protocols already in place, the EASF is an entirely different regional arrangement co-existing with several East African communities.
The EASF operates with the vision to contribute to regional and continental peace
and stability in the region, through a fully operational and multidimensional joint and
integrated Eastern Standby Force ready for deployment by 2015, with an Initial Operational Capability by 2010. In this regard, EASF has developed a Strategic Development Plan 2010-2015 approved during the second Ordinary Summit of the Heads of State and Government held in Moroni, Comoros, in March 2010.
EASF's Brigade HQ and Logistics Base (LOGBASE) are both located at Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, while the Planning Element (PLANELM) is co-located with EASFCOM in Nairobi, Kenya. All 10 EASF Members States are represented within the PLANELM.
The PLANELM is conducting capacity building activities within itself as well as within Members States of the region to ensure that all the multidimensional elements of the Force are on standby in their respective countries for AU peace support operations. In this regard, the International Peace Support Training Center (IPSTC), located opposite of EASFCOM in Nairobi, provides assistance.
Completing a first cycle of exercise, EASF reached its Initial Operating Capability (IOC) in late 2009. Completing the second cycle, EASF conducted a second FTX in Jinja, Uganda in May 2013. with 1,290 participants (military, police, civilian), to test EASF's deployment and mission implementation capability.
SADC Standby Brigade
The SADC Standby Brigade was launched on August 17, 2007, in Lusaka, Zambia, with, initially, a military and police component. A civilian component was added later. Intended to provide peace and security to the region, it was established by a memorandum of understanding that set out its functions and limitations, its methods of deployment, and its system of funding, command structure, and logistics. The member states agreed to contribute personnel and equipment and would be reimbursed by SADC where applicable.
The members who have signed the initial agreement include Angola, Botswana, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Eswatini, Lesotho, Malawi, Mauritius, Madagascar, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique.
The Planning Element (PLANELM) of the SADC Standby Force was established with the military, police and civilian components, but is experiencing shortfalls in staffing. The strategic level training of the Force is conducted under the framework of the Southern Africa Defense and Security Management (SADSEM) through a network of academic institutions while operational training is conducted by the Regional Peacekeeping Training Center (RPTC) located in Harare, Zimbabwe. Other capacity building and training activities are conducted through series of exercises in the region.
The Main Logistic Depot (MLD) will be built in Gaborone and the Government of Botswana has allocated land for the establishment of the depot. SADC, unlike other RECs and RMs, has limited number of partners due to a policy of self-reliance on issues of peace and security. SADC decided not to establish a permanent mission headquarters, but to do so only in the event of a deployment.
In late 2021 discussions were continuing on a Regional Logistics Depot.
Internal Revision
The ASF Roadmap III recognized major difficulties in the establishment of the ASF. Most importantly, it recognized that ASF was not able to reach its Full Operational Capability (FOC) by 2010, a goal that was set in previous Roadmaps and key documents. Therefore, the experts set the new date for the FOC to 2015. Furthermore, in the policy document it is observed that the ASF still lacked the ability to manage complex peacekeeping operations as specified in the ASF Roadmap II. Similarly, the AU experts ascertain that the RECs/RMs did not reach the full capacity to deploy a mission headquarters for Scenario 4 involving AU/regional forces. Other problems were seen in a low level of awareness and commitment among the different stakeholders as well as a lack of institutional capacity and effective coordination between the AU and RECs/RMs. Additionally, there was a slow development of the civil component in comparison with the other components. Concerning the political process, the Roadmap mentions that there was at the time no written procedure governing AU political decision making and subsequent Mission planning. Therefore, the experts stressed the need for the finalization and adoption of a comprehensive memorandum of understanding on the use of the ASF for AU mandated missions in order to clarify the relationship between the AU, RECs/RMs and member states.
The Roadmap also outlined several fields of progress in the development of the ASF. These achievements include the production of a set of common policy documents, an annual continental training program, and improved training standards within nations and standby forces that could be used collectively, albeit at an initial operational capability at the moment, mainly for logistic and institutional reasons. Notable progress was also ascertained in the development of a harmonized Rapid Deployment Capability (RDC) concept. Lastly, the Roadmap saw progress in the evolution of the police component, notably in the area of policy development and the establishment of management capabilities at the strategic level of the AU and the operational level of the RECs/RMs.
Achievements in the development of the Force to be reached in the period between 2010 and 2015, as stated in the Roadmap, are an "ASF Vision to be presented to AU Summit in January/February 2012; a staffed, trained and fully operational PSOD by December 2011; a fully operational RDC by December 2012, to be confirmed by the continental exercise AMANI AFRICA II; and finally, a fully operational ASF by December 2015 to be confirmed by the continental exercise AMANI AFRICA III."
From July to December 2013, the AU conducted an assessment of the status of development of the ASF through an Independent Panel of Experts. One of the findings of the assessment was that it would be unlikely for the ASF to reach its FOC until December 2015 without major efforts by all stakeholders.
Criticism
One important criticism of the ASF is the accusation that, due to the delay in its establishment, the Force could not be used as a tool of peacemaking in the latest occurrence of crises in Africa, such as the fight against the Lord's Resistance Army in Uganda, the war in Somalia, as well as the ongoing conflict in Eastern D.R. Congo.
Another criticism is the fact that the RECs/RMs have very different perceptions on whether the AU or the UN should mandate the employment of the ASF. For instance, SADC and ECOWAS tend to prefer UN Security Council authorization. This lack of consensus on the mandatory authority leads to the AU's current inability to mandate a mission.
Furthermore, it was claimed that the UNSC would tend to caution against regional interventions without its authorization, whereas the AU would have interpreted the status of the PSC as a legitimate authority within the framework of Chapter VIII of the UN Charter relating to Regional Arrangements.
One major obstacle to assessing the achievement of ASF's FOC is a missing clear definition of the FOC.
See also
:fr:École de maintien de la paix Alioune Blondin Beye de Bamako - the intermediate level peacekeeping school for the ECOWAS component of the ASF
African Capacity for Immediate Response to Crises
References
Further reading
Franke, Benedikt. Security Cooperation in Africa: A Reappraisal. Boulder, Colo: FirstForumPress, 2009.
Bachmann, Olaf. The African Standby Force: External Support to an 'African Solution to African Problems'?, IDS Research Report 67, Brighton: Institute of Development Studies, 2011
Guicherd, Catherine. The AU in Sudan: Lessons for the African Standby Force, New York, International Peace Academy, 2007
External links
ACCORD, The African Standby Force and Regional Standby Brigades, Conflict Trends 2008/3
Virginia Gamba, SADC Security Cooperation and Progress with the SADC Brigade, SaferAfrica, February 2008, accessed May 2010
African Standby Force
Steve Mbogo, African Peacekeeping Force Development Continues Despite Funding Challenges, World Politics Watch, Dec. 21, 2006.
ECOWAS, U.S. Donates Equipment to ECOWAS Standby Force, Press Release 079/09, August 22, 2009
https://web.archive.org/web/20120401223031/http://www.wikileaks.ch/cable/2005/12/05ADDISABABA4179.html, December 2005
Peacekeeping missions and operations involving the African Union
Multinational units and formations
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phasor%20measurement%20unit
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Phasor measurement unit
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A phasor measurement unit (PMU) is a device used to estimate the magnitude and phase angle of an electrical phasor quantity (such as voltage or current) in the electricity grid using a common time source for synchronization. Time synchronization is usually provided by GPS or IEEE 1588 Precision Time Protocol, which allows synchronized real-time measurements of multiple remote points on the grid. PMUs are capable of capturing samples from a waveform in quick succession and reconstructing the phasor quantity, made up of an angle measurement and a magnitude measurement. The resulting measurement is known as a synchrophasor. These time synchronized measurements are important because if the grid’s supply and demand are not perfectly matched, frequency imbalances can cause stress on the grid, which is a potential cause for power outages.
PMUs can also be used to measure the frequency in the power grid. A typical commercial PMU can report measurements with very high temporal resolution, up to 120 measurements per second. This helps engineers in analyzing dynamic events in the grid which is not possible with traditional SCADA measurements that generate one measurement every 2 or 4 seconds. Therefore, PMUs equip utilities with enhanced monitoring and control capabilities and are considered to be one of the most important measuring devices in the future of power systems. A PMU can be a dedicated device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device.
History
In 1893, Charles Proteus Steinmetz presented a paper on simplified mathematical description of the waveforms of alternating current electricity. Steinmetz called his representation a phasor. With the invention of phasor measurement units (PMU) in 1988 by Dr. Arun G. Phadke and Dr. James S. Thorp at Virginia Tech, Steinmetz’s technique of phasor calculation evolved into the calculation of real time phasor measurements that are synchronized to an absolute time reference provided by the Global Positioning System. We therefore refer to synchronized phasor measurements as synchrophasors. Early prototypes of the PMU were built at Virginia Tech, and Macrodyne built the first PMU (model 1690) in 1992. Today they are available commercially.
With the increasing growth of distributed energy resources on the power grid, more observability and control systems will be needed to accurately monitor power flow. Historically, power has been delivered in a uni-directional fashion through passive components to customers, but now that customers can generate their own power with technologies such as solar PV, this is changing into a bidirectional system for distribution systems. With this change it is imperative that transmission and distribution networks are continuously being observed through advanced sensor technology, such as ––PMUs and uPMUs.
In simple terms, the public electric grid that a power company operates was originally designed to take power from a single source: the operating company's generators and power plants, and feed it into the grid, where the customers consume the power. Now, some customers are operating power generating devices (solar panels, wind turbines, etc.) and to save costs (or to generate income) are also feeding power back into the grid. Depending on the region, feeding power back into the grid may be done through net metering. Because of this process, voltage and current must be measured and regulated in order to ensure the power going into the grid is of the quality and standard that customer equipment expects (as seen through metrics such as frequency, phase synchronicity, and voltage). If this is not done, as Rob Landley puts it, "people's light bulbs start exploding." This measurement function is what these devices do.
Operation
A PMU can measure 50/60 Hz AC waveforms (voltages and currents) typically at a rate of 48 samples per cycle making them effective at detecting fluctuations in voltage or current at less than one cycle. However, when the frequency does not oscillate around or near 50/60 Hz, PMUs are not able to accurately reconstruct these waveforms. Phasor measurements from PMU’s are constructed from cosine waves, that follow the structure below.
The A in this function is a scalar value, that is most often described as voltage or current magnitude (for PMU measurements). The θ is the phase angle offset from some defined starting position, and the ω is the angular frequency of the wave form (usually 2π50 radians/second or 2π60 radians/second). In most cases PMUs only measure the voltage magnitude and the phase angle, and assume that the angular frequency is a constant. Because this frequency is assumed constant, it is disregarded in the phasor measurement. PMU’s measurements are a mathematical fitting problem, where the measurements are being fit to a sinusoidal curve. Thus, when the waveform is non-sinusoidal, the PMU is unable to fit it exactly. The less sinusoidal the waveform is, such as grid behavior during a voltage sag or fault, the worse the phasor representation becomes.
The analog AC waveforms detected by the PMU are digitized by an analog-to-digital converter for each phase. A phase-locked oscillator along with a Global Positioning System (GPS) reference source provides the needed high-speed synchronized sampling with 1 microsecond accuracy. However, PMUs can take in multiple time sources including non-GPS references as long as they are all calibrated and working synchronously. The resultant time-stamped phasors can be transmitted to a local or remote receiver at rates up to 120 samples per second. Being able to see time synchronized measurements over a large area is helpful in examining how the grid operates at large, and determining which parts of the grid are affected by different disturbances.
Historically, only small numbers of PMUs have been used to monitor transmission lines with acceptable errors of around 1%. These were simply coarser devices installed to prevent catastrophic blackouts. Now, with the invention of micro-synchronous phasor technology, many more of them are desired to be installed on distribution networks where power can be monitored at a very high degree of precision. This high degree of precision creates the ability to drastically improve system visibility and implement smart and preventative control strategies. No longer are PMUs just required at sub-stations, but are required at several places in the network including tap-changing transformers, complex loads, and PV generation buses.
While PMUs are generally used on transmission systems, new research is being done on the effectiveness of micro-PMUs for distribution systems. Transmission systems generally have voltage that is at least an order of magnitude higher than distribution systems (between 12kV and 500kV while distribution runs at 12kV and lower). This means that transmission systems can have less precise measurements without compromising the accuracy of the measurement. However, distribution systems need more precision in order to improve accuracy, which is the benefit of uPMUs. uPMUs decrease the error of the phase angle measurements on the line from ±1° to ±0.05°, giving a better representation of the true angle value. The “micro” term in front of the PMU simply means it is a more precise measurement.
Technical overview
A phasor is a complex number that represents both the magnitude and phase angle of the sine waves found in electricity. Phasor measurements that occur at the same time over any distance are called "synchrophasors". While it is commonplace for the terms "PMU" and "synchrophasor" to be used interchangeably they actually represent two separate technical meanings. A synchrophasor is the metered value whereas the PMU is the metering device. In typical applications, phasor measurement units are sampled from widely dispersed locations in the power system network and synchronized from the common time source of a Global Positioning System (GPS) radio clock. Synchrophasor technology provides a tool for system operators and planners to measure the state of the electrical system (over many points)and manage power quality.
PMUs measure voltages and currents at principal intersecting locations (critical substations) on a power grid and can output accurately time-stamped voltage and current phasors. Because these phasors are truly synchronized, synchronized comparison of two quantities is possible in real time. These comparisons can be used to assess system conditions-such as; frequency changes, MW, MVARs, kVolts, etc. The monitored points are preselected through various studies to make extremely accurate phase angle measurements to indicate shifts in system (grid) stability. The phasor data is collected either on-site or at centralized locations using Phasor Data Concentrator technologies. The data is then transmitted to a regional monitoring system which is maintained by the local Independent System Operator (ISO). These ISO's will monitor phasor data from individual PMU's or from as many as 150 PMU's — this monitoring provides an accurate means of establishing controls for power flow from multiple energy generation sources (nuclear, coal, wind, etc.).
The technology has the potential to change the economics of power delivery by allowing increased power flow over existing lines. Synchrophasor data could be used to allow power flow up to a line's dynamic limit instead of to its worst-case limit. Synchrophasor technology will usher in a new process for establishing centralized and selective controls for the flow of electrical energy over the grid. These controls will affect both large scale (multiple-states) and individual transmission line sections at intersecting substations. Transmission line congestion (over-loading), protection, and control will therefore be improved on a multiple region scale (US, Canada, Mexico) through interconnecting ISO's.
Phasor networks
A phasor network consists of phasor measurement units (PMUs) dispersed throughout the electricity system, Phasor Data Concentrators (PDC) to collect the information and a Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) system at the central control facility. Such a network is used in Wide Area Measurement Systems (WAMS), the first of which began in 2000 by the Bonneville Power Administration. The complete network requires rapid data transfer within the frequency of sampling of the phasor data. GPS time stamping can provide a theoretical accuracy of synchronization better than 1 microsecond. "Clocks need to be accurate to ± 500 nanoseconds to provide the one microsecond time standard needed by each device performing synchrophasor measurement." For 60 Hz systems, PMUs must deliver between 10 and 30 synchronous reports per second depending on the application. The PDC correlates the data, and controls and monitors the PMUs (from a dozen up to 60). At the central control facility, the SCADA system presents system wide data on all generators and substations in the system every 2 to 10 seconds.
PMUs often use phone lines to connect to PDCs, which then send data to the SCADA or Wide Area Measurement System (WAMS) server. Additionally, PMUs can use ubiquitous mobile (cellular) networks for data transfer (GPRS, UMTS), which allows potential savings in infrastructure and deployment costs, at the expense of a larger data reporting latency. However, the introduced data latency makes such systems more suitable for R&D measurement campaigns and near real-time monitoring, and limits their use in real-time protective systems.
PMUs from multiple vendors can yield inaccurate readings. In one test, readings differed by 47 microseconds – or a difference of 1 degree of 60 Hz- an unacceptable variance. China's solution to the problem was to build all its own PMUs adhering to its own specifications and standards so there would be no multi-vendor source of conflicts, standards, protocols, or performance characteristics.
Installation
Installation of a typical 10 Phasor PMU is a simple process. A phasor will be either a 3 phase voltage or a 3 phase current. Each phasor will, therefore, require 3 separate electrical connections (one for each phase). Typically an electrical engineer designs the installation and interconnection of a PMU at a substation or at a generation plant. Substation personnel will bolt an equipment rack to the floor of the substation following established seismic mounting requirements. Then the PMU along with a modem and other support equipment will be mounted on the equipment rack. They will also install the Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) antenna on the roof of the substation per manufacturer instructions. Substation personnel will also install "shunts" in all Current transformer (CT) secondary circuits that are to be measured. The PMU will also require communication circuit connection (Modem if using 4-wire connection or Ethernet for network connection).
Implementations
The Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) was the first utility to implement comprehensive adoption of synchrophasors in its wide-area monitoring system. This was in 2000, and today there are several implementations underway.
The FNET project operated by Virginia Tech and the University of Tennessee utilizes a network of approximately 80 low-cost, high-precision Frequency Disturbance Recorders to collect syncrophasor data from the U.S. power grid.
The New York Independent System Operator has installed 48 PMUs throughout New York State, partly in response to a devastating 2003 blackout that originated in Ohio and affected regions in both the United States and Canada.
In 2006, China's Wide Area Monitoring Systems (WAMS) for its 6 grids had 300 PMUs installed mainly at 500 kV and 330 kV substations and power plants. By 2012, China plans to have PMUs at all 500kV substations and all powerplants of 300MW and above. Since 2002, China has built its own PMUs to its own national standard. One type has higher sampling rates than typical and is used in power plants to measure rotor angle of the generator, reporting excitation voltage, excitation current, valve position, and output of the power system stabilizer (PSS). All PMUs are connected via private network, and samples are received within 40 ms on average.
The North American Synchrophasor Initiative (NASPI), previously known as The Eastern Interconnect Phasor Project (EIPP), has over 120 connected phasor measurement units collecting data into a "Super Phasor Data Concentrator" system centered at Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). This data concentration system is now an open source project known as the openPDC.
The DOE has sponsored several related research projects, including GridStat at Washington State University.
ARPA-E has sponsored a related research project on Micro-Synchrophasors for Distribution Systems, at the University of California, Berkeley.
The largest Wide Area Monitoring System in the world is in India. The Unified Real Time Dynamic State Measurement system (URTDSM) is composed of 1,950 PMUs installed in 351 substations feeding synchrophasor data to 29 State Control Centres, 5 Regional Control Centres and 2 National Control Centres.
Applications
Power system automation, as in smart grids
Load shedding and other load control techniques such as demand response mechanisms to manage a power system. (i.e. Directing power where it is needed in real-time)
Increase the reliability of the power grid by detecting faults early, allowing for isolation of operative system, and the prevention of power outages.
Increase power quality by precise analysis and automated correction of sources of system degradation.
Wide area measurement and control through state estimation, in very wide area super grids, regional transmission networks, and local distribution grids.
Phasor measurement technology and synchronized time stamping can be used for Security improvement through synchronized encryptions like trusted sensing base. Cyber attack recognition by verifying data between the SCADA system and the PMU data.
Distribution State Estimation and Model Verification. Ability to calculate impedances of loads, distribution lines, verify voltage magnitude and delta angles based on mathematical state models.
Event Detection and Classification. Events such as various types of faults, tap changes, switching events, circuit protection devices. Machine learning and signal classification methods can be used to develop algorithms to identify these significant events.
Microgrid applications––islanding or deciding where to detach from the grid, load and generation matching, and resynchronization with the main grid.
Standards
The IEEE 1344 standard for synchrophasors was completed in 1995, and reaffirmed in 2001. In 2005, it was replaced by IEEE C37.118-2005, which was a complete revision and dealt with issues concerning use of PMUs in electric power systems. The specification describes standards for measurement, the method of quantifying the measurements, testing & certification requirements for verifying accuracy, and data transmission format and protocol for real-time data communication. This standard was not comprehensive- it did not attempt to address all factors that PMUs can detect in power system dynamic activity. A new version of the standard was released in December 2011, which split the IEEE C37.118-2005 standard into two parts: C37.118-1 dealing with the phasor estimation & C37.118-2 the communications protocol. It also introduced two classifications of PMU, M — measurement & P — protection. M class is close in performance requirements to that in the original 2005 standard, primarily for steady state measurement. P class has relaxed some performance requirements and is intended to capture dynamic system behavior. An amendment to C37.118.1 was released in 2014. IEEE C37.118.1a-2014 modified PMU performance requirements that were not considered achievable.
Other standards used with PMU interfacing:
OPC-DA / OPC-HDA — A Microsoft Windows based interface protocol that is currently being generalized to use XML and run on non Windows computers.
IEC 61850 a standard for electrical substation automation
BPA PDCStream — a variant of IEEE 1344 used by the Bonneville Power Administration (BPA) PDCs and user interface software.
See also
Utility frequency
Power system automation
Electric power transmission
Smart grid
References
External links
A simple and cheap Wide Area Frequency Measurement System.
Free and open source Phasor Data Concentrator (iPDC) and PMU Simulator for Linux.
New York Independent System Operator
A GPRS-oriented ad-hoc WAM system
Electric power systems components
Electrical meters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemegtomaia
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Nemegtomaia
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Nemegtomaia is a genus of oviraptorid dinosaur from what is now Mongolia that lived in the Late Cretaceous Period, about 70million years ago. The first specimen was found in 1996, and became the basis of the new genus and species N. barsboldi in 2004. The original genus name was Nemegtia, but this was changed to Nemegtomaia in 2005, as the former name was preoccupied. The first part of the generic name refers to the Nemegt Basin, where the animal was found, and the second part means "good mother", in reference to the fact that oviraptorids are known to have brooded their eggs. The specific name honours the palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold. Two more specimens were found in 2007, one of which was found on top of a nest with eggs, but the dinosaur had received its genus name before it was found associated with eggs.
Nemegtomaia is estimated to have been around 2 m (7 ft) in length, and to have weighed 40 kg (85 lb). As an oviraptorosaur, it would have been feathered. It had a deep, narrow, and short skull, with an arched crest. It was toothless, had a short snout with a parrot-like beak, and a pair of tooth-like projections on its palate. It had three fingers; the first was largest and bore a strong claw. Nemegtomaia is classified as a member of the oviraptorid subfamily Heyuanninae, and is the only known member of this group with a cranial crest. Though Nemegtomaia has been used to suggest that oviraptorosaurs were flightless birds, the clade is generally considered a group of non-avian dinosaurs.
The nesting Nemegtomaia specimen was placed on top of what was probably a ring of eggs, with its arms folded across them. None of the eggs are complete, but they are estimated to have been 5to 6 cm (2to 2.3in) wide and 14to 16 cm (5to 6in) long when intact. The specimen was found in a stratigraphic area that indicates Nemegtomaia preferred nesting near streams that would provide soft, sandy substrate and food. Nemegtomaia may have protected its eggs by covering them with its tail and wing feathers. The skeleton of the nesting specimen has damage that indicates it was scavenged by skin beetles. The diet of oviraptorids is uncertain, but their skulls are most similar to other animals that are known or thought to have been herbivorous. Nemegtomaia is known from the Nemegt and Baruungoyot formations, which are thought to represent humid and arid environments that coexisted in the same area.
History of discovery
In 1996 the Japanese palaeontologist Yoshitsugu Kobayashi (as part of the "Mongolian Highland International Dinosaur Project" team) found an incomplete skeleton of an oviraptorid dinosaur in the Nemegt Formation of the Gobi Desert in southwestern Mongolia. The specimen (MPC-D100/2112 at the Mongolian Palaeontological Center, formerly PC and GIN100/2112), consists of a nearly complete skull and a partial skeleton, including cervical, dorsal, sacral, and caudal vertebrae, a left scapula, the lower ends of both humeri, the right radius, both ilia, the upper ends of both pubic bones, both ischia, and the upper end of a femur. The specimen was described as a new specimen of the genus Ingenia (referred to as Ingenia sp.; of uncertain species) by the Chinese palaeontologist Lü Junchang and colleagues in 2002, and used to highlight the similarities between oviraptorosaurs and birds.
In 2004 Lü and colleagues determined that the skeleton belonged to a new, distinct taxon, and made it the holotype specimen of Nemegtia barsboldi. The genus name refers to the Nemegt Basin, and the specific name honours the Mongolian palaeontologist Rinchen Barsbold, the leader of the team that found the specimen. In 2005 the describers discovered (after being notified by a biologist) that the name Nemegtia had already been used for a genus of freshwater seed shrimp (Ostracoda) from the same formation in 1978, and was therefore preoccupied. They proposed instead the new genus name Nemegtomaia ("maia" means "good mother" in Greek, and the full name means "good mother of the Nemegt"), making reference to the then-recent discovery that oviraptorids brooded eggs rather than stealing them, though no trace of a nest or eggs had yet been found associated with Nemegtomaia itself. The first known member of the oviraptorid family was found with a nest of eggs originally thought to have belonged to the ceratopsian genus Protoceratops, and was therefore named Oviraptor in 1924; this name means "egg-seizer". In the 1990s more oviraptorid specimens were discovered associated with nests and eggs, wherein oviraptorid embryos were found, thereby proving that the eggs belonged to the oviraptorids themselves. Ingenia was similarly renamed as Ajancingenia in 2013, since the former genus name was preoccupied by a roundworm (Nematoda).
Assigned specimens
In 2007 two new specimens of Nemegtomaia were found by the "Dinosaurs of the Gobi" expedition, and were described by the Italian palaeontologist Federico Fanti and colleagues in 2013. The first specimen, MPC-D107/15, was found by Fanti (who nicknamed it "Mary") in the Baruungoyot Formation, and consists of a nest with the presumed parent on top. As the fourth genus of oviraptorid found on top of a nest (after Oviraptor, Citipati, and cf. Machairasaurus), Nemegtomaia had therefore received a genus name referring to this feature before it was itself found associated with eggs. The specimen was excavated from a vertical cliff under "difficult circumstances", including heavy rain and collapsing sandstone blocks.
The nesting skeleton preserves parts of the skull, both scapulae, the left arm and hand, the right humerus, the pubic bones, the ischia, the femora, the tibiae, fibulae, and the lower portions of both feet. This specimen was found less than 500 m (1640 ft) from the holotype, and was of the same size; it was assigned to Nemegtomaia due to its similar anatomical features and geographical proximity. It was collected in a single block so that the spatial relationship of the bones and eggs would be preserved. The second specimen, MPC-D107/16, was found by the American palaeontologist Nicholas R. Longrich in the Nemegt Formation, and consists of the hands, a partial left ulna and radius, ribs, a partial pelvis, and both femora. This specimen was 35% smaller than the others, and was assigned to Nemegtomaia due to its hands having the same characteristics as those of specimen MPC-D107/15. It is possible that the hands may have belonged to a different individual, as they were not found articulated with the rest of the skeleton (other oviraptorids are known from quarries with multiple skeletons), but this cannot be confirmed.
Description
Nemegtomaia is estimated to have been around 2 m (7 ft) in length, and to have weighed 40 kg (85 lb), a size extrapolated from more completely known relatives. As an oviraptorosaur, it would have been feathered. Though Nemegtomaia does not possess any single feature that distinguishes it from other oviraptorids (autapomorphies), the combination of a crest, an enlarged first finger, and a high number of sacral vertebrae (eight), is unique to this taxon.
Skull
The skull of Nemegtomaia was deep, narrow, and short (compared to the rest of the body), and reached 179 mm (7 in) in length. It had a well-developed crest, formed by the nasal and premaxilla bones (mainly the latter) of the snout. The nearly vertical front margin of the holotype's crest formed an almost 90degree angle with the upper margin of the skull. Compared to other oviraptorids, the nasal processes (projections) of the premaxillae were barely visible when viewed from above (where they connected with the nasal bones on the highest points of the crest). The crest extended hindwards and down, forming a round arch at the highest point. The diameter of the orbit (eye opening) was 52 mm (2 in); the eyes looked large due to the shortness of the skull. The antorbital cavity in front of the eye consisted of two fenestrae (openings); a large antorbital fenestra at the back, and a small maxillary fenestra at the front. Nemegtomaia was distinct from other oviraptorids in that the frontal bone on the midline of the skull was about 25% the length of the parietal bone from front to back. The nares (external nostrils) were relatively small and placed high on the skull.
The jaws of Nemegtomaia were toothless, and like other oviraptorid dinosaurs, it had a short snout with a deep, robust, and somewhat parrot-like beak. It had a hard palate formed by the premaxillae, vomers, and maxillae, like other oviraptorids. The palate was strongly concave (downwards-projecting), and had a cleft on the central part. As in other oviraptorids, it had a pair of tooth-like projections on the palate that were directed downwards (a feature that has been called "pseudo-teeth"). Nemegtomaia had small foramina (openings) on the sides of the suture (joint) between the premaxillae at the front of the snout, which may have been nutrient openings (and which indicate the presence of a keratinous bill). The lower jaw was short and deep, with a convex lower surface, and reached 153 mm (6 in) in length. The dentary bone of the lower jaw reached 50 mm (2 in) at its highest point. The mandibular symphysis (where the two-halves of the lower jaw connected) was short, deep, and very pneumatised (with air-spaces). The mandibular fenestra was large and was located at the front part of the lower jaw. As in most other oviraptorids, the front of the lower jaw was down-turned.
Postcranial skeleton
The neural spines of the neck (cervical) vertebrae were short, and the neural arches had an x-shaped appearance. The middle three of these vertebrae were the largest. The scapula (shoulder blade) appears to have been 185 mm (7 in) in total length. The humerus (upper arm bone) had a fossa (depression) in a position similar to modern birds, but atypical among oviraptorosaurs, and appears to have been 152 mm (6 in) long. The radius of the lower arm was straight, oval in cross-section, and may have been 144 mm (5 in) long. The first finger was relatively large and had a strong ungual (claw bone), and was more massive than the two other fingers. The second finger was slightly longer than the first, and the third finger was the smallest. The upper margin of the ilium of the pelvis was straight, and though both ilia were close to each other, they were not fused together. The pubic shaft was turned backwards. The femur (thigh bone) is estimated to have been 286 mm (11 in) long, and the tibia of the lower leg 317 mm long (12 in).
Classification
In their 2004 phylogenetic analysis, Lü and colleagues classified Nemegtomaia as a derived (or "advanced") oviraptorosaur, and found it to be most closely related to the genus Citipati. In 2010 Longrich and colleagues determined that Nemegtomaia belonged in the family Oviraptoridae, as part of the subfamily Ingeniinae, making it the only member of the latter group with a prominent crest. Members of the other recognised subfamily, Oviraptorinae, all possess crests. Members of this subfamily were distinguished by smaller size, short and robust forelimbs with weakly curved claws, the number of vertebrae in the synsacrum, as well as certain features of the feet and pelvis. Longrich and colleagues suggested that the presence of a crest on Nemegtomaia makes it possible that this feature evolved or disappeared several times among oviraptorids, or that the animal may not have been an ingeniine. In 2010, the American palaeontologist Gregory S. Paul suggested that crestless oviraptorids were either the juveniles or females of otherwise crested species, and that the number of genera in the group was therefore exaggerated. He listed Nemegtomaia as "Citipati (=Nemegtomaia) barsboldi, considering it very similar to that genus, but in 2016, he instead listed it as "Conchoraptor (=Nemegtomaia) barsboldi".
In 2012 Fanti and colleagues also found Nemegtomaia to be part of Ingeniinae as a derived member, closest to Heyuannia, due to the proportions of the hands of the two new specimens (relatively short with a robust first finger). They stated that, though the presence of crests is generally associated with oviraptorines rather than ingeniines, the feature may be correlated with size and maturity. They pointed out that the nasal and frontal bones of the ingeniine Conchoraptor were pneumatic and could potentially have grown into a crest as the animal matured, though all known skeletons of that genus are of the same small size (and one specimen appears to have been fully grown). The subfamily name Ingeniinae has since been replaced by the name Heyuanninae (since Ingenia was preoccupied). The cladogram below shows the placement of Nemegtomaia within Oviraptoridae, according to Fanti etal., 2012:
Evolution
The clade Oviraptorosauria is generally regarded as a group of non-avian (or non-bird) theropod dinosaurs, and their similarity to birds (Aves) has often been noted. Fossils of oviraptorosaurs in the family Caenagnathidae have historically been confused with those of birds, and some researchers have gone so far as to consider oviraptorosaurs as a whole more closely related to birds than to other non-avian dinosaurs. In 2002 Lü and colleagues used the then unnamed Nemegtomaia to show similarities between birds and oviraptorosaurs, and found the latter group to be closer to birds than to bird-like dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurs. They therefore concluded that oviraptorosaurs were flightless birds rather than non-avian dinosaurs, and noted that the boundary between birds and dinosaurs was becoming more and more difficult to delineate. Other researchers have instead found dromaeosaurs and troodontids to be most closely related to birds, together forming the group Paraves; oviraptorosaurs, therizinosaurs, and alvarezsaurs are just outside this group. The wider group that includes oviraptorosaurs and Paraves is called Pennaraptora, and this group is defined by the presence of pennaceous feathers (feathers with a stalk).
Oviraptorosaurs are known from Asia (where they may have originated) and North America, and are mainly known from deposits that date from the Campanian-Maastrichtian ages of the Cretaceous period. The group includes small to large members, and they are characterised by their short skulls and beaks, elongated fingers, and short tails. Basal (or "primitive") members had teeth, which disappeared in derived members of the group (those within the superfamily Caenagnathoidea, which includes Oviraptoridae). They were at least partially herbivorous, and brooded their nests in a bird-like posture. Though they are all thought to have to been feathered, they appear to have been flightless. Cranial crests appear to have evolved convergently in different lineages within the group. The family Oviraptoridae (to which Nemegtomaia belongs) consisted of generally small members, and is exclusively known from the Upper Cretaceous of Asia, with most genera having been discovered in the Gobi Desert of Mongolia and China. Including Nemegtomaia, at least nine oviraptorid genera have been discovered in a relatively small geographical area in the Gobi Desert.
Palaeobiology
Reproduction
The Nemegtomaia specimen MPC-D 107/15 was found associated with a nest with eggs; its feet were placed in the centre of what was probably a ring of eggs, with the arms folded across the tops of the eggs on each side of the body, a posture similar to what is seen in other fossils of brooding oviraptorids. The collected part of the nest is about 90 cm (35 in) wide and 100 cm (30 in) long; the skeleton occupies the upper 25 cm (10 in) of the block, whereas the remaining 20 cm (8 in) is occupied by broken eggs and shells. There is no evidence of plant material in the nest, but there are fragments of undetermined bones. The nest does not preserve any complete eggs or embryos, which prevents determination of the size, shape, number, and arrangement of the eggs in the nest. It is probable that there were originally two layers of eggs below the body, and there do not appear to have been eggs in the centre of the nest. Most eggs (seven distinct eggs have been identified) and egg fragments were recovered either in the lower layer of the nest or under the skull, neck, and limbs of the specimen, and the bones either rested directly on the eggs or were within 5 mm (0.2 in) of their surfaces. That the skeleton was directly positioned on top of it shows that the nest was not completely covered by sand. Though the placement of the eggs does not suggest a specific arrangement in the nest, most other oviraptorid nests show that the eggs were arranged in pairs in up to three levels of concentric circles. The eggs of MPC-D107/15 were therefore most likely displaced during burial, or by external factors, such as strong winds, sandstorms, or predators. This also supports the idea that the upper layer of eggs was not buried, as fully buried eggs would have been less likely to be transported by external factors.
Oviraptorid eggs appear to have been 17 cm (6 in) long on average, and the most complete eggs found with MPC-D107/15 are thought to have been 5to 6 cm (2to 2.3in) wide and 14 to 16 cm (5to 6in) long when intact. The eggs are nearly identical to some that have previously been found in Mongolia, and have therefore been assigned to the oofamily (egg-taxon family) Elongatoolithidae. The eggshells are relatively thin, between 1and 1.2 mm (0.03and 0.04in), and their outer surface is covered by ridges and nodes that rise about 0.3 mm (0.01 in) above the shell. The micro-structure of the eggshells could not be properly studied, as the calcite has been heavily altered and re-crystallized.
The nesting specimen was found in a stratigraphic area indicating that oviraptorids preferred nesting near streams that provided soft, sandy substrate and food in environments that were otherwise xeric (receiving a small amount of moisture). Many oviraptorids have been found in brooding positions, indicating they may have brooded for relatively long periods, similar to modern birds such as the ostrich, emu, and black-breasted buzzard, which brood for more than 40 days with a limited supply of sustenance. Nesting in desert environments can be harmful to adults that stay in the nest for large parts of the day, and for eggs and nestlings, due to heat stress. The choice of nesting area may therefore have been a mechanism for successful incubation in extreme heat. It has also been suggested that the evolution of tail-feathers in oviraptorosaurs was an adaptation for shading and protecting eggs in their nests. That the second finger of heyuannine oviraptorids was reduced in size compared to the robust first finger may be explained by a change in function; it may be related to the presence of long wing feathers that were attached to the second finger. These wing feathers were probably used to protect the eggs during nesting. When the second finger began functioning as a feather support, its ability to grasp was reduced, and this function was taken over by the first finger, which therefore became more robust. The third finger was reduced in size, too, probably because it was positioned behind the wing feathers in a way where it would not be effective for grasping.
In 2018, the Taiwanese palaeontologist Tzu-Ruei Yang and colleagues identified cuticle layers on egg-shells of maniraptoran dinosaurs, including oviraptorids. In modern birds, such layers (which consist mainly of lipids and hydroxyapatite) serve to protect the eggs from dehydration and invasion of microbes. The researchers suggested that the cuticle-coated eggs would have been a trait adapted for enhancing their reproductive success in the variable environments where Nemegtomaia and other oviraptorids nested.
Various studies have suggested that several individuals would gather eggs in a single nest, and arrange them so they could be protected by one individual, possibly a male. In 2010 the American palaeontologist David J. Varricchio and colleagues found that the relatively large clutch-size of oviraptorids and troodontids is most similar to those of modern archosaurs (birds and crocodilians, the closest living relatives of dinosaurs) that practice polygamous mating and extensive male parental care (as seen in paleognaths such as ostriches and emus). This reproductive system pre-dates the origin of birds and would therefore be the ancestral condition for modern birds, with biparental care (where both parents participate) being a later development. Many oviraptorosaurs are known to have had pygostyles on the end of their tails, which suggests the presence of feather-fans; the American palaeontologist W. Scott Persons and colleagues suggested in 2013 that these could have been used for intraspecific communication such as courtship rituals.
Diet and feeding
The diet of oviraptorids has been interpreted in various ways since the time Oviraptor was wrongly thought to have been a predator of eggs. It has been suggested that oviraptorosaurs as a whole were herbivores, which is supported by the gastroliths (stomach stones) found in Caudipteryx, and the wear facets in the teeth of Incisivosaurus. In 2010 Longrich and colleagues found that oviraptorid jaws had features similar to those seen in herbivorous tetrapods (four-limbed animals), especially those of dicynodonts, an extinct group of synapsid stem-mammals. Oviraptorids and dicynodonts share features such as short, deep, and toothless mandibles; elongated dentary symphyses; elongated mandibular fenestrae; and a downwards-projecting bar in the palate. Modern animals with jaws that resemble those of oviraptorids include parrots and tortoises; the latter group also has tooth-like projections on their premaxillae.
Longrich and colleagues concluded that due to the similarities between oviraptorids and herbivorous animals, the bulk of their diet would most likely have been formed by plant matter. Oviraptorids are found at high frequencies in the formations they are known from, similar to the pattern seen in dinosaurs that are known to be herbivorous; these animals were more abundant than carnivorous dinosaurs, as more energy was available at their lower trophic level in the food chain. The jaws of oviraptorids may have been specialised for processing food, such as xerophytic vegetation (adapted for environments with little water), that would have grown in their environment, but this is not possible to demonstrate, as little is known about the flora of the area at the time. A 2013 study by Lü and colleagues found that oviraptorids appear to have retained their hind limb proportions throughout ontogeny (growth), which is also a pattern mainly seen in herbivorous animals. In 2017, the Canadian palaeontologist Gregory F. Funston and colleagues suggested that the parrot-like jaws of oviraptorids may indicate a frugivorous diet that incorporated nuts and seeds.
In 1977 Barsbold suggested that oviraptorids fed on molluscs, but Longrich and colleagues rejected the idea that they practised shell-crushing altogether, since such animals tend to have teeth with broad crushing surfaces. Instead, the shape of the dentary bones in the lower jaws of oviraptorids suggests they had a sharp-edged beak used for shearing tough food, not for cracking hard food items such as bivalves or eggs. The symphyseal shelf at the front of the dentary may have given some ability for crushing, but as this was a relatively small area, it was probably not the main function of the jaws. The fact that most oviraptorids have been found in sediments that are interpreted as having been xeric and arid or semi-arid environments also argues against them having been specialised eaters of shellfish and eggs, as it is unlikely there would have been enough of these items under such conditions to support them.
Longrich and colleagues pointed out that the robust forelimbs and enlargement of a single finger in heyuannine oviraptorids is similar to that seen in modern animals that eat ants and termites, such as anteaters and pangolins, but the morphology of heyuannine jaws does not support them being insectivorous. The researchers found that the function of heyuannine forelimbs was unclear, but suggested that they could have been used for scratching, tearing, or digging, though not prey capture.
In 2004 Lü and colleagues proposed that the articulation between the quadrate and quadratojugal bones in the skull of Nemegtomaia suggested that these bones were movable in relation to each other, which would have affected how the jaws functioned. In 2015 the Belgian palaeontologist Christophe Hendrickx and colleagues found it unlikely that Nemegtomaia and other oviraptords had bird-like kinesis in their skulls, due to the quadrate bone being immobile.
Palaeoenvironment
Nemegtomaia is known from the Nemegt and Baruungoyot Formations, which date to the upper Campanian–lower Maastrichtian ages of the Late Cretaceous period, about 70million years ago. Though this taxon is known only from the Nemegt locality, unidentified oviraptorid remains from other localities may belong to it. The Nemegt massif has numerous canyons or gorges, up to deep, which have some of the best exposures of these formations. The rock facies of the Nemegt Formation are thought to represent a humid, fluvial (associated with rivers and streams) environment, whereas those of the Baruungoyot Formation are thought to represent an arid or semi-arid environment, with aeolian (affected by wind) beds. These two formations with their diverse fossils were historically thought to represent sequential time periods with different environments, but in 2009 the Canadian palaeontologist DavidA. Eberth and colleagues found that there was partial overlap across the transition between them. The two formations "interfinger" across a stratigraphic interval that is about 25 m (82 ft) thick, which suggests that the fluvial and aeolian environments coexisted when the area was sedimented.
The environment of the Nemegt Formation has been compared to the Okavango Delta of present-day Botswana. The habitats in and around the Nemegt rivers provided a home for a wide array of organisms. Aquatic animals include molluscs, fish, turtles, and the crocodylomorph Shamosuchus. Fossils of mammals such as multituberculates have been found, and birds such as Gurilynia, Judinornis, and Teviornis are known. Herbivorous dinosaurs of the Nemegt Formation include ankylosaurids such as Tarchia, the pachycephalosaurian Prenocephale, hadrosaurids such as Saurolophus and Barsboldia, and sauropods such as Nemegtosaurus, and Opisthocoelicaudia. Other theropods include tyrannosauroids such as Tarbosaurus, Alioramus, and Bagaraatan, troodontids such as Borogovia, Tochisaurus, and Saurornithoides, therizinosaurs such as Therizinosaurus, and ornithomimosaurians such as Deinocheirus, Anserimimus, and Gallimimus.
Other oviraptorosaur genera known from the Nemegt Formation include the basal Avimimus, the oviraptorids Rinchenia, Nomingia, Conchoraptor and Ajancingenia, and the caenagnathid Elmisaurus. In spite of the high number of oviraptorid taxa in these formations (the Nemegt has the highest known diversity of them anywhere), none of them were closely related. The Nemegt Formation is unique in having both oviraptorid and caenagnathid oviraptorosaurs, and in 1993 the Canadian palaeontologist Phillip J. Currie and colleagues suggested this diversity was due to the two groups preferring different environments in the area. In 2016 the Japanese palaeontologist Takanobu Tsuihiji and colleagues suggested that oviraptorids may have preferred drier environments, while caenagnathids preferred fluvial environments, based on the type of formations they have been found in. Funston and colleagues suggested that oviraptorids were found in both xeric and mesic environments (but were more abundant in the former), whereas the other oviraptorosaur groups avoided the xeric environments, and that the coexistence of the families can be explained by niche partitioning in diet. The environment of the Nemegt Formation may have acted as an oasis and thereby attracted oviraptorids.
Taphonomy
The nesting specimen MPC-D 107/15 has provided much information about the taphonomic processes (changes during decay and fossilisation) in the Baruungoyot Formation. The specimen is preserved in facies that are thought to have been deposited through a sandstorm or dune-shift. It does not seem to have been transported after death, but the body appears to have shifted slightly to the right, indicating the sediment in which it was deposited came towards it from its left side. The neck is curved to the left, the left hand is folded backwards, and the legs are folded into a crouching position. The vertebral column, neck, and hips deteriorated during burial, and much of the damage to the skeleton is thought to have been caused by the activity of invertebrates.
Borings in the bones, burrows, and reworked sediments (perhaps caused by the construction of pupal chambers) in the specimen indicate it was scavenged upon by colonies of skin beetles (Dermestidae) and perhaps other scavenging insects. There are many feeding traces in the joints of the skeleton, and almost all the surfaces where the bones articulated have been obliterated. There are also tunnels in the nest under the neck and skull, and no egg remains have been found in parts with such traces. Modern skin beetles mainly feed on muscle tissue but not on moist materials, and their activity is prevented by rapid burial. It is therefore thought that specimen MPC-D107/15 was only partially buried at first, with the upper part being exposed enough for a colony of skin beetles to develop. Some damage to the skeleton (especially in the vertebral column) may also have been caused by the scavenging of small mammals.
See also
Timeline of oviraptorosaur research
References
Nemegt fauna
Late Cretaceous dinosaurs of Asia
Oviraptorids
Fossil taxa described in 2005
Taxa named by Lü Junchang
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Canadian%20tornadoes%20and%20tornado%20outbreaks%20%28before%202001%29
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List of Canadian tornadoes and tornado outbreaks (before 2001)
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This page lists tornadoes and tornado outbreaks which have touched down in Canada prior to the 21st century. On average, there are around 80 confirmed and unconfirmed tornadoes that touch down in Canada each year, with most occurring in the southern Canadian Prairies, Southern Ontario and southern Quebec. Canada ranks as the country with the second most tornadoes per year, after the US. The most common types are F0 to F2 in damage intensity level and usually result in minor structural damage to barns, wood fences, roof shingles, chimneys, uprooted or snapped tree limbs and downed power lines. Fewer than 5% of tornadoes in Canada are rated F3 or higher in intensity, where wind speeds are in excess of . Prior to April 1, 2013, Canada used a slightly modified Fujita scale, and as of that date the Enhanced Fujita scale, again slightly modified, was put into use to rate tornado intensity, based on the damage to buildings and vegetation.
Each year on average, about 43 tornadoes occur across the Canadian Prairies and about 17 occur across Ontario and Quebec. New Brunswick and the British Columbia Interior are also recognized tornado zones. All other provinces and territories have significantly less threat from tornadoes. The peak season in Canada is through the summer months, (June to August), when clashing air masses move north, as opposed to the spring season in the United States southern-central plains, although tornadoes in Canada have occurred in spring, fall and very rarely winter.
The reported increase in numbers of tornadoes in recent years may reflect more reporting by citizens and media involvement rather than an actual increase in tornado occurrence (although some natural increase has not been ruled out), in addition to better detection technology i.e. Doppler weather radar and satellite imagery. The upswing could also be attributed to other factors, such as improved aerial and ground damage assessment after the fact in sparsely populated areas (particularly the case in remote parts of the Canadian Prairies and Northern Ontario, for example), better trained spotter capabilities and increased use of digital recording devices by citizens. Tornadoes in Canada are enough of a threat for a public warning system to be in place, overseen by the national weather agency, Environment Canada (EC).
For a variety of reasons, such as Canada's lower population density and generally stronger housing construction due to the colder climate, Canadian tornadoes have historically caused fewer fatalities than tornadoes in the United States. The deadliest tornado in Canadian history, the Regina Cyclone of June 30, 1912, killed 28 and injured 300. Urban centres are not immune from the threat of severe tornadoes. Twelve medium to large size Canadian cities have been hit by significant strength tornadoes (F3 or higher), which caused large-scale damage and fatalities: Toronto (1868); Regina (1912); Windsor (1946 and 1974); Sarnia (1953); LaSalle (1956); Sudbury (1970); Woodstock (1979); Lloydminster (1983); Barrie (1985); Edmonton (1987); Aylmer (1994); and Ottawa-Gatineau (1888 and 2018).
All figures for damages are in Canadian dollars.
Before 1850
1792
June 30 or July 1 - the first recorded tornado in Canadian history, an F2, affected the Niagara Peninsula between Fonthill and Port Robinson, Ontario. It levelled houses and uprooted many trees. The tornado cut a path of trees in a west to east line from both communities that became known as "Hurricane Road", which still exists today.
1795 or 1798
??? - an unrated probable tornado touched down near Port Credit, Ontario.
1823
August 21 - an unrated tornado touched down near Cornwall, Ontario, and moved southeast into New York before striking Constable, New York.
1826
August 1 - an unrated tornado crossed Lake St. Clair, moving through Chatham, Ontario, where extensive damage was done.
1828
June 27 - an unrated tornado struck Eastern Ontario in the area of Drummond Centre, Ontario. The tornado destroyed barns and houses, carrying some far distances. An unroofed brick house was carried off its foundation. A strong stone house was partly destroyed. Trees on the third and fourth concession of Drummond Township were uprooted and damaged.
1829
Late May - an F0 tornado struck and destroyed the early settlement of Guelph, Ontario. Development on the settlement was slow to begin afterwards with some recalling little progress in the next three years following the tornado.
1831
June 26 - an unrated tornado struck Montreal, Quebec, carrying the roof off the western tower of the New Catholic Parish Church and depositing on Notre Dame Street. Construction material was tossed around and various houses were destroyed. Damage was also done on Guy Street.
1844
June 12 - an F2 passed through the community of Holland Landing, Ontario.
August 7 - an F1 tornado struck Galt, Ontario. The first tornado-related recorded death occurred here when a tree fell onto a man.
1847
June 12 - an F0 tornado touched down north of Guelph, Ontario.
September 5 - an F2 tornado and a probable tornado struck Ontario and Quebec. The F2 tornado struck Cornwall, Ontario, and near Lancaster, Ontario. The tornado started near Massena, New York, before crossing the St. Lawrence River. The tornado was spotted crossing the river from Long Sault, Ontario. In Cornwall, Ontario, the tornado did significant damage to structures with the tornado destroying 3 houses, unroofing 8, and damaging another 9 or so. As for out-houses, the tornado destroyed 11, unroofed 13, and damaged many more. Debris was carried up to the three miles away. A young girl was thrown into the Cornwall Canal and drown while here brother and another man escaped without injury. The tornado approached the St. Lawrence River near Lancaster, Ontario, where it destroyed several other buildings and injured two. The probable tornado struck Saint-Édouard, Quebec, two hours after the first tornado. The storm lasted 50 minutes which is far longer than a normal tornado, however, the damage caused was the destruction of 57 buildings of various kinds. This tornado is listed as probable as the description is not fully clear on the event but the significant damage caused seems far greater than a downburst.
1848
June 19 - an F2 tornado struck Ingersoll, Ontario.
1850s
1850
July 5 - an F3 tornado touched down over Lake Scugog, spending nearly 12 minutes over the water, before moving south into Cartwright Township, Ontario. Trees were snapped and twisted off while fences were blown down. Hail the size of hen's eggs occurred on the outskirts of the tornado. Into eastern Darlington Township, Ontario, an entire forest was destroyed with hail larger than the previous size. A vast majority of livestock in the area were killed. Significant damage was done to homes and barns, alongside crops. The tornado was half a mile wide and tracked for 14 miles in length. Various people were injured with a range of severity. The towns of Manchester, Ontario, Enniskillen, Ontario, and Haydon, Ontario, suffered greatly.
1851
July 18 - an F1 tornado touched down north of Wheatley, Ontario, striking the hamlet of Windfall, Ontario.
1854
April 25 - an F0 tornado passed along Dundas Street in Toronto, Ontario.
August 1 - an F2 tornado struck Dunnville, Ontario.
1855
April 18 - four F2 tornadoes touched down in Southern Ontario. The first tornado touched down in Grey County, Ontario, near Meaford, Ontario. The tornado moved eastward through The Blue Mountains, Ontario, before causing extensive damage in Collingwood, Ontario. A second tornado touched down in Port Dalhousie, Ontario. This tornado lifted before dropping again and causing F2-strength damage through Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario. Finally, a fourth tornado touched down in Whitby, Ontario, moving through Oshawa, Ontario.
1856
June 29 - an F3 tornado touched down near Embro, Ontario, around the community of Golspie, Ontario, crossing Highway 59 (Ontario) just north of the northern edge of Woodstock, Ontario, in East Zorra-Tavistock Township, Ontario. The tornado destroyed various trees and chimneys while unroofing, damaging, and destroying numerous houses. The tornado continued to the Paris, Ontario, and Brantford, Ontario, road junction where additional damage was caused. The most severe damage was done in Eastwood, Ontario, which sits just east of the Ontario Highway 401 near Woodstock, Ontario. Two children and adult were killed with eight to ten additional injuries. The track of the tornado was roughly 10 miles long.
July 21 - an unrated tornado touched down near Brighton, Ontario.
September 10 - an F1 tornado touched down near Kemptville, Ontario, resulting in some minor tree damage. The tornado continued eastward before striking Mountain, Ontario, and Winchester, Ontario, where trees were damaged, homes were unroofed, and fences were destroyed.
1857
July 31 - an F0 tornado struck Toronto, Ontario.
1859
August 5 - an unrated tornado struck Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, destroying trees and property. At least two people drown while a vessel with seven on board capsized. It is unknown if all on board died.
September 11 - an F1 tornado struck Ross Township, Ontario.
October 24 - an F0 tornado struck Coldwater, Ontario.
1860s
1860
May 26 - an F1 tornado touched down near Aurora, Ontario, and passed into Gormley, Ontario. The tornado caused extensive damage. This tornado is likely underrated.
August 30 - an F2 tornado struck Cashmere, Ontario.
1861
May 24 - an unrated tornado touched down north of Brantford, Ontario, before moving southeast to the east of Brantford. The tornado did considerable amounts of damage to fences, barns, and homes in the area. The tornado did not appear more than 60 feet wide. At times, there were two distinct paths of damage in close proximity that would reunite into a single path.
November 14 - an unrated tornado struck Kingston, Ontario, and Garden Island, Ontario. The tornado unroofed weak buildings, damaged sheds, and destroyed fences.
1862
May 2 - an F1 tornado struck Lindsay, Ontario. This tornado is likely underrated.
May 21 - an F1 touched down near Port Dover, Ontario, and moved northeast towards York, Haldimand County, Ontario. This long-tracked tornado may have been multiple tornadoes.
July 22 - an F1 tornado struck Galt, Ontario.
July 28 - an F0 tornado passed through Barrie, Ontario, prior to becoming a waterspout over Lake Simcoe.
August 18 - a waterspout over Burlington Bay moved onshore causing F0-strength damage.
1863
August 24 - an F0 tornado struck Brockville, Ontario, before becoming a waterspout over the St. Lawrence River.
1864
October 6 - two F0 tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado touched down near Erin, Ontario, while the second tornado caused damage in Rama, Ontario.
1865
May 17 - an F0 struck Boston, Ontario
September 14 - an F0 tornado touched down on the St. Lawrence River near Johnstown, Ontario, prior to moving across Drummond Island, Ontario, and entering New York.
1866
June 25 - an F2 struck Oil Springs, Ontario.
July 13 - an F1 touched down near Hornby, Ontario.
September 14 - an F0 tornado touched down near Brampton, Ontario, as a complex of severe thunderstorms passed over Southwestern Ontario. Additional tornadoes may have occurred.
1867
June 7 - an F0 tornado touched down near Belwood, Ontario.
July 28 - an F1 tornado touched down north of Woodstock, Ontario.
1868
March 16 - an F3 tornado struck Toronto, Ontario.
April 29 - an F2 tornado struck Goderich Township, Ontario, and Stanley Township, Ontario, resulting in vast amount of damage to local properties and one injury. Damage was most notable in Bayfield, Ontario.
August 12 - an F0 tornado developed over Georgian Bay and split into two vortices. The first vortex moved onto Nottawasaga Island, Ontario, just north of Collingwood, Ontario, while the second vortex made landfall in Collingwood, Ontario.
1869
June 20 - an unrated tornado touched down near Birr, Ontario.
July 10 - an F0 tornado passed through Peel Township, Ontario, and Garafraxa Township, Ontario.
July 20 - two probable tornadoes touched down in British Columbia. The first tornado touched down along the Quesnel River in the valley, near Quesnel, British Columbia. The tornado was strong enough to knock over 18-inch in diameter trees and carry them long distances. A second tornado touched down near Williams Creek, British Columbia, carrying light materials some distance. These two tornadoes are only probable as they do mention smoke and fire with both situations, but if severe thunderstorms did cross a forest fire area and produce a tornado, the vortex could be able to spin up the smoke alongside carry debris and cause damage as described in the articles.
Weeks before August 21 (on a Sunday) - one strong tornado or two smaller tornadoes touched down in Southwestern Ontario. The source indicates that a tornado started a few miles west of Woodstock, Ontario, and crossed through the city. The tornado caused immense damage, destroying over 740 panes of glass from the Canada Institute building, uprooting trees and levelling barns and sheds in "East Woodstock". The source discusses a second tornado through Middlesex County, Ontario, which may have been the origin for the first tornado. The description of this tornado claims that forests, fences, houses, and everything else were knocked down in the path of the tornado.
1870s
1870
June 16 - an unrated probable tornado touched down in the Township of East Nissouri, Ontario.
June 26 - an F0 tornado struck the townships of Huntingdon, Ontario, and Hungerford, Ontario.
July 2 - an F0 tornado struck Bobcaygeon, Ontario.
July 14 - an F0 probable tornado struck West Dumfries, Ontario, between the current day cities of Cambridge, Ontario, and Brantford, Ontario.
July 16 - an unrated tornado touched down in Montreal, Quebec. It only lasted five minutes and destroyed everything in its path. There was one unconfirmed death.
July 20 - an F1 tornado touched down in Belwood, Ontario, along a powerful squall line. Additional damage was reported throughout Southwestern Ontario.
July 21 - an unrated probable tornado passed through Clear Creek, Ontario.
July 24 - an F1 tornado struck Chatham, Ontario.
July 26 - an F1 tornado caused extensive damage near St. Marys, Ontario, in the townships of Blanchard, Ontario, Downie, Ontario, and West Nissouri, Ontario.
1871
August 15 - an F0 tornado struck the Stratford, Ontario, approaching from the northwest and exiting to the northeast.
1872
April 21 - an unrated tornado struck Bluevale, Ontario. The tornado tore up trees, damaged barns, and shifted a house.
May 27 - an F1 tornado passed through Haldimand County, Ontario, striking the community of Canborough, Ontario.
July 1 - two F0 tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado struck Prescott, Ontario. The second tornado struck Hamilton, Ontario.
July 4 - an F0 probable tornado passed through Minto, Ontario.
August 1 - an F0 tornado touched down in Fullarton, Ontario, before moving into Blanchard, Ontario.
Before November 8 - an unrated tornado struck Westmorland County, New Brunswick, destroying houses, fences, and trees.
1873
May 23 - two tornadoes touched down in Eastern Ontario. The first tornado was a long-tracked F1 tornado which touched down near Lavant, Ontario, and moved east towards Gloucester, Ontario. The second tornado was an F2-strength tornado which passed from Perth, Ontario, to Smiths Falls, Ontario.
July 10 - an F0 tornado tracked northeast through woodlands in Tuscarora Township, Ontario
1874
June 7 - an unrated tornado struck Kemptville, Ontario. The tornado was short-lived and destroyed about $25,000 dollars worth of property. Many buildings were destroyed including barns, sheds, stables, homes, and shops.
August 7 - an F1 tornado and a probable tornado touched down in Ontario. The F1 tornado touched down near Morven, Ontario, moving east towards Wilton, Ontario. The probable tornado struck Beamsville, Ontario.
1875
May 8 or 9 - an unrated probable tornado struck Flos Township, Ontario, resulting in tree damaged, blown down fences, and damaged roofs. There is some uncertainty regarding whether or not this was a tornadic event given it mentions significant snowfall during the event.
June 24 - three tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado, an F2, struck Belmont Township, Ontario. The second tornado, an F2, struck Bradford, Ontario, demolishing the town hall. The tornado resulted in one death and three injuries. The third tornado was unrated and touched down near Sarnia, Ontario, in Moore Township, Ontario. This tornado resulted in one death.
July 29 - an unrated tornado struck Saint-Malachie, Quebec, and Saint-Nazaire-de-Dorchester, Quebec, alongside a hail storm which results in hail stones larger than eggs.
1876
April 14 - an unrated tornado Kingston, Ontario, causing significant damage in the city. Many buildings were demolished including a four-story building. Damage was most significant along Princess Street.
July 25 - an F0 tornado passed through Seneca Township, Ontario.
1877
July 9 - an unrated tornado struck Galt, Ontario.
August 15 - an F0 tornado touched down near Gourock, Ontario, just outside of Guelph, Ontario
August 31 - an unrated tornado touched down near Fort Wayne (Detroit), Michigan, causing damage to fences before crossing the Detroit River and striking the community of Sandwich, Ontario.
1878
Before May 10 - a probable tornado touched down near Mount Carmel, Ontario.
May 15 - an unrated tornado struck Centralia, Ontario. The Commercial Hotel was blown down.
August 8 - an F2 tornado ripped through Dummer Township, Ontario, near Norwood, Ontario, destroying many properties.
August 9 - an F1 tornado passed close to Warminster, Ontario, moving into the city of Orillia, Ontario, where barns and homes were unroofed.
August 16 - an unrated tornado struck Goderich, Ontario, during the morning hours. The tornado twisted the tops of fruit trees, stripped roofs of their shingles, and lofted debris into the air.
1879
July 3 - an F2 tornado touched down near Paris, Ontario, before striking Harrisburg, Ontario.
July 11 - an F1 tornado touched down near Thornville, Michigan, before passing through Port Huron, Michigan, and Sarnia, Ontario. The tornado torn apart numerous buildings, filling the air with debris such as roofs, chimneys, and trees. Two people were killed in Michigan. Additional tornadoes may have caused damage in Petrolia, Ontario, and Strathroy, Ontario.
July 29 - a probable tornado struck Port Burwell, Ontario, destroying trees, fences, and chimneys. Based on the description of the event, this could have been caused by a downburst, however, the article claims a tornado.
August 6 - an F3 tornado touched down near Bouctouche, New Brunswick.
1880s
1880
May 31 - an F3 tornado touched down in Lambton County, Ontario, near Florence, Ontario. The tornado damaged and destroyed a number of homes, barns, and sheds.
June 2 - an unrated tornado touched down in Canada, specific location unknown. The tornado blew down outhouses, uprooted trees, and killed livestock. Two men were killed.
June 10 - two tornadoes touched down Wellington County, Ontario. The first tornado, an F1, touched down near Arthur, Ontario, around Rothsay, Ontario. The tornado moved east towards Green Park, Ontario. The second tornado, an F2, touched down near Lebanon, Ontario, and moved east to Salem, Ontario.
Before June 22 - an unrated tornado touched down around Napanee, Ontario, before moving into Prince Edward County, Ontario. The tornado caused great damage to buildings, fences, and crops.
1881
June 28 - four tornadoes, an unrated, two F1s, and one F2, touched down in Ontario. The first tornado, an F2, touched down near Millbrook, Ontario, killing two and injuring many more. The second tornado, an F1, touched down near Erin, Ontario. The third tornado, an F1, touched down in the western half of Orford Township, Ontario, near Muirkirk, Ontario. The fourth tornado, which was unrated, touched down in Culross Township, Ontario, unroofing a barn.
Before August 11 - an unrated tornado struck St. Agathe, Manitoba, destroying a home and crops in the area.
1883
Before May 25 - an unrated tornado touched down in Colborne Township, Ontario, resulting in torn trees, demolished fences, and damaged barns.
June 18 - two F1 tornadoes touched down in Bruce County, Ontario. The first tornado passed from Saugeen, Ontario, to the northeast towards Presqu'ile, Ontario, in Grey County, Ontario. The second tornado touched down a few miles east of Kincardine, Ontario.
Before July 14 - an unrated tornado touched down in Medicine Hat, Alberta resulting in damage.
July 28 - an unrated tornado touched down near Exeter, Ontario, causing a considerable amount of destruction. Hotels, churches, and houses were ripped apart with many other buildings sustaining roof damage.
September 9 - an F0 tornado did considerable damage to many properties in Newburgh, Ontario.
1884
May 15 - three tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado was unrated and touched down in Woodstock, Ontario, resulting in structural and tree damage in the southern end of town. The second tornado, an F0, touched down just south of Elora, Ontario, and moved between Speedside, Ontario, and Oustic, Ontario. The tornado destroyed barns, fences, and stables. The third tornado, also an F0, touched down near Goldstone, Ontario, and continued east to Alma, Ontario, and Orton, Ontario. The tornado caused significant damage to many farmsteads. The tornado damaged a church and cemetery in Mapleton, Ontario. This tornado was likely underrated with some documentation listing it as a suspected F4 tornado.
June 24 - an unrated tornado touched down in Shell River, Manitoba, resulting in considerable damage.
July 16 - an F0 tornado touched down near Lobo, Ontario, moving eastward towards Melrose, Ontario.
August 27 - at least one tornado struck between Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, and Winnipeg, Manitoba, resulting in unroofed buildings and crop damage. The first tornado struck Winnipeg causing significant damage to buildings. This tornado may have touched down outside of the city in the rural landscape to the west. The Weekly British Whig states that damage to some of the provincial towns was also severe with heavy crop damage while the Victoria Daily British Colonist states that the damage was in a narrow path with weak crop damage. Because of the difference in the event descriptions and the distance between Portage la Prairie and Winnipeg, it is assumed that there was likely at least one tornado with the possibility of more tornadoes that touched down.
1885
Week before May 30 - an unrated small tornado struck north Winnipeg, Manitoba, destroying half a dozen homes and injuring many. The tornado briefly became a waterspout when it crossed the river.
August 28 - an unrated tornado struck the Muskoka District, Ontario, near Skeleton Lake, Ontario, causing a path of destruction. Trees were uprooted while roofs were lifted off of barns and homes. Two children were killed by falling trees.
1886
August 5 - an unrated small tornado touched down near Glenvale, Ontario, before moving eastward through Elginburg, Ontario.
1887
April 1 - a small and probable tornado struck Vancouver Island, specific location unknown. The tornado caused minor tree and telegraph line damage.
July 16 - an unrated tornado passed through Onondaga, Ontario, south of Ohsweken, Ontario. The tornado demolished fences and uprooted trees before damaging an outbuilding.
August 23 - an unrated tornado struck London, Ontario, and Ingersoll, Ontario, destroying numerous buildings, a large chimney from a Bell mill, and the roof of a gas works. Significant damage to trees, chimneys, and structures was also reported north of London.
1888
June 6 - six tornadoes touched down across Eastern Ontario and Southern Quebec. The first tornado, an F3, touched down near Lanark, Ontario, before moving east into Ottawa, Ontario. The tornado levelled fences and barns near Lanark, Ontario, before affecting Rochesterville, Ontario (current day Centretown West, Ottawa) before affecting the Billings Bridge region and Gloucester Township, Ontario. The tornado caused considerable damage to the St. Thomas Roman Catholic Church and many dwellings in the area. At least three people were killed from this tornado. The second tornado, also an F3, touched down near St. Raphaels, Ontario, before moving eastward to St. Lambert, Quebec. The tornado caused significant damage, damaging many homes and injuring some. There are unconfirmed reports of three deaths from this tornado. The third tornado was unrated and touched down near Sainte-Justine-de-Newton, Quebec, prior to moving into Sainte-Marthe, Quebec. The fourth tornado was unrated touched down near La Prairie, Quebec. The third unrated tornado touched down near Eastman, Quebec, and moved into Sherbrooke, Quebec. The six unrated tornado struck Lake Mégantic, Quebec.
July 11 - six tornadoes touched down in Ontario and Quebec. The first tornado was unrated and touched down near Bombay, New York, and moved towards Rockburn, Quebec. The second tornado was an F2 tornado that touched down near Morrisburg, Ontario, and crossed into Cazaville, Quebec. The third tornado made a brief unrated touchdown near Lancaster, Ontario. This tornado killed one person. The fourth tornado was an F2 tornado that struck Hagersville, Ontario. The fifth tornado was an F2 tornado that touched down in Aylmer, Quebec, and passed into Ottawa, Ontario. The sixth tornado was an unrated tornado near Saint-Esprit, Quebec.
July 22 - an F0 tornado struck Alliston, Ontario, unroofing several houses and barns and tree damage.
August 16 - an unrated tornado crossed from South Glengarry, Ontario, into Saint-Zotique, Quebec, and then onto Salaberry-de-Valleyfield. It caused extensive property damage, killing nine people and injuring sixteen. It is considered the fifth deadliest tornado to ever hit Canada.
August 26 - an F0 tornado struck Waterford, Ontario.
1889
April 7 - an unrated tornado travelled 50 yards through the Last Mountain Lake (Saskatchewan) area, also known as Long Lake, Saskatchewan. The tornado destroyed many houses and barns.
May 19 - an unrated tornado struck the camps of Rochester and Dorerty near Antoine Creek, Ontario, resulting in tree damage. Two people were injured with one being taken to the hospital in Mattawa, Ontario.
July 21 - an unrated tornado passed through Deloraine, Manitoba, with no further information provided.
August 3 - an unrated tornado struck Lorette, Quebec, and the northern portion of the St. Charles Valley, Quebec, damaging barns, fences, and trees. The tornado was narrow.
September 9 - an unrated small (and probable) tornado struck the south side of Lulu Island, British Columbia, causing no damage.
1890s
1890
June 4 - an F1 tornado struck Elora, Ontario.
June 7 - an unrated tornado touched down near Souris, Manitoba, overturning some Canadian Pacific Railway cars.
June 11 - an F0 tornado hit Milton, Ontario, destroying fences and buildings. The tornado was 50 yards wide and extended for two miles across first, second, and third concessions of Esquesing Township.
July 25 - an F0 tornado struck Millgrove, Ontario, carrying a barn over 100 yards and destroying trees and crops.
July–August - an unrated tornado struck near the Sandhurst School, north of Oak Lake, Manitoba, in the now Rural Municipality of Sifton. The tornado destroyed a pasture and house.
August 6 - an unrated tornado stuck Sainte-Anne Parish, New Brunswick, cutting a two-mile swath of damage, destroying thirty-one buildings.
August 8 - an unrated tornado struck Montreal, Quebec, specifically over Lake Saint-Louis, Quebec, Pointe Claire, Quebec, and Dorval, Quebec. Eight water crafts were damaged with many houses and barns being damaged and destroyed. The tornado damaged Dominion Bridge Company in Lachine, Quebec.
September 5 - an unrated small tornado struck Victoria, British Columbia. Minor damage to a fence was reported at.
1891
Before June 23 - an unrated tornado struck St. Andrews, Manitoba, damaging fences, uprooting trees and shattering buildings.
July 14 - two F0 tornadoes touched down in Wellington County, Ontario. The first tornado passed through Mount Forest, Ontario, whereas the second tornado passed through Elora, Ontario.
August 9 - three or four tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado, an F0, touched down near Damascus, Ontario, and moved towards Belwood, Ontario. The second tornado, an F0, struck Hamilton, Ontario. The third tornado touched down north of Waterloo, Ontario. An unconfirmed prorable tornado struck Huron County, Ontario, between Holmesville, Ontario, and Clinton, Ontario. The probable tornado unroofed many barns and destroyed a windmill, trees were blown down, and a new constructed house was blown off its foundation.
September 1 or 8 - an unrated tornado struck Mount Forest, Ontario, coming from the southwest and moving towards the northeast with a funnel. The tornado caused tree damage and destroyed the roofs on one or two buildings. Significant damage was done in the country after it passed through the community.
1892
April 25 - an unrated tornado struck Onondaga Township, Ontario, destroying everything moveable. Due to the lack of information and the referral of a 'Dakota cyclone', this is only a probable tornado.
Few days before April 28 (likely April 25) - an unrated tornado struck Belleville, Ontario, causing buildings to be blown into pieces with extensive damage done.
June 1 - an unrated tornado touched down in the County of Beauce, Quebec, destroying barns, trees, and fences.
June 12 - an unrated tornado touched down in Port Arthur, Ontario, and Fort William, Ontario, which now makes up the city of Thunder Bay, Ontario. The tornado caused tree damage, destroyed telephone and telegraph wires, and wrecked a new building under construction.
June 14 - at least two unrated tornadoes touched down in Quebec and Eastern Ontario, however, additional damage was reported which could result in upwards of six additional tornadoes. The first tornado hit Sainte-Rose, Quebec, and Sainte-Thérèse, Quebec. It is listed as the ninth deadliest tornado in Canadian history. Six people were killed and 26 injured. Additional damage was reported in Lachute, Quebec, where the path was nearly a mile wide, however, it is unclear from any sources whether this is the same tornado as the first one or a probable concurrent tornado. The second tornado hit the Township of Templeton, just east of the Gatineau River causing significant tree damage. The tornado was half a mile wide. Further east of both of these tornadoes, significant damage was reported in Acton Vale, Quebec, and Upton, Quebec, with a hundred homes destroyed and four deaths and a third tornado is probable. Five additional areas of significant damage were reported across the region. These damage areas could have been from tornadoes or from strong straight-line winds/downbursts at the result of weaker building structures, however, based on the amount of damage caused, probable tornadoes seem likely. The significant damage was reported in St. Johns, Quebec, where two buildings and a large barn were destroyed, over the Île d'Orléans, Quebec, where various houses and barns were blown down, in Saint-Augustin-de-Desmaures, Quebec (just east of Portneuf, Quebec) where a man died after falling off the roof of a barn they were repairing, over Lac Saint-Jean where heavy damage was also reported, and in Renfrew, Ontario, where a high school and six additional buildings were destroyed, including a home that was tossed more than 100 feet.
June 17 - an unrated probable tornado touched down on Wolfe Island, Ontario, causing tree damage.
June 24 - an unrated small tornado touched down in Maidstone, Ontario, uprooting trees and unroofing barns.
June 29 - an unrated tornado touched down in London, Ontario, destroying barns and orchards.
July 10 - an unrated tornado touched down in Douglas, Manitoba, killing one and levelling everything in its seven-mile path of destruction. The tornado was 100 yards wide. Cows, horses, and chickens were killed by the dozen.
July 15 - four or five tornado struck Ontario. The first tornado, an F0, struck Creek Bank, Ontario. The second tornado, an F0, struck Midhurst, Ontario. The third tornado, an F0, touched down near Beaverton, Ontario, and moved through Rice Lake, Ontario. A fourth tornado, an F1, moved through Hastings, Ontario. A fifth probable tornado struck Otonabee Township, Ontario, resulting in significant damage to buildings, destroyed crops, and killed livestock.
July 18 - two unrated tornadoes touched down in Ontario, both causing damage. The first tornado, which is probable, struck Hamilton, Ontario, destroying a pulp mill, killing two, and injuring many. A second tornado struck Beaverton, Ontario, destroying many houses, stables, fences, and crops. A number of buildings were entirely demolished with several people injured.
July 23 - an unrated tornado struck Howard Township, Ontario, in Kent County, Ontario, destroying barns, telegraph poles, fences, and trees. The tornado caused considerable damage on Howard Road and Talbot Street (present day Ontario Highway 3). Fruit and grain were completely destroyed.
July 25 - an unrated tornado touched down in Elderslie Township, Ontario, destroying many trees.
July 27 - an F2 tornado destroyed structures in Wiarton, Ontario.
July 29 - an F2 tornado passed touched down near Ottawa, Ontario, before moving into Quebec towards Templeton, Quebec. This tornado passed through some the areas affected by the June 14th outbreak.
August 8 - an unrated tornado struck Manhatten Beach, Ontario, south of Belleville, Ontario. The tornado caused tree damaged resulting in one fatality.
August 9 - an unrated tornado and a probable tornado touched down in Southwestern Ontario. The unrated tornado touched down near Princeton, Ontario, before moving towards and just south of Paris, Ontario. The tornado caused damage to telegraph lines and bridges, destroyed crops, and damaged buildings. Notable tree damage was reported throughout Brantford, Ontario, but information is inconclusive to rule if this was part of the tornado or not. A probable tornado touched down in the vicinity of the Region of Waterloo, Ontario, and Oxford County, Ontario.
August 17 - an unrated tornado touched down in O'Leary, Prince Edward Island, destroying three houses near the railway station and five dwellings and two barns on North Road. One person was killed.
September 10 - an unrated tornado struck Elginburg, Ontario, near Kingston, Ontario, where the roof off the Methodist church was tossed and several barns were destroyed.
December 3 - an unrated tornado touched down in Montmorency, Quebec, destroying part of a church. Several barns and dwellings were destroyed.
1893
April 4 - an unrated tornado struck parts of Lethbridge, Alberta, resulting in damage. The front of a local store collapsed.
April 13 - a small tornado struck Victoria, British Columbia, from the north. No damage was reported.
April 13 - an F0 tornado touched down near Gordonville, Ontario.
April 20 - a probable tornado struck Owen Sound, Ontario, destroying fences, sheds, and outhouses. The tornado unroofed barns and homes. There is a lack of concrete evidence regarding this tornado. The newspaper also discusses significant damage in the vicinity of Mono Road, Ontario, which might be classified as a second probable tornado.
May 22 - immense destruction was reported across Ontario into Quebec with sources indicating up to seven tornadoes. Various towns were impacted. The first tornado, an F2, touched down near Aurora, Ontario. The tornado destroyed a church steeple and caused significant damage. The second tornado, an F2, touched down near Tilsonburg, Ontario, destroying an oatmeal mill, killing one. The tornado caused significant tree damage along Ontario Highway 19 through to Brantford, Ontario. A third F2 tornado struck Belleville, Ontario. An unrated tornado destroyed circus tents, injuring one and killing one in Perth, Ontario. A fifth tornado, unrated, struck Ottawa, Ontario, destroying the St Jean Baptist School, killing a child and injuring another. Small towers on Bank Street collapsed. Several additional people were killed and injured. A sixth tornado occurred in Montreal, Quebec, where various homes were completely destroyed while others only received minor damage. The tornado lofted debris to Rue Cathcart in the city. A seventh tornado moved between Delhi, Ontario, and Windham Centre, Ontario. Additional damage was reported in Orillia, Ontario, where a man was injured by a falling steeple, however, there was inconclusive evidence to support a tornado classification.
May 30 - an unrated tornado struck Nottawa, Ontario, removing the roof off a mill.
July 9 - a waterspout touched down over Lake Saint-Louis, Quebec, near Montreal, Quebec. The tornado resulted in a boat capsizing and a man drowning. From the newspaper article, there is no indication that the waterspout made landfall.
July 10 - an unrated tornado touched north of Brandon, Manitoba. A dispatcher in Brandon, Manitoba, reported that a cyclone touched down north of the city, demolishing several homes and barns. The storm took a southeast path, striking Douglas, Manitoba, and Carberry, Manitoba. A dispatcher in Douglas reported a cone-shaped cloud reaching the ground. Houses and stables were blown down while machinery was scattered across the farmland in this area. Additional damage was reported in Chater, Manitoba.
July 28 - an unrated tornado touched down in Hanlee Grove, Prince Edward Island, outside of Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, cutting a half a mile wide path through the landscape. The tornado destroyed two barracks.
August 2 - an unrated tornado touched down in Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, uprooting trees, flattening crops, and destroying the front of the provincial buildings. The tornado levelled the McKinnon's old tannery and other various buildings.
1894
May 6 - an unrated tornado struck Clinton, Ontario, shattering a few windows with debris.
May 20 or May 27 - an unrated tornado touched down in Montreal, Quebec. The tornado tore the roofs off several buildings.
May 20 or May 27 - an unrated tornado touched down in Huron County, Ontario. The tornado caused significant property damage and a considerable number of people died.
July 9 - a waterspout touched down over Lake Saint-Louis, Quebec, capsizing four yachts. One person drowned.
September 18 - an unrated tornado struck Clinton, Ontario. A flex mill was partly unroofed and wagons were overturned. Trees were uprooted and buildings were demolished.
1895
May 4 - a small unrated tornado struck a few miles north of Bagot, Manitoba. The tornado carried parts of a granary half a mile away. A kitchen was also moved off its foundation.
June 3 - a small unrated tornado struck Brokenhead, Manitoba, tearing the roof off several buildings.
June 3 - an unrated tornado touched down near Belleville, Ontario, resulting in broken windows and unroofed structures throughout the city. Damage continued into Prince Edward County, Ontario, with damaged structures at Ox Point, Ontario, and at Big Island, Ontario.
June 4 - an unrated small probable tornado struck Owen Sound, Ontario
June 8 - an unrated tornado struck portions of Bromley Township, Ontario, destroying several farm buildings.
June 15 - a small unrated tornado struck Oak Lake shattering some buildings. The source lists Oak Lake from one of the "Eastern Provinces" from British Columbia which could include Oak Lake, Manitoba, Oak Lake, Kenora, Ontario, Oak Lake, Peterborough County, Ontario, Oak Lake, Ontario, or Oak Lake (Nova Scotia). The largest and most likely would be the one in Manitoba (Oak Lake, Manitoba), however, the source is not clear.
August 4 - an unrated tornado struck 3 miles east of Bridgetown, Nova Scotia, causing significant damage near Clarence, Nova Scotia, and Paradise, Nova Scotia. While one of the sources states that the tornado was 3 miles east of Bridgeport, Nova Scotia, the second and more detailed source indicates other communities such as Clarence and Paradise which are significantly closer to Bridgetown compared to Bridgeport. The tornado snapped and uprooted many shade and orchard trees, throwing them credible distances. Windows were shattered, chimneys fell, and fences were levelled. The top story of a barn was torn off and carried for over a mile with pieces of scantling being driven 3 feet into the ground. An additional house, barns, stables, and crops were also destroyed.
September 11 - an F2 tornado touched down in Kingston, Ontario, before crossing the St. Lawrence River and impacting Cape Vincent, New York. The tornado caused immense amounts of damage and killed two people. The probable tornado from September 23 in the Kingston area might actually have been the same tornado as this one. There are some indications that the tornado (or a secondary one) may have touched down further west near McIntyre, Ontario, causing little damage.
September 23 - a probable tornado touched down in Kingston, Ontario.
1896
May 25 - an F2 tornado touched down near Windsor, Ontario, in the Sandwich East district, resulting in destroyed houses, barns, machinery, fences, and trees. Many cattle and horses were killed, however, no notable deaths or injuries for humans.
June 6 - a probable cyclone did considerable damage at the French village of Guion, thirty miles up the Ottawa River. A village named "Guion" doesn't exist, but the next closest thing which matches the distance is the closely named Quyon, Quebec. Unless further information is found, it can be assumed that the misspelling was a miscommunication.
June 25 - a probable tornado touched down in Windsor, Ontario, destroying and lifting off roofs, smashing windows, and damaging trees. Many chimneys were also blown down.
July 2 - an unrated tornado touched down on Lac Deschênes along the Ottawa River near Ottawa, Ontario. The tornado overturned numerous boats, killing three.
August 10 - an F0 tornado touched down in Amherstburg, Ontario, lifting the roof from the Lake View house and tossing it across the street. Various boats in the Detroit River were overturned. Significant damage was also reported in Simcoe, Ontario, where the roof from a grand stand was carried around with more minor damage to fences and trees reported. There was also significant crop damage in this area which is more indictive of straight-line winds or a downburst unless new information can be found.
August 26 - an unrated tornado touched down near Flinton, Ontario. The tornado caused significant damage to homes, barns, and fences. Many trees were destroyed.
1897
June 21 - an unrated tornado struck Nicola, British Columbia, just northeast of Merritt, British Columbia. The tornado snapped trees near Mill Creek which fell in the direction of Driard hotel. There was initial question about the creditability of this report, but further research suggests that a Driard hotel did exist in Nicola with a Mill Creek Road also existing in the area, therefore, the report is classified as valid.
June 29 - two F1 tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado struck London, Ontario, in Westminster Township, Ontario, destroying buildings, woods, orchards, and fields. The second tornado struck Paynes Mills, Ontario (present day Kettle Creek). The second tornado lifted a house from its foundation.
July 2 - an unrated tornado struck Griswold, Manitoba, tossing a house over some trees.
July 3 - an unrated tornado struck Rapid City, Manitoba, killing one and demolishing several buildings.
July 12 - an unrated tornado struck parts of Chicoutimi County, Quebec.
Within the week before July 20 - an unrated tornado struck between Lothaire, Alberta and Wheatland, Alberta, resulting in minor tree damage and a damaged barn roof. The lack of information makes this event question whether it was actually a tornado, listed as 'probable' until further evidence is provided.
September 16 - an unrated tornado struck Anderdon Township, Ontario, levelling telephone and telegraph lines, uprooting trees, and unroofing barns and homes. Multiple horses were killed during the storm.
November 9 - an unrated tornado struck Victoria, British Columbia, causing immense damage. The lack of information makes this event question whether it was actually a tornado, listed as 'probable' until further evidence is provided.
1898
June 20 - a, unrated tornado struck Wolseley, Saskatchewan, destroying a skating and curling rink, a church, several homes and stables. Three Canadian Pacific Railway freight cars were overturned.
Week before June 30 - an unrated tornado struck the now ghost town of Percy, Assiniboia, which is just northeast of Kisbey, Saskatchewan, killing one. The roof of a house was torn off.
July 4 - an unrated tornado struck Lac-aux-Sables, Quebec, northeast of Trois-Rivières, Quebec. The tornado lifted a house into the air.
Before July 29 - a questionable tornado touched down near Kingsville, Ontario, destroying 800 peach trees. The description of the damage depicts an event more similar to a downburst. Additional information is need to determine the event classification.
July 31 - an unrated tornado tracked south to north, just west of Regina, Saskatchewan, destroying several telegraph poles.
August 15th - two or three F0 tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first tornado touched down just south of Marmora, Ontario. The second tornado struck Derby Township. The third probable tornado, occurring in Sarawak Township, may have been an extension to the second tornado, however, newspaper articles are unclear as whether or not these were two separate events.
August 17 - an unrated tornado struck Hirsch, Saskatchewan, injuring three people.
August 23 - an unrated tornado struck Bayfield, Ontario, resulting in downed trees, general destruction to a train, and destroyed awnings.
September 26 - an F3 tornado hit Merritton, Ontario (now St. Catharines), killing five people and injuring dozens. It left a path of destruction, ending near Tonawanda (city), New York.
1899
March 6 - an unrated probable tornado struck Kingston, Ontario, damaging structures.
May 16 - a probable tornado touched down outside of Windsor, Ontario, damaging telephone lines and trees.
Before May 27 - an unrated tornado struck Melita, Manitoba, damaging several buildings.
Before May 29 - an unrated tornado struck Deloraine, Manitoba, moving a residence over fifty feet.
June 14 - an F0 tornado struck Caledon, Ontario
Before June 22 - an unrated tornado struck George Island, Manitoba, in Lake Winnipeg, damaging many buildings.
July 3 - an F1 tornado struck Lucan, Ontario
July 12 - an F0 tornado touched down just southeast of Windsor, Ontario
July 29 - an F1 tornado struck Ameliasburgh, Ontario
August 19 - an F0 tornado struck Marsville, Ontario
September 10 - an unrated tornado touched down over Oil City, Ontario, destroying a number of mills and barns. Fences were blown down and trees torn up. Several people were injured by flying debris.
1900s
1900
February 3 - an unrated questionable tornado destroyed twenty houses at Lark Harbour, Newfoundland and Labrador. Based on the date of this tornado and terminology used in the 1900s, there is question as to whether this was another weather system or an actual tornado.
June 5 - an unrated tornado touched down in Winnipeg, Manitoba, killing one and destroying numerous buildings and telephone communications.
June 7 - an unrated mile-wide tornado touched down near Marquette, Manitoba, destroying homes and barns in its path. In Woodlands, Manitoba, damage was significant.
July 10 - an unrated tornado touched down south of Manitou, Manitoba, destroying a barn, small house and a stables. Additional buildings were damaged. There were two injuries.
July 11 - an unrated tornado passed over Prince Edward County, Ontario. At Milford, Ontario, and Waupoos, Ontario, several buildings were demolished while many barns were wrecked at Black Creek, Ontario.
July 26 - an unrated tornado struck near Lyn, Ontario. No information has been found on the tornado besides a child dying from a lightning strike associated with the parent storm. The lack of information on the actual tornado makes this questionable.
August 3 - an unrated small tornado touched down four miles south of Qu'Appelle, Saskatchewan, destroying a dwelling. Two horses were killed.
August 28 - two tornadoes touched down in Saskatchewan. The first tornado almost wiped out the town of Whitewood, Saskatchewan, and did considerable damage in Wapella, Saskatchewan, killing two. A second small tornado touched down in Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan, destroying various buildings in the community. Significant damage were was also reported in Manitoba: Souris, Deloraine, Virden, Elkhorn, Oak Lake, Pilot Mound, Treherne, Glenboro, Morden, Thornhill, Margaret and Saskatchewan: Moosomin. Some of this additional damage may have been from one or more tornadoes.
September 11 - an unrated small tornado struck Londesborough, Ontario.
November 5 - an unrated probable tornado struck Goderich, Ontario, resulting in some minor structural damage.
1901
April 25 - an unrated tornado touched down near Rosser, Manitoba, continuing to the northeast near Stony Mountain, Manitoba, and to an area west of Selkirk, Manitoba. Significant damage was reported in Rosser, Manitoba. Despite the destruction, there were no deaths.
June 22 - severe storms and probable tornadoes passed over Southwestern Ontario resulting in damage. The first tornado, an F2, touched down near Innerkip, Ontario, and continued to an area just north of Drumbo, Ontario, destroying everything in its path. Orchards and crops were destroyed. Additional damage and possible tornadoes were reported in Wingham, Ontario, Wiarton, Ontario, Camilla, Ontario, and Penetanguishene, Ontario.
July 5 - an F0 tornado passed through Sunshine, Ontario, destroying a new barn, fences, and trees.
July 15 - two tornadoes touched in Manitoba. The first tornado touched down in the Pleasant Point, Manitoba, area resulting in damage to crops and the fair buildings in Carberry, Manitoba. A second tornado destroyed lumber mills in both Rat Portage, Manitoba, which is now the city of Kenora, Ontario, and Norman, (Kenora) Ontario.
July 15 - an unrated tornado touched down in Kingsclear Parish, New Brunswick, and New Maryland Parish, New Brunswick, damaging ten barns and uprooted orchards and crops.
July 19 - an unrated tornado touched down at Bear Creek, Manitoba, near Gladstone, Manitoba. A house was destroyed and debris carried for miles. Several people were injured.
August 6 - an F2 tornado struck Cornwall, Ontario.
August 29 - an unrated tornado touched down in Yorkton, Saskatchewan, destroying many roofs, a new brick house, and a stables.
1902
May 12 - an unrated tornado touched down near Holmesville, Ontario, levelling fences and blowing the roof of a barn.
May 21 - an unrated tornado touched down in Toronto, Ontario, damaging many trees, telegraph wires, fences, and signs. A church tower was overturned with numerous windows broken. There was at least one injury.
May 21 - an unrated tornado touched down in the Pleasant Point, Manitoba, and Carberry, Manitoba, region, destroying buildings, trees, and shattering fences. The tornado was three miles in length and three to four hundred feet wide.
Before July 16 - an unrated tornado touched down in Laval, Quebec, near the Doucet's Landing railway station, destroying ten houses.
July 17 - an F4 tornado struck Chesterville, Ontario, tracking northeastward. The tornado was fifty to sixty rods wide and tore dwellings and outbuildings into pieces. Several people were killed, at least five, and injured at a farm in the seventh concession of Winchester, Ontario.
August 3 - an unrated tornado touched down in St. Catharines, Ontario, damaging various fruit farms and buildings. A single source from three days after the event suggests that this tornado hit also hit Fonthill, Ontario, however, based on the description from the previous sources, this is questionable. It would be possible that the damage in Fonthill which is estimated at $25,000 in damages was from a second probable tornado.
1903
April 30 - an F0 tornado struck Fergus, Ontario.
May 8 - an unrated tornado touched down between Portage La Prairie, Manitoba, and Douglas, Manitoba.
May 27 - multiple tornadoes touched down across Southwestern Ontario. The first tornado, an F2, touched down near Monkton, Ontario, before moving through Mornington Township and ending near Tralee, Ontario. The tornado started at the seventh concession and destroyed a silo before destroying a bush and large barn. A house was shifted eight feet of its foundation. A brick school house on 100th concession was completely wrecked with debris thrown over half a mile. There was one serious injury. A second tornado, an F2, touched down near Listowel, Ontario, and continued eastward towards Elora, Ontario, unroofing part of a barn and throwing it 60 yards away. A third tornado, an F1, touched down half a mile south of Amherstburg, Ontario, were a drive-shed, new barn, and dwelling was destroyed. A person was carried several yards but remained uninjured.
June 18 - an unrated tornado struck the side of Mount Sicker, British Columbia, resulting in tree damage in all directions block railways.
July 13 - an unrated small probable tornado struck Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, resulting in damage to roof and shed of the Methodist church. The Roman Catholic church was shifted a foot and small shacks were damaged across the area. Based on the description of the event, there is question as to whether this was a tornado or not.
Before July 20 - an unrated tornado struck Beachburg, Ontario, resulting in damage.
August 6 - an F1 tornado touched down two miles west of Forest, Ontario, damaging various barns, windmills, and chimneys. Fences were levelled to the ground, windows shattered, and trees and crops destroyed. Damage was also town in the town of Forest, Ontario, and throughout Warwick Township, Ontario. Several people were injured.
August 11 - an F3 tornado hit Rockland, Ontario.
November 10 - an unrated tornado struck Arrowhead, British Columbia, listing the Reid & Young store entirely off its foundation and throwing it twenty feet away. The tornado lasted only a couple seconds.
1904
May 27 - an F1 tornado touched down in Amherstburg, Ontario, resulting in damage to the Lakeview hotel. Tall smokestacks from the Electric Light and Power Company toppled over. The court house was partially wrecked.
May 28 - an unrated tornado struck the southern portion of Brandon, Manitoba, destroying the fair grounds and some small houses.
June 10 - an unrated tornado touched down in Carlyle, Saskatchewan, destroying stables, a skating rink, a kitchen and a hotel.
Before July 14 - an unrated tornado touched down near Brockville, Ontario, unroofing barns and damaging trees.
July 15 - an unrated tornado passed near Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, cutting a 400 yard wide path through the country side. A stable was smashed and tossed half a mile. Numerous buildings near the stable were also damaged.
July 19 - an unrated tornado passed between Wolf's Hotel, Ontario, and Walkerville, Ontario. The tornado uprooted trees and destroyed farm buildings.
1905
July 6 - an F0 tornado touched down near Barrie, Ontario, and in Midhurst, Ontario. The tornado blew over and destroyed several barns. The property of Charles Stewart (premier) was destroyed with the roof of the barn being blown off, the kitchen in the house being torn apart, and trees and fences also being destroyed.
July 12 - an unrated tornado touched down in Pine Lake, Alberta, southeast of Red Deer, Alberta resulting in considerable damage to stock and farm property. The path could be tracked through the fields and through a forest, peaking at three to four rods wide. A house lost its roof, but buildings on each side were left untouched.
July 15 - an unrated damaging tornado struck Winnipeg, Manitoba, resulting in four deaths. The tornado tore up chimneys, building frames, and communication lines. Many cattle died and six people were injured.
September 13 - an unrated tornado struck Bathurst, Ontario, and Armstrong Corners, Ontario. The tornado resulted in significant damage to structures and crops.
1906
April 5 - an unrated small tornado touched down in Rivers Inlet, British Columbia, destroying a cannery.
June 8 - at least four unrated probable tornadoes touched down in Ontario. The first probable tornado touched down in Hamilton, Ontario, uprooting trees, damaging roofs, and destroying a sailboat. A second probable tornado started near Rodney, Ontario, where it destroyed the roof of the Binder Hotel before continuing through/near West Lorne, Ontario, Dutton, Ontario, Shedden, Ontario, and Fingal, Ontario, before ending in St. Thomas, Ontario, where a roof of the Michigan Central Railroad was destroyed and nearly all trees on Wellington Street were damaged or destroyed. Damage in some of the nearby towns mentioned before could have been from the outer edges, more in the style of a downburst associated with the thunderstorm, but without proper record keeping as in the modern era, this can all be classified under one tornadic event. A third tornado touched down in Chatham, Ontario, causing significant tree damage across the city. The tower of the Methodist church collapsed, the peak was knocked off the school, skylights were blown out, smokestacks of several local factories were also destroyed. Various houses were destroyed. This tornado likely dissipated before touching down again as the Rodney, Ontario, to St. Thomas, Ontario, tornado. In Sarnia, Ontario, a fourth probable tornado touched down destroying 150 square feet of roofing on a new lumber mill. Numerous trees were destroyed while a house was lifted off its foundation and tossed. Based on the damage reported, the tornado started near the St. Clair River causing damage along Christina Street, Johnston Street, and Queen Street before moving across Wellington Street and causing damage along Davis Street. The tornado began to weaken before causing minor damage on Russell Street. Additional damage was reported in Port Stanley, Ontario, where a ninety-foot elevator tower collapsed and in Niagara Falls, Ontario. There is inconclusive information to determine the classification of the event in Port Stanley, Ontario, and Niagara Falls, Ontario.
June 14 - an unrated tornado touched down near Balgonie, Saskatchewan, where it tore apart a skating rink and destroyed the roof of a new stables.
June 30 - an unrated tornado struck Westport, Ontario, destroying barns.
July 31 - an unrated tornado passed three miles west of Waterloo, Ontario, destroying fences and wheat stacks. Trees and crops were also damaged.
August 1 - an unrated tornado struck the North Battleford, Saskatchewan, area resulting in a Baptist church blowing off its foundation and a couple of houses being overturned.
August 15 - an unrated tornado passed between Boucherville, Ontario (two miles south of Stratton, Ontario) and Barwick, Ontario. The north moved north from the United States between Emo, Ontario, and Stratton, Ontario. Damage was done to numerous houses and barns in the region. The path of the tornado was nearly half a mile wide and jumped back and forth across the Rainy River (Minnesota–Ontario). There were numerous injuries.
October 9 - an unrated tornado struck Ayr, Ontario, damaging trees, chimneys, homes and other buildings. A mill to the west was also damaged.
October 29 - an unrated tornado touched down in Coutts, Alberta resulting damage near the international border. The tornado tore parts of the walls on the Campbell's blacksmith shop, destroyed chimneys, and blew over the windmill for the Great Northern Railway of Canada.
1907
May 26 - an F3 tornado touched down near Nixon, Ontario, where much of the town was destroyed. The tornado moved through the countryside before striking Waterford, Ontario. This tornado was locally referred to as the "The Nixon Cyclone" in local newspapers.
June 3 - an unrated tornado touched down in Nixon, Ontario, west of Simcoe, Ontario. The tornado was narrow, destroying only two houses, a grocery store and a structure with a large coal chute. In the country, several barn roofs were torn off of barns and carried a long distance. In some cases, barn walls were also destroyed.
June 16 - two unrated tornadoes touched down in Manitoba with additional possible tornadic damage in Saskatchewan. The first tornado struck Napinka, Manitoba, resulting in damage to a farm property. A second tornado touched down to the north near Griswold, Manitoba, destroying fences and chimneys. Tents for the Canadian National Railway construction were flattened. A home was lifted up from the ground and shifted. Unclassified wind damage was reported in Yellow Grass, Saskatchewan, dealing a 'cyclonic force.' Buildings were torn to pieces with a small house being lifted up and shifted. Unclassified wind damage, possibly from a tornado, was reported to the north in Newdale, Manitoba. In this town, numerous farm buildings were damaged or destroyed, including stables, a granary, and homes. Shingles were torn off a roof. Many animals died and one person was injured.
June 24 - an unrated probable tornado touched down near Huntsville, Ontario. The probable tornado tore off a dwelling from a store and the flag pole near the school collapsed. Significant tree damage was reported with trees "thrown in every direction." Based on the description of the event, there is question as to whether this was a tornado or not.
July 6 - an unrated tornado touched down in the Meridian District, Saskatchewan, destroying the Kimberley school house, several granaries, and nearby fields. The entry in the source lists the closest settlement as Oxbow, Saskatchewan.
August 8 - an unrated tornado struck Tuxford, Saskatchewan, damaging and shifting the Anglican church, William's hotel and a large barn off their foundations. A hardware store and ice cream parlor were badly damaged. Sidewalks were ripped up.
August 14 - an unrated tornado touched down 20 miles south of Vermilion, Alberta on the Battle River killing 3 children and destroying a house along with stables and corrals.
1908
June 8 - an unrated tornado struck Clinton, Ontario, tearing off the flag pole from town hall, lifting the roof off an evaporator and damaging trees. There is some question as to whether this was a tornado or only severe wind gusts.
June 19 - an unrated tornado touched down in Hamilton, Ontario, damaging many trees and the electric system.
Before June 24 - an unrated tornado touched down in Niagara Falls, Ontario, flipping a boat.
July 29 - two unrated tornadoes touched down in Saskatchewan. The first tornado touched down near Fillmore, Saskatchewan, doing considerable damage to the town and surrounding rural land. Various buildings, including a school, were destroyed. A single schoolboy died. A second tornado touched down near Warman, Saskatchewan, resulting in the Anglican church being shifted while the Saskatchewan Trading Company's warehouse was destroyed. Additional damage was reported in Ninga, Manitoba, Dunrea, Manitoba, and Waskada, Manitoba. It is unclear if this additional damage was the result of tornadoes or not.
August 4 - a long-tracked F2 tornado touched down near Elora, Ontario, and moved northeastward to Reading, Ontario, Tottenham, Ontario, and Bradford, Ontario.
August 5 - an unrated tornado touched down near Mount Pleasant, Ontario, demolishing numerous barns, unroofing many others, and causing impassable roads from fallen trees.
August 16 - an unrated tornado struck Goderich, Ontario, uprooting trees and damaging structures.
October 5 - an unrated small tornado struck Morris, Manitoba, unroofing two buildings, throwing some farm machinery, and relocating livestock. Small trees were also uprooted.
October 6 - an unrated tornado touched down in Birds Hill, Manitoba, outside of Winnipeg, Manitoba, doing considerable damage. Two or three houses were destroyed and telephone poles torn up.
Week before October 9 - am unrated small tornado touched down on Wolfe Island, Ontario, causing considerable damage. The tornado shifted several farm structures and demolished at least one.
1909
April 6 - an unrated tornado struck London, Ontario, causing some minor damage to a chimney. Half a dozen children were injured from a falling chimney.
April 15 - an unrated small tornado struck near Piche, Saskatchewan, which is now called Bents, Saskatchewan. The tornado lifted half a house and carried it to the next homestead.
May 13 - an unrated tornado touched down in McKillop Township, Ontario. The tornado caused damage to fences and railway boards.
July 1 - an unrated tornado near Didsbury, Alberta is shown in a photograph in the archives of the Glenbow Museum.
July 1 - an unrated tornado struck Carievale, Saskatchewan, and Gainsboro, Saskatchewan, destroying homes and buildings. Farm machinery were twisted, carried over a half a mile, and destroyed. Buildings were torn up and scattered through fields. Eleven families were left homeless, five were killed, and up to 30 people were injured. A post office was destroyed.
July 4 - an unrated tornado touched down in Gravelbourg, Saskatchewan, north of Assiniboia, Saskatchewan, resulting in one death and significant roof damage to one home. The roof was thrown over 60 yards.
July 10 - an unrated tornado touched down over the eastern part of Hullett Township, Ontario. The tornado did considerable damage to trees and fences. A silo was blown down. Machinery was overturned.
July 16 - two unrated tornadoes touched down in Alberta and Saskatchewan. The first was an F3 tornado struck near the settlement of Golden Valley, Alberta, injuring four. Continuing from the first storm, at 10 pm, a second strong tornado caused damage 14 miles north pf Wilkie, Saskatchewan, causing one injury. The second tornado completely destroyed a house and carried pieces of it for a quarter of a mile. Hay stacks and farm machinery were tossed. A second house was damaged. The tornado was a quarter of a mile wide.
July 25 - an unrated tornado touched down near Oak Lake, Manitoba, destroying numerous buildings.
1910s
1910
March 5 - an unrated probable tornado struck Winnipeg, Manitoba, causing considerable damage. The probable tornado blew down the walls of a six-story furniture warehouse. There is a lack of detail regarding any other damage to determine if this was a tornado or not.
June 21 - two unrated tornadoes struck the Canadian Prairies The first tornado struck 60 miles south of Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan, resulting in widespread damage to homes and farms. Three people were killed, including two children, with seven people injured according to The Granum Press and Lethbridge Herald report that three people died. The book, "The Literary History of Saskatchewan," cites another book, "Freeman Wing Searches," stating that it lists all the names of the Euro-Canadians and three Asian men died, implying that more than three deaths occurred. The second tornado struck Gladstone, Manitoba, destroying a skating rink and part of a mill.
July 3 - an unrated probable tornado struck Davidson, Saskatchewan, destroying some houses, barns, numerous granaries, and other buildings. Some debris was lofted over 100 yards. The description of the event isn't definitive enough to say if this was a tornado or not with confidence.
July 29 - an unrated tornado struck Beverley, Saskatchewan, destroying the Quon Koy restaurant. A home a mile east of the town was also destroyed.
July 30 - an unrated probable tornado touched down in London, Ontario, destroying telephone lines west of the city with trees down throughout the region. The lack of information makes this event question whether it was actually a tornado, listed as 'probable' until further evidence is provided.
September 8 - an unrated tornado touched down in Creston, British Columbia, resulting in significant damage. The length of the tornado was 500 yards with a wide of 30 feet. The tornado dealt damage to homes and business in the community including barns and farm buildings. Large glass panes were destroyed and large timber blocks weighing up to 400 pounds were picked up and thrown 150 yards.
October 1 - an unrated tornado struck Montreal, Quebec, resulting in damaged businesses and telephone services.
1911
March 13 - an unrated small tornado touched down near Macleod, Alberta resulting in minor damage.
March 27 - an unrated small tornado struck St. Catharines, Ontario, damaging trees and fences. The day following the tornado (March 28) included a significant snow storm and blizzard.
April 15 - an unrated tornado struck Nanaimo, British Columbia, resulting in uprooted trees, downed fences, smashed windows, and torn shingles.
May 1 - an F0 tornado struck Caledon Lake, Ontario, damaging a barn.
Before May 11 - an unrated tornado and violent storm occurred between Brandon, Manitoba, and Winnipeg, Manitoba, resulting in damage to telephone communications.
May 9 - an unrated tornado touched down in Carievale, Saskatchewan, destroying multiple buildings including numerous barns and a kitchen.
May 24 - an unrated tornado touched down in St. Boniface, Manitoba, tearing trees, overturning barns and sheds, and breaking windows.
June 10 - an F2 tornado struck Owen Sound, Ontario. The Clinton New Era paper suggests that two tornadoes merged into a single tornado before destroying thousands of windows, lifting many roofs, and destroying many crops in the area.
June 11 - four F0 tornadoes struck Southwestern Ontario. The first tornado touched down near Metz, Ontario, and moved through Mono Centre, Ontario. The second tornado struck Milverton, Ontario. The third tornado struck Ponsonby, Ontario. The fourth tornado struck Cook's Bay (Ontario).
June 30 - an unrated tornado touched down near Winnifred, Alberta, destroying various homes and barns.
July 6 - an unrated tornado struck the village of Algonquin, Ontario, north of Brockville, Ontario, levelling fences, uprooting trees, and destroying a barn roof.
July 9 - an unrated tornado struck Huronville, Saskatchewan, lifting several houses off their foundation and carrying them for more than a mile. Three people were injured.
Week before July 10 - an unrated tornado touched down near Strome, Alberta only lasting a few seconds, but smashing a few windows and shifting a couple barns. Damage was minimal.
July 10 - an unrated probable tornado struck Peterborough, Ontario, damaging trees, wires, and telephone systems. There is a lack of information which makes this tornado questionable.
July 12 - an unrated tornado struck Wawota, Saskatchewan, lifting a large barn off its foundation, destroying several other barns, and knocking down fences across the area.
July 24 - an unrated small tornado touched down near Fergus, Ontario, injuring one person.
August 11 - an unrated large tornado hit near Black Diamond, Alberta destroying some houses and a granary. One woman was badly injured.
August 20 - an unrated 200 yard wide tornado developed in Southern Saskatchewan before moving into Manitoba and North Dakota. The tornado struck Glen Ewen, Saskatchewan, Elmore, Saskatchewan, Antler, North Dakota, Westhope, North Dakota, and near Souris, North Dakota. Various injuries were reported in both Elmore, Saskatchewan, and through North Dakota, including seven dead.
1912
June 30 - Canada's deadliest twister hit Regina, Saskatchewan. Known as the Regina Cyclone, it was an F4 tornado that devastated the city. More than 300 people were injured and 28 people killed. The total cost of damage was estimated to be around $4.5 million (nearly $117M in 2019).
1915
June 25 - a tornado struck near Medicine Hat, Alberta. The business section of Redcliff was also severely damaged, and a freight train was blown off the tracks. The storm killed two people and injured many others.
1917
July 27 - a tornado struck the Oak Lake, Manitoba, district destroying a barn.
1918
No date - a tornado touched down near Vermilion, Alberta, destroying a log house. Three children were killed, and one woman was carried .
1919
November 29 - a tornado touched down in Leamington, Ontario.
1920s
1920
July 22 - a violent tornado passed through a large portion of southeastern Saskatchewan, killing four people and injuring over a dozen. The Canadian Red Cross provided relief on behalf of the government to 42 affected families in Alameda, Frobisher, Lampman, Steelman, and Estevan. Grazulis rated it as F5.
1921
March 19 - a tornado struck Bruce County, Ontario
1922
June 23 - multiple tornadoes struck Southern Manitoba, killing five people and injuring hundreds. Damage was estimated near $2 million.
July 21 - a tornado hit near Crystal Springs, Saskatchewan, lifting a house and dropping it in a field nearby.
August 15 - an F3 tornado touched down near Eastend, Saskatchewan, killing two and injuring four.
1923
June 24 - a tornado touched down near Hornby, Ontario (present-day Halton Hills). It travelled eastward almost before dissipating near Cooksville, close to the centre of present-day Mississauga.
1926
July 12 - a rare tornado touched down in Lac la Hache, British Columbia, destroying farm buildings and knocking down trees.
1927
June 18 - a tornado picked up a house in Elfros, Saskatchewan, killing one person. The damage path lasted for .
July 8 - a strong tornado struck Vulcan, Alberta, causing significant damage in the town and surrounding area. A curling rink was destroyed, along with a dairy farm and a granary. There were no injuries.
July 8 - a tornado struck the Rainy Creek area SW of Bentley, Alberta "leaving a trail of damage and destruction" as recorded in the book titled Bentley and District Early History.
July 8 - a tornado struck the town of Rocky Mountain House, Alberta. Fifty businesses were destroyed or damaged, as were several residences, barns, garages and other structures. Two people were severely injured, but miraculously no one was killed.
1928
August 27 - a tornado touched down near Claresholm, Alberta resulting in widespread damage to nearby farms and structures. Several animals died in the tornado.
1930s
1933
May 23 - a tornado passed a mile south and west of the town of Winkler, Manitoba, late in the afternoon, and was photographed. The accompanying cloudburst resulted in severe flooding in the town lasting into the following day.
1935
July 1 - a strong F4 tornado struck Benson, Saskatchewan.
July 6 - an F3 tornado touched down near Smiley, Saskatchewan, leaving a path and killing two people.
1936
July 6 - a tornado destroyed buildings and tossed farm equipment near Lavoy, Alberta, about east of Edmonton.
1939
June 11 - a tornado touched down near Saint-Jean-sur-Richelieu, Quebec, knocking down trees and blowing off roofs.
1940s
1942
July 25 - a small tornado was reported in the community of Mentmore, Manitoba, causing damage to buildings and crops.
1944
July 1 - two tornadoes struck Lebret, Saskatchewan, killing four people.
August 9 - locally known as the "Kamsack Cyclone", a tornado touched down in Kamsack, Saskatchewan, destroying 400 homes and 100 businesses. Three people were killed and many more injured.
1946
June 17 - the third deadliest tornado in Canadian history struck the towns of Windsor and Tecumseh, Ontario. Known as the 1946 Windsor–Tecumseh tornado, it was given an F4 rating and killed 17 people. Damage estimates at the time exceeded $9 million.
June 24 - a tornado touched down in International Falls, Minnesota, then crossed the border and struck Fort Frances, Ontario. It was given an F3 rating. It dissipated near Rainy River, Ontario.
December 12 - the small community of Exeter, Ontario, north of London, was struck by an F2 tornado.
1948
March 19 - a tornado struck the Windsor, Ontario, area. This was the earliest tornado in the year for the province until 2016.
1949
July 19 - the small village of Chénéville, Quebec, was devastated by a tornado which lasted about three minutes.
1950s
1950
September 1 - a tornado cut an path from Rycroft to Eaglesham, Alberta, damaging crops, farm machinery and farm buildings.
November - a tornado was reported near Regina, Saskatchewan.
1953
May 21 - an F4 tornado touched down in Sarnia, Ontario, leaving seven people dead, over 40 injured, and 500 homeless. The path was estimated to be over long through Michigan and Ontario.
1954
January 30 - a very rare mid-winter tornado touched down near White Point, Nova Scotia.
July 7 - an F2 tornado hit the town of St. Stephen, New Brunswick, injuring one person.
1955
April 25 - a tornado touched down near Nanaimo, British Columbia, causing minor damage in the south end of the city.
1956
May 12 - an F4 tornado hit southern portions of LaSalle, Ontario.
1958
January 1 - a tornado was spotted near Amaranth, Manitoba.
April 16 - a tornado hit Watrous, Saskatchewan, destroying a large barn and scattering pigs up to away.
1959
June 6 - a tornado destroyed a garage in La Salle, Manitoba, yet the car inside the garage was not damaged. The tornado could be seen away in Winnipeg.
1960s
1960
July 18 - a violent cone-shaped tornado was reported to have torn through the Mentmore, Ingelow and Brookdale areas of Manitoba. The twister pushed 59 cars from a Canadian National Railway freight train off their tracks, damaged buildings, flattened crops, snapped power lines, uprooted trees and pushed a garage off its foundation. Damage was estimated at half a million dollars.
1962
July 1 - a small tornado was observed near Vancouver, British Columbia. This was the third tornado recorded since the weather office opened in 1929.
1963
June 29 - a large tornado touched down near Spy Hill, Saskatchewan, northwest of Regina, destroying multiple houses and damaging property. One man was killed when he was sucked out of his house. The tornado travelled , and left a wide path of destruction.
1966
March 7 - an unconfirmed tornado touched down in Ucluelet, British Columbia, causing significant damage. It drove a metal spike through a classroom window into a blackboard.
June 10 - a small tornado touched down near Nanton, Alberta, tearing trees and narrowly missing ranch buildings.
1967
April 17 - a total of four tornadoes, two being F3 in strength, touched down in Southwestern Ontario, causing at least $8.2 million in damage. The first tracked through Huron and Perth counties, flattening barns and homes, and snapping multiple trees and utility poles. The second F3 tracked from St. Jacobs to northwest of Guelph. Two F0 tornadoes were also confirmed and one person was killed.
1968
April 11 - a weak tornado hit Watson, Saskatchewan, destroying a garage.
July 20 - a tornado struck La Riviere, Manitoba, destroying several cabins, ripping the roof off the grain elevator, flipping vehicles, and downing many trees. The tornado tracked about 20 miles to northeast of Manitou with a damage path 200 yds wide.
1970s
1970
August 20 - an early morning F3 tornado touched down near Sudbury, Ontario, causing extensive damage in the city, as well as in the suburban communities of Lively and Copper Cliff, and the more distant rural community of Field. Lively was the hardest hit, with over 300 homes damaged. The communities were given little warning of bad weather approaching, as the Sudbury Airport did not have radar that detected tornado activity. Over 200 people were injured and six were killed. The damage was estimated at $17 million, and it is listed as the eighth deadliest tornado in Canadian history.
1972
July 22 - a tornado near Algonquin Provincial Park left a path, destroying a portage trail and wide swaths of red pine forest and other trees south of Lake Lavieille.
July 28 - a tornado tore through farmland near Bawlf, Alberta, destroying a two-storey house and several farm buildings. Two people were injured, and one person was injured and died later from the injuries.
1973
July 5 - a tornado touched down near Kelvington, Saskatchewan.
July 13 - a tornado touched down in Brighton, Ontario, in the early evening hours. It only lasted 32 seconds, but destroyed the city hall and toppled most maple trees along Main Street. The Presbyterian Church also lost its steeple. Only one person was injured.
August 27 - Algonquin Provincial Park was hit with another tornado near Lake Manitou, flattening an long path of forest.
1974
April 3 - Windsor, Ontario, was hit with an F3 tornado, part of the 1974 Super Outbreak. Nine people were killed and 30 were injured, with an estimated $500,000 in damage. It is listed as the sixth deadliest tornado in Canadian history.
1975
July 24 - a strong tornado hit Saint-Bonaventure, Quebec, approximately northeast of Montreal, destroying over 100 homes and businesses. Three people were killed, and over forty were hospitalized.
1977
July 18 - an F4 tornado touched down near St. Malo, Manitoba, destroying houses and barns. Asphalt was peeled off Highway 59 as a result of the strong winds. Three people were killed.
1978
June 27 - an F2 tore through the city of Masson-Angers, Quebec (today part of Gatineau), damaging 100 homes and injuring 35 people.
July 30 - an F2 tornado touched down near Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, toppling a tower and then destroying a transmission tower near Rae-Edzo. Some witnesses said that they saw a huge wide wedge coming into town from the west. The tornado caused severe damage to weakly built houses. It was the third recorded tornado in the region since 1960.
1979
July 10 - a tornado struck the town of Glasnevin, Saskatchewan, killing one person.
August 7 - three tornadoes struck near the Woodstock, Ontario, area, causing more than $100 million in damage. The biggest were two F4 tornadoes; one starting in Woodstock and travelling southeast for , the other starting in the south of Stratford, tearing a path southeast for . An F0 satellite tornado accompanied the Woodstock tornado for up to . The storms killed two and injured more than 150, while 480 houses were left uninhabitable.
August 8 - a tornado touched down in Regina, Saskatchewan, causing damage in the northwest end of the city. Two tornadoes were spotted that day, with one reaching F2 status, but this was unconfirmed.
1980s
1980
April 6 - an F0 tornado touched down near Altona, Manitoba, southwest of Winnipeg.
May 5 - an F1 tornado was confirmed north of Stratford, Ontario, leaving a path of damage in length.
May 23 - two tornadoes touched down; an F0 near Schuler, and an F1 near Hilda, Alberta.
May 25 - two F1 tornadoes hit near Aden and Cereal, Alberta. An F0 was also confirmed near Hilda.
May 25 - four tornadoes were confirmed, three being rated as F1 in strength. They hit near the communities of Creelman, Carnduff and Bellegarde, Saskatchewan. The other tornado, an F0, was confirmed near Dubuc. No major damage was reported.
May 26 - an F0 tornado touched down near Quill Lake, Saskatchewan.
May 28 - an F0 tornado was confirmed south of Morden, Manitoba.
May 31 - a late afternoon F0 tornado touched down, leaving a path of damage from Georgetown to Woodbridge, Ontario. No injuries were reported, but the damage cost was an estimated $900,000.
June 2 - Environment Canada confirmed an F0 tornado touched down near Grassy Lake, Alberta, causing no damage.
June 9 - an F0 tornado touched down, leaving a damage path near Whitby, Ontario. Minimal damage was reported.
June 11 - Foremost, Alberta was struck by an F1 tornado, causing no damage.
June 11 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Estevan, Saskatchewan.
June 23 - three F1 tornadoes touched down in east central Saskatchewan near the towns of Invermay, Francis and Ebenezer. No major damage was reported.
July 6 - an F1 tornado touched down near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan.
July 10 - a late night F1 tornado was confirmed between Fairy Glen, and Gronlid, Saskatchewan, causing no damage.
July 14 - an F0 tornado touched down near Sylvan Lake, Alberta, west of Red Deer.
July 15 - an F0 tornado hit near the town of Wellesley, Ontario, northwest of Kitchener, leaving a path and causing approximately $50,000 in damage. No injuries were reported.
July 16 - an evening F1 tornado struck the town of LaSalle, Ontario, damaging property along a path. No injuries were reported, but the damage cost was an estimated $500,000.
July 22 - a rare F0 tornado was confirmed, touching down near the town of Roseway, Nova Scotia.
July 26 - an F0 tornado struck the Pinaymootang First Nation, in Fairford, Manitoba.
July 28 - North Battleford, Saskatchewan, was hit with an F0 tornado causing no damage.
July 29 - an F0 tornado touched down near Bowsman, Manitoba, just before midnight. No damage was reported.
August 8 - an F0 tornado left a track near Wheatley, Ontario. No injuries were reported.
August 8 - an F2 tornado touched down in Le Petit-Aigle, Quebec, injuring one person.
August 9 - Roberval, Quebec, was hit by a small F0 tornado.
August 9 - an F0 tornado touched down near Maple Green, New Brunswick.
August 10 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Aldersyde, Alberta.
August 11 - two F0 tornadoes touched down in Southern Ontario, the first confirmed near North Woodslee. The second touched down in Port Dover, leaving an estimated $20,000 of damage along a path.
August 14 - the province was hit with five tornadoes, the largest given an F2 rating and touching down in London. It was on the ground for approximately and caused an estimated $100,000 in damage. The other four tornadoes were given F0 ratings and touched down in Eastern Ontario, near the towns of Springfield, Meath, Kirk Cove and Stanleyville.
August 15 - Prince Edward Island experienced a rare F0 tornado, touching down near Strathgartney and leaving a path.
August 16 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Northport, Nova Scotia.
August 25 - an F0 tornado cut a path though Neskantaga First Nation in Northern Ontario.
September 2 - an F2 tornado was one of three confirmed in the province of Ontario, touching down near Jarratt. An F1 also touched down in South Lancaster, and an F0 was confirmed near Houghton Centre.
September 22 - six tornadoes touched down in Ontario, causing upwards of $750,000 in damage. Two F1 tornadoes were confirmed in Woodbridge and Blenheim, and four F0 tornadoes touched down in Stratford, Primrose, Mariposa and Lakefield. No injuries were reported.
September 25 - an F2 tornado hit near Teeswater, Ontario, and was on the ground for over .
September 28 - an F0 tornado was confirmed in Cape Traverse, Prince Edward Island.
1981
March 30 - two early season tornadoes were confirmed in Southern Ontario. An F1 tornado touched down near Bothwell, and an F0 hit near Hickson. No injuries were reported.
May 28 - an F0 tornado touched down near Wakaw, Saskatchewan.
June 3 - Midland, Ontario, was hit with an F0 tornado causing no damage.
June 4 - an F0 tornado touched down near Melita, Manitoba.
June 5 - two tornadoes hit the province of Alberta near the towns of Landonville and Clandonald. They were given ratings of F1 and F0, respectively.
June 6 - an F1 tornado left a path through Haliburton County, Ontario, near the town of Harcourt.
June 6 - an F1 tornado touched down near Clandonald, Alberta, it was the second tornado in two days.
June 10 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near the town of Acton, Ontario, and stayed on the ground for
June 16 - two F0 tornadoes touched down near the hamlets of Gallivan, and Delmas, Saskatchewan.
July 1 - an F0 tornado was confirmed in extreme southeastern part of the province, near the town of Carnduff, Saskatchewan.
July 3 - an F0 tornado touched down near the former town of Grandview, Manitoba.
July 8 - a strong F2 tornado touched down in the community of Scotchtown, New Brunswick, causing an estimated C$10,000 in damage. No injuries were reported.
July 13 - an F1 tornado touched down in West Edmonton, Alberta. No damage or injuries were reported.
July 14 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near the village of Boyle, Alberta.
July 14 - an F0 tornado touched down near Govan, Saskatchewan.
July 14 - an F0 tornado touched down near the unincorporated community of Notre-Dame-de-Lourdes, Manitoba.
July 15 - a powerful F2 tornado hit outside the hamlet of Rivière Qui Barre, Alberta, northwest of Edmonton.
July 18 - an F0 tornado touched down near Bond Head.
July 19 - three F0 tornadoes cut across Ontario, one leaving a path near Thornhill. The other two touched down near Maple and Arden.
July 25 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Sangudo, Alberta.
July 28 - an F0 tornado touched down in the municipality of Torch River, Saskatchewan, northeast of Prince Albert.
July 29 - Regina, Saskatchewan, was hit with a weak F0 tornado.
August 4 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Bradford, Ontario, causing no damage.
August 5 - two tornadoes touch down in Saskatchewan; an F1 near Kronau and an F0 near Aylesbury.
August 8 - an F0 tornado touched down in Brantford, Ontario.
August 11 - an F0 tornado caused an estimated $200,000 in damage near Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario.
August 16 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Pense, Saskatchewan.
August 17 - an F1 tornado touched down near Hughton, Saskatchewan.
August 22 - two F0 tornadoes were confirmed near Wadena, Saskatchewan, and Stenen.
August 30 - an F0 tornado touched down near Plumas, Manitoba.
September 10 - three tornadoes touched down in Eastern Ontario in the early evening hours. The strongest, an F1, hit near Shannonville, leaving a path. The other two were given F0 ratings and touched down on Howe Island, and near Adolphustown.
September 13 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Sarnia, Ontario.
1982
April 14 - an F1 tornado touched down near Adamsville, Quebec.
April 30 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Cudworth, Saskatchewan, northeast of Saskatoon.
May 7 - an F0 tornado touched down near Coutts, Alberta.
May 13 - two tornadoes were confirmed in the province of Alberta; an F1 touched down near Mayerthorpe, and an F0 hit near Fort Assiniboine.
May 28 - an F0 tornado touched down near Dobbinton, Ontario, causing and estimated C$2,000 in damages.
May 29 - Magnolia, Alberta was hit with an F0 tornado.
June 2 - an F1 tornado was confirmed near Gainford, Alberta.
June 2 - an F0 tornado touched down near Prince Albert, Saskatchewan.
June 5 - an F0 tornado was confirmed in Delisle, Saskatchewan.
June 6 - Prince Albert, Saskatchewan, was hit with an F0 tornado.
June 6 - an F1 tornado was confirmed near Entwistle, Alberta.
June 15 - an F0 touched down near Parkbeg, Saskatchewan.
June 15 - four tornadoes were confirmed in Southern Ontario, after active weather swept through the province. An F1 hit near Strathroy, and three F0 tornadoes touched down near Chatham, Burford and Port Burwell. The tornado near Burford was on the ground for approximately .
June 22 - an F1 tornado struck Mississauga, Ontario, and an F0 tornado was confirmed near Exeter.
June 30 - four strong tornadoes ripped through parts of Alberta, with the strongest, an F3, destroying a farm southeast of Rocky Mountain House. It also destroyed a mobile home, injuring one person, and left an estimated C$500,000 in damages. An F2 tornado also struck north of Viking, and two F1 twisters were confirmed northeast of Lacombe and near Kinsella.
July 1 - an F1 tornado touched down near Golden Prairie, Saskatchewan.
July 1 - an F1 tornado was confirmed near Consort, Alberta, causing no damage.
July 6 - an F0 tornado touched down near Langdon, Alberta.
July 11 - Clive, Alberta was hit with an F0 tornado.
July 14 - ten tornadoes were confirmed in Alberta after storms swept through the province. Six tornadoes were given F0 ratings and touched down near the communities of Jackfish Lake, Benalto, Sylvan Lake, Wetaskiwin, Sherwood Park and Vegreville. The other four were given higher F1 ratings and struck near Barrhead, Duffield, Stony Plain, and Lacombe. No injuries were reported.
July 16 - an F1 tornado was confirmed near Colgate, Saskatchewan.
July 16 - six tornadoes swept through Manitoba in the evening hours. They were all rated as F0 on the Fujita Scale and touched down near the communities of Emerson, Hadashville, Melita, St. Alphonse and Morden. The sixth was confirmed southwest of Portage la Prairie.
July 18 - an F0 tornado touched down near Lucky Lake, Alberta.
July 18 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Crows Landing, Ontario.
July 19 - Bathurst, New Brunswick, was hit with an F1 tornado.
July 19 - an F1 tornado struck near Carrot River, Saskatchewan.
July 30 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Rocky Mountain House, Alberta.
August 5 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Carnduff, Saskatchewan.
August 8 - an F0 tornado hit near Cochrane, Ontario, causing an estimated C$100,000 in damage.
August 11 - Six tornadoes were confirmed across Alberta and Saskatchewan after an active weather evening. The largest, an F2, touched down near Ponteix, Saskatchewan, and the town of Marshall saw an F1. The four other tornadoes were given an F0 rating and hit near the towns of Alix, Edgerton and Stettler, Alberta, and Prince Albert, Saskatchewan.
August 14 - an F1 tornado touched down near Denholm, Saskatchewan.
August 14 - an F0 tornado was confirmed in Decker, Manitoba.
August 15 - an F0 tornado hit near Vauxhall, Alberta.
August 15 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Shamattawa, Manitoba.
August 17 - an F1 tornado struck near Sylvania, Saskatchewan.
August 18 - an F1 tornado hit near Hardy, Saskatchewan.
August 19 - an F0 tornado was confirmed in Mattawa, Ontario.
August 25 - Two F1 tornadoes were confirmed in Southern Ontario near Mount Brydges and London.
September 10 - A rare F0 tornado struck near Summerside, Prince Edward Island.
September 10 - an F1 tornado was confirmed in the city of Calgary, Alberta.
1983
May 2 - seven tornadoes touched down in Southern Ontario, mainly in Lambton County and Toronto. It caused C$22.2 million in damages and injured 14 people; no fatalities occurred.
Walpole Island saw an F2 tornado, which injured one person. It lasted on the ground and caused C$1 million in damages.
Reece's Corners had the strongest tornado, rated an F4. 13 people were injured and many more left homeless. The F4 tornado was on the ground for , and was up to in width. Damages were C$20.0 million, with 15 to 25 buildings destroyed. Winds topped out near .
Kettleby was hit with an F2 tornado that lasted on the ground; no major damage or injuries were reported.
Rexdale, an informally-defined district of Toronto, saw three F0s. They lasted on the ground from . One caused C$1.2 million in damages. No injuries were reported.
July 8 - an F3 tornado went through Lloydminster, Alberta and Saskatchewan, causing one million dollars worth of damage.
1984
April 27 - an F2 tornado touched down near New Sarepta, Alberta.
May 12 - an F1 tornado touched down near the town of Whitewood, Saskatchewan.
May 20 - a brief F0 tornado touched down in the southern outskirts of Spruce Grove, Alberta.
June 18 - a tornado struck Eastern Ontario near the town of Westport. It severely damaged a small group of buildings.
June 22 - an F2 tornado struck near Warren, Manitoba. It stayed on the ground for 31.7 km (19.7 mi). Another F1 also struck nearby.
June 29 - ten tornadoes touched down across Alberta after a stationary front collided with a low pressure system and a cold front. The strongest was an F3 tornado that touched down near Athabasca, destroying granaries and farm equipment. One person suffered serious injuries. An F2 also touched down north of Westlock. Seven F1s touched down in or near the towns of Rocky Rapids, Stony Plain, Wabamun, Busby, Abee, Foremost, and Minburn. Two F0s were also spotted near Lesser Slave Lake and Baptiste Lake.
July 8 - an F3 tornado was confirmed near the towns of St. Claude and Rosenort, Manitoba, just east of Winnipeg.
July 15 - tornadoes touched down in the Pontiac and Gatineau, Quebec, regions, including an F3 north of Pembroke, Ontario, that killed one person and caused $2 million in damages. Many buildings were damaged, and cottages completely destroyed. 38 people were injured by flying debris.
August 14 - an F1 tornado hit the north part of Toronto, Ontario, causing millions in damage.
September 2 - six confirmed tornadoes touched down in Ontario, known as the Southwest Ontario Tornado Outbreak of 1984. Most were near the city of London. 30 people were injured.
1985
May 20 - an F0 tornado touched down near St Raphael de Bellechasse, Quebec.
May 31 - an F4 tornado hit Barrie, Ontario, becoming known as the 1985 Barrie tornado. It was part of the bigger 1985 United States–Canada tornado outbreak. There were 14 confirmed tornado touchdowns in the province. Twelve people were killed, eight in Barrie alone, and hundreds injured. The tornado destroyed more than 300 buildings, and damaged another 100, leaving 800 homeless. The cost was estimated at over $100 million. Another four people were killed by a second F4 tornado that struck close to Grand Valley, Orangeville and Tottenham. That tornado had a touchdown path length of over . Another confirmed F0 tornado hit the Leamington area, as part of the outbreak.
June 18 - an F3 tornado was confirmed in the town of Saint-Sylvère, Quebec.
June 23 - An F1 tornado struck north of Vegreville, Alberta.
June 28 - an F1 tornado caused $40,000 worth of damages in Cochrane, Alberta.
July 6 - an F1 tornado hit the Quebec communities of Lacolle and Hemmingford.
July 7 - an F1 tornado hit the Meadowvale area of Mississauga, Ontario, injuring 10 and causing $400,000 damage.
July 22 - an F2 tornado hit the town of Picture Butte, Alberta
September 7 - a tornado touched down near Big Rideau Lake, Ontario. The storm killed one person when it overturned a houseboat cruising on the lake.
October 4 - a weak tornado touched down in Wheatley, Ontario.
1986
June 1 - three tornadoes touched down in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. There were no official ratings given for the tornadoes, although some damage indicated F3 strength winds. Roofs were thrown off houses and a warehouse was destroyed. No one was injured, and damage was estimated at over $1 million.
June 16 - severe storms produced an F3 tornado that travelled from Brady Lake to Maynooth, Ontario. Two other tornadoes were also reported.
June 16 - an F3 tornado was confirmed near Lac Gareau, Quebec. It severely damaged summer chalets and overturned a truck. Two other tornadoes were reported further east. This was from the same weather system that had affected Ontario earlier in the day.
June 18 - two tornadoes touched down near High Prairie, Alberta, tossing farm equipment and tearing the roof off a house. A third tornado, an F2, grazed the outskirts of Provost, causing $100,000 in damages.
June 24 - a tornado touched down in Tingwick, Quebec, damaging 12 properties.
June 25 - an F1 tornado touched down southeast of Wainwright, Alberta.
June 30 - one tornado touched down near Stirling, Alberta near Lethbridge, and another tore through Cayley, south of Calgary. They destroyed a storage shed, tossed a van across the yard, and hurled a large horse against a barbed wire fence. No injuries were reported.
July 9 - three tornadoes briefly touched down throughout Central Alberta. Two were spotted near Penhold and one reported south of Sylvan Lake.
July 13 - an F0 tornado hit the northeastern limits of Cochrane, Alberta.
July 15 - one person was killed from an F0 tornado near Maniwaki, Quebec.
July 29 - four tornadoes touched down in central Saskatchewan, causing minimal damage.
1987
May 28 - an F0 tornado struck the community of Glen-Sutton, Quebec.
June 8 - an F1 tornado was confirmed near the town of Fort-Coulonge, Quebec, causing minor damage.
July 22 - an F1 tornado was confirmed in Foam Lake Ontario. It was the only known tornado in Ontario that year.
June 25 - eight tornadoes were confirmed in Alberta after storms tore through the province. The strongest was an F2 near Milo. Six F1s touched down near Springbank, Ghost Pine Creek, Esther, Bow Island, Jalna, and in the town of Lacombe. An F0 also touched down near Eckville.
July 26 - an F1 twister was confirmed near the town of Kinnear's Mills, Quebec.
July 29 - an F1 tornado struck north of Grande Cache, Alberta. It was on the ground for 5.64 km (3.51 mi) and had a max width of 310 meters.
July 30 - an F1 tornado touched down in the Castle Downs neighborhood in Edmonton, Alberta, one day before a devastating F4 damaged or destroyed hundreds of buildings on the east side of the city. A second F1 also touched down in the town of Nisku.
July 31 - one of Canada's deadliest tornadoes, an F4, ripped through the eastern part of Edmonton, and parts of neighbouring Leduc County and Strathcona County. Known as the Edmonton tornado, it left 27 dead and 253 injured. It was the second deadliest tornado in Canadian history. Environment Canada has been under scrutiny in recent years as to whether or not the Edmonton Tornado should’ve been rated F5 or not. Seven other tornadoes were also confirmed around in the Edmonton Area and Central Alberta on the same day; a F1 in southeast Edmonton, F2 near Beaumont, and an F2 between Millet and Vegreville that caused $40,000 in damages. The last four were given an F0 rating.
1988
May 1 - a weak unconfirmed tornado grazed eastern Vancouver, British Columbia.
June 5 - eight tornadoes touched down around Alberta as storms tore through the province. Two F0s touched down south of Mundare and southeast of Elkwater. Five F1s were confirmed east of Okotoks, north of Tofield, between Olds and Didsbury, south of Ryley, and south of Clive. The strongest of the day, an early-morning F2, also touched down near the Saddle Lake Reserve.
June 10 - an F1 tornado touched down north of Vermilion, Alberta.
June 29 - an F2 tornado hit the eastern part of Cardston, Alberta.
July 14 - an F1 tornado hit the town of Athabasca, Alberta.
August 29 - a brief F1 tornado touched down near Fort Vermilion, Alberta.
1989
June 19 - eight tornadoes touched down over central Saskatchewan, with winds gusting up to . Hail also shredded crops near Blaine Lake.
June 27 - an F1 tornado hit the north side of Edmonton, Alberta.
July 8 - an F2 tornado hit areas northeast of Weyburn, Saskatchewan.
June 15 - an F1 tornado touched down near Nordegg, Alberta.
July 27 - a series of severe thunderstorms spawned an F1 tornado in the east end of Edmonton, Alberta. The tornado injured two people, and damaged buildings and uprooted trees and power lines. It caused $500,000 in damages.
August 2 - an F1 tornado touched down just northeast of Pigeon Lake, Alberta.
August 14 - three tornadoes touched down in the province of New Brunswick. One hit the town of Carlisle, where trees were uprooted and a barn was destroyed. 22 out of 24 glass storm windows stored inside the barn were left undamaged.
November 16 - an F2 tornado caused $2 million in damage in the community of Mont-Saint-Hilaire, Quebec. This tornado was part of the November 1989 Tornado Outbreak.
1990s
1990
June 28 - a large tornado touched down south of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan.
August 28 - Southern Ontario was hit by three tornadoes, in an outbreak associated with the 1990 Plainfield tornado. The strongest was an F3, which hit near the Port Stanley area, destroying 10 homes in Frome, and barns near St. Thomas and Delaware, killing several horses. An F2 tornado also struck Komoka, near London, destroying a church. An F1 tornado touched down near the small town of Kendal, just north of Newtonville. Only six minor injuries were reported.
1991
March 27 - an early season tornado struck Sarnia, Ontario, causing over $25 million in damage.
June 23 - an F0 tornado touched down just north of Cardston, Alberta.
July 28 - a brief F0 tornado touched down in Edmonton, Alberta. It crossed the North Saskatchewan River before dissipating.
August 1 - an F0 tornado hit Forest Heights Park in Edmonton, Alberta.
August 27 - an F3 tornado touched down in the Mauricie region. The town of Maskinongé was hardest hit among three communities, with 60% of its buildings damaged. Fifteen people were injured and the estimated damage cost was upwards of $25 million.
1992
June 22 - tornadoes touched down across southern Manitoba, including two F1s near Winkler and an F0 in St. Claude.
June 24 - tornadoes, large hail and torrential downpours affected southern Manitoba. Tennis ball sized hail fell near Morden and winds gusting to were recorded at Pilot Mound. There were seven confirmed tornado touchdowns and numerous funnel clouds in Manitoba that day. There was some very crisp video footage of one F0 rope tornado traversing farmland near Kelwood. Ground scouring occurred and a hydraulic filter pipe was carried before being embedded about into ground. The region had been affected by severe weather the day before as well.
August 8 - an F1 tornado struck north of Deloraine, Manitoba.
1993
June 12 - four tornadoes touched down across Manitoba as intense thunderstorms ripped through the area. The strongest, an F1, touched down west of Brookdale. Three F0s also touched down near Birtle, Fisher Branch, and Alexander.
June 22 - three weak tornadoes touched down in Manitoba. Two F0s touched down near Gladstone, Manitoba, and an F1 touched down west of Shell River.
July 9 - an F1 tornado touched down in West Nipissing, Ontario, and travelled east for 15 km (9.3 mi). Originally rated F2, this tornado was downgraded after survey teams discovered the houses that had been destroyed were mobile homes, not wood-framed houses.
July 29 - a series of violent thunderstorms tracked across Central Alberta, spawning three tornadoes. The strongest of these was an F3 in Holden, east of Edmonton. An F0 touched down in near Falun, east of Pigeon Lake, and an F1 tornado was reported northeast of Lac La Biche.
August 1 - an F0 tornado touched down northwest of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario.
1994
June 14 - an F2 tornado uprooted trees and hydro poles on Caliper Lake, Ontario.
June 30 - an F2 tornado hit southeast of Kenora, Ontario, destroying boats, blowing apart cottages, and uprooting trees.
July 9 - one person was killed when an F2 tore because through the town of Saint-Charles-sur-Richelieu, Quebec. Three other people were injured, and about a dozen homes were damaged.
July 10 - an F4 tornado tore through Birtle, Manitoba, which tracked for 29.4 km. The tornado destroyed several farm houses and barns, injuring 2 during its lifetime.
August 4 - an F3 tornado touched down in Aylmer, Quebec, across the river from Ottawa, injuring 15 people. The tornado path was long and caused major damage to a downtown residential subdivision, including homes destroyed. A second tornado had previously touched down just across the Ottawa River in Carp. In Quebec, other tornadoes touched down near Laurel and Rawdon.
August 27 - a F4 tornado hit rural farmland near Turtle Mountain, Manitoba. Devastation was especially visible at Mayfair Hutterite Colony, and there was well over $1 million in damage. There were no injuries or deaths.
1995
June 20 - thunderstorms rumbled for seven hours over Manitoba, producing winds which blew trees and power lines over. The storm produced a weak tornado.
July 15 - a large progressive derecho thunderstorm produced severe winds over an expansive area of the central Great Lakes and New England overnight. It also contained at least six tornadoes that hit Central Ontario, most centred on or north of the Kawartha Lakes. The strongest was an F2 tornado that destroyed a marina at Bridgenorth and overturned a houseboat on Lake Chemong, trapping 20 occupants for a few hours until they were rescued, just north of Peterborough. One person was killed in Bridgenorth. An F2 tornado west of Sault Ste Marie caused extensive tree damaged and caused damage too 6 seasonal homes
July 26 - a tornado in Fredericton, New Brunswick, took the roof off a government building and damaged a tennis court dome.
August 14 - a tornado touched down near Barrie, Ontario.
August 29 - several farms were destroyed when a tornado lasting a couple of minutes affected Spring Valley, Saskatchewan, near Moose Jaw.
1996
April 20 - Multiple tornadoes hit Grey, Wellington and Dufferin counties. Two F3 class tornadoes touched down in Grey County (Williamsford), Wellington County and Dufferin County. Significant property damage occurred; nine people were injured by the two tornadoes. These tornadoes were part of the larger Tornado outbreak sequence of April 1996.
May 20 - a strong thunderstorm damaged one of the four screens of a drive-in theatre at Thorold, Ontario, in the Niagara Region. Coincidentally, this drive-in was planning to show the movie Twister that evening. Eyewitnesses reported seeing a small funnel cloud, but the physical evidence was inconclusive. Distorted and exaggerated media reports of this event abound; most claimed that the storm blew down the screen while Twister was being shown on it. The storm actually took place before sundown. However, a small tornado did touch down in Stoney Creek that same evening.
July 4 - an estimated nine tornadoes touched down in the Saskatoon, Maymont and Osler, Saskatchewan, areas. An F3 was measured in the Maymont area, destroying power lines. Homes and property were damaged in the Osler area. Wind gusts in Saskatoon reached and , damaging many trees and properties on the east end of the city. A drive-in theatre and a nightclub on the eastern outskirts of the city were also heavily damaged; ironically, the movie that was going to be shown at the drive-in that night was Twister.
September 6 - A tornado struck Trinity, Newfoundland, damaging houses and a shipyard building.
1997
June 24 - Lantz, Nova Scotia, F0 tornado touched down in a local ball field at approximately 4:45 pm ADT (UTC−03:00). Golf ball sized hail and intense lightning were also reported with this storm.
July 2 - during the Southeast Michigan tornado outbreak, an F1, an F2, and an F3 hit Windsor, Ontario, and surrounding areas. See the article for more in-depth information.
July 4 - an F2 tornado touched down near Grand Falls, New Brunswick. A roof was torn off a building, and farmers' fields were ripped up. The same line of storms also dropped an F2 tornado in Matapédia (New Brunswick/Quebec border), where a couple of barns were destroyed.
1998
June 2 - during a wider severe weather outbreak (derecho thunderstorm) that struck Southern Ontario in the mid-afternoon, an F1 tornado descended near Holbrook around 3:50 pm EDT (UTC−04:00) and travelled southeastward to Norwich, damaging many buildings, including a church. There were also tornado reports in Elmvale and Dunnville, and several reports of funnel clouds, hail, and high winds.
July 10 - an F2 tornado touched down in Charleston, New Brunswick, leaving a by path of damage. A mobile home was thrown and totally destroyed. There were minor injuries to the residents in the home.
July 19 - a weak tornado hit Daysland, Alberta, about east of Camrose. It damaged power lines, knocking out power to surrounding communities.
August 11 - a small F1 tornado went through part of Saint-Émile, Quebec City, in the suburbs of Quebec City. It overturned a shed and caused a citywide electricity loss when a garage was slammed into an electric pole.
1999
May 8 - a tornado over Hull, Quebec, caused $2M damage and tore roofs off buildings. It was caused by the same system that produced the 1999 Oklahoma tornado outbreak between May 3 and May 8. It was the second significant tornado in the Hull-Gatineau area in five years.
May 18 - three tornadoes touched down close to the western limits of Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. The supercell associated with the tornadoes pelted the city with quarter-sized hail, wind gusts of nearly , and over of rain fell from the half-hour storm.
July 3 - an F2 tornado north of Kimberley, Ontario, destroyed barns, damaged farmhouses, and uprooted or snapped hundreds of trees.
July 6 - a Bois-Francs, Quebec, region tornado left 4,000 without power and 200 in need of temporary shelter in Berthierville, Yamaska and Drummondville. Environment Canada records show one person was killed in the event.
August 4 - an F2 tornado with a twisting but narrow path caused damage in the rural north end of Burlington, Ontario, relocating a motorhome from where it was parked. The tornado track was over long.
August 18 - a small tornado struck Pugwash, Nova Scotia, causing some localized structural damage. There were no serious injuries.
2000
For tornadoes after 2000, see list of 21st-century Canadian tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
2000
May 5 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near Hazzards Corners, Ontario, northeast of Madoc. It left a long path, causing minor damage to a house and knocking over approximately 100 trees.
May 9 - two anticyclonic tornadoes touched down in Southern Ontario, causing minor damage. The first was given an F0 rating, and occurred north of Amherstburg. Multiple trees were knocked over along a path. The second tornado, an F1, touched down in Malden Centre. It tore the roof from a storage shed, and knocked over a large shipping container along a path. No injuries were reported with either storm.
May 23 - an F2 tornado touched down near Appin, Ontario, damaging a pig barn and killing several pigs. Multiple homes also sustained damage, and hydro poles were snapped. No injuries were reported.
May 24 - a confirmed F1 tornado hit Gloucester, Ontario, a suburb within the city of Ottawa. It snapped trees, tore the roof off a house and ripped the canopy from a gas station.
June 22 - an F0 tornado was confirmed near the town of Quyon, Quebec.
July 14 - an F3 tornado struck Green Acres Campground in Pine Lake, Alberta. Known as the Pine Lake tornado, it killed 12 people and caused over $13 million in damage. It was ranked as the fourth deadliest tornado in Canadian history.
July 17 - three tornadoes were confirmed in Ontario after several supercell thunderstorms developed over the province. An F2 tornado formed over the city of Guelph, lasting approximately 23 minutes and leaving a path of damage long. Damage was estimated at over $2 million and one minor injury was reported. The same storm also produced a second, unrated tornado near Waterdown. The third tornado, an F1, occurred in Simcoe County, near the town of Melduf. It snapped and uprooted trees, and caused minor crop damage. An aluminum shed was destroyed.
July 18 - an F0 tornado touched down near Saint-Jean-Chrysostome, Quebec.
July 23 - an F3 tornado touched down and destroyed one home and tossed farm equipment near Marwayne, Alberta, northwest of Lloydminster.
July 24 - a tornado outbreak in southern Manitoba spawned at least 4 confirmed tornadoes, including a large tornado which touched down for 10 minutes, from 6:10 pm to 6:20 pm, west of Brunkild, Manitoba. The Brunkild tornado did not hit anything, resulting in an F0 rating. The other confirmed tornadoes were located north of Elm Creek, Manitoba (4:22 pm), north of Brookdale, Manitoba(5:19 pm), west of Neepawa, Manitoba(5:50 pm) and south of Plum Coulee, Manitoba (6:08 pm).
July 26 - a tornado touched down briefly near Wabamun, Alberta, about west of Edmonton, causing minor damage.
August 1 - a tornado struck Viking, Alberta.
August 6 - a tornado touched down near Elnora, Alberta, southeast of Pine Lake. The tornado occurred while people were gathering for a memorial service in Pine Lake for those who died in the Pine Lake tornado just a few weeks earlier.
August 9 - a tornado was confirmed near Sangudo, Alberta.
August 9 - an F1 tornado touched down near Tilbury, Ontario, destroying a barn and causing heavy damage to two farmhouses. No injuries were reported.
See also
List of tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
List of North American tornadoes and tornado outbreaks
List of tornadoes striking downtown areas of large cities
List of F5 and EF5 tornadoes
Tornado myths
Tornadoes of 2007
References
External links
Interactive map of tornadoes in Ontario by Highways & Hailstones
Extreme Weather at the CBC.ca Archives
Environment Canada's information page on Tornadoes (Alternate Link)
Canadian Atlas of strong tornadoes
List of strong tornadoes from 1879 to present
Dan, Dan, The Weather Man's webpage of Canadian Weather Events
Tornadoes in Canada and Canada's Deadliest Tornadoes
Canada
List
Lists of disasters in Canada
Tornados
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5199516
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentin%20hypersensitivity
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Dentin hypersensitivity
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Dentin hypersensitivity (DH, DHS) is dental pain which is sharp in character and of short duration, arising from exposed dentin surfaces in response to stimuli, typically thermal, evaporative, tactile, osmotic, chemical or electrical; and which cannot be ascribed to any other dental disease.
A degree of dentin sensitivity is normal, but pain is not usually experienced in everyday activities like drinking a cooled drink. Therefore, although the terms dentin sensitivity and sensitive dentin are used interchangeably to refer to dental hypersensitivity, the latter term is the most accurate.
Signs and symptoms
The pain is sharp and sudden, in response to an external stimulus. The most common trigger is cold, with 75% of people with hypersensitivity reporting pain upon application of a cold stimulus. Other types of stimuli may also trigger pain in dentin hypersensitivity, including:
Thermal – hot and cold drinks and foods, cold air, coolant water jet from a dental instrument.
Electrical – electric pulp testers.
Mechanical–tactile – dental probe during dental examination, periodontal scaling and root planing, toothbrushing.
Osmotic – hypertonic solutions such as sugars.
Evaporation – air blast from a dental instrument.
Chemical – acids, e.g. dietary, gastric, acid etch during dental treatments.
The frequency and severity with which the pain occurs are variable.
Causes
The real cause of dentine hypersensitivity is controversial. There have been several theories put forward to try and explain the cause of dentine hypersensitivity. These include the odontoblastic transduction theory, the neural theory and the hydrodynamic theory.
The most commonly accepted model is called the hydrodynamic or fluid movement theory proposed by Brannstrom in 1964. According to this theory, when the exposed dentine surface is subjected to thermal, chemical, tactile or evaporative stimuli, the flow of the fluid within the tubules will be increased.
Fluid movement inside the dentinal tubules may be away from or towards the pulp. Dentine contains many thousands of microscopic tubular structures that radiate outwards from the pulp; these dentinal tubules are typically 0.5-2 micrometres in diameter. Changes in the flow of the plasma-like biological fluid present in the dentinal tubules can trigger mechanoreceptors present on nerves located at the pulpal aspect, thereby eliciting a pain response. This hydrodynamic flow can be increased by cold, (air pressure), drying, sugar, sour (dehydrating chemicals), or forces acting on to the tooth. Hot or cold food or drinks, and physical pressure are typical triggers in those individuals with teeth sensitivity. Movement of dentinal fluid away from the pulp can be caused by triggers such as cold and drying and movement towards the pulp can be caused by heat. Research has shown that triggers causing dentinal fluid to move away from the pulp elicit more of a painful response.
The odontoblastic transduction theory was suggested by Rapp et al. and puts forward the idea that odontoblasts act as receptor cells, and conduct impulses via synaptic junctions to the end of the nerves and therefore cause the feeling of pain. However, there is not much evidence to support this theory.
The neural theory proposes that thermal or mechanical stimuli can directly influence nerve endings within the dentinal tubules via direct communication with the nerve endings of the pulp.
There are two common ways in which dentine can be exposed; gingival recession and tooth wear. The main cause of DH is gingival recession (receding gums) with exposure of root surfaces, loss of the cementum layer and smear layer. Receding gums can be a sign of long-term trauma from excessive or forceful toothbrushing or abrasive toothpaste (dental abrasion), or a sign of chronic periodontitis (gum disease). A less common cause is acid erosion, which is the loss of hard dental tissues due to acids e.g. related to gastroesophageal reflux disease, bulimia or excessive consumption of acidic foods and drinks. Repeated exposures to a low pH cause the mineral content of the teeth on the outer layer of enamel to dissolve therefore leaving the dentine exposed and leading to hypersensitivity. Other causes include dental bleaching, smoking tobacco (which can lead to recession and therefore sensitivity) cracked teeth and abfraction or grinding of teeth. Evidence of abfraction may be shown by wedge shaped defects that are developed at the cervical region of the teeth known as abfraction lesions. There is no direct relationship between abfraction lesions and diet, periodontal disease or abrasion.
Most experts on this topic state that the pain of DH is in reality a normal, physiologic response of the nerves in a healthy, non-inflamed dental pulp in the situation where the insulating layers of gingiva and cementum have been lost; i.e., dentin hypersensitivity is not a true form of allodynia or hyperalgesia. To contradict this view, not all exposed dentin surfaces cause DH. Others suggest that due to the presence of patent dentinal tubules in areas of hypersensitive dentin, there may be increased irritation to the pulp, causing a degree of reversible inflammation.
Here are some of the most common causes of sensitive teeth:
Tooth decay: Tooth decay is one of the most common causes of sensitive teeth. When the enamel on the surface of the tooth is worn away or eroded, the underlying dentin becomes exposed. This can cause sensitivity to hot, cold, or sweet foods and beverages.
Gum disease: Gum disease can cause sensitive teeth by exposing the roots of the teeth. As gum disease progresses, the gums may begin to recede, exposing the sensitive roots of the teeth. This can cause pain and discomfort when eating or drinking.
Tooth damage: Tooth damage, such as chips, cracks, or fractures, can also cause sensitive teeth. When the enamel is damaged, the dentin is exposed, causing sensitivity to hot, cold, or sweet foods and beverages.
Dental procedures: Certain dental procedures, such as composite fillings, teeth whitening or root canals, can cause temporary sensitivity in the teeth. This is usually a short-term problem that goes away within a few days or weeks.
Grinding of teeth: If you grind your teeth, you may be at risk of sensitive teeth. Grinding can wear away the enamel on the teeth, exposing the dentin and causing sensitivity.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of DH may be challenging. It is a diagnosis of exclusion, reached once all other possible explanations for the pain have been ruled out. A thorough patient history and clinical examination are required. The examination includes a pain provocation test by blasting air from a dental instrument onto the sensitive area, or gentle scratching with a dental probe. If a negative result for the pain provocation test occurs, no treatment for dentinal hypersensitivity is indicated and another diagnosis should be sought, such as other causes of orofacial pain.
Inflammation of the dental pulp, termed pulpitis, produces true hypersensitivity of the nerves in the dental pulp. Pulpitis is classified as irreversible when pulpal inflammation will irreversibly progress to pulpal necrosis due to compression of the venous microcirculation and tissue ischemia, and reversible when the pulp is still capable of returning to a healthy, non-inflamed state, although usually dental treatment is required for this. Irreversible pulpitis is readily distinguishable from DH. There is poorly localized, severe pain which is aggravated by thermal stimuli, and which continues after the stimulus is removed. There also is typically spontaneous pain without any stimulus. Reversible pulpitis may not be so readily distinguishable from DH, however usually there will be some obvious sign such as a carious cavity, crack, etc. which indicates pulpitis. In contrast to pulpitis, the pain of DH is short and sharp.
Prevention
Gingival recession and cervical tooth wear are a few of the main causes of dentine hypersensitivity, as they lead to the exposure of dentinal tubules. This can be avoided by healthy dietary and oral hygiene practices. Using a non-traumatic toothbrushing technique (i.e. a recommended technique such as the modified Bass technique rather than indiscriminately brushing the teeth and gums in a rough scrubbing motion) will help prevent receding gums and tooth wear around the cervical margin of teeth. Non-abrasive fluoride-containing toothpastes should be used, at least twice daily for two minutes at a time. The consumption of acidic foods and drinks should be avoided if possible. Otherwise, it should be limited to mealtimes, and afterwards the mouth should be rinsed with still water. Importantly, the teeth should not be brushed immediately after acidic foods or drinks but ideally at least 30 minutes afterwards. It is recommended that anyone who suffers from acid reflux should seek medical treatment as to prevent their mouth being an acidic environment. A non-abrasive diet will also help to prevent tooth wear. Commonly, teeth whitening products can cause sensitivity. However, the increased sensitivity is temporary and should cease within a few days. If any sensitivity is experienced after using a tooth whitening product, taking a break may help.
Treatment
There is no universally accepted, gold-standard treatment which reliably relieves the pain of dental hypersensitivity in the long term, and consequently many treatments have been suggested which have varying degrees of efficacy when scientifically studied. Generally, they can be divided into in-office (i.e. intended to be applied by a dentist or dental therapist), or treatments which can be carried out at home, available over-the-counter or by prescription. OTC products are more suited for generalized, mild to moderate dentin hypersensitivity associated with several teeth, and in-office treatments for localized, severe DH associated with one or two teeth. Non-invasive, simple treatments which can be carried out at home should be attempted before in-office procedures are carried out.
The purported mechanism of action of these treatments is either occlusion of dentin tubules (e.g. resins, varnishes, toothpastes) or desensitization of nerve fibres/blocking the neural transmission (e.g. potassium chloride, potassium citrate, potassium nitrate).
Home treatment
At-home treatments include desensitizing toothpastes or dentifrices, potassium salts, mouthwashes and chewing gums.
A variety of toothpastes are marketed for dentin hypersensitivity, including compounds such as strontium chloride, strontium acetate, arginine, calcium carbonate, hydroxyapatite and calcium sodium phosphosilicate. Desensitizing chewing gums and mouthwashes are also marketed.
Potassium-containing toothpastes are common; however, the mechanism by which they may reduce hypersensitivity is unclear. Animal research has demonstrated that potassium ions placed in deep dentin cavities cause nerve depolarization and prevent re-polarization. It is not known if this effect would occur with the twice-daily, transient and small increase in potassium ions in saliva that brushing with potassium-containing toothpaste creates. In individuals with dentin hypersensitivity associated with exposed root surfaces, brushing twice daily with toothpaste containing 5% potassium nitrate for six to eight weeks reduces reported sensitivity to tactile, thermal and air blast stimuli. However, meta analysis reported that these individuals' subjective report of sensitivity did not significantly change after six to eight weeks of using the potassium nitrate toothpaste.
Desensitizing toothpastes containing potassium nitrate have been used since the 1980s while toothpastes with potassium chloride or potassium citrate have been available since at least 2000. It is believed that potassium ions diffuse along the dentinal tubules to inactivate intradental nerves. However, as of 2000, this has not been confirmed in intact human teeth and the desensitizing mechanism of potassium-containing toothpastes remains uncertain. Since 2000, several trials have shown that potassium-containing toothpastes can be effective in reducing dentin hypersensitivity, although rinsing the mouth after brushing may reduce their efficacy.
Studies have found that mouthwashes containing potassium salts and fluorides can reduce dentine hypersensitivity. A randomized clinical trial published in 2018 found promising results in controlling and reducing hypersensitivity when potassium oxalate mouthrinse was used in conjugation with toothbrushing. As of 2006, no controlled study of the effects of chewing gum containing potassium chloride has been made, although it has been reported as significantly reducing dentine hypersensitivity.
Nano-hydroxyapatite (nano-HAp) is considered one of the most biocompatible and bioactive materials and has gained wide acceptance in dentistry in recent years. An increasing number of reports have shown that nano-hydroxyapatite shares characteristics with the natural building blocks of enamel having the potential, due to its particle size, to occlude exposed dentinal tubules helping to reduce hypersensitivity and enhancing teeth remineralization. For this reason, the number of toothpastes and mouthwashes that already incorporate nano-hydroxyapatite as a desensitizing agent is increasing.
Bioglass is a relatively new technology in toothpaste formulations. BioMin, a bioactive glass of calcium fluoro phosphosilicate, provides faster and longer lasting relief against sensitivity through deep tubular occlusion.
In-clinic therapy
In-clinic treatments can include the placement of materials to seal dental tubules or the wearing of appliances at night if the cause of the sensitivity stems from night-time grinding.
Fissure sealants, resin, or glass ionomer materials can be placed over areas of the tooth causing particular sensitivity in order to penetrate the exposed tubules and seal them against the external environment. Duraphat varnish, which is a high concentration fluoride varnish, can be applied at regular intervals to reduce the severity of the symptoms of dentine hypersensitivity.
Epidemiology
Dentin hypersensitivity is a relatively common condition. Due to differences in populations studied and methods of detection, the reported incidence ranges from 4-74%. Dentists may under-report dentin hypersensitivity due to difficulty in diagnosing and managing the condition. When questionnaires are used, the reported incidence is usually higher than when clinical examination is used. Overall, it is estimated to affect about 15% of the general population to some degree.
It can affect people of any age, although those aged 20–50 years are more likely to be affected. Females are slightly more likely to develop dentin hypersensitivity compared to males. The condition is most commonly associated with the maxillary and mandibular canine and bicuspid teeth on the facial (buccal) aspect, especially in areas of periodontal attachment loss.
Dentine hypersensitivity is commonly experienced by patients. Studies reveal prevalence rates can range from 3-98%. Prevalence is found to be higher in patient questionnaire studies, 74%, over diagnostic studies, 15-30%. Diagnostic studies are where patients are diagnosed on classical symptoms (rapid, sharp, short duration). This discrepancy in range can be explained by DH being underreported due to the difficulties patients face when describing symptoms. The scale of symptoms for DH are so variant, some patients are unable to eat ice cream or drink cold water, whereas for others, discomfort is episodic in nature. Episodic symptoms of DH is the likely reason why some patients fail to report the discomfort. Hence having a negative effect on the number of diagnoses. If a patient does not complain of the symptoms then no additional screening checks are in place for dentin hypersensitivity and often the diagnosis is missed. It must be remembered that DH is seen as a diagnosis of exclusion.
Although DH affects all age groups, varying from 20–50 years, it most commonly peaks between 30–40 years. Females are more affected by DH. It can be said that this is due to females having diets high in erosive acids and diligent oral hygiene methods. Another contributing factor to this theory, is that females attend the dentist on a more regular basis, discuss health problems more readily than males which can lead to some bias in the DH being more prevalent in females. Hence the findings from some studies that DH does not significantly affect females over males.
A large number of DH cases are linked to periodontal disease and follow as a result of periodontal treatment. Surgical and non-surgical periodontal treatment is said to have the same effect on DH. As part of the periodontitis disease process, recession and root exposure are prevalent. The aim of periodontal treatment is to reduce the inflammation that presents. Treatment strategies also lead to the removal of cementum, smear layer and exposure of dentinal tubules, furthermore causing DH for patients. Within the elderly generation periodontal disease is more prevalent however, DH is not a common diagnosis in the elderly. DH decreases during 40–50 years, a plausible explanation or this is the result of sclerosing of canals and formation of tertiary dentine.
DH can present on several teeth in the whole of the mouth, on teeth in one part of the mouth or on a single tooth. Premolars and canines tend to present with hypersensitivity more readily followed by molars5, this is true for upper and lower arches. Maxillary teeth are more commonly affected. Sites of teeth affected are cervical aspect buccal sites on teeth.
Prognosis
Dentin hypersensitivity may affect individuals' quality of life. Over time, the dentin-pulp complex may adapt to the decreased insulation by laying down tertiary dentin, thereby increasing the thickness between the pulp and the exposed dentin surface and lessening the symptoms of hypersensitivity. Similar process such as formation of a smear layer (e.g. from toothbrushing) and dentin sclerosis. These physiologic repair mechanisms, which occur at a naturally slow pace, are likely to occur with or without any form of treatment.
See also
Remineralization of teeth
The hydrodynamic theory
References
External links
Pain
Sensitivities
Orofacial pain
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5199828
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynn%20Bomar
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Lynn Bomar
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Robert Lynn Bomar (January 21, 1901 – June 11, 1964) was an American football end in the National Football League (NFL). Bomar played college football, basketball and baseball for Vanderbilt University, following coach Wallace Wade and classmate Hek Wakefield there from prep school, and was a unanimous 1922 All-Southern selection and a consensus 1923 All-American selection in football. The latter season included a first-team All-American selection by Walter Camp, rare for a player in the South. A paralyzing injury ended Bomar's college career, but he quickly recovered and sat on the bench for all of his team's games. He played for the New York Giants in 1925 and 1926, retiring abruptly after a separate injury. Bomar was nicknamed "the Blonde Bear".
He had a later career in law enforcement. In his position as Tennessee's Commissioner of Public Safety and Patrol chief, Bomar supervised the ransacking of black households during the 1946 Columbia race riot. He was the warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death, and oversaw several executions. In 1956, Bomar was the first Vanderbilt football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame.
Early life and education
Bomar was born on January 21, 1901, in Bell Buckle, Tennessee to Oliver Eugene Bomar, a blacksmith, and Elizabeth May McAdams. Vanderbilt records indicate that he spent part of his youth in Gallatin. Bomar attended Webb School in his native Bell Buckle, and spent a year at Castle Heights Military Academy.
Fitzgerald and Clarke
Bomar then attended preparatory school at the Fitzgerald and Clarke Military Academy in Tullahoma, Tennessee. In 1920, he was a member of teams which won the state prep-school football and basketball championships. In both sports Bomar played under head coach Wallace Wade. While Wade coached at Fitzgerald and Clarke, the school's overall football record was 15–2. With him on the football team was future college teammate and All-American Hek Wakefield.
Vanderbilt University
Football
Bomar played for head coach Dan McGugin's Vanderbilt Commodores football team at Vanderbilt University from 1921 to 1924. Wallace Wade was hired as Vanderbilt football's assistant and line coach for 1921 and head coach of the basketball and baseball teams for 1922. Bomar and Wakefield enrolled at the school in the same class.
He was prominent on Commodore teams which compiled a win–loss–tie record of 26–5–4 () and three straight conference titles during his four seasons. Bomar was an All-Southern and All-American selection in 1922 and 1923. In addition to playing end and tackle (offense and defense), he made the kickoffs. Bomar's play was described:
The Blonde Bear was one of the world's greatest football players, who never missed an open field block. When one considers he made Walter Camp's All-America team when he was backing up the line on defense and blocking and catching passes on offense, his greatness is realized.
[Bomar] plucked passes out of the ozone that seemed impossible to get, and then raced through the enemy like they were tied." Often he started games at fullback, shifted to halfback or end, and finished at tackle. In backing up the line, [he] hurled back all comers with the same savage vigor.
His favorite refrain to opponents was, "I hope you don't like it."
1921
During Bomar's freshman season at Vanderbilt, he was already a standout player as a starting fullback. In a game against the Longhorns at the Texas State Fair in Dallas, the Commodores won 20–0 after they were expected to lose by two touchdowns. Texas had been undefeated in 1920, winning the Southwest Conference. The 1921 squad was considered possibly the best in Longhorns history, and Vanderbilt football seemed to be in decline when Georgia Tech defeated the Commodores 44–0 the previous year. Dan McGugin gave a speech invoking late former Vanderbilt quarterback Irby Curry before the game. According to Edwin Pope's Football's Greatest Coaches, "The Texas game, sparked by McGugin's unforgettable oratory, was the big one; and Vandy got out of the year without a loss." Bomar scored on a 40-yard interception return for a touchdown in the fourth quarter, increasing the Commodore lead to two touchdowns. In the sixth game of the season, Vanderbilt defeated the Alabama Crimson Tide 14–0 at Birmingham. The victory was expected by insiders (then often called the "dope"), with Vanderbilt favored by two touchdowns. Early in the first quarter several runs by Jess Neely, a long pass from Neely to Tot McCullough and a 17-yard run by Neely brought the ball to the nine-yard line. After a run by Frank Godchaux, Bomar bucked over the line for a touchdown. The game against the Georgia Bulldogs decided the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association (SIAA) championship that season, with Bomar excelling at linebacker. "Georgia would have trampled Vanderbilt to atoms but for Lynn Bomar," wrote Nashville Tennessean sportswriter Blinkey Horn. "Lynn Bomar was the stellar performer of the game. In the first-half he made two-thirds of the tackles", and reportedly prevented five Georgia touchdowns that day. The Commodores tied the Bulldogs 7–7 on a fourth-quarter onside kick for a share of the SIAA title, finishing the season with a 7–0–1 record.
1922
Vanderbilt had its second straight undefeated season in 1922, with Bomar playing his preferred position at end. He was a starter in the scoreless tie with Michigan at the dedication of Dudley Field, spending much of the game tackling Michigan runners. According to the school yearbook, Bomar "tore through the Wolverine line constantly, and always emerged after a play on the far side of the defense" and the game included a goal line stand. Another account read, "Thousands of cheering Vanderbilt fans inspired the surge of center Alf Sharp, guard Gus Morrow, tackle Tex Bradford, and end Lynn Bomar, who stopped Michigan cold in four attempts." The next week against Texas at the Dallas State Fair, Vanderbilt won 20–10. Bomar made an interception and caught a 23-yard pass from Jess Neely, running 20 yards to set up a Gil Reese touchdown. Against the Tennessee Volunteers, he scored the second of two touchdowns on a short pass from Neely in a 14–6 victory.
Bomar's best offensive performance that year was against Georgia. Neely made a long pass from a few yards behind the line of scrimmage at the 45-yard line; Bomar caught it near the seven-yard line, and was tackled by Georgia halfback Loren Chester (Teany) Randall at around the three-yard line before Reese scored the touchdown. Neely and Bomar were among the best pass-receiver combinations in Vanderbilt history: "Bomar, unquestionably, was Vanderbilt's best receiver, snatching everything thrown at him."
A similar play in the game's second half scored another touchdown. Quarterback Doc Kuhn dropped back for a more than 40-yard touchdown pass to Bomar. The pass went 28 yards in the air, with Bomar running the rest of the way. Georgia running back Dave Collings tackled him as he crossed the goal line (injuring himself), and Bomar also made an interception in the 12–0 Vanderbilt victory. The season's final game, against Vanderbilt's oldest rival Sewanee, had a trick play by the Commodores. A fake run ended with Kuhn tossing the ball to Bomar, who was left open behind the defense and easily ran it in; Vanderbilt won, 26–0.
After the season, Bomar received first-team All-American honors from Frank G. Menke. He was also chosen a second-team All-American by Walter Camp, a third-team All-American by Walter Eckersall and appeared on Billy Evans' National Honor Roll. Bomar and Red Barron of Georgia Tech were the two unanimous All-Southern selections. Grantland Rice wrote the next year, "There was no better end in the country last fall" and Camp described Bomar:
Bomar, of Vanderbilt, is only shaded a little by two other ends, largely through the experienced gained by his rivals against stronger opposition. He weighs 200 pounds, is tremendously fast, and a hardy, defensive player. On attack he is able to pick the forward pass out of the air on the full run, and, running with a high-knee action quite like that of the redoubtable Ted Coy, if he cannot get by his man, runs him down and goes on over him, still on his feet.
1923
In 1923, assistant coach Wallace Wade was hired as head coach at Alabama and was replaced by former star tackle Josh Cody. A rematch against the Michigan Wolverines at Ferry Field was a 3–0 Vanderbilt loss, with consensus All-American center Jack Blott scoring Michigan's field goal. According to the Michigan Alumnus, Harry Kipke could not return punts for fear of fumbling; when he received the ball, Vanderbilt ends Hek Wakefield or Bomar would tackle him. In a diagram of the game's plays, Vanderbilt's only completed pass was from Kuhn to Bomar. Bomar excelled against Tulane, blocking a number of punts in a 17–0 victory. Times-Picayune sportswriter Ed Hebert wrote, "Take Bomar out of the Vandy lineup and Tulane would have won the game by three touchdowns." A postseason charity game was played against former and contemporary Princeton Tigers all-stars. The game was a 7–7 tie, with Vanderbilt's touchdown scored on an 18-yard pass from Kuhn to Bomar.
Vanderbilt and Washington and Lee finished the season as Southern Conference co-champions. A sportswriters' poll chose the Commodores as best team in the South, awarding them the Pickens Trophy (awarded from 1923 to 1926). Bomar was a consensus All-American, receiving first-team honors from Collier's Weekly (Walter Camp) and second-team honors from Athletic World magazine. He was one of the first players from the South to receive first-team honors from Camp, who described the player:
1924
During Bomar's senior season (when he moved to halfback), the Commodores tied the Quantico Marines 13–13. Bomar, picking up a fumble, ran 84 yards for a touchdown. According to a newspaper account, "It was Lynn Bomar's gigantic figure that broke up what looked like a Marine cakewalk. After receiving the kickoff, the Marines drove steadily to Vanderbilt's 10-yard line as Goettge repeatedly completed short passes. At the 10, Groves dropped back. The pass from center was low. He missed it. He reached for the ball. It trickled off his fingers. The Commodores were boring in. Wakefield was in there. Then Bomar came charging through. He picked up the ball and with a twist was out of Groves' grasp. He came out of the bunch with a long, charging run. Then he seemed a little undecided. One fleeting glance behind him and he struck out. Up came his free arm to brush off his headgear. His thin, yellow hair stood out. On he swept like a thundercloud of vengeance across the goal. Bedlam broke loose." Captain and guard Tuck Kelly was injured during the game, making Bomar the interim captain two weeks later against the Georgia Bulldogs.
In the Georgia game Bomar had a brain hemorrhage after he was kicked in the chin, and half his body was paralyzed for two days. It was thought that he would never play football again: "Not a player on the team could talk of Bomar's injury without tears coming to his eyes", and Bomar sat on the bench for the rest of the season's games. Known as a devastating blocker and "lightning fast," he was the first Commodore football player elected to the College Football Hall of Fame in 1956. At his induction Bomar said, "I just wish all the men who played with me at Vanderbilt between 1921 and 1924 could also receive this coveted award. They deserve it more than I do. After all, they made it possible for me to be chosen."
He was a member of the Kappa Sigma fraternity. Nashville sportswriter Fred Russell, who entered Vanderbilt in 1924, told a story about Bomar in his autobiography Bury Me In An Old Press Box: "As a freshman I had pledged Kappa Sigma fraternity, which at that time had many varsity athletes. Among them was Lynn Bomar, selected All-American end in 1923 ... I also had the responsibility, as a freshman, of awakening Bomar in time for him to get to classes, and at the end of the school year I did this one morning by rolling the biggest lighted firecracker I ever saw under his bed. When it exploded I feared the whole corner of the fraternity house had been blown off, and I was so scared that even Bomar in his BVD's chasing me across the street and deep into the campus couldn't catch me."
According to Vanderbilt's All-Southern halfback and 1924 captain-elect Gil Reese, "He would never let them jump on me. Whenever anyone would threaten me, Bomar was always right there to say 'Keep your hands off that boy'. They always did, too. Bomar always looked after me, and he always called back to me when we started on end runs. No one could run interference like Bomar." Bomar and Reese were on an all-time Vanderbilt team in the school's 1934 yearbook, and Bomar was chosen for an Associated Press Southeast Area all-time football team for the era from 1920 to 1969.
Basketball
Bomar also played baseball and basketball at Vanderbilt, and was a forward on the basketball team. He attracted large crowds at basketball games because of his football prowess.
1922–23
The 1922–23 team had a 16–8 record, beating the LSU Tigers but losing to the Virginia Tech Hokies in the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association tournament. An account of the LSU game read, "Either Vanderbilt was in rare form or L.S.U. has a good fighting team with no shooting ability. Fans were treated to the most one-sided contest of opening day when these two clubs met, the Commodores scoring 13 points before the Louisianans had counted once, winning 36 to 10." Bomar scored two points in the game.
1923–24
The team, coached by Josh Cody, had a 7–15 record. In the SoCon tournament, Vanderbilt defeated Clemson 42–13 and Bomar scored seven points. According to one account, "Reese and Bomar used to be famous for their forward pass work. They are still using it in basketball. Most of Bomar's passes to Reese are caught over the right shoulder with the recipient facing away from the passer." Along with Reese, All-Southern forward Alvin Bell was also a teammate. Vanderbilt lost the next game to the eventual tournament champions, Jack Cobb and Cartwright Carmichael-led North Carolina, 37–20.
When Bomar was sidelined by a football injury in 1924, Gil Reese became the basketball team captain.
Baseball
He was a catcher on the baseball team. Cliff Wheatley spoke of the many good catchers from which to choose for his 1922 All-Southern baseball team, "And up at Vanderbilt, Lynn Bomar made a splendid record."
New York Giants
1925
Bomar fully recovered from his injury and played professional football as an end for the inaugural 1925 New York Giants of the National Football League (NFL) with Jim Thorpe, Century Milstead, and Owen Reynolds. He was signed to the Giants by Harry March.
The first noteworthy game for Bomar was a 14–0 loss to the Frankford Yellow Jackets. After the Giants' poor first half, the Yellow Jackets led by 14 points. During the second half the Giants recovered somewhat, with good passes from Jack McBride to Bomar but no chance of a comeback. In a 13–0 victory over the Rochester Jeffersons, McBride threw a 27-yard touchdown pass to Bomar. A 13–12 win over the Providence Steam Roller had a 24-yard touchdown pass from McBride to Bomar and an interesting ending. The Giants were backed up near their end zone, faced with a fourth down and leading 13–10. Providence was set for a blitz on the punter, but when he caught the ball he knelt in the end zone for a safety (not enough for Providence to win). Against the Kansas City Cowboys, several passes from McBride to Bomar netted 24 yards in a 67-yard touchdown drive for a 9–3 victory. Bomar had possibly his best day in a 23–0 victory over the Dayton Triangles before a crowd of 18,000. Six of McBride's completed passes that day were to Bomar, including a 45-yarder for the Giants' first touchdown. Bomar was selected to NFL president Joseph Carr's all-star team.
Although the Giants played well, the team experienced financial hardship during its first year. Player salaries were so low that most had to take additional jobs to support themselves. The team's brief practices, held at 4:30 p. m. each day to accommodate outside-work schedules, enabled little in-season improvement. Overshadowed by baseball, boxing and college football, professional football was not a popular sport in 1925 and owner Tim Mara spent $25,000 of his own money during the season to keep the team going. The financial struggle continued until the 11th game of the season, when the visiting Red Grange and the Chicago Bears drew more than 73,000 fans (a pro-football record) and an additional 20,000 were turned away. This gave the Giants much-needed revenue, possibly altering the team's history. In the 19–7 Bears victory, Grange intercepted a pass intended for Bomar and returned it for a touchdown.
1926
In the season's second week Bomar scored against Providence on a 15-yard pass from McBride, and he scored on a 37-yard touchdown pass from Walt Koppisch against Kansas City. However, his football career ended abruptly when he dislocated his knee in a game against the Brooklyn Lions.
Longest pass
From the top of the American Radiator Building to the ground in Bryant Park, a drop of 324 feet (98.75 m), Bomar completed a pass to Hinkey Haines for a record on November 12. Haines caught the ball on the fifth attempt. On Bomar's first attempt, the New York Times reported that the ball "hit the sidewalk and burst" and the third pass knocked Haines over. The stunt took place two days before a game with the Los Angeles Buccaneers. "It was as much as anything a playful jab at Brick Muller" (the Buccaneers' end), who caught a pass thrown from atop the Telephone Building—a drop of 320 feet (97.5 m)—in San Francisco the year before to advertise the first East-West Shrine Game.
Personal life
Bomar married Veturia Edna Hicks on November 20, 1927 in Williamson County, Tennessee. Their only son, Robert, was a resident surgeon at Vanderbilt Hospital. Bomar was a Baptist.
Law-enforcement career
After football and marriage, Bomar was assistant manager of the Colonial Hotel in Springfield, Tennessee for seven years. He sold life insurance, but found it dull. Bomar then began a long career in law enforcement, beginning in the United States Marshals Service office from 1934 to 1939. In 1939 he became a division chief with the Knoxville Highway Patrol and a year later became director of public safety, overseeing the city's police and fire departments. For a few months the public-safety position was eliminated, and Bomar was again the Highway Patrol division chief. Governor Prentice Cooper promoted him to chief on a trial basis in 1942, when the incumbent went on active duty in World War II.
Commissioner of Public Safety
In 1945, Bomar was appointed as both state commissioner of public safety and patrol chief. In this capacity he worked for the Tennessee Motor Transportation Association, Universal Tire and Appliance Company and the Tennessee Superintendent of Public Works.
Columbia Race Riots
In 1946, Bomar supervised the ransacking of African-American households in the Columbia Race Riot. A February 25 fight between James Stephenson, an African-American Navy veteran, and a white shopkeeper reportedly ignited the unrest. Later that day there was gunfire, fighting and rioting between whites and African Americans in Mink Slide, Columbia's African-American business district. When black citizens shot out the street lights, three officers and a chief responded to the gunfire; all four were shot. Bomar, described by one writer as commanding "the firing line of the State Highway Police," led the team sent in after the shootings with permission from the state attorney general to search homes and businesses for weapons. None of the accused were granted bail or allowed legal counsel, and 12 were charged with attempted murder.
Under oath in court, Bomar said that he had no search warrant and anticipated that he would not have a warrant the next time he searched similar properties. He called journalist Vincent Sheean a "lying Communistic yellow ——." According to a contemporary account, "In this situation, even though it's fair to say [Bomar] was just doing his job, it's equally clear that he was a loose cannon. His personality dominated the scene, and it was the personality of a bully."
Warden
Bomar was warden of Tennessee State Prison from 1955 until his death. He oversaw the execution of several men including William Tines, an African American convicted of raping a 45-year-old white woman, who was executed in the electric chair. Tines was the last man executed by electrocution in Tennessee, and the last person executed until Robert Glen Coe in 2000.
The Prisonaires
Bomar supported the Prisonaires, a doo-wop quintet of inmates who received a BMI award for their hit "Just Walkin' in the Rain" in his office. A spoken-word track on their album, Only Believe ... , was "Message from Prison Warden Lynn Bomar".
Death
On June 11, 1964, Bomar died a few hours after a heart attack. In 1966, he was posthumously inducted into the Tennessee Sports Hall of Fame.
Notes
Endnotes
References
1901 births
1964 deaths
American football ends
American football linebackers
American football halfbacks
American football fullbacks
American football tackles
American football placekickers
American football defensive ends
Baseball catchers
Forwards (basketball)
New York Giants players
Vanderbilt Commodores baseball players
Vanderbilt Commodores men's basketball players
Vanderbilt Commodores football players
All-American college football players
All-Southern college football players
College Football Hall of Fame inductees
People from Bell Buckle, Tennessee
People from Springfield, Tennessee
Sportspeople from the Nashville metropolitan area
People from Gallatin, Tennessee
Players of American football from Nashville, Tennessee
Baseball players from Nashville, Tennessee
Basketball players from Nashville, Tennessee
American men's basketball players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin%20American%20Idol
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Latin American Idol
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Latin American Idol was the Hispanic American edition of the popular British franchise of Idols, well known for its American version American Idol. The show aimed to discover the pop idol of the Hispanic American region. The show was filmed in Buenos Aires and was transmitted to over 23 nations in the region via the Sony Entertainment Television network.
Premise
Latin American Idol was filmed in Buenos Aires, Argentina and aired throughout Latin America with the exception of Brazil, which has its own version called Ídolos Brazil, premiered in 2006. Portuguese-language contestants can participate if they are able to sing in Spanish. The show's hosts are the Venezuelan Erika de La Vega and Argentine Monchi Balestra. In the first season the judges panel was made up by Jon Secada from the United States (born in Cuba), Gustavo Sánchez from Puerto Rico and Elizabeth Meza from México, the last of this being replaced since the second season by Mimi, a former member of musical group Flans, and Oscar Mediavilla from Argentina, replacing Gustavo Sánchez for the fourth season.
This show is divided into four phases: auditions, theater/secondary audition stage, workshops and performances.
Auditions
The first season's auditions took place in order in the cities of Caracas, Venezuela; Bogotá, Colombia; Mexico City, México; and finally in Buenos Aires. Auditions took place between April–May, 2006. In the show's third season, Panama City, Panamá was chosen as the fifth audition city, while in the fourth season San José, Costa Rica was chosen as an audition venue.
The stage of auditions was divided into two rounds:
The pre-audition: Actually there are two pre-auditions. Before performing in front of the cameras and in front of the real panel of judges of the show, another panel of judges evaluate the auditioners to decide if they deserve to perform in front of the real panel of judges and in front of the television cameras. The panel of judges that make these pre-auditions choose auditioners that sing well and that have some chances to convince the real panel of judges, or, who sing bad and make a funny moment for the show.
The audition: After the pre-audition, the panel of judges of the correspondent season (from time to time there is a guest judge to be part of the panel of judges) listen to the auditioners and say their opinions. Then each judge say "Yes" or "No" to the auditioners. The auditioners needs two out of three "Yes" in order to go to the Theater stage. If the auditioner is in front of four judges, three out of four "Yes" will be needed in order to go to the Theater stage. If there are four judges and the auditioner only gets two "Yes", they ask the auditioner to leave the place so that soon after the panel of judges decide if the auditioner should go or not to go to the Theater stage. To pass to this stage, the auditioners are invited to the next stage in Buenos Aires with the phrase "Welcome to Latin American Idol". Over 100 persons are the ones who are told this phrase and are invited to the Theater.
Theater/second stage of auditions
After performing for the panel of judges, successful contestants are invited to the next round of competition in Argentina.
Season 1
The first season was different from the subsequent ones because this was divided just into two rounds.
The theater stage was divided into two rounds:
Round 1: A performance in groups of three. The 100 contestants are split into groups of three's, according to gender. Sixty contestants are then selected to move on to the second round.
Round 2: Solo performances. Each contestant is given four songs to perform, and the contestant selects one to perform. During stage of the competition, the panel of judges choose the top thirty contestants.
Seasons 2 and 3
The theater stage is divided into three rounds, that will be explained in-depth each one.
Round 1 - Auditions in lines: Approximately 100 contestants who got to the theater are split up in approximately 10 lines so that each one of the contestants performs again a cappella and with a microphone. Each contestant performs one by one. In the first season the contestants were split up in 3 groups, each group was put in a room, soon after, the panel of judges were going to each room to let the contestants know which of the three groups had made it to the round 1. In seasons 2 and 3, after all the lines performed, the panel of judges call back each line and they call to the front to some contestants so that the line will be subdivided into two lines, then they were saying if the line of the front or the one of the back had made it or which of them was cut off of the competition.
Round 2 - Performances in groups: After the first stage, contestants are given a short break of some hours and then begins the second round. In the first season, it was the only in which this round was made in groups of three. They were split up by sex gender and there were groups of males and females. In the second season, contestants start grouping in couples (usually a male with a female) to sing in a duet. In the first and second season the panel of judges were choosing the contestants to sing in groups of two or of three. In the third season, in this stage, there were more females than males, thus, there was a kind of a party so that then can choose their partner. Females who didn't find a partner had to make a duo with another female. In this round they sing with music live. When finishing, each of the groups were being called and the panel of judges were saying if they had made it to the next stage.
Round 3 - Performances in solo: After the first round, the panel of judges gives four songs to make contestants choose one of them, so that in the rest of the day and of the other day they prepare themselves memorizing the lyrics. This round is characterized because contestants usually forget the lyrics. They are also tired to practice because many of them should rehearse at night and don't sleep so well. All these factors affect the performance of many and they find it difficult to go to the next stage. The panel of judges say that it doesn't matter so much if contestants forget the lyrics, what they really matter is to label how they get back after being in a situation like that. When finishing this last round, the panel of judges organize the contestants into groups of five, in order to select the show's top thirty contestants.
Season 4
The theater phase is renamed the "Second stage of auditions" during the fourth season.
Round 1 – Auditions in lines: They are organized in lines of five people and each person with a microphone, sing a cappella, a song they choose (so that they can evaluate how well they know to choose their repertoire). The mechanism of selection is the same as in seasons 2 and 3: they call each line of auditioners, and tell some of the contestants to step forward so that they split up into 2 groups, then they say which line is the one who made it to the next round.
Round 2 – Performances in solo: The judges give contestants four songs, so contestants have to choose one of them and they have all the rest of the day long and the early next day to try to memorize the lyrics. This round has a major difficulty, because of the time they have to prepare everything, not only to memorize the lyrics, but also to rehearse it and making it changes or everything necessary to give that song their own style, contestants usually forget the lyrics. In this round there was a particular case that a contestant, without knowing the results of that round, choose to give up. After all the auditions, the panel of judges call one by one to the contestants and tell them who are cut off and who goes to Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Workshops
Seasons 1, 2 and 3
The thirty semi-finalists are split up into three groups of ten semi-finalists each one. The workshops consist of a small stage in which there is a small amount of public and each one of the semi-finalists perform in front of a live studio audience. During the workshops, each contestant performs in a platform, after talking about him or herself in previously recorded video. In the first season contestants performed accompanied by a pianist. During subsequent seasons, a live band performed with the contestant.
In this stage there are 4 workshops. In three of them the public vote is necessary and one special that is fully based on the judges decision. Each group of ten of the 30 semifinalists make one of three first workshops (Of which each contestant was put randomly). The last workshop is the Wild Card show, in which is performed the people who are saved from the judges in the workshops.
In a usual workshop, each one of the semi-finalists performs in a platform singing any kind of song in Spanish of any kind. Before the semi-finalist performs, a video takes place to let viewers get to know better each one of the semi-finalists. During the performance, a small advertisement is shown up with the name and last name of the contestants and below it will show the name we should text and the telephone number to which we have to send the text message to vote for that person. Generally, the name that we have to text is the first name of the semi-finalist, in such a case that two or more of the 30 semi-finalists have the same name, we will have to text the last name of each one to vote. In so special cases people will have to text the nickname in text messages to vote for the semi-finalists, but this is so strange to happen. After finishing the performance, the judges express their opinion about the performance. When the workshop finishes, the voting lines get open. The public starts voting and the next day the results show of each workshop takes place. In this results show, the public decision is revealed. The top three semi-finalists become finalists. After the Hispanic America's decision is revealed, the judges rescue two of the seven semi-finalists that were not chosen by the public to participate in the last workshop, the Wild Card.
Because there are three workshops, 9 semifinalists go to the finals with the public's help. Latin American Idol's normal format shows that there should be just 10 finalists (This has just been fulfilled in the first season). Two people who are rescued from each workshop make 6 semi-finalists totally to participate en the Wild Card, from which the panel of judges just choose one of them. In the second and third season, there has been an irregularity in Wild Cards, because in the third workshop of each season, the panel of judges rescued surprisingly one contestant more of each workshop to participate in Wild Card. In the Wild Card, the panel of judges chose three semi-finalists to make them become finalists.
Because of this irregularity, the second and third season have had twelve finalists instead of just ten. The semi-finalists who achieve to become finalists, will always keep the same name to make people vote for them.
Season 4
In the fourth season, the workshops decreased, instead of making four, there were just two. Because in the "second stage of elimination" there are 20 contestants chosen, of which 10 are male and 10 are female. Each Workshop is for one sex with the first workshop for males and the second one for females. In each workshop there are chosen the top five based on the public's vote. Also as expected, the panel of judges rescue contestants. In each workshop the panel of judges can choose one semi-finalist who has not received enough votes to become a finalist. Therefore, at the end of this stage, we find 12 finalists as in last season. It is important to point out that this new method is used so the male/female mix doesn't occur as happened in seasons 2 and 3. In the second season, males dominated the number of finalists (9 to 3) and in the third season, females dominated it (7 to 5). This season, as the first season, will have an equity around the finalists sex.
Concerts
During the first season, the number of contestants in the final stage (concerts' stage) was with 10 contestants, however, for the second season and the third season, because of the high quality of the finalists in these last ones, the panel of judges and production took the decision of increasing the number of people to the concerts to 12 finalists. In the fourth season it was assimilated that there would be 12 finalists.
According to the Latin American Idol's normal format this stage should be made in nine concerts. This has been fulfilled to the letter despite there have been more finalists than what was planned.
In the last stage, the panel of judges have no persuasion in the elimination of contestants. Everything that is worthing for elimination is the public's vote, the panel of judges just express their opinions in the performances.
The final stage is divided into nine concerts. Each concert has two episodes: one for performances and the other one for the results show. In each day of the performances of the concert, each finalist performs a song chosen by him/herself depending on the corresponding theme in each concert. Just after finishing the performances the voting starts, so Hispanic America has approximately 15 hours to vote for their favorite contestant. When starts the results show the next day the voting is ended and one or more finalist is eliminated. Because there have been more finalists of what was expected in the last three seasons, the production has had to fit the first concerts. In the second and fourth season, two finalists were eliminated in the first two concerts. In the third season three finalists were eliminated in the first concert. Each concert has a theme, and each one of the finalists should perform with a song according to the theme. While the finalist performs there will appear the name of the finalist and below the instructions of how to vote for the finalist. In Argentina and Uruguay is kept the number 35355 (In the workshops, people had to vote to this same number). In the rest of Hispanic America people have to text to 43657 (IDOLS) and in Puerto Rico because of being a territory of the United States is obtained a special number, 55225. At the middle of this stage when several finalists have been eliminated, in the sixth concert, with the last five finalists; the finalists will have to perform with two songs per concert until the semifinal (eighth concert), which usually has no theme. When there are the three last finalists, who are considered semi-finalists of the concerts' stage (In the third season there was an irregularity with this kind of semi-finalists because there were four of them because in the antepenultimate concert any contestant was eliminated, subsequently this irregularity was sorted out by eliminating two contestants in the semi-final). These four semi-finalists of the concerts' stage, just after the results show of the seventh concert finishes, are sent with a group of the production of Latin American Idol to their respective countries. There the production record everything the finalists do in their countries, besides sending with them to the singer mentors to prepare them for the semi-final concert. In the semi-final concert, the finalists sing two songs and as regularly one is eliminated or in such a case of the third season two are eliminated. The two ones remaining, become finalists of the concerts' stage. And one of them will be the winner of the season.
The final concert of Latin American Idol is the ninth concert and is different from the previous ones. Because there are just two finalists, each one has to sing three songs. The last concert has no theme. The show's production write two songs fully unpublished so that the finalists sing them in this concert. In the first round of this concert a finalist sing an unpublished song and the other finalist sing the other song. In the second round each finalist sing their best performance during all their way for Latin American Idol. In the third round each finalist sing the unpublished song that didn't sing in the first round. The results show of this last concert is called the great final because in this one is decided who is the new Latin American Idol. The great final is the largest episode of the season because the auditions and the two parts of the theater last one hour on air. The results show last a half-hour, but the great final lasts two hours and is the last episode that is completely live in air. In the great final perform the finalists of the season, and there is a great quantity of guest celebrities. When finishing the show it is decided who the winner is based on the publics' vote and gets a contract with Sony BMG.
Synopsis of the seasons
First season
The first season of Latin American Idol premiered on July 12, 2004. Its official sponsor was Movistar. There were 4 auditions: México City, México; Bogotá, Colombia; Caracas, Venezuela and of course it the host country, Argentina in its capital Buenos Aires.
The hosts were: Erika De la Vega and Monchi Balestra. The judges were: Jon Secada, Gustavo Sánchez and Elizabeth Meza. Before starting the judges of American Idol; Simon Cowell, Randy Jackson and Paula Abdul performed in Sony Entertainment Television a video saying that there was coming a Hispanic American version of the show.
The theater of this stage is unique making a comparison with the other seasons because this one was divided into 2 stages instead of three. On August 2, the making of the First Workshop was made, were the finalists were chosen: Gabriel Suárez, Lilia Mariñelarena and Mayré Martínez. On August 9, 2007, the second workshop, in which the ones who went to the next stage were Isa Mosquera, Dennis Smith and Andrea del Valle. On August 17, the last threesome of finalists chosen was revealed: Efraín Medina, Hernán López and Noelia Soto. Of each one of the workshops, two contestants were saved, who made it to the group of the last workshop that was known as The last opportunity. The saved contestant in this last workshop was John Paul Ospina, who joined the other nine contestants thanks to the help the panel of judges gave him to be part of group of the finalists. John Paul Ospina turned into the first Wild Card of Latin American Idol and also is the only one in getting the workshop of the last chance without surprises of choosing more finalists.
In the next stage it was made what was called "galas" in which each contestant sang a song and were voted by the public, the 3 contestants with the fewest votes were called to the "Bottom 3" and one of them was eliminated, while the other ones were mentioned randomly. In the second stage they were calling a "Bottom 2", it means 2 contestants with the fewest votes, and each contestant sang two songs per concert. After the two stages of the galas it was got to the semifinal membered by Mayré Martínez from Venezuela, Noelia Soto from Argentina and Efraín Medina from México, resulting eliminated the Mexican contestant, which made finalists to the Venezuelan Mayré Martínez and the Argentinian Noelia Soto, at the end of the season, each finalist sang three (3) themes, two unpublished and their favorite sang in the competition, the voting was spread out to twenty-four (24) hours, having the Venezuelan Mayré Martínez, winner of the competition, and the only contestant who wasn't proposed to be eliminated. In declarations subsequent to the final, the judge Gustavo Sánchez announced that Mayré had received 76.5% of the total votes.
Second season
In the second season, the Mexican judge Elizabeth Meza left the competition giving place to Irma Angélica "Mimí" Hernández, another Mexican judge. Movistar returned as a sponsor its support to the show. The auditions kept same way (Bogotá, Colombia; Mexico City, México; Caracas, Venezuela and Buenos Aires, Argentina) ad the contestants, Venezuelan Erika De la Vega and Argentinian Monchi Balestra. Rules changed so that people under 18 years old could participate, the competition came down to 16 years old. The competition also increased the ages from 28 to 30 years old.
The theater changed radically compared to the first season, instead of two rounds, it was developed in three rounds: auditions in lines, duets and solo performances. The judged gave some songs to make contestants choose what they want to sing in their duets and solo performances. The panel of judges grouped in the duets rounds each contestant. When the theater round finished, the Hispanic America's top 30 was chosen.
The three workshops was started by the Hispanic American public voting. And were chosen 9 out of the 10 finalists that were planned to be chosen, in the first three workshops. In these, the two first finalists from CentroAmerica were chosen in the competition; Carlos Peña from Guatemala and Arquímedes Reyes from El Salvador. Also the panel of judges chose the first finalists under age of the competition, Francisco Pérez from Colombia and Emiliano Sansone from Argentina. For the first time in the competition, the judges just chose one female contestant of the three first workshops, Silvia de Freitas from Venezuela. In the third workshop many were taken surprisingly because the judges and the production improvised and decided to save more people and three finalists more were chosen in the Wildcard show instead of just one. Which made 12 finalists. In this workshop the first finalist from Caribe, Rosángela Abreu from Puerto Rico made it to the finals. In this workshop made it to the next stage two female and one male, leaving nine male finalists and three female finalists.
When the 12 finalists were selected, the concerts' stage started. In the first and second concert 2 contestants with the fewest votes were eliminated, since the third show just one contestant was being eliminated, all this is because this stage should be made just in nice concerts. Incredibly the Argentinian contestants who had 4 representatives among the finalists were eliminated quickly: two in the first concert, one in the second and the last one in the third. In the semifinal there were Rosangela Abreu, Ricardo Caballero and Carlos Peña. In the final show, after a great musical show and the exceptional performance of the two finalists, it was revealed that Carlos Peña from Guatemala was the winner, it's important to mention that Peña was the only contestant who was about to be eliminated, because he was never in any bottom.. This season was characterized by the intention of the production of the show to penetrate more in the Mexican market.
Third season
Fourth season
External links
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Mexican reality television series
Sony Entertainment Television
2006 television series debuts
2009 television series endings
Non-British television series based on British television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyman%20Minsky
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Hyman Minsky
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Hyman Philip Minsky (September 23, 1919 – October 24, 1996) was an American economist, a professor of economics at Washington University in St. Louis, and a distinguished scholar at the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. His research attempted to provide an understanding and explanation of the characteristics of financial crises, which he attributed to swings in a potentially fragile financial system. Minsky is sometimes described as a post-Keynesian economist because, in the Keynesian tradition, he supported some government intervention in financial markets, opposed some of the financial deregulation of the 1980s, stressed the importance of the Federal Reserve as a lender of last resort and argued against the over-accumulation of private debt in the financial markets.
Minsky's economic theories were largely ignored for decades, until the subprime mortgage crisis of 2008 caused a renewed interest in them.
Education
A native of Chicago, Illinois, Minsky was born into a Jewish family of Menshevik emigrants from Belarus. His mother, Dora Zakon, was active in the nascent trade union movement. His father, Sam Minsky, was active in the Jewish section of the Socialist party of Chicago. In 1937, Minsky graduated from George Washington High School in New York City. In 1941, Minsky received his B.S. in mathematics from the University of Chicago and went on to earn an M.P.A. and a Ph.D. in economics from Harvard University, where he studied under Joseph Schumpeter and Wassily Leontief.
Career
Minsky taught at Brown University from 1949 to 1958, and from 1957 to 1965 was an associate professor of economics at the University of California, Berkeley. In 1965 he became Professor of Economics of Washington University in St Louis and retired from there in 1990. At the time of his death he was a Distinguished Scholar at the Levy Economics Institute of Bard College. He was a consultant to the Commission on Money and Credit (1957–1961) while at Berkeley.
Financial theory
Minsky proposed theories linking financial market fragility, in the normal life cycle of an economy, with speculative investment bubbles endogenous to financial markets. Minsky stated that in prosperous times, when corporate cash flow rises beyond what is needed to pay off debt, a speculative euphoria develops, and soon thereafter debts exceed what borrowers can pay off from their incoming revenues, which in turn produces a financial crisis. As a result of such speculative borrowing bubbles, banks and lenders tighten credit availability, even to companies that can afford loans, and the economy subsequently contracts.
This slow movement of the financial system from stability to fragility, followed by crisis, is something for which Minsky is best known, and the phrase "Minsky moment" refers to this aspect of Minsky's academic work.
"He offered very good insights in the '60s and '70s when linkages between the financial markets and the economy were not as well understood as they are now," said Henry Kaufman, a Wall Street money manager and economist. "He showed us that financial markets could move frequently to excess. And he underscored the importance of the Federal Reserve as a lender of last resort."
Minsky's model of the credit system, which he dubbed the "financial instability hypothesis" (FIH), incorporated many ideas already circulated by John Stuart Mill, Alfred Marshall, Knut Wicksell and Irving Fisher. "A fundamental characteristic of our economy," Minsky wrote in 1974, "is that the financial system swings between robustness and fragility and these swings are an integral part of the process that generates business cycles."
Disagreeing with many mainstream economists of the day, he argued that these swings, and the booms and busts that can accompany them, are inevitable in a so-called free market economy – unless government steps in to control them, through regulation, central bank action and other tools. Such mechanisms did in fact come into existence in response to crises such as the Panic of 1907 and the Great Depression. Minsky opposed the deregulation that characterized the 1980s.
It was at the University of California, Berkeley, that seminars attended by Bank of America executives helped him to develop his theories about lending and economic activity, views he laid out in two books, John Maynard Keynes (1975), a classic study of the economist and his contributions, and Stabilizing an Unstable Economy (1986), and more than a hundred professional articles.
Further developments
Minsky's theories have enjoyed some popularity, but have had little influence in mainstream economics or in central bank policy.
Minsky stated his theories verbally, and did not build mathematical models based on them. Minsky preferred to use interlocking balance sheets rather than mathematical equations to model economies: "The alternative to beginning one's theorizing about capitalist economies by positing utility functions over the reals and production functions with something labeled K (called capital) is to begin with the interlocking balance sheets of the economy." Consequently, his theories have not been incorporated into mainstream economic models, which do not include private debt as a factor.
Minsky's theories, which emphasize the macroeconomic dangers of speculative bubbles in asset prices, have also not been incorporated into central bank policy. However, in the wake of the financial crisis of 2007–2010 there has been increased interest in policy implications of his theories, with some central bankers advocating that central bank policy include a Minsky factor.
Minsky's theories and the subprime mortgage crisis
Minsky's financial instability-hypothesis
Hyman Minsky's theories about debt accumulation received revived attention in the media during the subprime mortgage crisis of the first decade of this century. The New Yorker has labelled it "the Minsky Moment".
Minsky argued that a key mechanism that pushes an economy towards a crisis is the accumulation of debt by the non-government sector. He identified three types of borrowers that contribute to the accumulation of insolvent debt: hedge borrowers, speculative borrowers, and Ponzi borrowers.
The "hedge borrower" can make debt payments (covering interest and principal) from current cash flows from investments. For the "speculative borrower", the cash flow from investments can service the debt, i.e., cover the interest due, but the borrower must regularly roll over, or re-borrow, the principal. The "Ponzi borrower" (named for Charles Ponzi, see also Ponzi scheme) borrows based on the belief that the appreciation of the value of the asset will be sufficient to refinance the debt but could not make sufficient payments on interest or principal with the cash flow from investments; only the appreciating asset value can keep the Ponzi borrower afloat.
These 3 types of borrowers manifest into a 3-phased system:
Hedge Phase: This phase occurs right after a financial crisis and after recovery, during a point at which banks and borrowers are overly cautious. This causes loans to be minimal ensuring that the borrower can afford to repay both the initial principal and the interest. Thus, the economy is most likely seeking equilibrium and virtually self-containing. This is the "not too hot not too cold" Goldilocks phase of debt accumulation.
Speculative Phase: The Speculative period emerges as confidence in the banking system is slowly renewed. This confidence brings about complacency that good market conditions will continue. Rather than issue loans to borrowers that can pay both principal and interest, loans are issued where the borrower can only afford to pay the interest; the principal will be repaid by refinancing. This begins the decline to instability.
Ponzi Phase: As confidence continues to grow in the banking system and banks continue to believe that asset prices will continue to rise, the third stage in the cycle, the Ponzi stage, begins. In this stage the borrower can neither afford to pay the principal nor the interest on the loans which are issued by banks leading to foreclosures and vast debt failures.
If the use of Ponzi finance is general enough in the financial system, then the inevitable disillusionment of the Ponzi borrower can cause the system to seize up: when the bubble pops, i.e., when asset prices stop increasing, the speculative borrower can no longer refinance (roll over) the principal even if able to cover interest payments. As with a line of dominoes, collapse of the speculative borrowers can then bring down even hedge borrowers, who are unable to find loans despite the apparent soundness of the underlying investments.
Application to the subprime mortgage crisis
Economist Paul McCulley described how Minsky's hypothesis translates to the subprime mortgage crisis. McCulley illustrated the three types of borrowing categories using an analogy from the mortgage market: a hedge borrower would have a traditional mortgage loan and is paying back both the principal and interest; the speculative borrower would have an interest-only loan, meaning they are paying back only the interest and must refinance later to pay back the principal; and the ponzi borrower would have a negative amortization loan, meaning the payments do not cover the interest amount and the principal is actually increasing. Lenders only provided funds to ponzi borrowers due to a belief that housing values would continue to increase.
McCulley writes that the progression through Minsky's three borrowing stages was evident as the credit and housing bubbles built through approximately August 2007. Demand for housing was both a cause and effect of the rapidly expanding shadow banking system, which helped fund the shift to more lending of the speculative and ponzi types, through ever-riskier mortgage loans at higher levels of leverage. This helped drive the housing bubble, as the availability of credit encouraged higher home prices. Since the bubble burst, we are seeing the progression in reverse, as businesses de-leverage, lending standards are raised and the share of borrowers in the three stages shifts back towards the hedge borrower.
McCulley also points out that human nature is inherently pro-cyclical, meaning, in Minsky's words, that "from time to time, capitalist economies exhibit inflations and debt deflations which seem to have the potential to spin out of control. In such processes, the economic system's reactions to a movement of the economy amplify the movement – inflation feeds upon inflation and debt-deflation feeds upon debt-deflation." In other words, people are momentum investors by nature, not value investors. People naturally take actions that expand the high and low points of cycles. One implication for policymakers and regulators is the implementation of counter-cyclical policies, such as contingent capital requirements for banks that increase during boom periods and are reduced during busts.
Minsky's periods of capitalism
Though Minsky's research in the 1980s depended on Keynesian analysis, he thought that changes in the structure of the US economy by then required new analysis, and for this he turned to Schumpeter. Both Schumpeter (and Keynes), Minsky argued, believed that finance was the engine of investment in capitalist economies, so the evolution of financial systems, motivated by profit-seeking, could explain the shifting nature of capitalism across time. From this, Minsky split capitalism into four stages: Commercial, Financial, Managerial and Money Manager. Each is characterized by what is being financed and who is doing the financing.
Commercial Capitalism
Minsky's first period correlated to Merchant Capitalism. In this period, banks use their privileged knowledge of distant banks and local merchants to gain a profit. They issued bills for commodities, essentially creating credit for the merchants and a corresponding liability to themselves, so in the case of unexpected losses they guaranteed to pay. When a credit contract was fulfilled, the credit was destroyed. Banks financed the inventories of merchant, but not capital stock ––this means that the primary source of profit was through trade, and not expanding production as in later periods. As Minsky explained, "commercial capitalism might well be taken to correspond to the structure of finance when production is by labor and tools, rather than by machinery and labor."
Financial Capitalism
The industrial revolution put more importance on employing machinery in production, and the non-labor costs that came with it. This required 'durable assets' and so brought about the corporation as an entity, with limited liability for investors. The main source of financing shifted from commercial banks to investment banks, especially with the proliferation of stocks and bonds in security markets. As competition between firms could lead to a decline in prices, threatening their ability to fulfill existing financial commitments, investment banks started promoting a consolidation of capital by facilitating trusts, mergers and acquisition. The Stock Market Crash of 1929 ended their dominance of the economy.
Managerial Capitalism
Relying on the profit theory of Michal Kalecki, Minsky argues that level of investment determines aggregate demand and thus the flow of profits (i.e. investment finances itself.) According to Minsky, the Keynesian deficit spending of post-depression economies guaranteed the flow of profits, and allowed for the return of firms financing themselves out of profits (something that hadn't been widespread since the first period of capitalism.) Management in firms became more independent on the investment banker and the shareholder, leading to longer time horizons in business decisions, which Minsky believed was potentially beneficial. He offsets this, however, by pointing out that firms became bureaucratized, lacking the dynamic efficiency of earlier capitalism, such that they became "prisoners of tradition." Government spending decisions shifting to underwriting consumption rather than the development of capital assets also contributed to stagnation, although stable aggregate demand meant there was an absence of depressions or recessions.
Money Manager Capitalism
Minsky argues that due to tax laws and the way markets capitalized on income, the value of equity in indebted firms was higher than conservatively financed ones. This led to a shift, as explained by Minsky, Minsky noted that the rise of money management, trading huge multi-million dollar blocks every day, led to an increase in securities and people taking financial positions to gain a profit. This positioning itself was financed by banks. Minsky noted that financial institutions had become so far removed from the financing of capital development at this point, but rather committed large cash flows to 'debt validation.'
Further economists such as Charles Whalen and Jan Toporowski have discussed Minsky's periods of capitalism. Both suggest an intermediary stage between commercial and financial capitalism, what Whalen calls "industrial capitalism" and what Toporowski calls "classic capitalism." This was characterized by the traditional capitalist-entrepreneur, the full proprietor of their firm whose was particularly focused on the expansion of production through developing capital assets. Whalen contrasts this expansion with the consolidation of capital under Financial Capitalism. Toporowski links money manager capitalism to current trends in globalization and financialization.
Views on John Maynard Keynes
In his book John Maynard Keynes (1975), Minsky criticized the neoclassical synthesis' interpretation of The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. He also put forth his own interpretation of the General Theory, one which emphasized aspects that were de-emphasized or ignored by the neoclassical synthesis, like Knightian uncertainty.
Selected publications
(2013) Ending Poverty: Jobs, Not Welfare. Levy Economic Institute, New York.
(2008) [1st. Pub. 1975]. John Maynard Keynes. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York.
(2008) [1st. Pub. 1986]. Stabilizing an Unstable Economy. McGraw-Hill Professional, New York.
(1982) Can "It" Happen Again?. M.E. Sharpe, Armonk.
(Winter 1981–82) "The breakdown of the 1960s policy synthesis". New York: Telos Press. Archived at Hyman P. Minsky Archive. 166.
See also
2008–2009 Keynesian resurgence
Rudolf Hilferding, whose writings on 'Finance Capitalism' anticipated Minsky's elaboration on Financial Capitalism
References
Further reading
Robert Barbera (2009). The Cost of Capitalism. McGraw-Hill Professional.
George Cooper (2008). The Origin of Financial Crises: Central Banks, Credit Bubbles, and the Efficient Market Fallacy. Vintage; 1st Edition.
Gary Dymski, Gerald Epstein, Robert Pollin (1993). Transforming the U.S. Financial System: An Equitable and Efficient Structure for the 21st Century (Economic Policy Institute). Routledge.
Steven M. Fazzari, Dimitri B. Papadimitriou (1992). Financial Conditions and Macroeconomic Performance: Essays in Honor of Hyman P.Minsky. Routledge.
Jannatul Islam (2014). Hyman P. Minsky Hypothesis to Evaluate Credit Crunch. LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing.
Robert Pollin, Gary Dymski (1994). New Perspectives in Monetary Macroeconomics: Explorations in the Tradition of Hyman P. Minsky. University of Michigan Press.
Jan Toporowski, Daniela Tavasci (2010). Minsky, Crisis and Development. Palgrave Macmillan.
L. Randall Wray (2015). Why Minsky Matters: An Introduction to the Work of a Maverick Economist. Princeton University Press.
External links
Hyman Philip Minsky, Distinguished Scholar, The Levy Economics Institute of Bard College, Blithewood, Bard College, Annandale-on-Hudson, New York
Marc Schnyder: Die Hypothese finanzieller Instabilität von Hyman P. Minsky Thesis, University of Fribourg, Switzerland, (German)
In Time of Tumult, Obscure Economist Gains Currency
John Cassidy, 'The Minsky Moment', The New Yorker, 4 February 2008.
Minsky Archive
(Available only to subscribers). Stephen Mihm "Why Capitalism fails," boston.com (September 13, 2009).
Optimistic for a more humane economy
'The Fed discovers Hyman Minsky', The Economist, 7 Jan 2010.
Thomas I. Palley, "The Limits of Minsky's Financial Instability Hypothesis as an Explanation of the Crisis," Monthly Review, Volume 61, Issue 11 (April 2010).
Thomas I. Palley, "A Theory of Minsky Super-Cycles and Financial Crises," Contributions to Political Economy, 30 (1), 31 – 46.
1919 births
1996 deaths
George Washington Educational Campus alumni
People from Chicago
Economists from Illinois
Post-Keynesian economists
Harvard University alumni
University of Chicago alumni
Washington University in St. Louis faculty
American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent
20th-century American economists
Brown University faculty
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cindy%20McCain
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Cindy McCain
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Cindy Lou McCain (; born May 20, 1954) is an American diplomat, businesswoman, and humanitarian who is the executive director of the World Food Programme. McCain previously served as U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture from 2021 to 2023. She is the widow of U.S. Senator John McCain from Arizona, who was the 2008 Republican presidential nominee.
McCain was born and raised in Phoenix, Arizona, and is a daughter of wealthy beer distributor Jim Hensley. After receiving bachelor's and master's degrees from the University of Southern California, she became a special education teacher. She married John McCain in 1980, and the couple moved to Arizona in 1981, where her husband was elected to the United States Congress the following year and reelected five more times. The couple had three children together, in addition to adopting another. From 1988 to 1995, she founded and operated a nonprofit organization, the American Voluntary Medical Team, which organized trips by medical personnel to disaster-stricken or war-torn third-world areas.
Upon her father's death in 2000, she inherited majority control and became chair of Hensley & Co., one of the largest Anheuser-Busch beer distributors in the United States. She participated in both of her husband's presidential campaigns and, in 2008, drew both positive and negative scrutiny for her appearance, demeanor, wealth, spending habits, and financial obligations. She continued to be an active philanthropist and served on the boards of Operation Smile, Eastern Congo Initiative, CARE, and HALO Trust, frequently making overseas trips in conjunction with their activities. During the 2010s, she became prominent in the fight against human trafficking. From 2017 until his death the following year, she dealt with her husband's battle against glioblastoma.
McCain has remained visible in public life since then. She made a cross-party endorsement of Joe Biden in the 2020 United States presidential election. She was nominated to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture ambassadorship by President Biden in June 2021 and confirmed by the Senate in October 2021. Much of her tenure in that position focused on dealing with the 2022–2023 food crises largely caused by the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine and the effects of climate change on agriculture.
Early life and education
Cindy Lou Hensley was born in Phoenix, Arizona, to James Hensley, who founded Hensley & Co., and Marguerite "Smitty" Hensley (née Johnson). She has described her mother as being very much from Southern culture, while her father reflected the Western lifestyle. She was raised as the only child of her parents' second marriages and grew up on Phoenix's North Central Avenue in affluent circumstances. Dixie Lea Burd (d. 2008), daughter of Marguerite Smith through a prior relationship, was her half-sister, as was Kathleen Hensley Portalski (d. 2017), daughter of Jim Hensley and his first wife, Mary Jeanne Parks. Cindy Hensley was named Junior Rodeo Queen of Arizona in 1968. She went to Central High School in Phoenix, where she was named Best Dressed as a senior and graduated in 1972.
Hensley enrolled at the University of Southern California. She joined Kappa Alpha Theta sorority as a freshman, and had many leadership roles in the house during her four years there. Hensley graduated as a Bachelor of Arts in education in 1976. She continued on at USC, and received a Master of Arts degree in special education in 1978. There she participated in a movement therapy pilot program that led the way to a standard treatment for children with severe disabilities; she published the work Movement Therapy: A Possible Approach in 1978. Declining a role in the family business, she worked for a year as a special education teacher of children with Down syndrome and other disabilities at Agua Fria High School in Avondale, Arizona.
Marriage and family
Hensley met John McCain in April 1979 at a military reception in Honolulu, Hawaii. He was the U.S. Navy liaison officer to the United States Senate, and was accompanying a group of senators heading for China. She was in Hawaii on a family vacation with her parents. Hensley was talking to Jill Biden, the wife of Senator Joe Biden, who suggested that she talk to McCain; her father made the introduction. He was almost 18 years her senior; by her later description, each fudged the age they said they were to the other: "He made himself younger, and I made myself older, of course."
He had been married to Carol McCain for 14 years and they had three children (two of whom he adopted from her first marriage).
McCain and Hensley quickly began a relationship, traveling between Arizona and Washington to see each other. John McCain then pushed to end his marriage and the couple stopped cohabiting in January 1980, Carol McCain consented to a divorce in February 1980, it was finalized in April 1980.
Hensley and McCain were married on May 17, 1980, at the Arizona Biltmore Hotel in Phoenix. They signed a prenuptial agreement that kept most of her family's assets under her name; they kept their finances apart and filed separate income tax returns.
Her father's business and political contacts helped her new husband to gain a foothold in Arizona politics. She campaigned with her husband door to door during his successful first bid for U.S. Congress in 1982, and was heavily involved in campaign strategy. Her wealth from an expired trust from her parents provided significant loans to the campaign and helped it survive a period of early debt.
Once her husband was elected, the McCains moved to Alexandria, Virginia. She spent two months in late 1983 writing handwritten notes on over 4,000 Christmas cards to be sent to constituents and others. She was considered an outsider who was snubbed by the Washington congressional social scene, in part because Carol McCain was a popular figure in town, and she grew homesick for Arizona. She had several miscarriages.
She moved back to Arizona in early 1984 and gave birth to the couple's daughter Meghan later that year. She subsequently gave birth to sons John Sidney IV (known as "Jack") in 1986 and James (known as "Jimmy") in 1988. Their fourth child, Bridget, was adopted in 1991. McCain's parents lived across the street and helped her raise the children; her husband was frequently in Washington and she typically only saw him on weekends and holidays. In his absence, she organized elaborate fund-raisers for him and expanded their home.
In April 1986, McCain and her father invested $359,100 in a shopping center project with Phoenix banker Charles Keating. This, combined with her role as a bookkeeper who later had difficulty finding receipts for family trips on Keating's jet, caused complications for her husband during the Keating Five scandal, when he was being examined for his role regarding oversight of Keating's bank.
American Voluntary Medical Team
Founding and mission
In 1988, inspired by a vacation that she took four years earlier to substandard medical facilities on Truk Lagoon, McCain founded the American Voluntary Medical Team (AVMT). It was a non-profit organization that organized trips for doctors, nurses and other medical personnel to provide MASH-like emergency medical care to disaster-struck or war-torn developing countries such as Micronesia, Vietnam (before relations were normalized between them and the U.S.), Kuwait (arriving five days after the conclusion of the Gulf War), Zaire (to help refugees from the Rwandan genocide), Iraq, Nicaragua, India, Bangladesh, and El Salvador. She led 55 of these missions over the next seven years, each of which were at least two weeks in duration. AVMT also supplied treatment to poor sick children around the world. In 1993, McCain and the AVMT were honored with an award from Food for the Hungry.
Adoption
In 1991, the AVMT went to Dhaka, Bangladesh, to provide assistance following the 1991 Bangladesh cyclone. While at Mother Teresa's Dhaka orphanage, the Sisters of Charity of Mother Teresa Children's Home, McCain met two infant girls she felt needed to be brought to the United States for medical treatment. She decided to adopt one of the girls, later named Bridget, with her husband readily agreeing; the adoption became final in 1993. She helped coordinate the adoption of the other little girl for family friend Wes Gullett.
Prescription drug addiction
In 1989, McCain developed an addiction to Percocet and Vicodin. She initially took the opioid painkillers to alleviate pain after two spinal surgeries for ruptured discs. She also used the drugs to ease emotional stress during the Keating Five scandal. The addiction progressed to where she was taking upwards of twenty pills a day, and she resorted to having an AVMT physician write illegal prescriptions in the names of three AVMT employees without their knowledge. In 1992, her parents staged an intervention to force her to get help; she told her husband about her problem and subsequently attended a drug treatment facility where she began outpatient sessions to begin recovery from drug addiction. In 1993, she underwent surgery, which resolved her back pain.
In January 1993, Tom Gosinski, an AVMT employee who had discovered her illegal drug use, was terminated on budgetary grounds. Subsequently, he tipped off the Drug Enforcement Administration about her prior actions and a federal investigation ensued. McCain's defense team, led by her husband's Keating Five lawyer John Dowd, secured an agreement with the U.S. Attorney's office for McCain, a first-time offender, which avoided charges while requiring her to pay financial restitution, enroll in a diversion program and do community service. Meanwhile, in early 1994, Gosinski filed a wrongful termination lawsuit against McCain, in which he alleged she ordered him to conceal "improper acts" and "misrepresent facts in a judicial proceeding;" he told her he would settle for $250,000. In response, Dowd characterized this request as blackmail, and requested Maricopa County attorney Rick Romley to investigate Gosinski for extortion. In the end, Gosinski's credibility was undermined by testimony in Romley's report from other charity staffers who asserted Gosinski privately vowed to blackmail McCain were he ever fired, and both Gosinski's lawsuit and the extortion investigation against him were dropped.
Before prosecutors were able to publicly disclose her addiction to pain medication, McCain preemptively revealed the story to reporters, stating that she was doing so willingly: "Although my conduct did not result in compromising any missions of AVMT, my actions were wrong, and I regret them ... if what I say can help just one person to face the problem, it's worthwhile."
Aftermath
AVMT concluded its activities in 1995 in the wake of the McCain prescription narcotics controversy. That year, McCain founded a new organization, the Hensley Family Foundation, which donates funds to children's programs nationally as well as in Arizona. She was largely a stay-at-home mom during the balance of the 1990s. She also held positions as vice president, director, and vice chair of Hensley & Co. In the mid-1990s, she began suffering from severe migraine headaches, for a while keeping them secret from her husband and minimizing their effect to the rest of her family. The condition frequently resulted in visits to an emergency room. Her attacks were caused by many different migraine triggers and she tried many different treatments.
Role in 2000 presidential campaign
Although wary of the media and still having no love for the political world, McCain was active in her husband's eventually unsuccessful campaign for President of the United States in 2000. She mostly provided good cheer, without discussing her opinions about national policy. She impressed Republican voters with her elegance at coffee shops and other small campaign settings, where she frequently referred to her children, carpooling and charity work.
McCain was upset by the notorious smear tactics against her husband in the South Carolina primary that year. These included allegations involving her adopted daughter Bridget that she found "despicable", as well as insinuations that McCain herself was currently a drug addict. Though deeply wounded by the attacks for a long time, McCain eventually forgave those responsible. She was chosen as the chair of the Arizona delegation to the 2000 Republican National Convention.
Between presidential campaigns
In 2000, she became chair of the now $300 million-a-year Hensley & Co. following her father's death. It is one of the largest Anheuser-Busch beer distributors in the United States. Together, McCain, her children, and one of John McCain's children from his first marriage own 68 percent of the company. As chair, her role takes the form of consultations with the company CEO on major initiatives such as new products, new plants or employee welfare, rather than that of an active physical presence. She does not have operational control of Hensley, and Anheuser-Busch considers her to be an absentee owner. By 2007, she had an annual income of over $400,000 from Hensley and an estimated net worth of $100 million. She also owned at least $2.7 million worth of shares of Anheuser-Busch stock. With her children, she owns a minority stake in the Arizona Diamondbacks baseball team.
McCain became actively involved with Operation Smile in 2001, taking parts in its medical missions to Morocco, Vietnam and India. She was honored by the organization in 2005 and sits on its board of directors.
McCain joined the board of directors of CARE in 2005. She is on the board of the HALO Trust, and has visited operations to remove landmines in Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Mozambique, and Angola. She makes financial contributions to these organizations via her family trust and views her role as watching them in the field to ensure they are frugal and their money is being spent effectively. On occasion she has criticized foreign regimes on human rights grounds, such as Myanmar's military junta.
In April 2004, McCain had a near-fatal stroke caused by high blood pressure, although she was still able to attend some events. After several months of physical therapy to overcome leg and arm limitations, she made a mostly full recovery, although she still had some short-term memory loss and difficulties in writing. She owns a home in Coronado, California, next to the Hotel del Coronado; her family had vacationed in Coronado growing up, and she has gone there for recuperation and family get-togethers. She or her family own other residential and commercial real estate in California, Arizona and Virginia and, including rental properties, McCain herself owns ten homes and part of three office complexes. She is an amateur pilot and race car driver.
Role in 2008 presidential campaign
She was active and visible in her husband's second presidential campaign during 2007 and 2008, despite not wanting her husband to run initially due to bad memories of their 2000 experience and worries the effect on her children, especially son Jimmy who was headed to serve in the Iraq War. She eventually supported her husband in his goals, but defined her own campaign roles; she frequently returned to Arizona to attend to domestic duties or interrupted campaigning for her overseas charitable work. She preferred to travel with her husband and introduce him rather than act as a campaign surrogate with a separate schedule. She wore her hair in a fashionable but severe style and was sometimes seen with an unsmiling countenance in her appearances. In August 2008, a member of the public shook her hand very vigorously, aggravating her existing carpal tunnel syndrome condition and causing her to slightly sprain her wrist. The campaign exacerbated her migraine headaches and she sometimes had to wear dark glasses to shield herself from bright lights. The pressures of the campaign also brought out a range of behaviors between her and her husband, varying from moments of great tenderness and concern to raging arguments that dismayed their staffs.
McCain stated that the American public wanted a First Lady of the United States who would tend toward a traditional role in that position. She would not attend Cabinet meetings, but would continue her involvement in overseas non-profit organizations and would urge Americans to do the same globally or locally. She envisioned herself as a possible figurehead for humanitarian work, along the lines of Diana, Princess of Wales. She continued to expand her roles in such organizations, joining in April 2008 the board of Grateful Nation Montana, which provides scholarships and services to the children of Montana service personnel killed in Iraq and Afghanistan.
She made statements critical of the Bush administration for not deploying enough troops during the Iraq War. Her close examination of the financial books of the McCain campaign during the first part of 2007 convinced the candidate that its profligate spending could not go on and led to the drastic mid-year reduction of the campaign's staff and scope. In February 2008, McCain made news by being critical of Michelle Obama, the wife of Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama, who had said, "And let me tell you something: For the first time in my adult lifetime I am really proud of my country." McCain, who was genuinely offended by the remark, replied: "I am proud of my country. I don't know about you—if you heard those words earlier—I am very proud of my country." Also in February 2008, she publicly appeared beside her husband during a press conference in response to a newspaper report regarding his connection to a lobbyist.
McCain faced media scrutiny about her wealth, spending habits, and financial obligations. She initially declined to release her separate income tax returns, saying that it was a privacy issue and she would not release the returns even if she became First Lady She later released the first two pages of her 2006 return, which showed $6 million in income for that year (including nearly $570,000 in itemized deductions and more than $1.7 million paid in federal income taxes). The campaign said that any decisions about how to handle her role in Hensley & Co. if she became First Lady would not be made until that time. While she stood to gain a considerable profit from the agreed-upon acquisition of Anheuser-Busch by the Belgian company InBev, she was initially under some political pressure to help oppose the deal and keep Anheuser-Busch under American ownership.
In June 2008, a Rasmussen Reports poll found that 49 percent of voters viewed McCain favorably and 29 percent unfavorably, while an ABC News/The Washington Post poll found figures of 39 percent and 25 percent respectively. Her style and fashion sense was the subject of much media scrutiny. McCain was compared to former first lady Nancy Reagan, due to both her style and wardrobe as well as her demeanor. Early in the campaign, some recipes attributed to McCain turned out to be copied from other sources; the campaign attributed the problem to an error by an intern.
McCain spoke on both the opening and final nights of the early September 2008 Republican National Convention. On the first night, truncated due to national attention regarding Hurricane Gustav, she appeared with First Lady Laura Bush to deliver short remarks encouraging support for hurricane relief efforts along the Gulf Coast, and on the last night, she introduced the seven McCain children and spoke about how her husband's love for his country had been passed on to them. In October 2008, she increased the intensity of her public remarks against Obama's candidacy, speaking with surprising vitriol in accusing the Obama campaign of being the dirtiest in history and saying of his position against a war-funding bill, "The day that Senator Obama cast a vote not to fund my son when he was serving sent a cold chill through my body." The stresses of the campaign caused the McCain's weight to fall under . On November 4, 2008, she fought back tears in an appearance as the McCain campaign reached its final day and subsequent loss to Obama.
Subsequent activities
After the election, McCain was approached about appearing on Dancing with the Stars. She seriously considered participating, but according to her husband, was concerned that her surgically replaced knee would not be able to withstand the rigors of the competition.
Continuing her humanitarian aid work with a January 2009 trip to Dubai, India, and Cambodia, she said that she was relieved that the campaign was over and that, while it had been "wild and nuts" at times, it had also been "a remarkable experience to be a contender for the highest office in the land." She said the ongoing global economic crisis was adversely affecting humanitarian organizations, and she expressed hope that President Obama would be successful in dealing with it.
She expressed support for LGBT rights by appearing alongside her daughter Meghan at an April 2009 convention of the Log Cabin Republicans, and posing for the NOH8 Campaign, a gay rights project opposed to California Proposition 8, a ballot measure banning same-sex marriage. The following year she appeared in another NOH8 public service announcement against bullying, and in it appeared to break with her husband's position and express support for repeal of the "Don't ask, don't tell" policy prohibiting gays from serving openly in the U.S. military. However, she subsequently tweeted that "I fully support the NOH8 campaign and all it stands for and am proud to be a part of it. But I stand by my husband's stance on DADT."
In September 2009, she spoke about her migraines publicly for the first time and decided to speak at the International Headache Congress about raising awareness for others with the condition.
During her husband's eventually successful 2010 senatorial re-election campaign, she rarely made public appearances.
McCain appeared in March 2011 alongside Eastern Congo Initiative founder Ben Affleck to testify before a panel of the House Foreign Affairs Committee on behalf of continued monetary assistance to the Democratic Republic of Congo, in an environment where the Republican-controlled House was looking to make significant cuts to foreign aid. She has noted the difficulty of getting attention to some of the topics she feels most strongly about; at a Futures Without Violence summit in 2012, she said, "When I talk about rape in Congo, people turn their backs and run, especially the men."
In late 2013 and early 2014, McCain used the occasion of Super Bowl XLVIII to highlight her concerns about sex trafficking in the United States, an issue that she had begun working on in conjunction with The McCain Institute. She campaigned for legislation to address the problem at both the federal and state levels. She also served as co-chair of the Arizona Governor Jan Brewer's Task Force on Human Trafficking.
In April 2015, during the Sedona Forum, McCain and actress Demi Moore discussed ways to end sex trafficking. Later in that year she staged appearances with Heidi Heitkamp, Democratic Senator from North Dakota, to discuss human trafficking in that state and elsewhere. She said of trafficking, "Everybody has seen it; they just didn't know what they were looking at." She praised Obama and Congress for passage of the Justice for Victims of Trafficking Act of 2015 and, together with Malika Saada Saar, executive director of the Human Rights Project for Girls, started the No Such Thing Campaign to end the use of the term "child prostitute", saying "there are only victims and survivors of child rape."
During the 2016 United States presidential election, McCain and her husband ended up not voting for the Republican nominee in the wake of the Access Hollywood controversy.
Nonetheless, following the change in administration in Washington, in May 2017 it was reported that McCain was under consideration for a prominent role at the U.S. Department of State, possibly focusing on issues related to human trafficking. In June 2017, there were further reports that after extensive recruiting by President Trump following a recommendation from Ivanka Trump, she had agreed to become an Ambassador-at-Large dealing with matters of human trafficking, refugees, and humanitarian aid. But no announcement ever came along the lines of this report.
Husband's illness and death
In July 2017, her husband was diagnosed with a glioblastoma, an aggressive brain tumor. She issued a public statement saying that, "We as a family will face the next hurdle together. One thing I do know is he is the toughest person I know. He is my hero and I love him with all my heart." Senator McCain underwent treatment, and after December 2017 no longer went to Washington, D.C., remaining in Arizona.
The severity of her husband's illness led to the possibility that he would not be able to finish his term in office and that the Governor of Arizona would have to appoint a successor until a special election could be held. There is a tradition in such situations for politically involved spouses to be named as replacements, a practice known as "widow's succession". The possibility became an issue in the 2018 Arizona gubernatorial election, where in the Republican primary contest incumbent governor Doug Ducey was trying to fend off a challenge from former Secretary of State of Arizona Ken Bennett. In May 2018, some media reports stated that Ducey was planning on naming McCain if the seat became vacant. To this, Bennett, who was seeking to capitalize on the dissatisfaction that some conservatives in the state had long had with the long-time senator, stated, "I promise I will not appoint Cindy McCain to US Senate as Gov of AZ." For his part, Ducey refused to publicly speak about the possibility.
By 2018, McCain's net worth was estimated to be at least $200 million, with most of it still due to her share of Hensley & Co. In addition the couple owned properties in Phoenix, Sedona, the San Diego area, and in Virginia, although some properties were sold off in 2017.
McCain's attitude towards President Trump took another negative turn in February 2018, following repeated public criticism by the chief executive of her husband's nay vote that had doomed the so-called "Skinny repeal" effort to dismantle Obamacare. McCain said: "I think the president fails to understand this, but more importantly, in my own – from my own feeling, we need more compassion, we need more empathy, we need more togetherness in terms of working together. We don't need more bullying, and I'm tired of it." In July 2018 McCain issued a public statement one year after her husband's initial prognosis, saying that "Though this diagnosis has brought many challenges, our hearts are nevertheless filled with gratitude" towards caregivers, colleagues, and friends.
John McCain died at age 81 on August 25, 2018. She was present at, and later expressed gratitude for, the elaborate services for her husband, which involved lying in state in the rotunda at the Arizona State Capitol, a service at the North Phoenix Baptist Church, lying in state in the United States Capitol rotunda in Washington, a service at the Washington National Cathedral, and finally burial at the United States Naval Academy Cemetery.
Once it became time, McCain reportedly indicated that she was not interested in being appointed to her husband's Senate seat, as personal participation in electoral politics did not appeal to her. As one former aide stated, "It is a mistake to understand the McCains as a political family. They're a military family first and a political family second." Nonetheless, she still wielded some influence in terms of who would be picked. On September 4, Ducey – who had by this time easily won the Republican gubernatorial primary – appointed former Arizona senator Jon Kyl to the seat, in a choice that was satisfactory to all factions within the state Republican party. McCain referred to Kyl as "a dear friend of mine and John's. It's a great tribute to John that he is prepared to go back into public service to help the state of Arizona."
Later activities
Following her husband's death, McCain moved back to her childhood neighborhood. She became chair of the McCain Institute's board of trustees. She also joined the family's #ActsofCivility campaign, with the aim of encouraging people to interact with those they disagree with.
In February 2019, she faced backlash after making claims on KTAR-FM that she saw human trafficking at Phoenix Sky Harbor International Airport. Police rejected her claims, stating that there was "no evidence of criminal conduct or child endangerment". She later apologized in a tweet and praised police officers.
She continued to be critical of the state of American politics. In September 2019, she declaimed the Republican Party as "excluding people for the wrong reasons" and said it was no longer "the party that my husband and I belonged to." In contrast, with the 2020 United States presidential election underway, she praised Democratic presidential front-runner Joe Biden and his wife Jill Biden, saying that they were good friends to her and that "Joe has been a remarkable source of inspiration, kindness and just a shoulder throughout all of this." In June 2020, McCain stated that she would not endorse Donald Trump's re-election campaign. While not explicitly endorsing Biden at the time, McCain spoke in a video segment shown at the August 2020 Democratic National Convention about the friendship between her late husband and Biden. On September 22, McCain gave her full endorsement to Biden's presidential candidacy. McCain's endorsement, and the bad relationship between Trump and her late husband, has been given as one of a number of reasons why Biden was able to narrowly win the 2020 United States presidential election in Arizona. In doing so Biden became the first Democratic presidential candidate since 1996, and only the second since 1948, to win the state.
McCain was a member of the advisory board of the Biden-Harris Transition Team, which was helping to plan for the presidential transition of Joe Biden, providing counsel on women's and children's issues. She was named to the board in September 2020, when the campaign was still underway. Nonetheless, she has said that she is still a registered Republican, intends to stay that way, and hopes that the Republican Party returns to stances that she can once again support.
In January 2021, McCain was censured by the Maricopa County Republican Party by a 4–1 margin in response to her support for Biden. In response, McCain tweeted that she would "continue to support candidates who put country over party and stand for the rule of law." Later that month, on a resolution that passed by a wide margin, McCain was censured by the Arizona Republican Party for her support of Biden and for "leftist causes such as gay marriage and growth of the administrative state". Making reference to the fact that the state party was in the habit of censuring other members deemed insufficiently conservative, including her husband several years prior, she replied, "It is a high honor to be included in a group of Arizonans who have served our state and our nation so well ... and who, like my late husband John, have been censured by the AZGOP. I'll wear this as a badge of honor."
McCain's account of her life with, and final days of, John McCain was published in April 2021. Entitled Stronger: Courage, Hope, and Humor in My Life with John McCain and published by Crown Forum, it also contained material on the struggles she faced in her own life.
United States Ambassador
McCain was seen by the Biden administration as a likely, or even a "must do", for an ambassadorship nomination. In late November 2020, the possible post of United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom was mentioned in connection to her. She responded to the notion of any potential nomination by saying, "In whatever way he sees fit, I would be proud and honored to serve".
In late May 2021, it was reported that President Biden would nominate McCain to serve as the Ambassador to the United Nations Agencies for Food and Agriculture. While McCain had a long record of work in other humanitarian activities, this was her first involvement with the issues surrounding food policy. The White House officially announced her nomination on June 23, 2021. On August 9, 2021, her nomination was sent to the United States Senate. On September 28, 2021, her confirmation hearing was held by the Senate Foreign Relations Committee; she faced largely friendly questions mixed in with personal reminiscences from the committee members regarding times spent with either McCain or her husband. The committee favorably reported her nomination on October 19, 2021. The full Senate confirmed her by voice vote on October 26, 2021.
She was sworn in as ambassador on November 5, 2021. She presented her credentials to the UN Food and Agriculture Organization on January 18, 2022, to the International Fund for Agricultural Development on January 25, 2022, and to the UN World Food Programme on January 28, 2022.
A main focus of her time as ambassador was dealing with the 2022–2023 food crises. Much of the emergency stemmed from the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, including the factor that about half of all grains delivered to the UN World Food Programme came from the Ukraine. The invasion took place shortly after her tenure began, and she was part of a group of administration officials, include U.S. Secretary of State Tony Blinken, that met regularly to discuss how to keep the emergency from destabilizing areas of the world already on the edge of famine. In late March 2022, she traveled to the Poland–Ukraine border to witness first-hand the refugee situation as well as to visit a food warehouse in Rzeszów.
In January 2023, McCain said that the crisis continued to be enormous, especially in Africa, and overall represented "the worst food crisis, the worst humanitarian crisis since World War II." She placed much of the blame on Russia, but also pointed to there still being effects on food from the COVID-19 pandemic as well as from food speculators and the effects of climate change on agriculture.
Executive Director of the World Food Programme
Cindy McCain was appointed on March 2, 2023 as the new Executive Director of the U.N. World Food Programme by United Nations Secretary-General António Guterres and Food and Agriculture Organization Director-General Qu Dongyu. McCain succeeded David Beasley, who had served six years as executive director when his term ended on April 4, 2023.
On October 22, 2023, McCain warned that the 2023 Israeli blockade of the Gaza Strip could cause a humanitarian catastrophe.
Awards and honors
McCain was inducted into the Arizona Women's Hall of Fame in 2019. She also received the 2020 Heritage Award from the Arizona Chamber of Commerce and Industry. McCain received two honorary degrees in May 2019. One was from her alma mater, USC, while the other was from George Washington University.
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1935%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1935 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1935 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 13th Grand Prix of Endurance. It took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe on 15 and 16 June 1935. The race was won by Johnny Hindmarsh and Luis Fontés in a British Lagonda, breaking the run of four consecutive Alfa Romeo victories. A record number of 58 starters included a record number of British cars, at 37, dominating the smaller classes. Another notable point of the entry was four all-female cars, and a Le Mans record of ten women competing.
A strong quartet of privateer Alfa Romeos, including previous winners Raymond Sommer, Earl Howe and Luigi Chinetti, were the favourites. Up against them for outright victory were five Bugattis, two Lagondas and a debut for French manufacturer Delahaye. Most of the race was run in poor weather with intermittent showers, though fortunately there were no serious accidents. Sommer initially had the lead for most of the first quarter of the race, until delayed by engine issues and, with his co-driver too sick to drive, he retired. The race then became a contest between the Hindmarsh/Fontés Lagonda and the Alfa Romeos charging back up the field after early delays. The big Bugatti of Roger Labric was also consistently running among them in the top-three.
Just after half-time, everything changed over the next hour, as successively Labric, Chinetti and then Howe all were forced out with engine or suspension issues. As a drizzly dawn broke, it was the Alfa of Pierre Louis-Dreyfus only a half-lap ahead of the Lagonda, and the lead continued to swap through the morning as the two cars pitted. When the Alfa lost two laps fixing a misfire late in the morning, it gave the British drivers a comfortable margin. However, with less than an hour to go, they were struck with their own engine problems. Forced to tour gently just to make the finish, Louis-Dreyfus passed them, which was mistakenly interpreted as going into the lead when, in fact, it had only got him back onto the lead lap. By the time, that error was picked up there was only ten minutes to run and Fontés made it home to win by a half-lap.
By dint of good reliability, the smaller British cars of Aston Martin and Riley had pushed into the top-five. The works Aston of Brackenbury/Martin took a fine third-place overall and won both the Index of Performance and Biennial Cup. British cars set new distance records in the 2-litre (MG), 1.5-litre (Aston Martin) and 1-litre classes (Singer). All three MGs of George Eyston's all-female team finished, virtually in formation, after running trouble-free to a careful schedule.
Regulations and organisation
To avoid controversy and argument, this year the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) introduced a mathematical formula to calculate the target distances for the Index of Performance. This formula was based on engine size, although a variation on the basic equation was used for 2-seater cars under 1.5-litres. This mainly impacted on the smaller engine cars, adding around 8-12 laps to their targets. The class-divisions remained as per the previous year, except for the over 3-litre class. An additional bracket at 4-litres was included, so creating a new engine class.
There were no significant updates or changes to the track or facilities this year. As usual, the petrol supplier alternated and this year, Shell offered four fuel choices: its regular fuel, 100% benzole, a 70/30 blend of the two and a 70/15/15 blend of the regular with benzole and ethanol. As an incentive, the French Office National des Combustibiles Liquides offered a FF10,000 bonus prize to a team who won either the Index of Performance or Biennial Cup using the ternary fuel.
Entries
A record 59 cars arrived for scrutineering at the start of the race-week – the highest for any pre-war Le Mans race. With the German Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union teams dominating Grand Prix racing, the former power-houses of Alfa Romeo and Bugatti turned to sports-car racing. Both marques were well-represented this year. Having matched Bentley the previous year with four wins apiece, Alfa Romeo was keen to go one better and become the most successful make at Le Mans. As well as the venerable La Lorraine and outrageous Duesenberg, the large-engine classes saw the arrival of new teams to challenge for outright victory: the French Delahaye and Talbot, and British Lagonda.
Building upon the growing perception that Le Mans was a “British race held in France”, British brands dominated the medium- and small-engine classes. They comprised 36 of those 44 entrants, including works entries from Austin, Riley and Singer. With the two Lagondas it was a record number of British cars. By contrast, there were only single entries from the French manufacturers aside from Bugatti who had seven cars represented. There were a total of 26 works-supported entries this year. Also of note were the ten women entered, including three all-female pairings. This is still, to date, the highest number of women competing in one Le Mans.
After one of the highest number of finishers in the previous year's race, there were sixteen cars turning up to contest the Coupe Bienniale. These included four Aston Martins, three Singers and fully six Rileys.
Note: The first number is the number of entries, the second the number who started. Using the equivalent engine-size, with supercharged engines having the x1.4 conversion factor
Over 2-litre entries
The Alfa Romeo 8C had been the premier car in the 1930s races. This year, four cars were entered by privateers, but the driver quality made them the cars to beat. Last year's winner Luigi Chinetti was paired with the Monégasque Jacques Gastaud. Raymond Sommer, another two-time winner, also had a gentleman-driver as his partner – Raymond d'Estrez Saugé. The British lord, Earl Howe (running with Brian Lewis, Baron Essendon) brought his three-year old Alfa that he ran the year before. Wealthy Parisian banker Pierre Louis-Dreyfus enticed veteran Henri Stoffel as his co-driver. After four comfortable wins in succession, Alfa Romeo were confident for their fifth win.
There was also an Alfa Romeo 6C-1750 SS entered by Guy Weisweiller. Part of a rich Parisian banking family, he raced under the pseudonym "Guy Don". Driving a 1933, late-model, version of the classic 6C, it was now tuned to put out 85 bhp from the supercharged 1774cc engine.
Bugatti's largest entry yet at Le Mans saw eight cars arrive. The two biggest were ex-works Type 50 Sports, with their mighty 5-litre supercharged engines. Racing journalist Roger Labric once again had works support, and their driver Pierre Veyron. The other was owned by the wealthy French aristocrat Charles Richer-Delavau. French film director Georges d'Arnoux had raced earlier in the decade but his was his first Le Mans. He shared a 2.3-litre Type 55 with fellow-nobleman Pierre Merlin. There were two touring models – a Type 44 and an elegant new Type 57. This had the supercharged straight-8 engine from the Type 59 Grand Prix car bored out to 3.3-litres giving 135 bhp. It was owned and entered by Franco-Brazilian Pedro Bernardo de Souza Dantas.
Three French Bugatti drivers, Max Fourny, Albert Blondeau and Bernard Chaudé had formed a new racing team. The Écurie Argo had two entries: a 2.3-litre Type 51 modified with aerodynamic bodywork over the rear suspension would be driven by Fourny and Chaudé. The other was a Type 35 chassis fitted with a supercharged 2-litre engine with similar bodywork applied. Blondeau had Paul Vallée as his co-driver. The final Bugatti was a Type 51A driven by champion boxer Louis Villeneuve. However, the 1.4 modifier put the supercharged 1.5-litre engine up against 3-litre cars.
The Fox & Nicholl racing team had raced a Lagonda in the 1929 race, and then scored a successive trio of third places with a British Talbot with works backing. Arthur Fox had renewed the deal with Lagonda even though the company had been placed in liquidation. With works support, he arrived with the new M45 Rapide. This version of the M45 tourer had a 4.5-litre Meadows straight-6 engine that put out 140 bhp. Two cars with a shorter wheelbase were entered, each fitted with a 120-litre fuel tank, improved brakes and suspension. Fox had one car for his team regular Squadron Leader Johnny Hindmarsh and new member Luis Fontés (English son of a wealthy Portuguese shipping executive), while the other had former "Bentley Boy" Dudley Benjafield alongside Sir Roland Gunter.
Delahaye had competed in some of the earliest races at the turn of the century, but had gone back to making standard saloons. But a bold change into the high end sports car market after the recession. Encouraged by wealthy heiress Lucy O'Reilly Schell to develop a car for hill-climb racing, the company set up a competition department. That, in turn, led to them entering Le Mans for the first time this year. The Type 138 Sports had a 3.2-litre engine race-tuned to give 100 bhp. Five cars were built, one for Lucy Schell and another sold to Parisian Henri Toulouse. Bringing it to Le Mans for its first race, he had pro-driver Marcel Mongin beside him.
Prince Nicholas of Romania returned for a third attempt with the big 7-litre supercharged Duesenberg. Daniel Porthault came back with his venerable 1926 Lorraine-Dietrich, on the tenth anniversary of its first victory. The 3.5-litre car was re-fitted with a lighter, modern body. His co-driver would again be Just-Émile Vernet.
Talbot returned to Le Mans after a 2-year absence, albeit in far different circumstances. The Sunbeam-Talbot-Darracq company was being broken up and Venetian émigré Anthony Lago was targeting the Parisian concern. As director at Talbot he had commissioned a new model – the T120 Baby Sport. The 3-litre engine 90 bhp straight-six engine could get the 4-seat tourer up to 150 kp/h (95 mph). One was entered by its Parisian owner, and Le Mans regular, Auguste Bodoignet.
1- to 2-litre entries
After a fantastic race the year before, and strong results elsewhere in the season, the Riley team arrived with confidence. Six new cars had been built modelled on the new Riley Sprite mechanical set-up, two of them fitted with its "12/4" 4-cylinder 1496cc engine tuned to put out 70 bhp. The lead car would be driven by Bill van der Becke with Colin Richardson. The second, entered under the name of Dorothy Champney (Victor Riley's wife), had the all-female pair of Kay Petre and Elsie Wisdom. The other four were the older Riley MPH, with its 1458cc straight-six engine. They were crewed by Riley regulars Dixon/Paul, Newsome/Maclure and Frenchmen Sébilleau/Delaroche. The sixth went to privateer Jean Trévoux for his Biennial Cup entry.
The supercharged MG Magnette had continued its success in Britain. The boosted 1087cc engine could put out 115 bhp. The works team was not present but three international privateers were entered: John Ludovic Ford and Maurice Baumer returned for a third time, and were joined by the cars of French car run by Philippe Maillard-Brune (who had recently won the Bol d'Or race three weeks earlier) and Dutchman Edmond Hertzberger. A fourth car, in George Eyston's team, did not eventuate.
Aston Martin mounted a serious assault for class and Coupe honours this year with seven entries. These were all the new Ulster model from Technical Director ”Bert” Bertelli to compete in the 1.5-litre class. As none of the works team had qualified for the Biennial Cup this year, the three works-cars were all entered privately under the drivers who had qualified: John Noël and Reggie Tongue had both run their own cars last year and their cars had regular Aston works drivers. Meanwhile, Roy Eccles had run an MG to fourth with Charles Martin. This year he stepped aside and Martin got Charles Brackenbury as his co-driver. Unusually for British cars, the works Astons were painted red this year, like the Lagondas. The works team was supported by four privateers. Maurice Falkner had acquired an ex-works Aston Martin and had won his class in the Mille Miglia this year with Tommy Clarke. The two paired up again for the French race.
Frazer Nash had started in 1922 but collapsed at the end of the decade in the financial crash. It was then taken over as AFN Limited by Harold "Aldy" Aldington, a sales manager for the company and keen amateur driver. They resumed production, building bespoke sports cars to order named after motor-racing races. In 1934, AFN took over the defunct Anzani Engineering who made the Gough engine. Two models arrived at Le Mans from British gentleman drivers. The Shelsley was named after the well-established English hill climb event. It had a 1496cc Gough engine fitted with twin Centric superchargers that could make 95 bhp and get up to a speed of 160 kp/h (100 mph). The other entry was a TT Replica which had the same engine, though normally aspirated.
The class was rounded out with a Derby L8, driven by notable female racer, Gwenda Stewart, who had worked with the Parisian Automobiles Derby company to develop the car. Just a single Amilcar arrived this year. Clément-Auguste Martin's Équipe de l’Ours team again worked with Georges Boursin. Normally in a 1.1-litre class, the 1079cc side-valve engine instead made it the smallest in class.
up to 1-litre entries
A veritable squadron of Singers turned up to defend the class win from 1934. Eight were entered, including three new works entries for the Coupe Bienniale. Mindful of the British production regulations, the new model was called the "Nine Le Mans Replica". The racing-spec engine now put out 50 bhp. Fitted with uprated suspension and a stiffened chassis, it was almost 200 kg lighter than the standard "Nine Le Mans", and could get up to 150 kp/h (95 mph). Le Mans winner and noted journalist Sammy Davis was brought in as team manager to allow Singer's racing manager, Stan Barnes, to drive. His co-driver was Alf Langley, while Stan's brother Donald again raced with journalist Tommy Wisdom, and Norman Black/Roddy Baker ran the other two cars. They were supported by three British and two French privateers running last year's Nine Le Mans model.
This year, the MG company worked with well-known speed-record champion George Eyston to prepare three all-female crews to run the Midget PA in the 1-litre class. This was no publicity stunt, as the women were all high-profile drivers with strong racing history: Scottish Margaret Allan had won races at Brooklands driving a Bentley, and was teamed up with Corinne Eaton who had entered the 1932 Le Mans for Fox & Nichol but crashed en route to the event. Australian Joan Richmond had won the 1932 inaugural Brooklands 1000 miles with Elsie Wisdom. For this event, she raced with Eva Gordon-Simpson, who had been in the Triumph rally team with Eaton and Allan. The third car was driven by Doreen Evans and Barbara Skinner. A fourth, privateer, MG was entered by Philippe Maillard-Brune's team.
At the end of 1934, the SIMCA (Société Industrielle de Mécanique et de Carrosserie Automobile) company had been set up by Fiat S.p.A. to license-manufacturer their cars in France. The predominant model was the 508 "Balilla" (known as the Simca-Fiat 6CV). Italian émigré Amadeo Gordini was one of the service agents. Inspired by the racing success of the 508 in Italy, Gordini worked with SIMCA test driver Henri Louveau to modify the 6CV for racing. They worked on the 995cc engine, boosting its power to 36 bhp, improved the transmission and chassis, while shedding weight. Gordini drove single-handed to win his class in the 24-hour Bol d'Or in May. He used the prizemoney to buy that car and entered it into this race with Carlo Nazzaro (nephew of the great Italian driver Felice Nazzaro) as his co-driver. Another standard Balilla was entered by French Bugatti woman Anne-Cécile Rose-Itier.
The end of the grid was filled by four Austins – the EK75 "Speedy" was the latest sports-version of the Austin 7 and three represented the works team for the first time, while an older EA Sports model was entered by John Carr.
Practice and Pre-Race
During practice, a stone punctured the fuel tank of Labric's Bugatti. After repairs they fitted wooden slats on the floor to stop it re-occurring during the race. The most serious incident during the lead-up happened in the last practice on Friday night. De Valence in one of the big Bugattis had his lead mechanic with him when he lost control coming out of the first corner. Cutting the corner, the car then slammed into the outside fence ripping off the front axle, throwing the two onto the track. George Delaroche, in his Riley, had just been overtaken but managed to stop without hitting the unconscious mechanic. Taken to hospital, he was in a coma for 9 days before eventually recovering. The car was a write-off and would not take the start. The weather had been poor through the week. But this boded well for the heavier British cars, negating some of the power of the dominant Alfa Romeos.
Race
Start
This year raceday started grey and drizzly, however as the cars formed up on the grid en echelon, the rain eased. The big news was that Raymond Sommer's co-driver had been taken very ill and would be unable to do much driving. Sommer had found Christian d'Auvergne among the spectators – veteran of four Le Mans in the 1920s. However, the ACO officials ruled it was too late for driver substitution, so once again, Sommer was facing a long race on his own.
At flagfall, Brian Lewis was the first car to get away, although it was still the big Duesenberg under the Champion bridge first. By the end of the first lap, the Alfa Romeos had got to the front, with Lewis leading Sommer, Chinetti, the Duesenberg and Louis-Dreyfus. After a slow start, Veyron had got the big Bugatti up to sixth, ahead of Hindmarsh's Lagonda. After close racing, Sommer took the lead on lap 3, only to pit to reconnect an errant sparkplug-cable. Then on the fifth lap, Lewis had to pit to get the distributor replaced that cost him over ten minutes and two laps. This left the order as Chinetti, Louis-Dreyfus, Veyron and Hindmarsh as the rain returned. Sommer excelled as it got wetter and had got to second place by 5pm. At the end of that first hour they had all completed 9 laps. A lap behind in 7th was the Bugatti of Viscomte Merlin, then the Aston Martins of Penn-Hughes and Martin with Van der Becke's Riley in 10th. Sommer took the lead soon afterward and then a heavy squall swept the track. Both Louis-Dreyfus and Chinetti pitted for tyres. The latter then had to pit again straight away because oil was leaking onto his rear brakes, costing two laps.
At 6.30pm, the leaders had done their mandatory 24 laps and started pitting. Sommer, facing a long drive, had a double-stint. However, at 7pm, he had put a lap on the field, having done 29 laps. Second was the Fontés Lagonda, with Labric and Stoffel not far behind. The other Lagonda was fifth (27 laps) with Prince Nicolas, and the Brackenbury Aston (leading the 1500cc class) on the same lap.
Aston Martin was running 8-9-10 ahead of the Rileys. But in a sharp rainburst, Jim Elwes aquaplaned off at the sweeping first corner, sliding backwards in the roadside fence. When he got back to the pits, the crew just hacked off the wrecked rear-end bodywork and sent him back out again. As dusk fell, in the half-light soon after 9pm, Fothringham misjudged the White House corner. Slipping off the road, the Aston Martin rolled throwing the driver out and sliding down the road. He was very lucky to be narrowly avoided by his team-mate Gardner, and Hindmarsh as the Lagonda came up to lap the two Astons. Then Sammy Newsome dumped his Riley into the sandbank at Arnage. Unfortunately, over-enthusiastic spectators helping him out got the team subsequently disqualified.
Night
By the time the rain stopped around 10pm, the Duesenberg was out with ignition failure, after running in the top-10. Then sensationally, with a comfortable lead, Sommer stopped at Mulsanne corner with fuel-flow problems. It took an hour for him to crawl his way back to the pits just on the electric starter motor. During the Alfa's ordeal, Hindmarsh was able to move the Lagonda to the front followed by Stoffel, Labric's Bugatti, Howe and Gastaud all on the same lap. After clearing the fuel-pipe, Sommer rejoined the race seven laps down. Hindmarsh then had to pit to fix his headlamps, smashed by errant stones, losing a lap. Lewis meanwhile, now back in Howe's Alfa, was driving very fast, making up his lost laps. Early into the new day, he was back into second and then into the lead not long after 1am. Likewise, Chinetti was improving quickly after his early dramas and was up to fifth. At 1.15am, Sommer came into the pits, still with recurring engine issues. Now twenty laps behind, after driving solely for 9 hours he was exhausted. Encouraged on by the partisan crowd he went back out for two more laps, but facing a hopeless situation alone with a sick car, he pulled in again and retired.
At the halfway point, in the drizzle, Howe was leading Veyron by two minutes (113 laps), a lap ahead of Louis-Dreyfus, Hindmarsh. Chinetti/Gastaud were fifth (108) and the other Lagonda of Benjafield/Gunter sixth (106). Martin/Brackenbury ran a strong 7th (105) narrowly leading the 1.5-litre class in their Aston Martin, ahead of the Sébilleau/Delaroche Riley, both comfortably out-running the MG of Maillard-Brune, leading the 2-litre class in 20th (97 laps).
Then abruptly over the course of an hour, everything changed: Three laps later Veyron's Bugatti broke its rear axle, and the suspension on Chinetti's Alfa failed. Then at 5.30, Howe had to park his Alfa Romeo with his engine wrecked by a holed piston.
In the smaller classes, the Aston Martins still held the edge over the pursuing Rileys. The Singer of Black/Baker was in a tight tussle with Maillard-Brune's other car, the supercharged MG in the 1-litre class. They had lead through the latter half of the night but were stopped at 8am with a broken starter motor – a fault that had already claimed their stablemate.
Morning
All this chaos left “Heldé” with a 1-minute, half-lap, lead over Hindmarsh, having covered 131 laps by 6am, as the murky dawn appeared. This grew when the Lagonda had to pit for several repairs. The other Lagonda had eased up into third, while the Delahaye of Toulouse/ Mongin was having a trouble-free run and was now fourth. Over the next four hours, Hindmarsh and Fontés drove hard until they were less than a minute behind again at 9am, and then took the lead around 10am. The weather had closed in again: just after 9 o'clock, Georges Delaroche spun his Riley at Arnage, while running sixth. It dug in, and rolled throwing the driver out. He then spent 45 minutes levering the car back onto it wheels, observed by spectators keeping their distance. However, the liquid had leaked out of the battery and the car would not restart. When those spectators then gave him a push-start, he was destined for disqualification. Soon after that accident, his teammate Freddie Dixon came into the pits with suspension problems. Suddenly the car burst into the flames. No-one was injured but they were out of the race.
Soon after that, Stoffel pitted the Alfa to fix a misfire and a water leak, losing seven minutes fitting new spark plugs. The other Lagonda, of Benjafield/Gunter, had got up to third until Benjafield stopped at Tertre Rouge with a mangled gearbox. He ran back to the pit, and then back again with a Lagonda mechanic, who shouted instructions as he did repairs to get it slammed into fourth. Back at the pits there was little options to repair, so they continued on driving with only top gear engaged.
The Talbot saloon had had a consistent race, though it was unable to keep up with the smaller British cars. Through attrition higher up, it was running 11th by mid-morning. However, the brakes were an issue and completely failed for Bodoignet as he cornered at Arnage, sending him up the escape road. As he reversed back onto the track, he almost collided with Stan Barnes in his class-leading Singer. Barnes swerved into the roadside ditch and thumped a concrete post, but was able to carry on. The Talbot struggled on, but at midday, it finally retired with a broken oil-pipe.
Finish and post-race
The race was winding down to a predictable finish, when Fontés pitted at 3pm, off-schedule. At the previous pit-stop, the car had not had its oil topped up. The Lagonda had a two-lap lead but had dangerously low oil pressure. Rules stipulated it was not allowed to be replenished outside the standard pit-windows, so with less than an hour to go, he gingerly left for another lap. He came back with the car running worse, but the pit-crew exhorted him to carry on, albeit cautiously. Louis-Dreyfus was driving hard, and with 20 minutes to go, the public-address loudspeaker reported he was closing in quickly on the Lagonda for the lead. The next lap he overtook Fontés and his pit-team signalled him to ease off, believing him to now be leading. However, at 3.55, the announcer admitted the mistake that the Alfa was, in fact, still 3 minutes behind on the same lap. By then it was too late to catch the ailing Lagonda and it came home for the first British win since Bentley at the start of the decade.
A fine third place overall, and winner of the Index competition, Biennial Cup and 1.5-litre class, went to the Aston Martin of Martin/Brackenbury. They were only 7 laps behind the winners, and a further clear 7 laps ahead of their rivals, the Riley of Van der Becke/Richardson. After initially challenging the Astons, their Riley had been delayed during the night but gradually had come back into contention. The Delahaye finished a lap further back after a solid debut performance, and only got overhauled by the Riley in the last hours. Next was the Alfa Romeo 6C-1750 of Weisweiller/Desvignes. They had run in the top-10 through the night and into sixth by mid-morning, where they continued on to finish, winning the 3-litre class. After its major gearbox problems, the Benjafield/Gunter Lagonda limped home in 13th. After its major gearbox problems, the Benjafield/Gunter Lagonda limped home in 13th.
From a bad run the previous year, Aston Martin were rewarded this year with six of their seven cars finishing. Philippe Maillard-Brune won the 2-litre class. His MG Magnette was the only one to finish. After running mid-field through the night, by late-morning had got into the top-10. They finished ninth after a late-race contest with Falkner and Clarke's privateer Aston Martin ended up with them less than half a lap behind. The Singer–MG battle in the 1-litre class went the way of the former, with racing manager Stan Barnes, and Alf Langley, winning by 11 laps from the SIMCA-Fiat of Anne Rose-Itier. After the duelling pair of Black/Baker and Viale/Debille had broken in the morning, they had a comfortable class-lead. After Barnes got his late-morning scare from the Talbot at Arnage, they were able to make it home without further problems and finishing 16th overall. The 5-year old BNC struggled against the more modern British cars. In what turned out to be the last outing for the model, the team covered the furthest distance yet for a BNC (by 10 laps) and just missed taking 4th in class by 5 kilometres.
Of the 28 finishers, 22 were British cars, and they took the top ten places in the Index of Performance and the top five in the Biennial Cup. All three of George Eyston's all-female teams finished (in 24th, 25th and 26th with just a lap between them), having run to a set schedule. Their only issue had been a single broken tail-light. Two of the little Austins were the last finishers, covering less than two-thirds of the distance of the winner, with the privateer John Carr beating home the works car.
A week later, the Lagonda company was rescued from receivership by Alan Good, who brought in W. O. Bentley whose own company had been bought by Rolls-Royce. They ceased production of the Rapide and Rapier. In October, Luis Fontés was involved in a fatal road-accident that killed a motorcyclist. Convicted of drink-driving, he was sentenced to three years' imprisonment and never raced again.
After twelve years and eight entries, it was the final appearance of La Lorraine. An auspicious run had netted two outright victories in the 1920s. It was also the final Le Mans for BNC (7 years), and Duesenberg and Derby (albeit from a limited time). In contrast, Anthony Lago completed the purchase of the Talbot company, and the success for Amédée Gordini convinced SIMCA to appoint him in the new year for their blooming racing program. A lot more would be heard from those two names in future races at Le Mans.
Official results
Finishers
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text.
Did not finish
Note *: [B]= car also entered in the 1935-36 Biennial Cup.
Note **: equivalent class for supercharging, with x1.4 modifier to engine capacity.
Did not start
1935 Index of performance
Note: A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Only the top-10 finishers are listed
Class winners
Statistics
Fastest Lap – F. Howe, #10 Alfa Romeo 8C-2300 LM – 5:47.9secs;
Winning Distance –
Winner's Average Speed –
References
Citations
Bibliography
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1998) Le Mans ‘The Bentley & Alfa Years 1923-1939’ Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Spurring, Quentin (2017) Le Mans 1930-39 Sherbourne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1935 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
Le Mans History – entries, results incl. photos, hourly positions. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
24h en Piste – results, chassis numbers, driver photos & hourly positions (in French). Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
Radio Le Mans – Race article and review by Charles Dressing. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 26 Jul 2022
YouTube ] – 1 minute B&W film of the race, with commentary focusing on British entries
24 Hours of Le Mans races
Le Mans
1935 in French motorsport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine%2C%20California
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Irvine, California
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Irvine () is a master-planned city in southern Orange County, California, United States, in the Los Angeles metropolitan area. The Irvine Company started developing the area in the 1960s and the city was formally incorporated on December 28, 1971. The city had a population of 307,670 at the 2020 census, it is the 63rd most populous city in the United States.
A number of corporations, particularly in the technology and semiconductor sectors, have their national or international headquarters in Irvine. Irvine is also home to several higher education institutions including the University of California, Irvine (UCI), Concordia University, Irvine Valley College, the Orange County Center of the University of Southern California (USC), and campuses of California State University, Fullerton (CSUF), University of La Verne, and Pepperdine University.
History
The Gabrieleño indigenous group inhabited Irvine about 2,000 years ago. Gaspar de Portolà, a Spanish explorer, came to the area in 1769, which led to the establishment of forts, missions and cattle herds. The King of Spain parceled out land for missions and private use.
After Mexico's independence from Spain in 1821, the Mexican government secularized the missions and assumed control of the lands. It began distributing the land to Mexican citizens who applied for grants. Three large Spanish/Mexican grants made up the land that later became the Irvine Ranch: Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana, Rancho San Joaquin and Rancho Lomas de Santiago.
In 1864, Jose Andres Sepulveda, owner of Rancho San Joaquin, sold to Benjamin and Thomas Flint, Llewellyn Bixby and James Irvine for $18,000 to resolve debts due to the Great Drought. In 1866, Irvine, Flint and Bixby acquired Rancho Lomas de Santiago for $7,000. After the Mexican-American war the land of Rancho Santiago de Santa Ana fell prey to tangled titles. In 1868, the ranch was divided among three claimants as part of a lawsuit: Flint, Bixby and Irvine. The ranches were devoted to sheep grazing. However, in 1870, tenant farming was permitted.
In 1878, James Irvine acquired his partners' interests for $150,000 ($ in dollars ). His stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Santa Ana River. James Irvine died in 1886. The ranch was inherited by his son, James Irvine II, who incorporated it into the Irvine Company. James Irvine II shifted the ranch operations to field crops, olive and citrus crops.
In 1888, the Santa Fe Railroad extended its line to Fallbrook Junction, north of San Diego, and named a station along the way after James Irvine. The town that formed around this station was named Myford, after Irvine's son, because a post office in Calaveras County already bore the family name. The town was renamed Irvine in 1914.
By 1918, of lima beans were grown on the Irvine Ranch. Two Marine Corps facilities, MCAS El Toro and MCAS Tustin, were built during World War II on ranch land sold to the government.
James Irvine II died in 1947 at the age of 80. His son, Myford, assumed the presidency of the Irvine Company. He began opening small sections of the Irvine Ranch to urban development.
The Irvine Ranch played host to the Boy Scouts of America's 1953 National Scout Jamboree. Jamboree Road, a major street which now stretches from Newport Beach to the city of Orange, was named in honor of this event. David Sills, then a young Boy Scout from Peoria, Illinois, was among the attendees at the 1953 Jamboree. Sills came back to Irvine as an adult and went on to serve four terms as the city's mayor.
Myford Irvine died in 1959. The same year, the University of California asked the Irvine Company for for a new university campus. The Irvine Company sold the requested land for $1 and later the state purchased an additional .
William Pereira, the university's consulting architect, and the Irvine Company planners drew up master plans for a city of 50,000 people surrounding the new university. The plan called for industrial, residential and recreational areas, commercial centers and greenbelts. The new community was to be named Irvine; the old agricultural town of Irvine, where the railroad station and post office were located, was renamed East Irvine. The first phases of the villages of Turtle Rock, University Park, Westpark (then called Culverdale), El Camino Real, and Walnut were completed by 1970.
On December 28, 1971, the residents of these communities voted to incorporate a substantially larger city than the one envisioned by the Pereira plan. By January 1999, Irvine had a population of 134,000 and a total area of .
In the 1970s, the mayor was Bill Vardoulis.
After the Fall of Saigon in 1975, a large influx of Vietnamese refugees settled in nearby Fountain Valley, especially in the late 1970s and throughout the 80s, forming a large percentage of Asian Americans in the city.
In late 2003, after a ten-year-long legal battle, Irvine annexed the former El Toro Marine Corps Air Station. This added of land to the city and blocked an initiative championed by Newport Beach residents to replace John Wayne Airport with a new airport at El Toro. The Orange County Great Park was developed there.
Geography
Irvine borders Tustin to the north, Santa Ana to the northwest, Lake Forest to the east and southeast, Laguna Hills and Laguna Woods to the south, Costa Mesa to the west, and Newport Beach to the southwest. Irvine also shares a small border with Orange to the north on open lands by the SR 261.
San Diego Creek, which flows northwest into Upper Newport Bay, is the primary watercourse draining the city. Its largest tributary is Peters Canyon Wash. Most of Irvine is in a broad, flat valley between Loma Ridge in the north and San Joaquin Hills in the south. In the extreme northern and southern areas, however, are several hills, plateaus and canyons.
Planned city
Los Angeles architect William Pereira and Irvine Company employee Raymond Watson designed Irvine's layout beginning in the late 1950s, which is nominally divided into townships called "villages", separated by six-lane streets. Each township contains houses of similar design, along with commercial centers, religious institutions, and schools. Commercial districts are checker-boarded in a periphery around the central townships.
Pereira originally envisioned a circular plan with numerous artificial lakes and the university in the center. When the Irvine Company refused to relinquish valuable farmland in the flat central region of the ranch for this plan, the university site was moved to the base of the southern coastal hills. The design that ended up being used was based on the shape of a necklace (with the villages strung along two parallel main streets, which terminate at University of California, Irvine (UCI), the "pendant"). Residential areas are now bordered by two commercial districts, the Irvine Business Complex to the west (part of the South Coast Plaza–John Wayne Airport edge city) and Irvine Spectrum to the east. Traces of the original circular design are still visible in the layout of the UCI campus and the two artificial lakes at the center of Woodbridge, one of the central villages.
All streets have landscaping allowances. Rights-of-way for powerlines also serve as bicycle corridors, parks, and greenbelts to tie together ecological preserves. The city irrigates the greenery with reclaimed water.
The homeowners' associations which govern some village neighborhoods exercise varying degrees of control on the appearances of homes. In more restrictive areas, houses' roofing, paint colors, and landscaping are regulated. Older parts of the Village of Northwood that were developed beginning in the early 1970s independently of the Irvine Company and does not have homeowners' associations.The more tightly regulated villages generally offer more amenities, such as members-only swimming pools, tennis courts and parks.
Homeowners in villages developed in the 1980s and later may be levied a Mello-Roos special tax, which came about in the post-Proposition 13 era.
Villages
Each of the villages was initially planned to have a distinct architectural theme.
El Camino Glen
College Park
The Colony
Columbus Grove
Cypress Village
Deerfield (mixed styles)
East Irvine
El Camino Real (Spanish/Neo-Eclectic)
Greentree
Irvine Groves
Harvard Square
Heritage Fields
Laguna Altura
Lambert Ranch
Northpark (French Country, Formal French, Italian Country, Formal Italian, Monterey and Spanish Colonial)
Northpark Square (Spanish Mission)
Northwood (Bungalow, Craftsman)
Oak Creek (mixed styles)
Old Towne Irvine
Orangetree
Orchard Hills (Rural Craftsman/Spanish/Tuscan)
Park Lane
Parkcrest
Parkside
Pavilion Park
Portola Springs (Spanish/Tuscan)
Planning Area 40 (Future Village)
Quail Hill (Spanish/Tuscan)
Racquet Club
The Ranch
Rancho San Joaquin (Shed style)
Rosegate (Spanish/Tuscan)
San Marino (Spanish/Tuscan)
Stonegate (Spanish)
Shady Canyon (Tuscan Ranch)
Turtle Ridge (Tuscan)
Turtle Rock (mixed styles)
University Hills
University Park (California Modern)
University Town Center (mixed styles)
Walnut (Prairie Style)
West Irvine (California Modern)
Westpark (Italian Riviera/Mediterranean)
The Willows
Windwood
Woodbridge (Atlantic Coast)
Woodbury (Tuscan/Spanish/French)
Woodbury East (Spanish)
Business and commercial areas
Irvine Business Complex
Irvine Spectrum (Contemporary/Moroccan)
Old Town Irvine
Climate
Late spring and early summer in Irvine is subject to the June Gloom phenomenon widespread in southern California, with overcast mornings and occasional drizzle.
Late summer and autumn are warm and mostly dry, with occasional bouts of humid weather extending from Pacific hurricanes off the west coast of Mexico.
Winters are mild, with most winters having no frost, and can be hot and dry when the Santa Ana winds blow. Irvine has a Mediterranean climate wherein precipitation occurs predominantly during the winter months. Because Irvine is close to the coast, different parts of Irvine have different microclimates; for instance, the June Gloom effect is stronger in the southern parts of Irvine, closer to the Pacific Ocean.
It can occasionally snow in the Santa Ana Mountains to the northeast of Irvine. Snow within the lower-lying parts of Irvine is very rare, but the area received three inches of snow in January 1949. A tornado touched down in Irvine in 1991, an event that happens in Orange County more generally approximately once every five years.
Demographics
2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Irvine had a population of 212,375. The population density was . The racial makeup of Irvine was 107,215 (50.5%) White, 3,718 (1.8%) African American, 355 (0.2%) Native American, 83,176 (39.2%) Asian, 334 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 5,867 (2.8%) from other races, and 11,710 (5.5%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19,621 persons (9.2%). Non-Hispanic Whites were 45.1% of the population.
The census reported that 205,819 people (96.9% of the population) lived in households, 5,968 (2.8%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 588 (0.3%) were institutionalized.
There were 78,978 households, out of which 26,693 (33.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 40,930 (51.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 7,545 (9.6%) had a female householder with no husband present, 2,978 (3.8%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 3,218 (4.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 463 (0.6%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 18,475 households (23.4%) were made up of individuals, and 4,146 (5.2%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.61. There were 51,453 families (65.1% of all households); the average family size was 3.13.
The age distribution of the population was as follows: 45,675 people (21.5%) under the age of 18, 30,384 people (14.3%) aged 18 to 24, 66,670 people (31.4%) aged 25 to 44, 51,185 people (24.1%) aged 45 to 64, and 18,461 people (8.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33.9 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.4 males.
There were 83,899 housing units at an average density of , of which 39,646 (50.2%) were owner-occupied, and 39,332 (49.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.2%. 109,846 people (51.7% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 95,973 people (45.2%) lived in rental housing units.
During 2009–2013, Irvine had a median household income of $90,585, with 12.2% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
2000
The census of 2000 found there were 143,072 people, 51,199 households, and 34,354 families in the city. The population density was , as of the census. There were 53,711 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 61.1% White, 7.4% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race, 1.5% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 29.8% Asian, 1.1% Pacific Islander, 2.5% from other races, and 4.8% from two or more races.
There were 51,199 households, out of which 36.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.8% were married couples living together, 9.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 32.9% were non-families. 22.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 5.0% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.70 persons and the average family size was 3.17.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.5% under the age of 18, 14.4% from 18 to 24, 32.3% from 25 to 44, 22.6% from 45 to 64, and 7.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 33 years. For every 100 females, there were 93.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.0 males.
According to 2007 Census Bureau estimates, the median income for a household in the city was $98,923, and the median income for a family was $111,455; these numbers make Irvine the seventh richest city in the US, among cities with population 65,000 or higher. 9.1% of the population and 5.0% of families were below the poverty line. Of the total population, 6.1% of those under the age of 18 and 5.6% of those 65 and older were living below the poverty line.
In 2006, the median gross rent paid for housing was $1,660 a month. This was the highest of any place in the United States of more than 100,000 people.
The skyrocketing high cost of housing is a major issue in Irvine and Orange County, as the city council faces pressure to approve future income-subsidized housing projects to meet the demands of working-class citizens.
Economy
Irvine's tourism information is coordinated through the Destination Irvine program run by the Chamber of Commerce. The program provides information on Irvine as a place to vacation and as a destination for meetings, events and other business initiatives. Irvine has been rated one of the top cities for start-up businesses and its strong, fast-growing economy helped place Orange County as one of the top ten fastest growing job markets.
Irvine is also used as a location for film projects. The city government grants free or low-cost filming permits and offers location information to prospective productions.
Top employers
Business
The following companies are headquartered in Irvine:
Allergan, Inc.
Alteryx
BAX Global
Blizzard Entertainment
Broadcom Corporation
CalAmp
CoreLogic
CorVel Corporation
Cylance
eMachines
Edwards Lifesciences
Epicor Software Corporation
Felt Bicycles
Ford Motor Company (West Coast design center)
Gateway, Inc.
Golden State Foods
HID
Ingram Micro
In-N-Out Burger
K2 Network
Karma Automotive
Kelley Blue Book (subsidiary of Cox Automotive)
Kofax
LA Fitness
Lifted Research Group
Maruchan, Inc. (a division of Toyo Suisan)
Meade Instruments
Masimo
MindFire, Inc
NextGen Healthcare
Obsidian Entertainment
Paragon Software Group
Panasonic Avionics Corporation
Pacific Premier Bank
Point of View, Inc.
Printronix
Quicksilver Software
Razer
Ready at Dawn
Red 5 Studios
Red Digital Cinema Camera Company
Rivian
Ruby's Diner
Skyworks Solutions
St. John
Stüssy
Super73
Superformance, LLC
Taco Bell (a division of Yum! Brands, Inc.)
The Habit Burger Grill
Tillys
Ultimate Ears
Vizio
W. Brown & Associates
Western Mutual Insurance Group
Wimberly Allison Tong & Goo (WATG)
Xumo
Yogurtland
The following international companies have their North American headquarters in Irvine:
Asics
Atlus
Bandai Namco Entertainment (American division)
Bandai Namco Holdings (American division)
BenQ Corporation
BSH Bosch und Siemens Hausgeräte GmbH
Dahua Technology
Fisher & Paykel Healthcare
Hitachi Solutions
Horiba
Kia Motors
KOG Games
Marukome
Mazda Motor Corporation
Nikken Sekkei
Samsung Electronics (IT and printing division)
Sega (American division)
Shimano
TCL Technology
Toshiba Corporation
Arts and culture
The Irvine Global Village Festival
Every October, Irvine hosts the Irvine Global Village Festival to celebrate the diversity among the citizens of Irvine and Orange County. The festival consists of exhibits from local merchants, entertainment from diverse cultures, and sampling of foods from various regions of the world. The event is held at the Orange County Great Park.
Irvine Community Television
The Irvine Community Television (ICTV) produces and broadcasts television programs on news, sports, arts, culture, safety for the Irvine community. The motto of ICTV is "For You, About You". ICTV airs on Cox Communications channel 30 and online.
Libraries
Irvine has three public libraries: Heritage Park Regional Library, University Park Library, and Katie Wheeler Library. The Heritage Library serves as the regional reference library for Central Orange County and has a strong business and art focus while the University Park Library has 95,745 books, including a substantial Chinese collection. Katie Wheeler was the granddaughter of James Irvine, and the library is a replica of the house owned by Irvine in which she grew up. Additionally, most UCI Libraries are open to the public.
Points of interest
Ayn Rand Institute
Boomers! (formerly Palace Park)
California State University Fullerton, Irvine Campus
Concordia University, Irvine
Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising, Orange County Campus
Heritage Park
Irvine Spectrum Center
Irvine Valley College
Islamic Center of Irvine
Mariners Church
Mason Park
Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial
Pao Fa Temple
Saddleback Church, Irvine Campuses
The Market Place
University of California, Irvine, Arboretum
Sports
Irvine is home to USA Water Polo, the national governing body of the sport of water polo.
Irvine is home to Orange County SC, a professional soccer team who are members of the USL Championship division. The team plays its home matches at Championship Soccer Stadium, located inside Great Park.
The California United Strikers FC of the NISA are also based in Irvine and play their home matches at CSS.
Parks and recreation
Irvine has community parks and neighborhood parks. The community parks have public facilities located on each site. Neighborhood parks provide open space and some recreational amenities within the various villages of Irvine. Northwood Community Park in particular has recently made a unique addition: The Northwood Gratitude and Honor Memorial is the first memorial in the US ever built before the wars were over. It lists the U.S. military dead from Iraq and Afghanistan, and when dedicated on November 14, 2010, listed over 5,700 names (among the 8,000 available spaces). Also uncommon in the history of war monuments, it will be updated yearly.
Community parks
Alton Athletic Park
Colonel Bill Barber Marine Corps Memorial Park
Deerfield Community Park
Harvard Athletic Park
Harvard Skatepark
Heritage Park
Hicks Canyon Park
Jeffrey Open Space Trail
Lakeview Senior Center
Las Lomas Community Park
David Sills Lower Peters Canyon Park
Northwood Community Park
Oak Creek Community Park
Portola Springs Community Park
Quail Hill Community Park
Rancho Senior Center
Turtle Rock Community Park
University Community Park
Windrow Community Park
Mike Ward Community Park
Woodbury Community Park
Neighborhood parks
Alderwood Park
Blue Gum Park
Brywood Park
Canyon Park
Carrotwood Park
Chaparral Park
Citrusglen Park
College Park
Comstock Park
Coralwood Park
Creekview Park
Discovery Park
Dovecreek Park
Flagstone Park
Hoeptner Park
Homestead Park
Knollcrest Park
Lomas Valley Park
Meadowood Park
Orchard Park
Orchard View Park
Pepperwood Park
Pinewood Park
Plaza Park
Presley Park
Racquet Club Park
Ranch Park
Ridgeview Park
San Carlo Park
San Leandro Park
San Marco Park
Settler's Park
Silkwood Park
Silverado Park
Sweet Shade Park
Sycamore Park
Tomato Springs Park
Trailwood Park
Tree Top Park
Valencia Park
Valley Oak Park
Village Park
Voyager Park
Willows Park
Woodside
Other public spaces within Irvine, not part of the city parks department, include William R. Mason Regional Park, Aldrich Park in the UC Irvine campus, and the San Joaquin Wildlife Sanctuary.
Government
Local government
Irvine is a charter city, operating under a Council/Manager form of government.
City Council
The City Council consists of the Mayor and four City Council members. The Mayor serves a two-year term and Council members serve four-year terms. The city has a two-term limit for elected officials. Elections are held every two years, on even-numbered years. During each election, two Council members and the Mayor's seat is up for consideration. The City Council appoints the City Manager, who functions as the chief administrator of the city. The City Council sets the policies for the city, and the City Manager is responsible for implementing the policies. The City Council appoints volunteers that serve on various advisory boards, commissions and committees.
According to the city's Comprehensive Annual Financial Report for FY2014–2015, as of June 30, 2015, the city has net assets of $2.59 billion. FY2014–15 revenues totaled $395.2 million, with property tax accounting for $50.7 million and sales tax accounting for $58.8 million. As of June 30, 2015, the city's governmental funds reported combined ending fund balances of $960.9 million.
City departments
The city of Irvine is served by eight departments. These departments are responsible for managing and performing all of the business of the City Hall and its services.
Support services are provided through other agencies including: Irvine Unified School District, Tustin Unified School District, Southern California Edison, Irvine Ranch Water District, and Orange County Fire Authority.
State and federal
In the California State Senate, Irvine is in . In the California State Assembly, Irvine is in .
In the United States House of Representatives, Irvine is in .
Politics
According to the Orange County Registrar of Voters, as of March 8, 2021, Irvine has 150,014 registered voters. Of those, 60,212 (40.14%) were registered Democrats, 37,510 (25.00%) were registered Republicans, and 45,913 (30.61%) have declined to state a political party/are independents.
Irvine voted for the Republican presidential candidate in every election from 1976 to 2004. Since 2008, Irvine has voted for the Democratic candidate by a comfortable margin in each presidential election. In 2020, Democratic candidate Joe Biden won 64.3% of the vote in Irvine to Republican Donald Trump's 33.6%.
Education
Primary and secondary education
Most of Irvine is located in the Irvine Unified School District (IUSD). The five high schools in IUSD are University High School, Irvine High School, Northwood High School, Woodbridge High School, and Portola High School. Arnold O. Beckman High School is located in Irvine but is administered by Tustin Unified School District. The five high schools in IUSD, as well as Beckman High School, have consistently placed in the upper range of Newsweek's list of the Top 1,300 U.S. Public High Schools. Crean Lutheran High School, a private Lutheran high school, and Tarbut V' Torah, which is a Jewish day school, are also located in Irvine.
Irvine is also home to elementary and middle schools, including two alternative, year round, open enrollment K-8 schools, Plaza Vista and Vista Verde. Parts of the north and west of the city are within the Tustin Unified School District. A very small portion of the city, near Orange County Great Park, is located within the Saddleback Valley Unified School District.
Colleges and universities
Irvine is home to the University of California, Irvine, which is the second-newest campus (established 1965) in the UC system after University of California, Merced. Other higher education institutions in Irvine include California Southern University, Concordia University, Westcliff University, Irvine Valley College, Fuller Theological Seminary, FIDM, The Fashion Institute of Design and Merchandising, Orange County Campus, Stanbridge University, and a satellite campus of California State University, Fullerton. Chapman University and Soka University of America are in nearby Orange and Aliso Viejo, respectively.
According to the 2000 United States Census, Irvine is ranked 7th nationwide, among cities with populations of at least 100,000, for having the highest percentage of people who are at least 25 years old with doctoral degrees, with 3,589 residents reporting such educational attainment.
Infrastructure
Transportation
Automotive
Streets and intersections owned by the city have trademark mahogany signage and are fiber optically linked to the city's Irvine Traffic Research and Control Center (ITRAC). Traffic cameras and ground sensors monitor the flow of traffic throughout the city and automatically adjust signal timing to line up traffic, allowing more vehicles to avoid red lights. Several major highways pass through Irvine (Interstate 5, and Interstate 405, California State Route 73, California State Route 133, California State Route 241, and California State Route 261). Major arteries through Irvine are built out widely and run in a northeasterly direction with speed limits higher than . As a result of the signal timing, wide streets, and road layout, Irvine's side streets are capable of handling a higher volume of traffic than other cities in Orange County.
In 2015, 5.0 percent of Irvine households lacked a car; this percentage decreased to 4.0 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Irvine averaged 1.83 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.
Mass transit and freight services
Bus and shuttle services
Local bus routes are operated by the Orange County Transportation Authority.
The city of Irvine has operated its own bus service called the iShuttle since 2008. Four weekday commuter shuttles serve major employers, residential areas, shopping centers, and transportation facilities. Two lines, Route A and Route B, connect the Tustin Metrolink Station to the Irvine Business Complex area. Route A provides service between the Tustin Metrolink Station and John Wayne Airport with stops along Von Karman Avenue. Route B heads along Jamboree Road before continuing through Main Street and Michelson Drive. The remaining two lines, Route C and Route D, offer connections between the Irvine Station and the Irvine Spectrum Area, which includes major employers, the Irvine Spectrum Center, and residential communities The Park and The Village. Route C follows Irvine Center Drive and ends at the Capital Group campus, while Route D serves the Irvine Spectrum Center, Kaiser Permanente – Irvine Medical Center, and Hoag Hospital Irvine.
Passenger rail
Irvine is served by commuter rail to Los Angeles, San Diego, Riverside, and San Bernardino counties at both the Irvine and Tustin stations of the Metrolink Orange County Line and the Inland Empire–Orange County Line. OCTA is currently implementing a major service increase on the Orange County line, with trains approximately every 30 minutes during weekday commuting hours. Amtrak trains run approximately every 60 to 90 minutes all days of the week along the Pacific Surfliner route between San Diego and Los Angeles. Amtrak trains stop only at Irvine station, unlike Metrolink, which stops at both Irvine and Tustin station. Rail2Rail monthly passes allow commuters to use both Metrolink and Amtrak services, standard tickets are specific to a single operator. A four-story parking structure is at the Irvine station.
Freight rail
A major contributing factor to the growth of Irvine was by freight rail provided by ATSF (now BNSF) Transportation. The Venta Spur was Irvine's first spur. Built in the 1920s, it moved citrus from three processing plants in what is now Northwood to the rest of the country. The processing plants were essentially Irvine's first and biggest employers of the time.
The plants started to go out of business in the 1970s and the spur was abandoned in 1985. In 1999, following its donation to the city of Irvine, it was turned into the Venta Spur bike trail.
The Irvine Industrial Spur is the second railroad spur in Irvine. It serves various industries in Irvine's Business Complex. It currently sees little to no movement and the Irvine planning department is considering turning it into a bike path.
Bikeways
Irvine offers a system of bicycle lanes and trails to encourage the use of bikes as a means of transportation. There are of off-road bicycle trails and of on-road bicycle lanes in Irvine.
Emergency services
Irvine contracts with the County of Orange for fire and medical services. Fire protection in Irvine is provided by the Orange County Fire Authority with ambulance service by Falk Ambulance. Law enforcement is provided by the Irvine Police Department (IPD). The IPD operates in a suburban city rated as having one of the lowest violent crime rates among cities with over 100,000 inhabitants by the FBI every year since 2005. The University of California Police Department also has jurisdiction – including arrest power – in areas of the city near the UC Irvine campus, while the California State University Police Department has similar jurisdiction in areas of the city near the CSU Fullerton Irvine campus. Irvine Valley College also maintains its own on campus police department.
Notable people
Sister cities
Irvine has four sister cities:
Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Taoyuan District, Taoyuan City, Taiwan
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Seocho-gu, Seoul, South Korea
In popular culture
According to the Internet Movie Database (IMDb), the following productions were partially or entirely filmed in Irvine:
References
External links
Archival collections
Guide to the East Irvine Historic Resources Documentation Photographs, 1988. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
Guide to the George Leidal Collection on the City of Irvine. Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.
Other
Cities in Orange County, California
Planned communities in the United States
Populated places established in 1971
Incorporated cities and towns in California
1971 establishments in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lang%27s%20Fairy%20Books
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Lang's Fairy Books
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The Langs' Fairy Books are a series of 25 collections of true and fictional stories for children published between 1889 and 1913 by Andrew Lang and his wife, Leonora Blanche Alleyne. The best known books of the series are the 12 collections of fairy tales also known as Andrew Lang's "Coloured" Fairy Books or Andrew Lang's Fairy Books of Many Colors. In all, the volumes feature 798 stories, besides the 153 poems in The Blue Poetry Book.
Leonora Blanche Alleyne (1851–1933) was an English author, editor, and translator. Known to her family and friends as Nora, she assumed editorial control of the series in the 1890s, while her husband, Andrew Lang (1844–1912), a Scots poet, novelist, and literary critic, edited the series and wrote prefaces for its entire run.
According to Anita Silvey, "The irony of Lang's life and work is that although he wrote for a profession—literary criticism; fiction; poems; books and articles on anthropology, mythology, history, and travel ... he is best recognized for the works he did not write."
The authorship and translation of the Coloured Fairy Books is often and incorrectly attributed to Andrew Lang alone. Nora is not named on the front cover or spines of any of the Coloured Fairy Books, which all tout Andrew as their editor. However, as Andrew acknowledges in a preface to The Lilac Fairy Book (1910), "The fairy books have been almost wholly the work of Mrs. Lang, who has translated and adapted them from the French, German, Portuguese, Italian, Spanish, Catalan, and other languages."
The 12 Coloured Fairy Books were illustrated by Henry Justice Ford, with credit for the first two volumes shared by G. P. Jacomb-Hood and Lancelot Speed, respectively. A. Wallis Mills also contributed some illustrations.
The Fairy Books
Origin and influence
The best-known volumes of the series are the 12 Fairy Books, each of which is distinguished by its own color. The Langs did not collect any fairy tales from oral primary sources, yet only they and Madame d'Aulnoy (1651–1705) have collected tales from such a large variety of sources. These collections have been immensely influential; the Langs gave many of the tales their first appearance in English. Andrew selected the tales for the first four books, while Nora took over the series thereafter. She and other translators did a large portion of the translating and retelling of the actual stories.
Lang's urge to gather and publish fairy tales was rooted in his own experience with the folk and fairy tales of his home territory along the Anglo-Scottish border. British fairy tale collections were rare at the time; Dinah Craik's The Fairy Book (1869) was a lonely precedent. According to Roger Lancelyn Green, Lang "was fighting against the critics and educationists of the day" who judged the traditional tales' "unreality, brutality, and escapism to be harmful for young readers, while holding that such stories were beneath the serious consideration of those of mature age". Over a generation, Lang's books worked a revolution in this public perception.
The series was immensely popular, helped by Lang's reputation as a folklorist and by the packaging device of the uniform books. The series proved of great influence in children's literature, increasing the popularity of fairy tales over tales of real life. It inspired such imitators as English Fairy Tales (1890) and More English Fairy Tales (1894) by Joseph Jacobs. Other followers included the American The Oak-Tree Fairy Book (1905), The Elm-Tree Fairy Book (1909), and The Fir-Tree Fairy Book (1912) series edited by Clifton Johnson, and the collections of Kate Douglas Wiggin and Nora Archibald Smith.
Sources
Some of Lang's collected stories were included without any attribution at all (e.g., "The Blue Mountains"), and the rest are listed with brief notes. The sources can be tracked down when given as "Grimm" or "Madame d'Aulnoy" or attributed to a specific collection, but other notes are less helpful. For instance, "The Wonderful Birch" is listed only as "from the Russo-Karelian". Lang repeatedly explained in the prefaces that the tales which he told were all old and not his, and that he found new fairy tales no match for them:
But the three hundred and sixty-five authors who try to write new fairy tales are very tiresome. They always begin with a little boy or girl who goes out and meets the fairies of polyanthuses and gardenias and apple blossoms: "Flowers and fruits, and other winged things". These fairies try to be funny, and fail; or they try to preach, and succeed. Real fairies never preach or talk slang. At the end, the little boy or girl wakes up and finds that he has been dreaming.
Such are the new fairy stories. May we be preserved from all the sort of them!
The collections were specifically intended for children and were bowdlerised, as Lang explained in his prefaces. J. R. R. Tolkien stated in his essay "On Fairy-Stories" (1939) that he appreciated the collections but objected to his editing the stories for children. He also criticized Lang for including stories without magical elements in them, with "The Heart of a Monkey" given as an example, where the monkey claims that his heart is outside his body, unlike "The Giant Who Had No Heart in His Body" or other similar stories. However, many fairy tale collectors include tales with no strictly marvelous elements.
Books
The Blue Fairy Book (1889)
The first edition consisted of 5,000 copies, which sold for 6 shillings each. The book assembled a wide range of tales, with seven from the Brothers Grimm, five from Madame d'Aulnoy, three from the Arabian Nights, and four Norwegian fairytales, among other sources. The Blue Fairy Book was the first volume in the series, and so it contains some of the best known tales, taken from a variety of sources.
"The Bronze Ring"
"Prince Hyacinth and the Dear Little Princess"
"East of the Sun and West of the Moon"
"The Yellow Dwarf"
"Little Red Riding Hood"
"The Sleeping Beauty in the Wood"
"Cinderella or the Little Glass Slipper"
"Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp"
"The Tale of a Youth Who Set Out to Learn What Fear Was"
"Rumpelstiltskin"
"Beauty and the Beast"
"The Master Maid"
"Why the Sea Is Salt"
"The Master Cat or Puss in Boots"
"Felicia and the Pot of Pinks"
"The White Cat"
"The Water-lily. The Gold-spinners"
"The Terrible Head"
"The Story of Pretty Goldilocks"
"The History of Whittington"
"The Wonderful Sheep"
"Little Thumb"
"The Forty Thieves"
"Hansel and Gretel"
"Snow-White and Rose-Red"
"The Goose-girl"
"Toads and Diamonds"
"Prince Darling"
"Blue Beard"
"Trusty John"
"The Brave Little Tailor"
"A Voyage to Lilliput"
"The Princess on the Glass Hill"
"The Story of Prince Ahmed and the Fairy Paribanou"
"The History of Jack the Giant-killer"
"The Black Bull of Norroway"
"The Red Etin"
The Red Fairy Book (1890)
The Red Fairy Book appeared at Christmas 1890 in a first printing of 10,000 copies. Sources include French, Russian, Danish, and Romanian tales as well as Norse mythology.
"The Twelve Dancing Princesses"
"The Princess Mayblossom"
"Soria Moria Castle"
"The Death of Koschei the Deathless"
"The Black Thief and Knight of the Glen"
"The Master Thief"
"Brother and Sister"
"Princess Rosette"
"The Enchanted Pig"
"The Norka"
"The Wonderful Birch"
"Jack and the Beanstalk"
"The Little Good Mouse"
"Graciosa and Percinet"
"The Three Princesses of Whiteland"
""
"The Six Sillies"
"Kari Woodengown"
"Drakestail"
"The Ratcatcher"
"The True History of Little Goldenhood"
"The Golden Branch"
"The Three Dwarfs"
"Dapplegrim"
"The Enchanted Canary"
"The Twelve Brothers"
"Rapunzel"
"The Nettle Spinner"
"Farmer Weatherbeard"
"Mother Holle"
"Minnikin"
"Bushy Bride"
"Snowdrop"
"The Golden Goose"
"The Seven Foals"
"The Marvellous Musician"
"The Story of Sigurd"
The Blue Poetry Book (1891)
Contains 153 poems by great British and American poets.
Anonymous
"A Red, Red Rose"
"Annan Water"
"Battle of Otterbourne"
"Cherry Ripe"
"The Demon Lover"
"Helen of Kirkconnel"
"Kinmont Willie"
"Lawlands of Holland"
"Lyke-Wake Dirge"
"Mary Ambree"
"Sir Hugh, or the Jew's Daughter"
"Sir Patrick Spens"
"The Twa Corbies"
"The Wife of Usher's Well"
"Willie Drowned in Yarrow"
Richard Barnfield
"The Nightingale"
William Blake
"Night"
"Nurse's Song"
"The Chimney-sweeper"
"The Lamb"
Elizabeth Barrett Browning
"To Flush, my Dog"
William Cullen Bryant
"To a Waterfowl"
John Bunyan
"The Pilgrim"
Minstrel Burn
"Leader Haughs"
Robert Burns
"Bannockburn"
"I Love my Jean"
"O, wert Thou in the Cauld Blast"
"The Banks o' Doon"
"The Farewell"
"There'll never be Peace till Jamie comes Hame"
Lord Byron
"Could Love for Ever, Run like a River"
"So, we'll go no more a Roving"
"Stanzas written on the Road between Florence and Pisa"
"The Destruction of Sennacherib"
Thomas Campbell
"Hohenlinden"
"Lord Ullin's Daughter"
"The Battle of the Baltic"
"The Last Man"
"The Soldier's Dream"
"Ye Mariners of England"
Samuel Taylor Coleridge
"Christabel"
"Kubla Khan"
"The Rime of the Ancient Mariner"
William Collins
"Ode written in MDCCXLVI"
"To Evening"
William Cowper
"Boadicea"
"Epitaph on a Hare"
"John Gilpin"
"On a Spaniel called 'Beau' Killing a Young Bird"
"The Dog and the Water-lily"
"The Poplar Field"
"The Solitude of Alexander Selkirk"
Charles Dibdin
"Tom Bowling"
Michael Drayton
"Ballad of Agincourt"
John Dryden
"Alexander's Feast; or, the Power of Music"
Jean Elliot
"The Flowers o' the Forest"
Oliver Goldsmith
"Elegy on the Death of a Mad Dog"
Thomas Gray
"Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard"
"The Bard"
Robert Herrick
"To Blossoms"
"To Daffodils"
Thomas Heywood
"Morning"
James Hogg
"A Boy's Song"
"The Skylark"
Thomas Hood
"A Lake and a Fairy Boat"
"I Remember, I Remember"
Ben Jonson
"Hymn to Diana"
John Keats
"La Belle Dame Sans Mercy"
"On First Looking into Chapman's Homer"
"Winter"
Charles Lamb
"Hester"
Mary Lamb
"The Child and the Snake"
Walter Savage Landor
"Rose Aylmer"
Lady Anne Barnard
"Auld Robin Gray"
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
"The Beleaguered City"
"The Day is Done"
"The Fire of Drift-wood"
"The Village Blacksmith"
"The Wreck of the Hesperus"
Richard Lovelace
"To Althea from Prison"
"To Lucasta, on Going to the Wars"
Thomas Babington Macaulay
"Ivry"
"The Armada"
"The Battle of Naseby"
Christopher Marlowe
"The Passionate Shepherd to his Love"
Andrew Marvell
"Song of the Emigrants in Bermuda"
"The Girl Describes her Fawn"
William Julius Mickle
"Cumnor Hall"
John Milton
"L'Allegro"
"Il Penseroso"
"Lycidas"
"On The Morning of Christ's Nativity"
Thomas Moore
"As Slow our Ship"
"The Light of Other Days"
"The Harp that once through Tara's Halls"
"The Minstrel-Boy"
Carolina Nairne
"The Land o' the Leal"
Thomas Nashe
"Spring"
Thomas Love Peacock
"War-song of Dinas Vawr"
Edgar Allan Poe
"Annabel Lee"
"The Haunted Palace"
"The Sleeper"
"The Valley of Unrest"
"To Helen"
"To One in Paradise"
"Ulalume"
Winthrop Mackworth Praed
"The Red Fisherman; or, the Devil's Decoy"
Walter Scott
"A Weary Lot is Thine, Fair Maid"
"Alice Brand"
"Allen-a-Dale"
"County Guy"
"Evening"
"Gathering Song of Donald Dhu"
"Hunting Song"
"Hymn for the Dead"
"Jock of Hazeldean"
"Lucy Ashton's Song"
"Nora's Vow"
"Proud Maisie"
"Rosabelle"
"St. Swithin's Chair"
"The Cavalier"
"The Eve of St. John"
"The Outlaw"
"The Sun upon the Weirdlaw Hill"
"Twist ye, Twine ye"
"Where Shall the Lover Rest?"
"Young Lochinvar"
William Shakespeare
"A Sea Dirge"
"Fidele"
"Orpheus with his Lute"
"Where the Bee Sucks, there Suck I"
"Who is Silvia? What is she"
"Winter"
Percy Bysshe Shelley
"Arethusa"
"To a Skylark"
"The Recollection"
James Shirley
"Death the Leveller"
Philip Sidney
"Sleep"
Robert Surtees
"Barthram's Dirge"
Charles Wolfe
"The Burial of Sir John Moore at Corunna"
"To Mary"
William Wordsworth
"I Wandered Lonely"
"Lucy Gray; or, Solitude"
"On the Departure of Sir Walter Scott"
"from Abbotsford for Naples, 1831"
"The Kitten and Falling Leaves"
"The Reverie of Poor Susan"
"The Solitary Reaper"
"To the Cuckoo"
"Two April Mornings"
"Yarrow Unvisited, 1803"
"Yarrow Visited, September 1814"
Henry Wotton
"Elizabeth of Bohemia"
The Green Fairy Book (1892)
In his Preface to this volume, Lang expressed the view that it would be "probably the last" of the collection. Their continuing popularity, however, demanded subsequent collections. In The Green Fairy Book, the third in the series, Lang has assembled stories from Spanish and Chinese traditions.
"The Blue Bird"
"The Half-Chick"
"The Story of Caliph Stork"
"The Enchanted Watch"
"Rosanella"
"Sylvain and Jocosa"
"Fairy Gifts"
"Prince Narcissus and the Princess Potentilla"
"Prince Featherhead and the Princess Celandine"
"The Three Little Pigs"
"Heart of Ice"
"The Enchanted Ring"
"The Snuff-box"
"The Golden Blackbird"
"The Little Soldier"
"The Magic Swan"
"The Dirty Shepherdess"
"The Enchanted Snake"
"The Biter Bit"
"King Kojata"
"Prince Fickle and Fair Helena"
"Puddocky"
"The Story of Hok Lee and the Dwarfs"
"The Story of the Three Bears"
"Prince Vivien and the Princess Placida"
"Little One-eye, Little Two-eyes, and Little Three-eyes"
"Jorinde and Joringel"
"Allerleirauh; or, the Many-furred Creature"
"The Twelve Huntsmen"
"Spindle, Shuttle, and Needle"
"The Crystal Coffin"
"The Three Snake-leaves"
"The Riddle"
"Jack my Hedgehog"
"The Golden Lads"
"The White Snake"
"The Story of a Clever Tailor"
"The Golden Mermaid"
"The War of the Wolf and the Fox"
"The Story of the Fisherman and his Wife"
"The Three Musicians"
"The Three Dogs"
The True Story Book (1893)
Contains 24 true stories, mainly drawn from European history.
"A Boy among the Red Indians"
"Casanova's Escape"
"Adventures on the Findhorn"
"The Story of Grace Darling"
"The 'Shannon' and the 'Chesapeake'"
"Captain Snelgrave and the Pirates"
"The Spartan Three Hundred"
"Prince Charlie's Wanderings"
"Two Great Matches"
"The Story of Kaspar Hauser"
"An Artist's Adventure"
"The Tale of Isandhlwana and Rorke's Drift"
"How Leif the Lucky found Vineland the Good"
"The Escapes of Cervantes"
"The Worthy Enterprise of John Foxe"
"Baron Trenck"
"The Adventure of John Rawlins"
"The Chevalier Johnstone's Escape from Culloden"
"The Adventures of Lord Pitsligo"
"The Escape of Caesar Borgia from the Castle of Medina del Campo"
"The Kidnapping of the Princes"
"The Conquest of Montezuma's Empire"
"Adventures of Bartholomew Portugues, a Pirate"
"The Return of the French Freebooters"
The Yellow Fairy Book (1894)
Its initial printing was 15,000 copies. The Yellow Fairy Book is a collection of tales from all over the world. It features many tales from Hans Christian Andersen.
"Cat and Mouse in Partnership"
"The Six Swans"
"The Dragon of the North"
"Story of the Emperor's New Clothes"
"The Golden Crab"
"The Iron Stove"
"The Dragon and his Grandmother"
"The Donkey Cabbage"
"The Little Green Frog"
"The Seven-headed Serpent"
"The Grateful Beasts"
"The Giants and the Herd-boy"
"The Invisible Prince"
"The Crow"
"How Six Men Travelled Through the Wide World"
"The Wizard King"
"The Nixy"
"The Glass Mountain"
"Alphege, or the Green Monkey"
"Fairer-than-a-Fairy"
"The Three Brothers"
"The Boy and the Wolves, or the Broken Promise"
"The Glass Axe"
"The Dead Wife"
"In the Land of Souls"
"The White Duck"
"The Witch and Her Servants"
"The Magic Ring"
"The Flower Queen's Daughter"
"Flying Ship"
"The Snow-daughter and the Fire-son"
"The Story of King Frost"
"The Death of the Sun-hero"
"The Witch"
"The Hazel-nut Child"
"The Story of Big Klaus and Little Klaus"
"Prince Ring"
"The Swineherd"
"How to tell a True Princess"
"The Blue Mountains"
"The Tinder-box"
"The Witch in the Stone Boat"
"Thumbelina"
"The Nightingale"
"Hermod and Hadvor"
"The Steadfast Tin-soldier"
"Blockhead Hans"
"A Story about a Darning-needle"
The Red True Story Book (1895)
Contains 30 true stories, mainly drawn from European history. Includes the life of Joan of Arc and the Jacobite uprising of 1745.
"Wilson's Last Fight"
"The Life and Death of Joan the Maid"
"How the Bass was held for King James"
"The Crowning of Ines de Castro"
"The Story of Orthon"
"How Gustavus Vasa won his Kingdom"
"Monsieur de Bayard's Duel"
"Story of Gudbrand of the Dales"
"Sir Richard Grenville"
"The Story of Molly Pitcher"
"The Voyages, Dangerous Adventures, and Imminent Escapes of Captain Richard Falconer"
"Marbot's March"
"Eylau. The Mare Lisette"
"How Marbot crossed the Danube"
"The Piteous Death of Gaston, Son of the Count of Foix"
"Rolf Stake"
"The Wreck of the 'Wager'"
"Peter Williamson"
"A Wonderful Voyage"
"The Pitcairn Islanders"
"A Relation of three years' Suffering of Robert Everard upon the Island of Assada, near Madagascar, in a voyage to India, in the year 1686"
"The Fight at Svolder Island"
"The Death of Hacon the Good"
"Prince Charlie's War"
"The Burke and Wills Exploring Expedition"
"The Story of Emund"
"The Man in White"
"The Adventures of 'The Bull of Earlstoun"
"The Story of Grisell Baillie's Sheep's Head"
"The Conquest of Peru"
The Animal Story Book (1896)
Contains 65 stories about animals. Some of them are simple accounts of how animals live in the wild. Others are stories about pets, or remarkable wild animals, or about hunting expeditions. Many are taken from Alexandre Dumas.
"'Tom': an Adventure in the Life of a Bear in Paris"
"Saï the Panther"
"The Buzzard and the Priest"
"Cowper and his Hares"
"A Rat Tale"
"Snake Stories"
"What Elephants can Do"
"The Dog of Montargis"
"How a Beaver builds his House"
"The War Horse of Alexander"
"Stories about Bears"
"Stories about Ants"
"The Taming of an Otter"
"The Story of Androcles and the Lion"
"Monsieur Dumas and his Beasts"
"The Adventures of Pyramus"
"The Story of a Weasel"
"Stories about Wolves"
"Two Highland Dogs"
"Monkey Tricks and Sally at the Zoo"
"How the Cayman was killed"
"The Story of Fido"
"Beasts Besieged"
"Mr. Gully"
"Stories from Pliny"
"The Strange History of Cagnotte"
"Still Waters Run Deep; or, the Dancing Dog"
"Theo and his Horses: Jane, Betsy, and Blanche"
"Madame Théophile and the Parrot"
"The Battle of the Mullets and the Dolphins"
"Monkey Stories"
"Eccentric Bird Builders"
"The Ship of the Desert"
"Hame, hame, hame, where I fain wad be"
"Nests for Dinner"
"Fire-eating Djijam"
"The Story of the Dog Oscar"
"Dolphins at Play"
"The Starling of Segringen"
"Grateful Dogs"
"Gazelle"
"Cockatoo Stories"
"The Otter who was reared by a Cat"
"Stories about Lions"
"Builders and Weavers"
"More Faithful than Favoured"
"Dolphins, Turtles, and Cod"
"More about Elephants"
"Bungey"
"Lions and their Ways"
"The History of Jacko I."
"Signora and Lori"
"Of the Linnet, Popinjay, or Parrot, and other Birds that can Speak"
"Patch and the Chickens"
"The Fierce Falcon"
"Mr. Bolt, the Scotch Terrier"
"A Raven's Funeral"
"A Strange Tiger"
"Halcyons and their Biographers"
"The Story of a Frog"
"The Woodpecker Tapping on the Hollow Oak Tree"
"Dogs Over the Water"
"The Capocier and his Mate"
"Owls and Marmots"
"Eagles' Nests"
The Pink Fairy Book (1897)
Forty-one Japanese, Scandinavian, and Sicilian tales.
"The Cat's Elopement"
"How the Dragon Was Tricked"
"The Goblin and the Grocer"
"The House in the Wood"
"Urashimataro and the Turtle"
"The Slaying of the Tanuki"
"The Flying Trunk"
"The Snow Man"
"The Shirt-Collar"
"The Princess in the Chest"
"The Three Brothers"
"The Snow-queen"
"The Fir-Tree"
"Hans, the Mermaid's Son"
"Peter Bull"
"The Bird 'Grip'"
"Snowflake"
"I Know What I Have Learned"
"The Cunning Shoemaker"
"The King Who Would Have a Beautiful Wife"
"Catherine and Her Destiny"
"How the Hermit Helped to Win the King's Daughter"
"The Water of Life"
"The Wounded Lion"
"The Man Without a Heart"
"The Two Brothers"
"Master and Pupil"
"The Golden Lion"
"The Sprig of Rosemary"
"The White Dove"
"The Troll's Daughter"
"Esben and the Witch"
"Princess Minon-Minette"
"Maiden Bright-eye"
"The Merry Wives"
"King Lindworm"
"The Jackal, the Dove, and the Panther"
"The Little Hare"
"The Sparrow with the Slit Tongue"
"The Story of Ciccu"
"Don Giovanni de la Fortuna"
The Arabian Nights' Entertainments (1898)
Contains 34 stories from the Arabian Nights, adapted for children. The story of Aladdin is in this volume as well as in the Blue Fairy Book.
"The Arabian Nights"
"The Story of the Merchant and the Genius"
"The Story of the First Old Man and of the Hind"
"The Story of the Second Old Man, and of the Two Black Dogs"
"The Story of the Fisherman"
"The Story of the Greek King and the Physician Douban"
"The Story of the Husband and the Parrot"
"The Story of the Vizir Who Was Punished"
"The Story of the Young King of the Black Isles"
"The Story of the Three Calendars, Sons of Kings, and of Five Ladies of Bagdad"
"The Story of the First Calendar, Son of a King"
"The Story of the Envious Man and of Him Who Was Envied"
"The Story of the Second Calendar, Son of a King"
"The Story of the Third Calendar, Son of a King"
"The Seven Voyages of Sindbad the Sailor"
"First Voyage"
"Second Voyage"
"Third Voyage"
"Fourth Voyage"
"Fifth Voyage"
"Sixth Voyage"
"Seventh and Last Voyage"
"The Little Hunchback"
"The Story of the Barber's Fifth Brother"
"The Story of the Barber's Sixth Brother"
"The Adventures of Prince Camaralzaman and the Princess Badoura"
"Noureddin and the Fair Persian"
"Aladdin and the Wonderful Lamp"
"The Adventures of Haroun-al-Raschid, Caliph of Bagdad"
"The Story of the Blind Baba-Abdalla"
"The Story of Sidi-Nouman"
"The Story of Ali Cogia, Merchant of Bagdad"
"The Enchanted Horse"
"The Story of Two Sisters Who Were Jealous of Their Younger Sister"
The Red Book of Animal Stories (1899)
Contains 46 stories about real and mythical animals. Some of them are simple accounts of how animals live in the wild. Others are stories about pets, or remarkable wild animals, or about hunting expeditions.
"The Phœnix"
"Griffins and Unicorns"
"About Ants, Amphisbænas, and Basilisks"
"Dragons"
"The Story of Beowulf, Grendel', and Grendel's Mother"
"The Story of Beowulf and the Fire Drake"
"A Fox Tale"
"An Egyptian Snake Charmer"
"An Adventure of Gérard, the Lion Hunter"
"Pumas and Jaguars in South America"
"Mathurin and Mathurine"
"Joseph: Whose proper name was Josephine"
"The Homes of the Vizcachas"
"Guanacos: Living and Dying"
"In the American Desert"
"The Story of Jacko II"
"Princess"
"The Lion and the Saint"
"The Further Adventures of 'Tom,' a Bear, in Paris"
"Recollections of a Lion Tamer"
"Sheep Farming on the Border"
"When the World was Young"
"Bats and Vampires"
"The Ugliest Beast in the World"
"The Games of Orang-Outangs, and Kees the Baboon"
"Greyhounds and their Masters"
"The Great Father, and Snakes' Ways"
"Elephant Shooting"
"Hyenas and Children"
"A Fight with a Hippopotamus"
"Kanny, the Kangaroo"
"Collies or Sheep Dogs"
"Two Big Dogs and a Little One"
"Crocodile Stories"
"Lion-Hunting and Lions"
"On the Trail of a Man-eater"
"Greyhounds and their Arab Masters"
"The Life and Death of Pincher"
"A Boar Hunt by Moonlight"
"Thieving Dogs and Horses"
"To the Memory of Squouncer"
"How Tom the Bear was born a Frenchman"
"Charley"
"Fairy Rings; and the Fairies who make them"
"How the Reindeer Live"
"The Cow and the Crocodile"
The Grey Fairy Book (1900)
Thirty-five stories, many from oral traditions, and others from French, German and Italian collections.
"Donkey Skin"
"The Goblin Pony"
"An Impossible Enchantment"
"The Story of Dschemil and Dschemila"
"Janni and the Draken"
"The Partnership of the Thief and the Liar"
"Fortunatus and his Purse"
"The Goat-faced Girl"
"What came of picking Flowers"
"The Story of Bensurdatu"
"The Magician's Horse"
"The Little Gray Man"
"Herr Lazarus and the Draken"
"The Story of the Queen of the Flowery Isles"
"Udea and her Seven Brothers"
"The White Wolf"
"Mohammed with the Magic Finger"
"Bobino"
"The Dog and the Sparrow"
"The Story of the Three Sons of Hali"
"The Story of the Fair Circassians"
"The Jackal and the Spring"
"The Bear"
"The Sunchild"
"The Daughter of Buk Ettemsuch"
"Laughing Eye and Weeping Eye, or the Limping Fox"
"The Unlooked for Prince"
"The Simpleton"
"The Street Musicians"
"The Twin Brothers"
"Cannetella"
"The Ogre"
"A Fairy's Blunder"
"Long, Broad, and Quickeye"
"Prunella"
The Violet Fairy Book (1901)
Romania, Japan, Serbia, Lithuania, Africa, Portugal, and Russia are among the sources of these 35 stories that tell of a haunted forest, chests of gold coins, a magical dog, and a man who outwits a dragon.
"A Tale Of the Tontlawald"
"The Finest Liar in the World"
"The Story of Three Wonderful Beggars"
"Schippeitaro"
"The Three Princes and their Beasts"
"The Goat's Ears of the Emperor Trojan"
"The Nine Pea-hens and the Golden Apples"
"The Lute Player"
"The Grateful Prince"
"The Child who came from an Egg"
"Stan Bolovan"
"The Two Frogs"
"The Story of a Gazelle"
"How a Fish swam in the Air and a Hare in the Water"
"Two in a Sack"
"The Envious Neighbour"
"The Fairy of the Dawn"
"The Enchanted Knife"
"Jesper Who Herded the Hares"
"The Underground Workers"
"The History of Dwarf Long Nose"
"The Nunda, Eater of People"
"The Story of Hassebu"
"The Maiden with the Wooden Helmet"
"The Monkey and the Jelly-fish"
"The Headless Dwarfs"
"The Young Man Who Would Have His Eyes Opened"
"The Boys with the Golden Stars"
"The Frog"
"The Princess Who Was Hidden Underground"
"The Girl Who Pretended to be a Boy"
"The Story of Halfman"
"The Prince Who Wanted to See the World"
"Virgilius the Sorcerer"
"Mogarzea and his Son"
The Book of Romance (1902)
Contains nineteen stories from various medieval and Renaissance romances of chivalry, adapted for children. Includes stories about King Arthur, Charlemagne, William of Orange, and Robin Hood.
"The Drawing of the Sword"
"The Questing Beast"
"The Sword Excalibur"
"The Story of Sir Balin"
"How the Round Table began"
"The Passing of Merlin"
"How Morgan Le Fay tried to kill King Arthur"
"What Beaumains asked of the King"
"The Quest of the Holy Graal"
"The Fight for the Queen"
"The Fair Maid of Astolat"
"Lancelot and Guenevere"
"The End of it All"
"The Battle of Roncevalles"
"The Pursuit of Diarmid"
"Some Adventures of William Short Nose"
"Wayland the Smith"
"The Story of Robin Hood"
"The Story of Grettir the Strong"
The Crimson Fairy Book (1903)
These 36 stories originated in Hungary, Russia, Finland, Iceland, Tunisia, the Baltic, and elsewhere.
"Lovely Ilonka"
"Lucky Luck"
"The Hairy Man"
"To Your Good Health!"
"The Story of the Seven Simons"
"The Language of Beasts"
"The Boy Who Could Keep a Secret"
"The Prince and the Dragon"
"Little Wildrose"
"Tiidu the Piper"
"Paperarello"
"The Gifts of the Magician"
"The Strong Prince"
"The Treasure Seeker"
"The Cottager and his Cat"
"The Prince Who Would Seek Immortality"
"The Stone-cutter"
"The Gold-bearded Man"
"Tritill, Litill, and the Birds"
"The Three Robes"
"The Six Hungry Beasts"
"How the Beggar Boy turned into Count Piro"
"The Rogue and the Herdsman"
"Eisenkopf"
"The Death of Abu Nowas and of his Wife"
"Motikatika"
"Niels and the Giants"
"Shepherd Paul"
"How the Wicked Tanuki was Punished"
"The Crab and the Monkey"
"The Horse Gullfaxi and the Sword Gunnfoder"
"The Story of the Sham Prince, or the Ambitious Tailor"
"The Colony of Cats"
"How to find out a True Friend"
"Clever Maria"
"The Magic Kettle"
The Brown Fairy Book (1904)
The Brown Fairy Book contains stories from the American Indians, Australian Bushmen and African Sothos, and from Persia, Lapland, Brazil, and India.
"What the Rose did to the Cypress"
"Ball-Carrier and the Bad One"
"How Ball-Carrier finished his Task"
"The Bunyip"
"Father Grumbler"
"The Story of the Yara"
"The Cunning Hare"
"The Turtle and his Bride"
"How Geirald the Coward was Punished"
"Habogi"
"How the Little Brother set Free his Big Brothers"
"The Sacred Milk of Koumongoe"
"The Wicked Wolverine"
"The Husband of the Rat's Daughter"
"The Mermaid and the Boy"
"Pivi and Kabo"
"The Elf Maiden"
"How Some Wild Animals became Tame Ones"
"Fortune and the Wood-Cutter"
"The Enchanted Head"
"The Sister of the Sun"
"The Prince and the Three Fates"
"The Fox and the Lapp"
"Kisa the Cat"
"The Lion and the Cat"
"Which was the Foolishest?"
"Asmund and Signy"
"Rübezahl"
"Story of the King who would be Stronger than Fate"
"Story of Wali Dad the Simple-hearted"
"Tale of a Tortoise and of a Mischievous Monkey"
"The Knights of the Fish"
The Red Romance Book (1905)
Contains 29 stories from various medieval and Renaissance romances of chivalry, adapted for children. Includes stories about Don Quixote, Charlemagne, Bevis of Hampton and Guy of Warwick.
"How William of Palermo was carried off by the Werwolf"
"The Disenchantment of the Werwolf"
"The Slaying of Hallgerda's Husbands"
"The Death of Gunnar"
"Njal's Burning"
"The Lady of Solace"
"Una and the Lion"
"How the Red Cross Knight slew the Dragon"
"Amys and Amyle"
"The Tale of the Cid"
"The Knight of the Sorrowful Countenance"
"The Adventure of the Two Armies who turned out to be Flocks of Sheep"
"The Adventure of the Bobbing Lights"
"The Helmet of Mambrino"
"How Don Quixote was Enchanted while guarding the Castle"
"Don Quixote's Home-coming"
"The Meeting of Huon and Oberon, King of the Fairies"
"How Oberon saved Huon"
"Havelok and Goldborough"
"Cupid and Psyche"
"Sir Bevis the Strong"
"Ogier the Dane"
"How the Ass became a Man again"
"Guy of Warwick"
"How Bradamante conquered the Wizard"
"The Ring of Bradamante"
"The Fulfilling of the Prophecy"
"The Knight of the Sun"
"How the Knight of the Sun rescued his Father"
The Orange Fairy Book (1906)
Includes 33 tales from Jutland, Rhodesia, Uganda, and various other European traditions.
"The Story of the Hero Makoma"
"The Magic Mirror"
"Story of the King who would see Paradise"
"How Isuro the Rabbit tricked Gudu"
"Ian, the Soldier's Son"
"The Fox and the Wolf"
"How Ian Direach got the Blue Falcon"
"The Ugly Duckling"
"The Two Caskets"
"The Goldsmith's Fortune"
"The Enchanted Wreath"
"The Foolish Weaver"
"The Clever Cat"
"The Story of Manus Pinkel the Thief"
"The Adventures of a Jackal"
"The Adventures of the Jackal's Eldest Son"
"The Adventures of the Younger Son of the Jackal"
"The Three Treasures of the Giants"
"The Rover of the Plain"
"The White Doe"
"The Girl-Fish"
"The Owl and the Eagle"
"The Frog and the Lion Fairy"
"The Adventures of Covan the Brown-haired"
"The Princess Bella-Flor"
"The Bird of Truth"
"The Mink and the Wolf"
"Adventures of an Indian Brave"
"How the Stalos were Tricked"
"Andras Baive"
"The White Slipper"
"The Magic Book"
The Olive Fairy Book (1907)
The Olive Fairy Book includes unusual stories from Turkey, India, Denmark, Armenia, the Sudan, and the pen of Anatole France.
"Madschun"
"The Blue Parrot"
"Geirlug The King's Daughter"
"The Story of Little King Loc"
"A Long-Bow Story"
"Jackal or Tiger?"
"The Comb and the Collar"
"The Thanksgiving of the Wazir"
"Samba the Coward"
"Kupti and Imani"
"The Strange Adventures of Little Maia"
"Diamond Cut Diamond"
"The Green Knight"
"The Five Wise Words of the Guru"
"The Golden-Headed Fish"
"Dorani"
"The Satin Surgeon"
"The Billy Goat and the King"
"The Story of Zoulvisia"
"Grasp All, Lose All"
"The Fate of the Turtle"
"The Snake Prince"
"The Prince and the Princess in the Forest"
"The Clever Weaver"
"The Boy Who Found Fear At Last"
"He Wins Who Waits"
"The Steel Cane"
"The Punishment of the Fairy Gangana"
"The Silent Princess"
The Book of Princes and Princesses (1908)
Published by Longmans as written by "Mrs. Lang"; illustrated by H. J. Ford ().
Contains 14 stories about the childhoods of European monarchs, including Napoleon, Elizabeth I, and Frederick the Great.
"Napoleon"
"His Majesty the King of Rome"
"The Princess Jeanne"
"Hacon the King"
"Mi Reina! Mi Reina!"
"Henriette the Siege Baby"
"The Red Rose"
"The White Rose"
"Richard the Fearless"
"Frederick and Wilhelmine"
"Une Reine Malheureuse"
"The 'Little Queen'"
"Two Little Girls and their Mother"
"The Troubles of the Princess Elizabeth"
The Red Book of Heroes (1909)
Published by Longmans as written by "Mrs. Lang"; illustrated by H. J. Ford ().
Contains 12 true stories about role models for children, including Hannibal, Florence Nightingale, and Saint Thomas More.
"The Lady-in-Chief"
"Prisoners and Captives"
"Hannibal"
"The Apostle of the Lepers"
"The Constant Prince"
"The Marquis of Montrose"
"A Child's Hero"
"Conscience or King"
"The Little Abbess"
"Gordon"
"The Crime of Theodosius"
"Palissy the Potter"
The Lilac Fairy Book (1910)
The Lilac Fairy Book contains stories from Portugal, Ireland, Wales, and points East and West.
"The Shifty Lad"
"The False Prince and the True"
"The Jogi's Punishment"
"The Heart of a Monkey"
"The Fairy Nurse"
"A Lost Paradise"
"How Brave Walter Hunted Wolves"
"The King of the Waterfalls"
"A French Puck"
"The Three Crowns"
"The Story of a Very Bad Boy"
"The Brown Bear of Norway"
"Little Lasse"
"Moti"
"The Enchanted Deer"
"A Fish Story"
"The Wonderful Tune"
"The Rich Brother and the Poor Brother"
"The One-Handed Girl"
"The Bones of Djulung"
"The Sea King's Gift"
"The Raspberry Worm"
"The Stones of Plouhinec"
"The Castle of Kerglas"
"The Battle of the Birds"
"The Lady of the Fountain"
"The Four Gifts"
"The Groac'h of the Isle of Lok"
"The Escape of the Mouse"
"The Believing Husbands"
"The Hoodie-Crow"
"The Brownie of the Lake"
"The Winning of Olwen"
The All Sorts of Stories Book (1911)
Published by Longmans as written by "Mrs. Lang"; illustrated by H. J. Ford.().
Contains 30 stories on a variety of subjects, including true stories, Greek myths, and stories from Alexandre Dumas, Walter Scott and Edgar Allan Poe.
"How a Boy became first a Lamb and then an Apple"
"The Battle of the White Bull"
"The Serpents' Gift"
"Meleager the Hunter"
"The Vanishing of Bathurst"
"In the Shadow of the Guillotine"
"The Flight of the King"
"The Real Robinson Crusoe"
"How the Russian Soldier was Saved"
"Marbot and the Young Cossack"
"Heracles the Dragon-Killer"
"Old Jeffery"
"The Adventures of a Prisoner"
"What became of Old Mr. Harrison?"
"Aunt Margaret's Mirror"
"The Prisoner of the Chateau d'lf"
"The Hunt for the Treasure"
"The Story of the Gold Beetle"
"Loreta Velazquez, the Military Spy"
"The Farmer's Dream"
"The Sword of D'Artagnan"
"The Bastion Saint-Gervais"
"Little General Monk"
"The Horse with Wings"
"The Prize of Jeanne Jugan"
"Unlucky John"
"How the Siamese Ambassadors reached the Cape"
"The Strange Tale of Ambrose Gwinnett"
"With the Redskins"
"The Wreck of the Drake"
The Book of Saints and Heroes (1912)
Published by Longmans as written by "Mrs. Lang"; illustrated by H. J. Ford ().
Contains 23 stories about saints. Most of these are true stories, although a few legends are also included.
"The First of the Hermits"
"The Roses from Paradise"
"The Saint with the Lion"
"Synesius, the Ostrich Hunter"
"The Struggles of St. Augustine"
"Germanus the Governor"
"Malchus the Monk"
"The Saint on the Pillar"
"The Apostle of Northumbria"
"St. Columba"
"Brendan the Sailor"
"The Charm Queller"
"Dunstan the Friend of Kings"
"St. Margaret of Scotland"
"St. Elizabeth of Hungary"
"Saint and King"
"The Preacher to the Birds"
"Richard the Bishop"
"Colette"
"The Apostle of the Japanese"
"The Servant of the Poor"
"The Founder of Hospitals"
"The Patron Saint of England"
The Strange Story Book (1913)
Published after Andrew Lang's death, with an introduction by Leonora Blanche Lang. Contains thirty-four stories on a variety of subjects, including ghost stories, Native American legends, true stories, and tales from Washington Irving.
"The Drowned Buccaneer"
"The Perplexity of Zadig"
"The Return of the Dead Wife"
"Young Amazon Snell"
"The Good Sir James"
"Rip van Winkle"
"The Wonderful Basket"
"The Escape of the Galley-slaves"
"The Beaver and the Porcupine"
"An Old-world Ghost"
"The Gentleman Highwayman"
"The Vision of the Pope"
"Growing-up-like-one-who-has-a-grandmother"
"The Handless Brigade"
"The Son of the Wolf Chief"
"Blind Jack of Knaresborough"
"Blind Jack Again"
"The Story of Djun"
"What Became of Owen Parfitt?"
"Blackskin"
"The Pets of Aurore Dupin"
"The Trials of M. Deschartres"
"Aurore at Play"
"How Aurore learned to Ride"
"Land-Otter the Indian"
"The Disinheriting of a Son"
"The Siege of Rhodes"
"The Princess of Babylon"
"The Adventures of Fire-Drill's Son"
"The Strange Story of Elizabeth Canning"
"Mrs. Veal's Ghost"
"The Chief's Daughter"
"The Boyhood of a Painter"
"The Adventures of a Spanish Nun"
References
External links
Full Andrew Lang's Fairy Books collection at One More Library
Andrew Lang collection
The Folio Society "Rainbow Fairy Books"
{https://www.sites.google.com/site/andrewlangfairybooks/home} Illustrated list of all the first editions.
Book series introduced in 1889
Collections of fairy tales
Series of children's books
Scottish children's literature
Cultural depictions of Napoleon
Cultural depictions of Napoleon II
Cultural depictions of Frederick the Great
Cultural depictions of Marie Antoinette
Cultural depictions of Elizabeth I
Cultural depictions of Henry VII of England
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20Victoria
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Australian rules football in Victoria
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Australian rules football in Victoria is the most watched and second most participated code of football. Australian rules football originated in Melbourne in the late 1850s and grew quickly to dominate the sport, which it continues to. Victoria has more than double the number of players of any other state in Australia accounting for approximately 42% of all Australian players in 2023 and continues to grow strongly. Only Soccer in Victoria has more football participants, though the code's growth in Victoria has made up much ground lost to that code over previous decades such that they have now a similar number of players. The sport is governed by AFL Victoria based in Melbourne. The national governing body, the AFL Commission is also based in Melbourne.
The national Australian Football League (AFL) grew out of the Victorian competition (the VFL, founded in 1896 and rebadged in 1990) as it expanded nationally in the 1980s (10 of 18 AFL clubs remain Victorian-based including the 4 oldest and the most successful with two thirds of all premierships). Victoria is home to the Cordner–Eggleston Cup, first contested in 1858 and the longest continuously running football competition in the world. It is home to the oldest club in the sport, the Melbourne Football Club which wrote the first rules in 1859 also is the oldest professional football club of any code in the world. It was home to the first official tournament in the sport, the Challenge Cup in 1861. It is home to the second oldest football league in Australia, the semi-professional Victorian Football Association founded in 1877 which, like the AFL has also begun to expand nationally. While Victoria in 2017 accounted for just 30% of all players worldwide, and 40% of Australian players, more than 60% of professional AFL players are recruited from the state.
The Melbourne Cricket Ground, with a capacity of 100,024 people (and has filled to over 120,000 in the past), is considered the "spiritual home" of the game, and is contracted to host the sport's largest event, the AFL Grand Final, annually until 2058 traditionally staged on the afternoon of the last Saturday in September. The state also holds regular blockbusters including the annual Anzac Day match, King's Birthday match and Dreamtime at the 'G.
The Victoria Australian rules football team has won more championships than any other state (until the introduction of State of Origin rules) winning 16 of the 19 carnivals up until 1975. Since other states were removed from contesting State of Origin, Victoria has been undefeated, having won against a combined rest of Australia team at home in both 2008 and 2020. Victorian teams have also dominated the National underage championships with two thirds of the titles since it went national in 1976. Victorian clubs have also won 10 of the 19 Championships of Australia.
Victoria has produced the most greats in the history of the game. All three of the Sport Australia Hall of Fame Australian Football legends are Victorian: Ron Barassi, Ted Whitten and Leigh Matthews. More than half of the Australian Football Hall of Fame Legends are from the state.
Victoria also holds the world record for attendance with 121,696 attending the 1970 VFL Grand Final between Carlton and Collingwood.
History
See also Origins of the Game, History of Australian rules football in Victoria (1859–1900)
Tom Wills began to devise Australian rules in Melbourne in 1858. (Although H.C.A. Harrison, Wills' cousin, was also named, much later, as an official father of the game his role does not, now, seem to have been significant at this very early stage.) A letter by Wills was published in Bell's Life in Victoria & Sporting Chronicle on 10 July 1858, calling for a "foot-ball club" with a "code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during winter. A match, played at the Richmond Paddock (later known as Yarra Park next to the MCG) on 31 July 1858, was probably a game of folk football, or one based on unidentified English school rules. However, few details of the match have survived.
The Melbourne Football Club was founded on Saturday 14 May 1859, one of the world's first football clubs in any code. For many years unjustified claims have been made about a football match between Melbourne Grammar School and Scotch College. It began on 7 August 1858, umpired by Wills and John McAdam. A second day of play took place on 21 August and a third, and final, day on 4 September. The two schools have competed annually ever since. However, the rules used by the two teams in 1858 had little in common with the eventual form of Australian football since that code had not yet been written.
The Melbourne Football Club rules of 1859 are the oldest surviving set of laws for Australian football. They were drawn up at the Parade Hotel, East Melbourne, on 17 May, by Wills, W. J. Hammersley, J. B. Thompson and Thomas Smith (some sources include H. C. A. Harrison). The 1859 rules did not include some elements that soon became important to the game, such as the requirement to bounce the ball while running, and Melbourne's game was not immediately adopted by neighbouring clubs. Before each match the rules had to be agreed by the two teams involved. By 1866, however, several other clubs had agreed to play by an updated version of Melbourne's rules.
First Organised Competitions
While many early Victorian teams participated in one-off matches, most had not yet formed clubs for regular competition until 1860. To ensure the supremacy of the Melbourne rules, the first-club level competition in Australia, the Caledonian Society's Challenge Cup (1861–64), stipulated that only the Melbourne rules were to be used. This law was reinforced by the Athletic Sports Committee (ASC), which ran a variation of the Challenge Cup in 1865–66. With input from other clubs, the rules underwent several minor revisions, establishing a uniform code known as "Victorian rules". In 1866, the "first distinctively Victorian rule", the running bounce, was formalised at a meeting of club delegates chaired by H. C. A. Harrison, an influential pioneer who took up football in 1859 at the invitation of Wills, his cousin.
VFA era
On 17 May 1877, the Victorian Football Association (VFA), Victoria's first governing body for Australian football, was formed. The foundation Senior clubs of the VFA were Albert-park, Carlton, Hotham, Melbourne, St Kilda. The Junior section of the VFA originally included such clubs as Ballarat, East Melbourne, Essendon, Hawthorn, Northcote, South Melbourne, Standard, Victoria United, Victorian Railways, West Melbourne and Williamstown. During its early years, many clubs dropped in and out and there were erratic promotions between the Senior and Junior sections. Hawthorn, Northcote, Standard, Victoria United, Victorian Railways and Williamstown dropped out within a year or so but Hawthorn, Northcote and Williamstown were all to return at various times.
There were also numerous rules changes in this early period.
Growth outside of Melbourne
Not all football was played in Melbourne and the Goldfields experienced its own boom in competition in the 1880s and 1890s. By 1881, the Sandhurst Football Association had formed with a number of clubs in what is now Bendigo. Ballarat was to follow with its own Ballarat Football Association in 1893, giving some of the oldest clubs outside of Melbourne including Ballarat (1860) and Sandhurst (1861) clubs and the growing number of clubs in country Victoria some regular competition. While strong popular competitions in their own right, their member clubs were to become strong feeder clubs to the big metropolitan leagues.
Formation of the VFL
A rift in the VFA led to the formation of the Victorian Football League (VFL), which commenced play in 1897 as an eight-team breakaway of the stronger clubs in the VFA competition: Carlton, Collingwood, Essendon, Fitzroy, Geelong, Melbourne, St Kilda and South Melbourne. The first season concluded with Essendon finishing as the premiers (winners).
Another four VFA clubs joined the VFL later, as Richmond joined the VFL in 1908. Footscray, Hawthorn and North Melbourne joined in 1925, by which time VFL had become the most prominent league in the game. University also joined the VFL in 1908 but left in 1915.
National league and current issues
In 1982, in a move which heralded big changes within the sport, one of the original VFL clubs, South Melbourne Football Club, relocated to the rugby league stronghold of Sydney and became known as the Sydney Swans.
In the late 1980s, strong interstate interest in the VFL led to a more national competition; two more non-Victorian clubs, the West Coast Eagles and the Brisbane Bears began playing in 1987.
The league changed its name to the Australian Football League (AFL) following the 1989 season, later gaining further West Australian and South Australian teams.
The VFA/VFL became a secondary league, although even it has grown to accommodate a team from Tasmania.
Even the biggest locally grown suburban clubs, elevated into the national league, continue struggle for survival, competing for marketshare. Fourteen years after South Melbourne's difficulties led them to move to Sydney, similar problems at the Fitzroy Football Club result in a merger, forming the Brisbane Lions. Although a small consolation of these club's recent success has been establishing renewed interest with their Melbourne based supporters, other clubs, such as the historic Melbourne, Western Bulldogs (formerly Footscray), North Melbourne and Carlton Clubs are assisted by the AFL to remain in the national competition. Many suggestions have been made in response to issues of overcrowding but the AFL has been somewhat reluctant to make a drastic change, due to both the history and supporters' passion for their club – save for the merger of Fitzroy and the Bears.
Participation
In 2004, with 36,900 senior players in Victoria, more than any other state in Australia.
With a total participation of 223,999, Victoria has a participation rate of around 4% per capita, makes it the equal third most supported state (with Western Australia and South Australia)
Audience
Attendance record
121,696 (1970). VFL Grand Final Carlton v Collingwood (MCG, Melbourne)
Major Australian rules events in Victoria
Australian Football League Premiership Season including special matches:Anzac Day match, Dreamtime at the 'G and King's Birthday match
AFL Grand Final (annual)
VFL Grand Final (annual)
International Rules Series (biennial)
Australian Football International Cup (quadrennial free event)
E. J. Whitten Legends Game (annual charity event)
Community Cup (annual charity event)
Multicultural Cup (annual free event)
Ovens & Murray Football League Grand Final (annual)
Notable Victorian footballers
Australian Football Hall of Fame players with Legend status from Victoria (in order of induction) include: Ron Barassi, Haydn Bunton Sr., Roy Cazaly, John Coleman, Jack Dyer, Bill Hutchison, Leigh Matthews, John Nicholls, Bob Pratt, Dick Reynolds, Bob Skilton, Ted Whitten, Ian Stewart, Gordon Coventry, Kevin Bartlett, Jock McHale, Norm Smith, Kevin Murray, Tony Lockett, Kevin Sheedy and John Kennedy Sr.
Victorians represent the vast majority of male Australian Football Hall of Fame inductees.
Notable female players include: Debbie Lee (first female member of the Australian Football Hall of Fame), Daisy Pearce. Erin Phillips was born in Melbourne.
Governing body
The governing body for Australian rules football in Victoria is AFL Victoria.
Leagues and clubs
Professional clubs
Carlton Football Club (Australian Football League)
Collingwood Football Club (Australian Football League)
Essendon Football Club (Australian Football League)
Geelong Football Club (Australian Football League)
Hawthorn Football Club (Australian Football League)
Melbourne Football Club (Australian Football League)
North Melbourne Football Club (Australian Football League)
Richmond Football Club (Australian Football League)
St Kilda Football Club (Australian Football League)
Western Bulldogs (formerly Footscray Football Club) (Australian Football League)
Open
Statewide leagues
Victorian Football League
Melbourne metropolitan leagues
Eastern Football League
Essendon District Football League
Northern Football League
Southern Football League
Victorian Amateur Football Association
Western Region Football League
Regional leagues
Victorian Country Football League Official Site (governing body over regional Victoria)
Alberton Football League
Ballarat Football League
Bellarine Football League
Bendigo Football League
Central Highlands Football League
Central Murray Football League
Colac & District Football League Official Site
East Gippsland Football League Official Site
Ellinbank & District Football League Official Site
Geelong Football League Official Site
Geelong & District Football League Official Site
Gippsland Football League Official Site
Goulburn Valley Football League
Golden Rivers Football League
Hampden Football Netball League Official Site
Heathcote District Football League Official Site
Horsham & District Football League Official Site
Kowree Naracoorte Tatiara Football League
Kyabram & District Football League
Loddon Valley Football League Official Site
Maryborough Castlemaine District Football League Official Site
Mid Gippsland Football League Official Site
Millewa Football League Official Site
Mininera & District Football League Official Site
Mornington Peninsula Nepean Football League Official Site
Murray Football League Official Site
North Central Football League Official Site
North Gippsland Football League Official Site
Omeo & District Football League Official Site
Outer East Football Netball League
Ovens & King Football League Official Site
Ovens & Murray Football League
Picola & District Football League
South West District Football League Official Site
Sunraysia Football League Official Site
Tallangatta & District Football League Official Site
Upper Murray Football League Official Site
Warrnambool & District Football League Official Site
Wimmera Football League Official Site
Junior
Warragul & District Junior Football League
Riddell District Junior Football League Official Site
Yarra Junior Football League
Waverley Junior Football Association Official Site
South Metro Junior Football League Official Site
Dandenong & District Junior Football League Official Site
Central Gippsland Junior Football League
Traralgon & District Junior Football League
Masters
Victorian Metropolitan Superules Football Official Site
Victorian Country Masters Australian Football Official Site
Women's
Victorian Women's Football League
Youth Girls Competition Official Site
Principal venues
The following venues meet AFL Standard criteria and have been used to host recent AFL (National Standard), VFL or AFLW level matches (Regional Standard) are listed by capacity.
Many former suburban VFL/AFL venues became disused when the league consolidated at its flagship stadium at Docklands and with its increased national/regional city focus, however the AFLW (and VFL) has since seen some of these former stadiums reused and renovated albeit with downgraded or reduced capacity.
Low capacity and lesser used venues (AFL Standard)
Morwell Recreation Reserve (Morwell)
Deakin Reserve (Shepparton)
Punt Road Oval (Melbourne)
Trevor Barker Beach Oval (Melbourne)
Low capacity and lesser used venues (non-AFL Standard)
Elsternwick Park (Melbourne) (home of the VAFA)
Williamstown Cricket Ground (Melbourne)
Yarraville Oval (Melbourne)
North Port Oval (Melbourne)
Skinner Reserve (Melbourne)
Eastern Oval (Ballarat)
Former venues
Waverley Park (1970-2000) (also known as VFL Park)
Glenferrie Oval (1925–1973) (former home of the Hawthorn Football Club)
Lakeside Oval (1874-1995) (former home of the South Melbourne Football Club) (now primarily soccer venue)
Junction Oval (1870-1966) (now primarily cricket venue)
East Melbourne Cricket Ground (1860-1921)
Brunswick Street Oval (1883-1966) (former home of the Fitzroy Football Club)
Corio Oval (1862-1944) (former home of the Geelong Football Club)
Representative team
The Victorian representative team is known as the Big V and have played State of Origin representative matches against all other Australian states. However, since 1999 they have only played at Under 19 and state league level, with the senior professional team only making a once off appearance in the 2008 AFL Hall of Fame Tribute Match.
See also
Rugby league in New South Wales
References
Sources
Australian Football League
Football Victoria
Opinion: Memo to AFL - Victoria needs you!
External links
Victoria Team of the Century (from Full Points Footy)
Victoria
Australian rules football in Victoria (state)
History of Australian rules football
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgrade%20Centre%20railway%20station
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Belgrade Centre railway station
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The Belgrade Centre railway station (), colloquially known as Prokop (), is the new central railway station in Belgrade, Serbia. The station is located in the Belgrade municipality of Savski Venac. Although unfinished, it serves as de facto main railway station of the city, after replacing the old main station at the Belgrade Waterfront.
The unsuccessful, decades-long attempted construction of the new central railway station of Belgrade was hampered by a lack of funding to finish the adjoining 14 km of tunnels, several railway bridges including the New Railroad Bridge across the Sava river, a new road network connecting to the city and technical installations. Construction of the new station faced countless setbacks over a period of several decades. The entire construction process has been described as infamous, with deadlines being missed one after another.
Belgrade Centre station was opened on 26 January 2016, serving two daily trains to Novi Sad, as well as Belgrade commuter railways. Following gradual re-routing, it gained its current role on 1 July 2018.
It is connected to the city centre by bus route 36 (GSP Belgrade) to Savski Trg and Slavija, operating every 40 minutes.
Construction
History
Beginning
The ill-fated construction of the new railway station, which was supposed to replace the Belgrade Main railway station in Savamala, was to last for decades. Originally, in the late 1960s, it was supposed to be constructed near the present interchange of Autokomanda, but the idea was suddenly dropped, and one of the major architectural authorities at the time, Branko Žeželj, picked Prokop instead, which ultimately left the Autokomanda interchange unfinished — the exit in the Niš direction was only finished in 2007. The idea was presented publicly in February 1970. It also included the removal of all tracks from the Savamala (Sava Amphitheatre) and of the Belgrade Main railway station, while the location along the river was to be turned into vast green spaces. The city council adopted the decision to build the new station in March 1971. The Council for Urbanism drafted the projected construction of the new railway station later that year. The project was monumental and expensive, without precedent in Yugoslavia. It was envisioned to be "large enough for the entire 21st century" with 10,000 commuters passing through it per hour. Because of that, including the seemingly unrealistic deadline of only 18 months, the council session after which the plan was greenlighted was very turbulent and lasted for 7.5 hours. In 1974 the design project was finished, preparatory works officially started on 3 December 1976, and full construction began on 8 October 1977. The station building was planned to have a bird-shaped roof, with 8 platforms and 11 tracks.
The deadline for completion was 1 May 1979, but the rapidly deteriorating economic situation in Yugoslavia at the time slowed construction and the project was halted in 1980. In May 1984, the notion of abandoning the project altogether, due to its high cost, was officially considered for the first time. Construction resumed in 1990 and over the next few years was stopped and restarted several times. The project itself was simplified. In 1996 a new contract was signed with the Energoprojekt company. Serbian President Slobodan Milošević and Prime Minister Mirko Marjanović officially opened the construction of the concrete roof slab on 7 July 1996, which was mostly finished in 1999, but the building was halted again due to the NATO bombing of Serbia and lack of funds.
Restart
In 2005, an international competition was held to find a strategic partner who would finish the station and acquire rights to build and sell commercial facilities on the site. The Hungarian company TriGranit was chosen, but in 2008, TriGranit was dismissed and the contract with Energoprojekt from 1996 was reactivated. Energoprojekt came second in the public tender but still was chosen. As the works were to last for 14 months, 2010 was set as the final deadline, but no progress was made due to the lack of funds. Also, this project excluded the construction in the commercial area. In 2012, a €25.8 million loan was granted by the Kuwait Fund for Arab Economic Development, and on 3 December 2014 work was resumed, with Energoprojekt as the lead company of the construction consortium, being chosen again after the bidding. The work was expected to be completed in 14 months, and the station was officially opened on 26 January 2016 by prime minister Aleksandar Vučić. However, the new station was not used to capacity and was basically still just one of a dozen secondary stations in Belgrade.
On 10 December 2017, all but three of the domestic lines were transferred from the Main Station to Prokop. International trains continued using Main Station, because Belgrade Centre was still not completed. In December 2017, the station had no station building or any commercial facilities, two tracks and the roof above them were still not finished, and the road connections to the rest of the city were only half completed. The Ministry of Construction estimated that, if the funds were granted, the entire work could be finished in two years.
Central Station
In January 2018 it was announced that the old station would be completely closed for traffic on 1 July 2018, even though none of the projects needed for a complete removal of the railway traffic are finished. While Prokop is incomplete, a projected main goods station in Zemun is not being adapted while there are also no projects on the Belgrade railway ring line. A series of temporary solutions have had to be applied, including the defunct and deteriorated Topčider railway station which was temporarily revitalized and adapted for auto trains. The major flaw remained a poor public transportation connection, so the railway company made an official request for this problem to be solved. It was also announced in January 2018 that the official deadline for the construction of the station building in Prokop would be two years, however, there were no funds for it at the time. A second part of the Kuwaiti loan (€50 million) was not approved and the needed public procurements would not be finished until the end of 2018. The central freight station in Zemun also had a deadline of two years, but the works were scheduled to start at the end of 2018. This meant that the planned Belgrade railway junction would not be finished before 2021, at best. However, the minister for transportation Zorana Mihajlović gave conflicting deadlines in December 2017. She said that the station building in Prokop would be built from April 2018 to April 2019 and that the freight station at Zemun should be finished by the end of 2018.
Only the access road from the direction of the Bulevar Kralja Aleksandra Karađorđevića was finished in 2018. Until mid-2022, the station lacked a section of roof and the platforms beneath it, the main building itself, and the access road to the highway. Trains from Bar, Montenegro began to terminate at Centar instead of Topčider by December 2021.
An additional of roof was finished in December 2018 after 8 months of works, so now some out of planned was completed. The authorities again refused to disclose the date of full completion of the entire station complex. It was evident at this point that the works on the station building would not start in 2018, and the missing tracks for two additional platforms were not laid. No progress was made on the Zemun freight station.
Though itself inadequately equipped, the Novi Beograd railway station initially took over the de facto role of the city's main station after the closing of the old one, as it is better connected with other parts of the city and much more accessible than the Prokop. By early 2019 it emerged as one of the city's busiest stations. As for Prokop itself, when the traffic was rerouted in July 2018, it was announced that the station would operate 195 lines: 16 international, 56 local, and 123 communal BG Voz lines. By February 2019 only 60 lines remained operational: 1 international, 24 regional, and 35 local.
As it became apparent that the Kuwaiti loan would not be available, in July 2019 the government announced a public tendering process for the partner who would build the station's main building, commercial facilities, and parking lots. Even though the present project for the station was accepted by the government in 2015, the future partner would be allowed to present its own design. Though the government had claimed since 2016 that numerous domestic and foreign companies were interested, by October 2019 only one had applied - Railway City Belgrade, a Dutch-Bulgarian company recently registered in Serbia. In April 2020 it was announced that the talks with Railway City Belgrade were in the "final phase", but without any specifications on the price or timeline. It was stated, however, that the concrete roof slab will be finished first, then the urban project will be drafted, followed by the new re-parceling. That means the entire 2015 urban plan was scrapped, while the works on the station's building cannot start before the second half of 2021 and will be finished in 2023 in the best-case scenario.
In May 2020 construction of the remaining roof slab continued, with the deadline set for the summer of 2021. After the roof is finished, the remaining two tracks beneath it, numbers 1 and 2, will be finished. In the meantime, the framework agreement with the Railway City Belgrade company was announced. It was not binding, and the company planned to first survey the bearing capacity of the roof slab in order to see how much can be built on it, and to determine how much commercial space beside the station's building can be built before they accept the job.
Mihajlović's successor, the new minister for transportation Tomislav Momirović, visited the site in December 2020 and stated that there was still much work to be done, but reconfirmed dates of August 2021 for the completion of the roof slab, and end of 2023 for full completion. Design of the new station building, the work of PFB Dizajn, was made public in January 2021. The start was planned for the fall of 2021, the deadline for the building was the end of 2022, and for the entire complex (commercial venues, parking lots, etc.) by the end of 2024. The contractor also stated that everything depends on the state of the roof slab, which is not fully finished. The finished section was surveyed, showing that reconstruction is needed as it is not strong enough for the planned construction on top of it.
Works on the roof slab were halted again when a previously unknown tunnel was discovered under Prokupačka Street. At tall and wide, the pedestrian tunnel forked in two directions toward Steco restaurant and Slavija Square. Electric cables of unknown purpose were also discovered in the tunnel. This discovery prompted revisions of the project, and moving the deadline to the spring of 2022. Finishing of the roof slab was then moved to August 2022, construction of the station building was planned to start in October 2022, and it was estimated that a further €70 million would be needed for the full completion.
In the late March 2022, a major milestone for the Serbian Railways was the launch of the first Serbian high speed rail connection between Belgrade Centre and Novi Sad railway station.
After completion of the roof slab over platforms 1 and 2, the construction of the station building and commercial centre officially began on 8 August 2022, as the public-private partnership of the Serbian Railways Infrastructure and the private company Railway City Belgrade. The deadline for the completion of the construction works is now set for November 2023, followed by the furnishing of the building. The construction of two missing platforms was moved. The entire station complex will be named "Gate of Serbia". Apart from the station building itself, the complex will include twelve commercial buildings (four should be finished by the summer of 2024), a series of parking lots, and a garage. The entire complex will be finished in 2026.
Old works did not fit into the new project, which now divided the complex in two: the station itself (at point 85), and the commercial Railway City Belgrade-operated section (after point 105). Previous concrete construction on the slab itself was demolished, purportedly with great care so as not to cause damage to the platforms below, especially in regard to the leaks. However, starting in November 2022, the platforms were flooded after every heavy rain. Ten elevators were added during the construction, as the project's original terms of reference excluded any lifts. The façade is a combination of glass curtain wall and aluminum brise soleils. In May 2023, one of the contractors announced that the building will be completely finished on 20 October 2023.
Criticism
The construction of the Belgrade Waterfront and track removal in Savamala and apparent pressure to finish the work before the expiration of the deadline, contributed to the hastily done job. Basically, no other facilities were built except for the tracks. The roof was unfinished and due to rain and wind the platforms on the periphery are covered in water. Access roads were not completed either and Prokop is generally badly connected with other parts of Belgrade. Regarding how distant the station is from downtown, its official name, Belgrade Center, is often mocked and ignored by the citizens and passengers who almost without exception call it Prokop.
Member of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts and a public transport expert, Vukan Vučić, labeled Prokop as the "most disastrous error in Belgrade transportation". He asserted that Prokop, in functional terms, is not a station at all and that, despite having been named Belgrade Centre, it is actually further from the city's centre than the old station was. He added that the location is a neglected, desperately bad choice and topographically inaccessible from all sides. As a result, commuters need almost 20 minutes to leave the station upon their arrival and have to travel for to downtown to reach other public transport routes as Prokop itself is not interconnected. Another member of the Academy, transport engineer Dušan Teodorović, also criticized the project. As none of the planned infrastructure has been built – urbanization and development of the neighborhood, numerous shops, hotels, excellent commuting connections, two metro lines, taxi station – Vučić maintains that the isolation of the location will directly bring to the further decrease in the number of railway passengers.
Those who participated in the planning of the station maintain that Prokop was the best solution and that the problem is that other parts of the plan were not carried out or have been dropped completely. They say that the idea was to have only through stations in the city and not a terminus station. Some of the missing infrastructure which they named, and which were considered megalomaniacal to begin with by critics, includes three additional railway stations (new or expanded: New Belgrade, Zemun, South), two additional bus stations (South, East) and lengthening and widening of the Deligradska Street from its current end at the highway, including the demolition of the urbanized hill of Maleško Brdo, east of Prokop.
Despite numerous major drawbacks of the station, minister Mihajlović stated in July 2018 that the priority in Prokop was "elevators and escalators", but none of the elevators were installed by December 2018. Construction of two elevators began in February 2019 and they became operational in June 2019.
Controversies
In the late 1990s, instigated by first lady Mirjana Marković, an initiative was started to build a Chinese commercial centre in Prokop, in order to enhance economic cooperation and trade between China and Serbia.
Supervisor Dragan Dobrašinović, who reported to the Financial Board of the National Assembly of Serbia, said that procedures for the 2014 reconstruction were "distinctively political" due to the pushing of the Belgrade Waterfront project. He also pointed out that the projected price was inflated by over 5.5 million euros, as the estimate was 20.25 million and the loan was 25.8 million euros. The Assembly's Board accepted Dobrašinović's report, but dismissed him and no legal proceedings followed.
When it was announced that the Kuwaitis would grant the loan, Serbian authorities published a computer model of what the future station building would look like. It turned out to be a picture of the Hong Kong's West Kowloon Terminus, set against Belgrade as a background. The 2009 project is the work of the Aedas company and architect Andrew Bromberg who personally reacted to the plagiarism.
In January 2021, Transparency Serbia and other organizations reported that the procedure where the company Railway City Belgrade was selected as the contractor for the station's building was against the law. State Property Office refuted the claim, saying that, in this specific case, different laws are applied. The prosecutor's office declined to act upon Transparency's complaint. When petitioned by Transparency to disclose on which documents they rejected to act, the prosecution responded there is no "legitimate interest for public to know" and that it is only "personal petitioner's interest" to know the information.
The city decided to build additional residential buildings in March 2021, as part of the wider railway station complex. The selected lot used to be a green space, until the temporary worker's quarters were built there in the 1990s when the construction of the station was resumed. They were abandoned after 2005, and the local residents wanted to bring back greenery, plant trees, and build a children's playground. The tenants' associations of the buildings in the vicinity of the planned construction coordinated against the project, and the city responded that "nothing is definite yet". In October 2021, the city announced plans to build of commercial and residential space at this location. The total area of will be filled with high-rise buildings up to tall. The investor is also the Railway City Belgrade company. Local residents continually organized protests, opposing the construction of tall buildings. In December 2021, the city announced the withdrawal of the project due to the "accepted citizens' complaints", and as the construction could "indeed trigger massive waste again", though reporters connected the decision with the upcoming Belgrade elections in April 2022. The existing structure on the lot will be adapted into the communal center in 2022.
In November 2022 the city announced that it had awarded another lot, in Block No. 40 in New Belgrade, to Railway City Belgrade as compensation for the scrapped plans for additional skyscrapers in Prokop. The area of the lot is smaller, compared to , but the total floor area of two planned buildings (one residential, one commercial), remained the same at . The company is obliged to finish the station in Prokop first before it can build anything in New Belgrade.
Assessment
Due to the countless setbacks over the period of several decades, the construction of the new station has been called , after the folk epic poem The Building of Skadar, where the town of Skadar was unsuccessfully built over a long time. With all its inadequacies (bad interconnection, lack of the stationary building, planned omission from the first subway line), and for decades still the unfulfilled task of representing a "construction pride of modern Belgrade Railway junction", by June 2021 it was noted that the term "Central" in the station's name is simply irritating to passengers.
Continuously hindered by numerous problems and bad positioning, by 2022 it became apparent that Prokop would never take the role of the former Main railway station, as the New Belgrade railway station had already taken over as the busiest station in the entire country, with future plans to expand it into the central traffic hub in Belgrade. The New Belgrade railway station, though itself inadequately equipped, initially took over the role of the main station, as it was better connected with other parts of the city and way more accessible than the Prokop, and by early 2019 came out as one of the busiest stations.
In March 2022, the transportation minister Tomislav Momirović confirmed that the New Belgrade railway station "will remain" the busiest one, not only in Belgrade but in the entire Serbia. At the time, the majority of passengers on the inaugural trip via the high-speed railway line used the New Belgrade station, not Prokop. Being held back in almost every department, by this time it became apparent that, though it may become an important station in the future, Prokop will never take the role of the former Main railway station. Construction of the New Belgrade main bus station next to the New Belgrade railway station shows that the decision was to make the New Belgrade station part of the future central transportation hub in Belgrade. Adding to the further sidelining of Prokop are changes in the metro project. After decades of plans which included Prokop as a part of the first metro line, the government changed it so that none of the first two planned lines will reach Prokop.
Image gallery
See also
Belgrade Main railway station
Belgrade railway junction
References
External links
Clip of the planned railway hub with metro interchange
Clip about the Belgrade railway hub and Beovoz commuter network
Railway stations in Belgrade
Railway stations opened in 1974
1974 establishments in Serbia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carl%20Strehlow
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Carl Strehlow
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Carl Friedrich Theodor Strehlow (23 December 1871 – 20 October 1922) was an anthropologist, linguist and genealogist who served on two Lutheran missions in remote parts of Australia from May 1892 to October 1922. He was at Killalpaninna Mission (also known as Bethesda) in northern South Australia, from 1892 to 1894, and then Hermannsburg, west of Alice Springs, from 1894 to 1922. Strehlow was assisted by his wife Friederike, who played a central role in reducing the high infant mortality which threatened Aboriginal communities all over Australia after the onset of white settlement.
As a polymath with an interest in natural history, and informed by the local Aranda people, Strehlow provided plant and animal specimens to museums in Germany and Australia. Strehlow also collaborated on the first complete translation of the New Testament into an Aboriginal language (Dieri), published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1897. He later translated the New Testament into the Western Aranda language and also produced a reader and service book in this language. His son Theodor (Ted) Strehlow, who was 14 at the time of his father's death, built his career in part on the researches carried out by his father.
Early life and education
Strehlow was born on 23 December 1871 at Fredersdorf, near Angermünde, in the Uckermark, Brandenburg, Germany, to the Free Lutheran village school teacher, Carl Ludwig Strehlow (10 March 1831 – 6 November 1896) and his wife Friederike Wilhelmine Augustine Schneider (3 August 1831 – 3 September 1916). The seventh child of this marriage, Strehlow grew up as the oldest son, two earlier sons having died young of diphtheria. Strehlow's oldest sister, Magdalena, born in 1857, was fourteen years older than him.
Little is known about his education other than that until 1886 when he was 14, he was given a sound, basic education by his father at the local Free Lutheran school, set up by the Old Lutherans in opposition to the state school, integrated into the Union of the Calvinist and Lutheran Churches, which had been instigated by the Prussian King Friedrich Wilhelm III in 1817 after the Napoleonic Wars. Sometime before 1886, Strehlow's local Old Lutheran clergyman, Rev. Carl Seidel, had begun to educate him in the subjects required for matriculation (Latin, Greek, history, English, mathematics, religion and German) during the four-year preparation for confirmation, which was then obligatory. Lessons took place in the manse at the main town of the district, Angermünde, where Seidel was based. A keen linguist influenced by the ideas of Jacob Grimm, Seidel laid the foundations for Strehlow's later interest in linguistics, which is the key to understanding his views on the antiquity of Aboriginal society and culture, and especially its decay from a previous higher level, something Strehlow thought was evident in their languages, of which he mastered three: Dieri, Aranda and Loritja.
Though a brilliant student, among the anomalies of Strehlow's education was his father's opposition to him having a university education on the grounds that the family was too poor. This opposition may have arisen from bitterness – in 1856 his father was jailed for two weeks for teaching religious instruction while working in the state system in Seefeld in Farther Pomerania, something forbidden him because he was a member of the Old Lutheran Church.
Strehlow senior's older brother and sister emigrated to the United States of America, possibly for religious reasons, though this is not certain. Assisted by Seidel, Strehlow won his father's permission to study for the ministry in any of the mission schools in Germany by November 1887 when he was not quite 16. Since a university degree was mandatory in Germany for the clergy, this meant he could only become a clergyman abroad, which in practice meant working among German immigrants in America. After being rejected by the Leipzig Mission because he was too young, with financial assistance from the Society for Home and Foreign Mission (Gesellschaft für Innere und Äussere Mission) set up so poorer students could study, Strehlow entered the seminary founded by Wilhelm Löhe in Neuendettelsau, Middle Franconia, Bavaria at Easter 1888. Here the three-year curriculum was stamped by the ideas of Rev. Friedrich Bauer, whose German Grammar ran to 37 editions by 1913, and later became the Duden. After Bauer's death in 1873, the school was run by Rev. Johannes Deinzer, who was heavily influenced by his teachers at Erlangen, including Nägelsbach, von Hofmann, Thomasius, von Raumer and others. The heavy emphasis on classical languages at the seminary resulted in the more academically inclined students reading works by Homer, Virgil, Sophocles and others. Strehlow was awarded a "brilliant first" prior to his graduation at Easter 1892, with his final exams delayed possibly because he was thought too young to hold the position of pastor in an American congregation. By then most his class had left for their posts abroad, a number of them to South Australia, but most to America.
Transition to the missionary calling
Among the personalities who resisted the fusion of the Lutheran and Calvinist Churches was Rev. Friedrich Meischel, who arrived in South Australia in 1860. He had earlier been in contact with Neuendettelsau's founder, Wilhelm Löhe, and is thought by some to have been inspired by him. After Stuart's epic overland crossing from Adelaide to what later became Darwin and back again in 1862, Meischel promoted the idea of missionary work among the inland tribes, in particular the Dieri, who had helped Burke and Wills after their ill-fated attempted crossing of the continent. Meischel's dealings were largely with Revs. Christian Auricht and G.J. Rechner of the Immanuel Synod, formed after a split between the first Lutheran clergy to come to Australia, Kavel and Fritsche. A mission supported by both the Immanuel and Australian Synods was duly set up at Killalpaninna on the Cooper's Creek north-east of Marree, staffed by personnel from Harms' mission school at Hermannsburg Mission in Germany. By the time of Strehlow's graduation, missionaries were recruited from Neuendettelsau after the Immanuel and Australian Synods decided they could no longer work together, and neither could work with Hermannsburg in Germany, which had aligned itself with the state church and become "unionist". A staffing crisis in 1891, in part due to disagreements between the missionaries themselves, but also conflict with the state governments where Lutheran missions were operating, resulted in Deinzer being asked for a further missionary. Strehlow was as yet unplaced with an American congregation, so was approached to fill the position of teacher at Killalpaninna, which he duly accepted, arriving in South Australia on 30 May 1892 where he was ordained at Light Pass, South Australia., reaching the outstation Etadunna on 11 July 1892, and Killalpaninna itself a day or so after. Being split between several sites, the mission settlements here were known collectively as Bethesda Mission and within six months of arrival at the mission Strehlow learnt Dieri.
The Dieri New Testament
The impetus for this is said to have come not from Reuther but from Strehlow who, as the teacher in the mission school, needed printed material in Dieri for his students, a number of whom were older people receiving religious instruction. He had also just received a rebuff in his attempt to marry Frieda Keysser. Given a thorough linguistic training from his local clergyman Seidel before going to Neuendettelsau, Strehlow had the advantage in translation over Reuther, who only spent two years training at Neuendettelsau and had no prior knowledge of Greek, the language of the Koinos New Testament. He also knew no Latin. The resulting translation was a collaboration between the two missionaries and was published by the British and Foreign Bible Society in 1897. It was the first ever translation of the entire New Testament into an Aboriginal language.
Marriage
Strehlow and Frieda Johanna Henrietta Keysser first met when he visited the vicarage at Obersulzbach in Franconia on Maundy Thursday, 14 April 1892, staying only until Saturday 16 when he went to Neundettelsau to receive his Aussegnung on Easter Day. Orphaned since 1889, Frieda, who was only 16, was working as housekeeper for her great-uncle, Rev. August Omeis and his wife, and was busy dyeing Easter eggs with Marie Eckardt, the previous housekeeper, who was about to leave for Australia to marry one of Strehlow's fellow students, Friedrich Leidig. It was love at first sight for the couple. At the end of 1892, Strehlow wrote to Rev. Omeis asking for Frieda's hand in marriage but was refused on the grounds that she was too young, and in any case the couple hardly knew each other. Despite continuing determined opposition from Frieda's family, who thought the whole idea a silly adolescent obsession, Strehlow was eventually allowed to write to her and the two became engaged, but it was made clear she could not marry before her twentieth birthday on 31 August 1895. The entire courtship was conducted by letter. On 5 August she set off with Rev. Omeis and her Aunt Augusta's husband Rev. Gottfried Heckel to take the boat from Genoa in Italy, travelling with yet another future missionary's wife, Marie Zahn, to South Australia. On 25 September 1895 she was married by Leidig to Carl at Point Pass on the edge of the Barossa Valley in a double wedding with Marie and her husband Otto Siebert, another of Strehlow's former fellow students now at Bethesda. Despite Frieda's initial doubts about what she had done in marrying a man she knew only from letters, the marriage was happy and blessed with six children: Friedrich (born 1897), Martha (1899), Rudolf (1900), Karl (1902), Hermann (1905) and Theodor aka Ted Strehlow (1908).
Move to Hermannsburg
In October 1894 Strehlow was appointed jointly with his friend and former fellow student Rev. John Bogner to take over the abandoned Mission Station of Hermannsburg in Central Australia, then largely financed by sales of sheep, wool, horses and cattle. It had been newly purchased by the Immanuel Synod. Strehlow arrived on Friday 12 October 1894, still only 22, and with only three breaks for holidays, stayed there until 1922. He was on his own until Bogner arrived with his wife and child on 25 May 1895. Bogner was the manager, in charge of stock and the rebuilding of the structures which were falling into ruin, while Strehlow was the teacher in charge of education, religious instruction and translation. He used his knowledge of homeopathy to fight diseases, and had sufficient medical knowledge to set broken limbs. The population were mainly Aranda, with some Loritja from the west. Under Bogner, sheep raising was abandoned in favour of horses and cattle, but the station never made a profit.
Although Strehlow took over as manager in 1901 after Bogner had left, he continued to play the dominant role in the religious life of Hermannsburg, which – in keeping with his predecessors – he conceived of as a place of care for the old, cure for the sick, and lastly, but most importantly, a religious centre where the Aranda people could hear the gospel preached in their own language. As manager as well as missionary he kept a close eye on all developments – working out policy regarding conversions, station regulations, as well as making sure the stockmen on this property of were not doing deals with the neighbouring cattle stations.
Missionary work
Strehlow's missionary work was closely bound up with his study of languages, which derived from his role as teacher using, and later translating, material into the local language, which was then printed. This meant he had to work closely with the older generation who were the best speakers of the language, putting him in an unusual relationship with them, since usually they were not interested in Christianity at all. In practice this meant that Strehlow's teaching of Christianity became strongly influenced by them and their knowledge. He concluded that their language "has passed its flowering and is now falling into decay", and felt he had to investigate their culture to understand why.
He learned three Aboriginal languages: Dieri, Aranda and Loritja. Contrary to much in print he did not go out proselytising, believing that interest had to come from the people themselves: he did not want large numbers of "converts" paying only lip-service to Christianity. Those who converted were expected to reside permanently at the Mission, going away "for a spell" only after arranging it with him; their children had to come regularly to school where they learned to read and write in their own language, and the men had to be gainfully employed. At Bethesda this meant working as shepherds, shearers, trackers, and builders, and at Hermannsburg working as stockmen, branding, mustering, digging out the waterholes during the droughts, droving stock south to Oodnadatta, tracking, and also helping to construct Hermannsburg's stone buildings, unlike Bethesda where mud bricks were used. Since the Mission always supplied those working with food and clothes and likewise their families, relatives not working were not allowed to share the food with them. Meals were served three times a day in the Esshaus, supervised mostly by Strehlow himself to prevent arguments. The government gave the Mission an annual grant of £300 to support the aged and infirm; all school children were fed and clothed. Frieda too became a fluent speaker of Aranda and exercised great influence on the young women and girls, opposing the widespread practice of infanticide (especially the killing of twins), teaching them basic skills like sewing and mending, emphasising the need for hygiene – daily washing, clean clothes, and so on – as well has how to raise their children using nappies. In this way she overcame the high infant mortality which had led anthropologists and others refer to aborigines as a ‘doomed race’. Religious instruction took place in the native languages and was a lengthy process of years, with people baptized only after they had proved that they were serious and not just trying to get food. Increasingly, senior members of the Christian community like Moses Tjalkabota and Nathanael Rauwiraka played a part in instructing new converts, and worked with Strehlow on his translations of religious texts.
A vital aspect of Strehlow's work was his attitude to those who did not wish to convert, such as visiting relatives from other parts. Contrary to practice elsewhere, he did not believe in preventing them coming to the Mission, and though not keen on them performing ceremonies, did not interfere as long as these took place some distance from the mission buildings. Initiation continued to be carried out, and is so to this day. These people camped by Finke River to the west of the compound and supported themselves by hunting and gathering edible plants. Some were employed for years but never converted: they received food and clothing for themselves and their families and their children were encouraged to go to school.
Linguistic studies
A gifted linguist, Strehlow began his Dieri studies using material produced by earlier missionaries like Koch and Flierl I, while for Aranda he used the existing printed school material as well as Hermann Kempe's 1891 grammar and accompanying vocabulary, published by the Royal Society of South Australia. This in turn was derived in part from Koch's Dieri studies and also from Meyer's grammar of the Encounter Bay language, Narrinyeri. Probably around 1897 Strehlow wrote a comparative grammar of Aranda and Dieri; this was followed by his Aranda-Loritja grammar of 1910. His correspondence with Siebert on these and related matters seems to have been lost, but it is clear he worked closely with him until Siebert returned to Germany in April 1902 due to ill health. Apart from his work in the Aranda language, Strehlow also made the first detailed study of the Loritja (Western Desert) language, drawing up extensive vocabularies and grammars for both languages. His work in the Loritja language became the basis for the various studies of Western Desert languages done in the second half of the twentieth century. Strehlow's vocabularies of the three languages he specialised in are possibly the largest collection of Aboriginal words ever assembled, comprising some 7,600 words in Aranda, 6,300 in Loritja and 1,300 in Dieri, making more than 15,000 words in total. This was intended to be an integral part of Strehlow's book Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stämme in Zentral-Australien (The Aranda and Loritja Tribes in Central Australia). Due to Leonhardi's untimely death on 27 October 1910 two weeks before he and Strehlow were to meet for the first time, the book was left without an editor committed to the original vision, so none of this material was ever published. Instead it became the foundation of his son T. G. H. Strehlow's work, providing much material for Aranda Traditions and Songs of Central Australia. It was also used by later missionaries, including the Presbyterians at Ernabella.
Translations
As a development of his work translating Christian religious material into Aranda and Dieri like his antecedents Koch and Johannes Flierl I at Bethesda, and Kempe, Schwarz and Schulze at Hermansburg, Strehlow also recorded the sacred chants used in Aranda ceremonies and translated them into German. This was the first successful recording of this material, thought by Kempe to be in a language which had been lost. Spencer and Gillen famously described the Aranda as "naked savages... chanting songs of which they do not know the meaning", and used it as proof that they were a primitive people left behind in the Darwinist struggle for survival. Strehlow showed that the material was encoded to make it impossible for it to be understood without special instruction from the Old Men, who alone knew its meaning, jealously guarding this knowledge to stop the power ascribed to the chants falling into the wrong hands; this device was effective despite the chants being learned off by heart by the men taking part in the ceremonies. Strehlow was instructed in this by senior men at Hermannsburg, notably Loatjira, whose information is strewn throughout Strehlow's book. He also recorded his informants' descriptions of ceremonies and initiation rites, in places using interlinear texts, thus preserving forms which today have the status of classics due to changes in the language. He took a keen interest in etymology, and his book is peppered throughout with footnotes explaining etymological points in fine detail. Among the anomalies of Strehlow's career was his refusal to personally attend ceremonies on the grounds that it was unfitting for a missionary, despite his intense interest in them and the detailed descriptions given in his book.
Anthropology
He collaborated with Moritz, Baron von Leonhardi of Gross Karben in Hessen, Germany, who also suggested he write his monumental anthropological work Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stämme in Zentral-Australien (The Aranda and Loritja Tribes in Central Australia). With Leonhardi as editor this work became the first publication of the newly founded Städtisches Völkermuseum (Municipal Ethnological Museum) of Frankfurt am Main, appearing in eight parts between 1907 and 1920. Strehlow sent what was said to be the best collection in the world of Aboriginal artefacts – both sacred and secular – to Frankfurt, unfortunately largely destroyed in the bombing of the city in World War Two, though some fine pieces remain. Due to Leonhardi's sudden death in 1910, Strehlow's linguistic researches intended as part of Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stämme were never published, though used in manuscript form by his son T. G. H. (Ted) Strehlow and later Hermannsburg missionaries.
Strehlow's knowledge of languages and rapport with senior men like Loatjira, Tmala and (for Loritja) Talku enabled him to publish a major tract on the legends, beliefs, customs, genealogies, secret initiatory life and magical practices of the peoples on the Mission in his book. The book was published in instalments between 1907 and 1920 and came about as the result of correspondence between Strehlow and the German gentleman scholar Moritz von Leonhardi. To clarify certain confusions surrounding this work: it was written by Strehlow, edited by Leonhardi, and published in sections between 1907 and 1920 under the auspices of Frankfurt's newly established Städtisches Völkermuseum (Municipal Ethnological Museum). Thanks to Leonhardi's contacts with Prof. Bernhard Hagen at the museum, the printing costs were financed by the Anthropological Society of Frankfurt, at that time playing an important role in the cultural life of Frankfurt and supported by wealthy benefactors, some from Frankfurt's prominent Jewish families. In return, the museum obtained a major collection of artefacts and sacred objects at a reduced price, unfortunately largely destroyed in World War Two. These included the usual spears, boomerangs, woomeras, digging sticks, stone knives and everyday objects, but also tjurungas, ceremonial objects and decorations of various kinds which were usually destroyed when the ceremony was finished, kurdaitcha boots, pointing sticks and so on with a view to enabling Europeans to get a full and comprehensive picture of Aranda and Loritja people and their inner world in conjunction with the explanations in the book.
After the export of Indigenous material was restricted by the Act of November 1913, a collection intended for Cologne's Rautenstrauch-Joest Museum was impounded at Port Adelaide, and was purchased by the South Australian Museum. Strehlow's genealogical records of long-dead Aranda men and women dating back to around the beginning of the nineteenth century are possibly the most exhaustive for anywhere in Australia and of priceless value to their descendants today; unfortunately, they were heavily cut when published, but the originals survive in the Strehlow Research Centre in Alice Springs.
Strehlow's book challenged some of the findings of Walter Baldwin Spencer and Francis James Gillen in their highly acclaimed work The Native Tribes of Central Australia, at that time accepted as the last word on the Aranda. This led to a major controversy in London anthropological circles involving Andrew Lang, Sir James Frazer, Robert Ranulph Marett, A.C. Haddon, Spencer and later Bronisław Malinowski. Central to the debate was the question of whether Aboriginal people were primitive people on a lower level to Europeans (Frazer and Spencer's view) or a decadent people who had previously been on a higher level of culture (Strehlow's view, based on his knowledge of the language). Strehlow's researches were taken up by Andrew Lang and N.W. Thomas in England, by Émile Durkheim, Marcel Mauss and Arnold van Gennep in France, by Fritz Graebner in Germany and Pater W. Schmidt in Austria, and were a major source for Bronislaw Malinowski's The Family among Australian Aborigines. A translation of Die Aranda- und Loritja-Stämme into English was completed in 1992 by Rev. Hans Oberscheid and is still awaiting publication.
Strehlow wrote an account of the 1875 "massacre of Running Waters", in which 80 to 100 Arrernte men, women and children of the Southern Aranda language group were killed by a raiding party of 50 to 60 Matuntara warriors at Irbmangkara, a permanent water stretch of the Finke River.
Natural history collections
Strehlow sent a considerable number of specimens of both fauna and flora to Leonhardi, who lodged it in the Frankfurt's Naturmuseum Senckenberg, with some material also going to Berlin, and the botanical gardens in Darmstadt. Although most was already classified, some was not, and included reptiles such as Gehyra moritzi and Ctenotus leonhardii. Once World War One had begun, sending material to Germany was no longer possible, so material was sent to Edgar Waite, director of the South Australian Museum including rare species such as Ramphotyphlos endoterus. Other material from Strehlow was obtained via Frederick Scarfe of the Adelaide firm Harris, Scarfe & Co.
Baldwin Spencer and Hermannsburg
For Strehlow and his wife Frieda, the period 1912 to 1922 was dominated by Spencer's attempts to shut the Mission down. In his 1913 report as Special Commissioner and Chief Protector of Aborigines, Spencer proposed taking all Aboriginal children away from their parents and setting up reserves where the children would be denied any contact with their parents, be prevented from speaking their languages and made incapable of living in the bush. While recognising that "this will undoubtedly be a difficult matter to accomplish and will involve some amount of hardship so far as the parents are concerned”, Spencer justified it on the grounds that "once the children have grown to a certain age and have become accustomed to camp life with its degrading environment and endless roaming about in the bush, it is almost useless to try and reclaim them". So he thought it essential to take them away, for "then they will gradually lose the longing for a nomad life and will in fact become incapable of securing their living in the bush". He was particularly keen to make sure that "half-caste" children had no contact with camp life. Hermannsburg was to be taken away from the Lutherans and "serve as a reserve for the remnants of the southern central tribes where they can, under proper and competent control, be trained to habits of industry".
A series of investigations was arranged to give the Mission a bad name. However when the Administrator of the Northern Territory, John A. Gilruth, came down from Darwin in 1913 to see whether these negative reports were true, he was impressed with what he saw and decided that the Strehlows and the Mission should remain. From 1914 Ida Standley was running her half-caste school in Alice Springs, so the next plan was that she should take over at Hermannsburg. Strehlow's response to her when she visited was: "To separate the black children from their parents, and forbid them to speak Aranda to each other, and where possible drive the old people away from the station, I will never consent to. My mission instructions are, to preach the gospel to the whole creation, which is only possible in an effective way in the native language. This practice is followed in missions everywhere too, except in Australia, which takes a unique position on this as in much else".
World War One
Owing to the remoteness of Hermannsburg, in 1910 the Strehlow children were taken by their parents to Germany to receive a proper education. Only the youngest – Theo (Ted) – came back with them in 1911. During the war Germans and persons of German descent were subjected to a sustained campaign of denigration and oppression, with many interned in camps where at times they received harsh treatment. With the eldest son Friedrich in the German army from mid-1915, the Strehlows became the target of rumour, despite Carl being naturalised in 1901, and many attempts, some inspired by Spencer, were made to discredit him and the Mission with a view to shutting it down. The transfer of the Northern Territory from South Australia to the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1911 meant that discriminatory laws were harder to introduce there. Strehlow was fortunate in having the support of Sergeant Robert Stott, the policeman in Alice Springs, and most importantly, Administrator Gilruth, who was an admirer of his work at Hermannsburg, much to Spencer's chagrin, who had put his former colleague name forward for the position in 1911. However, after the war, finding a successor for Strehlow was almost impossible due to a ban on German immigration. Although originally contracted to stay only until 1920, when he, Frieda and Theo (Ted) would return to Germany, Strehlow was obliged to stay on indefinitely.
Death and legacy
In September 1922 Strehlow became seriously ill with dropsy, and despite efforts to get a car to transport him to Adelaide, on 20 October 1922 he died at Horseshoe Bend Station, halfway to Oodnadatta while trying to reach medical help.
The trip by horse and buggy and Strehlow's painful death is described in his son Theo's prize-winning book, Journey to Horseshoe Bend. It was turned into a cantata of the same name by Gordon Williams and Andrew Schulz, and premiered in the Sydney Opera House in 2003, performed by the Hermannsburg Ladies Choir. The first half of a double biography of Strehlow and his wife Frieda, The Tale of Frieda Keysser, based in large part on Frieda's diaries from the period, was published by grandson John Strehlow in 2012, with the second volume published in 2019.
Works
J.G. Reuther, C. Strehlow [translators]: Testamenta marra : Jesuni Christuni ngantjani jaura ninaia karitjimalkana wonti Dieri jaurani
Strehlow: Die Grammatik der Aranda-Sprache, comparison of Aranda language with Dieri and Encounter Bay
Strehlow: Woerterbuch der Aranda und Loritja Sprachen
Strehlow, Kempe: Galtjindintjamea-Pepa Aranda Wolambarinjaka (book of worship)
Strehlow: Pepa Aragulinja Aranda Katjirberaka (School primer, published 1928)
Ewangelia Lukaka. (Gospel of St. Luke in the Aranda or Arunta language.), 1925. London: B. & F.B.S.
Ewangelia Taramatara(four gospels in Aranda), 1928 London: B. & F.B.S.
See also
History of the Lutheran Church of Australia
Footnotes
References
Further reading
PDF
Strehlow, Ted (1969) Journey to Horseshoe Bend
External links
1871 births
1922 deaths
German Lutheran missionaries
Australian Lutherans
Lutheran missionaries in Australia
Missionary linguists
German emigrants to Australia
German anthropologists
People from Märkisch-Oderland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda%20Chung
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Linda Chung
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Linda Chung Ka-yan (; born on 9 April 1984) is a Chinese-Canadian actress, singer and songwriter. She signed a long-term contract with TVB in 2004 after winning the Miss Chinese International. Chung was always Non-official Best Actress during the years in TVB. Chung ended her contract with TVB in early 2018.
As a singer, Chung has released four studio albums, Dinner for One, World for Two (2008), My Love Story (2009), My Private Selection (2011), and Love Love Love (2012).
Chung is currently a YouTube KOL.
Early life
Chung was born in Maple Ridge and raised in Vancouver, British Columbia with an older brother and sister. After graduation from Vancouver's Templeton Secondary School, Chung studied education at the University of British Columbia for two years.
Beginning her public life in 2002, Chung won the title of Miss Crystal Cover Girl, a beauty-talent contest organised and hosted annually by Crystal Mall, an Asian-themed shopping centre located in the Metrotown area of Burnaby, British Columbia.
In 2003, Chung won the title of Miss Chinese Vancouver, along with three other awards at the same event, earning her the chance to participate, and eventually winning Miss Chinese International at the Miss Chinese International Pageant 2004, hosted in Hong Kong. She was praised by Kelly Chen for her sweet face and voice the day before this pageant. Chung became the third contestant from Vancouver in four years to win the title of this annually-held event.
TV career
2004–2005: Entry and initial success
After winning the Miss Chinese International Pageant, Chung was signed under TVB. Chung made her acting debut in the series Virtues of Harmony II, the modern spin-off of the sitcom, Virtues of Harmony. Her performance was somewhat popular in the year, garnering positive reviews from the public. She was nominated for the Most Improved Female Actress award at the 2004's TVB Anniversary Awards for the first time. Chung also participated in several advertisements and music videos within her first year in the industry. This initial success led TVB to name her as one of the "Twelve New Stars."
Other industry professionals also gave praise to Chung during this initial period such as Nancy Sit, Frankie Lam, Kara Hui, Shawn Yue, Chen Kun, Kent Cheng, Sammy Leung, Wong He, Joey Leung and Erica Yuen.
2006–2008: Breakthrough and A-grade actress
In 2006, after starring in Always Ready, The Biter Bitten and Forensic Heroes, Chung won her first major award "Most Improved Female Actress.
Chung's breakthrough role came in 2007, where she played a character named Sheung Joy Sum (lit. meaning: always at heart) in a popular series of that year, Heart of Greed. Chung received much praise from audiences and several famous people. A couple of scenes involving her character generated the highest peaks for the drama's ratings, one was when her character exposed that Alfred Ching Leung deceived her, garnering a 39-point rating; another was when Tong Chi On proposed marriage to her, garnering a 48-point rating. This role gave her a nomination for Best Actress and My Most Favourite Female Character Role for the second year in a row.
During the shooting of A Journey Called Life, Chung received much praise from co-star Steven Ma, for her beauty, good manner, and ripe acting. The two have worked together in a previous collaboration of Virtues of Harmony II.
Among the five series that were released in 2008, Chung received most recognition for her acting in A Journey Called Life. She received praises from Sheren Tang as well as the public. At the 41st TVB Anniversary Awards (2008), Chung was nominated in the top 5 of the Best Actress award for her role in this series. She was also nominated for the top 5 Most Favorite Female Character Award for Legend of the Demigods, her first leading role in a period drama. Chung then acted as Yu So Sum in Moonlight Resonance and received some recognitions for this role. A scene in the drama, telling her fierce exchange with Yan Hung, garnered a 50-point rating, making it the most-watched scene in all TVB series to-date. Chung also received praises from Ha Yu, Michelle Yim and Lee Heung-kam when she was acting this role.
2009–2010: Success in comedy and villain works
In 2009, Chung performed in Ghost Writer, A Watchdog's Tale, Twilight Investigation, as well as Can't Buy Me Love. At the 42nd TVB Anniversary Awards (2009), Chung was nominated top 5 in the Best Supporting Actress for her role in The Gem of Life and this role received praise from Ada Choi, Lee San San and Maggie Shiu.
In 2010, Chung had four series, A Watchdog's Tale released in 2009 actually, but the series got the highest audience rating in the first season in 2010 and top five series in audience rating in the whole year. In A Watchdog's Tale, Chung got another breakthrough while she was acting a likeness of the masculine role. At the 2010 TVB Anniversary Awards, Chung was nominated top 5 in the Best Actress award for her role in Ghost Writer and also nominated top 5 in the Most Favourite Female Character Role award for her role in Can't Buy Me Love. Twilight Investigation was another series in the year, her acting has got approbated yet.
2011–2012: Outstanding years
While Chung was filming the ancient costume drama "River of Wine" in December 2010, she received praise from Bowie Lam as for her weeping scene. Chung was also captured by media to be the "successor of fa-dan" and one of the "Best new-coming fa-dan" with Myolie Wu, Kate Tsui and Fala Chen as the first-class performance of Chung in several series before the day.
In 2011, Chung was the second female lead in "Yes, Sir. Sorry, Sir!." She had just played her character Miss Koo from the 8th episode till the end. Although she only had unrequited love for one of the male lead in the series (Moses Chan), she became the focus for the audience and internet users by the three sections of Miss Koo. First, she appeared as a cool bowling coach initially. Next, Miss Koo seems to be a melting glacier as she was affected by Law Sir (Moses Chan's character), this made the audience pay enthusiastic attention on their sweet and emotional scenes. When it was nearly came to an end, Law Sir's undercover identity was finally revealed, Miss Koo was collapsed since she has been deceived by Law Sir and her sister (Queenie Chu's character). This also left a deep impression in the audiences' mind. The audiences had massive praises for her performance and agreed that she was perfectly capable of competing in Best Actress category for this role at the year-end awards ceremony, despite being second female lead. It was rare that the major newspapers also reported the above matter at the same time. She was not only supported by Chan and Yeung, but she also supported by Queenie Chu, Cilla Kung and Lau Ka Ho. On the whole, Chung received full of praise and Miss Koo is one of the representative work for Linda Chung.
With Chung's amazing performances till mid 2011, TVB Anniversary Awards "Best Actress" Charmaine Sheh, Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director Gordon Chan, Hong Kong Film director Patrick Kong, Hong Kong CR1 DJ, Tvb actress Helen Ma, Kate Tsui and Myolie Wu praised support for her either to be the next "Best Actress" or to get an award in TVB Anniversary Awards, or to be the first-actress.
Finally, she was nominated for Top 5 Best Actress and Most Favourite Female Character Role award for her role in "Yes, Sir. Sorry, Sir!." She got the My Most Supportive Performance award from Ming Pao Anniversary Awards in 2011 for Miss Koo in Yes Sir, Sorry Sir according to voting from audience. However, Miss Koo lost out the Most Favourite Female Character Role award at the 2011 TVB Anniversary Awards, and TVB was criticised as later the actual results of the online voting actually proved her the rightful winner of the Most Favourite Female Character Role award, instead of Myolie Wu. Fans were also outraged that she left the 2011 TVB Anniversary Awards empty handed. Chung started to be the Non-official Best Actress.
Chung filmed "L'Escargot" in 2010 and it was finally aired in 2012. Her character was involved in a complicated love triangle with Michael Tse and Ron Ng's characters. She herself spoke about the many new challenges she faced while portraying her character. In addition, her relation line with Tse has gained her more public exposure and was the topic of popular discussion. Her show was praised by Gem Tang, Felix Wong and Hinson Chou. On 19 March 2012, her new series Daddy Good Deeds aired and her character Ko Yu-chu spread fun to the public. Her professional attitude and acting were praised by Cilla Kung, Xia Yu and Steven Ma, especially Ma mentioned she was still maintaining the purity of heart and having progress in her acting continually. She and Steven Ma collaborated five times in TVB, was a terrific couple on screen. Her third series House of Harmony and Vengeance was aired on TVB from 30 Apr to 8 June 2012, portraying her as an ancient version of Ms. Cool. Bobby Au Yeung wondered Chung do not know dancing as he had watched she played hula hoop, he mentioned Chung was so hard-working and serious in practising dancing. Bobby said Chung was only alike a little girl in their first starring "Forensic Heroes", however, she is completely changed and honed during these years, either acting or in life. He stated her purity have not changed over the years. Myolie Wu also mentioned the purity of Chung.
Her fourth series Witness Insecurity was aired from 2 to 27 July 2012, making her the actress with the highest exposure rate for the first half of the year, having four series already out and probably nothing left for the rest of the year. Many viewers criticised about the way TVB was showing her series too close to one another. However, Witness Insecurity garnered high TVB viewership ratings, which turned out to be unexpected by TVB. On the ending note, the sad ending for this series also received a huge outcry from viewers, most reflected they preferred a good ending and requested for a re-make of the ending. Not only Chung's acting was praised by public, but she and her co-star Bosco Wong were gaining high popularity to be the new screen couple. She was praised by Paul Chun, co-star Bosco Wong and film director Patrick Kong Chung was again owning great support from public will by Witness Insecurity this year. Jason Chan, Michael Dao, Charmaine Li support Chung to gain an "Best Actress" Award for the year. However, she lost the nomination of My favorite female character role in TVB Awards Anniversary Ceremony 2012 without any reason. The award was given to Kate Tsui at last. Although Chung can gain the nomination and get into top 5 of Best Actress, TVB still received a lot of complaints about Chung not having a nomination of My favorite female character role and it was the second time caused Chung to be the Non-official Best Actress. Moreover, the public voting also proved Chung and Charmaine Sheh as the rightful winner of the actress awards.
In the series Missing You, Chung was leading other new actors and actresses such as Jason Chan, Cilla Kung, Lin Xia Wei, and Calvin Chan. Ram Chiang was the only senior actor there.
2013–2014: Stepped to the peak
In 2013, Chung won the champion of "Ten TV entertainer" by public voting in the Next TV Publishing Ceremony 2013. She has already gained top ten of the TV entertainer for six years consecutively, which proofing her popularity and outstanding performance in the past years. Chung also won the Most Popular Actress in the largest film forum "Vietnam DMA awards ceremony" of the Year Award in two consecutive years in Vietnam.
In May, Chung participated in the variety show "Office of Practical Jokes", which presided by Johnson Lee, acting a plot to treat the world top magician. Her outstanding performance from intimidating by hamsters to injuring magician and Lee, gained much appreciated by the public, and again having widespread media coverage and discussion of internet forums. Not only presided Lee, but many professionals also praised her acting in the plot, such that Gem Tang, Patrick Kong, Sharon Chan, Kitty Yuen, Bob Lam, Ding Tze Ko, Yoyo Mung, Albert Au,
Chung was labelled as the "Best Actress" by the public audiences again and this is the third time for Chung to be the Non-official Best Actress.
Chung starred in 2013 TVB's grand productions 30 episodes Brother's Keeper, co-starring with Ruco Chan. She acted as a fashion designer Rachel Cheuk. The series spans from 1991 to 2013. Chung and her co-star Ruco Chan became a screen couple as their co-operation gaining high popularity in the public. Chung gained support by co-star Ruco Chan, Joe Ma, Fala Chen, Joey Man, Tavia Yeung, Niki Chow, Kate Tsui, Myolie Wu, and so on, to get the "Best Actress" that year. On 1 December 2013, Chung finally got her first Best Actress in "TVB Awards Ceremony 2013 Malaysia Star Ceremony", as the award is 100% by public voting. Chung was not only gained the "Best Actress", but she also gained the My Favorite TV Role, became the first 1980s artist to win the "Best Actress" title.
In 2014, Chung filmed TVB Gold New Year 2014 micro film "A Time of Love", starring with South Korea actor Yeon Jung-hoon. Their segment was the most popular episode in the whole set although broadcast on Saturday, gained up to 28 points in rating.
On 26 March, the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology invited Chung to a one-hour lecture of "Meet the Professional Series III: Road to Leading Actress – Linda Chung" as the theme for sharing with students about the choice of life, transformation, and practice the ideal. Chung is the first Hong Kong TV actress to be a lecturer who was invited to the university.
Her series for 2014 were Tiger Cubs II and All That Is Bitter Is Sweet.
2015–2018: End works in TVB
Chung's only series for 2015 is Limelight Years, co-starred with Damian Lau, Liza Wang, Alex Fong among others, while she was busy with work in the music industry. Damian Lau and Liza Wang had highly praised towards Chung about her attitude and performance in Limelight Years.
David Siu mentioned Chung has potential on acting in an interview. He likes Chung acted from basic til qualified right now, sometimes provided new elements in her performance as well. Chow Yun-fat also mentioned Chung acting well, especially in the variety show Office of Practical Jokes, Chow informed Chung continue to maintain these standards in her acting. Gloria Tang mentioned she wish to depend on the target of Chung, about her standard of acting and her attitude. In addition, Chung was supported by Wayne Lai, Liza Wang and Gloria Tang to earn "Best Actress" in TVB Anniversary Ceremony. Chung won Mainland China's Favourite TVB Actress as the result was 100% totally vote by mainland netizens in TVB Anniversary Ceremony. She got the fourth time to be the Non-official Best Actress in 2015 due to the online voting for "Best Actress" in oncc.
In 2016, Chung starred in the drama K9 Cop alongside Bosco Wong, and made a brief appearance in the sequel of her 2013 series Brother's Keeper, Brother's Keeper II. Several juniors mentioned Chung acts well and is a good role model in TV and entertainment industry, such as Gloria Tang Pui Yee, Hana Kuk, Adrien Yau,Jackson Wang, Carlos Chan, Kayan Yau, and Malaysian Singer Melody Tan.
In 2018, she made a guest appearance in Another Era, starring opposite Frankie Lam, Lam said Chung became mature than Forensic Heroes 12 years before.
On 7 March 2018, her pregnancy wasn't the only thing that Chung announced on social media recently, as she also revealed that she would no longer be a part of TVB. She shared the news in the same post that was published last weekend, stated that she has decided to leave TVB after 13 years with the company. She wrote, "I remember being only 19 when I joined Miss Chinese International and not understanding anything, no self-confidence, and was very shy. TVB was my shelter. They taught me many things and gave me the opportunity to grow and develop myself, help me discover who I am, my talent, and my mission. They gave me the courage to show my true self to the public." Linda also mentioned several names that she is in gratitude for, including TVB Executive Virginia Lok whom she described as a mother figure who protected her, and Catherine Tsang, who gave Linda her first break. She also thanked Voice Entertainment's Herman Ho, for helping her achieve her dream of becoming a singer, and TVB Executive Sandy Yue, who gave her the opportunity to gain more experience from doing variety shows."Finally, thank you very much for all the other executives of TVB's top management. Without your hard work and support, I will not be at where I am today. I am forever grateful! We may be saying goodbye now, but I do feel like we are going to meet again soon," she added.
2019-Present: Open-ended
In 2020, Chung returned to TVB and filmed the medical drama Kids' Lives Matter. The drama was broadcast in 2021. Florence Kwok stated Chung was a hardworking girl when they starred in Forensic Heroes, they had a lot more chemistry after these years. Again, she received attention and was highly praised by netizens for her performance, for which she became the strongest contender for the Best Actress award. With her role in this drama, she won the Best TVB Actress in Malaysia award, and is placed among the top 5 nominees for both the Best Actress and Most Popular Female Character. Many netizens, including Hong Kong, Malaysia and Mainland, complained the final result in TVB anniversary award 2021, especially mentioned Best Actress should return to Chung. She also nominates Best Actress in non-official TV awards and as the champion for long, but she became the first runner-up by 24.92% and 14,576 votes at the last minute. The year caused Chung the fifth time to be the Non-official Best Actress.
In 2022, Chung mentioned she won't return to TVB in the future on the stage of TVB anniversary award 2021, she also added her feelings in YouTube channel. However, Chung mentioned she loves ViuTV newcomers Mirror consecutively in public instead of TVB newcomers, especially Anson Lo and Keung To. She also stated she may accept any offers in future years at public event, including ViuTV.
Film career
2007: Newcomer
When Chung filmed her first film, Love Is Not All Around, alongside Alex Fong, Stephy Tang and Sammy Leung in 2007, she was praised by its director Patrick Kong. She was nominated for "Best New Performer" for her role Ching Ching and won the Silver Award. Chung has already succeeded in entering the films industry, the same year as Kate Tsui.
2008–2010: Leading
Chung first became the leading actress in the film Playboy Cops in 2008. She received praises in the last scenes. She acted as a guest star in the similar movie of Love Is Not All Around, L for Love, L for Lies, where she also got praise from the performance.
Her latest film in 2010 is 72 Tenants of Prosperity. Chung received praise from Eric Tsang for her hard work and purity, and also especially receive praises from Hong Kong Film Awards "Best Actress" Anita Yuen for her effort, positive personality, hard work and improvement in this movie.
As Chung charmingly interprets in TVB series, Hong Kong Film Award for Best Director Gordon Chan commended Chung calling her the best young actress who come from TV station and one of the best actress in Hong Kong.
Music career
2008–2009: First attempt at success
In addition to acting, Chung used to receive praise in some live show for her singing. Chung has sung the theme songs for some of the series that she has starred in then, including her first personal song "Swear" for Legends of Demigods, Best Bet, A Journey Called Life, A Watchdog's Tale and the subtheme for Heart of Greed. Chung has also sung the children's songs, which were welcomed by children. In May 2008, Chung signed a deal with Star Entertainment which launched her into a successful music career. Her first album was released on 20 August. Her album "Dinner for One, World for Two" achieved Gold Status in Hong Kong based on the number of sales and she earned the title of "The Best Selling Female Bewcomer" in the year. This album garnered her several awards at the end of 2008, including "Gold Newcomer Awards" and "Most liked Female Newcomer." Her first plugged song was "World for Two." Her second plugged song "I'm actually unhappy" got a high click rating in YouTube. Due to its success, Star Entertainment released a second version of her album, Dinner for One, World for Two Reloaded, which included more songs and more bonus material.
Her second album, My Love Story, was released on 12 November 2009 and has since been classified gold. The songs of "Thinking of you day and night", "One Day" and "Life and Death for Love" were all owe to her works on melody. Among these three songs, "Thinking of you day and night" was the first plugged song and was much more conspicuous. Chung won awards in different music platforms based on this song. "Fighting in the light and shadows" was the second plugged song. She has since collaborated with another Star Entertainment singer, Stephanie Cheng. "Ngoi Dak Hei (Ai De Qi)" is the product of their co-operation. This song reached the champion on TVB's JSG Solid Gold programme.
2010–2011: Approved works
Her new song "If You Want Me" has just released in January 2011. Chung was praised by CR2 DJ Vani Wong, Alton Yu and Wasabi for her outstanding performance. Apart from the above, she received much praises from three DJ who are in the CR2 "The Playtoy Mansion" program and she was also praised by Sammy Leung and Siu Yi in the CR2 "Good Morning King" program in February, for her "Jade Girl" image which is not only an image in the entertainment industry, but she also behaves in reality.
In 2011, her third album, My Private Selection, was released on 25 March. The album was qualitatively new songs plus choiceness. It was not only recorded her first plugged song "If you want me", but it also recorded another four new recording songs "Luo Suo", "De Xian Zhao Ni", "I'll Be Waiting For You", "Ngoi Dak Hei (Ai De Qi) solo version" and her thirteen choiceness songs from Dinner for One, World for Two debut album and My Love Story.
2012–present: Love Love Love & Solo Concerts
In 2012, Chung released her 4th studio album Love Love Love. This album has been certified Gold and sold out quickly. The album reached the #1 in sales chart and entered the sales chart of the LP Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong for more than 5 weeks, gaining #2 for 2 weeks. Her first plug Vaccine reached #1 of JSG chart and her second plug You are my other half reached #1 of 3 musical chart, including RTHK, MRHNA and JSG. She is the first and only TVB Canadian pop singer who got three No. 1 in the four major musical charts in the nearest 12 years. Stars Shine, Chung's music company, compiled and released a second edition of the album, removing one song and including the theme song of her currently airing series Missing You. Chung gained her first "Female Singer Award" in MRHNA Musical Ceremony 2012, which continued gained the same award in 2013.
First solo concert
In August 2013, Chung held her first solo concert dated 22 and 23 August. It was held at Kowloon Bay Trade & Exhibition Centre. Her concert gained a full house. During the concert she received massive warmth and support from her fans. She invited 3 guests such as Janice M. Vidal, newcomer Ally Tse, and especially top female singer Kelly Chen. When Kelly Chen sang with Chung, it gained a climax of the whole concert. When Chung sang "Friendship is just that simple" and played with her piano, the concert was going to another climax.
In December 2014, Chung held "Most Blessing" Live Concert in Malaysia 2014 on 20 December at Arena of Stars. She invited Kristal Tin and Alex Fong as guest performers. The concert achieved a great success.
Personal life
In 2014, Chung was invited to speak at the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. She spoke about her battle with depression after joining the entertainment industry. At the start of her career, Linda faced severe pressure from a heavy workload and suffered loneliness from being far away from home. She said: "I didn’t know anything so I had a lot of pressure. I was also afraid to talk to someone about it, especially those close to me. During that time, I would cry as soon as I returned home." She eventually worked through the hard times and gained her emotional strength.
As part of TVB, Chung was "the youngest A-grade actress, and the highest paid TVB actress, earning around HK$120,000 per event, until 2015. Chung is also a devoted Christian and Philip Ng is her ex-boyfriend.
Chung married chiropractor Jeremy Leung in fall 2015. Despite the age gap, Chung stated that their relationship developed due to similar interests and understanding of one another. When paparazzi asked Chung's parents if they approve of their son in law, Chung's parents responded confidently with an approval.
Chung announced her pregnancy on Mother's Day 2016. She revealed on 27 August 2016 that she had given birth to a daughter named Kelly Leung. She announced the birth of her second child, Jared Leung, on 6 September 2018. On 10 April 2022, Chung announced on Instagram that she was pregnant with the couple’s third child.
Filmography
Television dramas
TVB Sales Presentation
The following series only appeared in TVB Sales Presentation or Chung not starred in final piece
Films
Dubbing
Variety shows
Music Video
Discography
Albums
Studio albums
Compilation albums
Split albums
Singles
Charted singles
TV & animated singles
Compositions
Covers
Commercial Singles
Tours
Linda Chung Love Love Love Concert 2013 in Hong Kong
Linda Chung Love Concert 2014 in Malaysia
Books
Photo-book - happiness (幸·福) in 2013
Commercial Adverts
TVB Official Adverts
Awards
Major music awards statistics
2021
TVB Anniversary Awards 2021 - Favourite TVB Actress in Malaysia (Kids' Lives Matter)
2015
Starhub TVB Awards 2015 – My Favourite TVB Female TV Character (Tiger Cubs II)
Starhub TVB Awards 2015 – Bottomslim The Perfect Figure Award
2014
Starhub TVB Awards 2014 – My Favourite TVB Female TV Character (All That Is Bitter Is Sweet)
Starhub TVB Awards 2014 – Red Carpet Star
2013
Astro TVB Star Awards 2013 – My Favourite TVB Actress in a Leading Role (Brother's Keeper)
Starhub TVB Awards 2013 – My Favourite TVB Female TV Character (Witness Insecurity)
Starhub TVB Awards 2013 – Everlasting Glow Award
Starhub TVB Awards 2013 – Red Carpet Star
2012
My AOD Favourite Award – Top 15 Character Ranked No. 3
Starhub TVB Award 2012 – Perfect Smile Award.
Starhub TVB Award 2012 – My Favorite TVB Onscreen Couple (Yes Sir, Sorry Sir)
Starhub TVB Award 2012 – My Favorite TVB Female Character (L'Escargot)
Vietnam DMA Presentation Ceremony 2011 – Most Popular Female Actress (Hong Kong)
Next TV Awards 2012 – Ranked No. 5 Song Award
Next TV Awards 2012 – Toshiba Award
2011
Ming Pao Anniversary Awards 2011 – My Most Supportive Performance (Yes Sir, Sorry Sir)
My AOD Malaysia My Favourite TVB Series Presentation 2011 – Top 10 My Favourite Character
Next TV Awards 2011 – Ranked No. 6 Song Award
JSG First Round Music Awards 2011 – Song Award (If You Want Me)
JSG Music Awards 2010 – Best Duet – Bronze (with Stephanie Cheng)
2010
My AOD Malaysia My Favourite TVB Series Presentation 2010 – My Favourite Character
JSG First Round Music Awards 2010 – Best Duet Song Award (with Stephanie Cheng)
JSG First Round Music Awards 2010 – Song Award
Next TV Awards 2010 – Polo Santa Roberta Award
Next TV Awards 2010 – Ranked No. 6 Song Award
() Award Ceremony – Most Improved Singer Award
Sina Music Awards – Top 20 Song (Missing You Day & Night)
JSG Music Awards 2009 – Best Duet Bronze Award (with Phillip Wei)
JSG Music Awards 2009 – Best Performance Award – Bronze Song Award
2009
Metro Radio Hits 2009 Awards – Best Metro Radio Hits Best Second Year Singer (Female)
Metro Radio Hits 2009 Awards – Best Karaoke Song (Missing You Day & Night)
JSG third round Music Awards – song award (Missing you day and night)
Yes! Idol Award Presentation 2009 – Karaoke Female Idol
Yes! Idol Award Presentation 2009 – 2009 Yes Idol
Next TV Awards 2009 – Ranked No. 6 Song Award
IFPI Hong Kong CD Sales Presentation 2008 – Most Sales Hong Kong Female newcomer
Astro Awards 2008 – My Favorite Character 2008 – Sheung Joy Sum
Astro Awards 2008 – Favorite Onscreen Couple 2008 (with Raymond Lam)
RTHK Top 10 Gold Songs Awards – Best Female Newcomer Outstanding Award
Sina Music Awards 2008 – My Favourite Female Newcomer 2008 – Gold
() Award Ceremony 2008 – Newcomer Awards 2008
JSG Music Awards 2008 – Best Female Newcomer 2008 – Silver
2008
Metro Radio Hits Music Award Presentation 2008 – Metro Radio Hits King of New Singers Award 2008 – (Female) Linda Chung
Yes! Idol Award Presentation 2008 – Most Rise TV Idol
Yes! Idol Award Presentation 2008 – King of New Singers Award 2008 – (Female)
JSG Third Round Music Awards 2008 – Song Award
Metro Radio Newcomer Presentation 2008 – Best Live Female Performer 2008
TVB8 Music Awards 2008 – Best Newcomer Silver Award 2008
Yahoo! Buzz Awards 2008 – Most Rise in Searches Newcomer Artist 2008
Metro Radio Children's Song Presentation 2008 – Song of the Year
Metro Radio Children' Song Presentation 2008 – Top 10 Song
TVB Children's Song Presentation 2008 – Golden Song Award
TVB Children's Song Presentation 2008 – Top 10 Song
Hong Kong Film Directors' Society – Silver Song Award
27th Hong Kong Film Awards – Nomination of Best New Performer
Next TV Awards 2008 – Ranked No. 9 Song Award
2007
Metro Radio Children's Song Presentation 2007 – Top 10 Song
TVB Children's Song Presentation 2007 – Top 10 Song
Next TV Awards 2007 – Healthiest Star
Yahoo! Buzz Awards 2007 – Most Rise in Searches TV Artist 2007
Next TV Awards 2007 – mYoga Female Artist Award
2006
TVB Anniversary Awards 2006 – Most Improved Female Actress Award 2006
Next TV Awards 2006 – Yumei Award
2005
Magazine of Week 8 – Most Perfect Smile
2004
Miss Chinese International 2004 – Champion
2003
Miss Chinese Vancouver 2003 – Champion
Miss Chinese Vancouver 2003 – Miss Photogenic
Miss Chinese Vancouver 2003 – Miss Talent
Miss Chinese Vancouver 2003 – Miss Snow Beauty
2002
Miss Crystal Cover Girl 2002 – Champion
Miss Crystal Cover Girl 2002 – Best Swimsuit Performance
References
External links
Linda Chung Official Website
Linda Chung on Weibo
Official TVB Blog of Linda Chung
Miss Chinese International Profile
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1984 births
21st-century Hong Kong actresses
21st-century Canadian actresses
Actresses from British Columbia
Canadian actresses of Hong Kong descent
Canadian film actresses
Canadian emigrants to Hong Kong
Canadian television actresses
Cantonese people
21st-century Hong Kong women singers
Hong Kong film actresses
Hong Kong television actresses
Living people
Miss Chinese International winners
Musicians from British Columbia
People from Maoming
People from Maple Ridge, British Columbia
People with acquired permanent residency of Hong Kong
TVB actors
University of British Columbia Faculty of Education alumni
Canadian women pop singers
21st-century Canadian women singers
Canadian actresses of Chinese descent
Canadian actresses of Asian descent
Canadian YouTubers
Templeton Secondary School alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Cambodia
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Cinema of Cambodia
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Cinema in Cambodia began in the 1950s, and many films were being screened in theaters throughout the country by the 1960s, which are regarded as the "golden age". After a near-disappearance during the Khmer Rouge regime, competition from video and television has meant that the Cambodian film industry is a small one.
History
The early years
As early as the 1920s, documentary films were shot in Cambodia by foreign filmmakers. By the 1930s, King Norodom Sihanouk had a desire for films and dreamed of stardom before the French chose him to be king. Even after his selection, he kept in mind the idea of acting or directing. The first Cambodian-made films were made in the 1950s by filmmakers who had studied overseas. They included Roeum Sophon, Ieu Pannakar and Sun Bun Ly. The United States Information Service held training workshops during this era and provided equipment. One film from this time was Dan Prean Lbas Prich (Footprints of the Hunter), made by off-duty Cambodian military personnel using American equipment and containing footage of Cambodian hill tribes.
Sun Bun Ly's first film was Kar Pear Prumjarei Srei Durakut (Protect Virginity). He also established the first private production company, Ponleu Neak Poan Kampuchea. His success inspired others, such as Ly Bun Yim, to try their hand.
The golden age
In the 1960s, several production companies were started and more movie theaters were built throughout the country. This was the "golden age" of Cambodian cinema, when more than 300 movies were made. Movie tickets were relatively affordable and Cambodian-made movies were popular with all classes in Cambodia. Movie-lovers favored movies featuring traditional Cambodian legends. At the time, about two-thirds of the films released were boran (films of legends). Among the classic films of this period are Lea Haey Duong Dara (Goodbye Duong Dara) and Pos Keng Kang (The Snake King's Wife) by Tea Lim Kun. Other films followed, such as Crocodile Man, The Snake King's Wife Part 2, The Snake girl and My Mother is Arb. These films found success both in Cambodia and abroad.
During the Golden Age, some Cambodian films were released abroad. and during the 1970s they were well received internationally. Pos Keng Kang, a Khmer Horror period, was a big hit in Thailand, and Crocodile Man (1974) was screened successfully in Hong Kong. Such successes opened the way for foreign screenings of Khmer films such as Puthisean Neang Kong rey and The Snake Girl. Stars during this era included actress Vichara Dany, who made hundreds of films but lost her life during the Khmer Rouge regime.
The star of Pos Keng Kang, actress Dy Saveth, escaped Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge rule. She has returned to act in films and to teach at Royal University of Phnom Penh. A leading man of the era was action star Chea Yuthon, and his mistress Saom Vansodany was a famous actress of the sixties and seventies. Their son Thorn Tharith made an autobiographical drama, Chheam Anatha (The Blood of An Orphan), about the family's struggles during the Khmer Rouge time. Kong Sam Oeurn and Van Vanak are other famous leading actors of the era. They are believed to have perished under the communist regime.
Sihanouk (then a prince) also made films, which he wrote, directed and produced himself. They were mostly romantic melodramas with an underlying social message. A cinema fan since his student days in Saigon in the 1930s, he released his first feature, Apsara, on August 8, 1966. He made eight more films during the next three years, serving as producer, director, writer, composer and star. His other films during this period include Ombre Sur Angkor (1967), Rose de Bokor, Crepuscule (Twilight) (1969) and Joie de vivre. His 1967 film Spellbound Wood was entered into the 5th Moscow International Film Festival.
Khmer Rouge and the Communist era
In the years leading up to the takeover by the Khmer Rouge, refugees crowded the cities and movie-going remained extremely popular. Among the films at this time were the love-triangle melodrama On srey On and The Time to Cry. Both films featured the music of popular Cambodian singer Sinn Sisamouth.
The industry's decline began in late 1974, when the fall of Phnom Penh to the Khmer Rouge was imminent. After the Khmer Rouge takeover, the cities were depopulated and film audiences shrank. The Khmer Rouge itself made some propaganda films to screen at collective meetings, and diplomatic visits were recorded on film.
With the invasion of Cambodia by Vietnam, the fall of the Khmer Rouge and the installation of the Vietnam-backed government of the People's Republic of Kampuchea, movie houses in Phnom Penh were re-opened, but there was no domestic film industry, because many filmmakers and actors from the 1960s and 1970s had been killed by the Khmer Rouge or had fled the country. Negatives and prints of many films were destroyed, stolen, or missing. Many of the films that did survive are in poor condition, as there has been no effort at preservation.
Cinema in Cambodia at this time consisted of films from Vietnam, the Soviet Union, East European socialist countries and Hindi movies from India; films from other nations, such as Hong Kong action cinema, were banned. Audiences soon tired of the socialist realism and class struggle depicted in the films.
Cambodia's film industry began a slow comeback starting with My Mother is Arb (or Krasue Mom), a horror movie based on Khmer folklore and the first movie made in Cambodia after the Khmer Rouge era. Cambodian production companies began to re-emerge and tread the fine line of making films that would entertain people without incurring the wrath of the government. Films from this period, such as Chet Chorng Cham (Reminding the Mind) and Norouk Pramboun Chaon (Nine Levels of Hell), told stories about the miseries endured under the Khmer Rouge, or about lives under the Vietnam-backed regime. Soon there were more than 200 production companies making films that competed for screenings at 30 cinemas in Phnom Penh.
The boom in filmmaking was curtailed, however, by the introduction of VCRs, video cameras and importation of taped foreign television programs, including Thai soap operas.
Slow comeback
From 1990 to 1994, hundreds of local Cambodian movies were released every year. The majority of films released at the time were all made in 1993, during the time of the United Nations Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC). The period of plenty ended in 1994 due to the governments demand over Cambodian movies being incomparable to foreign films. In 1995, most Cambodian production turned to karaoke, and by 1996, HD cameras had become widely available in Cambodia. Since the early 1990s, the local industry has started a slow comeback.
One sign of progress is the career of French-trained director Rithy Panh, who escaped Cambodia after seeing his family die under the Khmer Rouge. His films focus on the aftermath of the Khmer Rouge. One is the docudrama Rice People (1994), which competed at the 1994 Cannes Film Festival and was submitted to the 67th Academy Awards for Best Foreign Language Film, the first time a Cambodian film had been submitted for an Oscar.
Unlike other diaspora filmmakers, Cambodian filmmaker-producer Chhay Bora lives and works full-time in Cambodia. His recent drama Lost Loves was submitted for a 2013 Oscar for Best Foreign Language Film.
In 2001, Fai Sam Ang directed Kon pous keng kang (The Snake King's Child), a remake of a classic 1960s Cambodian film. Though it was a Thai co-production, starring Thai leading man Winai Kraibutr, it was recognized as the first Cambodian film to be released since before the Khmer Rouge era. At the time, Phnom Penh did not yet have any viable commercial cinemas, so the film was screened at the French Cultural Center in Phnom Penh and in outdoor screenings, as well as in a widespread commercial release in Thailand cinemas.
The 2003 Phnom Penh riots, prompted by a newspaper article that falsely quoted Thai actress Suvanant Kongying as saying that Cambodia had stolen Angkor, resulted in a ban on all Thai films and television programs. To fill the large gap in programming, a resurgence in Cambodian film and TV production began.
Recent developments
A national film festival was held in November 2005. Many of the films shown were locally made low-budget horror films such as Lady Vampire, which depicts the krasue, a ghostly flying female head with internal organs dangling beneath it. Lady Vampire and Ghost Banana Tree were the hit horror films since the resurgence of the Cambodian film industry. The trophy for best movie went to The Crocodile, a tale of the heroism of a man who killed the beast responsible for the deaths of several people in his village. It starred Cambodian pop singer Preap Sovath and veteran actress Dy Saveth. The Second prize went to a legendary Khmer fantasy film, Moranak Meada, and the third was won by the true-life drama Gratefulness.
Other recent films include Tum Teav, a 16th- and 18th-century Cambodian folktale, and A Mother's Heart and Who Am I?, both by Pan Phuong Bopha, one of the first working female writer-directors in Cambodia. She started her career in 1989 with horror and romance movies before achieving success with Who Am I?, who became a "blockbuster" in Cambodia and was appreciated abroad. Another notable female Cambodian director is Lida Chan, who specializes in films and documentaries about the Khmer Rouge, and achieved success in 2012 with the award-winning Red Wedding.
The creation of the Cambodia Film Commission in 2009 by the Agence Française de Développement (AFD) and Film France, under the observation of the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, offers new possibilities for filmmakers to explore Cambodia's numerous film-worthy locations. However, the Cinema and Cultural Diffusion Department, the official office of the Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts, remains the official first point of contact for foreign producers seeking permits and filming information in Cambodia.
In middle of 2011, Phnom Penh started to see a major change in the cinema scene. Two major malls opened up cinema outlets offering international films in English with Khmer subtitles.
Cambodia's first science fiction film Karmalink was released in 2023.
Foreign films made in Cambodia
Cambodia's Angkor Wat was the location for the filming of 1965's Lord Jim, starring Peter O'Toole, but it was not until the early 21st century that foreign filmmakers made their return to the country.
The best-known depiction of Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge years, The Killing Fields (1984), starring the Cambodian actor Haing S. Ngor as journalist Dith Pran, was in fact made in neighboring Thailand.
Since the reopening of Cambodia to international tourism, high-profile directors such as Oliver Stone, Steven Spielberg and director/producer Brendan Moriarty have scouted Cambodia for locations. The 2001 action blockbuster Lara Croft: Tomb Raider was shot on location around Angkor, and its star, Angelina Jolie, became so enamored of the country that she adopted a Cambodian boy named Maddox and lived there for a time. Other films shot on location around Angkor include Wong Kar-wai's In the Mood for Love (which also includes film footage of the 1966 visit of Charles de Gaulle to Phnom Penh) and Two Brothers by Jean-Jacques Annaud in 2003. Matt Dillon's 2002 drama, City of Ghosts, was filmed in many locations around the country, including Phnom Penh and the Bokor Hill Station. Moriarty's war film The Road to Freedom was filmed entirely in Cambodia in the summer of 2009 and had limited release in cinemas in 2011. It tells the story of Sean and Dana, war photographers in Cambodia during the Khmer Rouge regime in the 1970s.
Since 2009, the Cambodia Film Commission has set up a training program to allow foreign productions to work with a local crew familiar with international standards. Since 2009 there has been a significant inflow of foreign productions filming in Cambodia. The Ministry of Culture and Fine Arts has facilitated a number of projects from Europe, USA, Australia, Asia. The Kingdom now offers professional equipment within the country, and an increasing number of skilled Cambodian professionals for set construction, wardrobe, grips and lighting.
In 2016, Angelina Jolie directed First They Killed My Father, adapted from Lung Ung's book's memory of the Khmer Rouge Era. The film produced by Netflix was shot entirely in Cambodia in collaboration with Rithy Panh. The film was submitted as the Cambodian submission for the 90th Academy Awards.
Horror genre increasing
In recent years, horror films made on a low budget with weak special effects have become popular, especially with young audiences. A Cambodian horror film will generally feature a ghost story, old mythology and some form of revenge. Krasue is a popular subject. Films featuring ghost stories, mythology and blood rituals include Ghost Banana Tree and The Kantong Kiev Witch. Another horror film, The Haunted House, is loosely based on legend.
Cambodian horror films focus on their characters' suffering and (unlike Korean horror or Japanese horror) feature extreme gory violence. Popular horror films such as The Weird Villa and Secret Well emphasize psychological terror. Heart Talk is another psychological thriller.
Films about revenge, such as Villa Horror, Annoyed and Moheagita, often feature the dead returning to life to exact revence on the living.
Films about monsters include The Forest, Queen of Cobra and People eating Lizard. Cambodian monster films, like those from Hollywood, focus on teenagers. Some are similar to slasher films, involving a creature or a killer who stalks and graphically murders a series of mostly adolescent victims in a typically random, unprovoked fashion, killing many within a single night. The plot of the first slasher film for Cambodia screen, The Waterfall of Death has similarities to the murder thriller I Know What You Did Last Summer and Thai psychological thriller Scared.
Despite the current taste for horror movies, Heng Tola believes a more serious trend is emerging, prompted in part by the resentment many Cambodians feel about its colonial past and toward powerful neighbors such as Thailand and Vietnam.
The Third Khmer film festival, which took place in late 2007, banned the ghost films as a reaction to the glut of horror movies.
Recent decline
By the end of 2007, audience numbers had begun to decline, and theaters and film production companies began closing down. Only 13 theaters were still operating, compared to the 30 between 1965 and 1975. Critics blamed the decline on weak acting and directing, along with poor scripts and storylines. Poor enforcement of intellectual property in Cambodia also continues to impact the country's credibility in the local and international media trade.
In 2009 the number of films released decreased from more than 60 in 2006 to less than 10, and most film directors turned to producing short films and television series rather than full movies as they had before.
Many locally made films are simple and similar low budget horror and love stories. Many Cambodians prefer international films of better quality, especially as their tickets are usually cheaper than for domestic films. Yet many Cambodians would like to see domestic films if they could reach the standard of those produced during the industry's height.
Notable films
Tep Sodachan (1968)
Thavory Meas Bong (1960s)
Prea Bopear Kon (The Ghost with baby) (196?)
Prea Krola Plak (The fire burn witch) (197?)
Pos Keng Kang (The Snake King's Wife) (1971)
Kraithong Kropaer Charawan (The Crocodile Man) (1971)
Pos Keng Kang 2 (The Snake King's Wife 2) (1972)
See Angkor and Die (1993)
An Euil Srey An (1972)
Preay Kontung Khiev (1972)
Preay Kontung Khiev (1973)
Chompa Toung (1974)
Pramath Pramong (The Children Killer) (1974)
Kuon Euy Madai Ahp (1980)
Beisach Kromom (1994)
Promatt Promong (1994)
Rice People (1994)
One Evening After the War (1998)
The Land of the Wandering Souls (2000)
The Snake King's Child (2001)
Kohak Kmorch Tek Snech Asara Peak (The Spirit under the water and snaker's love) (2003)
Konom Sneah Prea Krala Plak (The Triangle Love Ghost) (2003)
The Weird Villa (2003)
S-21: The Khmer Rouge Killing Machine (2003)
Tum Teav (2003)
The Enternal Love (2004)
Neang Neath (2004)
Nieng Arp (2004)
Burn The Witch (2004)
Neang Pomiry (2004)
The Weird Villa (2004)
The Crocodile (2005)
Chalawan Return (The Crocodile Man 3) (2005)
Human or Ghost (2005)
Kmorch Neang Tey (2005)
The Ghost Hut (2005)
Kmorch Prea Asoryka (2005)
Myea Tola Mekong (2005)
Prei Tak Hong (2005)
The Snake King's Grandchild (2005)
Moheachata (ambition) (2005)
Ghost Banana Tree (2005)
The Forest (2005)
The Haunted House (2005)
The Burnt Theatre (2005)
Neang Poun (2006)
Sopeal Sok Tom (2005)
Vichean (Soul) (2005)
Boremei Preah Barima Meas (2005)
Vegence (2005)
The Red Sense (2006)
Min Maya (Love Charm)
Neang Pbuon (2006)
The Game (2006)
Jnea Kmorch (2006)
The Konthong Keav Witch (2006)
Villa Horror (2006)
Van Chenk Kon (Killing Pagoda) (2006)
Kmorch Pdea Deam (Ghost of Pass Mother) (2006)
Kmorch Lok Praleung (2006)
Shock 24 Hours (2006)
The Killing Phone (2006)
Human Or Ghost (2006)
Bankouy Si Moneah (2007)
The Blue Moon (2007)
Rajiny Pous (Queen Of Cobra) (2007)
Promatt Promomg (2007)
Boremei Jumneang Ptess (2007)
Niseak Sneah Pi Cheat Mon
Tiyen Arp (Heretiy of Krasue) (2007)
Niyeat Pous (2007)
The Waterfall of Death (2007)
Staying Single When (2007)
Secret Well (2007)
The Death of water fall (2007)
Chon Tem Kan Kmorch (Stop, Shooting a Ghost Film) (2008)
Heart Talk (2008)
Prea Pous (Spiritual of Snake) (2008)
Liaek Kom Prolung (Spiritual Cave) (2008)
Vijean Sneah (Love Soul) (2008)
Annoyed (2008)
Who Am I? (2009)
Arb Kalum 2009 (The Sexilest Krasue in 2009) (2009)
Lost Love (2010)
25 Years Old Girl (2012)
First Love (2012)
Fool in Love (2012)
I am Super Student (2013)
Hanuman (2015)
Jailbreak (2017)
First They Killed My Father (2017)
The Clock: Spirits Awakening (2019)
Karmalink (2021)
See also
List of Khmer film
Communications in Cambodia
Media of Cambodia
Cinema of the world
References
External links
Cambodia Film Office
Cambodian Productions
Communications in Cambodia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Stanley%20Cup%20playoffs
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2007 Stanley Cup playoffs
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The 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs of the National Hockey League began on April 11, 2007. The sixteen teams that qualified, eight from each conference, played best-of-seven series for conference quarterfinals, semifinals and championships, and then the conference champions played a best-of-seven series for the Stanley Cup. The series ended on June 6 with the Anaheim Ducks defeating the Ottawa Senators in five games to win their first ever championship.
For the first time in NHL history, neither of the two teams that played in the previous year's Stanley Cup Finals (the Carolina Hurricanes and the Edmonton Oilers) qualified for the playoffs. For the first time since 1994, all four former WHA teams; Carolina (formerly the Hartford Whalers), Colorado (formerly the Quebec Nordiques), Edmonton, and Phoenix (formerly the Winnipeg Jets) missed the playoffs in the same year, this would not happen again until 2013. Also for the first time since 1994, the Philadelphia Flyers missed the playoffs. This was the only time that the Atlanta Thrashers qualified for the playoffs in their twelve years in Georgia (they became the new Winnipeg Jets in 2011). This was also the last time all three New York metropolitan area teams (the Devils, Islanders and Rangers) made the playoffs in the same year until 2023.
Playoff seeds
Eastern Conference
Buffalo Sabres, Northeast Division champions, Eastern Conference regular season champions, Presidents' Trophy winners – 113 points (53 wins)
New Jersey Devils, Atlantic Division champions – 107 points
Atlanta Thrashers, Southeast Division champions – 97 points
Ottawa Senators – 105 points (48 wins)
Pittsburgh Penguins – 105 points (47 wins)
New York Rangers – 94 points
Tampa Bay Lightning – 93 points
New York Islanders – 92 points
Western Conference
Detroit Red Wings, Central Division champions, Western Conference regular season champions – 113 points (50 wins)
Anaheim Ducks, Pacific Division champions – 110 points
Vancouver Canucks, Northwest Division champions – 105 points
Nashville Predators – 110 points
San Jose Sharks – 107 points (51 wins)
Dallas Stars – 107 points (50 wins)
Minnesota Wild – 104 points
Calgary Flames – 96 points
Playoff bracket
In each round, the highest remaining seed in each conference is matched against the lowest remaining seed. The higher-seeded team is awarded home ice advantage, which gives them a maximum possible four games on their home ice, with the other team getting a maximum possible three. In the Stanley Cup Finals, home ice is determined based on regular season points.
Conference quarterfinals
Eastern Conference quarterfinals
(1) Buffalo Sabres vs. (8) New York Islanders
The Buffalo Sabres entered the playoffs as the Presidents' Trophy winners (winning the tie-breaker with Detroit in total wins), the Eastern Conference regular season and Northeast Division champions with 113 points. The Islanders qualified as the eighth seed earning 92 points during the regular season. This was the fourth and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams, with New York winning all three of the previous series. They last met in the 1980 Stanley Cup Semifinals where New York won in six games. Buffalo won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Sabres defeated the Islanders in five games. Brian Campbell and Chris Drury each scored twice for the Sabres in game one as they took the opening game 4–1. Marc-Andre Bergeron's power play goal at 8:37 of the third period gave the Islanders the lead in game two as they evened the series with a 3–2 victory. Sabres forward Daniel Briere scored the game-winning goal with a two-man advantage in the second period of game three giving Buffalo a 3–2 win. Chris Drury scored two goals in a game for the second time in this series as the Sabres won game four by a final score of 4–2. Buffalo held off a late charge by the Islanders in game five as they eliminated New York with a 4–3 win.
(2) New Jersey Devils vs. (7) Tampa Bay Lightning
The New Jersey Devils entered the playoffs as the Atlantic Division champions, earning the second seed in the Eastern Conference with 107 points. Tampa Bay qualified as the seventh seed, earning 93 points during the regular season. This was the second meeting between these two teams, with New Jersey winning the only previous series in the 2003 Eastern Conference semifinals in five games. Tampa Bay won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Devils defeated the Lightning in six games. New Jersey forward Zach Parise scored twice as New Jersey took game one 5–3. Johan Holmqvist made 34 saves for the Lightning and Vincent Lecavalier scored the game-winning goal early in the third period of game two as Tampa Bay evened the series with a 3–2 victory. The teams traded goals early in the third period of game three before Vaclav Prospal broke the tie with 6:29 remaining in regulation time as the Lightning won again by a score of 3–2. Devils centre Scott Gomez scored the overtime winner at 12:54 in game four to tie the series. New Jersey goaltender Martin Brodeur made 31 saves in his 22nd career playoff shutout as the Devils won game five 3–0. Devils forward Brian Gionta scored the series-winning goal in game six as New Jersey took the series four games to two with a 3–2 win.
(3) Atlanta Thrashers vs. (6) New York Rangers
The Atlanta Thrashers entered the playoffs as the Southeast Division champions, earning the third seed in the Eastern Conference with 97 points. The Rangers qualified as the sixth seed earning 94 points during the regular season. This was the first and to this date only playoff meeting between these two teams. This series also marked the first appearance of a team representing Atlanta in the Stanley Cup playoffs in 27 years. The most recent team to represent Atlanta prior to this was the Atlanta Flames who lost in the Preliminary Round in 1980. The Thrashers made their first playoff appearance since entering the league in the 1999–2000 season; this was the only playoff appearance that Atlanta made before the franchise relocated to Winnipeg in 2011. Atlanta won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Rangers swept Atlanta in four games. New York entered the third period of game one with a two-goal lead and hung on to win by a score of 4–3. Ranger forward Brendan Shanahan scored the game-winner with four minutes remaining in game two as New York earned a 2–1 victory. The Rangers dominated Atlanta in game three winning 7–0, Michael Nylander scored a hat trick in the victory. Matt Cullen scored the series-clinching goal in game four and Jaromir Jagr added an empty-net goal in the dying minutes as New York completed the sweep of the Thrashers with a 4–2 win.
(4) Ottawa Senators vs. (5) Pittsburgh Penguins
Both the Ottawa Senators and Pittsburgh Penguins entered the playoffs tied with 105 points, but the Senators were awarded the fourth seed by winning the total wins tiebreaker (48–47). This was the first playoff meeting between these two teams. The Penguins qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 2001. Pittsburgh won this year's four-game regular season series earning six of eight points.
The Senators defeated the Penguins in five games. Penguins goaltender Marc-Andre Fleury was pulled in game one after allowing six goals to the Senators in a 6–3 loss. The Penguins scored three times in the third period as they overcame a one-goal deficit to defeat Ottawa 4–3 in game two and tie the series. Senators captain Daniel Alfredsson scored the game-winner and added an insurance goal in game three as Ottawa regained home-ice advantage with a 4–2 win. Just over nine minutes into the third period of game four Anton Volchenkov broke the tie for the Senators giving his team a 2–1 victory. After a scoreless opening period in game five, the Senators struck three times in the second period and goaltender Ray Emery posted a 20-save shutout to eliminate the Penguins with a 3–0 win.
Western Conference quarterfinals
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (8) Calgary Flames
The Detroit Red Wings entered the playoffs as the Western Conference regular season and Central Division champions (losing the tie-breaker with Buffalo in total wins for the Presidents' Trophy) with 113 points. Calgary qualified as the eighth seed earning 96 points during the regular season. This was the third and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams, with the teams splitting the two previous series. They last met in the 2004 Western Conference semifinals where Calgary won in six games. The teams split this year's four-game regular season series.
The Red Wings eliminated the Flames in six games. In game one the Red Wings dominated the Flames in a 4–1 victory. Flames goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff made 48 saves in game two as his team lost 3–1 and the Red Wings took a 2–0 series lead. Jarome Iginla scored the game-winning goal in game three as the Flames won by a score of 3–2. Calgary centre Daymond Langkow scored twice on the power play in game four as the Flames evened the series with a 3–2 win. After allowing five goals against in game five Flames goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff was pulled in favour of backup Jamie McLennan. Kiprusoff was forced back into the game just 18 seconds later as Jamie McLennan was assessed a match penalty and game misconduct for slashing Red Wings forward Johan Franzen in the stomach. McLennan was later suspended for five games; the Flames organization and Head Coach Jim Playfair were also fined after a 5–1 loss. Johan Franzen scored the series-winner in double overtime in game six as the Red Wings eliminated the Flames with a 2–1 victory.
(2) Anaheim Ducks vs. (7) Minnesota Wild
The Anaheim Ducks entered the playoffs as the Pacific Division champions, earning the second seed in the Western Conference with 110 points. Minnesota qualified as the seventh seed earning 104 points during the regular season. This was the second and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams, with Anaheim winning the only previous series. They last met in the 2003 Western Conference Final where Anaheim won in four games. Anaheim won this year's four-game regular season series earning five of eight points.
The Ducks eliminated the Wild in five games. Ducks forward Dustin Penner scored the game-winner late in the third period as Anaheim took game one 2–1. In game two Francois Beauchemin scored twice on the power-play for the Ducks as they took a 2–0 series lead with a 3–2 win. The Ducks earned a tight win in game three with a 2–1 victory. The Wild avoided elimination with a three-goal third period in game four, earning a 4–1 win. Jean-Sebastien Giguere started game five for the Ducks and Ryan Getzlaf scored the series-winning goal late in the second period as Anaheim ended the series with a 4–1 victory.
(3) Vancouver Canucks vs. (6) Dallas Stars
The Vancouver Canucks entered the playoffs as the Northwest Division champions, earning the third seed in the Western Conference with 105 points. Dallas qualified as the sixth seed earning 107 points (losing the tie-breaker with San Jose in total wins) during the regular season. This was the second and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams with Vancouver winning the only previous series. They last met in the 1994 Western Conference semifinals where Vancouver won in five games. The teams split this year's four-game regular season series.
Vancouver hung on to defeat the Stars in seven games. Dallas overcame a two-goal deficit in game one to force overtime, however, they came up short as Henrik Sedin won the game for Vancouver when he scored at 18:06 of the fourth overtime; this was the sixth-longest playoff game in NHL history. Roberto Luongo made 72 saves in the 5–4 Canucks victory. The Stars opened game two with a goal just 24 seconds in and the Canucks were not able to recover as Dallas goaltender Marty Turco posted a 35 save shutout in a 2–0 win. Canucks forward Taylor Pyatt scored the game-winner at 7:47 of the first overtime for a 2–1 win in game three. The Canucks pulled out another 2–1 victory in game four as Mattias Ohlund and Trevor Linden scored for Vancouver. In game five both Roberto Luongo and Marty Turco pushed aside every shot in regulation and Stars captain Brenden Morrow scored the only goal of the game 6:22 into the first overtime for a 1–0 Dallas victory. Marty Turco shutout Vancouver in game six for the second consecutive game and the third time overall in the series as the Stars forced a seventh game with a 2–0 win. After allowing the opening goal in game seven the Canucks scored four unanswered goals and took the deciding game of the series 4–1.
(4) Nashville Predators vs. (5) San Jose Sharks
The Nashville Predators entered the playoffs as the fourth seed in the Western Conference with 110 points. San Jose qualified as the fifth seed earning 107 points (winning the tie-breaker with Dallas in total wins) during the regular season. This was the second playoff meeting between these two teams with San Jose winning the only previous series. They last met in the previous year's Western Conference quarterfinals where San Jose won in five games. Nashville won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
For the second consecutive year, the Sharks eliminated Nashville in five games. Patrick Rissmiller scored the overtime winner for San Jose at 8:14 of the second overtime period as the Sharks won a high-scoring game one 5–4. Predator forwards Jean-Pierre Dumont and Peter Forsberg scored twice in game two as Nashville evened the series with a 5–2 win. Nashville goaltender Tomas Vokoun made 38 saves in a losing effort in game three as the Sharks won the game 3–1. Milan Michalek's second goal of the game gave the Sharks an insurmountable lead in game four as San Jose took a 3–2 victory. The teams were tied late into the third period of game five before Sharks captain Patrick Marleau scored the series-winning goal to eliminate the Predators by a final score of 3–2.
Conference semifinals
Eastern Conference semifinals
(1) Buffalo Sabres vs. (6) New York Rangers
This was the second and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams with Buffalo winning the only previous series. They last met in the 1978 Preliminary Round where Buffalo won in three games. Buffalo won all four games during this year's regular season series.
Buffalo eliminated the Rangers in six games. Sabres forward Thomas Vanek scored twice including the game-winner as Buffalo took game one 5–2. Chris Drury and Thomas Vanek each scored their fifth goal of the playoffs for the Sabres in the third period of game two as Buffalo overcame a goal deficit, winning by a score of 3–2. In game three Michal Rozsival gave the Rangers a 2–1 win in double overtime by scoring at 16:43. The Rangers scored twice on the power-play in game four as they evened the series with a 2–1 victory. Sabres co-captain Chris Drury scored the tying goal with less than eight seconds remaining and Maxim Afinogenov ended the game 4:39 into the first overtime on the power-play as Buffalo won game five 2–1. Jochen Hecht's second goal of the playoffs was the series-clinching goal as the Sabres ended New York's season with 5–4 victory in game six.
This is the last time the Sabres won a playoff series, and with the Toronto Maple Leafs winning their first round series against the Tampa Bay Lightning in 2023, the Sabres now hold the longest active playoff series win drought.
(2) New Jersey Devils vs. (4) Ottawa Senators
This was the third and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams with the teams splitting the two previous series. They last met in the 2003 Eastern Conference Final where New Jersey won in seven games. New Jersey won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
Ottawa defeated the Devils in five games. The Senators scored four times in the opening period of game one and hung on to win the game 5–4. The Senators tied game two late in the third period, but Jamie Langenbrunner scored the winning goal for the Devils 1:55 into the second overtime. Game three remained scoreless into the third period before Tom Preissing put the Senators on the board, Ray Emery made 25 saves for his second playoff shutout in a 2–0 Ottawa win. New Jersey goaltender Martin Brodeur made 33 saves in a losing effort in game four as the Senators won 3–2. Ottawa captain Daniel Alfredsson scored the series-winning goal late in the second period of game five as the Senators ended New Jersey's season with a 3–2 win. Game five was also the final game played at Continental Airlines Arena as the Devils began playing at the Prudential Center the following year.
Western Conference semifinals
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (5) San Jose Sharks
This was the third playoff meeting between these two teams with the teams splitting the two previous series. They last met in the 1995 Western Conference semifinals where Detroit won in four games. San Jose won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Red Wings won three consecutive games to eliminate San Jose in six games. Sharks goaltender Evgeni Nabokov made 34 saves as San Jose shutout the Red Wings in game one by a score of 2–0. Pavel Datsyuk gave the Red Wings the lead with just 1:24 remaining in the third period, taking a 3–2 victory. San Jose forward Jonathan Cheechoo scored the game-winner on the power play in game three as the Sharks won the game 2–1. Detroit came back from a two-goal deficit in game four by scoring in the final minute of both the second and third periods and Mathieu Schneider scored the overtime winner on the power-play for the Red Wings in a 3–2 win. After allowing the opening goal in game five the Red Wings scored four unanswered goals winning the game 4–1. Two goals from Detroit winger Mikael Samuelsson and a shutout by Dominik Hasek in game six ended the series in a 2–0 Red Wings victory.
(2) Anaheim Ducks vs. (3) Vancouver Canucks
This was the first and to date only playoff meeting between these two teams. Anaheim won three of the four games during this year's regular season series.
The Ducks eliminated Vancouver in five games. After allowing the opening goal in game one Anaheim responded with five unanswered goals and won by a final score of 5–1, Ducks forward Andy McDonald recorded a hat trick in the contest. The teams traded a goal apiece during regulation time and Jeff Cowan ended the game 7:49 into double overtime as Vancouver tied the series with a 2–1 victory. Anaheim's special teams made the difference in game three as the Ducks successfully killed off seven penalties and scored twice on the power-play as Anaheim won the game 3–2. The Ducks came back from a two-goal deficit in the third period of game four to force overtime and won the game 3–2 on a goal scored by Travis Moen at 2:07 of the first overtime period. After Vancouver forced overtime in game five goaltender Roberto Luongo was unavailable to his team at the start of the first overtime period as he was suffering from an illness, backup Dany Sabourin stopped five Anaheim shots before Luongo returned to action 3:34 into the period. Shortly into the second overtime period Scott Niedermayer fired a wrist shot that found the back of the net giving the Ducks a 2–1 win that clinched the series and moved them on to the Western Conference Final.
Conference finals
Eastern Conference Final
(1) Buffalo Sabres vs. (4) Ottawa Senators
This was the fourth and most recent playoff meeting between these two teams, with Buffalo winning all three previous series. They last met in the previous year's Eastern Conference semifinals where Buffalo won in five games. This was Buffalo's second consecutive Conference finals appearance, and their fourth overall; they lost to Carolina in seven games in the previous year. Ottawa most recently made it to the conference finals in 2003 where they lost to New Jersey in seven games. Ottawa won five of the eight games during this year's regular season series.
The Senators advanced to their first Stanley Cup Finals by eliminating the Sabres in five games. The Senators took control of game one in the third period and scored three goals to win 5–2. Buffalo forward Daniel Briere scored with only six seconds left in game two to force overtime. Joe Corvo scored the game-winning goal for Ottawa at 4:58 of double overtime in a 4–3 victory. Ray Emery made 15 saves and Daniel Alfredsson scored the only goal in game three as Ottawa shut out the Sabres 1–0. The Sabres took a three-goal lead just before the halfway point of game four and hung on to force a fifth game with a 3–2 win. Overtime was needed in game five as the teams traded goals through regulation time, Ottawa captain Daniel Alfredsson ended the series with his goal at 9:32 of the first overtime as the Senators won by a final score of 3–2.
Western Conference Final
(1) Detroit Red Wings vs. (2) Anaheim Ducks
This was the fourth playoff meeting between these two teams, with Detroit winning two of the three previous series. They last met in the 2003 Western Conference quarterfinals where Anaheim won in four games. Detroit most recently made it to the conference finals in 2002 where they defeated Colorado in seven games, while Anaheim most recently made it to the conference finals in the previous year where they lost in five games to Edmonton. The teams split this year's four-game regular season series.
Anaheim defeated the Red Wings in six games. Detroit goaltender Dominik Hasek made 31 saves as the Red Wings took game one with a 2–1 victory. Scott Niedermayer ended game two at 14:17 of the first overtime as the Ducks tied the series with a 4–3 win. The Red Wings chased Ducks goaltender Jean-Sebastien Giguere from game three after he allowed three goals on thirteen shots, Detroit scored two more times and won the game 5–0. After the game Chris Pronger was suspended for one game by the NHL; his suspension was the result of a simultaneous hit on Tomas Holmstrom that Scott Niedermayer was penalized for. While Pronger received no penalty on the play for the hit during the game he was later suspended after NHL officials reviewed the replays, which showed Holmstrom being boarded from behind as a result of a Pronger elbow. The Ducks broke a tie in the third period of game four when Ryan Getzlaf scored on the power-play, they went on to add an empty net goal from Rob Niedermayer that gave Anaheim a 5–3 win that tied the series at two games. Scott Niedermayer forced overtime in game five as he scored on the power-play with 47.3 seconds remaining in the game; Teemu Selanne completed the comeback for Anaheim at 11:57 of the first overtime period as the Ducks took a 2–1 victory. The Red Wings mounted a late comeback attempt in game six before coming up short in a 4–3 loss than ended the series and sent Anaheim to the second Stanley Cup Finals in their history.
Stanley Cup Finals
This was the first and to date only playoff meeting between these two teams. Anaheim most recently made it to the Finals in 2003 where they were defeated by New Jersey in seven games, while Ottawa made their first Finals appearance in their fifteenth season. This was the first Finals series to be played in Ottawa since the original Ottawa Senators won the Stanley Cup in 1927. For the first time since 1999, neither of the two Stanley Cup finalists had previously won the Stanley Cup. The teams did not play each other during this year's regular season.
Anaheim became the first team based in the Pacific Time zone in the NHL's modern era to win the Stanley Cup; they also became the first west coast team to win the Stanley Cup since the Victoria Cougars in 1925, as well as the first team from California to win the Cup. The Senators became first NHL team from Ontario to reach the Finals since the Toronto Maple Leafs in 1967.
Player statistics
Skaters
GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points; +/– = Plus/minus; PIM = Penalty minutes
Goaltending
These are the top five goaltenders based on either goals against average or save percentage with at least four games played.
GP = Games played; W = Wins; L = Losses; SA = Shots against; GA = Goals against; GAA = Goals against average; TOI = Time On Ice (minutes:seconds); Sv% = Save percentage; SO = Shutouts
Events and milestones
Detroit Red Wings defenceman Chris Chelios made his 22nd post-season appearance, breaking the record for most post-season appearances. The New York Rangers set a new post-season franchise record that year by defeating the Atlanta Thrashers 7–0 on April 17.
See also
2006–07 NHL season
List of NHL seasons
2007 in ice hockey
References
playoffs
Stanley Cup playoffs
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5203386
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A-opioid%20receptor
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Κ-opioid receptor
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The κ-opioid receptor or kappa opioid receptor, abbreviated KOR or KOP for its ligand ketazocine, is a G protein-coupled receptor that in humans is encoded by the OPRK1 gene. The KOR is coupled to the G protein Gi/G0 and is one of four related receptors that bind opioid-like compounds in the brain and are responsible for mediating the effects of these compounds. These effects include altering nociception, consciousness, motor control, and mood. Dysregulation of this receptor system has been implicated in alcohol and drug addiction.
The KOR is a type of opioid receptor that binds the opioid peptide dynorphin as the primary endogenous ligand (substrate naturally occurring in the body). In addition to dynorphin, a variety of natural alkaloids, terpenes and synthetic ligands bind to the receptor. The KOR may provide a natural addiction control mechanism, and therefore, drugs that target this receptor may have therapeutic potential in the treatment of addiction.
There is evidence that distribution and/or function of this receptor may differ between sexes.
Distribution
KORs are widely distributed in the brain, spinal cord (substantia gelatinosa), and in peripheral tissues. High levels of the receptor have been detected in the prefrontal cortex, periaqueductal gray, raphe nuclei (dorsal), ventral tegmental area, substantia nigra, dorsal striatum (putamen, caudate), ventral striatum (nucleus accumbens, olfactory tubercle), amygdala, bed nucleus stria terminalis, claustrum, hippocampus, hypothalamus, midline thalamic nuclei, locus coeruleus, spinal trigeminal nucleus, parabrachial nucleus, and solitary nucleus.
Subtypes
Based on receptor binding studies, three variants of the KOR designated κ1, κ2, and κ3 have been characterized. However, only one cDNA clone has been identified, hence these receptor subtypes likely arise from interaction of one KOR protein with other membrane associated proteins.
Function
Pain
Similarly to μ-opioid receptor (MOR) agonists, KOR agonists are potently analgesic, and have been employed clinically in the treatment of pain. However, KOR agonists also produce side effects such as dysphoria, hallucinations, and dissociation, which has limited their clinical usefulness. Examples of KOR agonists that have been used medically as analgesics include butorphanol, nalbuphine, levorphanol, levallorphan, pentazocine, phenazocine, and eptazocine. Difelikefalin (CR845, FE-202845) and CR665 (FE-200665, JNJ-38488502) are peripherally restricted KOR agonists lacking the CNS side effects of centrally active KOR agonists and are currently under clinical investigation as analgesics.
Consciousness
Centrally active KOR agonists have hallucinogenic or dissociative effects, as exemplified by salvinorin A (the active constituent in Salvia divinorum). These effects are generally undesirable in medicinal drugs. It is thought that the hallucinogenic and dysphoric effects of opioids such as butorphanol, nalbuphine, and pentazocine serve to limit their abuse potential. In the case of salvinorin A, a structurally novel neoclerodane diterpene KOR agonist, these hallucinogenic effects are sought by recreational users, despite the dysphoria experienced by some users. Another KOR agonist with comparable effects is ibogaine, which has possible medical application in addiction treatment. While these KOR agonists possess hallucinogenic and dissociative effects, they are mechanistically and qualitatively different from those of the 5HT2AR agonist psychedelic hallucinogens such as lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) or psilocybin and those of NMDAR antagonist dissociatives/anesthetics ketamine and phencyclidine.
The claustrum is the region of the brain in which the KOR is most densely expressed. It has been proposed that this area, based on its structure and connectivity, has "a role in coordinating a set of diverse brain functions", and the claustrum has been elucidated as playing a crucial role in consciousness. As examples, lesions of the claustrum in humans are associated with disruption of consciousness and cognition, and electrical stimulation of the area between the insula and the claustrum has been found to produce an immediate loss of consciousness in humans along with recovery of consciousness upon cessation of the stimulation. On the basis of the preceding knowledge, it has been proposed that inhibition of the claustrum (as well as, "additionally, the deep layers of the cortex, mainly in prefrontal areas") by activation of KORs in these areas is primarily responsible for the profound consciousness-altering/dissociative hallucinogen effects of salvinorin A and other KOR agonists. In addition, it has been stated that "the subjective effects of S. divinorum indicate that salvia disrupts certain facets of consciousness much more than the largely serotonergic hallucinogen [LSD]", and it has been postulated that inhibition of a brain area that is apparently as fundamentally involved in consciousness and higher cognitive function as the claustrum may explain this. However, these conclusions are merely tentative, as "[KORs] are not exclusive to the claustrum; there is also a fairly high density of receptors located in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus, nucleus accumbens and putamen", and "disruptions to other brain regions could also explain the consciousness-altering effects [of salvinorin A]".
In supplementation of the above, according to Addy et al.:
Mood, stress, and addiction
The involvement of the KOR in stress, as well as in consequences of chronic stress such as depression, anxiety, anhedonia, and increased drug-seeking behavior, has been made clear. KOR agonists are notably dysphoric and aversive at sufficient doses. The KOR antagonists buprenorphine, as ALKS-5461 (a combination formulation with samidorphan), and CERC-501 (LY-2456302) are currently in clinical development for the treatment of major depressive disorder and substance use disorders. JDTic and PF-4455242 were also under investigation but development was halted in both cases due to toxicity concerns.
The depressive-like behaviors following prolonged morphine abstinence appear to be mediated by upregulation of the KOR/dynorphin system in the nucleus accumbens, as the local application of a KOR antagonist prevented the behaviors. As such, KOR antagonists might be useful for the treatment of depressive symptoms associated with opioid withdrawal.
In a small clinical study, pentazocine, a KOR agonist, was found to rapidly and substantially reduce symptoms of mania in patients with bipolar disorder. It was postulated that the efficacy observed was due to KOR activation-mediated amelioration of excessive dopaminergic signaling in the reward pathways.
Others
A variety of other effects of KOR activation are known:
Activation of the KOR appears to antagonize many of the effects of the MOR, including analgesia, tolerance, euphoria, and memory regulation. Nalorphine and nalmefene are dual MOR antagonists and KOR agonists that have been used clinically as antidotes for opioid overdose, although the specific role and significance of KOR activation in this indication, if any, is uncertain. In any case however, KOR agonists notably do not affect respiratory drive, and hence do not reverse MOR activation-induced respiratory depression.
KOR agonists suppress itching, and the selective KOR agonist nalfurafine is used clinically as an antipruritic (anti-itch drug).
Eluxadoline is a peripherally restricted KOR agonist as well as MOR agonist and DOR antagonist that has been approved for the treatment of diarrhea-predominant irritable bowel syndrome. Asimadoline and fedotozine are selective and similarly peripherally restricted KOR agonists that were also investigated for the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome and reportedly demonstrated at least some efficacy for this indication but were ultimately never marketed.
KOR agonists are known for their characteristic diuretic effects, due to their negative regulation of vasopressin, also known as antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
KOR agonism is neuroprotective against hypoxia/ischemia.
The selective KOR agonist U-50488 protected rats against supramaximal electroshock seizures, indicating that KOR agonism may have anticonvulsant effects.
Signal transduction
KOR activation by agonists is coupled to the G protein Gi/G0, which subsequently increases phosphodiesterase activity. Phosphodiesterases break down cAMP, producing an inhibitory effect in neurons. KORs also couple to inward-rectifier potassium and to N-type calcium ion channels. Recent studies have also demonstrated that agonist-induced stimulation of the KOR, like other G-protein coupled receptors, can result in the activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). These include extracellular signal-regulated kinase, p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases, and c-Jun N-terminal kinases.
Ligands
Agonists
The synthetic alkaloid ketazocine and terpenoid natural product salvinorin A are potent and selective KOR agonists. The KOR also mediates the dysphoria and hallucinations seen with opioids such as pentazocine.
Benzomorphans
Alazocine– partial agonist
Bremazocine – highly selective
8-Carboxamidocyclazocine
Cyclazocine – partial agonist
Ketazocine
Metazocine – partial agonist
Pentazocine – partial agonist
Phenazocine – partial agonist
Morphinans
6'-Guanidinonaltrindole (6'-GNTI) – biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Butorphan – full agonist
Butorphanol – partial agonist
Cyclorphan – full agonist
Diprenorphine – non-selective, partial agonist
Etorphine – non-selective
Levallorphan
Levomethorphan
Levorphanol
Morphine – alkaloid
Nalbuphine – partial agonist
Nalfurafine – full agonist, atypical agonist (possibly biased or subtype-selective)
Nalmefene – partial agonist
Nalodeine
Nalorphine – partial agonist
Norbuprenorphine – partial agonist, peripherally-selective metabolite of buprenorphine
Norbuprenorphine-3-glucuronide – likely partial agonist, peripherally-selective metabolite of buprenorphine
Oxilorphan – partial agonist
Oxycodone – selective for κ2b subtype
Proxorphan – partial agonist
Samidorphan – non-selective, weak partial agonist
Xorphanol – partial agonist
Arylacetamides
Asimadoline – peripherally-selective
BRL-52537
Eluxadoline
Enadoline
GR-89696 – selective for κ2
ICI-204,448 – peripherally-selective
ICI-199,441
LPK-26 – highly selective
MB-1C-OH
Niravoline
N-MPPP
Spiradoline
U-50,488
U-54,494A
U-69,593
Peptides (endo-/exogenous)
CR665 – peripherally-selective
Difelikefalin (CR845) – peripherally-selective
Dynorphins (dynorphin A, dynorphin B, big dynorphin)
Terpenoids
Collybolide – biased agonist
Erinacine E
Menthol
RB-64 – G protein biased agonist with a bias factor of 96; β-arrestin antagonist
Salvinorin A – naturally-occurring
2-Methoxymethyl salvinorin B – and its ethoxymethyl and fluoroethoxymethyl homologues
Others/unsorted
Apadoline
HS665
HZ-2
Ibogaine – alkaloid
Ketamine (weak)
Noribogaine – non-selective, biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Tifluadom – (atypical) benzodiazepine
Mirtazapine - partial agonist at high concentrations
KSC-12-192 - selective, biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Nalfurafine (Remitch), which was introduced in 2009, is the first selective KOR agonist to enter clinical use.
Antagonists
5'-Acetamidinoethylnaltrindole (ANTI) – selective
5'-Guanidinonaltrindole (5'-GNTI) – selective, long-acting
6'-Guanidinonaltrindole (6'-GNTI) – biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Amentoflavone – non-selective; naturally-occurring
AT-076 – non-selective, likely long acting; JDTic analogue
Aticaprant – selective, short-acting
Binaltorphimine – selective, long-acting
BTRX-335140 - selective
BU09059 – selective, short-acting; JDTic analogue
Buprenorphine – non-selective; silent antagonist or weak partial agonist, depending on source
CVL-354 – selective, short-acting
Dezocine – non-selective; silent antagonist
DIPPA – selective, long-acting
JDTic – selective, long-acting
LY-255582 - non-selective
LY-2459989 – selective, short-acting
LY-2795050 – selective, short-acting
Methylnaltrexone – non-selective
ML190 – selective
ML350 – selective, short-acting
MR-2266 – non-selective
Naloxone – non-selective
Naltrexone – non-selective
Noribogaine – non-selective; naturally-occurring; biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Norbinaltorphimine – selective, long-acting
Pawhuskin A – selective; naturally-occurring
PF-4455242 – selective, short-acting
Quadazocine – non-selective; silent antagonist; preference for κ2
RB-64 (22-thiocyanatosalvinorin A) – G protein biased agonist with a bias factor of 96; β-arrestin antagonist
Zyklophin – selective peptide antagonist; dynorphin A analogue
KSC-12-192 - selective, biased ligand: G protein agonist, β-arrestin antagonist
Natural agonists
Mentha spp.
Found in numerous species of mint, (including peppermint, spearmint, and watermint), the naturally-occurring compound menthol is a weak KOR agonist owing to its antinociceptive, or pain blocking, effects in rats. In addition, mints can desensitize a region through the activation of TRPM8 receptors (the 'cold'/menthol receptor).
Salvia divinorum
The key compound in Salvia divinorum, salvinorin A, is known as a powerful, short-acting KOR agonist.
Ibogaine
Used for the treatment of addiction in limited countries, ibogaine has become an icon of addiction management among certain underground circles. Despite its lack of addictive properties, ibogaine is listed as a Schedule I compound in the US because it is a psychoactive substance, hence it is considered illegal to possess under any circumstances. Ibogaine is also a KOR agonist and this property may contribute to the drug's anti-addictive efficacy.
Mitragyna speciosa
Role in treatment of drug addiction
KOR agonists have been investigated for their therapeutic potential in the treatment of addiction and evidence points towards dynorphin, the endogenous KOR agonist, to be the body's natural addiction control mechanism. Childhood stress/abuse is a well known predictor of drug abuse and is reflected in alterations of the MOR and KOR systems. In experimental "addiction" models the KOR has also been shown to influence stress-induced relapse to drug seeking behavior. For the drug-dependent individual, risk of relapse is a major obstacle to becoming drug-free. Recent reports demonstrated that KORs are required for stress-induced reinstatement of cocaine seeking.
One area of the brain most strongly associated with addiction is the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) and striatum while other structures that project to and from the NAcc also play a critical role. Though many other changes occur, addiction is often characterized by the reduction of dopamine D2 receptors in the NAcc. In addition to low NAcc D2 binding, cocaine is also known to produce a variety of changes to the primate brain such as increases prodynorphin mRNA in caudate putamen (striatum) and decreases of the same in the hypothalamus while the administration of a KOR agonist produced an opposite effect causing an increase in D2 receptors in the NAcc.
Additionally, while cocaine overdose victims showed a large increase in KORs (doubled) in the NAcc, KOR agonist administration is shown to be effective in decreasing cocaine seeking and self-administration. Furthermore, while cocaine abuse is associated with lowered prolactin response, KOR activation causes a release in prolactin, a hormone known for its important role in learning, neuronal plasticity and myelination.
It has also been reported that the KOR system is critical for stress-induced drug-seeking. In animal models, stress has been demonstrated to potentiate cocaine reward behavior in a kappa opioid-dependent manner. These effects are likely caused by stress-induced drug craving that requires activation of the KOR system. Although seemingly paradoxical, it is well known that drug taking results in a change from homeostasis to allostasis. It has been suggested that withdrawal-induced dysphoria or stress-induced dysphoria may act as a driving force by which the individual seeks alleviation via drug taking. The rewarding properties of drug are altered, and it is clear KOR activation following stress modulates the valence of drug to increase its rewarding properties and cause potentiation of reward behavior, or reinstatement to drug seeking. The stress-induced activation of KORs is likely due to multiple signaling mechanisms. The effects of KOR agonism on dopamine systems are well documented, and recent work also implicates the mitogen-activated protein kinase cascade and pCREB in KOR-dependent behaviors.
While the predominant drugs of abuse examined have been cocaine (44%), ethanol (35%), and opioids (24%). As these are different classes of drugs of abuse working through different receptors (increasing dopamine directly and indirectly, respectively) albeit in the same systems produce functionally different responses. Conceptually then pharmacological activation of KOR can have marked effects in any of the psychiatric disorders (depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety, etc.) as well as various neurological disorders (i.e. Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease). Not only are genetic differences in dynorphin receptor expression a marker for alcohol dependence but a single dose of a KOR antagonist markedly increased alcohol consumption in lab animals. There are numerous studies that reflect a reduction in self-administration of alcohol, and heroin dependence has also been shown to be effectively treated with KOR agonism by reducing the immediate rewarding effects and by causing the curative effect of up-regulation (increased production) of MORs that have been down-regulated during opioid abuse.
The anti-rewarding properties of KOR agonists are mediated through both long-term and short-term effects. The immediate effect of KOR agonism leads to reduction of dopamine release in the NAcc during self-administration of cocaine and over the long term up-regulates receptors that have been down-regulated during substance abuse such as the MOR and the D2 receptor. These receptors modulate the release of other neurochemicals such as serotonin in the case of MOR agonists and acetylcholine in the case of D2. These changes can account for the physical and psychological remission of the pathology of addiction. The longer effects of KOR agonism (30 minutes or greater) have been linked to KOR-dependent stress-induced potentiation and reinstatement of drug seeking. It is hypothesized that these behaviors are mediated by KOR-dependent modulation of dopamine, serotonin, or norepinephrine and/or via activation of downstream signal transduction pathways.
Of significant note, while KOR activation blocks many of the behavioral and neurochemical responses elicited by drugs of abuse as stated above. These results are indicative of the KOR induced negative affective states counteracting the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse. Implicating the KOR/dynorphin system as an anti-reward system, supported by the role of KOR signaling and stress, mediating both stress-induced potentiation of drug reward and stress-induced reinstatement of seeking behavior. This in turn addresses what was thought to be paradoxical above. That is, rather, KOR signaling is activated/upregulated by stress, drugs of abuse and agonist administration - resulting in negative affective state. As such drug addiction is maintained by avoidance of negative affective states manifest in stress, craving, and drug withdrawal. Consistent with KOR induced negative affective states and role in drug addiction, KOR antagonists are efficacious at blocking negative affect induced by drug withdrawal and at decreasing escalated drug intake in pre-clinical trial involving extended drug access. Clinically there has been little advancement to evaluate the effects of KOR antagonists due to adverse effects and undesirable pharmacological profiles for clinical testing (i.e. long half-life, poor bioavailability). More recently, a selective, high-affinity KOR antagonist LY2456302 was well-tolerated in CUD patients. Showing feasibility a subsequent proof-of-mechanism trial evaluated JNJ-67953964 (previously LY2456302) potential for treating anhedonia in a double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial in patients with anhedonia and a mood or anxiety disorder. The KOR antagonist significantly increased fMRI ventral striatum activation during reward anticipation while accompanied by therapeutic effects on clinical measures of anhedonia, further reinforces the promise of KOR antagonism and proceeding assessment of clinical impact. Additionally a positron emission tomography (PET) study in cocaine use disorder (CUD) patients utilizing a KOR selective agonist [11C]GR103545 radioligand showed CUD individuals with higher KOR availability were more prone to stress-induced relapse. A subsequent PET scan following a three-day cocaine binge showed a decrease in KOR availability, interpreted as increased endogenous dynorphin competing with the radioligand at the KOR binding sites. Taken together these findings are in support of the negative affect state and further implicate the KOR/dynorphin system clinically and therapeutically relevant in humans with CUD.
Taken together, in drug addiction the KOR/dynorphin system is implicated as a homeostatic mechanism to counteract the acute effects of drugs of abuse. Chronic drug use and stress up-regulate the system in turn leading to a dysregulated state which induces negative affective states and stress reactivity.
Interactions
KOR has been shown to interact with sodium-hydrogen antiporter 3 regulator 1, ubiquitin C, 5-HT1A receptor, and RGS12.
See also
δ-opioid receptor
μ-opioid receptor
Nociceptin receptor
References
External links
Opioid receptors
Kappa-opioid receptor agonists
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5203904
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sam%20Houston%20National%20Forest
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Sam Houston National Forest
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The Sam Houston National Forest, one of four National Forests in Texas, is located 50 miles north of Houston. The forest is administered together with the other three United States National Forests and two National Grasslands located entirely in Texas, from common offices in Lufkin, Texas. The units include Angelina, Davy Crockett, Sabine, and Sam Houston National Forests, plus Caddo National Grassland and Lyndon B. Johnson National Grassland. There are local ranger district offices located in New Waverly. It is located in portions of three Texas counties including Montgomery, San Jacinto, and Walker.
Climate
Summers in the Sam Houston National Forest are hot and humid and winters generally are short and mild. The average summer temperature is 83 °F (28 °C), but mid-summer temperatures often reach the upper 90s °F (30s °C). The average winter temperature is 53 °F (12 °C). Rarely do temperatures drop to less than 10 °F (-12 °C) or rise to over 110 °F (43 °C). The average rainfall is 44 inches (1.1 m). Normally dryer periods occur during September – October and February – March.
Early history
The three counties that contain the Sam Houston National Forest, Montgomery, San Jacinto, and Walker, have yielded evidence of human occupation dating back 12,000 years. More recently, the basins of the San Jacinto and Trinity Rivers were home to Atakapan-speaking groups known as the Bidai, Patiri, Deadose, and Akokisa. Primarily hunters and gatherers, some from these groups may have practiced some form of agriculture. Disease and oppression from European settlers led to their eventual extinction in the early 19th century. Evidence of occupations from as early as 7,000 years ago to the 20th century has been documented by a number of archaeological sites within the national forest.
Multiple-use management
The Sam Houston National Forest is managed under the multiple-use concept. Under this concept, the uses of the forest, such as recreation, fish and wildlife, timber, grazing, soil and water, and minerals, are planned to maintain a balance among the benefits, yet provide for public needs. Forest Service objectives, by law, must consider all resources of the forest and no single resource can be emphasized to the detriment of others.
In 1960, the Multiple Use-Sustained Yield Act put into law what had been practiced on the National Forests in Texas for almost 30 years. This act emphasized that resources on public lands would be managed so that they are used in the combination that will best meet the needs of the people, that the benefits obtained will exist indefinitely and that each natural resource would be managed in balance with other resources to meet present and future public needs.
Management plans outline direction for a forest under the multiple-use concept. However, even the most carefully planned system of management cannot foresee environmental or natural factors which can cause drastic changes in a forest. Fire, storms, insects and disease, for example, can alter the way a forest is managed.
Recreation
Hiking
Hiking is a popular way to enjoy the forest and its beauty. The Lone Star Hiking Trail, a portion of which has gained National Recreation Trail status, winds through the Sam Houston National Forest. The trail, marked with two-inch by four-inch aluminum markers to guide hikers, has recreation areas available at three different points. Except during deer hunting season when camping is restricted to designated camps, primitive camping is allowed off the trail. Potable water is available at Double Lake and Stubblefield recreation areas.
Lone Star Hiking Trail consists of three major sections. The Lake Conroe section, lying west of Lake Conroe, begins near the intersection of FS 219 and FM 149 and has four connecting loops.
The Central Area of the trail runs eastward from Stubblefield Recreation Area, through the Four Notch area to Evergreen and then south down FM 945 to the trailhead parking lot. The Four Notch Loop, a section, is in the middle of this area of trail. The Winters Bayou/Tarkington Creek Area of the trail runs from FM 945 east to Double Lake Recreation Area, then south through Big Creek Scenic Area and then southwest through Winters Bayou. This section of the trail has National Recreation status.
The Lone Star Hiking Trail may be hiked year round, but winter and spring are the most popular seasons due to the mild southeast Texas climate. During deer hunting season in November and December, hikers should wear highly visible clothing. Usually the trail is not crowded, and hikers may observe a multiple-use managed forest with many ages and kinds of trees, plants and wildlife. Trail visitors may also view rivers, creeks, lakes and streams that meander through and around the Sam Houston National Forest. Off-road vehicles are prohibited.
Little Lake Creek Wilderness - The Little Lake Creek Wilderness is on the western edge of the pineywoods of East Texas about five miles (8 km) north of the City of Montgomery. It was designated wilderness in 1984 under the Texas Wilderness Act. The area derives its name from the perennial creek of the same name that flows south through the center.
The wilderness area is bisected by three major creek drainages: Little Lake Creek, Pole Creek, and Sand Branch. Those drainages create a rich ecological mosaic. Loblolly and shortleaf pines dominate ridgetops that are separated by a wide variety of hardwoods along the creek channels. The area is bounded by private land to the south, FM 149 to the east, FS 211 and an abandoned pipeline right-of-way to the west, and FS 231 to the north.
Big Creek Scenic Area - The Big Creek Scenic Area was established in 1962 as a special interest area. Noted for its vegetative diversity and scenic qualities, the area was set aside primarily for recreational enjoyment. No camping is allowed in Big Creek Scenic Area. The Lone Star Hiking Trail goes through the scenic area offering four trail loops of various lengths for hikers to enjoy. Big Creek Scenic Area is approximately six miles west of Shepherd, and a parking lot is conveniently located off FS 217.
Camping
There are three developed campgrounds in the Sam Houston National Forest (Cagle, Double Lake and Stubblefield Recreation areas). Double Lake facilities are available by reservations or on a first-come, first-served basis if site has not previously reserved. Cagle and Stubblefield are available on a first-come, first-served basis only. Reservation can be completed by calling the National Recreation Service at 1/877/444-6777 or by internet at www.recreation.gov
Cagle Recreation Area is located along the shoreline of Lake Conroe on the west fork of the San Jacinto River. Cagle is a new campground with full service hook-ups. It has a boat ramp with large parking lot, 48 camping spurs with electric, fresh-water and sewer connections, hot showers with restrooms, lakeshore hiking and bicycle trails, wildlife viewing, Lake Conroe boating and water sports, fishing, a picnic area overlooking Lake Conroe, shoreline wading and swimming, of off-road vehicle (ORV), equestrian and mountain bike trails close as well as of hiking on the Lone Star Hiking Trail. This area is covered with beautiful large pine and hardwood trees plus thousands of colorful wildflowers. Mid February redbud tree blossoms followed by dogwood tree blossoms in early March are a spectacular outdoor flower show.
Cagle is five miles west of Interstate 45 on state road FM-1375 at New Waverly, Texas.
Double Lake Recreation Area is located on the east side of the Sam Houston near Coldspring, Texas, surrounding a lake and includes whispering pines and hardwoods one mile (1.6 km) south on FM-2025. Built initially in 1937 by the Civilian Conservation Corps, Double Lake Recreation Area facilities includes family camping units, group camping, picnicking units, a picnic shelter, swimming area and beach, and a concession stand with bathhouse. Each family camping unit has a table, fireplace, tent pad, parking spur, and lantern-holder post. There are units with water, sewer, and electrical hook-ups. Picnic units have tables and fireplaces.
Canoes and paddleboats can be rented at the concession stand at Double Lake which also has groceries, ice, and other items for sale. Bass, bream, and catfish have been stocked in Double Lake, and fishing is permitted under applicable state laws. Only small electric motors are allowed on the lake. Double Lake Recreation Area also provides access to the Lone Star Hiking Trail.
Stubblefield Recreation Area located on the west side of the Sam Houston National Forest along Lake Conroe where Forest Service Road (FSR) 215 cross the west fork of the San Jacinto River. Located on the north shore of Lake Conroe, Stubblefield has 28 camping units and also provides access to the Lone Star Hiking Trail. Hot showers with restrooms are available for all campers and day-use visitors. Stubblefield is a beautiful forest setting for fishing, hiking, birding, hunting or camping for an enjoyable outdoor experience in the National Forest.
Kelly Pond Recreation Area and Multi-use Trailhead is located west of Interstate 45 approximately eight miles along FM-1375 west of New Waverly. This site offers close locations to the multi-use trails and Lone Star Hiking Trail and has a restroom available. Picnic tables and campsites with lantern post and grills are available. Kelly Pond offers more primitive camping experience and is surrounded by Sam Houston National Forest and all its splendor.
Fishing
On the northeast boundary of the forest lies the Lake Livingston. Lake Conroe, to the southwest, offers of water-oriented recreation. Both lakes are noted for black bass and year-round fishing. The Forest Service provides three access points to Lake Conroe. A boat slip on the San Jacinto River near Stubblefield Recreation Area north on the lake, a boat ramp along the northeastern shore of Lake Conroe at Cagle Recreation Area, and another boat ramp is at Scotts Ridge on the southwestern shore of the lake.
Hunting
The entire Sam Houston National Forest is designated as a wildlife management area through a cooperative agreement between Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and the U.S. Forest Service. This special designation provides benefits to those who use the Sam Houston National Forest, including hunters, and to the wildlife that live or forage there. Extra fees paid by hunters who use wildlife management areas are collected by Texas Parks and Wildlife Department and are returned to the Forest Service for use in those areas. These funds pay for a variety of programs to improve wildlife habitat and other enhancement programs such as wild turkey restoration, creation of wildlife openings and additional law enforcement. They can also be used to gather and analyze data to improve wildlife habitat. Those who wish to hunt deer or small game in the Sam Houston National Forest must purchase the appropriate wildlife management area hunting permit available where state hunting license are sold. Hunters and those who accompany them must wear hunter orange while hunting with a firearm in the Sam Houston National Forest. Hunters and fishermen are required to have a Texas license and follow State regulations.
Boating
Both Lake Conroe and Lake Livingston offer fine pleasure boating and water sports. Lake Conroe and the southern section of Lake Livingston offer open water for sailing.
Multi-use trails – Driving off-road vehicles (dirt bikes and small 4-wheelers) and horseback riding are two of the many popular recreational uses of the Sam Houston National Forest. Special trails have been designated and developed for these multiple uses include ORVs, equestrian and mountain bikes.
These trails are loop trails that return to the starting point. Trailheads have been located to give users a logical starting point and a parking area for vehicles. Camping is prohibited on the trail and in parking areas.
ORV use is restricted to the designated multi-use trails. Trail direction is marked with red arrows. Pipelines, powerlines, and other utility rights-of-way are closed to ORV use; however, crossing of these rights-of-way is permitted at designated locations.
ORV enthusiasts are encouraged to seek further information and contact the local district ranger's office at telephone number 888/361-6908 (toll free) concerning operating conditions and areas open to vehicular traffic. These trails are closed after rainfall to protect soils, reduce erosion and protect sensitive fish in the area. Telephone menu messages provide open and closed trails information 24 hours a day.
Operating conditions enforced under the Code of Federal Regulations prohibit the following:
(a) Operating any vehicle, including any off-road vehicle:
Without a valid license as required by state law;
With an internal or external combustion engine not equipped with a properly installed spark arrestor or exhaust system;
Without an operable braking system, or properly installed and working exhaust system;
From one-half hour after sunset to one-half hour before sunrise unless equipped with working head and tail lights;
In violation of any applicable noise emission standard established by any federal or state agency. If standards overlap, the most stringent will govern.
(b) Driving any vehicle, including off-road vehicles:
In excess of posted or established limits on speed, load, weight, length, or width;
While under the influence of alcohol or drugs;
In violation of state law;
In a manner that creates excessive or unusual noise or smoke;
Carelessly and without regard for the safety of others;
In a manner that endangers, or is likely to endanger, any person or property
In a manner creating excessive damage or disturbance of land, wildlife, or vegetation resources.
Wildlife
Carmen Mountains white-tailed deer is the most popular game animal in the Sam Houston National Forest, with Eastern gray squirrels second. Feral hogs are found in significant populations throughout the forest. They are an introduced species and damage the ecosystem. Quail and dove are found around newly regenerated timberland. For the water sportsman, fishing and duck hunting can be enjoyed on area lakes and streams.
Lake Conroe and the surrounding National Forest lands provide wintering habitat for the bald eagle. During the winter months, the eagle is not an uncommon sight soaring over the lake, perched on a flooded snag or in a tall pine along the shoreline.
Another bird species found here, one that is truly endangered, is the red-cockaded woodpecker. It's found throughout the Sam Houston National Forest and frequently spotted by observant visitors. The small black and white woodpecker with distinctive large white cheek patches is slightly larger than a bluebird. The male has a single streak of red feathers on each side of his head. Its unique high-pitched, squeaky call can be recognized at considerable distances.
The woodpecker makes its home by pecking cavities in large, living pine trees. These cavities are later used by a variety of forest wildlife including other woodpeckers, bluebirds, screech owls, wood ducks, squirrels, and honey bees. The red-cockaded woodpecker also chips pitch wells around the entrances to their cavity nests. The resulting pitch flow gives the cavity tree a distinctive waxy appearance below the nest opening and serves to protect the bird from predatory snakes.
The red-cockaded woodpecker was designated an endangered species in 1970. This unique little bird and its habitat are fully protected on the Sam Houston National Forest. Wherever these birds are found, the management emphasis is directed toward providing the special habitat they require.
Other birds found in the forest are pileated woodpeckers, crows, owls and other birds of prey.
Timber
In 1934, when the Texas Legislature extended an invitation to the federal government to purchase land to establish the National Forests in Texas, little of the acquired land was well-stocked with trees plus most of the lands was cut over by private loggers or damaged by fire.
Early U.S. Forest Service management efforts were directed toward protection from fire, planting cut over areas, and improving the tree density in existing young timber stands.
Timber in the Sam Houston National Forest is managed on a sustained yield principle, so the forest will continuously produce timber products in the future for local and national needs. When the timber is removed, the money from sales is sent to the U.S. Treasury, and a portion of these funds is returned to the counties for schools and roads.
Fire management
Wildfire - The U.S. Forest Service and the Texas Forest Service have a cooperative agreement and action plan to coordinate the prevention, law enforcement, aerial detection, and suppression of wildfire.
Prescribed fire - Fire has a proven ecological role in the development and management of the forest and rangelands and is used as a tool for ecosystem management of the Sam Houston National Forest. Prescribed fire can reduce heavy accumulations of forest fuels to minimize damages in the event of wildfires. After an area is prescribed burned threatened and endangered habitat is improved significantly and new understory sprouts supply food for wildlife.
Weather, fuel conditions, seasonal timing and fire application techniques are all considered by trained professionals while accomplishing these projects.
Water, soil, and minerals
The Sam Houston National Forest is drained through several small creeks into the east and west forks of the San Jacinto River, and a small portion drains into Lake Livingston.
Lake Conroe, on the west fork of the San Jacinto River was dammed in 1972. It is in the southwestern part of the Sam Houston National Forest near Conroe, Texas. Lake Livingston on the Trinity River was dammed in 1968 and is located on the Northeastern side of the Sam Houston National Forest near Coldspring, Texas.
The Sam Houston National Forest lies within the Gulf Coastal Plains, and the principal soils were developed from unconsolidated beds of clay, sand, sandy clay, or clay shale materials comprising old non-calcareous sediments of the Tertiary and Pleistocene Ages. The soils range from slightly to severely erosive, although any of the soils in the forest will erode if the right conditions such as heavy rains or where concentrations of waterflow are present.
Exploration and drilling for minerals in the Sam Houston National Forest is part of the multiple-use program. Mineral extraction and drilling, allowed under certain conditions, help meet energy needs. Many of the forest minerals belong to private entities who reserved the mineral rights when the lands were purchased during the 1930s, and under the terms of the deed, these outstanding and reserved minerals can be legally explored and removed by the owner.
Where mineral rights are owned by the government, receipts from mineral leases and royalties are paid to the U.S. Treasury and a portion of these receipts are returned to the counties for schools and roads.
Other facilities
The Gulf Coast Trades Center is located in the forest.
Karolyi Ranch was located within the forest until its shutdown in 2018.
See also
Texas Forest Trail
List of U.S. National Forests
References
From the Handbook of Texas Online—George Oxford Miller and Delena Tull, Texas Parks and Campgrounds: North, East, and Coastal Texas (Austin: Texas Monthly Press, 1984).
External links
Sam Houston National Forest USDA Forest Service - National Forests & Grasslands in Texas
Sam Houston National Forest from the Handbook of Texas Online
National Forests of Texas
Protected areas of Montgomery County, Texas
Protected areas of San Jacinto County, Texas
Protected areas of Walker County, Texas
Civilian Conservation Corps in Texas
Protected areas established in 1936
Sam Houston
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarcocystis
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Sarcocystis
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Sarcocystis is a genus of protozoan parasites, with many species infecting mammals, reptiles and birds. Its name is dervived from Greek sarx = flesh and kystis = bladder.
The lifecycle of a typical member of this genus involves two host species, a definitive host and an intermediate host. Often, the definitive host is a predator and the intermediate host is its prey. The parasite reproduces sexually in the gut of the definitive host, is passed with the feces, and ingested by the intermediate host. There, it eventually enters muscle tissue. When the intermediate host is eaten by the definitive host, the cycle is completed. The definitive host usually does not show any symptoms of infection, but the intermediate host does.
About 130 recognized species are in this genus. Revision of the taxonomy of the genus is ongoing, and all the currently recognised species may be a much smaller number of species that can infect multiple hosts.
History
The organism was first recognised in a mouse by Miescher in 1843. His findings were not initially interpreted as involving a protist, and the literature referred to the structures he described as "Miescher's tubules". Incidentally, Miescher's son, Johann Friedrich Miescher, discovered DNA. Similar structures were found in pig muscle in 1865, but these remained unnamed until 1899, when the name Sarcocystis miescheriana was proposed for them.
Initially, whether these organisms were fungi or protozoa was unclear . This uncertainty was resolved in 1967 when electron microscopic studies showed that they were protozoa, related to Toxoplasma and Eimeria. The lifecycle remained unknown until 1970, when bradyzoites from sarcocysts in bird muscles were inoculated into cultured mammalian cells and seen to undergo development into sexual stages and oocysts. Transmission studies with Sarcocystis of cattle (then considered a single species, Sarcocystis fusiformis) in dogs, cats, and humans revealed three morphologically distinct species, which were named S. bovicanis, S. bovifelis, and S. bovihominis. This and post-1972 research on Sarcocystis was reviewed during the same decade; and that account is still a very useful source of information today.
Lifecycle
The heteroxenous (more than one obligatory host) lifecycle of these apicomplexan parasites remained obscure until 1972, when the prey-predator relationship of its definitive and intermediate hosts was recognised. The lifecycles of about 60 of these species are now known.
In outline, gametogony and sporogony occur in the intestine of the definitive host, while both schizogony, which occurs in various tissues, and the formation of sarcocysts (containing bradyzoites and metrocytes) occurs principally in the muscles of the intermediate host. In some cases, a single species may act as both the definitive and intermediate host.
Oocysts are passed in the feces of an infected definitive host. The oocyst undergoes sporogony, creating two sporocysts. These sporocysts of Sarcocystis characteristically contain four sporozoites and measure approximately 15–19 by 8–10 μm. Oocysts of Sarcocystis are thin-walled and easily break open. The result is that sporocysts recovered from feces outnumber intact oocysts.
Intermediate hosts such as cattle or pigs then ingest sporocysts. Sporozoites are released in the body and migrate to vessels, where they undergo the first two generations of asexual reproduction. These rounds result in the development of meronts. This stage lasts about 15 to 16 days after ingestion of sporocysts. Merozoites emerge from the second-generation meronts and enter the mononucleated cells, where they develop by endodyogeny. Subsequent generations of merozoites develop downstream in the direction of blood flow to arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins throughout the body, subsequently developing into the final asexual generation in muscles.
Merozoites entering muscle cells round up to form metrocytes and initiate sarcocyst formation. Sarcocysts begin as unicellular bodies containing a single metrocyte and through asexual multiplication numerous metrocytes accumulate and the sarcocyst increases in size. As the sarcocyst matures, the small, rounded, noninfectious metrocytes give rise to crescent-shaped bodies called bradyzoites (also known as "bradyzoic merozoites") that are infectious for the definitive host. The time required for maturation varies with the species and may take 2 months or more.
In species in which symptoms develop, these typically occur 20–40 days after ingestion of sporocysts and during the subsequent migration of sporozoites through the body vessels. Acute lesions (oedema, hemorrhages, and necrosis) develop in the affected tissues. The parasite has a predilection for skeletal muscle (myositis), cardiac muscle (petechial hemorrhages of cardiac muscle and serosae), and lymph nodes (oedema, necrosis, and hemorrhage). These lesions are associated with maturation of second generation of meronts within the endothelial and subendothelials cells. Occasionally mononuclear infiltration or hyperemia has been observed in the lamina propria of the small intestine. After the acute phase, cysts may be found in various muscular tissues, generally without pathology.
Once the intermediate host is eaten by the definitive host, such as a dog or human, the parasite undergoes sexual reproduction within the gut to create macrogamonts and microgamonts. Most definitive hosts do not show any clinical signs or symptoms. Fusion of a macrogamont and a microgamont creates a zygote, which develops into an oocyst. The oocyst is passed through the faeces, completing the lifecycle.
A second lifecycle has more recently been described whereby carnivores and omnivores pass the infectious stages in their faeces. Ingestion of this material may lead to successful infection of the ingesting animal.
Birds
Although sarcocysts were first reported in the muscles of birds by Kuhn in 1865, the first lifecycle involving a bird (Gallus gallus) and a carnivore (Canis familiaris) was not described until 1977 by Munday et al. In 1986 the first life cycle involving birds as both the definitive (northern goshawk – Accipiter gentilis) and intermediate (Atlantic canary – Serinus canaria) hosts was described by Cerná and Kvasnovská.
Taxonomy
The taxonomy of this genus and its relationship to other protozoal genera are currently under investigation.
Related genera include: Besnoitia, Caryospora, Cystoisospora, Frenkelia, Isospora, Hammondia, Hyaloklossia, Lankesterella, Neospora, and Toxoplasma.
Sarcocystis is the largest genus within the family Sarcocystidae and consists of species that infect a range of animals, including mammals, birds, and reptiles. Frenkelia, another genus within this family, consists of parasites that use rodents as intermediate hosts and birds of prey as definitive hosts.
Besnoitia, Hammondia, Neospora, and Toxoplasma apparently form a single clade. Within this clade, Toxoplasma and Neospora appear to be sister clades. Isospora also appears to belong to this clade and this clade is a sister to Sarcocystis. Frenkelia appears to be very closely related to Sarcocystis.
Several molecular studies have suggested that Frenkelia is actually a species of Sarcocystis. This genus was distinguished from Sarcocystis on the basis of its tendency to encyst within the brain rather than within muscle. This distinction may not be taxonomically valid.
Within the genus, a number of clades have been identified. These include one that contains S. dispersa, S. lacertae, S. mucosa, S. muris, S. neurona, and S. rodentifelis. Frenkelia also groups with this clade.
Species
Sarcocystis accipitris
Sarcocystis alces
Sarcocystis alceslatrans
Sarcocystis ameivamastigodryasi
Sarcocystis americana
Sarcocystis arieticanis
Sarcocystis asinus
Sarcocystis atheridis
Sarcocystis aucheniae
Sarcocystis bertrami
Sarcocystis bigemina
Sarcocystis booliati
Sarcocystis bovicanis
Sarcocystis bovifelis
Sarcocystis bovihominis
Sarcocystis buffalonis
Sarcocystis calchasi
Sarcocystis cameli
Sarcocystis camelopardalis
Sarcocystis campestris
Sarcocystis chamaleonis
Sarcocystis cernae
Sarcocystis cervi
Sarcocystis cervicanis
Sarcocystis canis
Sarcocystis capracanis
Sarcocystis cornixi
Sarcocystis crotali
Sarcocystis cruzi
Sarcocystis cuniculi
Sarcocystis cymruensis
Sarcocystis danzani
Sarcocystis dasypi
Sarcocystis debonei
Sarcocystis diminuta
Sarcocystis dirumpens
Sarcocystis dispersa
Sarcocystis dubeyella
Sarcocystis dubeyi
Sarcocystis equicanis
Sarcocystis falcatula
Sarcocystis fayeri
Sarcocystis felis
Sarcocystis fulicae
Sarcocystis fusiformis
Sarcocystis gallotiae
Sarcocystis garnhami
Sarcocystis gracilis
Sarcocystis grueneri
Sarcocystis halieti
Sarcocystis hoarensis
Sarcocystis fusiformis
Sarcocystis gallotiae
Sarcocystis gerbilliechis
Sarcocystis gigantea
Sarcocystis giraffae
Sarcocystis gongyli
Sarcocystis gracilis
Sarcocystis greineri
Sarcocystis grueneri
Sarcocystis hardangeri
Sarcocystis hemioni
Sarcocystis hemionilatrantis
Sarcocystis hericanis
Sarcocystis hircicanis
Sarcocystis hirsuta
Sarcocystis hjorti
Sarcocystis hofmanni
Sarcocystis hominis
Sarcocystis horvathi
Sarcocystis iberica
Sarcocystis idahoensis
Sarcocystis inghami
Sarcocystis jamaicensis
Sarcocystis jorrini
Sarcocystis kinosterni
Sarcocystis kirkpatricki
Sarcocystis kirmsei
Sarcocystis klaseriensis
Sarcocystis kortei
Sarcocystis lacertae
Sarcocystis lamacanis
Sarcocystis leporum
Sarcocystis levinei
Sarcocystis lindemanni
Sarcocystis lindsayi
Sarcocystis linearis
Sarcocystis medusiformis
Sarcocystis melis
Sarcocystis mephitisi
Sarcocystis miescheriana
Sarcocystis mihoensis
Sarcocystis mitrani
Sarcocystis mongolica
Sarcocystis montanaensis
Sarcocystis morae
Sarcocystis mucosa
Sarcocystis moulei
Sarcocystis murinotechis
Sarcocystis muris
Sarcocystis muriviperae
Sarcocystis neotomafelis
Sarcocystis nesbitti
Sarcocystis neurona
Sarcocystis odoi
Sarcocystis odocoileocanis
Sarcocystis ovicanis
Sarcocystis ovifelis
Sarcocystis oviformis
Sarcocystis ovalis
Sarcocystis phacochoeri
Sarcocystis phoeniconaii
Sarcocystis pilosa
Sarcocystis podarcicolubris
Sarcocystis poephagi
Sarcocystis poephagicanis
Sarcocystis porcifelis
Sarcocystis porcihominis
Sarcocystis rangi
Sarcocystis rangiferi
Sarcocystis rauschorum
Sarcocystis rileyi
Sarcocystis rodentifelis
Sarcocystis roudabushi
Sarcocystis scandinavica
Sarcocystis sebeki
Sarcocystis sibirica
Sarcocystis sigmodontis
Sarcocystis silva
Sarcocystis singaporensis
Sarcocystis speeri
Sarcocystis stehlinii
Sarcocystis stenodactylicolubris
Sarcocystis strixi
Sarcocystis suicanis
Sarcocystis suihominis
Sarcocystis sulawesiensis
Sarcocystis sybillensis
Sarcocystis tarandi
Sarcocystis tarandivulpes
Sarcocystis tenella
Sarcocystis tilopodi
Sarcocystis turcicii
Sarcocystis turdi
Sarcocystis ursusi
Sarcocystis venatoria
Sarcocystis villivilliso
Sarcocystis wapiti
Sarcocystis zamani
Evolution
These protozoa are being increasingly well studied in mammals, birds and reptiles. They do not appear to infect mammals of the superorder Afrotheria and infect only two species of the Xenarthra. Because of this pattern, the genus may have evolved in the Northern Hemisphere from a pre-existing protozoan species that infected mammals.
Alternatively, because a number of Australian marsupials are also infected by this genus, marsupials may have been the original hosts of this genus and the parasites were spread to the Northern Hemisphere by birds. A third possibility is that the genus originally infected birds and was spread worldwide by these hosts. A final possibility because of the existence of lifecycles where both the intermediate and final hosts are reptiles, the genus may have originated in reptiles and spread from there to other genera. The resolution of this question awaits the outcome of further molecular studies.
Clinical: Human
Infection with Sarcocystis is known as sarcosporidiosis or sarcocystosis. Because of initial confusion over the nature of this parasite, the organism in the intestine was originally referred to as Isospora hominis .
Epidemiology
Although human intestinal infection is common, extraintestinal human sarcocystosis is considered to be rare.
The extremes of age reported to date are a 26-day-old infant and a 75-year-old man. Infections have been reported from Africa, Europe (Germany, Spain and Poland), the United States (California), Central and South America, China, India, Tibet, Malaysia, and Southeast Asia.
Stool examinations in Thai laborers showed that Sarcocystis infection had a high prevalence of around 23%, reflecting ingestion of raw or undercooked meat. Virtually all cases appeared to be asymptomatic. A study of 100 human tongues obtained post mortem in Malaya revealed an infection rate of 21%. No sex difference was found and the age range was 16 to 57 years (mean 37.7 years).
A non-enteric outbreak affecting 93 people was reported in 2012 in Malaysia. Sarcocystis nesbitti was confirmed to be the cause in several cases.
History
The first report of human infection was made in 1868. Although several additional reports were subsequently published, these early descriptions were not considered definitive. The first generally agreed definitive description of this disease was published in 1894 by Baraban and Saint-Remy. This species was named by Rivolta after Lindemannl in 1898.
The cysts in human muscle were considered to belong to a single species, S. lindemanni, and the intestinal form to be S. hominis (from undercooked beef) or S. suihominis (from undercooked pork). The description of S. lindemanni has since been considered to be unsatisfactory and has been declared a nomen nudum (a name lacking a description). Two species are currently considered to be capable of causing human intestinal infection: S. bovihominis (S. hominis) and S. suihominis. Other species including S. nesbitti have occasionally been reported as infecting humans extraintestinally.
Route of infection
Intestinal infection occurs when raw or undercooked meat is ingested. Contaminated water might be a source of very rare human extraintestinal infection (it is not possible for water to be the origin of a gut infection), but this remains a theoretical possibility.
Pathology
The pathology is of two types: a rare invasive form with vasculitis and myositis and an intestinal form that presents with nausea, abdominal pain, and diarrhea. While normally mild and lasting under 48 hours, the intestinal form may occasionally be severe or even life-threatening. The invasive form may involve a wide variety of tissues including lymph nodes, muscles, and the larynx.
Clinical features
In volunteer studies with infected beef, symptoms appeared 3–6 hours after eating. These included anorexia, nausea, abdominal pain, distension, diarrhea, vomiting, dyspnea, and tachycardia. All symptoms were transient and lasted about 36 hours. In a second series, symptoms—abdominal pain, distension, watery diarrhea, and eosinophilia—appeared at 1 week and resolved after 3 weeks.
Clinical cases have been associated with acute fever, myalgias, bronchospasm, pruritic rashes, lymphadenopathy, subcutaneous nodules associated with eosinophilia, elevated erythrocyte sedimentation rate, and elevated creatinine kinase levels. Symptoms may last as long as five years. Segmental necrotizing enteritis has been reported on one occasion.
Diagnosis
Definitive diagnosis by biopsy of an infected muscle. Sarcocysts are identifiable with hematoxylin and eosin. The PAS stain may be helpful, but variable uptake of stain is common. Along with the sarcocysts, inflammatory cells may be found. Other findings include myositis, myonecrosis, perivascular and interstitial inflammation, vasculitis, and eosinophilic myositis.
Treatment
Because infection is rarely symptomatic, treatment is rarely required. No trials have been published, so treatment remains empirical. Agents that have been used include albendazole, metronidazole, and cotrimoxazole for myositis. Corticosteroids have also been used for symptomatic relief.
Amprolium and salinomycin were effective in preventing severe illness and death in experimentally infected calves and lambs. These agents have not been tried in humans to date.
Prevention
Infection can be prevented by cooking the meat before eating. Alternatively, freezing the meat at −5 °C for several days before ingestion kills the sporocysts.
Clinical: Nonhuman
Four recognised species infect cattle: S. bovifelis, S. bovihominis (S. hominis), S. cruzi (S. bovicanis), and S. hirsuta. S. cruzi is the only species known to be pathogenic in cattle. Several clinical syndromes have been reported in connection with this parasite: eosinophilic myositis; abortions, stillbirths, and deaths in pregnant cows; two cases of necrotic encephalitis in heifers have also been reported. Typical clinical signs of acute bovine sarcocystosis are: anorexia, pyrexia (42 °C or more), anemia, cachexia, enlarged palpable lymph nodes, excessive salivation, and loss of hair at the tip of the tail.
Sheep may be infected by four recognized species of Sarcocystis: S. arieticanis and S. tenella (S. ovicanis) are pathogenic; S. gigantea (S. ovifelis) and S. medusiformis are nonpathogenic. Infection with these parasites is common in the US with over 80% of sheep examined showing evidence of infection. S. arieticanis and S. tenella both produce extraintestinal disease. Anemia, anorexia, ataxia, and abortions are the chief clinical signs. Myositis with flaccid paralysis has been reported as a consequence of infection. Ovine protozoan myeloencephalitis is a recognised syndrome that may occur in outbreaks. The usual pathological findings in such cases are multifocal spinal cord white matter oedema and necrosis, glial nodules and mild to moderate nonsuppurative encephalomyelitis. The diagnosis may be established finding protozoan bodies (12.7–23.0 μm) that stain immunocytochemically for Sarcocystis epitopes.
Four recognised species infect pigs: S. medusiformis, S. meischeriana (S. suicanis), S. porcifelis, and S. suihominis. S. porcifelis is pathogenic for pigs causing diarrhea, myositis and lameness.
Five species infect horses: S. asinus, S. bertrami, S. equicanis, S. fayeri, and S. neurona (S. falcatula). All use canids as definitive hosts; transplacental infection has also been reported. S. neurona causes equine protozoal myeloencephalitis. Exposure to this parasite appears to be common in the United States, with serological surveys indicating that 50–60% percent of all horses in the Midwest United States have been exposed to it. Clinical signs include gait abnormalities including ataxia, knuckling, and crossing over. Muscle atrophy, usually unilateral, may occur. The lesions are typically focal. Brain stem involvement is common. Depression, weakness, head tilt, and dysphagia also occur.
S. fayeri may cause myositis in horses.
Fatal infection of an alpaca (Lama pacos) with an unnamed species has been reported. Findings included disseminated eosinophilic myositis, abortion, and haemoabdomen. The myositis was associated with haemorrhage, necrosis, and degeneration. Infection by S. tilopodi of muscle tissue in the guanaco has been reported.
S. hemionilatrantis infects mule deer. Death from experimental inoculation has been reported.
These parasites can also infect birds, producing three different clinical forms: an acute pulmonary disease, muscular disease, and neurological disease. Symptoms include lethargy, shortness of breath, tail bobbing, yellow-tinted droppings, and sudden death. The presence of the cysts in the muscle of wild birds is known as "rice breast".
Incidence in animals
Infection with Sarcocystis is common. Rates in pigs vary: 18% in Iowa, 27% in the Philippines, 43% in Spain, 57% in Uruguay, and 68% in India The infection rate in sheep is commonly above 90%. Camels have a similarly high incidence of infection. Rates above 80% are known in cattle and goats. The incidence in water buffaloes, yak and hainag exceeds 80% while the incidence in horses, donkeys, and chickens is lower.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis is usually made post mortem by examination of the skeletal muscle. In some species, the cysts may be visible to the naked eye (ducks, mice, rabbits and sheep), but in most, microscopic examination is required.
Ante mortem diagnosis may be made with the use of dermal sensitivity testing or complement fixation tests. Muscle biopsy is also diagnostic, but this is much less commonly used.
Microscopy
Oocysts with two sporocysts or individual sporocysts in human feces are diagnostic of intestinal infection. These first appear 14 to 18 days after ingesting beef (S. hominis), and 11 to 13 days after ingesting pork (S. suihominis). Flotation based on high-density solutions incorporating sodium chloride, cesium chloride, zinc sulfate, sucrose, Percoll, Ficoll-Hypaque, or other such density gradient media is preferred to formalin-ethyl acetate or other sedimentation methods. Sporocysts of S. hominis average 9.3 by 14.7 μm and those of S. suihominis average 10.5 by 13.5 μm. Because of the overlap in size, size alone is not reliable as a diagnostic criterion of the species. Confirmatory staining with the periodic acid-Schiff (PAS) can be performed, as the walls stain positively. Heated safranin + methylene blue has been used for staining, as well. PCR amplification of the rRNA may also be used.
Cell walls
The walls of the sarcocyst may be helpful in species diagnosis with 24 wall types identified in 62 species. S. hominis and S. suihominis both have walls of type 10. The wall of S. hominis is up to 6 μm thick and appears radially striated from villar protrusions up to 7 μm long. Its bradyzoites are 7 to 9 μm long. The wall of S. suihominis is 4 to 9μm thick, with villar protrusions up to 13 μm long. Its bradyzoites are 15 μm long.
Differential diagnosis
Several other genera of heteroxenous and cyst-forming coccidia are known, including Besnoitia, Cystoisospora, Frenkelia, Hammondia, Neospora and Toxoplasma. Related but monoxenous spore-forming genera include Isospora. Differentiating these genera from Sarcocystis in diagnostic material may be difficult without immunochemical stains.
Treatment
Current treatments are not entirely satisfactory. Amprolium (100 mg/kg, daily for 30 days), fed prophylactically, reduced illness in cattle inoculated with S. cruzi. Prophylactic administration of amprolium or salinomycin also protected experimentally infected sheep.
In horses, treatment has been confined to dihydrofolate reductase inhibitors such as the sulfonamides and pyrimethamine. Sulfadiazine (20 mg/kg orally) once or twice a day is a commonly used. Infected horses should also be placed on pyrimethamine at the dose of 1.0 mg/kg given once a day orally for 120 days or longer. Diclazuril and toltrazuril and other coccidiostats are being evaluated to treat EPM.
Vaccination
No vaccines are currently known. Experimentally inoculated pigs appear to develop a persistent immunity, so a vaccine may be possible.
Host-parasite relations
The parasite's lifecycle typically involves a predator and a prey animal. A single species may infect multiple prey or predator animals. In at least 56 species, definitive and intermediate hosts are known. Many species are named after their recognised hosts.
A listing of the known host-parasite relations can be found on the page Sarcocystis: Host-parasite relations.
Notes
Hoareosporidium is now considered a synonym of Sarcocystis. The original type species was Sarcocystis miescheriana. Its description has since been considered less than satisfactory and S. muris has been proposed as the type species. S. turdi may not be a valid species.
Isospora bigemina has been reclassified as Sarcocystis bigemina. Isospora hominis has been reclassified as Sarcocystis hominis. S. bovihominis is a synonym of S. hominis. S. cruzi is a synonym of S. bovicanis. S. gigantea is a synonym of S. ovifelis. S. hirsuta is a synonym of S. bovifelis. S. idahoensis and S. roudabushi may be the same species. S. miescheriana is a synonym of S. suicanis. S. neurona is a junior synonym of S. falcatula. S. neuroma is the more commonly used name for this species. S. poephagi may be the same species as S. hirsuta. S. poephagicanis may be the same species as S. cruzi. S. tenella is a synonym of S. ovicanis.
See also
Equine protozoal myeloencephalitis
References
External links
Sarcocystis genome project
Review:
Apicomplexa genera
Conoidasida
Rodent-carried diseases
Parasitic diseases
Parasites of equines
Parasites of mammals
Parasitic diseases associated with beef and pork consumption
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20van%20Duin
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André van Duin
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Adrianus Marinus Kyvon (born Adrianus Marinus Kloot; 20 February 1947), known by his stage name André van Duin, is a Dutch comedian, actor, singer-songwriter, author, television presenter, television director, television producer and screenwriter. Van Duin is one of the Netherlands' best known entertainers, with a career spanning almost six decades.
Early life
Van Duin was born as Adrianus Kloot, but with "Kloot" being a Dutch slur, he took the name "André van Duin" instead, while his family officially changed their surname to "Kyvon". Van Duin grew up in Rotterdam, was interested in performing at a young age and developed an image as the class clown, partially due to his red hair. After primary school, he went to the LTS to become a machinist, but later worked as an office clerk and a warehouse employee.
Career
1960s: Breakthrough
In 1962, fifteen-year-old Van Duin sent in several applications to the different public broadcasters in which he described his work and ambitions.
KRO was one of the only two broadcasters to reply to Van Duin's letter, stating that they had been reading "his naughty little letter" with "great astonishment", adding that they highly doubted that Van Duin would be successful in his ambitions. Eventually, AVRO invited him to do a small performance on their youth radio show Minjon.
In 1964, Van Duin achieved his great breakthrough. He entered AVRO's talent contest Nieuwe oogst, which purpose it was to showcase new musical talent to the Dutch public. Van Duin entered the show as recording parodist. During the first show, he playbacked to a self-made six-minute mixed recording of American and British hit songs, his own jokes and imitations of other artists, and hysterical laughter. Van Duin finished the act with imitating a chicken dance in a circle parodying "Surfin' Bird", which had been a hit the year before.
Though Karel Prior commented that the performance was not "very original" and that Van Duin was entering a lane that was already occupied by Wim Sonneveld and Tom Manders, the performance however made a huge societal impact. Van Duin therefore eventually won the show, with 71 points, leaving a 13-point gap between himself and the runner-up.
His prize was to perform his first single "Hé Hé, ik ben André" during the popular programme Zaterdagavondshow, hosted by father and daughter Willy and Willeke Alberti.
Van Duin then became an apprentice of artists Theo Reggers and Huug Kok, who then formed the popular duo De Spelbrekers. In the latter half of the 1960s, Van Duin travelled along with the Snip en Snap Revue, where he learnt more about the revue theatre. Around the same time, Van Duin met , a Dutch television director. Together with Verstraete, Van Duin created his first own television show, titled Een avondje teevee met André, of which five episodes were broadcast. The show received a good critical response, with a Tubantia journalist called it "the highlight" of the Sunday evening television.
1970s: Revues, Dik Voormekaar Show, chart success
Revue touring
After the good response to his first television show, theatre producer Joop van den Ende cast Van Duin for a revue production. Initially, Van Duin would play the straight man to , but during the try-outs, Van den Ende decided that Van Duin was better suited to play the role of the everyman.
Together with Ria Valk as the leading lady, Van Duin and Van Dusschoten toured with the revue 'n Lach in de ruimte in 1970. The revue received critical acclaim with a Nieuwsblad van het Noorden journalist stating that Van Duin could become a household name in the Dutch theatre world.
In the theatre season of 1973–1974, Van Duin and Van Dusschoten toured the Netherlands with the revue programme Dag dag heerlijke lach, this time with Corrie van Gorp as the leading lady. While popular among the Dutch public, theatre and television critics branded the show as low culture. A televised version of the show won the Gouden Televizier-ring, the most important television prize as voted by the Dutch public. At the award ceremony of the Gouden Televizier-ring, Van Duin showed that he had pasted the critics' bad reviews onto a toilet roll and read them out loud in front of the press. A recording taken of that moment was restored and broadcast during the 2017 award ceremony of the ring.
Dik Voormekaar Show
In 1972, André van Duin was asked by Radio Noordzee to host a weekly comedy show, which was first titled De Abominabele Top 2000. In that show, Van Duin parodied radio commercials and the Dutch stock office, but a segment with Van Duin's first real alter ego Dik Voormekaar became the most popular part of the show. After a few shows, Van Duin also started to involve his technician, Ferry de Groot, who played the alter ego of Mr De Groot.
After ten episodes, Van Duin and De Groot turned the show into the Dik Voormekaar Show, adding more characters to the broadcast too. However, after Van Duin and De Groot spoofed the board of Radio Noordzee, their show was taken off the air. Van Duin was fired.
In 1974, Van Duin and De Groot signed a contract to continue the show on within NCRV's radio time on Hilversum 3. Until the show's end in 1985, the Dik Voormekaar Show received high listener ratings and was one of the most popular programmes on the Dutch radio. The show was also adapted to television between 1977 and 1979, with Van Duin and De Groot voicing puppet portrayals of their alter egos. An album dedicated to the show peaked at 8 in the Dutch album charts, and singles "Nee nou wordt ie mooi" and "Tingelingeling" reached top 10 places in the Dutch charts.
Chart success
In the 1970s, André van Duin frequently reached top chart positions with both comical songs and parodies of popular songs. Van Duin released his eponymous album in 1972, with reached No. 2 in the album charts. In 1974, Van Duin released "De tamme boerenzoon", which was a parody of Flemish Ivan Heylen's chart-topping single "De wilde boerndochtere". Van Duin's parody reached to No. 2 in the single charts, behind the original, which held the top spot for several weeks.
However, some of Van Duin's songs became more popular than the original version, which led to both praise from music critics and irritation from Dutch artists. In 1974, Van Duin's parody of Ramses Shaffy's "We Zullen Doorgaan", titled "Doorgaan", reached the top 10 in the charts, something the original had not managed. In 1980, Willy Alberti sang an ode to the abdicating Queen Juliana of the Netherlands, which was parodied by Van Duin in an answer song, in which Van Duin imitated Prince Bernhard of Lippe-Biesterfeld.
Van Duin furthermore developed himself in the genre of carnavalskraker, a throwaway comic song with mass appeal often played at the caranaval parades in the Netherlands and Flanders. This resulted in his first chart-topping single, "Willempie", in 1976, which stirred controversy for his depiction of a retarded man. Van Duin had one more chart-topping carnavalskraker in the 1970s: "'k Heb hele grote bloemkoole", which he released as his alter ego Mr De Bok.
André van Duin also had success with more serious music and released two albums dedicated to a more serious image: And're André in 1977 and And're André 2 in 1978.
Other ventures
In the 1970s, Van Duin also played roles in films and series on television. He debuted as an actor in Oebele in 1971. Van Duin played the lead role of Koos Overwater in Hotel de Botel, which served as the Dutch adaptation of Fawlty Towers in autumn 1976. André van Duin was the main presenter and commentator on Te land, ter zee en in de lucht from 1977 to 1979.
1980s: Films and Animal Crackers
Ik ben Joep Meloen and De boezemvriend
In 1981, Van Duin became the central figure of his first motion picture comedy , in which he portrayed the titular character, piano tuner Joep Meloen. The original working title of the film was Lach om je leven (English: Laugh about your life). Before the film's premiere on 15 December 1981, TROS broadcast a one-hour promotion programme, which was criticised by two members of the Tweede Kamer for excessive promotion of third party goods on the public television. The film received mixed reviews from critics. Algemeen Dagblad journalist Arno Gelder called the film a disappointment, saying that Van Duin was better in theatre. A journalist from De Volkskrant named it "a waste of talent". Leeuwarder Courant rather argued that the film was enjoyable and entertaining for those who did not mind the character of Joep Meloen. Despite mixed reviews, Ik ben Joep Meloen however became a box office success; it attracted over 700.000 viewers within three weeks of opening, and several cinemas claimed record sales.
As a result, Van Duin was cast in another film, De boezemvriend, which was a loose adaption of Nikolay Gogol's Revizor. In this film, Van Duin portrayed main character Fred van der Zee, a charlatan dentist mistaken for Napoleon's delegate. The film premiered on 8 December 1982. The film mostly received negative reviews from critics.
Comedy work and Animal Crackers
During the 1980s Van Duin stayed unchangingly popular as a comedian in the Netherlands. In the mid-1980s he became especially known for several of his alter egos, which he sometimes performed alongside Corrie van Gorp. In 1981, he presented the Flip Fluitketel Show as his alter ego Flip Fluitketel, which at its peak attracted an estimated 5.8 million viewers.
In 1986, Van Duin made short pieces of comedy while narrating zoo animals in a show he named Animal Crackers, which was subsequently entered into the Rose d'Or festival. In 1988, Animal Crackers got its own television show in collaboration with the World Wildlife Fund. In February 1988, Animal Crackers was the third-most viewed programme with a market share of 34%.
1990s: Move to commercial television and departure from theatre
With the opening up of the Dutch broadcasting system in the 1990s, entertainers such as Van Duin received new opportunities. One of the first ventures Van Duin had on commercial television was the broadcasts of one of his revues on New Year's Eve 1990 on RTL4, which was then still a Luxembourgish company. This broadcast attracted over 2.8 million viewers, becoming the most watched programme of the day. Meanwhile, TROS broadcast an unseen revue from Van Duin a few days later which received reportedly even more viewers. However, in 1990, Van Duin had agreed to make programmes for RTL for a duration of three years, sparking rumours about his relationship to the TROS.
At RTL, Van Duin went on to present programmes as Wedden Dat and to participate as a panelist in the game show Wie ben ik? alongside Ron Brandsteder. It ended Van Duin up with the award TV star of the year 1991.
In 1993, Van Duin announced his departure from theatre. In a farewell concert in Rotterdam's Luxor Theatre, Van Duin played alongside Van Dusschoten for a last time as the latter went to retire from performing altogether. Van Duin aimed to concentrate more on television work. Shortly after, Van Duin relocated to Aruba, where he lived with his partner.
In autumn 1993, he returned to the Netherlands to record a new comedy show. From its first episode, in which Van Duin dressed up as a pizza delivery man, a song became an instant success. Already before the broadcast, a Nieuwsblad van het Noorden journalist noted that "everybody in Aalsmeer studio was singing the song in the hallways". The song, now officially dubbed as "Pizzalied (Effe Wachten)", was released early December as a single and quickly topped the Dutch charts.
In early 1995, Van Duin ended his two decades-long relationship with Wim van der Pluym due to the latter's alcohol misuse and moved back to Amsterdam. However, as Van der Pluym became threatingly ill, Van Duin flew back to Aruba to stay with him. In July 1995, Van der Pluym died at the age of 43.
2000s: New Revue and Dik Voormekaar Show
In 2007 the André's Nieuwe Revue-tour was launched; Belgium was visited in November 2008 for five shows in Antwerp.
After 18 years with RTL, Van Duin happily returned to the TROS. In 2009 he made a new series of Dik Voormekaar Shows.
2010s: Move to Omroep MAX and more serious image
In March 2010, Van Duin released Dubbel, a 2CD-compilation made up of both serious and wacky songs including new tracks such as the mother's day-tribute "Moederdag" and a cattle-themed cover-version of Leonard Cohen's "Hallelujah".
In 2013, Van Duin resurrected Animal Crackers for two seasons. One year later, Van Duin celebrated his five decades long career by hosting a 16-episode Best Of.
In the latter half of the 2010s, André van Duin slowly started moving away from his privital comedian image. He signed a contract with Omroep MAX, one of the other Dutch broadcasters, whose target group is the 50-plus generation and became active as a singer, actor and TV host as opposed to a comedian. Van Duin released a cover album of Wim Sonneveld songs in 2016.
To EenVandaag, Van Duin said: "I've sung serious songs before and then people said: 'nice voice, you should do more with that', but then as comedian, you are rather more of stand-out. I did some songs inbetween, but I have never been a singer. But after all, I am happy that I now have the possibility. (...) I wouldn't necessarily call it a career switch, I am doing everything that I have always done, but now those really odd characters I did with berets and short pants and those nonsense, which I did for over 50 years with a lot of success and fun, but now I think 'I am becoming older, next year I'll be 70', I have to start doing things that fit my age."
In 2015, Van Duin debuted as a stage-actor in The Sunshine Boys starring alongside Kees Hulst. They toured for a year and collaborated further in Het geheime dagboek van Hendrik Groen, a drama series set in a nursing-home after the novels with the same name. Van Duin played the lead role of Evert Duiker for two seasons.
Van Duin acted as a voice-over for a BBC-style wildlife-documentary; Wild premiered in cinemas in February 2018. Two months later, Animal Crackers returned in the last-minute slot of talkshow Tijd voor MAX.
Van Duin took replaced Martine Bijl as the host of Heel Holland Bakt, the Dutch version of The Great British Bake Off, when she was recovering from an SAH. Bijl said she had only wanted the programme to carry on if André van Duin were to become her replacement. When Bijl couldn't return to the show because of the complications of her illness, Van Duin became the permanent host of the show.
On 21 June 2018 Van Duin received a lifetime-achievement award at the Zilveren Nipkowschijf-ceremony. Van Duin's famous "Dik Voormekaar Show" was ranked first in De Onvergetelijke Luisterlijst, an all-time ranking of best Dutch radio shows broadcast by the Dutch public broadcaster NPO to celebrate the 100-years anniversary of the Dutch radio.
In August 2018, Van Duin hosted De Nieuwe Lekkerbek, a contest for inventive snacks. In March 2019, Van Duin co-hosted Wat een Verhaal (Amazing Stories) with Anne-Marie Jung; a series in which actors portray viewers' stories. That same year, Van Duin collaborated with his Heel Holland Bakt co-host Janny van der Heijden on the documentary series Denkend aan Holland, in which they sailed across the Netherlands by boat to learn about the country's relationship with water.
2020–present: personal loss, "La bohème" and "Voor Altijd"
Van Duin put his activities on hold in late 2019 due to the illness of his husband. Van Duin's husband died in early 2020.
His first re-appearance on television in 2020 was during one of the last broadcasts of De Wereld Draait Door, the Netherlands' most popular talk show, which was planned to end in March 2020. There, Van Duin sang a Dutch cover of Charles Aznavour's La Bohème, to which André van Duin had penned a Dutch translation. This performance went viral in the Netherlands. Later, news portal nu.nl named it as one of the eight most striking moments in the show's history.
In an interview to Algemeen Dagblad, Van Duin said: "It was extreme. In my whole career, I have never had so much response on a television performance. I made people happy with it apparently. I got all kinds of compliments: how special, what did you sing well, we teared up on the couch. It is "The Great Dutch Cry-Off". I didn't know that many people were watching."
In 2021, Van Duin collaborated with singer-songwriter Danny Vera on "Voor Altijd", a song dedicated to Van Duin's late husband. On 20 February, he performed the song live on Mathijs gaat door. "Voor Altijd" charted at #23 at the tip side of the Dutch Singles Chart and at #20 at the tip side of Dutch Top 40.
Personal life
André van Duin is openly gay, and was in a relationship with Wim van der Pluym from 1974 until 1995, when Van der Pluym died. Van Duin married Martin Elferink on 23 December 2006 (Died 13 January 2020)
References
External links
1947 births
Living people
Dutch male comedians
Dutch cabaret performers
Dutch humorists
Dutch parodists
Dutch impressionists (entertainers)
Dutch comedy musicians
Parody musicians
Dutch satirists
Dutch male film actors
Dutch male voice actors
Dutch male stage actors
Dutch male musical theatre actors
Dutch male television actors
Dutch television presenters
Dutch television producers
Dutch television directors
Dutch male screenwriters
Dutch male singer-songwriters
Dutch gay actors
Dutch gay writers
Dutch gay musicians
Gay singers
Gay songwriters
Gay screenwriters
Gay comedians
Dutch LGBT singers
Dutch LGBT screenwriters
Dutch LGBT songwriters
Dutch LGBT comedians
LGBT television producers
LGBT cabaret performers
Officers of the Order of Orange-Nassau
Entertainers from Rotterdam
People from Aalsmeer
20th-century Dutch male singers
21st-century Dutch male singers
20th-century Dutch LGBT people
21st-century Dutch LGBT people
Actors from Rotterdam
Comedians from Rotterdam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian%20Empire
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Neo-Babylonian Empire
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The Neo-Babylonian Empire or Second Babylonian Empire, historically known as the Chaldean Empire, was the last polity ruled by monarchs native to Mesopotamia. Beginning with the coronation of Nabopolassar as the King of Babylon in 626 BC and being firmly established through the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 612 BC, the Neo-Babylonian Empire was conquered by the Achaemenid Persian Empire in 539 BC, marking the collapse of the Chaldean dynasty less than a century after its founding.
The defeat of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and subsequent return of power to Babylon marked the first time that the city, and southern Mesopotamia in general, had risen to dominate the ancient Near East since the collapse of the Old Babylonian Empire (under Hammurabi) nearly a thousand years earlier. The period of Neo-Babylonian rule thus saw unprecedented economic and population growth throughout Babylonia, as well as a renaissance of culture and artwork as Neo-Babylonian kings conducted massive building projects, especially in Babylon itself, bringing back many elements from the previous 2,000 years of Sumero-Akkadian culture.
The Neo-Babylonian Empire retains a notable position within modern-day cultural memory due to the unflattering portrayal of Babylon and its greatest king, Nebuchadnezzar II, within the texts of the Bible. The biblical coverage of Nebuchadnezzar focuses on his military campaign against the Kingdom of Judah and particularly the Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 BC, which resulted in the destruction of Solomon's Temple and the subsequent Babylonian captivity. Babylonian sources describe Nebuchadnezzar's reign as a golden age that transformed Babylonia into the greatest empire of its time.
Religious policies introduced by the final Babylonian king Nabonidus, who favoured the moon god Sîn over Babylon's patron deity Marduk, eventually served as a for Persian king Cyrus the Great, who invaded Babylonia in 539 BC by portraying himself as a champion of Marduk divinely restoring order to Mesopotamia. Babylon remained culturally distinct for centuries, with references to people with Babylonian names and references to the Babylonian religion known from as late as the period of the Parthian Empire in the 1st century BC. Although Babylon revolted several times during the rule of later empires, it never successfully restored its independence.
Background
Babylonia was founded as an independent state by an Amorite chieftain named Sumu-abum 1894 BC. For over a century after its founding, it was a minor and relatively weak state, overshadowed by older and more powerful states such as Isin, Larsa, Assyria and Elam. But Hammurabi ( 1792–1750 BC) turned Babylon into a major power and eventually conquered Mesopotamia and beyond, founding the Old or First Babylonian Empire. After his death, his dynasty lasted another century and a half, but the Babylonian Empire quickly collapsed, and Babylon once more became a small state. Babylonia fell to the Hittite king Mursili I 1595 BC, after which the Kassites took control and ruled for almost five centuries before being deposed by native Babylonian rulers, who continued to rule the Babylonian rump state.
The population of Babylonia in this so-called Post-Kassite or Middle Babylonian period comprised two main groups, the native Babylonians (composed of the descendants of the Sumerians and Akkadians and the assimilated Amorites and Kassites) and recently arrived, unassimilated tribesmen from the Levant (Suteans, Arameans and Chaldeans). By the 8th century, the constituent groups of the native Babylonians, the main population in the large cities, had lost their old identities and had assimilated into a unified "Babylonian" culture. At the same time, the Chaldeans, though retaining their tribal structure and way of life, were becoming more "babylonized", many adopting traditional Babylonian names. These Babylonized Chaldeans became important players in the Babylonian political scene and by 730 BC, all the major Chaldean tribes had produced at least one Babylonian king.
The 9th to 8th century BC was catastrophic for the independent Babylonian kingdom, with many weak kings either failing to control all the groups composing Babylonia's population, failing to defeat rivals, or failing to maintain important trade routes. This collapse eventually resulted in Babylonia's powerful northern neighbor, the Neo-Assyrian Empire (whose people also spoke Akkadian), intervening militarily in 745 BC and incorporating Babylonia into its empire in 729 BC. The Assyrian conquest began a century-long struggle for Babylonian independence against Assyria. Although the Assyrians incorporated the region into their empire and used the title King of Babylon in addition to the title King of Assyria, Assyrian control of Babylonia was neither stable nor entirely continuous and the century of Assyrian rule included several unsuccessful Babylonian revolts.
History
Foundation and the fall of Assyria
Early in the reign of the Neo-Assyrian king Sinsharishkun, the southern official or general Nabopolassar used ongoing political instability in Assyria, caused by an earlier brief civil war between Sinsharishkun and the general Sin-shumu-lishir, to revolt. In 626 BC, Nabopolassar assaulted and successfully seized the cities of Babylon and Nippur. Sinsharishkun's response was quick and decisive; by October of that year the Assyrians had recaptured Nippur and besieged Nabopolassar at the city of Uruk. Sinsharishkun failed to capture Babylon and Nabopolassar endured the Assyrian siege of Uruk, repulsing the Assyrian army.
In November of 626 BC, Nabopolassar was formally crowned as King of Babylon, restoring Babylonia as an independent kingdom after more than a century of direct Assyrian rule. With only small successes during campaigns in northern Babylonia from 625 to 623 BC and more southern cities, such as Der, joining Nabopolassar, Sinsharishkun led a massive counterattack in 623 BC. Though this counterattack was initially successful and Sinsharishkun might have been ultimately victorious, he had to abandon the campaign due to a revolt in Assyria threatening his position as king.
The absence of the Assyrian army allowed the Babylonians to conquer the last remaining Assyrian seats of power in Babylonia from 622 BC to 620 BC. Both Uruk and Nippur, the cities who had shifted the most between Assyrian and Babylonian control, were firmly in Babylonian hands by 620 BC, and Nabopolassar had consolidated his rule over all of Babylonia. After further Babylonian conquests and further failures by Sinsharishkun to stop Nabopolassar, despite receiving military aid from Egypt, the Assyrian Empire quickly began to fall apart.
In October or November 615 BC, the Medes, also ancient enemies of Assyria, under King Cyaxares entered Assyria and conquered the region around the city of Arrapha. In July or August of 614 BC, the Medes began attacking the cities of Kalhu and Nineveh. They then besieged Assur, the ancient political (and still religious) heart of Assyria. The siege was successful and the city endured a brutal sack. Nabopolassar arrived at Assur only after the plunder had already begun and met with Cyaxares, allying with him and signing an anti-Assyrian pact. In April or May 612 BC, at the start of Nabopolassar's 14th year as King of Babylon, the combined Medo-Babylonian army marched on Nineveh. From June to August of that year, they besieged the Assyrian capital and in August the walls were breached, leading to another lengthy and brutal sack during which Sinsharishkun is assumed to have died. Sinsharishkun's successor, Ashur-uballit II, the final king of Assyria, was defeated at Harran in 609 BC. Egypt, Assyria's ally, continued the war against Babylon for a few years before being decisively defeated by Nabopolassar's crown prince Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish in 605 BC.
Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II
Nebuchadnezzar II succeeded Nabopolassar in 605 BC upon the death of his father. The empire Nebuchadnezzar inherited was among the most powerful in the world and he quickly reinforced his father's alliance with the Medes by marrying Cyaxares's daughter or granddaughter, Amytis. Some sources suggest that the famous Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, were built by Nebuchadnezzar for his wife as to remind her of her homeland (though the existence of these gardens is debated). Nebuchadnezzar's 43-year reign brought with it a golden age for Babylon, which became the most powerful kingdom in the Middle East.
Nebuchadnezzar's most famous campaigns today are his wars in the Levant. These campaigns began relatively early in his reign and were chiefly conducted to stabilize his reign and consolidate his empire (most of the newly independent kingdoms and city-states in the Levant previously having been vassals of the Neo-Assyrian Empire). His 587 BC destruction of Jerusalem ended the Kingdom of Judah and scattered its populace, with many of its elite citizens sent back to Babylon, initiating a period known as the Babylonian Captivity. Nebuchadnezzar subsequently besieged Tyre for 13 years. Though he did not capture the city, it surrendered to him in 573 BC, agreeing to be ruled by vassal kings. The length of the siege can be ascribed to its difficulty: Tyre was on an island 800 metres from the coast and could not be taken without naval support. Though it withstood numerous sieges, it was not captured until Alexander the Great's siege in 332 BC.
It is possible that Nebuchadnezzar campaigned against Egypt in 568 BC, given that a fragmentary Babylonian inscription from that year, given the modern designation BM 33041, records the word "Egypt" as well as possibly traces of the name "Amasis" (the name of the then incumbent Pharaoh, Amasis II, 570–526 BC). A stele of Amasis, also fragmentary, may also describe a combined naval and land attack by the Babylonians. But the evidence for this campaign is scant, and historians believe that if Nebuchadnezzar launched another campaign, he was unsuccessful.
In addition to his military exploits, Nebuchadnezzar was a great builder, famous for his monuments and building works throughout Mesopotamia, such as Babylon's Ishtar Gate and Processional Street. He is known to have completely renovated at least 13 cities but spent most of his time and resources on the capital, Babylon. By 600 BC, the Babylonians and possibly their subject peoples saw Babylon as the literal and figurative center of the world. Nebuchadnezzar widened Processional Street and fitted it with new decorations, making the annual New Year's Festival, celebrated in honor of the city's patron deity Marduk, more spectacular than ever before.
Later history
After Nebuchadnezzar II's reign, the empire fell into political turmoil and instability. Nebuchadnezzar's son and successor, Amel-Marduk, reigned for only two years before being assassinated in a coup by the influential courtier Neriglissar. Neriglissar was a simmagir, a governor of one of the eastern provinces, and had been present during several of Nebuchadnezzar's campaigns. Importantly, Neriglissar was also married to one of Nebuchadnezzar's daughters and thus linked to the royal family. Possibly due to old age, Neriglissar's reign was also short, some of its few recorded activities being the restoration of some monuments in Babylon and a campaign in Cilicia. Neriglissar died in 556 BC and was succeeded by his underage son, Labashi-Marduk. Labashi-Marduk's reign was even briefer; he was assassinated after reigning for just nine months.
The perpetrators of the assassination, the influential courtier Nabonidus and his son Belshazzar, then took power. Despite the turmoil that had surrounded his rise to the throne, the empire itself had remained relatively calm through the difficult period. Nabonidus began his reign with traditional activities associated with the king: renovating buildings and monuments, worshipping the gods and waging war (also campaigning in Cilicia). Nabonidus wasn't of Babylonian ancestry, originating from Harran in former Assyria, one of the main places of worship of the god Sîn (associated with the moon). The new king worked to elevate Sîn's status in the empire, seemingly dedicating more attention to this god than to Babylon's national god, Marduk. For this, Nabonidus may have faced opposition from the Babylonian clergy. Nabonidus was also opposed by the clergy when he increased governmental control over the temples in an attempt to solve ongoing management problems with the empire's religious institutions.
Nabonidus left Babylonia to campaign in the Levant and then settled for ten years in Tayma (which he had conquered during the campaign) in northern Arabia. His son Belshazzar was left to govern Babylonia (though with the title crown prince rather than king, a title Nabonidus continued to hold). Why Nabonidus spent a decade away from his capital there is unknown. Nabonidus’ return 543 BC was accompanied with a reorganization of his court and the removal of some of its more influential members.
Fall of Babylon
In 549 BC Cyrus the Great, the Achaemenid king of Persia, revolted against his suzerain Astyages, king of Media, at Ecbatana. Astyages' army betrayed him and Cyrus established himself as ruler of all the Iranic peoples, as well as the pre-Iranian Elamites and Gutians, ending the Median Empire and establishing the Achaemenid Empire. Ten years after his victory against the Medes, Cyrus invaded Babylon. Nabonidus sent Belshazzar to head off the huge Persian army, but the Babylonian forces were overwhelmed at the Battle of Opis. On 12 October, after Cyrus's engineers diverted the waters of the Euphrates, the soldiers of Cyrus entered Babylon without the need for battle. Nabonidus surrendered and was deported. Gutian guards were placed at the gates of the great temple of Marduk, where services continued without interruption.
Cyrus claimed to be the legitimate successor of the ancient Babylonian kings and the avenger of Marduk, who Cyrus claimed to be wrathful at Nabonidus's supposed impiety. Cyrus's conquest was welcomed by the Babylonian populace, though whether it was because he was genuinely seen as a liberator or out of fear is unknown. Cyrus's invasion of Babylonia may have been helped along by the presence of foreign exiles such as the Jews. Accordingly, one of his first acts was to allow these exiles to return to their homelands, carrying with them the images of their gods and their sacred vessels. The permission to do so was explicitly written in a proclamation, today called the Cyrus Cylinder, wherein Cyrus also justified his conquest of Babylonia as the will of Marduk.
Aftermath and legacy
Babylon under foreign rule
The early Achaemenid rulers had great respect for Babylonia, regarding it as a separate entity or kingdom united with their own kingdom in something akin to a personal union. The region was a major economical asset and provided as much as a third of the entire Achaemenid Empire's tribute. Despite Achaemenid attention and the recognition of the Achaemenid rulers as kings of Babylon, Babylonia resented the Achaemenids, like the Assyrians had been resented a century earlier. At least five rebels proclaimed themselves King of Babylon and revolted during the time of Achaemenid rule in attempts at restoring native rule; Nebuchadnezzar III (522 BC), Nebuchadnezzar IV (521–520 BC), Bel-shimanni (484 BC), Shamash-eriba (482–481 BC) and Nidin-Bel (336 BC). The revolt of Shamash-eriba against Xerxes I in particular is suggested by ancient sources to have had dire consequences for the city. Though no direct evidence exists, Babylon appears to have been severely punished for the revolt. Its fortifications were destroyed and its temples damaged as Xerxes ravaged the city. It is possible that the sacred statue of Marduk, which represented the physical manifestation of Babylon's patron deity, was removed by Xerxes from Babylon's main temple, the Esagila, at this time. Xerxes also divided the previously large Babylonian satrapy (composing virtually all of the Neo-Babylonian Empire's territory) into smaller sub-units.
Babylonian culture endured for centuries under the Achaemenids and survived under the rule of the later Hellenic Macedonian and Seleucid Empires, with the rulers of these empires also listed as kings of Babylon in Babylonian civil documents. It was first under the rule of the Parthian Empire that Babylon was gradually abandoned as a major urban center and the old Akkadian culture truly disappeared. In the first century or so of Parthian rule, Babylonian culture was still alive, and there are records of people in the city with traditional Babylonian names, such as Bel-aḫḫe-uṣur and Nabu-mušetiq-uddi (mentioned as the receivers of silver in a 127 BC legal document). At this time, two major recognized groups lived in Babylon: the Babylonians and the Greeks, who settled there during the centuries of Macedonian and Seleucid rule. These groups were governed by separate local (e.g. pertaining to just the city) administrative councils; Babylonian citizens were governed by the šatammu and the kiništu and Greeks by the epistates. Although no king lists younger than the Seleucid Empire survive, documents from the early years of Parthian rule suggest a continued recognition of at least the early Parthian kings as kings of Babylon.
Although Akkadian-language legal documents continued in a slightly reduced number through the rule of the Hellenic kings, they are rare from the period of Parthian rule. The astronomical diaries kept since the days of ancient Babylon survived through Persian and Hellenic rule but stopped being written in the middle of the 1st century BC. It is likely that only a small number of scholars knew how to write Akkadian by the time of the Parthian kings, and the old Babylonian temples became increasingly undermanned and underfunded as people were drawn to the new Mesopotamian capitals, such as Seleucia and Ctesiphon.
The latest dated document written in accordance with the old scribal tradition in Akkadian cuneiform is from 35 BC and contains a prayer to Marduk. The latest known other documents written in Akkadian are astronomic predictions (e.g. planetary movements) for the year 75 AD. The way the signs are written in these astronomic texts means that readers would not have to be familiar with Akkadian to understand them. If the Akkadian language and Babylonian culture survived beyond these sparse documents, it was decisively wiped out 230 AD with the religious reforms introduced in the Sasanian Empire. By this time, the ancient Babylonian cult centres had already been closed and razed. Some temples had been closed during the early Parthian period, such as many temples in Uruk, whilst others lingered on to near the end of the Parthian Empire, such as the Esagila in Babylon.
Legacy of Babylon
Before modern archaeological excavations in Mesopotamia, the political history, society and appearance of ancient Babylonia was largely a mystery. Western artists typically envisioned the city and its empire as a combination of known ancient cultures—typically a mixture of ancient Greek and Egyptian culture—with some influence from the then-contemporary Middle Eastern empire, the Ottoman Empire. Early depictions of the city show it with long colonnades, sometimes built on more than a level, completely unlike the actual architecture of real ancient Mesopotamian cities, with obelisks and sphinxes inspired by those of Egypt. Ottoman influence came in the shape of cupolas and minarets dotted through the imagined appearances of the ancient city.
Babylon is perhaps most famous today for its repeated appearances in the Bible, where it appears both literally (in reference to historical events) and allegorically (symbolizing other things). The Neo-Babylonian Empire is featured in several prophecies and in descriptions of the destruction of Jerusalem and subsequent Babylonian captivity. Consequently, in Jewish tradition, Babylon symbolizes an oppressor. In Christianity, Babylon symbolizes worldliness and evil. Prophecies sometimes symbolically link the kings of Babylon with Lucifer. Nebuchadnezzar II, sometimes conflated with Nabonidus, appears as the foremost ruler in this narrative.
The Book of Revelation in the Christian Bible refers to Babylon many centuries after it ceased to be a major political center. The city is personified by the "Whore of Babylon", riding on a scarlet beast with seven heads and ten horns and drunk on the blood of the righteous. Some scholars of apocalyptic literature believe this New Testament "Babylon" to be a dysphemism for the Roman Empire.
Culture and society
Religion
Babylon, like the rest of ancient Mesopotamia, followed the Ancient Mesopotamian religion, wherein there was a general accepted hierarchy and dynasty of gods and localized gods who acted as patron deities for specific cities. Marduk was the patron deity of the city Babylon, having held this position since the reign of Hammurabi (18th century BC) in Babylon's first dynasty. Although Babylonian worship of Marduk never meant the denial of the existence of the other gods in the Mesopotamian pantheon, it has sometimes been compared to monotheism. The history of worship of Marduk is intimately tied to the history of Babylon itself and as Babylon's power increased, so did the position of Marduk relative to that of other Mesopotamian gods. By the end of the second millennium BC, Marduk was sometimes just referred to as Bêl, meaning "lord".
In Mesopotamian religion, Marduk was a creator god. Going by the Enûma Eliš, the Babylonian creation myth, Marduk was the son of Enki, the Mesopotamian god of wisdom, and rose to prominence during a great battle between the gods. The myth tells how the universe originated as a chaotic realm of water, in which there originally were two primordial deities; Tiamat (salt water, female) and Abzu (sweet water, male). These two gods gave birth to other deities. These deities (including gods such as Enki) had little to do in these early stages of existence and as such occupied themselves with various activities.
Eventually, their children began to annoy the elder gods and Abzu decided to rid himself of them by killing them. Alarmed by this, Tiamat revealed Abzu's plan to Enki, who killed his father before the plot could be enacted. Although Tiamat had revealed the plot to Enki to warn him, the death of Abzu horrified her and she too attempted to kill her children, raising an army together with her new consort Kingu. Every battle in the war was a victory for Tiamat until Marduk convinced the other gods to proclaim him as their leader and king. The gods agreed, and Marduk was victorious, capturing and executing Kingu and firing a great arrow at Tiamat, killing her and splitting her in two. With these chaotic primordial forces defeated, Marduk created the world and ordered the heavens. Marduk is also described as the creator of human beings, which were meant to help the gods in defeating and holding off the forces of chaos and thus maintain order on Earth.
The Statue of Marduk was the physical representation of Marduk housed in Babylon's main temple, the Esagila. Although there were actually seven separate statues of Marduk in Babylon; four in the Esagila, one in the Etemenanki (the ziggurat dedicated to Marduk) and two in temples dedicated to other deities, the statue of Marduk usually refers to Marduk's primary statue, placed prominently in the Esagila and used in the city's rituals.
The Babylonians themselves conflated the statue with the actual god Marduk – the god was understood as living in the temple, among the people of his city, and not in the heavens. As such, Marduk was not seen as some distant entity, but a friend and protector who lived nearby. This was no different from other Mesopotamian cities, who similarly conflated their gods with the representations used for them in their temples. During the religiously important New Year's festival at Babylon, the statue was removed from the temple and paraded through Babylon before being placed in a smaller building outside the city walls, where the statue received fresh air and could enjoy a different view from the one it had from inside the temple. The statue was traditionally incorporated into the coronation rituals for the Babylonian kings, who received the Babylonian crown "out of the hands" of Marduk during the New Year's festival, symbolizing them being bestowed with kingship by the patron deity of the city.
The temples of southern Mesopotamia were important as both religious and economic centers. The temples were chiefly institutions for caring for the gods and for conducting various rituals. Because of their religious significance, temples were present in all major cities, with trade and population growth being stimulated by the presence of a temple. Workers within the temples had to be "fit" for service and were not slaves or temple dependents (unlike those who served the temples by cultivating food and other supplies). These temple workers, who created the clothes used by the deity's cult, cleaned and moved around the statues of the deities, maintained the rooms within the temple and performed the important rituals, represented the skilled and free urban elite of Babylonian society and were paid through leftovers from meals intended for the gods, barley and beer.
Justice
The surviving sources suggest that the justice system of the Neo-Babylonian Empire had changed little from the one which functioned during the Old Babylonian Empire a thousand years prior. Throughout Babylonia, there were local assemblies (called puhru) of elders and other notables from society which among other local roles served as local courts of justice (though there were also higher "royal" and "temple courts" with greater legal prerogatives). In these courts, judges would be assisted by scribes and several of the local courts would be headed by royal representatives, usually titled sartennu or šukallu.
For the most part, surviving sources related to the Neo-Babylonian justice system are tablets containing letters and lawsuits. These tablets document various legal disputes and crimes, such as embezzlement, disputes over property, theft, family affairs, debts and inheritance and often offer considerable insight into daily life in the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The punishment for these types of crimes and disputes appears, for the most part, to have been money-related, with the guilty party paying a specified amount of silver as compensation. Crimes such as adultery and lèse-majesté were apparently punishable by death, but little surviving evidence exists for the death penalty actually being carried out.
Art
Artists in the Neo-Babylonian period continued the artistic trends of previous periods, showing similarities with the artwork of the Neo-Assyrian period in particular. Cylinder seals of the period are less detailed than in previous times and shows definite Assyrian influence in the themes depicted. One of the most common scenes depicted in such seals are heroes, sometimes depicted with wings, about to strike beasts with their curved swords. Other common scenes include purification of a sacred tree or mythological animals and creatures. Cylinder seals increasingly fell into disuse over the course of the Neo-Babylonian century, eventually being entirely replaced by stamp seals.
Terracotta figurines and reliefs, made using molds, were common during the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Preserved figurines usually represent protective demons (such as Pazuzu) or deities but there are also examples of horsemen, naked women, boats, men carrying vases and various types of furniture. Terracotta figurines could be sacred objects intended to be kept in people's homes for magical protection or as decorations, but they could also be objects offered to deities in the temples.
The technique of colored glaze was improved and perfected by Neo-Babylonian artists. In reliefs, such as the ones on the Ishtar Gate in Babylon and along the city's Processional Street (where parades passed through during religious festivals in the city), colored glaze was combined with bricks molded in various shapes to create decorations in color. Most of these decorations are symbols of lions (associated with the goddess Ishtar) flowers, mušḫuššu (a mythological creature associated with the god Marduk) and oxen (associated with the god Adad).
Revival of old traditions
After Babylonia regained its independence, Neo-Babylonian rulers were deeply conscious of the antiquity of their kingdom and pursued a highly traditionalist policy, reviving much of the ancient Sumero-Akkadian culture. Even though Aramaic had become the everyday tongue, Akkadian was retained as the language of administration and culture.
Ancient artworks from the heyday of Babylonia's imperial glory were treated with near-religious reverence and were painstakingly preserved. For example, when a statue of Sargon the Great was found during construction work, a temple was built for it, and it was given offerings. The story is told of how Nebuchadnezzar II, in his efforts to restore the Temple at Sippar, had to make repeated excavations until he found the foundation deposit of Naram-Sin of Akkad. The discovery then allowed him to rebuild the temple properly. Neo-Babylonians also revived the ancient Sargonic practice of appointing a royal daughter to serve as priestess of the moon-god Sîn.
Slavery
As in most ancient empires, slaves were an accepted part of Neo-Babylonian society. In contrast to slavery in ancient Rome, where slave-owners often worked their slaves to death at an early age, slaves in the Neo-Babylonian Empire were valuable resources, typically sold for money matching several years of income for a paid worker. Slaves were typically from lands outside of Babylonia, becoming slaves through the slave trade or through being captured in times of war. Slave women were often given as part of a dowry to help daughters of free men and women in their household or in raising children. Slaves were not cheap to maintain as they had to be clothed and fed. Because they were expensive to begin with, many Neo-Babylonian slave-owners trained their slaves in professions to raise their value or rented them out to others. Sometimes slaves who showed good business sense were allowed to serve in trade or through managing part of a family business. Slave families were most often sold as a unit, children only being separated from their parents once they reached adulthood (or working age).
Though slaves probably endured harsh living conditions and poor treatment from others, it would not have been equivalent to the brutal form of slavery in the Roman Empire and in later times. Though there are occasional mentions of slaves escaping, there are no records of slave rebellions in the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Slaves mentioned in connection to farming and agriculture are usually not forced laborers. As farming required diligence and care, slaves at farms were typically given contracts and were allowed to work independently, which would make the slaves more interested in the result of their labor. Some slaves acted as proxies or junior partners of their masters. Slaves were also allowed to pay a fee called the mandattu to their masters, which allowed them to work and live independently, essentially "renting" themselves from their master. There are records of slaves paying the mandattu for themselves and for their wives so that they could live freely. There are, however, no records of slaves completely buying their freedom, Babylonian slaves could only be freed by their masters.
Economy
The establishment of the Neo-Babylonian Empire meant that for the first time since the Assyrian conquest, tribute flowed into Babylonia rather than being drained from it. This reversal, combined with building projects and the relocation of subjugated peoples stimulated both population and economic growth in the region.
Although the soil in Mesopotamia was fertile, the average rainfall in the region was not enough to sustain regular crops. As such, water had to be drawn from the two major rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris, for use in irrigation. These rivers tended to flood at inconvenient times, such as at grain harvest time. To solve these issues and allow for efficient farming, Mesopotamia required a sophisticated large-scale system of canals, dams and dikes, both to protect from floods and to supply water. These structures required constant maintenance and supervision to function. Digging and maintaining the canals was seen as a royal task and the resources required to construct and maintain the infrastructure necessary, and the manpower itself, was provided by the many temples which dotted the region.
The most detailed economical records from Neo-Babylonian times are from these temples. The people who cultivated the temple lands of Babylonia were mostly unfree personnel, so-called temple dependents (širāku), which were usually given larger work assignments than they could accomplish. In later times, to increase productivity, the temples began hiring "rent farmers". These rent farmers were given a portion or all of a temple's farming grounds and fields, including the temple dependents and equipment there, in exchange for money and a fixed quota of commodities to supply to the temple. Rent farmers were personally liable for accidents and falling short of the quota and there are many records of rent farmers giving up or sometimes being required to sell their own possessions and assets to the temple as compensation.
Although animal husbandry was practiced throughout Mesopotamia, it was the most common form of farming in the south. In Uruk, animals, rather than some type of plant, were the main cash crop. Shepherds could be temple dependents or independent contractors and were entrusted with herds of either sheep or goats. Similar to other farmers working in connection to the temples, these shepherds had a set quota of lambs to provide for sacrificial purposes, with wool and hides also being used in the temples for various purposes. Dairy products were less important since the animals would be unavailable for most of the year as the shepherds drove them across the land. Cows and oxen, rare in Mesopotamia due to being difficult to feed and maintain through the summer months, were mainly used as draft animals for plowing. Regions with a swampy environment, unsuited for farming, were used to hunt birds and fish.
The most common form of business partnership recorded from Neo-Babylonian sources is called the harrānu, which involved a senior financing partner and a junior working partner (who did all the work, using the money provided by the senior partner). Profit from such business ventures were divided equally between the two partners. The idea allowed rich individuals to use their money to finance businesses by capable individuals who might not otherwise have had the means to carry out their trade (for instance second sons who had not inherited as much money as first-born sons). Records show that some junior partners worked their way up through their businesses to eventually become senior partners in new harrānu arrangements.
The Neo-Babylonian period saw marked population growth in Babylonia, with the number of known settlements increasing from the previous 134 to the Neo-Babylonian 182, with the average size of these settlements also increasing. This population growth was probably because of increasing prosperity in Babylonia, combined with the resettlement of subjugated peoples and the possible return of peoples that had been resettled under the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Neo-Babylonian period also saw a dramatic increase in urbanization, reversing a trend of ruralization which southern Mesopotamia had experienced since the fall of the Old Babylonian Empire.
Government and military
Administration and extent
At the top of the Neo-Babylonian Empire social ladder was the king (šar); his subjects took an oath of loyalty called the ade to him, a tradition inherited from the Neo-Assyrian Empire. The Neo-Babylonian kings used the titles King of Babylon and King of Sumer and Akkad. They abandoned many of the boastful Neo-Assyrian titles that claimed universal rule (though some of these would be reintroduced under Nabonidus), possibly because the Assyrians had been resented by the Babylonians as impious and warlike and the Neo-Babylonian kings preferred to present themselves as devout kings.
The king was also the single most important landowner within the empire, with there being several large swaths of land placed under direct royal control throughout Babylonia. There were also large domains placed under other members of the royal family (for instance, there are mentions of a "house of the crown prince" distinct from the "house of the king" in inscriptions) and under other high officials (such as the royal treasurer).
The exact administrative structure of the Neo-Babylonian Empire and its government remains somewhat unclear due to a lack of relevant sources. Although the Neo-Babylonian Empire supplanted the Neo-Assyrian Empire as the major Mesopotamian empire of its time, the exact extent to which Babylon inherited and retained the lands of this preceding empire is unknown. After the Fall of Nineveh in 612 BC, the territory of the Neo-Assyrian Empire had been split between Babylon and the Medes, with the Medes being granted the northern Zagros mountains while Babylon took Transpotamia (the countries west of the Euphrates) and the Levant, but the precise border between the two empires and the degree to which the former Assyrian heartland was divided between them is unknown. Babylonia itself, the heartland of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, was ruled as an intricate network of provinces and tribal regions with varying degrees of autonomy. The administrative structure used outside of this heartland is unknown.
From building inscriptions it is clear that some parts of the heartland of the former Neo-Assyrian Empire were under Babylonian control. A building inscription of Nebuchadnezzar II refers to the workmen responsible for the renovation of the Etemenanki in Babylon as hailing from "the whole of the land of Akkad and the land of Assyria, the kings of Eber-Nāri, the governors of Ḫatti, from the Upper Sea to the Lower Sea". Documents from the reign of Neriglissar confirms the existence of a Babylonian governor in the city Assur, meaning that it was located within the empire's borders. No evidence has yet been found that would place the Neo-Assyrian capital, Nineveh, within the Neo-Babylonian Empire. The empire evidently enjoyed direct rule in Syria, as indicated in Nebuchadnezzar's building inscription ("governors of Hatti", "Hatti" referring to the Syro-Hittite city-states in the region) and other inscriptions referencing a governor in the city Arpad.
Although some scholars have suggested that the Assyrian provincial system collapsed with the fall of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and that the Neo-Babylonian Empire was simply a zone of dominance from which Babylon's kings exacted tribute, it is likely that the Neo-Babylonian Empire retained the provincial system in some capacity. The former Assyrian heartland was probably divided between the Babylonians and the Medes, with the Babylonians incorporating the south into their empire and the Medes gaining the north. It is probable that the actual control Babylon held over these territories was variable. After Assyria's collapse, many of the coastal cities and states in the Levant regained independence, but were placed under Babylonian rule as vassal kingdoms (rather than incorporated provinces).
Military
For the Neo-Babylonian kings, war was a means to obtain tribute, plunder (in particular sought after materials such as various metals and quality wood) and prisoners of war which could be put to work as slaves in the temples. Like their predecessors, the Assyrians, the Neo-Babylonian kings also used deportation as a means of control. The Assyrians had displaced populations throughout their vast empire, but the practice under the Babylonian kings seems to have been more limited, only being used to establish new populations in Babylonia itself. Though royal inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period don't speak of acts of destruction and deportation in the same boastful way royal inscriptions from the Neo-Assyrian period do, this does not prove that the practice ceased or that the Babylonians were less brutal than the Assyrians. There is for instance evidence that the city Ashkelon was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar II in 604 BC.
The troops of the Neo-Babylonian Empire would have been supplied by all parts of its complex administrative structure – from the various cities of Babylonia, from the provinces in Syria and Assyria, from the tribal confederations under Babylonian rule and from the various client kingdoms and city-states in the Levant. The most detailed sources preserved from the Neo-Babylonian period concerning the army are from the temples, which supplied a portion of the temple dependents (called širāku) as soldiers in times of war. These dependents were mostly farmers (ikkaru) but some were also shepherds, gardeners and craftsmen. The vast majority of these levies from the temples served in the army as archers, equipped with bows, arrows (each archer was supplied with 40–60 arrows), bow-cases and daggers. The bows, made in both distinct Akkadian and Cimmerian styles, were manufactured and repaired at the temples by trained bowmakers and arrows and daggers were made by temple smiths. Socketed bronze arrowheads, originally of steppe origin, first appear in the Levant in destruction layers associated with Nebuchadnezzar II’s conquest of the Kingdom of Judah, suggesting that steppe nomads served as mercenaries in the Babylonian army and/or that the Babylonians had adopted the arrowhead type themselves at this time. Inscriptions from the Ebabbara temple in Sippar suggests that temples could field as many as 14% of their dependents in times of crisis (for the Ebabbara this would account for 180 soldiers), but that the number was usually much lower (with the most common number of soldiers supplied by the Ebabbara being 50 soldiers). The archers fielded by these temples were divided into contingents or decuries (ešertu) by profession, each led by a commander (rab eširti). These commanders were in turn under the command of the rab qašti, who answered to the qīpu (a local high official). Cavalry and chariots were also supplied by the temples, but there are few known inscriptions detailing their equipment, relative number or leadership structure.
The citizens of the cities in Babylonia were obliged to perform military service, often as archers, as a civil duty. These citizen militias were, just like the archers raised by the temples, divided and organized by profession. Citizens who served as soldiers were paid in silver, probably at a rate of 1 mina per year. The Neo-Babylonian army is also likely to have bolstered its numbers through conscripting soldiers from the tribal confederacies within the empire's territory and through hiring mercenaries (the presence of Greek mercenaries in the army of Nebuchadnezzar II is known from a poem). In times of war, the entire Babylonian army would have been assembled by an official called the dēkû ("mobilizer") sending word to the many rab qašti, who then organized all the ešertu. Soldiers on campaigns (which could last anywhere from three months to a full year) were supplied with rations (including barley and sheep), silver as payment, salt, oil and water bottles and were also equipped with blankets, tents, sacks, shoes, jerkins and donkeys or horses.
Architecture
Monumental architecture
Monumental architecture encompasses building works such as temples, palaces, ziggurats (a massive structure with religious connections, composed of a massive stepped tower with a shrine on top), city walls, processional streets, artificial waterways and cross-country defensive structures. The Babylonian king was traditionally a builder and restorer, and as such large-scale building projects were important as a legitimizing factor for Babylonian rulers. Due to the interests of early excavators of the ancient cities in Babylonia, most of the archaeological knowledge regarding the Neo-Babylonian Empire is related to the vast monumental buildings that were located in the hearts of Babylonia's major cities. This early bias has resulted in that the makeup of the cities themselves (such as residential areas) and the structure of smaller settlements remains under-researched.
Although inscriptions discuss the presence of royal palaces at several cities throughout southern Mesopotamia, the only Neo-Babylonian royal palaces yet found and excavated are those in Babylon itself. The South Palace, occupying a corner formed by the city wall to the north and the Euphrates to the west, was built under kings Nabopolassar and Nebuchadnezzar II and was composed of five units, each with its own courtyard. The central of these units housed the residential suites and the actual throne room whilst the other units were for administrative and storage purposes. The palace adjoined the central Processional Street on its eastern side and was heavily fortified at its western side (the side facing the Euphrates).
Nebuchadnezzar II also built a second palace, the North Palace, on the other side of the inner city wall. This palace also adjoined the Processional Street on its eastern side, but its ruins are poorly preserved and as such its structure and appearance are not entirely understood. There was also a third royal palace in the city, the Summer Palace, built some distance north of the inner city walls in the northernmost corner of the outer walls (also constructed by Nebuchadnezzar II). Non-royal palaces, such as the palace of a local governor at Ur, share design features with Babylon's South Palace but were considerably smaller in size.The temples of the Neo-Babylonian Empire are divided into two categories by archaeologists; smaller freestanding temples scattered throughout a city (often in residential quarters) and the large main temples of a city, dedicated to that city's patron deity and often located within its own set of walls. In most cities, the ziggurat was located within the temple complex but the ziggurat in Babylon, called the Etemenanki, had its own complex and set of walls separate from those of the city's main temple, the Esagila. Neo-Babylonian temples combined features of palaces and residential houses. They had a central courtyard, completely enclosed on all sides, with the principal room, dedicated to the deity, often being located towards the south and the temple's entrance being located on the side opposite to this principal room. Some temples, such as Babylon's Ninurta temple, had a single courtyard, while others, such as Babylon's Ishhara temple, had smaller courtyards in addition to the main courtyard.
Though many processional streets are described in inscriptions from the Neo-Babylonian period, the only such street excavated yet is the main Processional Street of Babylon. This street ran along the eastern walls of the South Palace and exited the inner city walls at the Ishtar Gate, running past the North Palace. To the south, this street went by the Etemenanki, turning to the west and going over a bridge constructed either under the reign of Nabopolassar or Nebuchadnezzar II. Some of the bricks of the Processional Street bear the name of the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib on their underside, suggesting that construction of the street had begun already during his reign, but the fact that the upper side of the bricks all bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar II, suggesting that construction of the street had been completed during his reign.
Nebuchadnezzar II also constructed two great cross-country walls, built with baked brick, to aid in Babylonia's defense. The only one of the two have been confidently located is known as the Habl al-Shar and stretched from Euphrates to the Tigris at the point the two rivers were the closest, some distance north of the city Sippar. The other wall, as of yet not found, was located to the east near the city Kish. Nebuchadnezzar focused his defensive building projects on northern Babylonia, believing this region to be the most likely point of attack for his enemies, and also rebuilt the walls of northern cities such as Kish, Borsippa and Babylon itself while leaving the walls of southern cities, such as Ur and Uruk, as they were.
Domestic architecture
Typical residential houses from the Neo-Babylonian period were composed of a central unroofed courtyard surrounded on all four sides by suites of rooms. Some larger houses contained two or (rarely, in exceptionally large houses) three courtyards. Each of the sides of the courtyard had a central door, leading into the main room of each side, from which one could access the other smaller rooms of the houses. Most houses appear to have been oriented from the southeast to the northwest, with the main living area (the largest room) being located at the southeastern side. The exterior walls of houses were unadorned, blank and windowless. The main entrance was typically located on the end of the house furthest away from the main living area. Houses of people of higher status were generally free-standing, while houses of lower status could share an outer wall with a neighboring house.
Houses in the Neo-Babylonian period were constructed mostly of sundried mudbrick. Baked bricks, such as the ones used in Nebuchadnezzar's great walls, were used for certain parts, such as the paving in rooms which were to be exposed to water and in the courtyard. Roofs were composed of straw-tempered murd overlaying reeds or reed matting, which in turn overlaid local timbers.
See also
History of Mesopotamia
Notes
References
Cited bibliography
Cited web sources
Further reading
External links
A. Leo Oppenheim's Letters from Mesopotamia (1967), containing translations of several Neo-Babylonian letters (pp. 183–195).
Neo-Babylonian Empire
Ancient history of Iraq
Ancient history of Iran
Ancient Syria
Ancient Lebanon
History of Kuwait
Former empires
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complicity
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Complicity
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Complicity is the participation in a completed criminal act of an accomplice, a partner in the crime who aids or encourages (abets) other perpetrators of that crime, and who shared with them an intent to act to complete the crime. A person is an accomplice of another person in the commission of a crime if they purpose the completion of a crime, and toward that end, if that person solicits or encourages the other person, or aids or attempts to aid in planning or committing the crime, or has legal duty to prevent that crime but fails to make an effort to prevent it properly.
Unlike attempt, solicitation, and conspiracy, which are crimes in and of themselves, complicity is not itself a crime but is a way of committing a crime. It also differs from an attempt, solicitation, and conspiracy in that it always depends on that crime having been completed (i.e., it is never inchoate.). Complicity does not require causation of the crime, merely participating in the commission of the crime. In cases where one is complicit because of a failure to act when one has a duty to act to prevent a crime, complicity differs from omission in that liability for complicity arises from the related to other perpetrators, whereas liability for omission arises from a duty relationship to the victim.
Common law traditionally distinguished between a "principal" perpetrator who is primarily responsible for a crime and an "accessory" perpetrator who is less responsible. However, modern approaches abandon this distinction, and "a person is legally accountable for the conduct of another when he is an accomplice of the other person in the commission of the crime".
For two persons to be complicit in a crime that does not involve negligence, they must share the same criminal intent; "there must be a community of purpose, partnership in the unlawful undertaking". An accomplice "is a partner in the crime, the chief ingredient of which is always intent". In crimes not involving negligence, there should be evidence that an accomplice had knowledge of the intention of their partner.
Common law
At common law, actors were classified as principals and/or accessories. Principals were persons who were present at the crime scene and participated in its commission. Accessories were persons who were not present during the commission of the crime but who aided, counseled, procured, commanded, encouraged, or protected the principals before or after the crime was committed. Both categories of actors were further subdivided. Principals in the first degree were persons who, with the requisite state of mind, committed the criminal acts that constituted the criminal offense. Principals in the second degree also referred to as aiders and abettors, were persons who were present at the scene of the crime and provided aid or encouragement to the principal in the first degree. Accessories were divided into accessories before the fact and accessories after the fact. An accessory before the fact was a person who aided, encouraged, or assisted the principals in the planning and preparation of the crime but was absent when the crime was committed. An accessory after the fact was a person who knowingly provided assistance to the principals in avoiding arrest and prosecution. It was eventually recognized that the accessory after the fact, by virtue of his involvement only after the felony was completed, was not truly an accomplice in the felony.
Types of assistance
To be deemed an accomplice, a person must assist in the commission of the crime by "aiding, counseling, commanding or encouraging" the principal in the commission of the criminal offense. Assistance can be either physical or psychological. Physical assistance includes actual help in committing the crime as long as the acts of assistance do not constitute an element of the offense. It also includes such things as procuring weapons to be used to commit the crime, or serving as a lookout during the commission of the crime, or providing protection from arrest or prosecution after the crime's commission. Psychological assistance includes encouraging the principal to commit the offense through words or gestures, or mere presence as long as the principal knows that the accomplice's purpose is present to provide assistance. It is not necessary that the accomplice's acts cause or contribute to the principal's committing the crime. In other words, the prosecution need not prove that the accomplice's acts were either a proximate cause or cause in fact of the crime.
The prosecution must show that the defendant provided assistance, and intended to assist the perpetrator. While substantial activity is not required, neither mere presence at the scene of the crime nor even knowledge that a crime is about to be committed count as sufficient for accessorial liability.
Joint participation and assistance
Two or more persons may act as principals in the first or second degree or as accessories. For example, one person may hold a gun on the clerk of a convenience store while a second person takes the money from the cash register during a robbery. Both actors are principals in the first degree since each does an act that constitutes the crime and each acts with the necessary criminal intent (to steal). Even though neither did all the acts that constitute the crime under the theory of joint participation or acting in concert, the law treats them as partners in crime who have joined for the common purpose of committing the crime of robbery. Each is held responsible for the acts of the other in the commission of the object offense.
Mental states
Two mental states are required for accomplice liability. First, the accomplice must act with at least the same mental state required for the commission of the crime. For example, if the crime is common law murder, the state must prove that the accomplice acted with malice. Second, the accomplice must act for the purpose of helping or encouraging the principal to commit the crime.
The accomplice can be guilty of a greater offense than the perpetrator. For example, A and B discover Bs wife in an adulterous relationship with C. A says kill C. B pulls his gun and shoots C killing him. B would have the benefit of provocation, which would reduce his offense to manslaughter. A, however, would be guilty of murder.
This is no longer the law in England and Wales since the Supreme Court in R v Jogee (2016), following the work of Professor Baker, held that the mental element in complicity is intention. Lord Toulson, in the foreword to Professor Baker's monograph, Reinterpreting Criminal Complicity and Inchoate Offenses, (2016) writes: "I had a copy of the manuscript of this book when examining the issues raised in R v Jogee [2016] UKSC 8, and it was helpful to me. Professor Baker’s arguments on the point, which was of central importance in that case, that foresight is evidence from which intention may be inferred, but no more than evidence, and that secondary liability for a criminal offense requires intent to encourage or assist its perpetration, were well researched and cogent. The same applies to his writing about the need for there to be actual assistance or encouragement and about the nature of intent, which may be conditional. All in all, Professor Baker’s book is a valuable contribution to the understanding of an important and sometimes confusing part of the criminal law."
Before the decision in R v Jogee, Professor Baker argued Baker in his research: 1) all complicity requires either assistance or encouragement for the conduct element, 2) the mental element in complicity is nothing less than intention; 3) foresight was mere evidence for inferring intention in the ancient common purpose complicity scenarios; 4) that foresight only arose in common purpose complicity cases because they involve conditional intention with respect to what the perpetrator might have to do depending on what contingencies arise during the course of jointly perpetrating the underlying joint enterprise. These points have now been adopted as law by the Supreme Court.
In Dennis J. Baker, Glanville Williams: Textbook of Criminal Law, (London: Sweet & Maxwell, 2015) at paras 17-067–17-069; 17-045; et passim, Baker writes: “[U]ntil the decision in the House of Lords in R. v. Powell changed the law [Baker explains elsewhere why there might still have been room to move before R v Powell], the foresight of possibility rule (i.e., the accessory’s foresight of the collateral crime as a possible incident of the underlying joint enterprise), like the probable and natural consequences maxim, was a mere maxim of evidence for inferring that the common purpose extended to the collateral crime.” … Baker goes on: “I will focus on the rules that have been developed for allowing a jury to infer intention and reckless foresight for the purpose of establishing common purpose complicity. These same rules were traditionally used for inferring intention, but in recent decades they have also been used to infer reckless foresight in common purpose complicity cases. What was a maxim of evidence has been invoked as a substantive fault element in complicity since 1999, which has had the effect of extending the mental element in common purpose complicity to cover recklessness. Traditionally, the maxim that a person intends the foreseen consequences of her actions was used in common purpose complicity only to infer that the accessory authorized and thus intended or conditionally intended to encourage the perpetrator to perpetrate the (conditional) collateral crime. A crime as a foreseen collateral crime of an underlying joint enterprise was merely evidence from which an accessory’s intention or conditional intention that the perpetrator perpetrate the collateral crime could be inferred. Foresight was not a substantive fault element, but merely a maxim of evidence. ”Furthermore, Baker in the Glanville Williams Textbook of Criminal Law published in September 2015, wrote: “However, the courts have run into error by failing to see that contemplation or foresight of the potential conditional crimes is a special requirement in complicity liability because the accessory’s liability is contingent on the perpetrator’s future criminal choices. At the time when the assistance or encouragement is given, the commission of the anticipated crime is in futuro. Foresight or contemplation is an issue because the jury has to ascertain whether the accessory intended to assist or encourage the perpetrator’s particular future offending when she did her act of assistance or encouragement. When the accessory provides assistance or encouragement with full knowledge of the alternative crimes that the perpetrator conditionally intends to perpetrate in alternative to each other, the jury is able to infer that the accessory conditionally intended to assist or encourage whichever crime within the particular range was perpetrated.”
Baker goes on to argue, “[The accessory] will not be liable unless factual participation can be established. The courts have tended to overlook this requirement. Accessorial liability derives from the accessory’s factual involvement in the perpetrator’s offending. On derivative principles, the accessory is liable only if she in fact, participates in the primary offending. A person cannot be derivatively involved in the crime of another merely because she associated with the perpetrator in circumstances where she foresaw the perpetrator might commit a collateral crime. In the case of common purpose complicity, it has to be established that the accessory, by her conduct of participating in the underlying criminal joint enterprise, did, in fact, encourage the perpetrator to perpetrate the collateral crime. There might be sufficient evidence for a jury to infer that the accessory encouraged the perpetrator by voluntarily agreeing to participate in the underlying criminal joint enterprise if it can also be established that there was a mutual expectation that certain conditional collateral crimes would be perpetrated to make their underlying criminal joint enterprise succeed. Alternatively, it might be shown that the perpetrator was encouraged by the fact that she knew that that accessory approved of his (conditional) collateral crimes and willingly participated in the underlying enterprise knowing those crimes were conditionally intended."
Baker also put this theory forward in his article entitled: Baker, Dennis J, Foresight in Common Purpose Complicity/Joint Enterprise Complicity: It Is a Maxim of Evidence, Not a Substantive Fault Element (October 10, 2012). Dennis J. Baker (Draft Chapter (2013/14): Reinterpreting Criminal Complicity, Forthcoming. Available at SSRN: . The title of Baker's paper, is basically part of the ratio of R v Jogee as far as the mental element is concerned. Likewise, in the same paper Baker argued that all complicity required factual assistance or encouragement and that joint enterprises were just another way of encouraging and thus there was no separate form of complicity based on mere association and foresight. Other academics took the view that joint enterprise was a separate form of complicity with recklessness as to its mental element but attacked the policy injustice of such an approach. David Ormerod and Karl Laird, Smith and Hogan Criminal Law, (Oxford University Press, 2015) at 238. And some thought it even just: see A. P. Simester, The Mental Element in Complicity, 122 L.Q.R. 578, 598-599 (2006); Jeremy Horder and David Hughes, Joint Criminal Ventures and Murder: The Prospects for Law Reform, 20 KING’S L.J. 379, 398 (2009); G.R. Sullivan, Doing Without Complicity, J. COMMONWEALTH CRIM. L. 199, 206 (2012).
See also Baker, Dennis J, Reinterpreting the Mental Element in Criminal Complicity: Change of Normative Position Theory Cannot Rationalize the Current Law (February 4, 2015). Law & Psychology Review, Vol. 40, 2016.
Liability of accomplices for unintended crimes
Questions arise as to the liability of accomplices for unintended crimes committed by a co-actor, such as whether a getaway driver outside of a building should be responsible for a shooting carried out by an accomplice inside. Most jurisdictions hold that accomplice liability applies not only to the contemplated crime but also any other criminal conduct that was reasonably foreseeable.
Conspiratorial liability
A conspiracy is an agreement between two or more people to commit a crime or unlawful act or a lawful act by unlawful means. In the United States, any conspirator is responsible for crimes within the scope of the conspiracy and reasonably foreseeable crimes committed by co-conspirators in furtherance of the conspiracy, under the Pinkerton liability rule. Notice the extent of potential liability. Under the Pinkerton rule, the conspirator could be held liable for crimes that they did not participate in or agree to or aid or abet or even know about. The basis of liability is negligence - the conspirator is responsible for any crime that was a foreseeable consequence of the original conspiratorial agreement.
With the exception of an accessory after the fact in most cases, an accomplice is a co-conspirator with the actual perpetrator. For example, the person who agrees to drive the getaway car while his confederates actually rob the bank is principal in the second degree for purposes of accessorial liability and a co-conspirator for purposes of conspiratorial liability. However, many situations could arise where no conspiracy exists, but the secondary party is still an accomplice. For example, the person in the crowd who encourages the batterer to "hit him again" is an aider and abettor but not a co-conspirator. As Dressler notes, the difference between the two forms of complicity is that with a conspiracy, an agreement is sufficient and no assistance is necessary, whereas with accessorial liability, no agreement is required, but some form of assistance is necessary for liability.
Innocent agency
The doctrine of the innocent agency is a means by which the common law attaches criminal liability to a person who does not physically undertake some or all of the offense with which they are charged. A person acts through an innocent agent when they intentionally cause the external elements of the offense to be committed by a person who is themselves innocent by reason of lack of a required fault element or lack of capacity. A person who uses an innocent agent is subject to the same liability as if they were the one who committed the actus reus.
Notes
Sources
External links
Elements of crime
Criminal law legal terminology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD%20Institute%20for%20Higher%20Education
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Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education
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The Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education (BIHE), is a unique open university in Iran, which has been portrayed as an underground university, established by the Baháʼí community of Iran in 1987 to meet the educational needs of young people who have been systematically denied access to higher education by the Iranian government. Currently, through a main faculty in Iran and an Affiliated Global Faculty from universities around the world, BIHE offers a total of 40 undergraduate and graduate programs in Sciences, Engineering, Business and Management, Humanities, and Social Sciences. More than 110 universities in North America, Europe, and Australia have thus far accepted the BIHE's graduates directly into programs of graduate study at the masters and doctoral levels. BIHE has a decentralized and fluid structure and uses a hybrid approach of offline and online delivery methods which has enabled it to grow under unusual sociopolitical circumstances. Despite numerous arrests, periodic raids, several imprisonments, mass confiscation of school equipment and general harassment, BIHE has continued and even expanded its operation. BIHE has received praise for offering a non-violent, creative, and constructive response to ongoing oppression.
Context
Persecution of the Baháʼís of Iran
Since its birth in the 19th century, the Baháʼí community of Iran has faced different forms of persecution including hostile propaganda and censorship, social exclusion, denial of education and employment, confiscation and destruction of property, arson, unjustified arrests and imprisonment, physical and psychological torture, death threats, arbitrary executions and disappearances. The Islamic Revolution of 1979 intensified the persecutions and made Baháʼís - the largest religious minority of the country - the target of a systematic state-sponsored campaign of repression. Within this ongoing campaign, over two hundred Baháʼís have been executed; thousands more have been imprisoned, have lost their jobs, been denied their pensions, been expelled from schools and universities, been denied health care, had their personal property plundered, and had their grave sites defiled. The modern persecution of Iranian Baháʼís now continues in its fourth decade. In the 2016 annual report to the UN General Assembly, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, refers to the Baháʼí community of Iran as “the most severely persecuted religious minority” of the country.
Denial of the right to education
The denial of the right to higher education is a tool wielded by the Iranian government on many whose ideology contradicts or threatens the authority of the ruling clerics; however, the Baháʼís are the only group to face pervasive class denial of this right. The efforts of the Iranian government to deny Baháʼís the right to education is seen by Baháʼís as part of its coordinated efforts to eradicate the Baháʼí community as a viable group within Iranian society.
Shortly after the Iranian Revolution in 1979, large numbers of Baháʼí students, ranging across the entire education system from primary through secondary and university level, were expelled from schools and blocked from continuing their education. Similarly, Baháʼí professors and faculty members were dismissed from all universities and academic institutions of the country. In the 1980s, partly in response to international pressure, primary and secondary school children were allowed to re-enroll. However, up to today the government has maintained the ban on the entry of Baháʼí youth into public and private colleges and universities.
The official decree barring Baháʼí students from admission to public university was issued in 1981. That year universities established a new admission system where only individuals who identified themselves with one of the four religions recognized by the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran– i.e. Islam, Christianity, Judaism and Zoroastrianism – were given admission. The systematic expulsion of students and faculty had become clear to Baháʼís by 1983.
In 1991, the government reiterated that policy, in a private memorandum prepared by the Iranian Revolutionary Council and approved by Ayatollah Khamenei which states that “The Government's dealings with [the Baháʼís] must be in such a way that their progress and development are blocked. ... They can be enrolled in schools provided they have not identified themselves as Baháʼís. ... Preferably they should be enrolled in schools which have a strong and imposing religious ideology. ... They must be expelled from universities, either in the admission process or during the course of their studies, once it becomes known that they are Baháʼís."
Over the years, various ploys at different stages of university admission process including application, entrance examination and enrollment have been used to exclude Baháʼís from public and private colleges and universities. From a small number of Baháʼí students who have been able to register and start their studies at universities, the majority have been expelled at some point before graduation.
Formation and developments
After failed attempts to persuade the government of Iran to admit qualified Baháʼí students to universities, the Baháʼí community of Iran rallied its limited resources to make higher education available to its youth and young adults. In a collective effort, a small core of professors, lecturers and researchers who had been discharged from their jobs because of membership in the religion worked on developing an informal network of higher education. These efforts culminated in the establishment of the BIHE- initially known as the “scientific program” in 1987.
Gradually, the program expanded and took on a more formal character. By the mid-1990s, it had turned into an extensive institute which became known as the "open university" or Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education (BIHE). With the advent of the internet and increasing assistance from collaborators abroad, BIHE's curricular standards were bolstered and a wider range of majors and concentrations was introduced.
Despite tremendous logistical constraints and the Iranian authorities' attempts to shut BIHE down through raids, arrests and imprisonment of key faculty and staff, the university has been producing impressive results, with many of its students continuing to Master and Doctoral programs in universities in other countries. Today, through the work of approximately 955 faculty and administrative staff, BIHE offers 18 undergraduate, 15 graduate and 5 associate degree programs in sciences, engineering, business and management, humanities, and social sciences.
Mode of operation
In its early days, BIHE functioned like a correspondence school with faculty and students exchanging lessons and assignments via the state-run postal system. Since professors could not deliver lectures openly, they prepared lecture notes and compiled textbooks for distribution to the students. Upon noticing that the government had been examining and intercepting the mail packages to disrupt the university's work, the BIHE devised its own courier service through volunteer messengers, who collected assignments from all the students in a locality by motorbike, sorted them and then delivered them to the professors.
Over time, with the expansion of its operation, the university started to organize small-group classes in private homes. These were complemented with specialized classrooms and laboratories organized in privately owned commercial buildings near and in Tehran. The BIHE system also featured a network of special depository libraries in the private homes of Baháʼís around the country. Numbering more than 45, these libraries enabled students in each district to obtain the necessary textbooks and course literature and material.
Since 2005, the BIHE has undertaken a modernization and expansion program, which includes the full incorporation of the internet into its activities. As a result, currently BIHE operates on a model of hybrid learning which includes both traditional offline methods as well as increasing online components. Traditional classroom and seminar presentations provide important learning spaces for BIHE students. In addition, many courses have evolved from exclusively offline events into hybrid ones. The incorporation of online components into BIHE's delivery method has allowed the university to expand its courses and programs by using international faculty.
Locations
The university does not have a physical campus. It operates using a hybrid model including both traditional face-to-face and online classes. There is no specific location for in-person classes. They are rotating and held at the homes of students and other members of the Baháʼí community. Occasionally some classes are held at rented isolated locations. The hosts voluntarily offer their homes for in-person classes despite the threats and risks involved. Specific locations in Tehran and its vicinity, such as a floor of a residential home or a private commercial entity are prepared to be used as laboratories. Many security measures are taken to avoid attracting attention. These laboratories have been raided numerous times by the government and sealed. Each time they have been reinstated at a different location after some time has passed.
Distinctive features
Creative and constructive response to oppression
The establishment of the BIHE has been regarded as a creative and non-violent response to the ongoing campaign of the Iranian government to deprive Iranian Baháʼí youth of access to higher education. Rather than losing their agency in the face of oppression, Iranian Baháʼís have been actively constructing their own institution and empowering their youth through education. It has provided a constructive alternative to organizing politically against the authorities or feeling victimized.
BIHE has been praised for the model it offers to minority groups in self-preservation, coping, survival and thriving under discriminatory sociopolitical circumstances.
Decentralized and fluid structure
The institute is decentralized and its functions reach the entire country through a combination of in-person and online classes with the former being held at the homes of students, faculty and other volunteer members of the community. In each province or region, local administrative assistants perform certain logistics and managerial tasks. Parts of the application and admission process as well as student advisory services and conducting examinations are also carried out throughout the same network on the local level. Lecturers construct their courses free from the prescriptions of a single organizational body and a networks of teaching assistants collaborate in the actual delivery of education. Independence of lecturers from administrators, teaching assistants from lecturers, and students from all – creates adaptability in the BIHE, and this facet of its character has been preserved and complemented by the ongoing process of modernization and the shift toward online learning.
Volunteerism and service
The BIHE relies to a great extent on the volunteerism and spirit of service. Baháʼí faculty members give their time as a form of community service and are not being paid. In addition to the academic staff, a network of community volunteers provide logistical support such as transportation, accommodation, and hosting of classes, exams and other academic events. Over time, volunteering structures have evolved organically. A study shows that the staff and the community members find volunteering in the BIHE a meaningful path of community service and are motivated by their feelings of love and care for the youth. Many of the BIHE students who finish their graduate studies abroad choose to return to Iran to volunteer at BIHE despite knowing that they will face many difficulties.
Community mobilization
The BIHE is a participatory community-owned initiative through which a community has been able to draw from its own resources and talents to take charge of the development of its youth. Broad grassroots input of everyone, and not just the elite, is welcomed and all members of the community are invited and motivated to contribute to a shared goal. BIHE activities have also united and strengthened Baháʼí community cohesion despite the pressures of sociopolitical marginalization.
Prolonged resilience
The BIHE is a resilient organization, surviving approaching 3 decades. It came into existence against the backdrop of intense persecution. It has flourished despite formidable restraints and has survived and continued its work in the face of government's campaigns to disrupt its work. In each crisis, the BIHE has proven itself adaptable and determined to continue working despite sustained opposition. Some see the BIHE's ability to adapt to ever-changing circumstances as a key factor in its continued success. One study claims the synergy between marginalized but dedicated students working with marginalized but dedicated staff to be the source of the BIHE's resilience in the face of hostilities.
Responding to social and emotional needs
It is believed that BIHE responds to various social and emotional needs of discriminated students by providing them access to higher education and enabling them to remain socially and academically engaged. A large number of BIHE staff are Iranian Baháʼís who have been expelled from their jobs in academia as a result of their allegiance to the Baháʼí Faith. The opportunity to facilitate higher education services in BIHE has been a gratifying experience for them and helped them to cope with the pain of their own educational exclusion.
Academics
Degrees and programs
As of 2016, BIHE offers a total of 38 university-level programs across five faculties in Sciences, Engineering, Business and Management, Humanities, and Social Sciences.
Undergraduate programs:
Accounting
Applied Chemistry
Architecture
Biology and Medical Sciences
Business Administration
Chemical Engineering
Computer Engineering
Mathematics and Computer Science
English Language Studies
Law
Music
Persian Literature and Iranian Culture
Psychology
Pharmaceutical Sciences
Sociology
Structural Engineering
Transportation Engineering
Water and Waste Engineering
Graduate programs:
Master in Business Administration (MBA)
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Construction Management
Master of Arts (M.A.) in Counselling Psychology
Master of Arts (M.A.) in Curriculum Development
Master of Arts (M.A.) in Educational Psychology
Master in General Psychology
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Hydraulic Structures
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Neurosciences
Master of Arts (M.A.) in Persian Literature
Master of Public Health (M.P.H)
Master of Arts (M.A.) in Sociology
Master of Arts (M.A.) in International Law
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Software Engineering
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Structural Engineering
Master of Science (M.Sc.) in Transportation Engineering
Associate programs:
Accounting
Civil Construction
Computer Technology
Childhood Education
Plant Production Technology
Faculty
As of 2016, the BIHE operates through the services of approximately 700 faculty, who are academic and professionals residing in Iran, and a network of affiliated global faculty that support the university through online courses, curriculum development and other services. A significant number of faculty are BIHE graduates.
At the outset, the administrators and faculty of BIHE were mainly Baháʼí professors dismissed from Iranian universities after the 1979 Islamic Revolution. Other faculty members included doctors, dentists, lawyers and engineers many of whom were fired from their jobs by the Iranian authorities following the Islamic revolution. The university also drew on the expertise of a small and anonymous group of Baháʼí academics in North America, Europe and Australia, who sent the latest textbooks and research papers, occasionally made visits to Iran as guest lecturers, and otherwise provided instructional and technical support.
With the expansion of the online capabilities of the BIHE over the past decade or so, the university has also been assisted by a large and growing number of volunteer professors from around the world who form its Affiliated Global Faculty (AGF).
Although catering to the Baháʼí community of Iran, the BIHE is hardly an exclusively Baháʼí institution. Non-Baháʼí Iranians both inside the country and as part of the university's AGF network have worked with the BIHE and contributed to its success.
Almost all of the professors and administrative staff of BIHE are volunteers who serve without receiving payment.
Graduates
In Iran, the BIHE graduates have attracted the praise of their employers in private corporations. Some of them have achieved high rank in the organizations, and some have contributed greatly to the social and economic enhancement of their community and Iranian society. Outside of Iran, certain BIHE graduates are currently working as professors and researchers in the academic and professional fields.
The vast majority of the graduates of the BIHE who have continued their education at Master's and PhD levels in other countries, have chosen to return to Iran to teach at BIHE or support it other ways. Some of them have later faced persecution such as imprisonment for their affiliation with the BIHE.
BIHE students and graduates also have published papers in distance learning technologies, materials science, biology, and computer science and civil engineering.
Fariba Kamalabadi and Vahid Tizfahm, two members of the arrested leadership in Iran, among the Baháʼís are graduates of BIHE.
Reputation and international recognition
The New York Times calls the BIHE "an elaborate act of communal self-preservation." The BIHE has received praise as one of the few examples of community-sponsored higher education service in a closed society, a non-violent, adaptive and constructive form of resistance against oppression and an example of empowerment through education. It is believed that the BIHE can offer many lessons to organizations and activists tackling similar types of exclusion in closed societies across the world. The effectiveness of BIHE to deliver curricula has been studied, finding it to be a "social space" that enables Baháʼí students and staff to remain academically and socially engaged; to bond and share with peers and colleagues equally suffering from religious persecution; and to live up to principles such as learning, community service, and resistance in times of socio-political marginalization as well surviving because of international support, community sacrifices, and individual resiliency.
Although BIHE degrees are not certified by the Iranian regime, since 1998 more than 80 universities in the North America, Europe, Australia and Asia have accepted BIHE qualifications and have admitted its graduates directly into programs of study at the masters and doctoral levels.
The BIHE was the first Iranian member of the Open Courseware Consortium and BIHE developed and implemented a project through them out of MIT.
In October 2022 BIHE was awarded LiberPress prize in Spain for its "commendable effort in providing higher education to thousands of Baha'i youth who are deprived of education in 'their own country'". This award has been given every year since 1999 to institutions, organizations and individuals who have tried to deepen the culture of solidarity, shared responsibility and human values.
Pressure and attacks
Iranian authorities have continuously sought to disrupt the BIHE's operation by raiding hundreds of Baháʼí homes and offices associated with it, by confiscating university materials and property and by arresting and imprisoning faculty members and administration staff.
Between 1987 and 2005 the Iranian authorities closed down the university several times as part of the pattern of suppressing the Baháʼí community.
Between September 30 and October 3, 1998, immediately after the first batch of BIHE graduates got admitted into Master's level studies in a Canadian University, members of the Iranian Government's intelligence agency, the Ministry of Information, started a large-scale crackdown, when officials raided over 500 Baháʼí homes, confiscated teaching materials and arrested more than 36 faculty members. Those who had been arrested were asked, while in custody, to sign a document declaring that the BIHE had ceased to exist and that they would no longer cooperate with it. They refused to sign any such declaration. Most of those who were arrested were released soon afterwards, but four were given prison sentence ranging from three to 10 years. The faculty, administrators and the students were all determined to continue the pursuit of knowledge against all odds.
In 2001 and 2002, three classrooms used by community members were seized, and an instructor was summoned to the intelligence agency. Authorities also disrupted—in July 2002—BIHE qualification examinations in eight different locations simultaneously, videotaping proceedings, interviewing students, and confiscating examination papers and Baháʼí books, thus demonstrating that the government pursues an established policy of intimidation.
Another centrally orchestrated series of raids was carried out on the homes of some of the faculty members and administrators during 22–24 May 2011. Officials from the Ministry of Intelligence entered the homes of at least 30 of the academic staff of the BIHE, seizing books, computers and personal effects. The buildings used as laboratories and for academic purposes in Tehran have also been closed. The searches or arrests took place in Tehran, Zahedan, Sari, Isfahan and Shiraz. A total of 16 educators were arrested. A second wave of arrests in September 2014 targeted few other professors. Some of those arrested were released within a couple of weeks. The rest were put on trial, accused of "conspiracy against national security" and "conspiracy against the Islamic Republic of Iran", and sentenced to four to five years of imprisonment. Today, a number of them have been released after finishing the terms of their sentences, while others remain in jail.
The Iran Daily, an official government newspaper, reported that "The BIHE university was a cover for the propagation of the Baha'i faith and was used to trap citizens in the Baha'i spy network and to gather information from within the county". It stated that ""Authorities have discovered Baha'i propaganda, CDs and books in the possession of those who have been arrested." Spokesman for Iran's mission to the United Nations said the raids on BIHE were because it "systematically controlled activities of cult members, and ... interfered in their private, social and economic lives." He also said the organization had the aim of "entrapping" non-Baha'is, in order to eventually create "an extremist cult movement." See Political accusations against the Baha'i Faith.
Teachers and staff of the BIHE have vowed to continue the BIHE's activities.
International support and campaigns
The attempts of the Iranian government to exclude Bahaʼis from higher education and the raids on the BIHE have drawn considerable international attention to the government of Iran's oppressive policies against Bahaʼis. International Human rights organizations such as entities at the United Nations have called for an end to religious discrimination against Bahaʼi students and various governments have pressed Iran to allow Bahaʼis back into university.
Following the 1990s raids the Canadian Association of University Teachers condemned them.
Since the raids in 2011, there has been further and more diverse objections to the attempts of the Iranian government to exclude Baháʼís from high education. Nobel Peace Prize laureates Archbishop Desmond Tutu and East Timor president José Ramos-Horta signed an open letter calling on Iran to unconditionally drop the charges against the Baha'i educators. Christian Solidarity Worldwide and the Union of Jewish Students urged Iran to end its discriminatory educational policies of Baháʼís. Senator Remeo Dallaire of Canada warned of the “genocidal intent of the Iranian state.” Lloyd Axworthy, president of the University of Winnipeg, and Allan Rock, president of the University of Ottawa, published an editorial calling attention to Iran's recent actions. An international set of 43 academic theologians and philosophers – of Christian, Hindu, Jewish, and Muslim backgrounds – signed an open letter, published in The Daily Telegraph (UK), and reported in the Folha de S.Paulo (Brazil) condemning the attacks in 2011. A petition in India has garnered support from members of Judicial, Executive and Legislative branches of government, academics, religious leaders, NGOs and business leaders. Another in the States garnered support from 48 Deans and Senior Vice-presidents of American medical schools. The chief signatory – Dr. Philip Pizzo, Dean of Stanford University School of Medicine – helped collect the signatures at the annual meeting of the Association of American Medical Colleges' Council of Medical School Deans. In March 2012, the American Physical Society Committee on International Freedom of Scientists reiterated its 2010 support for Baháʼí students not being denied education in requesting the arrested lectures be released.
Education is Not a Crime
"Education is Not a Crime" was a worldwide campaign launched in November 2014 by Maziar Bahari, an Iranian filmmaker and journalist to draw attention to the Iranian government's systematic denial of university education to young Baha'is. The campaign was inspired by Bahari's documentary film “To Light a Candle” which was premiered in London in September 2014. Through personal stories, interviews and rare footage, the film unveils decades of social injustice and religious intolerance against the Baha'i community of Iran.
Grassroots screenings of the film and panel discussions have been part of "Education Is Not a Crime" campaign and its website featured voices of support from people around the world. The campaign had a global day of action on 27 February 2015 in which a major event titled "Education is not a crime Live 2015" was organized in Los Angeles along with hundreds of other screenings around the world.
Nobel Peace laureates such as Archbishop Desmond Tutu, Shirin Ebadi, Tawakkol Karman, Jody Williams, and Mairead Maguire have endorsed the campaign. It has also received support from a number of artists and intellectuals including Nazanin Boniadi, Abbas Milani, Mohsen Makhmalbaf, Azar Nafisi, Omid Djalili, Eva LaRue, Mohammad Maleki, former president of the University of Tehran and Mark Ruffalo.
Education Under Fire
Following developments reported on October 13, 2011, by the UN Secretary General with a report on "The situation of human rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran", specifically citing the raids, Nobel Laureates Desmond Tutu and José Ramos-Horta wrote an open letter calling for the immediate release of the Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education professors and other initiatives which is part of a program of action that is called Education Under Fire (EUF).
Single Arrow Productions produced a 30-minute documentary by the same title, Education Under Fire. This documentary traces the Islamic Republic of Iran's three-decade-long policy of denying the members of its Bahá´í community basic human rights including the right to attend any institution of higher education. It is endorsed by Amnesty International. The documentary and laureates' letter together form part of university and community activities to address the situation. The campaign's premiere event showing the documentary was co-hosted by faculty from Columbia University, Duke University, and Eastern Kentucky University, as well as Amnesty International and the director of the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, on October 28, 2011. A "successful" Kickstarter campaign associated with the documentary was completed and Iran Human Rights held a podcast on the initiative in November 2011.
The documentary was shown at the mid-February 2012 12th Annual Bellingham Human Rights Film Festival and the 10th Annual University of San Francisco Film Festival in late March.
Goals
The campaign's stated goals are:
calling on the government of the Iranian Republic to release unconditionally and drop charges against the BIHE educators currently under arrest and facing charges related to their educational activities;
asks academic leaders, administrators and professors to register through any possible channels in the Iranian academic community their disagreement with and disapproval of any policy which would bar individuals from higher education based on their religious background or political persuasion, or which would remove or corrupt any established fields of study from a university curricula for religious or political reasons
to encourage universities to review the educational quality of the BIHE coursework for possible acceptance of its credits, so that those who have had the benefit of its programs can continue at higher levels of study, and
to offer available online university level curricula, through scholarships if needed, to students in Iran who would otherwise be deprived of the right to higher education or who, due to government limitation on social sciences, would not have a full array of educational options available to them in their own county.
Head administrators of Wheelock, Wheaton Colleges and the University of Massachusetts Amherst as well as faculty from various Canadian and Australian colleges and universities have signed letters in support of the cause of the campaign which have been released to the public. Screenings of the documentary often with discussions and action agenda items for the campaign have been held or are scheduled for 2012 at a wide number of universities and colleges in the United States, Canada, and Italy. The documentary was also shown at a public library in Shrewsbury, New Jersey, and City Hall at Stratford, Ontario and the Ohio Commission on Hispanic / Latino Affairs hosted an event in Columbus Ohio. The American Friends Service Committee supported two screenings – one at the DePaul University Art Museum, and the other at Northeastern Illinois University's Student Union. David Docherty, President of Mount Royal University recommended the documentary. A Sentinel Project for Genocide Prevention contributor spoke at a screening and discussion in Toronto on the campaign and situation in Iran. The Human Rights, Social Justice and Canadian Complicity with Torture – Criminology and Human Rights Symposium of St. Thomas University in March 2012 hosted a screening and discussion.
The campaign has also received televised local news coverage in New York (WNBC), Miami (WTVJ) as well as Houston community radio (KPFT).
Can you solve this?
Another response to the situation was using QR codes for the website "Can you solve this?" (can-you-solve-this.org) It is an online email campaign system to send letters about the situation to various leaders in several countries was started in August 2011. A related website claims it has sent over 1,700 letters with coverage from the Mashable website. Promoted on the website bahairights.org, the Muslim Network for Baha'i Rights, it is a project by Mideast Youth.
Films about BIHE
BIHE has been a source of inspiration and subject of a few films. "Education Under Fire" is a documentary produced by Single Arrow Productions and co-sponsored by Amnesty International, which profiles the growth, struggle, and spirit of the BIHE. "To Light a Candle" is another documentary film by journalist Maziar Bahari, premiered in 2014, which focuses on the stories of the individuals associated with the attempted shutdown of BIHE. "CopyRight" is a fiction 16mm short film based on the story of volunteers at the BIHE.
There are also references to BIHE in other documentary films. For instance, Iranian Taboo, a 2011 documentary film by Dutch film-maker Reza Allamehzadeh, which focuses on the persecution of Baháʼís in Iran, has some references to BIHE.
See also
Persecution of Baháʼís
Political accusations against the Baha'i Faith
To Light a Candle (film)
Iranian Taboo
References
Further reading
Handal, Boris. The philosophy of Baháʼí education. Religion and Education, (34)1, 48–62, 2007.
External links
Baháʼí Institute for Higher Education
Education Under Fire
Bahá'í educational institutions
Bahá'í Faith in Iran
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20Labour%20Party%20%28Ireland%29
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History of the Labour Party (Ireland)
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The Labour Party has been part of the political scene in Ireland throughout the state's existence. Although never attracting majority support, it has repeatedly participated in coalition governments. The party was established in 1912 by James Connolly, James Larkin, and William O'Brien and others as the political wing of the Irish Trades Union Congress. It intended to participate in a Dublin Parliament that would follow passage of the Home Rule Act 1914, which was suspended on the outbreak of World War I. Connolly was executed following the Easter Rising in 1916, and was succeeded as leader by Thomas Johnson. The party stood aside from the elections of 1918 and 1921, but despite divisions over acceptance of the Anglo-Irish Treaty it took approximately 20% of the vote in the 1922 elections, initially forming the main opposition party in the Dáil Éireann (parliament) of the Irish Free State. Farm labourers already influenced by D.D. Sheehan's Irish Land and Labour Association (ILLA) factions were absorbed into urban-based unions, which contributed significantly to the expansion of the Irish trade union movement after the First World War. For much of the 20th century, the Irish Labour Party derived the majority of its Dáil strength from TDs who were relatively un-ideological and independent-minded, and were supported by agricultural labourers.
The subsequent years were marked by rivalry between factions led by William O'Brien and James Larkin, with William Norton becoming leader. Between 1932 and 1938 the Labour Party supported Éamon de Valera's minority Fianna Fáil government. From 1948 to 1951 and from 1954 to 1957 the Labour Party entered government alongside Fine Gael and other parties, with Norton as Tánaiste. During this period the party also stood for elections in Northern Ireland, after a split in the Northern Ireland Labour Party. In 1960 Brendan Corish became the new Labour leader. As leader he advocated and introduced more socialist policies to the party. Between 1973 and 1987 Labour three times more went into coalition governments with Fine Gael. Dick Spring became leader in 1982, amid growing controversy within the party over these coalitions and the growth of parties to the left of Labour.
In 1990 Mary Robinson became President of Ireland with Labour support. After mergers with the Democratic Socialist Party and the Independent Socialist Party, Labour performed well in the 1992 general election and formed a coalition with Fianna Fáil, with Spring as Tánaiste. then in 1994 without a further election joined a coalition with Fine Gael and Democratic Left (the "Rainbow Coalition"). After defeat in the 1997 general election, Labour merged with Democratic Left, and the former Democratic Left member Pat Rabbitte became leader in 2002. Rabbitte implemented the "Mullingar Accord", a pre-election voting pact with Fine Gael, but this did not lead to greater election success for Labour in the 2007 elections, and Rabbitte resigned to be replaced by Eamon Gilmore. The 2011 general election saw one of Labour's best results, with over 19% of the first-preference votes. Labour once more entered a coalition government with Fine Gael, and the Irish presidential election later that year saw the Labour Party's candidate, Michael D. Higgins, elected as president. However, Labour in government experienced a series of dismissals and resignations among its members in the Dáil. In 2014, Gilmore resigned as party leader after Labour's poor performance in the European and local elections, and Joan Burton was elected as the new leader.
The Labour Party is regarded a party of the centre-left which has been described as a social democratic party but is referred to in its constitution as a democratic socialist party. Its constitution refers to the party as a "movement of democratic socialists, social democrats, environmentalists, progressives, feminists (and) trade unionists". It has been described as a "big tent" party by the Irish Independent. The stance of the Labour Party has changed dramatically over time. In 1964, American historian Emmet Larkin described the Irish Labour Party as "the most opportunistically conservative Labour Party anywhere in the known world", due to its Catholic outlook in an Ireland where 95 percent of the population was Roman Catholic. It was known for its longstanding unwillingness (along with Ireland's other major parties) to support any policy that could be construed as sympathetic to secularism or communism. However, from the 1980s it was associated with advocacy for socially liberal policies, with former leader Eamon Gilmore stating in 2007 that "more than any other political movement, it was Labour and its allies which drove the modernisation of the Irish state".
In the past Labour has been referred to, derisively, as "the political wing of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul.” That Labour was influenced by Catholicism is not unusual in the Irish context (likewise, both Fine Gael and Fianna Fáil were also products of a predominantly Catholic society). Labour's ethos and often its language was profoundly Christian. Following the official separation of the Irish Labour Party and Irish Trade Union Congress into two different organisations in 1930, early drafts of Labour's constitution referred to the responsibilities of the 'Christian state', but these had all been removed by the time the constitution was put before the new party's conference for approval. However, the Free State's commitment to a full-scale devotional revival of Catholicism was reflected in the outlook and policies of the party. The ‘Starry Plough,’ the traditional symbol of Labour, reflects a Catholic tradition and biblical reference to Isaiah 2:3–4, which is integral to its design. Like Fianna Fáil, Labour embraced corporatist policies, again influenced by the Catholic Church. This was deemed to be important for both in terms of winning electoral support from the lower and middle classes. However, Labour later became associated with increasing secularism and championing socially liberal causes in relation to contraception, divorce, LGBT rights and abortion. Its support base also shifted greatly towards postmaterialists. The Labour Party also changed its position from Euroscepticism in 1972 to pro-Europeanism and ideological integration with European social-democratic parties.
Foundation
In the first decade of the twentieth century, considerable debate took place within the Irish Trades Union Congress on whether the organised trade union movement in Ireland should take part in political activity. James Connolly, and James Larkin as the leaders of the new and dynamic Irish Transport and General Workers Union (ITGWU), led the calls for political action and representation for trade unionists. Opposition came from northern trade unionists and others who wanted links with the British Labour Party, and from supporters of the Irish Parliamentary Party. The majority of the ITUC favoured the creation of an Irish labour movement, which was separate from that in Great Britain. The Dublin Trades Council had already constituted a Dublin Labour Party (DLP), and had members elected to Dublin Corporation, including Richard O'Carroll (who died in the Easter Rising in 1916) and Larkin.
The catalyst for the launch of a congress-sponsored party was the introduction and successful progress of the Third Home Rule Bill in 1912. At its meeting in Clonmel, Co. Tipperary, in 1912, the congress took up the question of a political party. James Connolly presented the resolution that the congress establish its own party. He argued that since Home Rule was imminent and would take place once the House of Lords' delaying powers were exhausted in two years' time, that this period should be used to organise the new party. Connolly's resolution was carried by a wide margin with 49 voting for; 19 against; and 19 abstaining.In August 1912, William Partridge, a nationalist city councillor on Dublin Corporation, was dismissed from employment by the Great Southern & Western Railway for protesting against preferential promotion of Protestants over Catholics in the Inchicore works. He became a full time paid-official for the IT&GWU, and organised in Co. Dublin and Cork City. Partridge, a prolific contributor to the IT&GWU organ, the Irish Worker, was known for combining his fervent Catholic beliefs with radical syndicalist convictions. He won a seat for the newly launched Labour Party in the January 1913 municipal elections in Dublin.
The new congress also supported the introduction of salaries for members of parliament, public funding of elections and female suffrage. The founding of the Labour Party was disrupted by personality differences between Larkin and his fellow leaders, including Connolly (Connolly also distrusted Larkin). Nevertheless, the 1913 congress meeting under William O'Brien's chairmanship instructed the executive to proceed with the writing of a party constitution. The ITUC took no part in the 1913 lock-out struggle in Dublin, and labour candidates did poorly in local elections in Dublin in January 1914.
The proposed constitution limited party membership to affiliated trade unions and councils only and excluded individual membership and other involvement, such as by co-operative societies and other socialist groups. Thomas Johnson argued that Labour would be "swamped" by farmer co-operatives and that individuals might join through trade councils. Connolly argued that there should be just one body and that a separate Labour Party as in Britain would encourage the "professional politician". At the 1914 Congress, it was agreed for the first time to seek the reconstruction of society: "the Congress urges that labour unrest can only be ended by the abolition of the capitalist system of wealth production with its inherent injustice and poverty." The same congress changed the name to add "and Labour Party" to its name and became the Irish Trades Union Congress and Labour Party (ITUC[&]LP), changed in 1918 to "Irish Labour Party and Trades Union Congress" (ILP[&]TUC). In party-political contexts it was usually the "Irish Labour Party", or simply "Labour". Upon Larkin's relocation to the US in 1914, his sister Delia (first general secretary of the Irish Women's Workers' Union) found that she did not get on well with James Connolly, Larkin's successor as honorary secretary of the IT&GWU.
The party was seriously troubled by the proposals in 1914 to exclude certain Ulster counties from Home Rule as this would undermine the potential of the new party by excluding the substantial industrial areas of northeast Ulster. Fourteen of the 34 urban seats in the Home Rule parliament were to be in Belfast alone. The start of the First World War in the summer of 1914 transformed the political situation in Ireland. The Home Rule Bill became law but its operation was postponed until after the war. The official Labour position did not directly oppose Irish support for the British war effort, but it was critical of the war in general terms. Labour skirted the issue in an attempt to avoid division between unionist and nationalist trade unionists. Larkin opposed the war before he left for the US and Connolly condemned John Redmond's support for Irish nationalists involvement in army recruitment. Gradually, Labour opposition to the spectre of conscription moved the party's position closer to that of the separatists. To avoid making a decision on the war, Labour called off its congress in 1915.
James Connolly was the only leading Labour figure to take part in the Easter Rising in 1916. His execution after the rebellion left the labour movement in some disarray. Liberty Hall, the physical symbol of the labour movement, was destroyed, and the files of the ITUCLP were seized. Many trade union leaders, in Dublin, who had not taken part in the Rising were interned, such as William O'Brien, but they were released later when the British realised that they had no direct involvement. Their absence allowed non-nationalist leaders to come to the fore, especially Thomas Johnson, who was not charismatic, but was a moderate and hardworking man.
Despite his English background, his sheer diligence and devotion to his duties gave him the leading position in labour politics for the next decade. He managed to persuade the authorities to release the trade union leaders in time for the congress meeting in Sligo in August 1916. In his chairman's address, Johnson avoided taking a stand on the Rising and instead called for a minute's silence to honour the memory of Connolly and his comrades. He mourned the dead in the trenches and expressed personal support for the Allies. Johnson's stance in refusing to accept any responsibility for the Rising was regarded as a success as it avoided division between north and south, and laid the stress on economic and social issues.
Early history
In Larkin's absence and Connolly's demise, William O'Brien became the dominant figure in the Irish Transport and General Workers' Union joining it in January 1917, and quickly becoming the leader of that union and wielding considerable influence in the Labour Party. O'Brien, along with Johnson, also dominated the ITUCLP. O'Brien took a leading role in the growing separatist movement that would become the revitalised Sinn Féin. The Labour Party, now led by Thomas Johnson, as successor to such organisations as D.D. Sheehan's (independent labour MPs) Irish Land and Labour Association (ILLA), found itself marginalised by the preeminence that Sinn Féin gave to the national question. De Valera and others expressed sympathy for the labour movement's objectives but made clear that "Labour must wait." The congress-party strongly opposed the moves to introduce conscription into Ireland in 1918, and a twenty-four-hour strike was successfully called on 23 April 1918. Only the Belfast area ignored the strike call. That spring, Labour announced that it would take part in the general election to be held immediately after the war ended. De Valera and other Sinn Féin leaders were highly critical of what they saw as a divisive step by the ITUCLP. At the congress held in August 1918, the executive reported that Labour's hour of destiny had struck and it found the movement ready. O'Brien urged the development of electoral machinery. At this moment, the first signs of the split between O'Brien and the Larkinites became evident. PT Daly, the protégé of Larkin, was locked in a struggle with O'Brien and was beaten by 114 votes to 109 for the post of secretary of the Congress. Daly was later to be purged by O'Brien from the leadership of the ITGWU, setting the scene for a long-lasting split in Irish trade unionism. Following the congress, Labour was finally forced to deal with the issues of national self-determination and abstention from parliament.
Sinn Féin entered into discussions with Labour to secure its abstention from the forthcoming election. Labour was again faced with the dilemma that it might win some seats by entering into a pact with Sinn Féin at the price of alienation of northern unionist workers. Labour offered a radical election programme. Among other objectives, it declared that it would win for the workers the collective ownership and control of the whole produce of their work; adopt the principles of the Russian Revolution; secure the democratic management of all industries in the interest of the nation; and abolish all privileges which were based on property or ancestry.
In the end, a special party conference voted by 96 votes to 23 that the ILPTUC would not contest the 1918 general election, to allow the election to take the form of a plebiscite on Ireland's constitutional status. Sinn Féin won 73 of the 105 seats in the election and convened the First Dáil in January 1919. The Democratic Programme of the First Dáil was jointly drafted by Seán T. O'Kelly of Sinn Féin and Thomas Johnson of Labour. Despite being eventually pruned of much of its socialist content, some of the original radical elements survived. Sinn Féin paid its debt of honour to the Labour Party for its abstention by including in the Programme that every citizen was to be entitled to an adequate share of the produce of the nation's labour; the government would concern itself with the welfare of children, and would care for the aged and infirm; and it would seek "a general and lasting improvement in the conditions under which the working classes live and labour".
In a 1919 article in The Watchword of Labour, Fr. Peter Finlay, S.J, was criticised for his condemnation of Labour policy, with the writer describing the similarities between Catholic social teaching and the Labour Party policy, stating that the system proposed by Labour was "perfectly permissible in light of the papal encyclicals." Promoting distributist views, it appealed to the Catholic Archbishop of Dublin to prevent further attacks by clergymen on the party.
Labour took part in the 1920 local elections and won a significant role in local government for the first time. It gained 394 seats compared to 550 for Sinn Féin, 355 for the unionists, 238 for the old nationalists, and 161 independents.
The Government of Ireland Act 1920 effected the partition of Ireland with elections in June 1921 planned for the lower houses of the parliaments of Northern Ireland and of Southern Ireland. The Labour national executive decided to leave the field to Sinn Féin, although its 1921 report suggested that it was unaware that Sinn Féin intended to use the elections to replace the First Dáil with a Second Dáil. The executive reprimanded Richard Corish and the Wexford Trades Council for accepting his Sinn Féin election nomination. When the truce of July 1921 ended the Irish War of Independence, Labour was not involved in any way in the negotiations that led to the Anglo-Irish Treaty of December 1921, by which a new Irish Free State would be established as a Dominion of the British Empire equivalent in status to Canada.
Labour in the Irish Free State
The Anglo-Irish Treaty & main opposition party, 1922–1927
The Anglo-Irish Treaty divided the Labour party. It did not take an official stand. From his American prison cell, Jim Larkin opposed the Treaty while the only Labour member of the Dáil, Richard Corish of Wexford spoke and voted for the Treaty. Johnson, never a republican, privately supported the Treaty, while O'Brien did not oppose it. Following the approval of the Treaty by the Dáil in January 1922, the executive of the ILPTUC succeeded at a special conference held in February, in passing a motion to participate in the forthcoming general election. Successful Labour candidates were required to take their seats in the new Free State Dáil, and a reformist programme was adopted.
Johnson and the other Labour leaders tried to stop the slide to civil war to no avail, including holding a one-day national strike across the 26 counties on 24 April. Labour candidates were nominated for the election on 16 June, despite the difficulties of poor organisation, internal opposition to participation and limited finance. When The Collins/De Valera Pact was agreed on 20 May, the pressure on the party was intensified. The Pact provided for the pro and anti Treaty sides to have one agreed slate of candidates with a coalition government to be established afterwards. Other parties and groups, including Labour, were asked to stand down again in the national interest. Effectively, the old Sinn Féin was about to deny a democratic election from being held and to prevent the public expressing their preferences. While de Valera had a notable success in persuading Patrick Hogan, a future Labour Ceann Comhairle, from standing in Clare, 18 other Labour candidates resisted the pressures on them from the IRA and went forward for election. These were perceived as pro-Treaty, and when Michael Collins repudiated the Pact four days before the election, it benefited the Labour Party as well as the pro-Treaty party. Seventeen of the eighteen Labour candidates won seats, with the 18th losing only by 13 votes. Some candidates had nearly twice the quota but had no running mates to transfer their surplus votes.
As well as being a triumph for the Labour Party, the election confirmed the popular acceptance of the Treaty. The Civil War broke out shortly later, between the IRA and the new National Army, and ravaged the country in the following months. The new Dáil did not meet until September preventing Labour from having any influence over events. Public opinion and voting habits crystallised in a deeply polarised fashion in this period between the two sides of the national movement, and led to the effective marginalisation of the Labour Party and of social and economic issues that was to last for the rest of the twentieth century. When the third Dáil eventually met in September, Labour attempted to amend the new Free State Constitution to remove the elements imposed by the Treaty but pragmatically accepted the new order when it was adopted. The Labour deputies took the controversial oath of fidelity to the British monarch, viewing it as a formality.
Labour and Johnson were mocked as naive "do-gooders." Johnson was held in contempt by both sides of the war. His most significant intervention during the Civil War related to events in Kerry in 1923, when contested the government's assurances that the killing of prisoners in Ballyseedy had been accidental. Labour contended that the political and the martial had become too closely connected. Labour strongly opposed the 1922 Public Safety Bill, which permitted death sentences for a range of offences. The first executions under the Act occurred in mid-November provoking a hostile response from Labour Deputies in Dáil. The Voice of Labour, which was heavily censored by the Free State, was highly critical of Black and Tan tactics being used by Provisional Government troops against workers who played no role in the conflict.
Labour had threatened to resign its Dáil seats, but effectively served as the official opposition following the outbreak of the civil war.
In the immediate aftermath of the Civil War, an economic slump and collapse in union membership led to a loss in support for the party. In the 1923 election Labour only won 14 seats, seeing its share of the vote halved. However, from 1922 until Fianna Fáil TDs took their seats in 1927, Labour was the major opposition party in the Dáil. It attacked the lack of social reform by the Cumann na nGaedheal government. Johnson became the leading figure in the Parliamentary Labour Party and the leader of the Opposition to the new Government. From 1927, a large number of the Labour Party's voters were pre-empted by Fianna Fáil, with its almost identical policies. Labour lacked Fianna Fáil's 'republican' image, which was a contributing factor to this loss. The Irish Labour Party and the Irish Trades Union Congress separated in 1930.
Larkin returned to Ireland in April 1923, attacking Labour and the ITUC in his rhetoric. He hoped to resume the leadership role in the ITGWU which he had previously left, but O'Brien resisted him. Larkin also created a pro-communist party called the Irish Worker League. O'Brien regarded Larkin as a "loose cannon." Following a failed challenge to O'Brien's leadership and association with communist militancy, Larkin was expelled from the ITGWU and created the WUI, a communist alternative to the ITGWU, in 1924. Two-thirds of the Dublin membership of the ITGWU defected to the new union. O'Brien blocked the WUI from admission to the ITUC. Larkin was elected to Dáil Éireann at the September 1927 general election. However, the Labour Party prevented him from taking his seat as an undischarged bankrupt for losing a libel case against Labour leader Tom Johnson.
In a 1930 article of The Watchword, the Rev. Malcolm MacColl, a British Catholic priest, praised the Irish labour movement and criticised the attitudes of the "traditional [Protestant] Ascendancy" towards Irish Catholics and the Catholic Church, promoting the Catholic Action movement for the up-liftment of working-class Catholics in Ireland. In the same year, an article condemned the use of "girl and juvenile labour" in Cork by employers "who call themselves Christians, and, in fact, Catholics."
William Norton becomes leader, 1932
William 'Bill' Norton, youngest of the seven sitting Labour TDs, was chosen as party leader on 26 February 1932, succeeding Thomas J. O'Connell, who had lost his seat. In 1932 the Labour Party supported Éamon de Valera's first Fianna Fáil government, which had proposed a programme of social reform with which the party was in sympathy.
Assuming leadership of a party which had had its representation heavily reduced, Norton provided energetic leadership, defining a clearer party identity which placed greater emphasis on Catholicism, Irish republicanism, and, initially more socialistic. However, the party retreated from the latter not long later. Quoting economists such as John Maynard Keynes, the party lobbied for financial reform. It condemned debt-based credit, usury and private control of the money system. In an article on private banking in The Watchword, for example, it declared that "this fictitious gold basis; private-bank made money system, promotes a debt building process that robs the producer and wage-earner, and finally breaks down on its own weight."
In the 1930s, the Labour Party received adverse publicity and was accused of tacitly supporting Soviet Communism, and the Irish Trades Union Congress was accused of circulating an article which proclaimed the Roman Catholic Church as an enemy of the workers. These were extremely negative accusations in an Ireland that was ardently anti-communist. William Norton wrote a letter to Pope Pius XII (then known as Cardinal Pacelli, Secretary of State at the Vatican), stating that "as a Catholic and the accepted leader of the Irish Labour Party, I desire most empathetically to repudiate both statements". A pamphlet was produced, entitled Cemeteries of Liberty, which asserted that the Labour Party viewed both Communism and Fascism as "Cemeteries of Liberty". In an article, the Rev. Dr. George Clune, at the suggestion of the Rev. Fr. Edward Cahill, stated in support of the Labour Party that "the Irish Labour Party never at any time construed the term 'A Workers' Republic' as meaning a Republic of the Russian sort. This phrase was evolved by Connolly more than forty years ago, long before the establishment of Russian Bolshevism. This term was used by him, and subsequently accepted by the Irish Labour Party to denote a republic within which working men would have family security as contra-distinguished from the Republics of France and America, which suffered from the excesses of Capitalism... The Party does not stand for (nor did it ever stand) for the nationalisation of private property, but for the nationalisation of certain services such as transport and flour-milling. Hence, this comes within the pronouncements of Pope Pius XI".
At a mass meeting held in Limerick city in 1936, Michael J. Keyes, a Labour TD, president of the ITUC and Mayor of Limerick, hailed the work of the pro-Franco Irish Christian Front organisation in its efforts “to bring into existence in this country a social and economic system based on the Christian ideals of life as expressed in the papal encyclicals and thereby to overcome the evils of socialism which are altogether contrary to Christian principles.” Labour also promoted the creation of a 'Christian State.'
Ahead of the 1937 general election, Labour News, the party's main publication, ran a feature spread of its programme, featuring the slogan Put Real Human Interest Before the Exactions of Financiers! The party representatives also described themselves in this period as "Catholics first and politicians afterwards." In that same year, the party praised the Catholic Action movement. William Norton would attack what he called 'Godless Communism.'
In September 1938, Maud Gonne MacBride endorsed Labour's Social Outlook, a party policy platform written and presented by former Cork TD, Timothy Quill. It described Labour's financial policy, by which banking and credit would be made a State function, so that "the credit of the country would be used to benefit all the people."
At the 1936 party conference, Wexford Labour politician Richard Corish said of himself; "I am neither a socialist, syndicalist or communist. I am a Catholic, thank God, and am prepared to take my teaching from the Church". In August 1939, Cork politician Richard Anthony told the forty-fifth ITUC that he would prefer "fascism to a dictatorship of the proletariat". In February 1939, Cork TD, James Hickey, then serving as Lord Mayor of Cork, snubbed the crew of the Nazi warship, the Schleisen, (then docked at Cork Harbour) on the basis that Adolf Hitler had insulted the Pope. The incident grabbed international headlines. Relations between the Vatican and Nazi Germany were toxic at the time.
During the 1930s, the party's publications criticised the Irish Catholic newspaper for harbouring right-wing views, claiming that they had contradicted the teaching of the Catholic encyclicals. In one such article, Labour News accused the publication of spreading "anti-Labour falsehoods" and of "cashing in on Christianity."
Split with National Labour, establishment in Northern Ireland, and the first coalition governments
In the 1942 local elections, Co. Kildare (home of party leader, Bill Norton) became the first county in which the Labour party won an over all majority. Labour also won a then-record of five seats on Cork Corporation that year. Encouraged by a strong performance nationally in the August 1942 local elections, Labour campaigned in the June 1943 general election on the slogan ‘Labour to power.' It won seventeen seats on 16% of the vote, its best showing in sixteen years. The party elected its first TD in Co. Kerry, Dan Spring, for the Kerry North constituency. However, the re-emergence of James Larkin in the Labour Party would present Norton with his gravest crisis to date.
Despite efforts in the 1930s to sternly downplay the idea of Communist influence over the party, by the 1940s internal conflict and complementary allegations of communist infiltration caused a split in the Labour Party and the Irish Congress of Trade Unions. Tensions peaked in 1941 when party founder Jim Larkin and a number of his supporters were re-admitted to the party and subsequently accused of "taking over" Labour branches in Dublin. In response William X. O'Brien left with six TDs in 1944, founding the National Labour Party (NLP), whose leader was James Everett. O'Brien also withdrew the ITGWU from the Irish Trades Unions Congress and set up his own congress. The split damaged the Labour movement in the 1944 general election. The ITGWU attacked "Larkinite and Communist Party elements" which it claimed had taken over the Labour Party. The split and the anti-communist assault put Labour on the defensive. It launched its own inquiry into communist involvement, which resulted in the expulsion of six members (Spanish Civil War veteran, Michael O'Riordan, future chair of the Communist Party of Ireland, was notably expelled by Cork politicians Timothy Quill and T.J Murphy). Alfred O'Rahilly in The Communist Front and the Attack on Irish Labour widened the assault to include the influence of British-based unions and communists in the ITUC. The National Labour Party juxtaposed itself against this by emphasising its commitment to Catholic Social Teaching. However, Labour also continued to emphasise its anti-communist credentials. Speaking at a National Labour delegate conference in October 1944, Everett stated that the Labour Party's attitude "to the new organisation, 'The Vanguard,' showed how helplessly the party leaders were caught in the Communist web" and "the individuals running the Vanguard were the same people who crashed into the party in 1942, founded the notorious Dublin Central branch and caused the party constitution to be torn up." It was only after Larkin's death in 1947 that an attempt at unity could be made. Norton delivered a graveside oration at Larkin's funeral. However, National Labour criticised Labour's renewed calls for unity and that "failure to maintain unity within the Party occurred in 1943 when some members of the Administrative Council of the Party allowed themselves to be frightened or fooled into handing over control to a self-styled Dublin Executive, from whom they took their orders." They also stated that "those who wrecked the Labour Party four years ago, and had previously, by their policy of intrigue sought to make it their mouthpiece for Communist propaganda, cannot be permitted to continue their activities under cover of a democratic political organisation." National Labour also condemned the alleged influence of British trade unions in the Labour Party.
Before his death Larkin, having become disillusioned with both communism and revolutionary trade unionism, was attended by Archbishop John Charles McQuaid and reconciled with the Catholic Church.
During this period the party also occasionally stood for election in Northern Ireland, on occasion winning the odd seat at both the Westminster Parliament and Stormont Parliament in the Belfast area. However the party is not known to have contested an election in the region since Gerry Fitt, then the party's sole Stormont MP, left the party to form the Republican Labour Party in 1964.
From 1948 to 1951 and from 1954 to 1957 the Labour Party was the second-largest partner in the two inter-party governments. William Norton, the Labour leader, became Tánaiste and Minister for Social Welfare on both occasions.
In March 1949, Norton sued the Irish Press (against legal advice) when it accused him of "occupying most of his time with Party matters and (leaving) the Department to run itself." Norton won a pyrrhic victory, with the jury awarding him £1 in damages. This lead Fianna Fáil's Sean MacEntee to dub Norton as "Billy the Quid." This case simply lead credence to the notion that Norton had indeed been neglecting his ministerial duties.
History Ireland gives Norton a favourable assessment, writing that he "achieved much. The old age pension had stood at ten shillings a week for decades. There had been appeals for an extra shilling or two in the 1946 and 1947 budgets, but to no avail. Norton increased the rate by five shillings (50%) in his first year. The sums involved seem ridiculous today, but they represented real money 60 years ago. The tánaiste also proportionately increased pensions for widows, orphans and the blind. Furthermore, the means test (by which entitlements were assessed) was modified."
As minister for local government, West Cork based Labour politician T.J Murphy was preoccupied with a housing drive, transforming 'local government into a virtual department of housing'. He was largely responsible for the huge increase in government expenditure on housing under the first inter-party government, in spite of strong opposition from the Department of Finance. Dublin was the chief target of his housing plans, and he was instrumental in the appointment of the Dublin assistant city and county manager, T. C. O'Mahony as a full-time director of housing. The blueprint for his housing scheme, Ireland is building (1949), set a target of building 100,000 new houses in ten years. Murphy did not live to see the completion of his plans, dying suddenly in 1949.
Dr. David McCullagh has stated that the "Second Inter-Party Government has a reasonable claim to being the worst Government in the history of the State. Which, when you think about the competition, is quite a claim to make." Norton took over the Department of Industry and Commerce. McCullagh is critical of Norton's time in this portfolio, writing that "He claimed, apparently as a good thing, that they had 'given the country quiet'; but what the country needed was a kick up the… well, let’s just say, the country needed a more dynamic approach. Part of the problem was Norton, who had gone native in Industry and Commerce. In June 1954, shortly after returning to the Taoiseach’s office, Costello asked Industry and Commerce to examine changes to the Control of Manufactures Act. Norton replied in September that no changes were required, and warning that allowing uncontrolled access to foreign capital would be 'a grave threat to existing and future industrial development'.
A large amount of animosity and venom was voiced and written against Norton, particularly during the vicious splits in the trade union and labour movement in the 1940s, was regularly featured in the editorials of the Irish Press and among the break-away Congress of Irish Unions (CIU) leadership, who did not forgive him as a key figure in the formation of the first inter-party government. In 1959, Norton held a private audience with Pope John XXIII.
Ideological shift and coalition, 1960–1981
Leadership of Brendan Corish, 1960–1977
Brendan Corish became the new Labour leader in 1960. As leader, he advocated for more socialist policies to be adopted by the party; although initially tempering by this describing these policies as "a form of Christian socialism", he would later feel comfortable enough to drop the "Christian" prefix. In contrast to his predecessors, Corish adopted an anti-coalition stance. Labour promoted a Eurosceptic outlook in the 1961 general election, and in 1972, the party campaigned against membership of the European Economic Community (EEC).
A member of the Knights of St. Columbanus, in 1953 Corish had stated that "I am a Catholic first and an Irishman second." However, future leader Michael O'Leary held a strong personal influence over him on pushing for the separation of church and state (O'Leary himself engaged in catholic devotional practices; cynical observers assumed these were adopted for electoral reasons, but in later life, after leaving politics, he was a regular attender at papally-approved Tridentine masses in Dublin). He attempted to give his fractious, divided party a coherent national identity, lurched it to the left and insisted Labour was the natural party of social justice. In the late 1960s, Labour began to embrace the New Left, and Corish presented his A New Republic document at the 1967 Labour national conference, alongside a famous speech which declared that "The seventies will be socialist", which later became a Labour campaign slogan. Corish's new socialist direction for Labour was generally well-received internally; the membership's faith in Corish had already been bolstered by encouraging election results in 1965 and 1967. However, there were a number of notable and vocal dissidents: Patrick Norton, Labour politician and son of former leader William 'Bill' Norton, accused the party of embracing "Cuban socialism" and left Labour in 1967, insisting it had been captured by "a small but vocal group of fellow travellers". He joined Fianna Fáil. Following further accusations of being sympathetic to communism ahead of the 1969 general election, Labour politician Brendan Halligan cited papal encyclicals, such as St. John XXIII's Mater at Magistra, to support Labour's position. At the party conference in January 1969, Cork politician Eileen Desmond stated that “as a Catholic mother,” she found nothing objectionable to Labour's proposals for greater state involvement in the provision of education and healthcare. However, she partly attributed her defeat in the Mid-Cork constituency at the 1969 general election to the party having moved “too far to the left.”
Although Labour's share of the vote improved to 17% in the 1969 Irish general election, the best in 50 years, the party only won 17 seats – 5 fewer than in the 1965 general election. The result dented Corish's confidence and caused him to reconsider his anti-coalition stance.
Between 1973 and 1977, the Labour Party formed a coalition government with Fine Gael. With the change of government in March 1973, Corish became tánaiste and minister for health and social welfare. His conception of Labour in government can be summed up as the provision of decent social welfare provision. This led him to regard possession of the social welfare and health portfolios as the most important for Labour. While there was of course nothing aberrant in the view that social welfare and health were crucial areas of advance for ordinary people, it prevented larger policy prizes being won in the two-party government lottery of March 1973. It had the strange result that Corish turned down Cosgrave's offer of the Department of Finance, though his innate modesty also played a part in this decision. His greatest achievement within the 1973–7 government was to maintain its unity and in particular to maintain discipline among the ranks of the Labour ministers. It was a time of rising unemployment and inflation against the backdrop of a world oil crisis. The new government had to contend with IRA and Loyalist terrorism, facilitate negotiations leading to the Sunningdale Agreement, and manage Ireland's arrival on the European stage. As minister he introduced reforms in the social welfare system by reducing the qualifying age for old age pensions from 70 to 66 years, and modifying the means test for non-contributory pensions. He provided for a deserted wives benefit and unmarried mother's allowance, as well as new allowances for single women aged over 58 and made improvements under the adoption acts. More generally he supported legislation to amend the law against subversives and legislation which strengthened and extended certain provisions of the Offences Against the State Act.
The liberal activist politician, Dr Noël Browne, was admitted as a Labour Party member on 27 November 1963, and was to remain a member until 1977 – the longest period by far that he was to be a member of any political organisation. His entry into the party occurred following the resignation of his nemesis, William Norton, from the leadership role in 1960. He was regarded as a lodestone for the nascent left-wing enthusiasm in sections of the electorate, and among younger members of Labour in particular. When Labour went into the 1973 election on the basis of a pre-election pact with Fine Gael, Noel Browne refused to sign the party pledge and was accordingly deselected as a party candidate for Dublin South-East. Immediately afterwards, however, he stood as an independent in the Dublin University constituency in the Seanad election, and was successful. For the next four years he spoke, often eloquently, on a range of issues which principally included matters like the role of the Catholic church, contraception, divorce and – on one occasion – therapeutic abortion, none of which endeared him greatly to his fellow party members, with whom he was now in an increasingly distant relationship.
Cluskey succeeds as leader, 1977-1981
Following the defeat of the coalition in the 1977 general election, Corish resigned as leader and was succeeded in the role by Frank Cluskey. O'Leary and Cluskey both stood for the leadership. They had been rivals for some time and the contest mirrored divisions within the party going back to the 1940s. Cluskey was a member of the Workers' Union of Ireland, and was supported by the two other WUI dáil deputies. Six of the eight ITGWU deputies, strongly encouraged by their general secretary, Michael Mullen, supported O'Leary. Most traditionalist rural TDs favoured O'Leary despite disagreement with many of his views, while most Dublin TDs backed Cluskey. In October of the same year, Noel Browne and his allies formed a new party – the Socialist Labour Party.
A sharp and effective critic of Charles Haughey, on the latter's election as Taoiseach in 1979, Cluskey gave a blistering dáil speech, castigating Haughey's close relationship with wealthy and influential individuals who operated in "a grey area of Irish business and commercial life." However, in lacking natural charisma or a studied polish, Cluskey was less successful in dealings with the news media. His dour, 'shop steward's exterior' failed to appeal to television audiences or the broad electorate. Under Cluskey's leadership, Labour adopted a new policy programme in 1980, which re-affirmed the party's socialist aspirations. It advocated for major reforms in healthcare, education, and banking. However, the most radical proposals were diluted in the 1981 election manifesto, which mainly concentrated on proposals to address unemployment. Cluskey hesitated in forming clear positions on such social issues as contraception and divorce. He told lobbyists in favour of constitutional amendment banning abortion that Labour would consider the need for the amendment, but also suggested that a group purporting to be ‘pro-life,’ should in the same way also be advocating for improved facilities for poor and single-parent families.
In the 1981 general election, Labour dropped under 10% of the national vote for the first time in a quarter century. Cluskey lost his seat in this election. His distaste for constituency work, which he regarded as part of the patronage system, as well as the contesting of former Labour TD, John O'Connell, as an independent in the same constituency, were the main contributors to his defeat.
The 1981-1990: coalition, internal feuding, electoral decline and regrowth
O'Leary finally became party leader after Cluskey lost his seat in the 1981 general election. He agreed, reluctantly, to resign his European seat in favour of Cluskey. After achieving several concessions on economic policy in negotiating a programme for government with FitzGerald, he became tánaiste and minister for energy in the short-lived Fine Gael–Labour coalition of 1981–2. He had sought, but failed to obtain, a commitment that the government would hold a referendum on the existing constitutional ban on divorce. O'Leary also declared his personal opposition to the proposed eighth or 'pro-life' amendment to the constitution (about which Cluskey had been non-committal), claiming its wording was legally flawed and represented Catholic sectarianism. This represented the first breach in the apparent party consensus on the abortion issue and moved the Labour party towards opposing a constitutional referendum.
From 1982 to 1987, under the leadership of Dick Spring, Labour participated in coalition governments with Fine Gael. In the later part of the second of these coalition terms, the country's poor economic and fiscal situation required strict curtailing of government spending, and Labour bore much of the blame for unpopular cutbacks in health and other social services. In the 1987 general election it received only 6.4% of the vote, and its vote was increasingly threatened by the growth of the Workers' Party. Fianna Fáil formed a minority government from 1987 to 1989 and then a coalition with the Progressive Democrats.
The 1980s saw fierce disagreements between left and right wings of the party. The more radical elements, led by figures including Emmet Stagg, opposed the idea of going into coalition government with either of the major centre-right parties. At the 1989 Labour conference in Tralee a number of socialist and Marxist activists, organised around the Militant newspaper, were expelled. These expulsions continued during the early 1990s and those expelled, including Joe Higgins went on to found the Socialist Party.
These rows ended with the defeat of the anti-coalition left. In the period since, there have been further discussions about coalitions in the Party but these disagreements have primarily been over the merits of different coalition partners rather than over the principle of coalition. Related arguments have taken place from time to time over the wisdom of entering into pre-election voting pacts with other parties. Indeed, former radicals like Stagg himself and Michael D. Higgins now themselves support coalition.
1990-1999: Mary Robinson and coalitions of different hues
In 1990 Mary Robinson became the first President of Ireland to have been proposed by the Labour Party, although she contested the election as an independent candidate. Not only was it the first time a woman held the office but it was the first time, apart from Douglas Hyde, that a non-Fianna Fáil candidate was elected. Mary Robinson became one of the most outspoken and active presidents in the history of the state. In 1990 the Party merged with the Limerick East TD Jim Kemmy's Democratic Socialist Party and in 1992 it merged with Sligo–Leitrim TD Declan Bree's Independent Socialist Party.
At the 1992 general election on 25 November Labour won a record 19.3% of the first-preference votes, more than twice its share in the 1989 election. The party's representation in the Dáil doubled to 33 seats and, after a period of negotiations, Labour formed a coalition with Fianna Fáil, taking office in January 1993 as the 23rd Government of Ireland. Fianna Fáil leader Albert Reynolds remained as Taoiseach, and Labour leader Dick Spring became Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs.
After less than two years the government fell in a controversy over the appointment of Attorney General, Harry Whelehan, as president of the High Court. The parliamentary arithmetic had changed as a result of Fianna Fáil's loss of two seats in by-elections in June and Labour negotiated a new coalition, the first time in Irish political history that one coalition replaced another without a general election. Between 1994 and 1997 Fine Gael, the Labour Party, and Democratic Left governed in the so-called Rainbow Coalition. Dick Spring of Labour became Tánaiste and Minister for Foreign Affairs again.
Merger with Democratic Left
Labour presented the 1997 election, held just weeks after spectacular victories for the French Parti Socialiste and Tony Blair's New Labour, as the first-ever choice between a government of the left and one of the right, but the party, as had often been the case following its participation in coalitions, lost support and failed to retain half of its Dáil seats. A poor performance by Labour candidate Adi Roche in the subsequent election for President of Ireland led to Spring's resignation as party leader.
In 1997 Ruairi Quinn became the new Labour leader. Negotiations started almost immediately and in 1999 the Labour Party merged with Democratic Left, keeping the name of the larger partner.
21st century
Quinn resigned as leader in 2002 following the poor results for the Labour Party in the general election, when the Labour Party was returned with only 21 seats, the same number of seats as it had held before that general election. Former Democratic Left TD Pat Rabbitte became the new leader, the first to be elected directly by the members of the party.
In the 2004 European Parliament election, Proinsias De Rossa retained his seat for Labour in the Dublin constituency. This was Labour's only success in the election.
In 2004, Labour entered into an election pact in advance of the 2004 Local and European elections. Known as the "Mullingar Accord", and undertaken with Fine Gael, a number of mutually acceptable and compatible policy documents were published in the lead up to the elections.
At the 2005 Labour Party conference in Tralee, a pre-election voting transfer pact was also endorsed with the Fine Gael party. This saw increased co-operation between the party leaders, Pat Rabbitte and the Fine Gael leader, Enda Kenny, as well as the party's front benches. The two parties formed the "Alliance for Change" in the run-up to the election and pursued joint policies and economic costings in some policy areas. However, though Fine Gael gained 20 seats in the election in 2007, Labour's vote continued to stagnate at 10.13%, a marginal decline from 2002 and it returned with 20 seats, one less than before.
Rabbitte resigned as leader in August 2007, a year ahead of his six-year term came to an end. Éamon Gilmore, TD for Dún Laoghaire, replaced Rabbitte, and expressed a preference for an independent strategy, emphasising the need for Labour to concentrate on itself, rather than following media interest in its alliance with other parties.
In the 2011 Irish general election, the Labour Party had its "best ever showing", winning 37 Dáil seats. At the 2016 Irish general election, the party had the "worst election in its 104-year history", dropping from 37 seats to just 7.
In the February 2020 Irish general election, this number fell to just 6 seats (4.4% of the popular vote), with longstanding TDs Joan Burton and Jan O'Sullivan losing their seats, and Longford-Westmeath being lost to the retirement of Willie Penrose. However, Labour improved upon this in the subsequent Seanad elections, winning 5 seats. New senators Mark Wall, Annie Hoey, Rebecca Moynihan and Marie Sherlock, as well as the re-election of Ivana Bacik made Labour the third largest party in the Seanad.
On the same day as the final count of voting in the Seanad elections on 3 April, Alan Kelly edged out Dáil colleague Aodhán Ó Ríordáin to become Labour leader in the 2020 Labour Party leadership election
Historical archives
The Labour Party donated its archives to the National Library of Ireland in 2012, and is catalogued under call number: MS 49,494.
See also
Labour Party (Ireland)
:Category:Labour Party (Ireland) politicians
References
Citations
Sources
External links
Irish Trades Union Congress annual reports 1901–1925 (those from 1916 on include the Irish Labour Party)
Labour Party
Social democratic parties
Socialist International
Labour Party (Ireland)
Labour Party Irish
Political history of Ireland
Labour Party
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1999%20UEFA%20Champions%20League%20final
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1999 UEFA Champions League final
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The 1999 UEFA Champions League final was an association football match between Manchester United of England and Bayern Munich of Germany, played at Camp Nou in Barcelona, Spain, on 26 May 1999, to determine the winner of the 1998–99 UEFA Champions League. Injury time goals from Manchester United's Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær cancelled out Mario Basler's early goal for Bayern to give Manchester United a 2–1 win and their first European Cup title since 1968, their second overall. Referee Pierluigi Collina has cited this match as one of the most memorable of his career, and described the noise from the crowd at the end of the game as being like a "lion's roar".
The two sides had played each other earlier in the competition, having both been drawn in Group D in the group stage; Bayern won the group, while Manchester United qualified for the knockout phase as one of the two best runners-up across all six groups. After beating Inter Milan in the quarter-finals, Manchester United beat another Italian side, Juventus, in the semis to reach the final; meanwhile, Bayern beat fellow Germans Kaiserslautern in the quarter-finals, before overcoming Ukrainian side Dynamo Kyiv in the semis. The victory completed a treble-winning season for Manchester United, having already secured the Premier League and FA Cup titles in the preceding 10 days. Bayern were also playing for a treble, having won the Bundesliga and reached the DFB-Pokal final, although they went on to lose that match as well.
Background
Manchester United and Bayern Munich had only met twice in competitive matches before the final, both meetings coming earlier in the 1998–99 season and both finished as draws. Manchester United's only other German opponents in their history were Borussia Dortmund, against whom they had an overall winning record, with three wins, two defeats and a draw in their six matches, including a 10–1 aggregate win in the second round of the 1964–65 Inter-Cities Fairs Cup and a 2–0 aggregate defeat in the 1996–97 UEFA Champions League semi-finals. Bayern Munich had an equally narrow advantage in their 22 matches against English opposition, with seven wins, nine draws and six defeats, including a win over Leeds United in the 1975 European Cup final and a defeat to Aston Villa in the 1982 final.
Including the victory over Leeds in 1975, Bayern Munich had won the European Cup on three occasions going into the 1999 final. With three victories in a row from 1974 to 1976, they became only the third team to achieve such a feat after Real Madrid (1956 to 1960) and Ajax (1971 to 1973). They had also finished as runners-up twice: in 1982 against Aston Villa and 1987 against Porto. Although Bayern had been waiting 23 years for a European Cup title, Manchester United had had to wait even longer, as their only victory had come in 1968 against Benfica at Wembley in extra time. Their manager then was Matt Busby, who had been seriously injured 10 years earlier in the Munich air disaster, which killed eight of his players on the way back from a European Cup tie in Belgrade, before rebuilding the team to become European Cup winners. Busby died in 1994; the day of the 1999 Champions League final would have been his 90th birthday.
Although it was the second Champions League season to feature clubs that had not won their national leagues the year before, Manchester United and Bayern Munich were the first such clubs to reach the final of the competition. Nevertheless, both went into the match as champions, having won their domestic leagues in 1998–99; Bayern Munich claimed the Bundesliga title with a 1–1 draw against Hertha BSC on 9 May with three games to go, while Manchester United left it until the last day of the season (16 May), when they came back from 1–0 down against Tottenham Hotspur to win 2–1 and beat Arsenal to the title by a point. Both teams were also playing for the treble; in addition to their league win, Manchester United had beaten Newcastle United in the 1999 FA Cup Final on 22 May to claim the Double, while Bayern were due to play Werder Bremen in the 1999 DFB-Pokal Final on 12 June.
Route to the final
Qualifying round
Since neither Manchester United nor Bayern Munich had won their respective leagues in 1997–98, both sides faced a qualifier to enter the 1998–99 Champions League. Manchester United were drawn against Polish champions ŁKS Łódź and won 2–0 on aggregate, goals from Ryan Giggs and Andy Cole in the first leg at Old Trafford giving them the victory. Bayern Munich had an easier time against Yugoslavian champions Obilić, winning 4–0 in the first leg at the Olympiastadion with goals from Stefan Effenberg, Giovane Élber, Alexander Zickler and Thorsten Fink, all scored in the space of 17 second-half minutes. In the second leg, played at Partizan's ground in Belgrade, an 88th-minute goal from Lothar Matthäus rescued a 1–1 draw to give Bayern a 5–1 win on aggregate.
Group stage
In the draw for the group stage, Bayern Munich were placed in Pot 2 and Manchester United in Pot 3 as Germany was higher than England in the UEFA association club coefficient rankings. They were drawn together in Group D, along with Spanish champions Barcelona and Danish champions Brøndby, in what became known as the "group of death". United and Bayern found themselves bottom of the group after the first round of matches, in which Bayern lost 2–1 away to Brøndby after surrendering a 1–0 lead in the last three minutes; United, meanwhile, played out a 3–3 draw at home to Barcelona after twice giving up the lead. The first group stage meeting between United and Bayern took place at the Olympiastadion on matchday 2 and finished in a 2–2 draw; Élber opened the scoring for Bayern before goals from Dwight Yorke and Paul Scholes gave United the lead, only for a Teddy Sheringham own goal – brought about by an error by Peter Schmeichel – to level the scores in the 89th minute.
Matchdays 3 and 4 saw double-headers, with Manchester United taking on Brøndby and Bayern Munich playing Barcelona. Manchester United beat Brøndby 6–2 in their first match at Parken Stadium in Copenhagen, then 5–0 at Old Trafford two weeks later. Bayern also recorded a pair of victories over Barcelona, winning 1–0 at the Olympiastadion and 2–1 at the Camp Nou. On matchday 5, United played their second match against Barcelona – their first trip of the season to the Camp Nou – and again the two sides played out a 3–3 draw. With Bayern beating Brøndby 2–0 at home, the German side moved onto 10 points and took top spot in the group going into the final round of matches, one point ahead of United. Qualification for the quarter-finals was only guaranteed for the group winners, meaning that both United and Bayern had to play for victory in their final match against each other at Old Trafford. United took the lead just before half-time through a Roy Keane strike from just outside the penalty area; however, Hasan Salihamidžić equalised for Bayern in the 55th minute and the game finished as a 1–1 draw. The result meant that Bayern finished as group winners, but United's 10 points from their six matches was enough to see them go through as one of the two group runners-up with the best record.
Knockout stage
In the quarter-finals, Bayern Munich were drawn against Group F winners and fellow German side Kaiserslautern, while Manchester United were paired with Group C winners Inter Milan. Two Yorke goals gave United a 2–0 win in their first leg at Old Trafford, while Bayern beat Kaiserslautern by the same scoreline at the Olympiastadion through goals from Élber and Effenberg. In the second leg, Nicola Ventola pulled a goal back for Inter, but Paul Scholes secured United's passage to the semi-finals with a late away goal. Meanwhile, Bayern won convincingly at Kaiserslautern, as goals from Effenberg, Carsten Jancker, Mario Basler and an own goal from Uwe Rösler gave them a 4–0 win, 6–0 on aggregate.
United again came up against Italian opposition in the semi-finals, facing Juventus, who had beaten Greek side Olympiacos in the quarters, and Bayern were drawn against Ukrainian side Dynamo Kyiv, who beat reigning champions Real Madrid to reach the semis. Both first legs finished as draws; Giggs scored in injury time to secure a 1–1 home draw for Manchester United after Antonio Conte had put Juventus ahead midway through the first half, while Bayern also had to come from behind to draw 3–3 in Kyiv. A single goal from Basler proved the difference between Bayern and Dynamo in the second leg, giving the Germans a 4–3 aggregate win. Manchester United fell behind early in the second leg in Turin, as Filippo Inzaghi scored twice in the first 11 minutes. Goals from Keane and Yorke before half-time levelled the tie but gave United the advantage on away goals, before Cole secured victory with the winning goal seven minutes from the end of the match.
Pre-match
Venue and ticketing
The Camp Nou stadium in Barcelona, Spain, was selected as the venue for the final at a meeting of the UEFA Executive Committee in Lisbon, Portugal, on 6 October 1998. The selection process had begun more than four months earlier, in May 1998, when FC Barcelona submitted the Camp Nou as a contender to host the match in recognition of the club's centenary year. The other venues in contention to host the match were London's Wembley Stadium and Marseille's Stade Vélodrome, but the Camp Nou was considered by UEFA's Stadiums Commission to be the favourite for its superior security, comfort and capacity. The Camp Nou had hosted one previous European Cup final: Italian club Milan's 4–0 victory over Steaua București of Romania in 1989. It had also hosted two Cup Winners' Cup finals, in 1972 and 1982; the latter was won on home turf by Barcelona.
The Camp Nou was constructed over three years from 1954 to 1957 as a replacement for Barcelona's previous home, the nearby Camp de Les Corts. The original capacity of the Camp Nou was just over 93,000, but its first major European final, the 1972 Cup Winners' Cup Final, was attended by just 35,000 spectators. 1982 was the stadium's busiest year to date, hosting not only the 1982 Cup Winners' Cup Final, but also five matches at the FIFA World Cup, including the opening match, all three matches in Group A of the second group stage and the semi-final between Poland and Italy. Subsequent renovations meant that by 1999, the stadium's capacity had reached 115,000.
Due to UEFA regulations regarding standing at football matches, the Camp Nou's terraced sections were closed for the 1999 Champions League final, reducing the capacity to approximately 92,000. Of these, around two-thirds were reserved for the two finalist clubs (approximately 30,000 tickets each). The remaining third was divided between fans of FC Barcelona (around 7,500 tickets), UEFA, and competition sponsors. After an initial announcement that the clubs would only receive 25,000 tickets each, the Independent Manchester United Supporters Association (IMUSA) called that figure "ridiculous", claiming it would push black market prices to "astronomical levels"; the group's spokesman, Lee Hodgkiss, suggested a figure closer to 50,000 would be more appropriate, given the stadium's usual capacity of around 115,000. Despite the club receiving only 30,000 tickets, it was estimated that up to 100,000 Manchester United fans travelled to Barcelona for the final, paying around £300 for flights and around £1,000 for match tickets. Many were able to buy tickets from touts, who had paid up to £400 to buy from Barcelona fans who had bought through their club for the equivalent of £28.
As well as reducing the capacity of the stadium, UEFA also mandated that the Camp Nou pitch be narrowed by from to , to match UEFA's 'standard' pitch size.
Match officials
The match referee was Pierluigi Collina of the Italian Football Federation. Collina was promoted to the FIFA International Referees list in 1995, and took charge of his first UEFA Cup matches in the 1995–96 season. He had only refereed eight Champions League matches before the 1999 final, three of which came in the group stage earlier in the season, including the match between Barcelona and Bayern Munich at the Camp Nou on 4 November 1998; however, he had also taken charge of four matches at the 1996 Summer Olympics, including the final between Nigeria and Argentina, and two group stage matches at the 1998 FIFA World Cup. Collina was supported by fellow Italian officials Gennaro Mazzei and Claudio Puglisi as assistant referees, and fourth official Fiorenzo Treossi.
Match ball
The match ball for the final was the Nike NK 800 Geo, a white ball with a standard 32-panel design. It featured a large "swoosh" across two adjacent hexagonal panels with the Champions League logo on a pentagonal panel above, and a pattern of five-pointed stars similar to those used in the UEFA Champions League logo over the entire surface of the ball.
Kits
As both Manchester United and Bayern Munich's primary kits featured significant amounts of red, UEFA regulations about kit clashes would normally have required both teams to wear their change kits. However, the two clubs felt it would have been a shame for neither to wear their traditional colours, and they agreed to toss a coin to see who would have first choice. Manchester United won the toss and therefore wore their usual European colours of red shirts, white shorts and white socks, while Bayern wore silver shirts, shorts and socks, all with maroon trim.
Opening ceremony
Before kick-off, opera singer Montserrat Caballé – moving around the field on the back of a golf cart – performed a live version of "Barcelona", a song she recorded with the late Queen lead singer Freddie Mercury in 1987, accompanied by a recording of Mercury on the stadium's electronic screen. The opening ceremony featured inflatable versions of some of Barcelona's most recognisable landmarks, as well as flag-bearers waving flags of the crests of the participating teams. Bayern Munich's fans, meanwhile, created a tifo of the name of their team with thousands of coloured cards.
Match
Team selection
Manchester United left England two days before the final, first flying from Manchester Ringway Airport to Heathrow, where they boarded a Concorde aircraft for the flight to Barcelona. They stayed in the Meliá Gran hotel in the town of Sitges, about down the coast south-west of Barcelona. Captain Roy Keane and midfielder Paul Scholes both missed out on the final due to suspension; manager Alex Ferguson had originally considered selecting Giggs to join Nicky Butt in central midfield, but ultimately picked David Beckham as a player who could help the team control possession in the middle of the pitch, with Giggs on the right wing and Jesper Blomqvist starting on the left. Keane had suffered an ankle injury in the FA Cup final that would keep him out until the start of the following season, but his suspension rendered the injury irrelevant to his selection. Norwegian defender Henning Berg also missed out through injury, meaning that his compatriot Ronny Johnsen – who had been an early contender to play alongside Butt in midfield – played in central defence alongside Jaap Stam, who overcame an Achilles injury. With Keane out, goalkeeper Schmeichel – who in November 1998 had announced his intention to leave Manchester United at the end of the season – was named as captain for his final Manchester United appearance; this meant that both sides were captained by their goalkeepers, as Oliver Kahn wore the armband for Bayern. As Manchester United's top two goalscorers throughout the season, Cole and Yorke started up front, leaving Sheringham – who had played a part in both goals in the FA Cup Final a few days earlier – on the bench. Also on the bench were fellow striker Ole Gunnar Solskjær, back-up goalkeeper Raimond van der Gouw, defenders David May, Phil Neville and Wes Brown, and midfielder Jonathan Greening.
Bayern coach Ottmar Hitzfeld announced his team's line-up for the final two full days ahead of the match. Injuries also impacted on his selections, with French left-back Bixente Lizarazu and Brazilian forward Élber having suffered season-ending knee injuries. Élber's absence resulted in Bayern playing a three-man attack of Basler, Jancker and Zickler, while Lizarazu was replaced on the left flank by Michael Tarnat playing in a wing-back role opposite Markus Babbel on the right. Babbel was originally intended to play a man-marking role on Giggs, with his defensive abilities earning him selection ahead of the more attack-minded Thomas Strunz; however, this was nullified by Giggs' selection on the right wing, where he would play against Tarnat. The Bayern defence was anchored around sweeper Matthäus, who played behind Thomas Linke and Ghana international Samuel Kuffour – the only non-German in the Bayern side (by comparison, Manchester United had four Englishmen in their team); Linke and Kuffour's partnership at centre-back meant club captain Thomas Helmer had to settle for a place on the bench. Effenberg and Jens Jeremies played in central midfield for Bayern, with Jeremies man-marking Beckham.
Summary
First half
Six minutes into the match, Johnsen fouled Bayern striker Jancker just outside the area, and Basler placed a low free kick around the United wall to score the first goal, as Schmeichel was caught flat-footed. Although they were now a goal down, United began to dominate possession, but failed to create any clear-cut chances. The Bayern defence remained strong and well-organised, as Cole found out when his close-range effort was quickly closed down by three defenders. As Bayern began to look increasingly dangerous on the counter-attack than their opponents did in possession, Jancker repeatedly tested the United back four with a number of clever runs, some of which were flagged offside.
Cole once again found himself with a chance in the Bayern box, but goalkeeper Kahn hurried out of his goal to punch the ball to safety. At the other end, Basler came close with another free kick before Zickler sent a shot just wide from the edge of the box. As half-time approached, United winger Giggs, playing out of position on the right, sent a weak header towards Kahn from a Cole cross, but that was as close as they were to come to a goal in the first half.
Second half
The German team started the second half in a more positive mood, with Jancker forcing a save from Schmeichel within a minute after the restart. Basler was proving to be Bayern's most dangerous player, first firing a 30-yard shot towards goal and then setting up a header for Babbel, who missed the ball entirely. United put together an attack when, after a healthy period of possession, Giggs crossed towards Blomqvist, who could only knock the ball over the bar after a desperate stretch. Another chance for Basler prompted Ferguson to bring on Sheringham. Hitzfeld responded with a substitution of his own, bringing on Mehmet Scholl, who immediately set up Effenberg for a long-range shot that went narrowly wide. Schmeichel kept his side in the game when tipping another Effenberg shot over the bar after 75 minutes. Scholl then almost scored from a delicate 20-yard chip after a run from Basler, but the ball bounced back off the post and into Schmeichel's arms. With the game seemingly drifting away from the English side, Ferguson introduced Solskjær with 10 minutes remaining. The substitute immediately forced Kahn into a diving save with a header; it was the closest United had come to scoring all game. A minute later, Bayern missed a chance to secure the trophy, when an overhead kick from Jancker came off the crossbar. As the game crept into the last five minutes, United's two substitutes forced Kahn into more saves, firstly through a Sheringham volley and then from another Solskjær header.
Injury time
United won a corner just as the fourth official indicated three minutes of injury time, and with so little time left for an equaliser, Schmeichel ventured up to Bayern's penalty area. Beckham flighted the corner in just over Schmeichel's head, Yorke put the ball back towards the crowded area, and after Fink failed to clear sufficiently, the ball arrived at the feet of Giggs on the edge of the area. His right-footed snap-shot was weak and poorly struck, but it went straight to Sheringham, who swiped at the shot with his right foot, and nestled the ball in the bottom corner of the net. The goal was timed at 36 seconds into injury time. It looked as if, having been behind for most of the match, United had forced extra time.
Less than 30 seconds after the subsequent kick-off, United forced another corner, but Schmeichel stayed in his penalty area this time, under instruction from Ferguson. Beckham again swung the corner in, finding the head of Sheringham, who nodded the ball down across the face of goal. Solskjær reacted fastest, stuck out a foot and poked the ball into the roof of the Bayern goal for United to take the lead with just 43 seconds of the three minutes of injury time to play. Solskjær celebrated by sliding on his knees, mimicking Basler's earlier celebration, before quickly being mobbed by the United players, substitutes and coaching staff. Schmeichel, in his own penalty area, cartwheeled with glee.
The game restarted, but many Bayern players were overwhelmed with despair, virtually unable to continue and needed the assistance of referee Collina to drag themselves off the ground. They were stunned to have lost a game they had thought won just minutes before; several celebratory flares had already been ignited by the Bayern fans moments before United equalised, and ribbons in the club's colours had already been secured to the trophy itself in preparation for the presentation ceremony. United held onto their lead to record their second European Cup title, and at the final whistle, referee Collina described the cheers from the fans as being like a "lion's roar". Kuffour broke down in tears after the game, beating the floor in despair, and Jancker collapsed in anguish. Matthäus had captained Bayern in the 1987 European Cup final and lost in similar circumstances to two late Porto goals. He had been substituted with 10 minutes remaining, with victory seemingly assured.
Details
Statistics
Post-match
The game's ending was so unexpected that UEFA President Lennart Johansson had left his seat in the stands before Sheringham's equaliser to make his way down to the pitch to present the European Cup trophy, which was already decorated with Bayern ribbons. When emerging from the tunnel at the final whistle, he was stunned, and he later said: "I can't believe it. The winners are crying and the losers are dancing." When the two teams went to collect their medals, Matthäus received his runner-up medal but removed it from his neck almost immediately. He never won the competition as a player, having moved to play in the United States for the MetroStars in March 2000, the year before Bayern next won the European Cup in 2001. Matthäus later commented that "it was not the best team that won but the luckiest". As captain of Manchester United, Schmeichel should have received his medal last, but instead he went up first before having to return to the back of the queue with Ferguson; the pair then lifted the trophy together, surrounded by the rest of Manchester United's players, including May, who climbed the presentation podium to a position of prominence in the celebration photographs.
Staying true to his word from earlier in the season, the match was Schmeichel's last in a Manchester United shirt, and a month later he signed for Portuguese club Sporting CP. He spent two seasons in Portugal before returning to England for spells with Aston Villa and Manchester City. It was also Blomqvist's last competitive appearance for the club. After playing in all four matches of the club's pre-season tour of Australia and China in July 1999, he suffered a succession of knee injuries that ruled him out of competitive action for the next two seasons. He made two more appearances for the first team during the 2000–01 pre-season campaign, as well as three matches for the reserves in September and October 2001, before a free transfer to Everton in November that year. For Bayern Munich, substitutes Helmer and Ali Daei left the club in the summer of 1999; Helmer moved to England to play for Sunderland, while Daei remained in Germany with Hertha BSC.
Bayern president Franz Beckenbauer recognised that it was a loss of concentration in the last few minutes that led to his side's defeat: "That was the cruellest defeat possible because victory was so close. We already had victory in the bag and there were only a few seconds to go. But those few seconds were enough for Manchester [United] to get back into the game. We were playing well in the last 20 minutes and should have been able to hold on to victory. But in the end, Manchester deservedly won." Manager Hitzfeld seemed more stunned by the result in his reaction: "I feel so sorry for my team because they were so close to winning this match but they have lost. It's really difficult to digest and this is inconceivable for us but then this is what football is all about. Normally when the opposition equalise you are expecting extra-time and it was a shock to our team when they scored the winner two minutes later. It could take days or even weeks to recover from this but I must say that Manchester are great champions."
In winning the trophy, Manchester United became the first English team to be crowned European champions since the Heysel Stadium disaster ban in 1985, which had resulted in English clubs being excluded from UEFA competitions for five years, and also the first team to achieve the treble of the Premier League, FA Cup, and European Cup in the same season. It was the first time the treble had been won since PSV Eindhoven in 1988; it would not be won again until Barcelona beat Manchester United 10 years later in the 2009 UEFA Champions League final. After becoming the first manager of an English club to achieve this honour, Ferguson was made a Knight Bachelor on 12 June 1999 in recognition of his services to football, as well as a bonus from the club reported to be in the region of £350,000 (the players received bonuses of £150,000 each). In a post-match interview with ITV's Gary Newbon, Ferguson provided a succinct summary of the game: "Football, eh? Bloody hell". After the treble was secured, much debate arose among English football fans as to whether the 1999 Manchester United team was the greatest club side ever, alongside past European Cup-winning teams. It was such a significant achievement for an English football club that Prime Minister Tony Blair took the time to watch part of the match and congratulate Manchester United from the opening of the new National Assembly for Wales in Cardiff.
Manchester United became the first team to win the European Cup or Champions League without being the champions of Europe or champions of their country the preceding season. They had finished second behind Arsenal in the 1997–98 FA Premier League, but had qualified through UEFA's expanded 24-team format, which had been introduced a season earlier. Had Bayern won the cup, they would have become the first team to achieve this feat, having also finished second in the Bundesliga to Kaiserslautern the season before. While Manchester United finished the season as treble champions, Bayern ultimately lost the DFB-Pokal final to Werder Bremen, which meant they finished the season with the Bundesliga title as their only silverware.
Manchester United received £2 million in prize money from UEFA for winning the competition, on top of the £10 million they had already won just for reaching the final; by comparison, Bayern Munich received £1.6 million for finishing as runners-up. Manchester United also received another financial boost in the form of an increase in the share price of their parent company on the London Stock Exchange; following the match, the price rose from 187 pence per share to 190 pence; however, this was still around 50p less than the shares were trading for earlier in the season during the attempted buyout of the club by BSkyB.
Manchester United planned an open-top bus tour of the city of Manchester the day after the game, at which they would parade their three trophies for an expected 700,000 people lining the streets between Sale and the city centre. The parade culminated with a reception at the Manchester Arena, for which 17,500 tickets were made available at £3 each; proceeds went to Ferguson's testimonial fund. Greater Manchester Police later estimated that the actual number of people who attended the parade was around 500,000.
Broadcasting
In the United Kingdom, the final was broadcast by ITV Sport with commentary provided by Clive Tyldesley and Ron Atkinson. The broadcast attracted an average of 15.5 million viewers, with a peak audience of 18.8 million at 21:30, just as Manchester United scored their two goals. The climax of the game was voted as the fourth-greatest sporting moment ever by Channel 4 viewers in a 2002 poll. In Germany, the match was shown on RTL Television, and was seen by an average of 13.59 million people over the course of the broadcast. In Spain, the match was shown on TVE.
Treble Reunion match
On 26 May 2019, Manchester United hosted a reunion match at Old Trafford against a Bayern Munich Legends team to mark the 20th anniversary of winning the treble and to raise money for the Manchester United Foundation. Most of the Manchester United squad from the 1998–99 season returned for the match, with the exception of Giggs, who was on coaching duty with the Wales national team. Despite not having been with Manchester United during the 1998–99 season, Karel Poborský, Mikaël Silvestre and Louis Saha completed the squad as regular participants in Manchester United Legends matches. Ferguson returned to manage the side, six years after his retirement from full-time management, joined by his 1999 assistant Steve McClaren and former club captain Bryan Robson as head coach. The Bayern squad featured six players who appeared in the 1999 final – Babbel, Kuffour, Effenberg, Matthäus, Jancker and Fink – as well as striker Élber, who missed the original match through injury.
Manchester United won the match 5–0. Solskjær, who had been appointed as manager of Manchester United in December 2018, opened the scoring in the fifth minute, having come on for Cole in the first minute of the match due to Cole's continued struggle with kidney trouble. Yorke made it 2–0 on the half-hour mark, before second-half goals from Butt, Saha and Beckham completed the scoring. The match was played in front of 61,175 spectators and raised £1.5 million for the Manchester United Foundation.
See also
1998–99 UEFA Champions League
1998–99 Manchester United F.C. season
FC Bayern Munich in international football competitions
Manchester United F.C. in European football
References
Bibliography
External links
1998–99 season at UEFA.com
Final
1999 Champions League Final
Uefa Champions League Final 1999
European Cup Final 1999
European Cup Final 1999
1999
Champions League Final
Champions League Final
Champions League Final
1990s in Barcelona
May 1999 sports events in Europe
Sports competitions in Barcelona
1999 in Catalan sport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astro%20Boy%20%282003%20TV%20series%29
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Astro Boy (2003 TV series)
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is a remake from the 1963 anime series of the same name created by Osamu Tezuka. Produced by Tezuka Productions, Sony Pictures Entertainment Japan, Animax, Dentsu, and Fuji TV, it was directed by Kazuya Konaka, with Marc Handler as the story editor, Shinji Seya designing the characters, Shinji Aramaki and Takeshi Takakura designing the mechanical elements, Keiichirō Mochizuki serving as chief animation director, and Takashi Yoshimatsu composing the music. The anime was created to celebrate the birthdate of Atom/Astro Boy, as well as the 40th anniversary of the original TV series. It kept the same classic art style as the original manga and anime, but was renewed and modernized with more lush, high-quality, near-theatrical animation and visuals, combining the playfulness of the early anime with the darker, more serious and dramatic science fiction themes of the manga and the 1980 series. The anime was broadcast in Japan on Fuji TV from April 6, 2003, to March 28, 2004, every Sunday from 9:30 to 10:00 JST, for a total of 50 episodes, and it was also aired outside of Japan on Kids' WB in the United States and other local broadcasters overseas.
Synopsis
The show is set in 2003, where a variety of robots have been developed around the world and have begun working at the humans' beck and call, but are nothing more than machines that move on command. In the midst of this, in Metro City, the renowned Dr. Tenma disappears after trying to construct an AI robot with a "heart." Professor Ochanomizu replaces Tenma as head of the Ministry of Science and discovers a boy-like robot and brings it to life and names him Atom (Astro). He soon discovers he can fly via rocket boosters in his hands and feet, and has superhuman strength and other such abilities, and must deal with robots and villainous robot-hating humans who threaten his friends, fellow robots and Metro City, becoming a hero in the process. Atom quickly learns he is a robotic duplicate of Dr. Tenma's dead son Tobio Tenma, and was shut down after seeing how discarded robots were dealt with by his father, an incident similar to what Tobio experienced before dying.
A new arc occurs with the introduction of the Blue Knight, a gallant robot who starts a campaign to free all robots from mankind. Another recurring character, Acetylene Lamp, goes slowly paranoid about the destruction of all robots and becomes a major antagonist of the series. In the final episodes, the Blue Knight declares a new nation for robots, Robotania, located on Antarctica. Lamp deceives the public into believing a house robot pushed a young girl down a flight of stairs (when he did not), and the girl's father, Duke Red, declares war on Robotania. Most of the core cast becomes involved in the goal to stop the war between man and machine, until Atom convinces the Blue Knight that humans and robots can be friends. The Blue Knight departs Earth on Robotania, which is revealed to be a spacecraft. However, Lamp, who is still paranoid (despite the fact the robots have stopped their crusade against humanity), tries to destroy the spacecraft with a missile, but Atom blocks the attack and is seemingly taken offline.
Dr. Tenma manages to restore Atom, but erases his memories as Atom so that he can remain "Tobio" forever. Eventually, his memories are restored by his friends from school and his sister, Uran. In one final attempt to reclaim his lost son, Dr. Tenma goes to a laboratory in the Ministry of Science and tries to convince Atom to join him in ruling the world but the latter refuses. Dr. Tenma tries to kill himself to end his suffering, but Atom embraces and forgives him, causing Dr. Tenma to break down and embrace his son. Dr. Ochanomizu and the robotic police come to the rescue, and Dr. Tenma is willingly arrested and sent to prison. In the end, humans and robots start happily fresh and come closer together, and Atom appears to shed tears at the conclusion of the series.
Characters
Atom's Family
A robot with the world's best artificial brain and human-like mind. He was developed by the combined efforts of the Ministry of Science, with a huge budget and all the latest technology, and is modeled after Tobio Tenma, the deceased son of Dr. Tenma, his birth father. He lives with Dr. Ochanomizu in his house. Pure, kind-hearted, and with a great sense of justice, he aims to create a world where robots and humans can be friends. In this series, he makes use of a lot of nimble actions such as flight and speed rather than his 100K horsepower strength, and often gets into predicaments due to being outmatched.
A robot scientist and director of the Ministry of Science. He is the first to sense the "budding of the mind" in the evolving robots, and begins to think that robots need human rights and be friends with humans. He is portrayed as being a bit clumsy and quick to anger, but he is very intelligent and compassionate.
Atom's younger sister robot created by Dr. Ochanomizu. She has 50K horsepower strength, but does not have the ability to fly or use weapons like Atom. She is spoiled and selfish, which sometimes annoys Atom, but she also has a kind heart. She loves Atom as her older brother and is proud of him, but she hates being compared to him. In this series, she has the ability to communicate with animals.
Original character from the anime. As secretary of the Ministry of Science, she manages Dr. Ochanomizu's schedule, from work to rest. With Momo by her side, she gallantly rides around in a hovercar (modeled after the Mitsubishi Grandis, which was also used in the Atom Charity tie-in project with the real car) and does her job well. She is easily moved to tears.
A state-of-the-art ostrich-shaped mobile robot, Momo is Yūko's assistant and pet. All of Yūko's work documents are stored in Momo's computer, and when she opens the monitor screen, she can see Dr. Ochanomizu's schedule, health care materials, etc., all at a glance. Momo is often Uran's playmate.
A housekeeping robot that takes care of all the household chores at the Ochanomizu residence. He also serves as a childcare and education robot for Atom and Uran. In addition to taking care of Dr. Ochanomizu, he is extremely hectic.
Allies
Atom's classmate at elementary school who first appears in episode 4. He is a mechanical enthusiast who has converted his air pedalo into a sailing ship. He also loves robots, and is proud to have a friend like Atom. He is a hasty and good-natured person. In this series, he wears modern fashion, but keeps his trademark round glasses.
Atom's classmate at elementary school who first appears in episode 4. He is small in stature, but is very clever and is often the leader of the group. He is not prejudiced against Atom as a robot, and treats him like a human being. He is considerate of Atom's loneliness due to his being a robot, and tries to let him participate in competitions such as sports day, which Atom is not allowed to take part in. His dream is to become a soccer player. In this series, his skin has been updated to be darker, reminiscent of Latin or African descent.
Atom's classmate at elementary school who first appears in episode 4. Because of his father's influence, he thinks of robots as machines that work for humans, and is harsh towards Atom at first, but when Atom tries to help him, he changes his mind and they become close. He is a large man, but surprisingly timid, straightforward and likable. In this series, his face has been drastically redesigned to look white, with blond hair, blue eyes, freckles, and buck teeth. Except for the first time, he doesn't treat Atom badly like in the original work.
Abandoned by his parents, he was raised by members of a robot circus for 11 years, and he considers robots to be like family. After meeting Atom and his friends in an incident, Dr. Ochanomizu approves of his skills in robotics, and he begins studying robotics in Metro City. During the Robotania riots, in order to stop Duke Red from waging an all-out war against the robots, he takes his daughter, Ena, with him to the Antarctic where the battle is fought.
The daughter of Red (voiced by Tarō Ishida), a general in the Earth Federation Forces. In contrast to her father, who is extremely prejudiced against robots, she is a kind-hearted girl who treats robots without discrimination. She loves Kipp, an AI robot who works as her butler, but when she tries to protest against her father's attempt to forcibly remove him, she causes an unexpected accident that puts her in a coma and forces Duke Red to eliminate AI robots and Robotania. After waking up from the coma, she learns about the situation from Reno and heads to Robotania in Antarctica with him to stop Duke Red from running amok.
A teacher at the elementary school that Atom and his friends attend. She first appears in episode 4. She sings to a robot at the robot expo, and is Atom's homeroom teacher, so she has a close relationship with robots.
The uncle of Yūko Kisaragi, an overly old-fashioned private detective who has an office in downtown Metro City. His real name is . He dislikes all things new and modern, and professes to dislike robots as well, but he can get along with both robots and animals if he is comfortable with them, and he has solved cases together with Atom and Uran (he calls Atom in particular an excellent assistant). He is a man of extraordinary insight, and his powers of deduction are quite impressive. He pretends to be a hard-boiled detective, but he is a bit of a screw-up.
Captain of the Metro City Police Department. He sometimes asks for Atom's cooperation in solving crimes, but he has a hard time trusting him because Atom's creator is Dr. Tenma. He is troubled by the increasing number of robot crimes and is concerned about the existence of robots. In order to protect the peace of the city, he fights day and night with a hardened heart, but sometimes he shows a humanistic side.
The captain of the ARRS (Anti-Robot Robot Squad), which is assigned by the Metro City Police Department. He uses the best survival tactics on Earth, can eliminate signs of life depending on the location, and uses a gun specially designed for the ARRS. He is proud to be the captain of his squad, and is not happy about Atom joining their investigation. He is a bit stubborn, but has a straightforward personality.
A robotic environmental observer. She can analyze the behavioral patterns of her opponents to determine their hiding places, and she can also analyze natural conditions with her weather sensors to use her "geographical advantage" in battle. She is a female-type, non-combat robot who does not like to fight, but she has a lot of power and can attack with a photon cannon. In the original work, she is a male robot working at an orphanage in Australia.
A Robot Ball player who represents the Omega Knights. He is the most athletic robot in the world, and his brilliant play is very attractive. He respects the rules and does not like to play rough. He is the team's commander who scans throughout the game, predicting the enemy's actions and looking for passing and riding courses to score points.
Rivals
A combat robot that Tokugawa, a wealthy man, commissioned Dr. Tenma to build in order to revive his son, Daichi, who died in an accident. Controlled by Daichi's lonely memories and hatred of humans, including his father, he begins to repeatedly destroy things behind his parents' back. He is later resurrected as a collaborator of Robotania.
A robot created by Shadow, with a mission to become the strongest in the world. As he interacts with Atom and the others, he begins to develop a sense of "friendship" and "companionship" in his growing electronic brain, and begins to question the idea of "fighting." In addition, the powerful and emotionless Dark Pluto (originally named Borr in the original work) appears. He is later resurrected as a collaborator of Robotania. His design has been drastically changed in this series, with a brown coloring reminiscent of a bison.
World Robotting champion who was born in Athenia. A proud, knightly robotics warrior, he attacks with the Lightning Spear and a gust of wind called the Spark Shower that comes out of his shield. His relationship with the Blue Knight makes him question his own way of life, and he follows his ideals and decides to break away from humanity as a warrior in the Robotanian army.
A character who has a major role in the second half of the series. He is a robot in the form of a mysterious blue knight who appears where robots are being abused by humans and saves them. He rides the robot horse Ao, uses a saber as a weapon, and can fire a beam by collecting electric shocks. He used to be a robot called "Blue Bon" that repaired the robots of the players in the underworld Robot Crush organized by Hamegg, but he couldn't stand the fact that robots were getting hurt for Hamegg's sake, and as a result of his rebellion, he was thrown out into space, where he was modified by Shadow and given the power of a Blue Knight. Because of his history, he has doubts about robots obeying humans, and he gathers robots that are in sync with his will as his friends. Initially, he fights alongside Atom, but they gradually come into conflict due to their differing opinions. Finally, he reaches the end of his patience with the AI robot Kipp, who was working for Duke Red, and rescues Kipp and other robots of the same type that were about to be dismantled and disposed of by human ego. In Antarctica, he and the robots he had collected declared the founding of the independent nation of Robotania, an ideal world for robots alone. However, after Atom's desperate persuasion and the willingness of some of the robots in Robotania, including Kipp, to coexist with humans, he makes peace with Atom. He agrees to Shadow's departure for the outer solar system, and leaves with the remaining robots of Robotania.
Antagonists
A genius robot scientist and former director of the Ministry of Science. He is also the creator of Atom and the main antagonist of this series. He is arrogant, self-centered, and extremely misanthropic, and is described as "loving no one" not only by Atom but also by his late son, Tobio. When he was the Director General of the Ministry of Science, he started to develop an intelligent robot to replace Tobio, who died in an accident, and created Atom, but as Atom's mind gradually grew, he began to rebel against him. As a result, he dares to take Atom to the Plant 7, which processes discarded robots, in order to test him. As a result, Atom gets angry at the sight of discarded robots, and destroys the plant. Fearful of the growth of robots with minds, Dr. Tenma uses the "Kill Ring" to force Atom to shut down his system, and then goes on a rampage to destroy all the robots with minds that were under development. This eventually brought him into conflict with Dr. Ochanomizu, and he was expelled from the Ministry of Science. Later, after seeing Atom being rebooted by Dr. Ochanomizu and evolving through the growth of his mind, he came to the conclusion that evolved robots have the potential to surpass humans as a species, and became obsessed with the crazy dream that his robots, including Atom, would rule the world, and turns into a mad scientist. In order to develop Atom into the most powerful robot, he creates his own alter ego, the robot Shadow, and through him causes various incidents in an attempt to make Atom the king of robots and himself the god of robots.
The creator of Pluto and Dark Pluto. He is a robot scientist who was created by Dr. Tenma, who needed someone who could make a stronger robot to evolve Atom, as a robot that would evolve like Atom. At first, he follows Dr. Tenma's instructions and causes a lot of chaos, but as he watches Atom's battles, he begins to change his mind. He was the one who converted Blue Bon, who had been working as a repair robot for Hamegg, into the Blue Knight, and was also his shadow collaborator. However, Shadow understood that conflict would cause unnecessary sacrifices, and in contrast to the Blue Knight, he was thinking of creating an ideal world for robots through a method other than war. During the Robotania riots, his true face under the mask, which was initially entirely mechanical, became the same face as Dr. Tenma's, and he began to rebel against Dr. Tenma. After the reconciliation between Atom and the Blue Knight, he activated the giant spaceship function of Robotania and traveled to the outer solar system with the Blue Knight and the people of Robotania.
The boss of the underworld. He is not interested in world domination and is a thoroughgoing mammonist scoundrel with a cruel and twisted personality. He often uses robots to make money, but is always thwarted by Atom, and he gradually comes to hate him. However, he only hates Atom "personally" and is not an anti-robotist. He also professes to love robots because they are useful and loyal, but has no qualms about discarding robots that have outlived their usefulness.
An insane bomber who believes that destruction is the highest art form, and a former researcher at the Ministry of Science. He works with Lamp, but is not interested in anti-robotism, only in explosions. He is usually uncommunicative, but when he is dressed as a clown in holographic recordings, he becomes frenziedly cheerful. In the end, he uses aerial mines to give Lamp time to get to Antarctica, but the mines are shut down when Inspector Tawashi destroys the control switch. He himself was seized by police robots and arrested. At this time, his trademark sunglasses were removed, revealing for a brief moment his full face with its delicate features.
An extremist member of an anti-robotist group. He and Lamp want to drive the AI robots out of the city. He pretends to be various people to drive the AI robots crazy, and shows them to the people to appeal the dangers of robots. He is a selfish and outrageous terrorist who is willing to sacrifice unrelated people and even Mimi (voiced by Yūko Miyamura), a girl who adores him, in order to ruin the reputation of AI robots.
In the manga adaptation by Akira Himekawa, he is a former chef who lost his job because of the robots, so he resents them and causes a flood, just like in the anime, but he himself gets caught in the flood and is saved by Atom. After that, he conspires with Lamp and Katō to blow up the Tokugawa conglomerate's lunar plant, but Atom and Atlas intervene, putting them at a disadvantage. At this point, Lamp gives up on him because "his face is too well known," and he tells Atom and Atlas how to deactivate the detonator while self-deprecating that he is "just a tool."
A psychic and criminal genius. He can manipulate any living thing at will, and is also a master of disguise, changing his appearance many times. With the power of the Firebird (see below), he evolves into a superhuman, and makes a dark move to become the king of the world. He deceives and uses Atom many times and breaks his heart. He is vile and self-centered, but because he is lonely and has no family, he puts a picture of a woman cut out from a magazine on the side of the road on his pendant and thinks it is his mother. In the past, he was subjected to special training, similar to human experimentation, at the ability development laboratory of a rebel organization that was trying to overthrow the government, and escaped at the age of 12. At that time, he was given a false memory that he was abandoned by his parents, which is the reason why Rock hates humans. Using Atom's energy, he summons the Moon Tower to Phoenix Island and tries to gain the power of the Firebird, which brings about evolution, but his evil heart causes it to run amok. He was saved by Atom, and at that time, Rock and Atom learned, through the power of the Firebird, the fact that his mother was too sick to live for long and that he would have been loved if he had not been abandoned, and was eventually arrested by the police.
An entertainer who runs the underworld Robot Crush. He thinks of robots only as tools for making money. He will take his robots anywhere in the universe to make money, and has a close relationship with the Blue Knight.
A critic, company president, politician, and anti-AI roboticist. He is a human supremacist who does not accept any intelligence other than human. He has entered the world of politics and become the spearhead of the anti-AI robot movement. Inwardly, however, he is tormented by PTSD (or rather, pangs of conscience) over having abandoned his robot named Friend who once saved him. He barely keeps his sanity by telling himself and spreading the word that "robots are tools, they don't need a heart." There was an instance that foreshadowed his reunion with Friend, but his attitude remained unchanged after that. Although he created the start of the Robotania riot and planned to eliminate robots completely, his plan failed due to Atom's persuasion of Robotania. However, not wanting to give up, Lamp tries to shoot down the Robotania spaceship boarded by the Blue Knight and Shadow with a large missile from his personal battleship, but this also ends in failure due to Atom's success. Although he is elated when he succeeds in destroying Atom with a missile explosion, he is finally abandoned by the corporate bigwigs who had been cooperating with him and loses all of his honor and position because the Robotania riot has resulted in the robots' status being raised and he himself is wanted as one of the main culprits. Having resented Atom and Dr. Tenma for this, Lamp boards the manned mobile weapon "Mount Armor" and sets out to eliminate them himself, but is defeated by Atom, who has regained his memory thanks to the efforts of his friends and Uran. In the end, he is seized by the police and arrested, and though Lamp still maintained that he had fought for the honor of humanity, Inspector Tawashi told him that he had no right to talk about human honor.
A dark robot disposal contractor group consisting of three women, Sarah, Chris, and Carla. They receive large sums of money from corporations and illegally dispose of large amounts of waste robots and other toxic materials. They have a giant snake robot named Naga as a pet. They are a sensational group of criminals who are not supposed to be seen by the public because of what they do, but they cause mysterious phenomena with their costumes, speeches, and trademark poses.
A villainous scientist and expert in ultraminiature robots. In order to make money by developing weapons that exploit Atom's Astro System, he uses "little tricks" to target Atom. The character was originally designed as Dr. Fooler.
Production
The anime was created to commemorate Atom's birthday, April 7, 2003, as established in the original story. Therefore, the broadcast start date was also set to April 2003. The base of the series is different from the original Astro Boy, as it is more of an epic drama with various episodes depicting the coexistence, confrontation, all-out conflict, and reconciliation between robots and humans in a grounded and serious way. The series has a strong retro-futuristic style that is closer to American cartoons than Japanese animation, and some episodes were written by American scriptwriters. Kazuya Konaka, the director of the anime, testified that the American side had a different perception of Astro Boy as a bright and cheerful action-adventure in black-and-white animation, and had doubts about a story with a serious theme like the original.
The series is also a parent-child drama between Dr. Tenma and Atom, and there are several episodes related to other parent-child and pseudo-parent-child relationships. In terms of the setting, many aspects were drastically changed for the family audience. Shinya Owada, who plays Dr. Tenma, was a fan of Astro Boy. Although the series was produced in a 16:9 aspect ratio, it was broadcast in 13:9 at the request of the TV station.
The director, Kazuya Konaka, was a live-action director with no experience in animation, but he was hired because he had directed the 1996 live-action direct-to-video Black Jack film. Although Konaka was unsure about participating in an animated series, he decided to take part in the project because it was a chance to visualize Tezuka's representative work, and he said that he was able to produce the anime with the support of the excellent staff, including animation director Keiichirō Mochizuki. Many of the scriptwriters on the Japanese side worked on the Heisei Ultra series, in which Konaka also participated, but Konaka said that the scriptwriters were a natural group of people from the generation who had a strong attachment to Tezuka's works, and that Hirotoshi Kobayashi and Sadayuki Murai had known each other from outside the Ultra Series. Tezuka Productions wanted to keep the series on 35mm film, while Konaka wanted to use 3DCG, so they stuck to the already dwindling cel production method with a mix of 70% traditional and 30% digital animation.
Mari Shimizu, who had been the voice of Atom since the first anime, gave up the role on April 6, 2003, the day the first episode aired, so Makoto Tsumura took over the voice for this series. Each episode cost more than $250,000.
Home media
In North America, Astro Boy was released on DVD in one single box set by Sony Pictures Home Entertainment in its United States edited form. On May 5, 2015, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the United States edited complete series on DVD in Region 1. On May 2, 2019, Mill Creek Entertainment re-released the series yet again with different cover art and a slipcover.
Other media
Manga
The anime was adapted into a manga illustrated by Akira Himekawa that ran in the March–July 2003 issues of Shogakukan's Shōgaku Gonensei, the April–May 2003 issues of Shōgaku Rokunensei, and the April–August 2003 issues of Bessatsu CoroCoro Comic. Shogakukan later compiled the series into three tankōbon volumes.
It was also released in English in Singapore by Chuang Yi.
Video games
Two video games based on the 2003 TV series were released by Sega. Astro Boy: Omega Factor is a beat 'em up video game developed by Treasure Co. Ltd for the Game Boy Advance receiving release worldwide between 2003 and 2005. An action video game, simply titled Astro Boy, was developed by Sonic Team and released for the PlayStation 2 in 2004 in Japan and North America and in 2005 in Europe.
Theatrical works
Osamu Tezuka Animation Theater special episodes
Three original theatrical movies were shown exclusively at the 300-inch theater in the Kyōto Station building's "Kyoto Osamu Tezuka World" until its closure on January 16, 2011. All three films lasted 20 minutes and 30 seconds and were directed by Osamu Dezaki, with Mayumi Morita writing the scripts, Masayoshi Nishida serving as animation director, and Masami Saitō serving as art director.
Released on April 6, 2003. A story about Dr. Tenma creating Atom as a replacement for Tobio.
Released on September 13, 2003. A story about an abandoned guardsman-type robot named Ivan.
Released on February 7, 2004. Two hundred years later, on an Earth ruled by robots, a young boy meets Atom, who is no longer in service and is on display.
Science Museum screenings
A clip that was produced under the planning and supervision of the National Museum of Emerging Science and Innovation (Miraikan) as video content for its spherical theater, Dome Theater Gaia. It was shown at the Fukuoka Science Museum and other science museums from April 15, 2004, and introduces actual robot technology with the digital animation of Atom.
Planetarium screenings
Screened in planetariums between May 29 and August 31, 2004. Strange incidents occur at the Moon base, and a rocket is launched to the space station. Atom must save the space station.
IMAX screenings
Japan's first full-length animated film in large-scale IMAX format, released on September 1, 2005 and directed by Yoshio Takeuchi. The interplanetary spacecraft Galileo II is carrying Atom and his friends to Titan, a satellite of Saturn. However, a mechanical life form named Igza appears on Titan and tries to destroy the humans.
Reception
The 2003 version of Astro Boy was extremely well reviewed by Zac Bertschy of Anime News Network, receiving a grade of A+ in every category and comments of, "It's perfect." Anthony Brzenican of USA Today criticized the series for not having the same optimistic tone of the color 1980s version of the series and eliminating several or changing the personalities of several major characters.
The series won the award for best work in the Television Category at the 2004 Tokyo International Anime Fair.
References
External links
Animax official website
BBC official website
Marc Handler – Astro Boy (2003) Interview
2003 anime television series debuts
2005 anime films
2005 films
Adventure anime and manga
Androids in television
Animated television series about children
Animated television series about robots
Animax original programming
Astro Boy
Fuji TV original programming
Japanese children's animated action television series
Japanese children's animated adventure television series
Japanese children's animated superhero television series
Osamu Tezuka anime
Superheroes in anime and manga
Television series by Adelaide Productions
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Tezuka Productions
Toonami
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vera%20C.%20Rubin%20Observatory
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Vera C. Rubin Observatory
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The Vera C. Rubin Observatory, previously referred to as the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST), is an astronomical observatory currently under construction in Chile. Its main task will be carrying out a synoptic astronomical survey, the Legacy Survey of Space and Time. The word synoptic is derived from the Greek words σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), and describes observations that give a broad view of a subject at a particular time. The observatory is located on the El Peñón peak of Cerro Pachón, a 2,682-meter-high mountain in Coquimbo Region, in northern Chile, alongside the existing Gemini South and Southern Astrophysical Research Telescopes. The LSST Base Facility is located about away by road, in the town of La Serena. The observatory is named for Vera Rubin, an American astronomer who pioneered discoveries about galaxy rotation rates.
The Rubin Observatory will house the Simonyi Survey Telescope, a wide-field reflecting telescope with an 8.4-meter primary mirror that will photograph the entire available sky every few nights. The telescope uses a novel three-mirror design, a variant of three-mirror anastigmat, which allows a compact telescope to deliver sharp images over a very wide 3.5-degree diameter field of view. Images will be recorded by a 3.2-gigapixel CCD imaging camera, the largest digital camera ever constructed.
The LSST was proposed in 2001, and construction of the mirror began (with private funds) in 2007. LSST then became the top-ranked large ground-based project in the 2010 Astrophysics Decadal Survey, and
the project officially began construction 1 August 2014 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) authorized the FY2014 portion ($27.5 million) of its construction budget. Funding comes from the NSF, the United States Department of Energy, and private funding raised by the dedicated international non-profit organization, the LSST Corporation. Operations are under the management of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA).
Total construction cost is expected to be about $680 million.
Site construction began on 14 April 2015 with the ceremonial laying of the first stone. First light for the engineering camera is expected in August 2024, while system first light is expected in January 2025 and full survey operations are aimed to begin in August 2025, due to COVID-related schedule delays. LSST data is scheduled to become fully public after two years.
Name
In June 2019, the renaming of the Large Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) to the Vera C. Rubin Observatory was initiated by Rep. Eddie Bernice Johnson and Jenniffer González-Colón. The renaming was enacted into law on December 20, 2019. The official renaming was announced at the 2020 American Astronomical Society winter meeting. The observatory is named after Vera C. Rubin. The name honors Rubin and her colleagues' legacy to probe the nature of dark matter by mapping and cataloging billions of galaxies through space and time.
The telescope will be named the Simonyi Survey Telescope, to acknowledge the private donors Charles and Lisa Simonyi.
History
The LSST is the successor to a long tradition of sky surveys. These started as visually compiled catalogs in the 18th century, such as the Messier catalog. This was replaced by photographic surveys, starting with the 1885 Harvard Plate Collection, the National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey, and others. By about 2000, the first digital surveys, such as the Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS), began to replace the photographic plates of the earlier surveys.
LSST evolved from the earlier concept of the Dark Matter Telescope, mentioned as early as 1996. The fifth decadal report, Astronomy and Astrophysics in the New Millennium, was released in 2001, and recommended the "Large-Aperture Synoptic Survey Telescope" as a major initiative. Even at this early stage the basic design and objectives were set:
The Large-aperture Synoptic Survey Telescope (LSST) is a 6.5-m-class optical telescope designed to survey the visible sky every week down to a much fainter level than that reached by existing surveys. It will catalog 90 percent of the near-Earth objects larger than 300 m and assess the threat they pose to life on Earth. It will find some 10,000 primitive objects in the Kuiper Belt, which contains a fossil record of the formation of the solar system. It will also contribute to the study of the structure of the universe by observing thousands of supernovae, both nearby and at large redshift, and by measuring the distribution of dark matter through gravitational lensing. All the data will be available through the National Virtual Observatory... providing access for astronomers and the public to very deep images of the changing night sky.
Early development was funded by a number of small grants, with major contributions in January 2008 by software billionaires Charles and Lisa Simonyi and Bill Gates of $20- and $10 million respectively. $7.5 million was included in the U.S. President's FY2013 NSF budget request. The Department of Energy is funding construction of the digital camera component by the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, as part of its mission to understand dark energy.
In the 2010 decadal survey, LSST was ranked as the highest-priority ground-based instrument.
NSF funding for the rest of construction was authorized as of 1 August 2014. The lead organizations are:
The SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory to design and construct the LSST camera
The National Optical Astronomy Observatory to provide the telescope and site team
The National Center for Supercomputing Applications to construct and test the archive and data access center
The Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy is responsible for overseeing the LSST construction.
, the project critical path was the camera installation, integration and testing.
In May 2018, Congress surprisingly appropriated much more funding than the telescope had asked for, in hopes of speeding up construction and operation. Telescope management was thankful but unsure this would help, since at the late stage of construction they were not cash-limited.
Overview
The Simonyi Survey Telescope design is unique among large telescopes (8 m-class primary mirrors) in having a very wide field of view: 3.5 degrees in diameter, or 9.6 square degrees. For comparison, both the Sun and the Moon, as seen from Earth, are 0.5 degrees across, or 0.2 square degrees. Combined with its large aperture (and thus light-collecting ability), this will give it a spectacularly large etendue of 319 m2⋅degree2. This is more than three times the etendue of the largest-view existing telescopes, the Subaru Telescope with its Hyper Suprime Camera and Pan-STARRS, and more than an order of magnitude better than most large telescopes.
Optics
The Simonyi Survey Telescope is the latest in a long line of improvements giving telescopes larger fields of view. The earliest reflecting telescopes used spherical mirrors, which although easy to fabricate and test, suffer from spherical aberration; a very long focal length was needed to reduce spherical aberration to a tolerable level. Making the primary mirror parabolic removes spherical aberration on-axis, but the field of view is then limited by off-axis coma. Such a parabolic primary, with either a prime or Cassegrain focus, was the most common optical design up through the Hale telescope in 1949. After that, telescopes used mostly the Ritchey–Chrétien design, using two hyperbolic mirrors to remove both spherical aberration and coma, leaving only astigmatism, and giving a wider useful field of view. Most large telescopes since the Hale use this design—the Hubble and Keck telescopes are Ritchey–Chrétien, for example. LSST will use a three-mirror anastigmat to cancel astigmatism by employing three non-spherical mirrors. The result is sharp images over a very wide field of view, but at the expense of light-gathering power due to the large tertiary mirror.
The telescope's primary mirror (M1) is in diameter, the secondary mirror (M2) is in diameter, and the tertiary mirror (M3), inside the ring-like primary, is in diameter. The secondary mirror is expected to be the largest convex mirror in any operating telescope, until surpassed by the ELT's 4.2 m secondary in about 2024. The second and third mirrors reduce the primary mirror's light-collecting area to , equivalent to a telescope. Multiplying this by the field of view produces an étendue of 336 m2⋅degree2; the actual figure is reduced by vignetting.
The primary and tertiary mirrors (M1 and M3) are designed as a single piece of glass, the "M1M3 monolith". Placing the two mirrors in the same location minimizes the overall length of the telescope, making it easier to reorient quickly. Making them out of the same piece of glass results in a stiffer structure than two separate mirrors, contributing to rapid settling after motion.
The optics includes three corrector lenses to reduce aberrations. These lenses, and the telescope's filters, are built into the camera assembly. The first lens at 1.55 m diameter is the largest lens ever built, and the third lens forms the vacuum window in front of the focal plane.
Unlike many telescopes, the Rubin Observatory makes no attempt to compensate for dispersion in the atmosphere. Such correction, which requires re-adjusting an additional element in the optical train, would be very difficult in the 5 seconds allowed between pointings, plus is a technical challenge due to the extremely short focal length. As a result, shorter wavelength bands away from the zenith will have somewhat reduced image quality.
Camera
A 3.2-gigapixel prime focus digital camera will take a 15-second exposure every 20 seconds. Repointing such a large telescope (including settling time) within 5 seconds requires an exceptionally short and stiff structure. This in turn implies a very small f-number, which requires very precise focusing of the camera.
The 15-second exposures are a compromise to allow spotting both faint and moving sources. Longer exposures would reduce the overhead of camera readout and telescope re-positioning, allowing deeper imaging, but then fast moving objects such as near-Earth objects would move significantly during an exposure. Each spot on the sky is imaged with two consecutive 15 second exposures, to efficiently reject cosmic ray hits on the CCDs.
The camera focal plane is flat and 64 cm in diameter. The main imaging is performed by a mosaic of 189 CCD detectors, each with 16 megapixels. They are grouped into a 5×5 grid of "rafts", where the central 21 rafts contain 3×3 imaging sensors, while the four corner rafts contain only three CCDs each, for guiding and focus control. The CCDs provide better than 0.2 arcsecond sampling, and will be cooled to approximately to help reduce noise.
The camera includes a filter located between the second and third lenses, and an automatic filter-changing mechanism. Although the camera has six filters (ugrizy) covering 330 to 1080 nm wavelengths, the camera's position between the secondary and tertiary mirrors limits the size of its filter changer. It can only hold five filters at a time, so each day one of the six must be chosen to be omitted for the following night.
Image data processing
Allowing for maintenance, bad weather and other contingencies, the camera is expected to take over 200,000 pictures (1.28 petabytes uncompressed) per year, far more than can be reviewed by humans. Managing and effectively analyzing the enormous output of the telescope is expected to be the most technically difficult part of the project. In 2010, the initial computer requirements were estimated at 100 teraflops of computing power and 15 petabytes of storage, rising as the project collects data. By 2018, estimates had risen to 250 teraflops and 100 petabytes of storage.
Once images are taken, they are processed according to three different timescales, prompt (within 60 seconds), daily, and annually.
The prompt products are alerts, issued within 60 seconds of observation, about objects that have changed brightness or position relative to archived images of that sky position. Transferring, processing, and differencing such large images within 60 seconds (previous methods took hours, on smaller images) is a significant software engineering problem by itself. Approximately 10 million alerts will be generated per night. Each alert will include the following:
Alert and database ID: IDs uniquely identifying this alert
The photometric, astrometric, and shape characterization of the detected source
30×30 pixel (on average) cut-outs of the template and difference images (in FITS format)
The time series (up to a year) of all previous detections of this source
Various summary statistics ("features") computed of the time series
There is no proprietary period associated with alerts—they are available to the public immediately, since the goal is to quickly transmit nearly everything LSST knows about any given event, enabling downstream classification and decision making. LSST will generate an unprecedented rate of alerts, hundreds per second when the telescope is operating. Most observers will be interested in only a tiny fraction of these events, so the alerts will be fed to "event brokers" which forward subsets to interested parties. LSST will provide a simple broker, and provide the full alert stream to external event brokers. The Zwicky Transient Facility will serve as a prototype of LSST system, generating 1 million alerts per night.
Daily products, released within 24 hours of observation, comprise the images from that night, and the source catalogs derived from difference images. This includes orbital parameters for Solar System objects. Images will be available in two forms: Raw Snaps, or data straight from the camera, and Single Visit Images, which have been processed and include instrumental signature removal (ISR), background estimation, source detection, deblending and measurements, point spread function estimation, and astrometric and photometric calibration.
Annual release data products will be made available once a year, by re-processing the entire science data set to date. These include:
Calibrated images
Measurements of positions, fluxes, and shapes
Variability information
A compact description of light curves
A uniform reprocessing of the difference-imaging-based prompt data products
A catalog of roughly 6 million Solar Systems objects, with their orbits
A catalog of approximately 37 billion sky objects (20 billion galaxies and 17 billion stars), each with more than 200 attributes
The annual release will be computed partially by NCSA, and partially by IN2P3 in France.
LSST is reserving 10% of its computing power and disk space for user generated data products. These will be produced by running custom algorithms over the LSST data set for specialized purposes, using APIs to access the data and store the results. This avoids the need to download, then upload, huge quantities of data by allowing users to use the LSST storage and computation capacity directly. It also allows academic groups to have different release policies than LSST as a whole.
An early version of the LSST image data processing software is being used by the Subaru Telescope's Hyper Suprime-Cam instrument, a wide-field survey instrument with a sensitivity similar to LSST but one fifth the field of view: 1.8 square degrees versus the 9.6 square degrees of LSST. New software called HelioLinc3D was developed specifically for the Rubin Observatory, to detect moving objects.
Scientific goals
LSST will cover about 18,000 deg2 of the southern sky with 6 filters in its main survey, with about 825 visits to each spot. The 5σ (SNR greater than 5) magnitude limits are expected to be r < 24.5 in single images, and r < 27.8 in the full stacked data.
The main survey will use about 90% of the observing time. The remaining 10% will be used to obtain improved coverage for specific goals and regions. This includes very deep (r ∼ 26) observations, very short revisit times (roughly one minute), observations of "special" regions such as the ecliptic, galactic plane, and the Large and Small Magellanic Clouds, and areas covered in detail by multi-wavelength surveys such as COSMOS and the Chandra Deep Field South. Combined, these special programs will increase the total area to about 25,000 deg2.
Particular scientific goals of the LSST include:
Studying dark energy and dark matter by measuring weak gravitational lensing, baryon acoustic oscillations, and photometry of type Ia supernovae, all as a function of redshift.
Mapping small objects in the Solar System, particularly near-Earth asteroids and Kuiper belt objects. LSST is expected to increase the number of cataloged objects by a factor of 10–100. It will also help with the search for the hypothesized Planet Nine.
Detecting transient astronomical events including novae, supernovae, gamma-ray bursts, quasar variability, and gravitational lensing, and providing prompt event notifications to facilitate follow-up.
Mapping the Milky Way.
Because of its wide field of view and high sensitivity, LSST is expected to be among the best prospects for detecting optical counterparts to gravitational wave events detected by LIGO and other observatories.
It is also hoped that the vast volume of data produced will lead to additional serendipitous discoveries.
NASA has been tasked by the US Congress with detecting and cataloging 90% of the NEO population of size 140 meters or greater. LSST, by itself, is estimated to be capable of detecting 62% of such objects, and according to the National Academy of Sciences, extending its survey from ten years to twelve would be the most cost-effective way of finishing the task.
Rubin Observatory has a program of Education and Public Outreach (EPO). Rubin Observatory EPO will serve four main categories of users: the general public, formal educators, citizen science principal investigators, and content developers at informal science education facilities. Rubin Observatory will partner with Zooniverse for a number of their citizen science projects.
Comparison with other sky surveys
There have been many other optical sky surveys, some still on-going. For comparison, here are some of the main currently used optical surveys, with differences noted:
Photographic sky surveys, such as the National Geographic Society – Palomar Observatory Sky Survey and its digitized version, the Digitized Sky Survey. This technology is obsolete, with much less depth, and in general taken from locations with less than excellent views. These archives are still used since they span a rather large time interval—more than 100 years in some cases—and cover the entire sky. The plate scans reached a limit of R~18 and B~19.5 over 90% of the sky, and about one magnitude fainter over 50% of the sky.
The Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) (2000–2009) surveyed 14,555 square degrees of the northern hemisphere sky with a 2.5 meter telescope. It continues to the present day as a spectrographic survey. Its limiting photometric magnitude ranged from 20.5 to 22.2, depending on the filter.
Pan-STARRS (2010–present) is an ongoing sky survey using two wide-field 1.8 m Ritchey–Chrétien telescopes located at Haleakala in Hawaii. Until LSST begins operation, it will remain the best detector of near-Earth objects. Its coverage, 30,000 square degrees, is comparable to what LSST will cover. The single image depth in the PS1 survey was between magnitude 20.9-22.0 depending on filter.
The DESI Legacy Imaging Surveys (2013–present) looks at 14,000 square degrees of the northern and southern sky with the Bok 2.3-m telescope, the 4-meter Mayall telescope and the 4-meter Víctor M. Blanco Telescope. The Legacy Surveys make use of the Mayall z-band Legacy Survey, the Beijing–Arizona Sky Survey and the Dark Energy Survey. The Legacy Surveys avoided the Milky Way since it was primarily concerned with distant galaxies. The area of DES (5,000 square degrees) is entirely contained within the anticipated survey area of LSST in the southern sky. Its exposures typically reach magnitude 23-24.
Gaia is an ongoing space-based survey of the entire sky since 2014, whose primary goal is extremely precise astrometry of roughly two billion stars, quasars, galaxies and sun system objects. Its collecting area of 0.7 m2 does not allow observation of objects as faint as can be included in other surveys, but the location of each object observed is known with far greater precision. While not taking exposures in the traditional sense, it detects objects up to a magnitude of 21.
The Zwicky Transient Facility (2018–present) is a similar, rapid, wide-field survey to detect transient events. The telescope has an even larger field of view (47 square degrees; 5× the field), but a significantly smaller aperture (1.22 m; 1/ the area). It is being used to develop and test the LSST automated alert software. Its exposures typically reach magnitude 20-21.
The Space Surveillance Telescope (2011–present) is a similar rapid wide-field survey telescope used primarily for military applications, with secondary civil applications including space debris and NEO detection and cataloguing.
Construction progress
The Cerro Pachón site was selected in 2006. The main factors were the number of clear nights per year, seasonal weather patterns, and the quality of images as seen through the local atmosphere (seeing). The site also needed to have an existing observatory infrastructure, to minimize costs of construction, and access to fiber optic links, to accommodate the 30 terabytes of data LSST will produce each night.
As of February 2018, construction was well underway. The shell of the summit building is complete, and 2018 saw the installation of major equipment, including HVAC, the dome, mirror coating chamber, and the telescope mount assembly. It also saw the expansion of the AURA base facility in La Serena and the summit dormitory shared with other telescopes on the mountain.
By February 2018, the camera and telescope shared the critical path. The main risk was deemed to be whether sufficient time was allotted for system integration.
the project remained within budget, although the budget contingency was tight.
In March 2020, work on the summit facility, and the main camera at SLAC, was suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic, though work on software continued. During this time, the commissioning camera arrived at the base facility and was tested there. It was moved to the summit and installed on the mount in August 2022.
Mirrors
The primary mirror, the most critical and time-consuming part of a large telescope's construction, was made over a 7-year period by the University of Arizona's Steward Observatory Mirror Lab. Construction of the mold began in November 2007, mirror casting was begun in March 2008, and the mirror blank was declared "perfect" at the beginning of September 2008. In January 2011, both M1 and M3 figures had completed generation and fine grinding, and polishing had begun on M3.
The mirror was formally accepted on 13 February 2015, then placed in the mirror transport box and stored in an airplane hangar. In October 2018, it was moved back to the mirror lab and integrated with the mirror support cell. It went through additional testing in January/February 2019, then was returned to its shipping crate. In March 2019, it was sent by truck to Houston, was placed on a ship for delivery to Chile, and arrived on the summit in May. There it will be re-united with the mirror support cell and coated.
The coating chamber, which was used to coat the mirrors once they arrived, itself arrived at the summit in November 2018.
The secondary mirror was manufactured by Corning of ultra low expansion glass and coarse-ground to within 40 μm of the desired shape. In November 2009, the blank was shipped to Harvard University for storage until funding to complete it was available. On 21 October 2014, the secondary mirror blank was delivered from Harvard to Exelis (now a subsidiary of Harris Corporation) for fine grinding. The completed mirror was delivered to Chile on 7 December 2018, and was coated in July 2019.
Building
Site excavation began in earnest on 8 March 2011, and the site had been leveled by the end of 2011. Also during that time, the design progressed, with significant improvements to the mirror support system, stray-light baffles, wind screen, and calibration screen.
In 2015, a large amount of broken rock and clay was found under the site of the support building adjacent to the telescope. This caused a 6-week construction delay while it was dug out and the space filled with concrete. This did not affect the telescope proper or its dome, whose much more important foundations were examined more thoroughly during site planning.
The building was declared substantially complete in March 2018. The dome was expected to be complete in August 2018, but a picture from May 2019 showed it still incomplete. The (still incomplete) Rubin Observatory dome first rotated under its own power in November 2019.
Telescope mount assembly
The telescope mount, and the pier on which it sits, are substantial engineering projects in their own right. The main technical problem is that the telescope must slew 3.5 degrees to the adjacent field and settle within four seconds. This requires a very stiff pier and telescope mount, with very high speed slew and acceleration (10°/sec and 10°/sec2, respectively). The basic design is conventional: an altitude over azimuth mount made of steel, with hydrostatic bearings on both axes, mounted on a pier which is isolated from the dome foundations. The LSST pier is unusually large (16 m diameter), robust (1.25 m thick walls) and mounted directly to virgin bedrock, where care was taken during site excavation to avoid using explosives that would crack it. Other unusual design features are linear motors on the main axes and a recessed floor on the mount. This allows the telescope to extend slightly below the azimuth bearings, giving it a very low center of gravity.
The contract for the Telescope Mount Assembly was signed in August 2014. It passed its acceptance tests in 2018 and arrived at the construction site in September 2019. By April 2023, the mount was declared "essentially complete" and turned over to the Rubin observatory.
Camera construction
In August 2015, the LSST Camera project, which is separately funded by the U.S. Department of Energy, passed its "critical decision 3" design review, with the review committee recommending DoE formally approve start of construction. On August 31, the approval was given, and construction began at SLAC. As of September 2017, construction of the camera was 72% complete, with sufficient funding in place (including contingencies) to finish the project. By September 2018, the cryostat was complete, the lenses ground, and 12 of the 21 needed rafts of CCD sensors had been delivered. As of September 2020, the entire focal plane was complete and undergoing testing. By October 2021, the last of the six filters needed by the camera had been finished and delivered. By November 2021, the entire camera had been cooled down to its required operating temperature, so final testing could begin.
Before the final camera is installed, a smaller and simpler version (the Commissioning Camera, or ComCam) will be used "to perform early telescope alignment and commissioning tasks, complete engineering first light, and possibly produce early usable science data".
Data transport
The data must be transported from the camera, to facilities at the summit, to the base facilities, and then to the LSST Data Facility at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications in the United States. This transfer must be very fast (100 Gbit/s or better) and reliable since NCSA is where the data will be processed into scientific data products, including real-time alerts of transient events. This transfer uses multiple fiber optic cables from the base facility in La Serena to Santiago, then via two redundant routes to Miami, where it connects to existing high speed infrastructure. These two redundant links were activated in March 2018 by the AmLight consortium.
Since the data transfer crosses international borders, many different groups are involved. These include the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA, Chile and the USA), REUNA (Chile), Florida International University (USA), AmLightExP (USA), RNP (Brazil), and University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign NCSA (USA), all of which participate in the LSST Network Engineering Team (NET). This collaboration designs and delivers end-to-end network performance across multiple network domains and providers.
Possible impact of satellite constellations
A study in 2020 by the European Southern Observatory estimated that up to 30% to 50% of the exposures around twilight with the Rubin Observatory would be severely affected by satellite constellations. Survey telescopes have a large field of view and they study short-lived phenomena like supernova or asteroids, and mitigation methods that work on other telescopes may be less effective. The images would be affected especially during twilight (50%) and at the beginning and end of the night (30%). For bright trails the complete exposure could be ruined by a combination of saturation, crosstalk (far away pixels gaining signal due to the nature of CCD electronics), and ghosting (internal reflections within the telescope and camera) caused by the satellite trail, affecting an area of the sky significantly larger than the satellite path itself during imaging. For fainter trails only a quarter of the image would be lost. A previous study by the Rubin Observatory found an impact of 40% at twilight and only nights in the middle of the winter would be unaffected.
Possible approaches to this problem would be a reduction of the number or brightness of satellites, upgrades to the telescope's CCD camera system, or both. Observations of Starlink satellites showed a decrease of the satellite trail brightness for darkened satellites. This decrease is not enough to mitigate the effect on wide-field surveys like the one conducted by the Rubin Observatory. Therefore SpaceX is introducing a sunshade on newer satellites, to keep the portions of the satellite visible from the ground out of direct sunlight. The objective is to keep the satellites below 7th magnitude, to avoid saturating the detectors. This limits the problem to only the trail of the satellite and not the whole image.
Gallery
Notes
See also
List of largest optical reflecting telescopes
Pan-STARRS
Dark Energy Survey
VISTA (Visible and Infrared Survey Telescope for Astronomy)
VLT Survey Telescope
References
External links
Legacy Survey of Space and Time official website
LSST construction site webcams
LSST reports and documentation
New Scientist SPACE Article
LSST Tutorials for Experimental Particle Physicists is a detailed explanation of LSST's design (as of February 2006) and weak lensing science goals that does not assume a lot of astronomy background.
The New Digital Sky is a video of a July 25, 2006 presentation at Google about the LSST, particularly the data management issues.
HULIQ Google participation announcement
, an updated and expanded overview.
Large Synoptic Survey Telescope
Optical telescopes
Buildings and structures under construction in Chile
Telescopes under construction
Astronomical observatories in Chile
Astronomical surveys
Buildings and structures in Coquimbo Region
NOIRLab
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantosmia
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Phantosmia
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Phantosmia (phantom smell), also called an olfactory hallucination or a phantom odor, is smelling an odor that is not actually there. This is intrinsically suspicious as the formal evaluation and detection of relatively low levels of odour particles is itself a very tricky task in air epistemology. It can occur in one nostril or both. Unpleasant phantosmia, cacosmia, is more common and is often described as smelling something that is burned, foul, spoiled, or rotten. Experiencing occasional phantom smells is normal and usually goes away on its own in time. When hallucinations of this type do not seem to go away or when they keep coming back, it can be very upsetting and can disrupt an individual's quality of life.
Olfactory hallucinations can be caused by common medical conditions such as nasal infections, nasal polyps, or dental problems. It can result from neurological conditions such as migraines, head injuries, strokes, Parkinson's disease, seizures, or brain tumors. It can also be a symptom of certain mental disorders such as depression, bipolar disorder, intoxication or withdrawal from drugs and alcohol, or psychotic disorders. Environmental exposures are sometimes the cause as well, such as smoking, exposure to certain types of chemicals (e.g., insecticides or solvents), or radiation treatment for head or neck cancer.
A physician can determine if the problem is with the sense of smell (olfactory system) or taste (gustatory system), or if it is caused by a neurological or psychiatric disorder. Phantosmia usually goes away on its own, though this can sometimes be gradual and occur over several years. When caused by an illness (e.g., sinusitis), it should go away when the illness resolves. If the problem persists or causes significant discomfort, a doctor might recommend nasal saline drops, antidepressant or anticonvulsant medications, anesthesia to parts of the nose, or in very rare circumstances, surgical procedures to remove the olfactory nerves or bulbs.
Symptoms
Other olfactory disorders such as hyposmia and anosmia have been found to be a symptom of mood disorders (depression). However, it is not known what olfactory disorders occur and if they are indeed a symptom of a depressive disorder.
It has been proposed that phantosmia may be an early sign of the neurodegenerative disease Parkinson's disease. It may also be a sign of an intracranial hemorrhage (brain tumours or epilepsy).
Other studies have also found that the symptoms of phantosmia have been alleviated after the patient has been treated for depression.
Another case of a 70-year-old male reported that his first abnormal symptoms were irregular bowel movements. After this the patient developed irregular eye movements and had developed a sleep and behavior disorder. He subsequently developed phantosmia, in which what he smelled was described as "stinky and unpleasant". The patient did not display any of the following symptoms: loss of awareness; confusion; automatisms; convulsive seizures; auditory/visual hallucinations.
Co-occurrence with other conditions
Phantosmia has been found to co-exist in patients with other disorders such as schizophrenia, epilepsy, alcoholic psychosis, and depression. It has also been found that many patients may begin to experience depression after the occurrence of phantosmia and have looked towards committing suicide. The occurrence of depression resulted from the severe symptoms of phantosmia as everything even food smelled spoilt, rotten and burnt for these patients. By the age of 80, 80% of individuals develop an olfactory disorder. As well 50% of these individuals also have anosmia.
Migraines
In 2011 Coleman, Grosberg and Robbins did a case study on patients with olfactory hallucinations and other primary headache disorders. In their 30-month long study, the prevalence rates for phantosmia turned out to be as low as 0.66%.
In their findings, it was observed that a typical hallucination period was of 5–60 minutes, occurred either before or with the onset of head pain, and typically consisted of an unpleasant odor. It was also noted that phantosmia occurs most commonly among women having a migraine complaint. In their study, prophylactic therapy for headaches helped cure phantosmia in most of the patients.
This finding is consistent with the findings of Schreiber and Calvert in 1986 which also mentioned the olfactory hallucinations before the occurrence of a migraine attack in four of their subjects.
Causes
The cause of phantosmia can be either peripheral or central, or a combination of the two. The peripheral explanation of this disorder is that rogue neurons malfunction and transmit incorrect signals to the brain or it may be due to the malfunction of the olfactory neurons. The central explanation is that active or incorrectly functioning cells of the brain cause the perception of the disturbing odor. Another central cause is that the perception of the phantom odor usually follows after the occurrence of seizures. The time span of the symptoms usually lasts a few seconds.
Other studies on phantosmia patients have found that the perception of the odor initiates with a sneeze, thus they avoid any nasal activity. It has also been found that the perception of the odor is worse in the nostril that is weaker in olfaction ability. It has also been noted that about a quarter of patients with phantosmia in one nostril will usually develop it in the other nostril as well over a time period of a few months or years.
Several patients who have received surgical treatment have stated that they have a feeling or intuition that the phantom odor is about to occur, however it does not. This sensation has been supported by positron emission tomography, and it has been found that these patients have a high level of activity in their contralateral frontal, insular and temporal regions. The significance of the activity in these regions is not definitive as not a significant number of patients have been studied to conclude any relation of this activity with the symptoms. However the intensity of the activity in these regions was reduced by excising the olfactory epithelium from the associated nasal cavity.
There are a few causes for phantosmia, but one of the most common and well-documented involves brain injury or seizures in the temporal lobe. During a temporal lobe seizure the patient rarely faints, but usually blacks out and cannot remember anything that happened during the seizure. Several people who have had these seizures did, however, recollect having phantosmia just prior to blacking out. Epilepsy is a disease characterized by seizures. In the case of phantosmia, if smelling and something else become so strongly linked, the action of "something else" occurring can induce activation of the olfactory bulb even though there was no stimulus for the bulb present. This is an example of plasticity gone awry. Those with lesions on the temporal lobe, often brought about by a stroke but also from trauma to the head, also experience these olfactory hallucinations.
Other leading causes of phantosmia include neurological disorders such as schizophrenia and Alzheimer's disease. Both of these disorders have well documented cases of hallucinations, most commonly visual and auditory. Both also, however, have instances of phantosmia too, although not as frequently. In both cases, incidences of olfactory delusions are more common, especially in Alzheimer's, where it is exceedingly difficult to convince the patient that these are in fact hallucinations and not real. Specifically in Alzheimer's disease, atrophy in the temporal lobe has been known to occur. As evidenced in trauma and seizures, phantosmia is strongly associated with this area; leading to its appearance in some Alzheimer's patients. Parkinson's disease patients can also experience phantosmia, as well as parosmia, however their appearance is less common than the muscle tremors the patients experience.
Neuroblastoma
Neuroblastoma is a rare form of a malignant cancer which can start in the olfactory nerve, which is responsible for smell sensation. This cancer can become aggressive and progress into the ethmoid sinuses, brain cavity, surrounds the cribriform plate. The tumor can be tested for by performing a surgical biopsy and the possible treatment options include surgical removal of the tumor, radiation therapy and chemotherapy, which can cause damage to the olfactory system and possibly result in phantosmia, in turn.
Development
The complaints of phantosmia involving the perception of unpleasant odors most commonly include "burnt", "foul", "rotten", "sewage", "metallic" or "chemical". Sometimes the odor is described as exhaust fumes. These odors may be triggered by strong odorants, changes in nasal airflow, or even loud sounds. Sometimes they occur spontaneously. Patients having complaints of phantosmia might self-admit a poor quality of life, with each meal having the unpleasant odor as well.
The disorder's first onset, usually spontaneous, may last only a few minutes. Recurrences may gradually increase from monthly, then weekly, and then daily over a period of six months to a year. The duration of the perceived odor may also increase over the same time, often lasting most of a day after one year.
Some patients also state that the odor they smell is different from any known odor.
Diagnosis
The most challenging task for the examiner is to determine and obtain the correct symptoms and associate them with one of the olfactory disorders, as there are several of them and they are related to each other.
The first step the examiner usually takes is to investigate if the problem is olfactory or gustatory related. As it may be that the patient releases certain bodily odors that are causing them to have this perception.
If the examiner is able to confirm that the problem is olfactory related, the next step is to determine which olfactory disorder the patient has. The following is a list of possible olfactory disorders:
anosmia
hyposmia
hyperosmia
dysosmia
parosmia or troposmia
phantosmia
The second step is difficult for both the examiner and the patient as the patient has some difficulty describing their perception of the phantom odor. Furthermore, the patient is in a position of stress and anxiety thus it is crucial that the examiner be patient.
After determining the nature of the disorder, and confirming phantosmia, the examiner must then have the patient describe their perception of the phantom odor. In many cases, patients have described the odor to be that of something burning and rotten and have described it to be unpleasant and foul.
The third step for the examiner is to determine the health history of the patient to take note of head trauma, accidents, upper respiratory infections, allergic rhinitis or chronic rhinitis. Although these may be events that have resulted in the phantom odor, studies conducted by Zilstrof have found that the majority of phantosmia patients have no previous history of head trauma and upper respiratory infections.
Treatment
Due to the rareness of the disorder there is no well-defined treatment. Sometimes the patients are just told to live with the disorder or the patients end up performing "stereotypical methods" that might help in reducing the severity of the odor. This might include forced crying, bending over holding knees while holding breath, rinsing the nose with saline water and gagging. All these behaviours at the end fail to resolve the hallucination. Various treatments like prophylaxis have been suggested but more research is needed for its confirmation. Also, due to being a poorly understood disorder, and having analogies to some psychiatric conditions, some patients are told that they have a mental illness.
One of the surgical treatments proposed has included olfactory bulb ablation through a bifrontal craniotomy approach. But a counter-argument by Leopold, Loehrl and Schwob (2002) has stated that this ablation process results in a bilateral permanent anosmia and includes risks associated with a craniotomy. According to them, the use of transnasal endoscopic exhibition of olfactory epithelium is a safe and effective treatment for patients with unremitting phantosmia with the olfactory function being potentially spared.
It is also cautioned that the surgery is challenging one and is associated with major risks, and that it should be restricted to expertise centres.
On the other hand, many cases have also reported that the strength of their symptoms have decreased with time. (Duncan and Seidan, 1995)
A case involving long term phantosmia has been treated with the use of an anti depressive medication by the common name Venlafaxine (Effexor). The relation between mood disorders and phantosmia is unknown, and is a widely researched area. In many cases, the symptoms of phantosmia have been reduced by the use of anticonvulsants and antidepressants that act on the central and peripheral neurons.
The most commonly used treatment method is the removal of the olfactory epithelium or the bulb by means of surgery to alleviate the patient from the symptoms.
Other traditional methods include the use of topical anesthetics (Zilstorff-Pederson, 1995) and use of sedatives.
Nasal spray
Many patients seeking a quick form of relief achieved it by rinsing the nose with a saline solution. This treatment option is easily available and can be repeated several times throughout the day to obtain relief. An example of a nasal spray that can be used to alleviate symptoms is Oxymetazoline HCl, which seems to provide relief for a longer time period. The relief achieved by the use of nasal sprays seems to be because it results in the blockage of the nostril that does not allow any air to enter the olfactory cleft.
Topical solutions
Another treatment option is the topical solution of cocaine HCl which also provides relief for a short time period by acting as an anesthetic and desensitizing the nasal neurons. The topical solution is applied on the nostril. This topical solution can have several side effects as it has been found that some patients with troposmia started to show symptoms of phantosmia after its use. Other patients have lost complete function of the nostril where the drug was applied.
Venlafaxine
This antidepressant medication is a serotonin norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI). In the case study of a 52-year-old female with phantosmia for 27 years, a dose of 75 mg a day relieved and eliminated her symptoms. The drug was prescribed initially in order to treat her depression.
Occurrence
Phantosmia is most likely to occur in women between the ages of 15 and 30 years. The duration of the first hallucination(s) is likely to be from five to twenty minutes. It has also been found that the second hallucination is likely to occur approximately a month later in the same manner as the first. Over time, the length of the hallucination(s) may begin to increase.
Pregnancy
A longitudinal study on pregnant women found that 76% of pregnant women experienced significant changes in gustation and olfaction perception. This was found to be caused and linked to their pregnancy. The study concluded that 67% of the pregnant women had reported a higher level of sensitivity to smell, 17% had an olfactory distortion and 14% had phantosmia; these distortions were very minimal towards the last stages of pregnancy and in the majority were not present post partum. Furthermore, 26% of these participants also claimed that they also experienced an increased sensitivity to foods that were bitter and a decreased sensitivity to salt. These findings suggest that pregnant women experience distorted smell and taste perception during pregnancy. It has also been found that 75% of women alter their diets during pregnancy. Further research is being conducted to determine the mechanism behind food cravings during pregnancy.
Case studies
Surgical treatment with the preservation of olfactory ability
A 26-year-old woman was diagnosed with mononucleosis at the age of 18. After this diagnosis she began to experience headaches on the right side of her head, and phantosmia in her left nostril that would often occur together. The olfactory hallucination reported by the woman was an unpleasant mixture of vinegar, fecal material, and rotten eggs. This would happen every day beginning in the morning, and the symptoms would worsen during the few days before her menstrual period. If the symptoms did not occur in the morning, they would be triggered by strong olfactory stimuli or by loud noises. Occasionally she could avoid the phantosmia symptoms by forcing herself to sneeze.
The woman consulted many medical practitioners but could not receive a reliable diagnosis. She was prescribed medications including nasal steroid sprays and other drugs, but they would not relieve her of her headaches and phantosmia symptoms. Through chemosensory evaluation, it was found that her senses of smell and taste were working normally. Due to some phantosmias believed to be caused by a blockage causing the odor molecules to not reach the olfactory receptors, doctors surgically widened the olfactory cleft. Unfortunately, the phantosmia symptoms remained. Further unsuccessful treatment included a long-term disruption of the axonal projections from the primary olfactory sensory neurons onto the olfactory bulb. This was accomplished by intranasal irrigation with zinc sulfate.
The patient was successfully treated with a surgical procedure involving permanent disruption of the olfactory epithelium. This was accomplished with the surgical excision of a "plug" of olfactory epithelium from the area of the cribriform plate. This excision was meant to sever all the fila olfactoria entering the central nervous system from her left nostril. Five weeks after surgery, the woman reported a complete absence of her phantosmia symptoms, and her olfactory ability was maintained (Hornung et al. 1991).
Drug treatment
For a 52-year-old woman, phantosmia occurring as fluctuating episodes occurred for a period of 27 years, and there was no discernible reason for the onset of symptoms. She could weaken the symptoms by rinsing her nose with a saline solution, and by going to sleep. The smells she would encounter often were very unpleasant, resembling a burnt and rotten fruity odor. When her family doctor prescribed her the antidepressant venlafaxine, she noticed that the drug resulted in the complete elimination of her phantosmia symptoms. This discovery has caused scientists and doctors to research if a link between phantosmia and mild depressive disorders exists, and this idea is supported by the reported improvement of phantosmia after repeated transcranial stimulation used to treat depression.
Co-morbidity with Parkinson's disease
In the case of a 57-year-old woman, strong olfactory sensations were reported, ranging from odors of perfume to slightly unpleasant odors of "wet dog". The episodes experienced would last between seconds and hours and would occur multiple times per day. The patient would report phantosmia symptoms, but would correctly identify known odors and would claim to have no symptoms of smell loss. She had no history of epilepsy, and her electroencephalographic results were normal. Later on, while the symptoms of phantosmia were decreasing, she developed severe symptoms of Parkinson disease. While the patient was treated for her tremors with pramipexole, amantadine hydrochloride, levodopa, carbidopa and entacapone, the phantosmia symptoms disappeared completely.
In the case of a 52-year-old woman, the first symptoms of phantosmia reported appeared to the woman as an increased sense of smell. She believed to have the ability to detect odors before other people, and with better accuracy. She later began to experience the typical symptoms of phantosmia and would smell things that she could recognize in the absence of any odor producing molecules. The reported smells were of perfumes, candles, and fruits, however the woman could not accurately identify what type of perfume or fruit she was smelling. Her phantosmia episodes would occur abruptly and would last from minutes to half an hour. A rhinologic examination came back with normal results. When her phantosmia symptoms began to dissipate, she began to complain of clumsiness, slowness, and problems with her left hand that would alternate between tremors and rigidity. A neurologic examination revealed symptoms of Parkinson's disease.
See also
Related disorders
Anosmia
Dysosmia
Hyperosmia
Hyposmia
Parosmia (or troposmia)
Other
Odorant-binding protein
Odorant receptor
Olfactory bulb mitral cell
Olfactory receptor neuron
Olfactory tubercle
References
Further reading
Keller, Andreas & Malaspina, Dolores (2013). "Hidden Consequences of Olfactory Dysfunction", in: BMC Ear Nose Throat Disorders 13:8
External links
Mayo Clinic - What causes olfactory hallucinations (phantosmia)?
Medscape, August 2018 - First Prevalence Data on 'Phantom Odors' Show Women Often Affected
JAMA Network, September 2018 - Factors Associated With Phantom Odor Perception Among US Adults: Findings From the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heroes%20%28American%20TV%20series%29
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Heroes (American TV series)
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Heroes is an American superhero drama television series created by Tim Kring that aired on NBC for four seasons from September 25, 2006, to February 8, 2010. The series tells the stories of ordinary people who discover that they have superhuman abilities and how these abilities take effect in the characters' lives as they work together to prevent catastrophic futures. The series emulates the aesthetic style and storytelling of American comic books, using multi-episode story arcs that build upon a larger, more encompassing narrative. It was produced by Tailwind Productions in association with Universal Media Studios. It was filmed primarily in Los Angeles, California.
Four complete seasons aired, ending on February 8, 2010. The critically acclaimed first season had a run of 23 episodes and garnered an average of 14.3 million viewers in the United States, receiving the highest rating for an NBC drama premiere in five years. The second season of Heroes attracted an average of 13.1 million viewers in the U.S. and marked NBC's sole series among the top 20 ranked programs in total viewership for the 2007–2008 season. Heroes earned a number of awards and nominations, including Primetime Emmy Awards, Golden Globes, People's Choice Awards, and British Academy Television Awards.
An online extension of the series, Heroes 360 Experience (later rebranded as Heroes Evolutions), was created to explore the Heroes universe and provides insight into the show's mythology. Other official Heroes media include magazines, action figures, tie-in and interactive websites, a mobile game, a novel, clothing and other merchandise. In the fall of 2008, NBC Digital Entertainment released a series of online content for the summer, including more original web content, wireless iTV interactivity, graphic novels available for mobile viewing and webisodes.
A 13-episode follow-up miniseries, Heroes Reborn, premiered on NBC on September 24, 2015.
Cast and characters
Originally, Kring designed the series to have an ever-shifting cast. However, his motivation changed when he realized how popular the original cast was with audiences; therefore, he brought back most of the first-season cast for the second season, with a few additions who received star billing. In its first season, the show features an ensemble cast of twelve main characters making it the third largest cast in American primetime television behind Desperate Housewives and Lost. Although NBC's first-season cast page listed only ten characters, Leonard Roberts, who first appeared in the series' fifth episode as D L Hawkins, was an additional member of the original full-time cast. In the first-season episode "Fallout", Jack Coleman, who portrays Noah Bennet, was upgraded from a recurring role to become the twelfth full-time cast member.
The following remained major characters during all four seasons:
Milo Ventimiglia as Peter Petrelli, a hospice nurse with the ability to mimic abilities of other people
Hayden Panettiere as Claire Bennet, a high-school cheerleader who can spontaneously regenerate
Masi Oka as Hiro Nakamura, an office worker who can manipulate space-time
Adrian Pasdar as Nathan Petrelli, a congressional candidate with the ability to fly
Greg Grunberg as Matt Parkman, an LAPD police officer who can read people's minds
Although Niki Sanders, played by Ali Larter, was written out in the third season, Larter remained on the show throughout all four seasons, playing Sanders' sister, Tracy Strauss for the final season.
During the first two seasons, some characters were written out to make room for new characters with new stories. In season one, Claude, portrayed by Christopher Eccleston, who had the power of invisibility, was instrumental in helping Peter understand his powers, throwing him off a building to try to help him fly, but he discovered he healed instead. Simone Deveaux was the first major character to be written out, dying near the end of season one. Hawkins became a guest star after the events of the first season's finale, making two appearances throughout season two. Isaac Mendez was also written out, dying at the hands of Sylar, which was shown during Hiro Nakamura's time traveling expedition to New York earlier in season one.
New characters added during season two include: Maya Herrera, played by Dania Ramirez, a fugitive with the ability to emit a deadly poison; Adam Monroe, a 400-year-old Englishman also known as Takezo Kensei with the ability to regenerate, portrayed by David Anders; Monica Dawson, portrayed by Dana Davis, a restaurant worker with the ability to mimic physical movements she sees; and Elle Bishop, a sadistic sociopath with the ability to generate electricity, portrayed by Kristen Bell. Two recurring characters from season one, Sylar, portrayed by Zachary Quinto, and Ando Masahashi, portrayed by James Kyson Lee, were upgraded to main characters in season two.
Starting in season three, recurring character Angela Petrelli, portrayed by Cristine Rose, was promoted to a main character. Elle, Adam, and Micah were removed from the main cast. Monica Dawson did not appear after scenes including her were cut. Niki was also written out but actress Ali Larter remained on the show portraying a new character Tracy Strauss, Niki's triplet sister with the power to freeze objects with a touch. For season four, a new character Samuel Sullivan, portrayed by Robert Knepper, was added. Originally cast as a recurring part, the part was changed to a starring role. Deanne Bray was also added as Emma Coolidge, the deaf woman who had enhanced synesthesia (seeing colors for music) including the ability to create a siren song.
Episodes
Synopsis
The plot of Heroes is designed to be told in a way similar to the way comic books are told. Each season of Heroes contains one or two "volumes". There are several main story lines in each volume. As the main plots develop, smaller, more intimate stories are told within them. Each main character's story is developed separately and as time passes their paths cross and it is explained how their stories are intertwined and connected. This is the story of ordinary people who discover extraordinary super powers after a solar eclipse reveals them, and how these abilities affect the characters' daily lives.
The first season, known as "Volume One: Genesis", begins with a seemingly ordinary group of people who gradually become aware that they have special abilities. The story develops showing their reactions to those powers, and how that discovery affects their personal and professional lives. At the same time, several ordinary individuals are investigating the origins and extent of those abilities. Mohinder Suresh (Sendhil Ramamurthy), a research geneticist, continues his late father's research into the biological source of the powers, while Noah Bennet (Jack Coleman) represents, and is a lead agent for, a secret organization known only as "the Company" that wants to control, and if necessary, terminate those who are gifted. After only having a short time to come to terms with their new abilities, each of the heroes is drawn into the final showdown. They must each do their part to stop the destruction of the world that starts with an impending explosion at Kirby Plaza in New York City.
Season two, known as "Volume Two: Generations", begins four months after the events at Kirby Plaza. The main plot of Generations deals with the Company and its research on the Shanti virus. In a flashback to 1977, the research is performed by the Company's founders, whose identities are eventually revealed, to discover what the effects of various strains of the virus will do to the human and superhuman population. The virus is weaponized and locked away at Primatech Paper, the Company's facility used as a front. Returning to the present, the heroes must come together in an attempt to stop the release of a deadly strain of the virus and avert a global pandemic.
The first part of season three is called "Volume Three: Villains". Volume three begins with an assassination attempt on Nathan Petrelli (Adrian Pasdar), a political figure who can fly, and explores its consequences. Meanwhile, several villains escape from the confines of Level 5, a maximum security area owned and operated by the Company within Primatech, and Noah Bennet attempts to recapture them. Arthur Petrelli (Robert Forster), Nathan Petrelli's father, heals from systemic nerve damage and aims to create a formula to give ordinary people superhuman abilities, simultaneously stealing Peter's powers. The second part of season three, "Volume Four: Fugitives", reveals what happens after Nathan fails to produce the formula. After the destruction of Primatech and Pinehearst, the rival company of Primatech, the heroes attempt to lead normal lives until Nathan initiates his plan to round up all people with abilities. He is opposed in that plan by the other heroes, led by Peter, who used the synthetic formula to acquire a new ability where he can only copy one power at a time as opposed to his previous array of abilities. Sylar kills Nathan in an intense duel. However, because Nathan is a prominent political player, Matt Parkman (Greg Grunberg), who has power over people's minds, is instructed to alter Sylar's mind so that he will believe that he is Nathan and take his place, utilising Sylar's new powers of shapeshifting and psychometry to take on Nathan's appearance while his psychometry would 'fill in the blanks' on other details. This has a negative side effect causing Sylar's consciousness to become trapped in Matt Parkman's mind.
Season four contains "Volume Five: Redemption", and takes place six weeks after the events of season three. The heroes try to return to their normal lives; Peter returns to his job as a paramedic, while Claire attends college. Sylar's body is causing his previously acquired abilities to manifest as he struggles with his forced identity as Nathan. Sylar's actual consciousness, trapped in Matt Parkman's mind, taunts Matt and seeks out his own body. Meanwhile, Hiro has to deal with a brain tumor that is slowly killing him and preventing him from controlling his powers. A carnival group is introduced whose leader, Samuel, tries to recruit more people with abilities into his carnival family. Samuel claims he is creating a community for special people where they are welcome to be open with their abilities and respected by outsiders. In truth, he is bringing together as many people with abilities as possible to build up his own power, moving earth. The more special people he has around him, the stronger his power. The heroes have to come together to battle Samuel and his plan to expose "specials" to the world by killing thousands of people. The series finale ends by opening the nonexistent "Volume Six: Brave New World" in which Claire reveals the existence of people with special abilities to a group of reporters and photographers.
The series mimics how it started, with the last scene involving Claire Bennet jumping from a ferris wheel and stating, "My name is Claire Bennet, and that was attempt number—I guess I've kind of lost count."
Production
Conception
Heroes began development early in 2006, when Tim Kring, creator of NBC's Crossing Jordan, came up with the show's concept. Kring wanted to create a "large ensemble saga" that would connect with the audience. He began thinking about how big, scary and complicated he felt the world is, and wanted to create a character-driven series about people who could do something about it. Kring felt that a cop or medical drama did not have characters that were big enough to save the world. He came up with the thought of superheroes; ordinary people who would discover extraordinary abilities, while still rooted in the real world and in reality.
Casting directors Jason La Padura and Natalie Hart brought forth a cast of new faces such as Milo Ventimiglia, who described the TV pilot as a "character drama about everyday people with a heightened reality." Said heightened reality was brought to light through the work of production designer Ruth Ammon. Kring wanted the series to have touchstones that involved the characters and the world they lived in.
Before he began putting his ideas together, he spoke with Lost executive producer Damon Lindelof, with whom he had worked for three years on Crossing Jordan. Kring credits Lindelof for giving him ideas on how to pitch the series to the network and advice on the lessons he (Lindelof) learned about working on a serialized drama. The two still speak and support each other's projects. When Kring pitched the idea for Heroes to the NBC network, he described the network's reaction as "excited...very supportive." He comments that he has been partners with NBC for some time based on his six-year run as showrunner for Crossing Jordan. When he pitched the pilot, he described every detail, including the cliffhanger ending. When NBC executives asked him what was going to happen next, Kring responded, "Well, you'll just have to wait and find out." After the project was greenlit, a special 73-minute version of the pilot was first screened to a large audience at the 2006 San Diego Comic-Con International. It was initially reported that this unaired pilot would not be released, but it was included on the season one DVD set.
Writing
When the writing team worked on an episode, each writer took a character and wrote the individual scenes surrounding them. These stories were then combined and given to the episode writer. This system allowed every writer to contribute to every episode, and enabled the writing team to finish scripts sooner, so the filming crew could shoot more scenes at a location. Kring described the writing process as a collaborative one and stated that the collaboration process was important because production needed to shoot several scenes at a single location. To do this, several scripts had to be ready. Jesse Alexander, co-producer and writer, explained that this process was important in a serialized drama because one has to know where each character's development is heading.
Season two coincided with the WGA writers' strike, meaning only 11 out of the planned 24 episodes were produced. That forced the producers to redesign the season to encompass only the Generations volume out of the three planned. The planned third volume, Exodus, which was originally designed to be a story arc reflecting the effects of the release of strain 138 of the Shanti virus, was cancelled. The planned fourth volume, Villains, was changed to the third volume and moved into season three. Scenes from the volume two finale, "Powerless", were reshot to reflect the cancelation of the Exodus volume, and to tie up all the loose plot storylines of Generations.
Following criticisms of the second and third volumes, Tim Molloy from TV Guide reported that Heroes would return to its roots with the fourth volume, Fugitives, to attract new viewers and regain those who gave up on the show because of too many characters and plotlines. In November 2008, NBC fired Jesse Alexander and Jeph Loeb from the production staff of Heroes over creative differences and budget problems. As a result, Kring would refocus the series on character development and simple storytelling. However, a high-ranking insider told TV Guide that rather than pressure from NBC or Universal Media responding to recent plummeting ratings, it was Kring himself who fired Alexander and Loeb, because the duo refused to continue character-driven stories that made the first season popular from the start. In December 2008, Bryan Fuller signed a two-year deal with Universal Media Studios after the cancellation of his ABC series Pushing Daisies. He rejoined the writing staff of Heroes starting with the 20th episode of season three and had a "key role in the writing and direction" of the series. On June 22 it was revealed that Fuller left Heroes to work on other projects. On April 28, 2009, director/producer Greg Beeman was fired by NBC.
Music
The series score is composed by Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman, with music engineer Michael Perfitt and vocals provided by Shankar. Each episode averages 30–35 minutes of music. Melvoin and Coleman became involved with Heroes from their previous work with executive producer Allan Arkush. Kring gave general instructions to the pair, including the emotion and direction for each character. Kring wanted incredibly unusual music and gave Melvoin and Coleman a lot of freedom and permission to experiment. In the pilot episode, Kring suggested that a "dreamy" cue be used in the scene involving Claire Bennet running into a burning train. The "dreamy" cue became a signature piece of the show. Melvoin and Coleman developed musical cues for each character. Claude's theme involved wind and voices to create the feeling of a ghost-like presence. Sylar's involves marimbas and bassoons with staccato to re-create the sound of clocks ticking in reference to the character's power. Matt Parkman's theme involves voices being played backwards when he uses his power of telepathy. Peter Petrelli's theme involves marcato strings. Niki Sanders's theme was based on her character's alter-ego Jessica and involved winds and Indian voices chanting in an underscore to give a feeling that she was possessed. Mohinder Suresh's theme is the piano composition that plays at the end of some episodes.
In 2007, the ASCAP Film and Television Music Awards gave Melvoin and Coleman the Top Television Series award for their work on Heroes. In France, the theme music of Heroes is composed by Victoria Petrosillo. Her song, "Le Héros d'un autre", is used by television network TF1 to replace the show's original incidental music. The network created a new opening credit sequence so they could play Petrosillo's theme. The official Heroes soundtrack was released on March 18, 2008, by The NBCUniversal Television, DVD, Music & Consumer Products Group. On February 29, 2008, the Group released five music videos created by Heroes producer/director Allan Arkush, each combining show footage with songs from the soundtrack. In September 2008, Melvoin and Coleman announced that they would be releasing Heroes: Original Score, an album consisting entirely of the score from Heroes. It was released on April 14, 2009, by La-La Land Records.
Filming and visual effects
Eric Grenaudier and John Han of Stargate Digital are the visual effects supervisors and Mark Spatny is the visual effects producer for Heroes. They work with visual effects animators Anthony Ocampo and Ryan Wieber, who are also from Stargate. The series visual effects consist of blue screens and 2D and 3D animation. The visual effects for the series are created after the scene is shot in post-production, unlike special effects, which are incorporated into the scenes during filming. Notable visual effects include radioactive Ted in "Company Man", Nathan flying from Mr. Bennet and The Haitian in "Hiros", and Hiro's time freezing encounter with the schoolgirl in the red bow in "One Giant Leap". The special effects were coordinated by Gary D'Amico. Stunts were coordinated by Ian Ouinn, who also used blue screens to accomplish some of the stunts in the series, such as Nathan Petrelli flying away from Heidi during the car accident scene in "Six Months Ago". Principal filming for Heroes occurred in Los Angeles and Santa Clarita, California. The Stargate Digital team were responsible for making Los Angeles look like international locations, such as India and Ukraine, using blue screens and set designs by Ruth Ammon, production designer for the series. The series was recorded using a single-camera setup.
In keeping with the comic book thematic elements used on Heroes, professional comic book artists Tim Sale and Alex Maleev were brought in to provide the artwork used within the series under the direction of Ruth Ammon, including the artwork of Isaac Mendez, and Mendez's metafictional comic book series, 9th Wonders!. Additionally, the font used in captions and credits for the show is reminiscent of traditional hand-rendered comic book lettering. It was created by Sale and is based on his handwriting style. Heroes was designed by production designer Ruth Ammon. Ammon was nominated for her work on Heroes twice by the Art Directors Guild and nominated for two Emmy Awards for excellence in art direction.
Heroes: Origins
On May 14, 2007, NBC announced that it would air a six-episode Heroes spin-off, Heroes: Origins, during the 2007–08 season. The show was to introduce a new character each week, and viewers were to select which one would stay for the following season of the regular series. The show was supposed to air after the completion of the second season of Heroes in April 2008; however, on October 31, 2007, it was reported that Origins had been postponed because of the Writers Guild of America strike. Kring stated in an interview that the first episode of Origins was to reveal the secrets and meanings behind the Helix symbol. Because of the WGA Strike, Kring commented that the secret will have to be revealed down the line. Kring revealed that he was to write the first episode of Origins, and that John August had been hired to write another episode. Director Kevin Smith, a fan of Heroes, was set to write and direct an episode for the spin-off, as were Eli Roth and Michael Dougherty. On April 3, 2008, a day after NBC announced its 2008–2009 primetime schedule, Ben Silverman confirmed Originss cancellation.
Mythology
Heroes includes some mysterious fictional recurring elements that have been ascribed to science fiction or supernatural phenomena. Kring and the creators of the series referred to these fictional elements as part of the mythology of the series. Kring confirmed that although the show has a unique mythology, he did not want to sink too deeply into it. Rather, Kring used volumes to wrap up ongoing plot lines instead of carrying storylines over long periods of time as in Lost. Among the show's mythological elements are the Company, the legend of Takezo Kensei, paintings of the future, superpowers and their origins, the Shanti virus, 9th Wonders! comic book, and numerous other elements and mythological themes.
Response
Critical reception
Season one received highly positive reviews. During the season, the American Film Institute named Heroes one of the ten "best television programs of the year." Doug Elfman of the Chicago Sun-Times stated, "the show's super strengths are its well-developed filmmaking, smooth pacing and a perfect cast. It views like the first hour of a fun, thoughtful movie." Barry Garron at The Hollywood Reporter also stated, "Heroes is one of TV's most imaginative creations and might, with luck, become this year's Lost." Less favorable reviews included The Philadelphia Inquirer, who commented that although the show had lots of "cool effects," it "lands, splat, in a pile of nonsense and dim dialogue." In response to the first pod of season one episodes, The Chicago Tribune went as far as saying, "you could watch the first few episodes of Heroes, or you could repeatedly hit yourself on the head with a brick. The effect is surprisingly similar." At Metacritic, the Heroes pilot received a 67/100, with generally favorable reviews from critics. The show was declared the fourth highest rated show for the first ten years of IMDbPro (2002–2012).
Season two received generally positive reviews, but was criticized by commentators and fans for a much slower pace, less engaging storyline and lack of focus compared to the first season. Milo Ventimiglia stated that "when there's a little bit of a delay, there's not that instant, rewarding scene or moment or episode... people get impatient, so it has been extremely important for them to strike a balance between giving and getting." In an interview with Entertainment Weekly, Heroes creator Tim Kring commented on criticisms of season two, and the series' 15% decline in ratings. Kring said that he felt he had made mistakes with the direction of season two. He had thought that the audience was looking for a "build-up of characters and the discovery of their powers", when viewers were instead looking for "adrenaline." Kring also outlined what he felt were problems with plot development, stating that season two "took too long to get to the big-picture story", explaining that Peter's vision of the viral armageddon should have occurred in the first episode instead of the seventh. He feels that it would have been better to introduce new characters within the context of the main storyline, as with Elle, rather than in unattached arcs such as that of Maya and Alejandro. Kring also admitted that he should have resolved the "Hiro in Japan" storyline much more quickly, and that the romantic stories were not working well. With regard to Claire and West, and Hiro and Yaeko, he said, "I've seen more convincing romances on TV. In retrospect, I don't think romance is a natural fit for us."
For season 3, Los Angeles Times said "Even just a half-hour in, it's difficult not to wish everyone would just lighten the heck up. The graphic novel noir feel is becoming increasingly oppressive, and everyone is just so grim." New York Post wrote "This show, which was once so thrilling and fun, has become full of itself, its characters spouting crazy nonsense."
Awards and nominations
By the time Heroes completed the first half of the first season, the show had already collected an assortment of honors and accolades. On December 13, 2006, the Writers Guild of America nominated the program for "best new series" of 2007. On December 14, the Hollywood Foreign Press Association nominated the program for a Golden Globe Award for Best Television Drama, and nominated Masi Oka (Hiro Nakamura) for Best Supporting Actor on a TV Series. On January 9, 2007, Heroes won the award for Favorite New TV Drama at the 33rd People's Choice Awards. The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People nominated Heroes on January 9, 2007, for an Image Award in the "Outstanding Drama Series" category. On February 21, 2007, Heroes was nominated for five Saturn Awards. The nominations included "Best Network Television Series", "Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series" for both Greg Grunberg and Masi Oka, and "Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series" for Hayden Panettiere and Ali Larter. On February 22, 2008, it was announced that Heroes was again nominated for five Saturn Awards. The nominations for 2008 include "Best Network Television Series," "Best Supporting Actor in a Television Series" for both Greg Grunberg and Masi Oka, "Best Supporting Actress in a Television Series" for Hayden Panettiere, and "Best Television Series on DVD." The 2008 nominations are similar to the 2007 nominations, except Ali Larter was not nominated this year; instead the Heroes Season one DVD was nominated, in a different category.
On July 19, 2007, the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences announced their nominations for the 2007 Primetime Emmy Awards. Heroes was nominated in eight categories, including Outstanding Drama Series. The first episode, "Genesis", earned six nominations: Outstanding Directing (David Semel), Outstanding Art Direction for a Single-Camera Series, Outstanding Single-Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series, Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series, and Outstanding Stunt Coordination. The episode "Five Years Gone" also received a nomination for Outstanding Visual Effects for a Series. Masi Oka was nominated for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series. On September 16, 2007, the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards were held and Heroes failed to win a single Emmy award despite the eight nominations. On July 21, 2007, the Television Critics Association awarded Heroes with the prestigious Outstanding Program of the Year title during their 23rd Annual TCA Awards ceremony. The cast of Heroes was named in the 2006 Time magazine's Person of the Year issue under "People Who Mattered".
Ratings
The pilot episode generated 14.3 million viewers, with the season high topping out at 16.03 million viewers for episode 9. When the series returned from hiatus on January 22, 2007, the ratings averaged about the same as the pilot with 14.9 million viewers. When the show went on a second hiatus during the first season, from March 4, 2007, to April 23, 2007 (7 weeks), ratings hit a new low; the lowest being 11.14 million viewers during part one of the three part finale, "The Hard Part." In season two, the opener gained the highest rating of the entire series, however, week-by-week, the ratings declined, reaching another new low for the series on episode seven, "Out of Time", with only 9.87 million viewers. Although the ratings were lower than average, this episode was considered to be a turning point for the declining season, as a major plot twist was introduced and the volume's "big picture storyline" was presented. The season two/volume 2 finale generated 11.06 million viewers in the ratings, down more than 3 million viewers from the season opener and series pilot.
While the show premiered with high ratings, ratings slowly diminished throughout its run. The first episode of season two was the highest viewed, whereas each successive season had fewer viewers than the one preceding it.
Season three of Heroes started with strong ratings that dropped steadily throughout the season. The season's finale placed last in its timeslot.
The season four premiere of Heroes was the lowest rated episode of the series to that point, averaging 5.9 million viewers. Despite the season's low ratings, executive producer Tim Kring was "fully expecting" a fifth season. However, while creator Kring was hopeful over the show's future, many media insiders were not so confident. There was growing speculation on some news sites that NBC would cancel the series at the conclusion of its fourth season or that it might renew the show for a fifth and final season by ordering either 6 or 13 episodes and possibly airing them as a backup or mid-season replacement. On May 14, 2010, NBC made it official that Heroes was indeed cancelled.
Promotions and fandom
Following the debut of Heroes in 2006, the tagline Save the Cheerleader, Save the World was recognized within the television industry as an effective marketing device. In 2006, NBC also created a Heroes parody titled Zeroes. Zeroes, which was released as a viral video on sites including YouTube, features parodies including four chapters and an open audition. Development and production of the project was kept secret from Kring. NBC hosted panels at the 2006, 2007, 2008, and 2009 Comic-Cons in San Diego to promote the series. Major announcements have been made during the panel, along with sneak peeks of forthcoming seasons. In 2006, the Heroes panel presented the entire season one 72-minute pilot. In 2008 the first half of the season three premiere was shown. Comic-Con also allows the cast and crew to answer questions from the press and from fans. On July 21, 2007, Kring announced that cast and crew members of Heroes would travel the world for the Heroes World Tour to promote the season one DVD release and the forthcoming season two. The tour took place in North America (New York and Toronto), Asia (Singapore, Tokyo, and Hong Kong) and Europe (Munich, Paris and London). The tour began on August 26, and ended on September 1, 2007. The post-hardcore bands Alesana and I See Stars have both respectively named songs after the show, "This Is Usually the Part Where People Scream" and "Save the Cheerleader".
Distribution
Home media
The first DVD release of Heroes was a sampler disc, containing only the first episode, and was released in Ireland and the UK on September 3, 2007. UK Region 2 split Heroes into two-halves on its initial release; part one being released on October 1, 2007, and part two on December 10, 2007. When the second part was released, a complete first season boxset was also released on the same day on both DVD and HD DVD formats The complete first season DVD includes nearly 3 hours of bonus features including: an extended 73-minute version of the pilot episode with audio commentary; 50 deleted and extended scenes; behind the scenes featurettes, including the making of Heroes, stunts, a profile of artist Tim Sale, and the score; and audio commentaries with cast, crew and Kring. On February 22, 2008, the Heroes Season One DVD was nominated for a 2008 Saturn Award, in the category of "Best Television Series on DVD." The complete first season was released in USA and Canada on August 28, 2007. It was released in Australia and New Zealand on September 17, 2007.
Universal Studios Home Entertainment and Sony Pictures Home Entertainment has announced that the first and second seasons would be released on Blu-ray on August 26, 2008, the same date as the DVD release of the second season. Specifications and bonus features include: Generations Alternate Ending; Inside the Alternate Ending: What if Peter didn't catch the virus?; untold stories that didn't make it on air; Season three sneak peek; deleted scenes; a documentary on Takezo Kensei; behind the scenes featurettes; NBC.com featurettes; and audio commentaries with cast, crew and show creator Tim Kring. The complete second season was released on July 28, 2008, in the UK. Season 2 was released on October 1, 2008, in New Zealand and Australia.
The Season 3 DVD Box set was released in North America on September 1, 2009, and in Australia on September 2, 2009, with an alternative cover, and in the UK on October 12, 2009.
The Season 4 DVD Box set was released on August 3, 2010, in the US and on October 4, 2010, in the UK.
The Complete Series DVD Box set was released on November 16, 2010, in the US.
International
In Canada, Heroes episodes run concurrently with the NBC first-run on the Global Television Network, Mondays at 10 p.m. ET. A Canadian French-dubbed version of season one also airs on TVA, Thursdays at 9:00 p.m. and two episodes of season two on Mystère (addikTV), Mondays at 8:00 p.m.
The first season aired in Australia on the Seven Network Wednesday nights at 8:30 p.m. The series debuted strongly, attracting more than 2 million viewers in five of the capital cities. To keep viewer numbers high the Seven Network began showing the second season on Thursday nights at 9:30 p.m. across all areas, a week after the US screening. The third season began airing on October 9, 2008, and Volume 4 began airing on April 23, 2009. Because of low ratings, it was pushed back half-an-hour to 11:00 p.m. after Scrubs and the season concluded July 9, 2009. The Sci-Fi (available through Foxtel, Optus TV and Austar) screened season two re-runs in late 2009. From June 2010, season three is screening on the Sci-Fi Channel in Australia. Season four aired, approximately one month behind the US, on Seven's new digital channel 7Two, on November 4, 2009, at the new time of Wednesdays 8:30 p.m. It started with the double premiere and had double episode runs instead of one episode a week, until it caught up to the US, after that it began to air episodes once a week at 8:30 p.m. It currently airs on Thursdays 9:30 p.m. on 7Two.
In the United Kingdom, the series first aired on February 19, 2007, on digital channel Sci Fi UK. The series averaged 450,000 viewers, which is almost four times more viewers than those of other programs on Sci Fi UK. The series was then picked up by the BBC, which gave season one its terrestrial premiere from July 25 to December 5, 2007, on BBC Two. Season two of Heroes first aired from April 24 to July 3, 2008, on BBC Two, attracting around 3.7 million viewers. Season three began on October 1, 2008, and gained 3.81 million viewers. Season four began on January 9, 2010, but viewership as of February 8 had declined to just 0.74 million.
In Indonesia, Season 1 aired on Trans TV on weeknights starting from January 31, 2007, at 6:00 p.m. WIB. All subsequent seasons aired on Trans7 on Wednesdays starting from August 6, 2007, at 8:00 p.m. WIB.
Merchandise
Ubisoft announced that they had licensed the rights to produce a Heroes video game; however, the company later chose to give the rights back to NBCUniversal. Gameloft released the first Heroes mobile game on October 5, 2007. It consists of 8 levels and playable characters include Hiro Nakamura, Niki Sanders and Peter Petrelli.
Each week, NBC released a Heroes webcomic. The comics gave additional character background and plot information not shown in the television episodes. The graphic novels continued on a weekly basis during the show's 2007 summer hiatus. Wildstorm, a subsidiary of DC Comics, released them in published form on November 7, 2007. The first collected volume included novels 1–34, and featured two different covers by Alex Ross and Jim Lee as well as an introduction by Masi Oka and artwork by Tim Sale. The second volume included 35–80. It has an advertisement for a third volume, that would at least have 81–103, and more, and it was scheduled for fall 2009. For unknown reasons, it missed this deadline and has not been released.
On December 26, 2007, the only Heroes novel was published, titled Saving Charlie. Written by Aury Wallington, who wrote the book with the full cooperation of the Heroes writing staff, the novel revolves around the relationship of Hiro Nakamura and Charlie Andrews, when Hiro went back in time six months to attempt to save her.
Titan Magazines released the first issue of Heroes Magazine on November 20, 2007. It is the first of a series of six, slated to be released bi-monthly. The first issue is a 100-page premiere issue. Feature articles include a cast group interview, a secret origins featurette, and a season one episode guide. Greg Beeman, executive producer of Heroes has confirmed that this is an official Heroes release, with the full support and cooperation of Tim Kring and the rest of the Heroes production team. The magazine ceased publication with the twelfth issue.
Mezco announced at Toy Fair 2007 that they would be producing a line of action figures based on the television show Heroes. The first series, Series I, includes Peter Petrelli, Claire Bennet, Hiro Nakamura, Sylar and Mohinder Suresh. The second series, Series II, includes Niki Sanders/Jessica Sanders, Noah Bennet, Daniel Linderman, Matt Parkman (with Molly Walker) and Claude.
Multimedia
Television and radio
Heroes Unmasked is a series on BBC that goes behind-the-scenes of the production of Heroes. Many details of Heroes are revealed. Among them are props, set design, blue and green screen animation, and special effects and costuming. The first two series of this show were narrated by Anthony Head, the third by Santiago Cabrera. U.S. network G4 began airing Heroes episodes on November 3, 2007, along with an American version of Heroes Unmasked titled The Post Show. The series, aired following Heroes, included interviews, live viewer commentary, interactive polls, behind-the-scenes footage and other Heroes content. U.S. Network MOJO HD also aired Heroes episodes in High Definition. However, that network left the air at the start of December 2008, and on the day and date of MOJO's discontinuation G4 launched their HD simulcast feed, thus now carrying the show in both regular and high definition forms.
In November 2007, the BBC made four short '2 Dimensional' films where actors from the series look through a '2' shaped hole into a room that reflects the character they play in Heroes. A new short was revealed just before episode one of season three aired on BBC2, featuring Masi Oka staring into an anime-styled montage of Hiro.
BBC7 radio broadcast "Heroes—The Official Radio Show" with Jon Holmes, every Saturday at 7:30 on BBC7 DAB digital radio. The program was also available as a podcast.
Internet and digital extensions
The Heroes production team also has official series content on the internet. Writers Joe Pokaski and Aron Coleite hold a "Question and Answer" column hosted by Comic Book Resources titled "Behind the Eclipse". Show producer and director Greg Beeman also posts weekly on his blog where he discusses how the episode is filmed and gives spoilers for the upcoming episode.
Heroes Evolutions, released on January 19, 2007, is a digital extension of the series that explores the Heroes universe and provides clues to the show's mythology. It was titled Heroes 360 Experience throughout the first season and rebranded for the second season. Heroes Interactive is an interactive web page that began operation on January 29, 2007, during the airing of "The Fix". Hosted at NBC.com, it offers behind the scenes information, polls, trivia, and quizzes, as well as recent posts by Hana Gitelman. The features air once a week, and are designed to be viewed concurrently with that week's episode.
Complete episodes of Heroes are available online, to US residents only, along with downloads through the "NBC Direct" service. Episodes are also available on iTunes in 720p High Definition, although they were unavailable for a few months when NBC and Apple Inc. were unable to come to a renewal deal. Seasons 1, 2, 3, and 4 are currently available for streaming via subscription on Netflix, Amazon Video, and Hulu Plus.
NBC Universal announced on April 2, 2008, that NBC Digital Entertainment would release a series on online content for the summer and fall of 2008, including more original web content and webisodes. Heroes webisodes are expected to air through an extension of the Heroes Evolutions in July. Other media and digital extensions announced include an online manhunts for the villains, the addition of more micro sites that allow the users to uncover more of the Heroes universe, wireless iTV interactivity and the ability to view the graphic novel on mobile platforms.
Create Your Hero is a fan-based, interactive promotion on NBC.com, which calls upon Heroes fans to vote on various personalities and physical attributes for the creation of a new hero. The new hero "[comes] to life" in an original, live-action series run exclusively on NBC.com. The promotion is sponsored by Sprint. The first hero created by this process, Santiago, has the dual powers of enhanced probability and superhuman speed. He began appearing in the live-action web series, Heroes: Destiny, on November 10, 2008 (sweeps week). On October 18, 2008, Heroes Wiki announced that it had officially partnered with NBC. NBC now directs those interested in a wiki on Heroes to Heroes Wiki, and directly funds the site in exchange for the site running advertisements for the network.
Legal issues
On March 19, 2007, Clifton Mallery and Amnau Karam Eele filed suit against NBC and Tim Kring claiming that the idea for Isaac Mendez, who can paint the future was stolen from a short story, painting and short film that they had produced. The suit was dismissed. On December 11, 2007, the New York Law Journal reported on Mallery v. NBC Universal, quoting from Southern District Judge Denise Cote's opinion that "the line between mere 'ideas' and protected 'expression' is 'famously difficult to fix precisely'", and stating that Heroes was not close to infringing.
See also
2006 in American television
References
External links
9th Wonders! – Semi-official site from Heroes creator Tim Kring
2000s American science fiction television series
2006 American television series debuts
2010s American science fiction television series
2010 American television series endings
American superhero television series
American thriller television series
Fiction with unreliable narrators
BAFTA winners (television series)
Dissociative identity disorder in television
Dyslexia in fiction
English-language television shows
Television series about genetic engineering
Lesbian-related television shows
NBC original programming
Nonlinear narrative television series
Saturn Award-winning television series
Serial drama television series
Neo-noir television series
Television series by Universal Television
Television series created by Tim Kring
Television shows filmed in Santa Clarita, California
Television shows set in Los Angeles
Television shows set in New York City
Television shows filmed in Los Angeles
American time travel television series
American fantasy drama television series
2000s American time travel television series
2010s American time travel television series
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20playwrights%20by%20nationality%20and%20year%20of%20birth
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List of playwrights by nationality and year of birth
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Dramatists listed in chronological order by country and language:
See also: List of playwrights; List of early-modern British women playwrights; Lists of writers
Albania
See also: List of Albanian writers
(1850–1904) Sami Frashëri
Assyria
See also: List of Assyrian writers
(born 1965) Rosie Malek-Yonan
(born 1969) Monica Malek-Yonan
Australia
(1799–1873) Henry Melville
(1813–1868) Charles Harpur
(1822–1878) William Akhurst
(1842–1880) Walter Cooper
(1843–1913) Garnet Walch
(1843–1908) Alfred Dampier
(1846–1881) Marcus Clarke
(1846–1918) Mary Foott
(1860–1921) Charles Haddon Spurgeon Chambers
(1865–1944) Alex Melrose
(1867–1905) Guy Boothby
(1869–1942) George Beeby
(1873–1953) Dora Wilcox
(1877–1946) Harry Tighe
(1878–1943) Louis Esson
(1865–1935) Carlton Dawe
(1881–1917) Sumner Locke
(1884–1946) Walter J. Turner
(1888–1954) Lionel Shave
(1894–1918) Adrian Consett Stephen
(1906–1954) Malcolm Afford
(1912–1988) Kylie Tennant
(1916–1999) Morris West
(1917–2000) Jack Davis
(born 1921) Ray Lawler
(1923–2002) Dorothy Hewett
(1927–2015) Alan Seymour
(born 1933) Wendy Richardson
(born 1941) Kenneth G. Ross
(born 1942) David Williamson
(1944–2006) Alex Buzo
(1948–1997) Roger Bennett
(1948–2017) Jimmy Chi
(1950–2003) Nick Enright
(born 1950) Louis Nowra
(born 1953) Justin Fleming
(born 1955) Michael Gow
(born 1959) Richard Frankland
(born 1960) Jane Harrison
(1964–1989) Bill Neskovski
(born 1969) Wesley Enoch
(born 1978) Van Badham
(born 1978) Lally Katz
(born 1978) Tom Taylor
Austria
See also: List of German-language playwrights; List of German-language authors; List of Austrian writers
(1791–1872) Franz Grillparzer
(1801–1862) Johann Nestroy
(1814–1874) Friedrich Kaiser
(1839–1889) Ludwig Anzengruber
(1863–1934) Hermann Bahr
(1866–1945) Richard Beer-Hofmann
(1874–1929) Hugo von Hofmannsthal
(1874–1936) Karl Kraus
(1880–1942) Robert Musil
(1885–1969) Franz Theodor Csokor
(1886–1980) Oskar Kokoschka
(1891–1958) Ferdinand Bruckner
(1895–1959) Arnolt Bronnen
(1897–1976) Alexander Lernet-Holenia
(1901–1938) Ödön von Horváth
(1911–1986) Fritz Hochwälder
(1921–1988) Erich Fried
(1941–2005) Wolfgang Bauer
(born 1942) Peter Handke
(born 1944) Peter Turrini
Azerbaijan
See also: List of Azerbaijani dramatists and playwrights
(1854–1926) Najaf bey Vazirov
(1865–1927) Sakina Akhundzadeh
(1870–1930) Abdurrahim bey Hagverdiyev
(1872–1950) Mammed Said Ordubadi
(1874–1918) Abbas Sahhat
(1875–1939) Suleyman Sani Akhundov
(1879–1945) Huseyngulu Sarabski
(1882–1941) Huseyn Javid
(1899–1934) Jafar Jabbarly
(1910–1981) Rasul Rza
(1911–1993) Mirza Ibrahimov
(1913–1981) Nigar Rafibeyli
(born 1927) Vidadi Babanli
(1935–2016) Magsud Ibrahimbeyov
(born 1937) Hamid Arzulu
(born 1938) Anar Rzayev
(born 1949) Natig Rasulzadeh
(born 1957) Afag Masud
Bangladesh
(1925–1971) Munir Chowdhury
(1942–2008) Abdullah Al Mamun
(1903–1971) Momtazuddin Ahmed
(born 1948) Mamunur Rashid
(1949–2008) Selim Al Deen
Belarus
(1880–1948) Peretz Hirschbein
(1888–1962) H. Leivick
Belgium
(1862–1949) Maurice Maeterlinck
(1885–1970) Fernand Crommelynck
(1898–1962) Michel de Ghelderode
(1913–2012) Félicien Marceau
(1945–1999) Michèle Fabien
(born 1960) Éric-Emmanuel Schmitt
Bosnia and Herzegovina
(born 1955) Zlatko Topčić
(born 1944) Abdulah Sidran
(1950–2015) Safet Plakalo
(born 1962) Nenad Veličković
Brazil
(1815–1848) Martins Pena
(1831–1852) Álvares de Azevedo
(1839–1908) Machado de Assis
(1857–1913) Aluísio Azevedo
(1912–1980) Nelson Rodrigues
(1923–2012) Millôr Fernandes
(1927–2014) Ariano Suassuna
(1931–2009) Augusto Boal
(1948–1996) Caio Fernando Abreu
Canada
See also: List of Canadian playwrights; List of Canadian writers; List of Quebec writers; List of French Canadian writers from outside Quebec; List of Canadian plays
(1893–1975) Merrill Denison
(1909–1999) Gratien Gélinas
(1913–1995) Robertson Davies
(1930–2016) Marcel Dubé
(born 1961) Vittorio Rossi
(born 1964) David Gow
Czech Republic
See also: List of Czech writers
(1884–1968) Max Brod
(1889–1942) Paul Kornfeld
(1890–1938) Karel Čapek
(1936–2011) Václav Havel
Denmark
See also: List of Danish authors
(1684–1754) Ludvig Holberg
(1779–1850) Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger
(1791–1860) Johan Ludvig Heiberg
(1797–1870) Henrik Hertz
(1898–1944) Kaj Munk
(1901–1961) Kjeld Abell
Dominica
(1948–2023) Alwin Bully
Egypt
(1835–1902) Abu Khalil Qabbani
Estonia
(1751–1792) Jakob Lenz
France
See also: List of French playwrights; List of French language authors
(died c. 1210) Jean Bodel
(c. 1237–c. 1288) Adam de la Halle
(c. 1470/80–c. 1538/39) Pierre Gringoire
(1532–1573) Étienne Jodelle
(c. 1535–c. 1607) Jean de La Taille
(1540–1619) Pierre de Larivey
(1544–1590) Robert Garnier
(c. 1570–1632) Alexandre Hardy
(1595–1676) Jean Desmaretz de Saint-Sorlin
(1601–1667) Georges de Scudéry
(1604–1686) Jean Mairet
(1606–1658) Pierre Du Ryer
(1606–1684) Pierre Corneille
(1622–1673) Molière
(1625–1709) Thomas Corneille
(1635–1688) Philippe Quinault
(1638–1701) Edme Boursault
(1639–1699) Jean Racine
(1640–1723) David-Augustin de Brueys
(1650–1721) Jean Palaprat
(1654–1724) Charles Rivière Dufresny
(1659–1741) Augustin Nadal
(1661–1725) Florent Carton Dancourt
(1668–1747) Alain-René Lesage
(1674–1762) Prosper Jolyot de Crébillon
(1680–1754) Philippe Néricault Destouches
(1688–1763) Pierre Carlet de Marivaux
(1692–1754) Pierre-Claude Nivelle de La Chaussée
(1694–1778) Voltaire
(1709–1777) Jean-Baptiste Louis Gresset
(1713–1784) Denis Diderot
(1732–1799) Pierre de Beaumarchais
(1740–1814) Louis-Sébastien Mercier
(1750–1794) Philippe François Nazaire Fabre d'Églantine
(1793–1843) Casimir-Jean-François Delavigne
(1798–1855) Adam Mickiewicz
(1799–1850) Honoré de Balzac
(1802–1870) Alexandre Dumas, père
(1802–1885) Victor Hugo
(1804–1876) George Sand
(1805–1882) Henri Auguste Barbier
(1810–1857) Alfred de Musset
(1811–1899) Adolphe Philippe d'Ennery
(1812–1859) Zygmunt Krasiński
(1815–1888) Eugène Marin Labiche
(1820–1889) Émile Augier
(1823–1891) Théodore de Banville
(1824–1895) Alexandre Dumas, fils
(1831–1897) Henri Meilhac
(1834–1908) Ludovic Halévy
(1837–1899) Henry Becque
(1840–1897) Alphonse Daudet
(1842–1908) François Coppée
(1848–1912) Alexandre Bisson
(1848–1917) Octave Mirbeau
(1848–1918) Georges Ohnet
(1853–1914) Jules Lemaître
(1854–1928) François de Curel
(1857–1915) Paul Hervieu
(1858–1922) Alfred Capus
(1858–1929) Georges Courteline
(1858–1932) Eugène Brieux
(1859–1940) Henri Lavedan
(1859–1945) Maurice Donnay
(1861–1949) Lucien Descaves
(1862–1921) Georges Feydeau
(1862–1949) Maurice Maeterlinck
(1866–1947) Tristan Bernard
(1868–1918) Edmond Rostand
(1868–1955) Paul Claudel
(1869–1915) Gaston de Caillavet
(1869–1955) Émile Fabre
(1872–1922) Henri Bataille
(1872–1927) Robert de Flers
(1873–1907) Alfred Jarry
(1875–1937) Henri Duvernois
(1875–1944) Henri Ghéon
(1876–1953) Henri Bernstein
(1877–1937) Francis de Croisset
(1879–1949) Jacques Copeau
(1880–1918) Guillaume Apollinaire
(1881–1958) Roger Martin du Gard
(1882–1941) James Joyce
(1882–1944) Jean Giraudoux
(1882–1951) Henri-René Lenormand
(1882–1962) René Fauchois
(1884–1973) Alexandre Arnoux
(1885–1957) Sacha Guitry
(1885–1970) François Mauriac
(1886–1970) Fernand Crommelynck
(1887–1945) Édouard Bourdet
(1888–1972) Jean-Jacques Bernard
(1889–1963) Jean Cocteau
(1889–1973) Gabriel Marcel
(1890–1974) André Birabeau
(1892–1975) André Obey
(1894–1972) Jacques Deval
(1895–1970) Jean Giono
(1896–1948) Antonin Artaud
(1896–1972) Henry de Montherlant
(1899–1965) Jacques Audiberti
(1899–1974) Marcel Achard
(1900–1982) Georges Neveux
(1900–1998) Julien Green
(1902–1967) Marcel Aymé
(1905–1980) Jean-Paul Sartre
(1906–1989) Samuel Beckett
(1908–1970) Arthur Adamov
(1909–1988) Thierry Maulnier
(1909–1994) Eugène Ionesco
(1910–1986) Jean Genet
(1910–1987) Jean Anouilh
(1912–1998) Félix Morisseau-Leroy
(1913–1960) Albert Camus
(1913–2012) Félicien Marceau
(1914–1996) Marguerite Duras
(1917–1987) Georges Arnaud
(1920–2011) Jean Dutourd
(1924–2017) Armand Gatti
(1927–1991) François Billetdoux
(1930–2013) Sławomir Mrożek
Georgia
See also: List of Georgian writers
(1802–1869) Alexander Orbeliani
(1813–1864) Giorgi Eristavi
(1824–1901) Raphael Eristavi
(1862–1931) David Kldiashvili
(1882–1962) Grigol Robakidze
(1904–1938) Gerzel Baazov
(born 1977) Lasha Bugadze
(born 1980) Nestan Kvinikadze
Germany
See also: List of German-language playwrights; List of German-language authors
(1616–1664) Andreas Gryphius
(1700–1766) Johann Christoph Gottsched
(1724–1803) Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock
(1729–1781) Gotthold Ephraim Lessing
(1737–1823) Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg
(1749–1825) Maler Müller
(1749–1832) Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
(1751–1792) Jakob Lenz
(1752–1806) Johann Anton Leisewitz
(1752–1831) Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger
(1759–1805) Friedrich Schiller
(1759–1814) August Wilhelm Iffland
(1761–1819) August von Kotzebue
(1770–1843) Friedrich Hölderlin
(1774–1829) Amandus Gottfried Adolf Müllner
(1777–1811) Heinrich von Kleist
(1788–1857) Baron Joseph von Eichendorff
(1796–1840) Karl Immermann
(1801–1836) Christian Dietrich Grabbe
(1806–1884) Heinrich Laube
(1811–1878) Karl Ferdinand Gutzkow
(1813–1837) Georg Büchner
(1813–1863) Friedrich Hebbel
(1813–1865) Otto Ludwig
(1816–1895) Gustav Freytag
(1839–1911) Martin Greif
(1862–1946) Gerhart Hauptmann
(1865–1944) Max Halbe
(1866–1933) Paul Ernst
(1870–1938) Ernst Barlach
(1876–1947) Ernst Hardt
(1878–1945) Georg Kaiser
(1882–1961) Leonhard Frank
(1884–1958) Lion Feuchtwanger
(1886–1969) Johannes von Guenther
(1887–1945) Bruno Frank
(1888–1960) Curt Goetz
(1889–1942) Paul Kornfeld
(1890–1940) Walter Hasenclever
(1894–1959) Hans Henny Jahnn
(1895–1952) Alfred Neumann
(1898–1956) Bertolt Brecht
(1901–1938) Ödön von Horváth
(1906–1970) Stefan Andres
(1906–1972) Eberhard Wolfgang Möller
(1910–1990) Ulrich Becher
(1916–1991) Wolfgang Hildesheimer
(1921–1947) Wolfgang Borchert
(1925–2017) Tankred Dorst
(1927–2015) Günter Grass
(1928–2003) Peter Hacks
(1931–2020) Rolf Hochhuth
Ghana
(1912–1998) Félix Morisseau-Leroy
(1924–1978) Joe de Graft
(1924–1996) Efua Sutherland
(1942–2023) Ama Ata Aidoo
(1946–2018) Asiedu Yirenkyi
Greece
See also: List of Greek artists
(c. 525 BC–c. 456 BC) Aeschylus
(c. 495 BC–c. 406 BC) Sophocles
(c. 485 BC–c. 406 BC) Euripides
(c. 448 BC–c. 400 BC) Agathon
(c. 445 BC–c. 385 BC) Aristophanes
(c. 343 BC–c. 290 BC) Menander
Haiti
(1912–1998) Félix Morisseau-Leroy
Hungary
See also: List of Hungarian writers
(1747–1811) György Bessenyei
(1773–1885) Mihály Csokonai Vitéz
(1786–1839) Izidor Guzmics
(1788–1830) Károly Kisfaludy
(1791–1830) József Katona
(1800–1855) Mihály Vörösmarty
(1800–1866) Gergely Czuczor
(1814–1878) Ede Szigligeti
(1823–1864) Imre Madách
(1842–1891) Gergely Csíky
(1845–1918) Lajos Dóczi
(1863–1954) Ferenc Herczeg
(1869–1944) Dezső Szomory
(1878–1952) Ferenc Molnár
(1880–1974) Melchior Lengyel
(1888–1967) Lajos Egri
(1890–1942) Sándor Hunyady
(1900–1975) Gyula Háy
(1901–1938) Ödön von Horváth
(1901–1975) László Németh
(1902–1983) Gyula Illyés
(1912–1979) István Örkény
(1917–2007) Magda Szabó
(1927–2006) András Sütő
(1930–1989) Erzsébet Galgóczi
(1932–2002) János Nyíri
(1934–2012) István Csurka
(1934–2022) György Moldova
(born 1942) Péter Nádas
(1943–2010) György Schwajda
(born 1946) György Spiró
(born 1950) Miklós Vámos
(born 1953) Lajos Parti Nagy
(born 1960) Zsolt Pozsgai
India
(1861–1941) Rabindranath Tagore
(1938–2019) Girish Karnad
Iran
(born 1938) Bahram Bayzai
(1939–2007) Akbar Radi
(born 1952) Rosie Malek-Yonan
(born 1954) Monica Malek-Yonan
Iraq
(1867–1950) Pîremêrd
Ireland
See also: List of Irish dramatists; List of writers from Northern Ireland
(1728–1774) Oliver Goldsmith
(1735–1812) Isaac Bickerstaffe
(1784–1862) James Sheridan Knowles
(c. 1820–1890) Dion Boucicault
(1852–1932) Lady Gregory
(1852–1933) George Moore
(1853–1923) William Boyle
(1854–1900) Oscar Wilde
(1856–1950) George Bernard Shaw
(1859–1923) Edward Martyn
(1860–1949) Douglas Hyde
(1865–1939) W.B. Yeats
(1871–1909) John Millington Synge
(1873–1956) James Cousins
(1873–1959) T. C. Murray
(1874–1949) Tadhg Ó Donnchadha
(1876–1913) Fred Ryan
(1877–1963) George Fitzmaurice
(1878–1916) Thomas MacDonagh
(1878–1957) Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany Lord Dunsany
(1880–1964) Seán O'Casey
(1881–1972) Padraic Colum
(1882–1941) James Joyce
(1883–1971) St. John Ervine
(1886–1958) Lennox Robinson
(1890–1963) Brinsley MacNamara
(1899–1978) Micheál MacLíammóir
(1900–1968) Paul Vincent Carroll
(1901–1984) Denis Johnston
(1902–1961) Edward Pakenham, 6th Earl of Longford
(1906–1989) Samuel Beckett
(1910–2001) Joseph O'Conor
(1912–1968) Donagh MacDonagh
(1923–1964) Brendan Behan
(1926–2009) Hugh Leonard
(1928–2002) John B. Keane
(1929–2015) Brian Friel
(born 1934) Thomas Kilroy
(1935–2018) Tom Murphy
(born 1949) Billy Roche
(born 1952) Peter Sheridan
(born 1953) Frank McGuinness
(born 1964) Marina Carr
(born 1967) Enda Walsh
(born 1971) Conor McPherson
(born 1971) Jimmy Murphy
Israel
See also: List of Hebrew language playwrights; List of Hebrew language authors
(1884–1968) Max Brod
(1900–1973) Avraham Shlonsky
(1910–1970) Nathan Alterman
(1924–2005) Ephraim Kishon
(1926–1998) Nisim Aloni
(born 1935) Dan Almagor
(1936–2022) A. B. Yehoshua
(born 1939) Yehoshua Sobol
(1943–1999) Hanoch Levin
(born 1954) Shmuel Hasfari
Italy
See also: List of Italian writers
(c. 1230–1306) Jacopone da Todi
(1261–1329) Albertino Mussato
(1469–1527) Niccolò Machiavelli
(1470–1520) Bernardo Dovizio da Bibbiena
(1474–1533) Ludovico Ariosto
(1492–1556) Pietro Aretino
(1492–1573) Donato Giannotti
(1503–1584) Anton Francesco Grazzini
(1504–1573) Giambattista Giraldi Cinthio
(1507–1566) Annibale Caro
(1508–c. 1568) Ludovico Dolce
(c. 1525–c. 1586) Giovanni Battista Cini
(1535–1615) Giambattista Della Porta
(1538–1612) Gian Battista Guarini
(1541–1585) Luigi Groto
(1548–1600) Giordano Bruno
(1568–1642) Michelangelo Buonarroti the Younger
(1576–1654) Giovan Battista Andreini
(1675–1755) Francesco Scipione, marchese di Maffei
(1698–1782) Pietro Metastasio
(1707–1793) Carlo Goldoni
(1712–1785) Pietro Chiari
(1720–1806) Carlo Gozzi
(1728–1787) Ferdinando Galiani
(1749–1803) Vittorio Alfieri
(1754–1828) Vincenzo Monti
(1776–1834) Giovanni Giraud
(1778–1827) Ugo Foscolo
(1785–1873) Alessandro Manzoni
(1800–1846) Carlo Marenco
(1816–1882) Paolo Giacometti
(1822–1889) Paolo Ferrari
(1830–1881) Pietro Cossa
(1839–1915) Luigi Capuana
(1842–1911) Antonio Fogazzaro
(1847–1906) Giuseppe Giacosa
(1852–1909) Alfredo Oriani
(1860–1934) Salvatore Di Giacomo
(1861–1943) Roberto Bracco
(1863–1938) Gabriele D'Annunzio
(1867–1927) Augusto Novelli
(1867–1936) Luigi Pirandello
(1874–1934) Dario Niccodemi
(1876–1944) Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
(1877–1949) Sem Benelli
(1878–1960) Massimo Bontempelli
(1880–1918) Guillaume Apollinaire
(1880–1947) Luigi Chiarelli
(1882–1921) Ercole Luigi Morselli
(1892–1953) Ugo Betti
(1898–1992) Valentino Bompiani
(1900–1984) Eduardo De Filippo
(1907–1954) Vitaliano Brancati
(1911–1980) Diego Fabbri
(1911–2007) Gian Carlo Menotti
(1916-1991) Natalia Ginzburg
(1922–1975) Pier Paolo Pasolini
(1926–2016) Dario Fo
Japan
See also: List of Japanese writers
(1363–1443) Seami Motokiyo Zeami}
(1653–1725) Chikamatsu Monzaemon
Kurdistan
(1867–1950) Pîremêrd
Latvia
(1751–1792) Jakob Lenz
Lebanon
(1933–2017) Jalal Khoury
Lithuania
(1882–1957) Antanas Vienuolis
(1882–1954) Vincas Krėvė-Mickevičius
(1893–1967) Vincas Mykolaitis-Putinas
(1910–1961) Antanas Škėma
(1930–2011) Justinas Marcinkevičius
(born 1950) Ričardas Gavelis
Macedonia
(1964–1989) Blagoje "Bill" Neskovski
Mexico
(born 1973) Conchi León
Morocco
See also: List of Moroccan writers
(1938–2009) Abdelkebir Khatibi
(1938–2016) Tayeb Seddiki
(born 1953) Abdallah Zrika
Nepal
See also: List of Nepali writers
(1903–1981) Balkrishna Sama
(1909–1959) Laxmi Prasad Devkota
(born 1945) Abhi Subedi
(born 1967) Suman Pokhrel
Netherlands
See also: List of Dutch language writers
(1454–1507)? Peter van Diest
(1487–1558) Macropedius
(1522–1590) Dirck Coornhert
(1579–1665) Samuel Coster
(1581–1647) Pieter Corneliszoon Hooft
(1584–1635) Willem van Nieulandt II
(1585–1618) Gerbrand Bredero
(1587–1679) Joost van den Vondel
(1601–1646) Jan Harmenszoon Krul
(1612–1667) Jan Vos
(1629–1681) Lodewijk Meyer
(1631–1669) Catharina Questiers
(1639–1672) Joan Blasius
(1640–1670) Willem Godschalck van Focquenbroch
(1640–1709) Pieter Nuyts
(1649–1713) Govert Bidloo
(1664–1721) Abraham Alewijn
(1682–1729) Maria de Wilde
(1683–1756) Pieter Langendijk
(1688–1727) Hermanus Angelkot Jr.
(1759–1837) Jan van Walré
(1854-1938) August Kiehl
(1864–1924) Herman Heijermans
(1869–1952) Henriette Roland Holst
(1871-1964) Jan Fabricius
(1872–1929) Inte Onsman
(1878–1942) Rudolf Besier
(1882-1937) Henri van Wermeskerken
(1891–1966) Watse Cuperus
(1893–1989) Abel Herzberg
(1896–1962) Maurits Dekker
(1911–1995) Annie M. G. Schmidt
(1912–1993) Max Croiset
(1918–1992) Hans Heyting
(1927–2010) Harry Mulisch
(born 1934) Judith Herzberg
(born 1938) Thea Doelwijt
(1939–2014) Seth Gaaikema
(1943–1995) Ischa Meijer
(1944–2012) Gerrit Komrij
(born 1946) Adriaan van Dis
(born 1946) Paul Haenen
(born 1946) Wim T. Schippers
(born 1951) Willem Jan Otten
(born 1952) Alex van Warmerdam
(born 1952) Vonne van der Meer
(born 1954) Youp van 't Hek
(born 1956) Arjan Ederveen
(born 1971) Arnon Grunberg
Nigeria
(born 1934) Wole Soyinka
(1941–1995) Ken Saro-Wiwa
(born 1948) Bode Sowande
(born 1964) Sefi Atta
(1967–2022) Biyi Bandele
Norway
See also: List of Norwegian writers
(1684–1754) Ludvig Holberg
(1828–1906) Henrik Ibsen
(1832–1910) Bjornstjerne Bjornson
(1857–1929) Gunnar Heiberg
(1889–1962) Helge Krog
(1902–1943) Nordahl Grieg
Pakistan
(1914–1999) Mirza Adeeb
(1941–2021) Haseena Moin
Poland
See also: List of Polish language authors
(1616–1664) Andreas Gryphius
(1793–1876) Aleksander Fredro
(1798–1855) Adam Mickiewicz
(c. 1800–c. 1855) Solomon Ettinger
(1809–1849) Juliusz Słowacki
(1811–1899) Abraham Dov Ber Gotlober
(1812–1859) Zygmunt Krasiński
(1820–1869) Apollo Korzeniowski
(1860–1921) Gabriela Zapolska
(1868–1927) Stanisław Przybyszewski
(1869–1907) Stanisław Wyspiański
(1874–1915) Jerzy Żuławski
(1880–1957) Sholem Asch
(1885–1939) Stanisław Ignacy Witkiewicz (Witkacy)
(1904–1969) Witold Gombrowicz
(1920–2005) Karol Wojtyła (Pope John Paul II)
(1930–2013) Sławomir Mrożek
(1938–2017) Janusz Głowacki
(1989) Weronika Murek
Portugal
See also: List of Portuguese language authors
(1465–1536) Gil Vicente
(1799–1854) João Batista de Almeida Garrett
(1906–1997) António Gedeão
(1922–2010) José Saramago
Romania
See also: List of Romanian playwrights and List of Romanian writers
(1821–1890) Vasile Alecsandri
(1840–1908) Abraham Haim Lipke Goldfaden
(1852–1912) Ion Luca Caragiale
(1858–1918) Barbu Delavrancea
(1909–1994) Eugène Ionesco
Russia
See also: List of Russian language writers
(c. 1745–1792) Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin
(1751–1792) Jakob Lenz
(1752–1831) Friedrich Maximilian von Klinger
(1795–1829) Aleksandr Sergeyevich Griboyedov
(1809–1852) Nikolay Vasilyevich Gogol
(1814–1841) Mikhail Yuryevich Lermontov
(1823–1886) Aleksandr Nikolayevich Ostrovsky
(1856–1909) Innokenty Fyodorovich Annensky
(1860–1904) Anton Pavlovich Chekhov
(1863–1920) S. Anski
(1868–1936) Maxim Gorky
(1871–1919) Leonid Nikolayevich Andreyev
(1880–1921) Aleksandr Aleksandrovich Blok
(1880–1948) Peretz Hirschbein
(1888–1962) H. Leivick
(1891–1940) Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov
(1893–1930) Vladimir Vladimirovich Mayakovsky
(1894–1941) Isaak Emmanuilovich Babel
(1895–1963) Vsevolod Vyacheslavovich Ivanov
(1897–1986) Valentin Petrovich Katayev
(1899–1994) Leonid Maksimovich Leonov
(1904–1941) Aleksandr Nikolayevich Afinogenov
Senegal
(1912–1998) Félix Morisseau-Leroy
Serbia
(1791–1847) Sima Milutinović Sarajlija
(1793–1830) Georgije Magarašević
(1806–1956) Jovan Sterija Popović
(1818–1903) Matija Ban
(1832–1878) Đura Jakšić
(1843–1875) Kosta Trifković
(1847–1908) Milovan Glišić
(1858–1926) Dragutin Ilić
(1864–1938) Branislav Nušić
(1884–1968) Vojislav Jovanović Marambo
(1886–1974) Velimir Živojinović Massuka
(1887–1952) Mir-Jam
(1888–1969) Toma Smiljanić-Bradina
(1895–1976) Vladimir Velmar-Janković
(1900–1924) Dušan Vasiljev
(1924–1989) Mira Trailović
(1928–2009) Danko Popović
(1929–2009) Milorad Pavić
(1930–1992) Borislav Pekić
(1933–2014) Svetlana Velmar-Janković
(1938) Gordan Mihić
(1938) Svetozar Vlajković
(1940) Filip David
(1940) Miodrag Novaković
(1941–1991) Milan Milišić
(1941) Vida Ognjenović
(1948) Zorica Jevremović
(1948) Dušan Kovačević
(1948–2021) Bratislav Petković
(1948) Božidar Zečević
(1950) Stojan Srdić
(1951–2015) Mladen Dražetin
(1954) Siniša Kovačević
(1954) Radoslav Pavlović
(1959) Branislav Pipović
(1969) Đorđe Milosavljević
(1969) Zoran Stefanović
(1970) Branislava Ilić
Slovenia
See also: List of Slovenian playwrights
(1831–1887) Fran Levstik
(1871–1962) Fran Saleški Finžgar
(1876–1918) Ivan Cankar
(1878–1949) Oton Župančič
(1930–1987) Gregor Strniša
(born 1948) Drago Jančar
Spain
See also: List of Spanish language authors
(c. 1469–1530) Juan del Encina
(1474–1542) Lucas Fernández
(1547–1616) Miguel de Cervantes
(c. 1550–1610) Juan de la Cueva
(1562–1635) Lope de Vega
(1569–1631) Guillén de Castro y Bellvís
(1569–c. 1644) Feliciana Enríquez de Guzmán
(c. 1574–1644) Antonio Mira de Amescua
(c. 1575–1648) Tirso de Molina
(1587–1650) Luis de Belmonte y Bermúdez
(1596–1661) Álvaro Cubillo de Aragón
(1600–1681) Pedro Calderón de la Barca
(1611–1652) Antonio Coello y Ochoa
(1618–1669) Agustín Moreto y Cabaña
(1622–1714) Juan Claudio de la Hoz y Mota
(1625–1687) Juan Bautista Diamante
(1662–1704) Francisco Antonio Bances y López-Candamo
(1676–1750) José de Cañizares
(1731–1794) Ramón de la Cruz
(1734–1787) Vicente Antonio García de la Huerta
(1737–1780) Nicolás Fernández de Moratín
(1760–1828) Leandro Fernández de Moratín
(1787–1862) Francisco Martínez de la Rosa
(1793–1861) Antonio Gil y Zárate
(1796–1873) Manuel Bretón de los Herreros
(1806–1880) Juan Eugenio Hartzenbusch y Martínez
(1809–1837) Mariano José de Larra y Sánchez de Castro
(1813–1884) Antonio García Gutiérrez
(1828–1879) Adelardo López de Ayala y Herrera
(1832–1916) José Echegaray
(1834–1903) Gaspar Núñez de Arce
(1863–1917) Joaquín Dicenta y Benedicto
(1866–1936) Ramón del Valle-Inclán
(1866–1943) Carlos Arniches y Barrera
(1866–1954) Jacinto Benavente
(1871–1938) Serafín Álvarez Quintero
(1873–1944) Joaquín Álvarez Quintero
(1874–1947) Manuel Machado
(1875–1939) Antonio Machado
(1877–1958) Jacinto Grau Delgado
(1879–1946) Eduardo Marquina
(1881–1936) Pedro Muñoz Seca
(1881–1947) Gregorio Martínez Sierra
(1897–1975) Juan Ignacio Luca de Tena
(1898–1936) Federico García Lorca
(1899–1967) Edgar Neville
(1901–1952) Enrique Jardiel Poncela
(1902–1999) Rafael Alberti
(1903–1965) Alejandro Casona
(1903–1996) José López Rubio
(1905–1977) Miguel Mihura Santos
(1916–2000) Antonio Buero Vallejo
(born 1932) Fernando Arrabal
(1943–2021) Alfonso Vallejo
Catalonia
See also: List of Catalan-language writers
(1845–1924) Àngel Guimerà
Sweden
See also: List of Swedish language writers
(1849–1912) August Strindberg
(1883–1931) Hjalmar Bergman
(1891–1974) Pär Lagerkvist
(1918–1997) Werner Aspenström
(1923–1954) Stig Dagerman
(1928–2007) Lars Forssell
Ninna Tinsman
Switzerland
(1882–1941) James Joyce
(1886–1980) Oskar Kokoschka
(1911–1986) Fritz Hochwälder
(1911–1991) Max Frisch
(1921–1990) Friedrich Dürrenmatt
Syria
(1835–1902) Abu Khalil Qabbani
Turkey
(1850–1904) Sami Frashëri
(1867–1950) Pîremêrd
(born 1986) Hayati Citaklar
Ukraine
(1811–1899) Abraham Dov Ber Gotlober
(1840–1908) Abraham Haim Lipke Goldfaden
(1853–1909) Jacob Gordin
(1871–1913) Lesya Ukrainka
(born 1971) Eugenia Chuprina
United Kingdom
See also: List of British playwrights; British playwrights since 1950; List of early-modern British women playwrights
England
See also: List of English writers
(c. 1460–1502) Henry Medwall
(1495–1563) John Bale
(c. 1497–c. 1585) John Heywood
(1532–1584) Thomas Norton
(1535–1577) George Gascoigne
(c. 1553–1606) John Lyly
(1558–1592) Robert Greene
(1558–1594) Thomas Kyd
(c. 1560–1634) George Chapman
(1563–1631) Michael Drayton
(1564–1593) Christopher Marlowe
(1564–1616) William Shakespeare
(c. 1570–1641) Thomas Heywood
(c. 1572–1632) Thomas Dekker
(1572–1637) Ben Jonson
(1576–1634) John Marston
(1579–1625) John Fletcher
(1580–1627) Thomas Middleton
(1583–1640) Philip Massinger
(c. 1585–1616) Francis Beaumont
(c. 1585–after 1639) John Ford
(c. 1590–c. 1653) Richard Brome
(1606–1668) William Davenant
(1631–1700) John Dryden
(c. 1635–1691) George Etherege
(1640–1689) Aphra Behn
(c. 1640–c. 1703) John Crowne
(1652–1685) Thomas Otway
(c. 1653–1692) Nathaniel Lee
(c. 1667–1723) Susannah Centlivre
(1670–1729) William Congreve
(1671–1757) Colley Cibber
(1672–1719) Joseph Addison
(c. 1678–1707) George Farquhar
(1685–1732) John Gay
(1693–1739) George Lillo
(c. 1700–1766) William Rufus Chetwood
(1707–1754) Henry Fielding
(1717–1779) David Garrick
(1720–1777) Samuel Foote
(1728–1774) Oliver Goldsmith
(1732–1794) George Colman the Elder
(1732–1811) Richard Cumberland
(born 1773) Anna Ross
(1784–1862) James Sheridan Knowles
(1788–1824) George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (Lord Byron)
(1792–1847) Richard Brinsley Peake
(1794–1857) William Thomas Moncrieff
(1803–1857) Douglas William Jerrold
(1803–1873) Edward Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Baron Lytton
(before 1810–after 1838) Elizabeth Polack
(1817–1880) Tom Taylor
(1812–1889) Robert Browning
(1814–1884) Charles Reade
(1836–1911) W. S. Gilbert
(1843–1916) Henry James
(1848–1914) Sydney Grundy
(1851–1929) Henry Arthur Jones
(1852–1932) Lady Augusta Gregory (Lady Gregory)
(1853–1931) Hall Caine
(1859–1927) Jerome K. Jerome
(1860–1917) Florence Farr
(1860–1937) Sir James Matthew Barrie
(1865–1948) Alfred Edward Woodley Mason
(1865–1959) Laurence Housman
(1866–1945) Mrs Henry de la Pasture
(1867–1931) Arnold Bennett
(1867–1933) John Galsworthy
(1868–1946) Herbert Swears
(1869–1909) St. John Emile Clavering Hankin
(1877–1946) Harley Granville-Barker
(1878–1942) Rudolph Besier
(1878–1957) Edward Plunkett, 18th Baron of Dunsany (Lord Dunsany)
(1878–1967) John Masefield
(1881–1913) William Stanley Houghton
(1881–1954) Frederick Lonsdale
(1882–1937) John Drinkwater
(1882–1956) A. A. Milne
(1882–1958) Harold Brighouse
(1883–1971) St. John Ervine
(1884–1915) James Elroy Flecker
(1886–1962) Clifford Bax
(1886–1980) Oskar Kokoschka
(1888–1965) Clemence Dane
(1888–1965) T. S. Eliot
(1889–1946) John Colton
(1890–1976) Agatha Christie
(1893–1951) Ivor Novello
(1893–1964) Will Scott
(1894–1984) J. B. Priestley
(1896–1967) Margaret Kennedy
(1896–1975) R. C. Sherriff
(1899–1973) Noël Coward
(1900–1973) Benn W. Levy
(1901–1984) Denis Johnston
(1902–1961) Edward Pakenham, 6th Earl of Longford
(1904–1986) Christopher Isherwood
(1904–1991) Graham Greene
(1907–1973) W. H. Auden
(1907–2005) Christopher Fry
(1911–1977) Terence Rattigan
(1921–1988) Erich Fried
(1923–2009) John Mortimer
(1924–1995) Robert Bolt
(1924–2006) David Campton
(1924-2009) Royce Ryton
(1925–1994) Alun Owen
(1926–1999) Jim Allen
(1926–2001) Anthony Shaffer
(1926–2016) Peter Shaffer
(1927–2017) Ann Jellicoe
(1927–2019) Peter Nichols
(1928–1996) Frank Marcus
(1929–1994) John Osborne
(1929–1998) Henry Livings
(1930–2008) Harold Pinter
(1930–2012) John Arden
(1933–1967) Joe Orton
(born 1933) Michael Frayn
(born 1934) Alan Bennett
(born 1934) Edward Bond
(born 1934) Wole Soyinka
(1936–2008) Simon Gray
(born 1937) Tom Stoppard
(1938–2011) Shelagh Delaney
(born 1939) Alan Ayckbourn
(1945–2019) Barrie Keeffe
(born 1942) Howard Brenton
(born 1947) David Hare
(born 1957) Sue Lenier
(1971–1999) Sarah Kane
(born 1974) Leo Butler
Scotland
See also: List of Scottish dramatists
(c. 1490–c. 1555) David Lyndsay
(1860–1937) J. M. Barrie
(1888–1951) James Bridie
(1900–1968) Paul Vincent Carroll
(1907–1985) Robert McLellan
(1912–2006) Ena Lamont Stewart
(1918–1978) Joan Ure
(born 1951) Peter May
Wales
See also: List of Welsh writers
(1893–1951) Ivor Novello
(1925–1994) Alun Owen
(1893–1985) Saunders Lewis
United States
See also: List of playwrights from the United States; List of African-American writers; List of Jewish American playwrights
(1766–1839) William Dunlap
(1784–1842) Samuel Woodworth
(1784–1858) James Nelson Barker
(1793–1876) John Neal
(1806–1854) Robert Montgomery Bird
(1810–1858) Robert Taylor Conrad
(1819–1870) Anna Cora Mowatt
(c. 1820–1890) Dion Boucicault
(1823–1890) George H. Boker
(1830–1876) George Aiken
(1837–1920) William Dean Howells
(1838–1899) Augustin Daly
(1839–1901) James A. Herne
(1840–1908) Abraham Haim Lipke Goldfaden
(1842–1894) Steele MacKaye
(1842–1908) Bronson Howard
(1843–1916) Henry James
(1845–1911) Edward Harrigan
(1853–1909) Jacob Gordin
(1853–1931) David Belasco
(1855–1937) William Gillette
(1856–1932 or later) Cora Scott Pond Pope
(1856-1938) Eva Allen Alberti
(1862–1935) Langdon Mitchell
(1865–1909) Clyde Fitch
(1866–1935) George Pierce Baker
(1866–1944) George Ade
(1867-1937) Frances Nimmo Greene
(1869–1910) William Vaughn Moody
(1872–1949) Mary Lewis Langworthy
(1874–1938) Zona Gale
(1874–1956) Owen Davis
(1874–1965) W. Somerset Maugham
(1875–1956) Percy MacKaye
(1876–1948) Susan Glaspell
(1876–1962) Jules Eckert Goodman
(1878–1942) George M. Cohan
(1878–1952) Ferenc Molnár
(1878–1958) Rachel Crothers
(1880–1948) Peretz Hirschbein
(1880–1957) Sholem Asch
(1881–1972) Padraic Colum
(1882–1928) Avery Hopwood
(1882–1961) Leonhard Frank
(1883–1967) Martin Flavin
(1885–1940) DuBose Heyward
(1885–1942) William Alexander Percy
(1886–1958) Zoë Akins
(1887–1961) George S. Kaufman
(1887–1962) Robinson Jeffers
(1887–1968) Edna Ferber
(1887–1974) George Kelly
(1887–1995) George Abbott
(1888–1953) Eugene O'Neill
(1888–1959) Maxwell Anderson
(1888–1962) H. Leivick
(1888–1965) T. S. Eliot
(1889–1946) John Colton
(1889–1954) John L. Balderston
(1889–1968) Howard Lindsay
(1890–1980) Marc Connelly
(1890–1984) Frances Goodrich
(1891–1939) Sidney Howard
(1891–1957) Philip Dunning
(1891–1966) Anne Nichols
(1892–1950) Edna St. Vincent Millay
(1892–1966) Elmer Greensfelder
(1892–1982) Archibald MacLeish
(1893–1966) Russel Crouse
(1893–1973) S. N. Behrman
(1894–1962) E. E. Cummings
(1894–1964) Ben Hecht
(1894–1977) John Howard Lawson
(1894–1981) Paul Green
(1895–1943) Lorenz Hart
(1895–1952) Alfred Neumann
(1895–1956) Charles MacArthur
(1895–1960) Oscar Hammerstein, II
(1895–1966) Joseph Fields
(1896–1949) Philip Barry
(1896–1960) Edwin Justus Mayer
(1896–1974) Lawrence Riley
(1897–1958) F. Hugh Herbert
(1899–1967) Edgar Neville
(1899–1980) Elliott Nugent
(1900–1998) Julien Green
(1901–1969) Jack Kirkland
(1901–1984) Denis Johnston
(1901–1988) Paul Osborn
(1902–1967) Langston Hughes
(1902–1967) Joseph Kesselring
(1903–1987) Clare Boothe
(1904–1961) Moss Hart
(1904–1986) Christopher Isherwood
(1905–1964) Marc Blitzstein
(1905–1984) Lillian Hellman
(1906–1963) Clifford Odets
(1906–1995) Sidney Kingsley
(1907–1973) W. H. Auden
(1907–1981) Mary Coyle Chase
(1908–1981) William Saroyan
(1909–1981) Ketti Frings
(1909–1984) Norman Krasna
(1910–1961) Antanas Škėma
(1911–1983) Tennessee Williams
(1911–2004) Jerome Chodorov
(1911–2007) Gian Carlo Menotti
(1912–1998) Félix Morisseau-Leroy
(1912–1999) Garson Kanin
(1913–1973) William Inge
(1913–2000) N. Richard Nash
(1914–2008) William Gibson
(1915–2005) Arthur Miller
(1914–1956) John La Touche
(1917–1970) William Archibald
(1917–1967) Carson McCullers
(1917–2009) Robert Anderson
(1918–1993) Louis O. Coxe
(1918–2011) Arthur Laurents
(1919–1949) Thomas Heggen
(1922–1999) William Alfred
(1922–2003) George Axelrod
(1922–2006) Jay Presson Allen
(1922–2008) Tad Mosel
(1923–1981) Paddy Chayefsky
(1923–1995) Michael V. Gazzo
(1924–1987) James Baldwin
(1925–1995) Charles Gordone
(1925–2015) Frank D. Gilroy
(1927–1998) James Goldman
(1927–2018) Neil Simon
(1928–2016) Edward Albee
(1928–2019) George Herman
(born 1929) Jules Feiffer
(1930–1965) Lorraine Hansberry
(1930–2020) Bruce Jay Friedman
(1932–2003) Jack Gelber
(1934–2014) Imamu Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones)
(1935–2020) Mart Crowley
(1937–2021) Arthur Kopit
(born 1937) Tina Howe
(born 1938) John Guare
(born 1938) Elizabeth Forsythe Hailey
(1938–2017) Janusz Głowacki
(1939–2020) Israel Horovitz
(1939–2020) Terrence McNally
(born 1940) Janet Noble
(1943–1987) Charles Ludlam
(1943–2017) Sam Shepard
(born 1945) Mac Wellman
(born 1947) David Mamet
(born 1949) Christopher Durang
(born 1953) Milcha Sanchez-Scott
(born 1956) Tony Kushner
(born 1958) Jane Shepard
(born 1961) CJ Hopkins
(born 1961) Jon Robin Baitz
(born 1962) Michael Hollinger
(born 1962) Kenneth Lonergan
(born 1965) Tracy Letts
(born 1965) Laura Pedersen
(born 1965) Peter Sagal
Puerto Rico
See also: List of Puerto Rican writers
(1783–1873) María Bibiana Benítez
(1876–1944) Luis Lloréns Torres
(1919–1979) René Marqués
(born 1936) Luis Rafael Sánchez
(1944–2004) Pedro Pietri
(1946–1988) Miguel Piñero
(born 1955) José Rivera
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucas%20Biglia
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Lucas Biglia
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Lucas Rodrigo Biglia (; born 30 January 1986) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a defensive midfielder.
Formerly of Argentinos Juniors and Independiente, he spent seven seasons with Anderlecht, where he made 312 appearances in the Belgian Pro League, winning four league titles. He later spent four seasons with Italian side Lazio, before joining Milan in 2017, spending three seasons with the Rossoneri, leaving in 2020.
Biglia's first senior international call-up for Argentina was in 2011 and he previously played for the Argentina U20 national team, who won the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship. He represented his nation at two FIFA World Cups, reaching the final of the 2014 edition of the tournament, and in three Copa América tournaments, winning runners-up medals in the 2015 and 2016 editions of the tournament. He retired from international football after the 2018 FIFA World Cup, with 58 caps and one goal.
Club career
Career in Argentina
Biglia started his career at Argentinos Juniors and signed his first professional contract in 2004. After scoring against Godoy Cruz on 21 June 2004 in two appearances, he made his Argentinos Juniors debut on 1 July 2004, making his first start, in a 2–1 win over Talleres in play-offs. Eventually, Argentinos Juniors wins 4–2 in the play-offs and is promoted to Argentine First Division. The following season saw Biglia making 15 appearances and scoring 1 goal against Huracán on 28 November 2004. However, a lack of first team appearances led to Biglia leaving the club after only 17 appearances and one goal scored during his time there.
In February 2005, he moved to Independiente for an undisclosed fee following his performance at the South American U-20 Championship. Biglia made his Independiente debut on 26 February 2005, in a 1–0 loss against Lanús. In the first half of his season there, he made 11 appearances before becoming a first team player the following season, where he played in every match.
Anderlecht
In July 2006, after one-and-a-half seasons at Independiente, Biglia signed with Belgian Pro League club Anderlecht on a four-year contract and upon joining the club, he took up the number five shirt. Soon after, he was joined by his compatriot teammate Nicolás Pareja, Nicolás Frutos and Cristian Leiva.
In the 2006–07 season, Biglia made his debut against K. Sint-Truidense on the opening match of the season, coming on for an injured Mark De Man, in a 4–2 win. Bigila had a difficult start at Anderlecht, having been left out of the Belgian Supercup squad, which Anderlecht won for the second time in a row. Teammate Yves Vanderhaeghe felt sympathy for him and helped him to settle in Belgium and only speak Spanish there. A month later, he made his UEFA Champions League debut, as Anderlecht drew 1–1 against Lille in the group stage. As the season progressed, Biglia established himself in the starting 11 at Anderlecht in a midfield position. With his impressive performance at the club, he was awarded the Young Professional Footballer of the Year in January 2007. He then scored his first goal for the club, which came from a penalty kick, as well as, assisting two times during the game, in a 6–0 victory against FC Brussels to win the league this season. He went on to finish the season, making forty-six appearances and scoring once in all competitions.
In the 2007–08 season, Bigila started the season well when he helped the side win the Belgian Super Cup against Club Brugge. and then setting up a goal for Marcin Wasilewski to score the only goal in the match against KV Mechelen 1–0 in the season opener. After the club was eliminated in the UEFA Champions League, Bigila was considering his future at the club, but remained. Eventually, on 15 December 2007, Biglia signed a contract that kept him at the club until 2012. After sidelined from injury and suspension, he scored on his return from suspension, in a 5–0 win over Roeselare on 16 March 2008. After making 50 appearances and scoring once in the 2007–08 season, the club finished second place after losing to Standard Liège for the league title, but nevertheless won the Belgium Cup.
Ahead of the 2008–09 season, Biglia expressed desire to leave the club after they won the league, but stayed at the club throughout the summer transfer window and then scored his first European goal in a 2–2 draw against BATE Borisov during the Champions League qualification. Despite suffering minor injuries, Biglia continued to be the first team regular and scored two more goals, which were against Westerlo and Roeselare. In the January transfer window, he was linked with European clubs such as Barcelona, Inter Milan, Valencia, Fenerbahce, Galatasaray and Birmingham City. However, he remained at Anderlecht, insisting the club wanted him to stay. The club failed to win the league title in 2008–09. In all competitions, Biglia made 35 appearances and scored three goals.
Ahead of the 2009–10 season, Biglia announced his desire to leave the club in the summer. Despite this, Biglia continued to make a good start at the club when he set up two goals in two matches between 8 August 2009 and 15 August against Cercle Brugge and Westerlo. Biglia then scored his first Anderlecht goal of the season, in the round of 16 of the Belgium Cup, in a 3–0 win over FCV Dender EH. On 17 October 2009, after scoring against Charleroi, Biglia stated his goal was the greatest goal in his Anderlecht career. Biglia suffered a potentially serious injury to his ligament but managed to recover after it was found to be not as serious as first thought. Bigila then scored two more goals in the UEFA Europa League campaign against Athletic Bilbao and Hamburger SV. Despite elimination from the Europa League, the club would win the league title in the 2009–10 season, in which he dedicated the league title to his late father. Biglia went on to make forty-eight appearances and scoring four times in all competitions.
In the 2010–11 season, Biglia started the season well when he set up a goal for Cheikhou Kouyaté to score the winning goal, in a 1–0 win over Gent in the Belgian Super Cup. However, in a 4–1 win over Eupen in the opening match of the season, Biglia suffered a shoulder injury and was sidelined for weeks. Following Deschacht's injury, he was served as club captain for the time being until Deschacht returned, only to be injured himself and sidelined for several weeks. He further suffered a hamstring injury that kept him out for the rest of the year. In the January transfer window, Turkish Galatasaray renewed their interest in him and made a bid of €4.5 million. However, the move never materialized due to a lack of funding. Prior to the interests, Biglia said he would not leave the club in January. Although he was injured again for the fourth time in the 2010–11 season, Biglia made 35 appearances in all competitions.
In 2011–12 season, Biglia signed a new contract that would have kept him at the club until 2015. After the 2011 Copa América, Biglia said he wanted to leave Anderlecht to seek new challenges in a more competitive league. Notwithstanding, Biglia stayed at the club throughout summer and was appointed vice-captain by new manager Ariël Jacobs, with Olivier Deschacht remaining as captain. Biglia then scored his first goal of the season in a 2–2 draw against Monss on 21 August 2011. One month later, he captained his first Anderlecht match on 15 September 2011, a 4–1 win over AEK Athens. He then went on assisting spree when he assisted five times in four league appearances between 25 September and 23 October, including twice against Beerschot and Westerlo. Biglia was later awarded the captaincy after Deschacht was no longer able to continue the role. Deschacht's captaincy was met with disapproval by supporters. Towards the end of October, Biglia suffered a shoulder injury which had to be operated on; he was sidelined for four months. He made his return on 15 January 2012, setting up one of the goals in a 3–0 win over Club Brugge. It was not until on 18 March 2012 when he scored his second goal of the season in a 2–2 draw against Sint-Truiden. Despite missing out with a shoulder injury, Biglia helped the club win the league this season, his first in two years, and went on to make 38 appearances and scored two goals in all competitions. For his performance, Biglia was awarded the club's Player of the Year by club supporters.
In the 2012–13 season, Biglia was linked with a move away from Anderlecht, with Arsenal, Norwich City, Real Madrid and Internazionale showing interest. However, he remained at Anderlecht when the summer transfer window closed. In the first half of the season, Biglia continued to impress as a captain and performance and scored three times by the end of 2012 against Waasland-Beveren, Club Brugge and Cercle Brugge. In the January transfer window, Biglia again said he wanted to leave Anderlecht, with Southampton wanting to sign him. Biglia attempted to force a move by failing to show up for training. After the transfer window ended, the club announced Biglia would leave the club in the summer, along with Dieumerci Mbokani. Biglia would claim his absence was due to depression. He also said he never wanted to leave the club. Later in the 2012–13 season, Biglia scored his fourth goal of the season, but received his first red card in his Anderlecht career, as they drew 2–2 against Standard Liège on 3 February 2013. In the last match of the Pro League play-off, Biglia scored the equaliser against Zulte Waregem, which gave Anderlecht the title. Again leading the club to the league title, Biglia made 51 appearances and scored five goals in all competitions.
Shortly after winning the title, general manager Herman Van Holsbeeck confirmed Biglia would leave the club. During the final match, he performed a lap of honour for the fans. During his time at Anderlecht, Biglia's playing style was often compared with that of compatriot Fernando Redondo due to his accurate passing and hard tackling.
Lazio
On 23 July 2013, Italian side Lazio announced Biglia would be signing a five-year contract for an undisclosed fee. Previously, the club had been Biglia's main transfer target since 2010. According to Lazio's financial report, Biglia cost Lazio about €8.4 million, including €750,000 to his agent.
Biglia made his Lazio debut in the opening match of the season, starting and playing the entirety of a 2–1 win over Udinese. Later in the season, he was sidelined with a calf injury that kept him out twice throughout 2013. Despite this, Biglia established himself in the starting 11 under the management of Vladimir Petković, becoming the club's first-choice defensive midfielder. Biglia then scored his first goal for the club on 22 December in a 4–1 loss against Hellas Verona. In a match against AC Milan on 23 March 2014, he set up a goal for Álvaro González to score the equaliser in an ultimate 1–1 draw. However, after being sidelined with a rib injury, Biglia was sent-off on his return from injury after a second bookable offence in a 2–0 victory against Sampdoria on 6 April. In the last match of the season, Biglia scored the only goal in a 1–0 win over Bologna. In his first season at the club, in all competitions, Biglia made 32 appearances and scored 2 goals.
In the 2014–15 season, Biglia continued to start in the first team before suffering a foot injury during a match against Genoa that kept him out for weeks. After returning to the first team, he scored his first goal of the season on 26 October 2014 in a 2–1 win over Torino. He then suffered another injury by the end of the year, but this time, it was a tear in the abductor muscle. Biglia then scored a penalty in the quarter-final of Coppa Italia in a 1–0 win over Milan. Subsequently, he helped the club reach the final, but he did not play, due to injury and Lazio lost 2–1 to Juventus. It was not until 9 March 2015 when Biglia scored again, in a 4–0 win over Fiorentina. He then scored again on 4 April 2015 in a 3–1 win over Cagliari. Despite suffering from another injury, Biglia finished his second season, making 31 appearances and scoring 4 goals in all competitions.
In the 2015–16 season, Biglia was appointed as the new Lazio captain following Stefano Mauri's departure (eventually returning to the club soon after) and captained his first match in the Supercoppa Italiana match, losing 2–0 against Juventus. Following the match, Bigila regained a good start in the opening game of the season and scoring in a 2–1 win over Bologna. After suffering a calf injury during the latter match, he marked his return from injury by setting up a goal in a 2–0 win over Hellas Verona on 27 September 2015. He then scored in a 3–2 win over Saint-Étienne the UEFA Europa League. After recovering from a hamstring injury, Biglia scored again on 28 October 2015 in a 2–1 loss against Atalanta. Despite being sidelined due to suspension and injury, it was not until on 6 March 2016 when he scored his fifth goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw against Torino. However, Biglia was sent-off on 8 May 2016 after a second bookable offence in a 3–1 win over Carpi.
Ahead of the 2016–17 season, Biglia's future at the club became uncertain after there were no contract offers and would discussed his future following the end of the Copa América Centenario. Eventually, he stayed at the club throughout the summer and continued to remain in the first team, despite suffering from injuries. After returning to the first team, Biglia scored his second goal of the season in a 3–1 win over Genoa on 20 November 2016, then scored one month later in a 3–1 win over Fiorentina. In January 2017, Biglia began negotiations over a new contract with the club. However, his future was in doubt after he rejected a new contract, prompting interests from La Liga clubs, including Atlético Madrid. Amid the transfer speculation, Biglia scored two more goals, against Internazionale and Milan. In a match against Bologna on 5 March 2017, Biglia suffered an injury and was substituted as a result, in a 2–0 win. Although the injury turned out to be less threatening, he suffered a tore in the abductor muscle that ruled him out for one match. Biglia scored on his return from injury in a 2–2 draw against Genoa on 15 April 2017. In a 7–3 win over Sampdoria on 7 May 2017, Biglia set-up two of the goals to help the club qualify for Europe next season. In total, Biglia made 34 appearances and scored 5 goals in all competitions in the 2016–17 season.
AC Milan
After several rumours in the media over Biglia's uncertain future with the club, Lazio and AC Milan announced an agreement in July 2017 that brought Biglia to Milan. The move was confirmed on 16 July 2017 when Biglia officially signed a contract that would keep him at the club until 2020 in a deal that reportedly cost Milan €17 million. Biglia was released by the club at the end of the 2019–20 season, following the expiration of his contract.
Career in Turkey
On 14 September 2020, Biglia joined newly promoted Süper Lig side Fatih Karagümrük on a free transfer.
On 10 June 2022, Biglia moved across town to join İstanbul Başakşehir on a free transfer. After one season at the club, he was released on 1 July 2023.
International career
Youth career
Biglia made his first international appearance for the Argentina U-17 squad and was part of the squad that won South American Under-17 Football Championship, and came third in the FIFA U-17 World Championship, in which he was named Player of the Year. During the U17 World Cup, Biglia scored his first national goal in a semi-final, in a 3–2 loss against Spain. While playing for the Argentina U17, Biglia captained the side on numerous of occasions.
In January 2005, Biglia played for the Argentina U-20 team, participating in the South American U-20 Championship in Colombia and the side went on to win the tournament. Later in the year, Biglia played for FIFA World Youth Championship and once again win the tournament this year.
Three years later, there was a potential chance when Biglia would play for Argentine Olympic team at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, along with teammate Pareja, after being called up for the pre-selection. Later in July, it was announced that Biglia would not be part of the Olympic team squad after Sergio Batista announced the final squad.
Senior career
In October 2009, Biglia hoped his performance at Anderlecht could lead him to get his first call up by then Manager Diego Maradona, but it never happened. It wasn't until in November 2010 when Biglia was called up by Batista for the match against Brazil, but did not play.
In February 2011, Biglia was called up again, a decision that surprised him. Unlike his first call up, his first match for Argentina, in a friendly match against Portugal, which saw them win 2–1. During the same year, Biglia was included by manager Sergio Batista ahead of the Copa América tournament despite an injury, he sustained at Anderlecht, could threaten his chance to play in the tournament. At Copa América tournament, Biglia went on to make two brief substitute appearances as the hosts lost to Uruguay in the quarter-finals on a penalty shootout.
On 2 June 2014, Biglia was called up for the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. A late substitute in every match up to that point, he was an undisputed starter from the quarter-finals onward, as his nation lost 0–1 to Germany in the final. Biglia also appeared as a starter in five of Argentina's six 2015 Copa América matches, including the final where La Albiceleste lost in a penalty shootout to hosts Chile.
On 17 November 2015, Biglia scored his first and only international goal in a 1–0 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying win over Colombia in Barranquilla.
Biglia was named to Gerardo Martino's 23-man Argentine side that reached the Copa América Centenario Final. He played in the final of the competition against Chile for the full 120-minutes, which ended in a 0–0 draw after extra-time; in the resulting penalty shoot-out, his penalty was saved by Claudio Bravo, and Chile went on to win 4–2 after netting the next kick. Following the end of the tournament, Biglia was among seven players considering retirement after Lionel Messi announced his retirement, but this never happened.
In May 2018, Biglia was named by manager Jorge Sampaoli in Argentina's final 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia. He made his only appearance in the competition in his team's opening group match against Iceland on 16 June, which ended in a 1–1 draw; he was replaced in the second half by Éver Banega. On 30 June 2018, after Argentina's 4–3 loss to France in the round of 16 of the tournament, Biglia announced his retirement from international duty with 58 caps and one goal.
Style of play
Nicknamed El Principito (Spanish for "Little Prince"), due to his diminutive stature, Biglia is usually deployed as a defensive midfielder, where he normally functions as deep-lying playmaker in midfield; during his time with Belgian side Anderlecht, his playing style drew comparisons with compatriot Fernando Redondo. Although Biglia is competent defensively, due to his work-rate and aggression, as well as his ability to read the game and break down opposing attacks, he is also known for his ability to dictate the tempo of his team's play in midfield or create goalscoring opportunities after winning back the ball, courtesy of his good technique, vision, passing accuracy, and anticipation, as well as his personality, temperament and leadership. He is also known for his ball-striking ability from outside the area, and is an accurate free kick and penalty kick taker. His role has also been likened to that of a metodista ("centre-half," in Italian football jargon), due to his ability to dictate play in midfield as well as assist his team defensively.
Personal life
On 20 December 2011, De Standaard reported that Biglia had married his childhood friend, fellow Argentine Cecilia Ambrosio. The wedding took place at The Place Tokeh Sands in Freetown, Sierra Leone. Together, the couple has a daughter (born in 2009) After three years living in Belgium, Biglia was granted Italian citizenship through his Italian heritage.
During his early career at Anderlecht, Biglia earned a nickname: "the little prince", as well as being as a perfectionist and notorious brooder. In March 2008, Biglia, along with Frutos and Pareja, were involved in a humanitarian aid to help disadvantaged young people in Argentina.
However, in July 2008, Biglia rushed back to Argentina after his father died of a heart attack. He spoke out for the first time with Het Nieuwsblad in October 2008, saying that losing his father affected him. Biglia has an older brother, Christian, also a footballer, who went on a trial at Royal Antwerp in August 2009, but the trial was unsuccessful.
In June 2009, Biglia was reportedly in hospital in his homeland, claiming that he had H1N1 (Swine flu) virus, but test revealed at the end that he did not.
Career statistics
Club
International
Score and result list Argentina's goal tally first, score column indicates score after Biglia goal.
Honours
Anderlecht
Belgian Pro League: 2006–07, 2009–10, 2011–12, 2012–13
Belgian Cup: 2007–08
Belgian Super Cup: 2006, 2007, 2010, 2012
Argentina U17
FIFA U-17 World Championship third place: 2003
Argentina Youth
FIFA U-20 World Cup: 2005
Argentina
FIFA World Cup runner-up: 2014
Copa América runner-up: 2015, 2016
Individual
Belgian Young Professional Footballer of the Year: 2006–07
References
External links
1986 births
Living people
People from Mercedes, Buenos Aires
Footballers from Buenos Aires Province
Argentine men's footballers
Argentina men's international footballers
Argentina men's under-20 international footballers
Argentine expatriate men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Argentinos Juniors footballers
Club Atlético Independiente footballers
R.S.C. Anderlecht players
SS Lazio players
AC Milan players
Fatih Karagümrük S.K. footballers
İstanbul Başakşehir F.K. players
Argentine Primera División players
Belgian Pro League players
Serie A players
Süper Lig players
Expatriate men's footballers in Belgium
Expatriate men's footballers in Italy
Expatriate men's footballers in Turkey
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Belgium
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Italy
Argentine expatriate sportspeople in Turkey
2011 Copa América players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
2015 Copa América players
Copa América Centenario players
Argentine sportspeople of Italian descent
2018 FIFA World Cup players
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuck%20the%20Millennium
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Fuck the Millennium
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"Fuck the Millennium", sometimes spelled "***k the Millennium", is a protest song by the band 2K—Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty—better known as the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (the JAMs) or the KLF. The song was inspired musically by Jeremy Deller's "Acid Brass" project, where a traditional brass band plays acid house classics; these include the KLF's "What Time Is Love?". They were also inspired topically by the then-forthcoming end of the second millennium and the plans to celebrate it.
"Fuck the Millennium" was built around the KLF and Acid Brass' versions of "What Time Is Love?", and premiered at 2K's "1997 (What The Fuck's Going On?)" event at London's Barbican Arts Centre on 17 September 1997. The performance featured, amongst others, Acid Brass, Mark Manning and Gimpo, and was directed by Ken Campbell. 2K's lifespan was billed as the duration of the Barbican performance—23 minutes.
The song was released as a comeback single to mark the tenth anniversary of Drummond and Cauty's first collaborations; however, the performance and single were also in part intended to mock the notion of the comeback. "Fuck the Millennium" reached number 28 in the UK Singles Chart in October 1997. , the single remains the only international commercial release of music by the duo since The KLF's 1992 retirement.
Drummond and Cauty's campaign to "fuck the millennium" also involved a number of outlandish activities and proposals under the umbrella of their company K2 Plant Hire Ltd. These activities were intended to culminate in the construction of "The People's Pyramid", a structure built from recycled bricks at no cost to the taxpayer and which would have no entry fee—in pointed contrast to the UK government's Millennium Dome, construction of which had begun earlier in the year—and for people to use as they saw fit, including painting it or chipping it away. The pyramid was never built but the JAMs rebooted the idea in 2017 at their next comeback event, Welcome to the Dark Ages.
Context
From 1987 to 1992, Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond released music under names including the Justified Ancients of Mu Mu (The JAMs) and the KLF. Following a run of five consecutive UK top-five singles, The KLF executed a high-profile retirement from the music business and deleted their entire back catalogue, declaring that "For the foreseeable future, there will be no further record releases from any past, present or future name attached to our activities." In the four years following the KLF's retirement, Drummond and Cauty's musical output consisted of only a limited edition single released in Israel and Palestine ("K Cera Cera"), and a charitable contribution to The Help Album ("The Magnificent"). Drummond and Cauty's art project, the K Foundation, disposed of the KLF's earnings, including by burning one million pounds of it, money which was originally provisionally earmarked by the duo for millennium celebrations. Bill Drummond: "Originally we were going to invest the whole lot in some capital growth fund and spend it all on one big event, maybe at the millennium."
The UK's preparations for celebrating the end of the second millennium were well underway by 1997 and had already become a hot – and controversial – political topic. Following the 1997 United Kingdom general election in May, the new Labour government agreed to go ahead with the "Millennium Experience" project, an exhibition to be housed in a purpose-built Millennium Dome, at an estimated cost of £580 million, £450 million of which would be funded by the National Lottery. Construction of the Dome began in June 1997.
Also in 1997, British artist Jeremy Deller launched his Acid Brass concept, collaborating with the Williams Fairey Brass Band to interpret and perform classic acid house tracks as brass arrangements. Deller was described by one source as a prankster, a notion frequently applied to Drummond and Cauty themselves. In February 1997, Drummond was contacted by his former Big in Japan bandmate Jayne Casey, who was helping to organise an arts festival in Liverpool and had noticed that Acid Brass' repertoire included the KLF's "What Time Is Love?". Drummond attended the festival performance and heard "What Time Is Love?" performed as the encore, during which he excitedly telephoned Cauty. Cauty and Drummond together attended a 19 April Acid Brass performance at the Queen Elizabeth Hall, London. Collaborative work ensued between Drummond, Cauty, and Deller, in which the Acid Brass rendition of their track was incorporated into a millennium-themed composition designed to mark the tenth anniversary of Drummond and Cauty's first work.
A comeback of the KLF was implied by two black-and-white full-page adverts placed in the 21 August 1997 issue of Time Out. The first proclaimed "They're Back. The Creators of Trance. The Lords of Ambient. The Kings of Stadium House. The Godfathers of Techno Metal. The Greatest Rave Band In The World. Ever! 2K. For 23 minutes Only." The second stated "'Jeremy Deller presents '1997 What The Fuck's Going On'", a reference to The JAMs' debut album 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?). It continued, "Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond invite you to a 23 minute performance during which the next 840 days of our lives will be discussed."
The Independent looked forward to the event, saying that "It was just a matter of time before Jimmy Cauty and Bill Drummond hatched another prank and put a grin back on the face of pop music." "You just ache for them to be No. 1 again ..." they said, but "One hopes they are not about to shoot themselves in the foot" because "the idea walks the tightrope between lunacy and brilliance ... the pop world's countdown to the millennium surely starts here."
Performance
"1997 (What The Fuck's Going On?)" was performed by 2K as a one-off event at London's Barbican Arts Centre on 17 September 1997. The show began with a screening of This Brick, a short 35mm film of a brick made from the ashes of the K Foundation's million-pound bonfire.
The live performance was directed by Ken Campbell – who Drummond had first met in 1976 when he was recruited as the set designer for Campbell's stage production of The Illuminatus! Trilogy – and introduced by the music industry figure and pundit Tony Wilson. Drummond's creative associates Mark Manning and Gimpo appeared on stage as, respectively, "an axe-wielding "salvationist" in a vicar's collar and gold lame suit, and a shop steward character in a white coat with a megaphone". Drummond and Cauty were then unveiled as pyjama-clad, wheelchair-bound pensioners with grey hair and, strapped to their foreheads, prominent horns that had been used regularly in the KLF's promotional videos. The duo wheeled around the stage in their wheelchairs, and at one point Drummond was seen plucking feathers from a dead swan. They were supported by Acid Brass playing "What Time Is Love?"; a male choir's rendition of "K Cera Cera", joined by opera singer Sally Bradshaw; the Viking Society in costume as lifeboatmen; and the politically topical Liverpool Dockers chanting "Fuck the Millennium". A press release issued by Mute/Blast First (Acid Brass' and 2K's record label) suggested that "Two elderly gentlemen, reeking of Dettol, caused havoc in their motorised wheelchairs. These old reprobates, bearing a grandfatherly resemblance to messrs Cauty and Drummond, claimed to have just been asked along." Following the performance, every audience member received a "Fuck the Millennium" T-shirt, poster, and bumper sticker in a carrier bag.
In a comprehensive assessment, The Observer rationalised the spectacle: "They did what they always do: too many things at the same time. Their points are lost along with the plot. So, just to explain: ... Bill and Jimmy were dressed as old men as a comment on elderly pop groups making a comeback. The brass band playing house music tunes was organised by Jeremy Deller as a comment on class culture (working-class band playing working-class music). The dockers were asked along because their cause is important." The Guardian called the performance "a glorious, jaw-dropping mess", and The Times
commented that "the strongest point in its favour was its brevity". Neil McCormick, a journalist from The Daily Telegraph who participated in the event at Drummond's invitation, wrote that Cauty and Drummond's latest venture was seemingly "bizarre and outrageous" but that "they appear to have, once again, struck a chord with a lot of people". Select said, "There was no press furore the next morning—merely the anticlimactic aftertaste left by 40-year-old men miming to a seven-year-old song ... 2K was unquestionably a failure."
Composition and studio recording
A single, "Fuck the Millennium" was subsequently released, a studio-based recording falsely promoted as an edited version of the Barbican performance. Comparing the single with the live performance, The Times said that "On CD, things become more orthodox, though no less entertaining, comprising an acid brass version of their classic, What Time Is Love? and a young man shouting rude words."
The unedited studio recording of "Fuck the Millennium" is a 14-minute composition, a protest song based around the KLF's house music track "What Time Is Love?", drawing additionally on musical refrains and concepts from throughout Drummond and Cauty's canon. The track contains three main segued parts: a house section led by the brass band Acid Brass, a choral rendition of the English hymn "Eternal Father, Strong to Save", and a rhythmically hardened remix of "What Time Is Love? (Pure Trance Original)". The lead vocals before and after the hymn consist mainly of chants, with over one hundred instances of the word "fuck"—there are 26 instances of the word in the short "Radio Edit" alone.The track is opened by Gimpo screaming "It's 1997: what the fuck is going on?". There follows a brass band version of "What Time Is Love? (Pure Trance Original)", with a house rhythm added, along with samples from The JAMs' 1987 recordings "All You Need Is Love", "Don't Take Five (Take What You Want)", "Whitney Joins The JAMs" and "Burn the Bastards". Drummond leads a crowd in chanting: "Fuck the millennium! We want it now!". Among the voices singing the three verses of the hymn are keyboardist Nick Coler, Drummond and Cauty, multiple recordings of whom are overlain to simulate a congregation. Mark Manning evangelically narrates its lyrics, and between verses, Gimpo screams for "Bill!" (Drummond) and "Jimmy!" (Cauty).
Neil McCormick wrote in The Daily Telegraph that the single may be "noisy and confrontational" but that "it looks set to provide these pop situationists with another... hit, tapping into the fear and anxiety many people feel about the end of the century". Select journalist Mark Frith enthused about the track in the context of the duo's wider catalogue: "As soon as it starts you immediately remember the excitement that comes from hearing a KLF record for the first time. The original ambient house melody kicks in – and it hasn't dated a day. The chorus is given an extra kick by Acid Brass' massed ranks of horns and trumpets ... It is quite brilliant."
K2 Plant Hire
Cauty and Drummond were (and, , are) directors of K2 Plant Hire Ltd, a company incorporated and registered at Companies House in 1995.
Around the time of the single's release, further full-page adverts appeared in the national press, this time asking readers "***k The Millennium: Yes/No?", with a telephone number—the "Millennium Crisis Line"—provided for voting: "If you want to fuck the millennium, press '1'. If not, press '2'." The adverts were placed by K2 Plant Hire Ltd., who duly claimed that 18,436 (89%) of respondents wished to fuck the millennium. Thus, on 31 October 1997, K2 Plant Hire announced plans to build the "Great Northern Pyramid Of The People", or "The People's Pyramid", from as many house bricks as there were British 20th century births. The company estimated that the structure would require approximately 87 millions bricks; be -high; and take five years to complete, all at no cost to the taxpayer. Members of the public were urged to donate bricks, with 1.5 bricks per Briton being needed to complete the project. K2 Plant Hire promised that the Pyramid "will be open to the public free of charge, 24 hours a day, 365 days a year. You will be able to do what you want with it. Climb it, paint it, polish it, eat your sandwiches on it or chip it away. It will stand for as long there is any of it left. It will promote nothing. Be sponsored by nobody. And owned by everybody."; Melody Maker noted the pointed contrast of the "intended virtues" of the People's Pyramid with "the drawbacks of the officially sponsored Millennium Dome". The Guardian noted drily that the idea "would appear to be far-fetched even by [Cauty and Drummond's] own standards" and that "planning permission might pose a problem."
K2 Plant Hire also contributed a short story, written by Drummond, to editor Sarah Champion's anthology Disco 2000. "'Let's Grind' or 'How K2 Plant Hire Went To Work'" is a fictional account of K2 Plant Hire's plan to demolish Stonehenge on the eve of the millennium. Drummond and Cauty reportedly tried to use K2 Plant Hire's remaining funds to bid for purchase of the ancient Rollright Stones. Psychogeographer Stewart Home alleged that despite K2 Plant Hire's bid being the highest, the owners of the monument refused to trade with the duo.
Themes
Drummond and Cauty's works are both highly self-referential and rife with references to The Illuminatus! Trilogy, from which The JAMs took their name. Their 1997 work, as 2K and K2 Plant Hire, continued many of these themes. Their subversive attitude was exhibited in their attempt to undermine the pop comeback. They allegedly defaced a wall of the National Theatre the day after the Barbican performance: the graffiti "1997: What the fuck's going on?" referenced their similar graffiti of ten years earlier on the same wall of the arts establishment. The unusual show at the Barbican was typical of their previous confusing and humorous costumed appearances; moreover, the horns strapped to their foreheads were previously used in the KLF's cowl costumes. The advertising campaigns before and after the single's release resumed Drummond and Cauty's characteristic promotional tactic of cryptic, monochrome full-page adverts placed in UK national newspapers and music press.
Seafaring was a recurring element of Drummond and Cauty's output, in lyrics from Who Killed The JAMs?, The White Room and "America: What Time Is Love?", and in imagery used to illustrate the KLF's retirement press notice. Prior to entering the music business, Drummond had worked as a trawlerman. Samples of evangelists also feature in several KLF Communications recordings: the album Chill Out and the B-sides "What Time Is Love? (Virtual Reality Mix)" and "America No More". "Fuck the Millennium" was a studio track promoted as a live recording and featuring sampled crowd noise, as were the KLF's self-named "Stadium House Trilogy" of singles. The use of an English hymn is central to The JAMs' "It's Grim up North".
2K's lifespan was billed as the duration of the Barbican performance, 23 minutes. The number is given numerological significance in The Illuminatus! Trilogy. The "Fuck the Millennium" sleevenotes state that "The Justified Ancients of Mu Mu appear courtesy of The Five", a reference to the five Illuminati leaders of the novels. Drummond and Cauty took The JAMs' name from the fictional cult in Illuminatus!, wherein the fictional JAMs are long-standing enemies of the Illuminati. K2 Plant Hire's "The People's Pyramid" recalled Drummond and Cauty's "Pyramid Blaster" logo (a ghetto blaster suspended in front of a pyramid), itself a reference to the all-seeing eye icon used in Illuminatus!.
Although the references to Illuminatus! and themselves were in keeping with Drummond and Cauty's tradition, this was also in part intended to be a self-parodying dredge of the KLF's "myth". Drummond's opinions of the "rock 'n' roll comeback" were recorded by him at the time and aired in 2000: "The history of rock 'n' roll has been littered with pathetic comebacks ... No comeback has ever worked. The motivation behind the comeback has never and will never be the same as when the group or artist first crawled out of their sub-cult ... If there was fresh original talent, it is now tired and tested, only capable of flicking the nostalgia switch." Designing 2K's parody of the comeback, Drummond wrote that he and Cauty were "getting totally into the institution of 'The Comeback', drawing on the sad, pathetic nature of the whole thing, the desperation of all concerned to exploit whatever they can from the myth ..."
After the event
Contemporary press reaction to 2K and their Barbican performance was mixed but mostly negative. Since then, however, Colin Paterson in The Observer held up the Barbican show as the model of a pop performance. "At one unfortunately memorable Stereophonics gig ..." the paper said, "the extent of Richard Jones' showmanship was to play his bass while standing on a rug ... this is hardly the pyjama-clad KLF, horns strapped to their heads, whizzing around the Barbican in wheelchairs with Zodiac Mindwarp in a pulpit and hundreds of sacked Liverpool dockers yelling "Fuck the millennium!" at the tops of their voices ..." Likewise, a 1999 feature on Drummond and Cauty in The Irish Times reported their millennium activities with some warmth. "As a critique of the sponsor-saturated multi-million pound Millennium Dome," the editorial ran, "the 'people's pyramid' is unsurpassed."
Recounting the exploits of 2K, and the press reaction, in his book 45 (published in the millennium year, 2000), Drummond said:
Formats and track listings
"Fuck the Millennium" (or "***K the Millennium") was given an international single release on 13 October 1997, and it remains the most recent musical work by the duo. The record was not a success in comparison to the KLF's earlier chart-topping endeavours, peaking at a number 28 in the UK Singles Chart.
All formats contained at least one version of 2K's "Fuck the Millennium" and one of Acid Brass' "What Time Is Love?". The formats and track listings are tabulated below:
Key
m – "***K the Millennium" (radio edit) (4:18)
c – "***K the Millennium" (censored radio edit) (4:18)
M – "***K the Millennium" (13:57)
K – "Acid Brass / What Time Is Love (Version K)" (4:33)
P – "Acid Brass / What Time Is Love (Version P – Royal Oak Mix)" (5:28) (remixed by Pan Sonic)
O – "Acid Brass / What Time Is Love (Original Version)" (4:39)
Personnel (studio recording)
"Fuck the Millennium" and "What Time Is Love?" were written and produced by Bill Drummond and Jimmy Cauty.
Jeremy Deller – Acid Brass concept
The Williams Fairey Brass Band – Acid Brass performance of "What Time Is Love?", recorded by Richard Scott and conducted by Brian Hurdley. Original arrangement by Rodney Newton
Gimpo – spoken contributions
Mark Manning – "Reverend Bitumen Hoarfrost"'s evangelical narration
"The National Retired Life Boat Men's Choral Society" (Jimmy Cauty, Nick Coler and Bill Drummond) – hymnal singing
Nick Coler – Arranger and conductor
Donald Johnson – live drumming
Mark "Spike" Stent – mixing
Samples:
"Kick Out the Jams" by MC5
"Theme from Shaft" by Isaac Hayes
Various samples from the JAMs albums 1987 (What the Fuck Is Going On?) and Who Killed The JAMs?, and the KLF's 1988 "Pure Trance Original" version of "What Time Is Love?"
Source except where stated: Sleevenotes, Blast First/Mute Records Catalogue Number BFFP 146 CDK
Charts
Notes
References
The KLF songs
1997 singles
Protest songs
1997 songs
1997 in British music
Mute Records singles
Song recordings produced by the KLF
Turn of the third millennium
Songs written by Jimmy Cauty
Songs written by Bill Drummond
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stord%20Airport
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Stord Airport
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Stord Airport (; ) is a municipal regional airport located at Sørstokken in Stord Municipality in Vestland county, Norway. Located from Leirvik and on the island of Stord, it is the only airport with scheduled services in Sunnhordland. The airport consists of a single asphalt runway designated 14/32. It is classified as an airport of entry. Danish Air Transport operates up to three daily flights to Oslo Airport, Gardermoen. Previously the airport has been served by Coast Aero Center, Fonnafly, Air Stord, Teddy Air, Widerøe and Sun Air of Scandinavia.
Planning of the airport started in the 1950s, and after a proposal to locate it at Meatjørn was abandoned, it was decided built at Sørstokken. The airport opened on 25 October 1985. It received instrument landing system in 1986, which was also the first year with regular flights. The airport was originally both publicly and privately owned, but from 1991 it was taken over by Stord Municipality and Hordaland County Municipality. The runway was extended from in 1996, and in 2001, a new terminal building was opened. From 2010, the airport receives state grants for operation. The airport has had two fatal accidents, including Atlantic Airways Flight 670.
History
Planning
The first proposals for an airport on Stord—launched in the 1950s—envisioned an airport at Hystadmarka. In 1970, the municipal council applied the Ministry of Transport and Communications for permission and grants to build a regional airport. In addition to Hystadmarka, the municipality proposed building at Sørstokken and Langeland. The ministry rejected the application in 1972, stating that Stord was not a prioritized area for an airport. There was little political interest for an airport. The same year, an airport committee was established, led by Hans A. Isaksen, director of Stord Verft. After hiring Norconsult as advisor, it concluded that Sørstokken was the most suited location. However, by the time Stord's 1976 general area plan was being considered, the airport had fallen out and was only mentioned in a comment.
Following the decline in the shipyard industry in 1973 and 1974, the yards in Stord started a processes to move their attention to the offshore petroleum industry. The companies stated that to achieve this, they needed an airport in town. In 1978, a group organized by the industry presented a proposal for an airport to the municipal council. By then the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration had made a report about Sørstokken, which recommended that the airport be built with an runway, which was standard for municipal regional airports. The report stated building a long runway was fully possible, and wind conditions in the area were good, with little fog.
The municipal chief-of-administration concluded that there would be need for an airport in Stord, but stated that the municipality lacked funds. As a first step, the municipal council approved making an area plan for the airport. Three of twenty-four councilors voted against in July 1978, stating that the airport would have an unacceptable impact on nature, that there were good ferry routes to the primary airports in Bergen and Haugesund, and questioned whether the municipality could afford to operate the airport. When the plan was published for consultative statements, several environmental groups protested; for instance, Nature and Youth stated that a heliport would suffice. The Norwegian Public Roads Administration also protested, as the airport could be in conflict with a planned floating bridge across Stokksundet. The price also escalated after it became clear that a new road would have to be built to the airport.
A new report was published in 1981, which recommended that the airport be located at Meatjørn or Storavatnet. This received protests because of the locations' proximity to residential areas. The report foresaw the airport providing feeder services to Bergen Airport, Flesland and Stavanger Airport, Sola. The airport would have to be under municipal control, but could be built and run by private enterprise. Compared to Sørstokken, Meatjørn could only have a long runway, but could use existing roads and a new fire station for the municipality could be co-located at the airport. Construction of an airport with an runway was estimated to cost NOK 10 million for Meatjørn and NOK 16.5 million for Sørstokken, of which the road to the latter would cost NOK 7 million.
In October 1981, a de Havilland Canada Twin Otter flown by Widerøe performed a simulated landing at Meatjørn.
In 1982, a proposal was launched to extend the runway to . At the time, all aircraft used in Norway either could land on an long runway, or would need , so a compromise of would have no practical application. The medium length would be possible at Meatjørn, but at Sørstokken, the runway lights would have to be placed in the fjord, which was too deep to make it feasible. When the issue was considered in the municipal council on 17 June 1982, the politicians voted unanimously for Sørstokken. There was no politician support to build an airport close to the residential areas, and those who were opposed to an airport voted for the most expensive proposal.
A new airport committee was established in March 1983, which had representatives from the large industrial companies and the municipalities of Stord, Bømlo and Fitjar. In May, the area plan for Sørstokken was unanimously approved by the municipal council. The limited company Sunnhordland Lufthavn A/S was established on 6 July 1983, owned one-seventh each by the three municipalities and four industrial companies: Aker Stord, Aker Elektro, Leirvik Sveis and VVS Stord. The company estimated the investment costs to NOK 25.5 million and stated that their immediate goal was to build an airport and not necessarily to initially establish scheduled services.
One-third of the necessary capital would be granted from private investors, one third from public grants and one third as loans. In December 1983, Stord Municipality granted NOK 3 million as share capital; an additional NOK 1.4 million was granted from Fitjar, Bømlo, Kvinnherad, and Tysnes municipalities, and the power company Sunnhordland Kraftlag. By mid-1984, the estimated cost of the airport had been reduced to NOK 19 million. The four owner companies invested NOK 6.5 million in the airport company. The company started the process of purchasing the area needed for the airport and roadway. The company offered NOK 750,000, but the land owners asked for NOK 1,020,000. The expropriation process was taken over by the municipality; in the municipal council the Socialist Left Party voted against the expropriation, stating that they did not want to take over the land until the financing of the airport was completed. A Stone Age settlement was found in the route for the road, which would have to be excavated.
Construction
In September 1984, the Ministry of Finance granted NOK 8 million to the airport. The decision to build the airport was taken by the airport company on 19 October 1984, who at the same time signed the construction contract with Engelsens Ettf. Entreprenør. The airport was to receive a long runway. The estimated price for the road and airport was NOK 20 million, and construction started with the road on 1 November. The contract stipulated that the airport should be completed by 1 November 1985. In November 1984, the final legal issues with the land-owners were settled. The area was increased to , costing the municipality NOK 1.05 million. The construction work involved the blasting of of rock and the removal of of topsoil.
Construction of the airport consisted of a long runway, aligned 15–33, which included a long turning section at each end. The runway was paved wide, with wide shoulders. The runway received 30 edge lights placed every , in addition to 10 end lights at each end. The middle of the runway was located at above mean sea level (AMSL), while the south end was at AMSL and the north end AMSL. The airport ramp was and was connected to the runway via a wide taxiway which had wide shoulders. The access road was wide and long, with the airport featuring a parking lot. Along the road were laid water and sewer piper, and power and telecommunication lines.
On 5 March 1985, the airport company held a general meeting. It received NOK 7.18 million in increased share capital and 21 new owners, including increased share capital from Bømlo, Kvinnherad and Tysnes. The board had attempted to raise capital by marketing the airport as a "people's airport" and hoping that many locals would purchase shares, but the attempts failed. The airport cost NOK 17.2 million; as the company had NOK 17.9 million in share capital at the time, it was debt-free. The terminal building consisted of a two-story building , with the control tower in the second story. The building was built in five weeks. The opening took place on 25 October, but without any instrument landing system.
Coast Aero Center period
During construction, companies announced interest in using the airport. Fonnafly, a sea plane airline based in Kvinnherad, stated that they planned to establish a fleet of six to eight seat aircraft at Sørstokken. Haugesund Airport, Karmøy-based Coast Aero Center announced their intention to fly from Stord to Oslo Airport, Fornebu. Norving made a formal application to the Ministry of Transport and Communications to fly from Bergen Airport, Flesland via Sørstokken to Fornebu twice per day. Their estimates showed an average 36 passengers per year on the route from Stord to Oslo, and they planned to use Cessna 441 Conquest aircraft. The regional council recommended that the local company Fonnafly would be given the concession.
When the airport opened, it had not yet had its landing fees approved of by the authorities, and use of the airport was at first free. The airport did not have any scheduled flights, but Norsk Hydro operated a number of charter flights, mostly to Oslo, operated by Coast Aero Center. At first, the airport did not have any employees, so the snow clearance was done by the municipality. In early 1986, the airport's two first employees were hired, both working with flight information service. The airport had no rights for any state grants, so the company had to raise additional capital to cover operating expenses and pay the NOK 2.5 million the instrument landing system cost. In March 1986 the airport was granted NOK 1.5 from the Ministry of Finance to cover parts of the cost. The airport was set up with Category II, but lacked pulsating light approach slope indicator and approach lighting system.
After the opening of the airport, Widerøe also applied to operate the route. At the time, the ministry would select one company who would be granted a concessional monopoly on the route. The concession was granted to Coast Aero Center, which was permitted to operate to Bergen and Stavanger. The ministry stated that Fonnafly was not fully operational while Norving had stated that they could not make money without flying to Oslo. The reason the route to Oslo was dropped, was that there was insufficient capacity at Fornebu. After being rewarded the concession, Coast Aero Center started plans to build a hangar at Sørstokken. The route was set up to leave Stavanger in the morning and fly via Sørstokken to Bergen and then back; this was repeated in the afternoon and then a single round trip was flown from Stavanger to Sørstokken after the last evening plane from Oslo had landed in Stavanger.
Local politicians protested against not receiving a direct flight to Oslo. They succeeded in convincing Minister of Transport and Communications, Kjell Borgen, to establish a flight from Sørstokken via Skien Airport, Geiteryggen, to Fornebu. Three companies applied for the route: Coast Aero Center, Fonnafly and Norving. Hordaland County Municipality recommended Norving, as they were regarded as being able to give the best service, which was followed up by the ministry.
The instrument landing system was operational from 1 August 1986 and on 12 August Coast Aero Center started their two routes, using a ten-seat Beechcraft Super King 200 One week later, the ministry changed the concession for the Oslo and Skien route, so it was also awarded to Coast Aero Center. The service started on 24 October 1986. By November the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration had approved the landing lights and other upgrades to the instrument system, which cost NOK 3.9 million, causing the airport to have to borrow money. It also bought a used fire engine from Sola. The need for transport was extra high on Monday morning and Friday afternoon, when weekly commuters were flown in. The airport lost NOK 668,000 in 1986.
In July 1987, a distance measurement in the distance measuring equipment failed, terminating all scheduled and night flights until it was replaced in September. The second half of 1987 also saw the expansion of the terminal with , consisting of seven modular workman's sheds. It included seating for 40 people, a cafeteria, facilities for pilots and offices for the airport's manager, and customs and police facilities. The latter allowed the airport status as an international airport, which allowed charter flights to Sweden, Denmark and the United Kingdom, which were often done on a weekly basis by foreign companies involved in the heavy industry. However, the airport did not have status as a permanent border control and the airport therefore had to cover these costs themselves. The Ministry of Justice stated that the airport was too close to Flesland, Haugesund and Sola to have permanent status, but allowed the chief-of-police to give dispensations for individual flights from 1988. In 1987, the airport company lost NOK 2 million.
The airport company discussed plans to extend the runway and build a proper terminal building, and publicly proposed that the airport could take over some of the helicopter routes from Flesland to oil platforms in the North Sea. However, the airport lacks sufficient apron, duel storage, fire service and other safety measures which were required by the helicopter operators. In 1988, the county's chief of transport recommended that the county municipality give the airport top priority in its investment budget. He argued that the airport should be financed by the state, and that the state should give a grant to the airport the cost of building the runway, and that the airport company use the grants to extend the runway.
Air Stord period
In February 1988, Coast Aero Center filed for bankruptcy. The company had not paid its airport fees for a while, and owed the airport company NOK 415,000. However, the company attempted to secure capital for further operations, and not until April did Coast Aero Center inform the Ministry of Transport that they would waive their concessions. Norving was also in financial difficulties, and was not able to operate a route. Jens Ulltveit-Moe tried to establish Moving by purchasing two Dornier 228 aircraft from Norving and taking over the Sørstokken concessions, but in the last minute a new board in Norving would not sell the aircraft. Widerøe offered to operate a route to Oslo, but required that the municipalities guarantee for the profitability of the route, something the municipalities were not willing to do. From 8 December 1988, after receiving concession from the ministry, Fonnafly started a route from Sørstokken to Oslo. A ticket cost NOK 1,100, NOK 700 more expensive than the cheapest tickets from Haugesund.
In the course of 1988, the airport company's debt increased from NOK 4.5 to 8.0 million. In mid-1989, Partnair bought 51 percent of Fonnafly. Three months later, Partnair filed for bankruptcy, but Fonnafly continued operations. Partnair was reestablished in January 1990, and the company took over Fonnafly's route from Sørstokken to Fornebu in February. The company was bought by Jon Furdal in May 1991, and from 27 July the company moved its main base from Haugesund to Sørstokken, including 14 employees and three aircraft. At the same time, the airline changed its name to Air Stord.
Furdal wanted the airport to have a longer runway so he could operate larger aircraft. An extension of in the south end was estimated to cost NOK 9 to 10 million. By August 1991, Air Stord increased from two to four daily weekday flights to Fornebu, and from October increased to a fifth three days a week. The airport company was faced with severe liquidity issues, and the creditors threatened to file for bankruptcy from 1 December. To save the airport, the share capital was written down to zero, Stord Municipality and Hordaland County Municipality agreed to paid NOK 0.5 million in new share capital in the company and took over an ownership of 79 and 21 percent, respectively. In 1991, the airport company had a loss of NOK 5.2 million.
In early 1992, Air Stord started a route to Stavanger, which corresponded with the morning departures to London and Aberdeen in the United Kingdom. That year, the airport company went with NOK 22,320 million in profit, before financial costs. In June 1993 the airport bought a new fire engine, which allowed the airport to be upgraded from Category 3 to 4, allowing larger aircraft to land. In August, Air Stord's concessions were upgraded, so they were allowed use aircraft with more than ten seats, but were at the time required to not cancel flights without due reason. In October, the municipality and county granted NOK 300,000 to install new approach lights for Runway 15. In 1993, the airport had a revenue of NOK 3.6 million and a profit of NOK 13,414. This included a NOK 1.77 million grant from the state for the tower service.
In 1995, the airport was discussed in the Parliament of Norway's Standing Committee on Transport and Communications. The committee was split on whether it should nationalize the airport. The Labour Party and the Conservative Party, who had a majority in Parliament, wanting to wait until after the Triangle Link—a fixed link from Stord and Bømlo southwards to Haugaland—was built, so see how it affected patronage at Sørstokken. The Centre Party, the Socialist Left Party and the Christian Democratic Party wanted to nationalize the airport. A unanimous committee chose to give a NOK 1 million grant to build a new terminal and no longer require the airport to follow the Civil Aviation Administration's fees, allowing it to set its own.
In March 1995, Coast Air started flights from Sørstokken to Stavanger using a Twin Otter four times a week. However, the route did not have sufficient patronage and was terminated in June. In November 1995, Widerøe stated that they were willing to fly from Sørstokken to Oslo, in cooperation with Air Stord, using de Havilland Canada Dash 8 aircraft, with 37 or 50 seats. This would allow increased capacity without extending the runway. During March and April 1996, Sørstokken had its first regular helicopter flights, operated by Norsk Helikopter, as Aker had been contracted to dismount the oil platform at Odin. The company had to fly out personnel in the morning and take them back in the evening. On 20 May, Air Stord started using the 32-seat Dornier 328 aircraft on the route to Oslo.
Runway and terminal expansion
Since the construction of the airport, there had come new rules which required the runway to have a flat section wide. Should the runway be extended, the regulations required the width be extended for the whole length of the runway. The airport established a committee to look into an expansion of the airport. It made to proposals to extend the runway: to would cost NOK 9.2 million, while to would cost NOK 22.4 million. For the longer plans, the runway would be extended to the south and to the north. The construction was offered for tender, and Veidekke offered to build the extension for NOK 8.5 million. The total cost of the project was NOK 15.2 million. The plans were approved by the municipal council on 22 February 1996, against the votes of the Socialist Left Party and the Christian Democratic Party. The project was financed by the Aker Group moving the municipality it taxed the work related to Stord from Oslo to Stord, on condition that it be used to extend the airport. The Socialist Left Party stated that it was undemocratic that a corporation dictate what its tax money be spent on.
Construction on the runway started on 13 May 1996. The work included an new terminal building with a new border control. This was needed to allow up to 50 people to travel abroad on one flight, mostly foreign workers at Aker Stord. Hardanger Sunnhordlandske Dampskipsselskap started an airport coach service between Leirvik and the airport from 2 September 1996. The upgrades to the runway were taken into use on 7 November. Air Stord was in financial difficulties, and the airport company was forced to write off three-quarters of the company's NOK 750,000 debt, or see the airline file for bankruptcy. From 15 June, Widerøe started a Sunday route from Sandefjord Airport, Torp via Oslo to Sørstokken and then Flesland, before returning to Torp, using a Dash 8-100 aircraft. From January 1998, Coast Air started flights once a week from Skien Airport, Geiteryggen via Stavanger and Stord to Bergen, using a British Aerospace Jetstream.
In 1997, the airport started the process to install a doppler very high frequency omnidirectional range (DVOR) to aid navigation, which would cost NOK 800,000 used, plus NOK 400,000 for installation and construction of a road. The DVOR was operational from October 1998. The Norwegian Labour Inspection Authority instructed the airport company to improve the facilities for both employees and passengers, and in February 1997, the airport company decided to build a new passenger terminal and a new operations building for a combined cost of NOK 12 million. The new passenger terminal would be in two stories, with the tower in four. Instead the airport chose a larger proposal, also designed by Svein Halleraker, which cost NOK 25 million.
With the opening of Oslo Airport, Gardermoen on 8 October 1998, Widerøe terminated its route, while Air Stord moved the Oslo routes from the then closed Fornebu to Gardermoen. That year saw 52,130 passengers travel through Sørstokken, an all-time record. On 19 February 1999, Air Stord filed for bankruptcy. The same afternoon, Teddy Air landed at Stord and operated a route using a 36-seat Saab 340. Coast Air did the same with a 19-seat Jetstream. Stord Flytransport also started flying, in cooperation with Air Iceland, using a 46-seat ATR 42. Coast Air had the best regularity, but withdrew from operations in the fall.
In 2000, local businesspeople proposed building a new airport in Sveio to replace both Karmøy and Sørstokken. The airport would be large enough to serve cargo aircraft of any size, which would allow it to be used for export cargo routes. As a response, representatives for Sørstokken stated that it would be possible to rebuild Sørstokken's runway to for NOK 100 million, although this would change the direction of the runway.
The decreased traffic caused the airport to reduce the plans for the size of the new terminal, cutting it to and a cost of NOK 10 million. NOK 2 million was financed through an interest-free loan from the county. To save NOK 600,000 in conjuncture tax, it was decided that the terminal would be built by the municipality, as it would then be regarded as a public, rather than private, investment. In late 2000 and early 2001, Widerøe put in a Dash 8-100 with two weekly services to cater week commuters from Eastern Norway. From February 2001, Widerøe terminated the service, but the extra service was partially replaced with a Monday morning service to Oslo by Danish Air Transport, using an ATR 42. The new terminal was opened on 1 August 2001, having cost NOK 7 million. By that year, the patronage had fallen to 20,000. The tolled Triangle Link road to Haugesund opened in April 2001.
More operators
During the summer of 2002, Danish Air Transport offered flights to Aalborg in Denmark, using what would otherwise have been an empty return flight to its base, but it sold only less than half the seats. The airport's largest creditor was Stord Municipality, to whom it owed NOK 5.5 million. In December 2002, the airport company transferred the ownership of the real estate in exchange for the debt being wiped. Coast Air moved its technical base from Florø Airport to Sørstokken in April 2003, and in April started flights to Oslo using ATR 42 aircraft up to three times per day. There was not sufficient traffic for both airlines, and Coast Air terminated the route from June. In August the airline started flights on Friday and Sunday, but these were again terminated in March 2004. In 2004, Aker Stord started leasing British Aerospace 146-200 aircraft operated by Atlantic Airways. The airline also offered monthly charter flights to Vágar Airport on the Faeroe Islands.
Teddy Air terminated its operations on 17 August 2004, stating that they were not making any money on the routes, and had not at any point during the five years they had served the airport. Coast Air had available aircraft and started the route using an ATR 42. In 2005, the airport built an access road to the northern tip of the runway to allow better access for emergency vehicles, along with a roundabout at the terminal to allow better access for buses. The runway was at the same time leveled to a total width of . The three investments cost NOK 3.5 million. From 20 November 2007, Coast Air started with two weekly flights to Gdańsk Lech Wałęsa Airport in Poland, targeting Polish foreign workers. On 23 January 2008, Coast Air filed for bankruptcy. High costs made the owner Trygve Seglem lose faith in future profits. The company had lost more than NOK 100 million since 2001. It was Norway's fourth largest airline at the time. With the fall of Coast Air, Stord Airport was without any scheduled routes and income, and lost NOK 350,000 per month until a new service was in place. To secure operations, the company Stordfly was established to guarantee for the operations of a route between Sørstokken and Gardermoen. The company collected NOK 2.5 million in capital from local businesses, and used it to wet lease aircraft to operate the route. From 21 April, Golden Air started a temporary service, which remained until 4 July. From 11 August, Sun Air of Scandinavia, a British Airways franchise, operated the route using Dornier 328. The route took a pause during the summer of 2009, but from 10 August the route was again in service, this time operated with ATR 42 aircraft by Danish Air Transport.
From 2010, the airport received state grants of NOK 12 million. In February 2010, the Ministry of Transport and the airport signed an agreement for the grants to continue until at least 2014. Despite this, the airport ran into severe liquidity problems in October, and had to borrow NOK 12 million from its owners. This caused the owners to elect a new board, led by Dag Aksnes, former director of Flesland. Local politicians from the Democrats in Norway have proposed closing the airport because of the high subsidies needed from the municipality. With the Triangle Link road being toll-free from 2013, they feel Haugesund Airport will be close enough (it's 69 km).
The runway designation was changed from 15/33 to 14/32 during the 2010s, although the runway was not moved.
In connection with the pandemic 2020 the airport and the route went into financial troubles again, and the government did not want to procure the air route since Haugesund gives fast enough travel times Oslo-Stord. But the owners, the Vestland fylke and local municipality, want to have the airport, so they support the airport and procure the route. Haugesund is located in competing Rogaland fylke, whose airport also got financial troubles in COVID years, but their region will have to solve it. The car travel times to Bergen or Stavanger are much longer due to longer distance and ferries needed.
Airlines and destinations
Statistics
Accidents and incidents
13 March 1987: A Beech King Air of Partnair landed short of the runway after being subject to a sudden downdraft. None of the seven people on board were injured, although the plane was written off.
12 October 1998: A Cessna 402 from Jetair crashed during short final. The right engine was depleted for fuel and the captain was not able to compensate for this, losing control over the aircraft. All nine people on board were killed in the accident. There were no technical faults with the aircraft.
10 October 2006: at 07:32, Atlantic Airways Flight 670 crashed following a runway overrun of a British Aerospace 146-200A. The aircraft's spoilers failed to deploy, causing inefficient braking. The Atlantic Airways aircraft fell over the edge past the runway at slow speed and burst into flames, killing four of sixteen people on board. The investigation was not able to find the underlying cause of the spoilers malfunction. However, it found that disemployment of the anti-lock braking system caused hydroplaning and subsequent reduced braking ability. The damage was aggravated through a minimal safety zone surrounding the runway.
References
Bibliography
External links
Airports in Vestland
Stord
1985 establishments in Norway
Airports established in 1985
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O%27Higgins%20F.C.
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O'Higgins F.C.
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O'Higgins Fútbol Club (), also known as O'Higgins de Rancagua, is a Chilean professional football club based in Rancagua, that currently plays in the Campeonato Nacional. The club's home stadium is Estadio El Teniente, opened in 1945 and renovated for the 2015 Copa América, which was hosted by Chile.
Founded in 1955, the club was named in honour of the country's founding father and supreme director Bernardo O'Higgins, after the merger of the clubs O'Higgins Braden and América de Rancagua. O'Higgins has won two Primera B titles, and in 2013 they won their first top-flight championship against Universidad Católica, coached by Eduardo Berizzo; they later won the 2014 Supercopa de Chile on penalty kicks against Deportes Iquique.
History
Establishment
On 7 April 1955, after the merger of Rancagua's cross–town rival: O'Higgins Braden (that was born in 1954 from the merger between Braden F.C. and Instituto O'Higgins) and América de Rancagua, the club was founded thanks to Carlos Dittborn, the president of the Asociación Central de Football, who offered to put the name of the O'Higgins, which represents workers of Codelco in the city, under the name of Braden Copper; the name was also chosen in reference to the country's founding father and supreme director Bernardo O'Higgins, an important character of the Colonial Chile during the 1810s, who also identified with the city of Rancagua.
The colours of the club were originally from the Instituto O'Higgins, which were red, blue, and white. However, the Football Federation of Chile prohibited using the colors of the national team, so the club directors decided that the uniform would be sky blue, based on Uruguay's uniform, earning then the nickname of La Celeste. The stadium was named Estadio Braden Copper Company after the name of the company from its opening until the 1962 FIFA World Cup, when the name was changed to its current name, Estadio El Teniente, based on the El Teniente mine.
On 21 April 1955, the Asociación Central de Football decided that the team will play in the Primera División for the next season, with the first president being Nicolás Abumohor and the first head coach being Francisco Hormazábal. Their first game in the Campeonato Nacional was a 2–0 loss to Unión Española on 8 May 1955. Their first win came on 22 May of that same year, a 3–2 home victory against Ferrobádminton. In their first league tournament, the club finished ninth in the table, which put them in the relegation play-offs, where they earned their permanence in the top tier.
First seasons, relegations, and comebacks
The first great season of the club was in the 1959 season, where the club finished in fourth place under the orders of Argentine coach José Salerno, only four points behind league champion Universidad de Chile and behind third-placed team Santiago Wanderers on goal difference, making this one of its most successful Primera División campaigns, with José Benito Ríos as the key player and top scorer of the tournament with 22 goals.
A few seasons later, the team was relegated to the Segunda División after a poor campaign in 1963. The next season, with the signings of the defender Federico Vairo and the attacking midfielder Mario Desiderio, both from the Argentine Primera División, the team returned to Primera División. In special, the performances of Vairo consecrated him as the best footballer in the club's history according to the supporters of Rancagua, who chose the Rosarian centre back with the honour in 1999. Since the promotion in 1964, the club had average seasons, finishing mid-table, despite suffering the departures of Federico Vairo and Mario Desiderio to the Colombian side Deportivo Cali in 1966.
In the 1973 season, under the orders of the coaches Luis Vera and Jorge Aretio, O'Higgins and Huachipato both finished in third place behind of Unión Española and Colo-Colo, its best result since the 1959 season. In the 1975 season, the club was relegated again, but returned for the 1977 season after finishing runner up of the 1976 Primera B. After a notable 1978 tournament, where the team finished third in the league with Luis Santibáñez as head coach, it achieved qualification to the following edition of the Copa Libertadores by winning the Liguilla Pre-Libertadores, in which they achieved their biggest win for an international contest against Deportivo Galicia, beating the Venezuelan side 6–0 at El Teniente, and also achieved its most important away win for an international tournament, winning 1–0 in Valencia to the same Galicia. In the following season the club reached the fifth place in the league with Santibáñez as head coach again, qualifying to the 1980 Copa Libertadores via the Libertadores Liguilla after a notable unbeaten run of five matches, and winning the Liguilla over powerhouse clubs Universidad de Chile, Cobreloa and Unión Española.
Continental appearances, Copa Chile finals
While managing indifferent league form in the early 1980s, the club had its first South American success in the form of the Copa Libertadores. In the 1980 edition, O'Higgins reached the semi-finals, being eliminated by finishing last in a group with Uruguay's Club Nacional and Paraguay's Club Olimpia. During the 1984 edition of the Libertadores, the club finished last in its group, which was made up of fellow Chileans Universidad Católica, and Bolivian clubs Bolivar and Blooming. In the league, the team had poor campaigns from 1981 to 1983, although the club defeated Colo-Colo 6–1 in the 1983 season, and reached their first Copa Chile final, where it lost to Universidad Catolica in a liguilla group.
After financial problems with Codelco, the company owner of the club, the club was relegated to the Primera B in the 1985 season, with the possibility of being relegated to the Tercera División for another controversy related to Codelco. The next season, the club won the regular season and qualified to the promotion playoffs, but failed to win the group that consisted of 6 teams. In the 1987 season, with the defenders Gabriel Mendoza and Atilio Marchioni as key players, the club returned to the Primera División, after an exciting final with Lota Schwager at Talca.
Years later, the club hired Manuel Pellegrini as coach for the 1992 Copa Conmebol, in which they were eliminated by Argentine side Gimnasia de La Plata in the first round, in that occasion with players like Claudio Borghi, who won the 1986 FIFA World Cup with Argentina, the talented playmaker Jaime Riveros and the striker Gustavo De Luca, one of the most prolific goalscorers in Chilean football during the 1990s. In the 1992 season the club finished 6th in the league's aggregate table, giving them an opportunity to qualify for the 1993 Copa Libertadores via the Liguilla, but the club eventually failed to qualify for continental competitions after losing to U Catolica. Midway through the 1993 season, Pellegrini left to manage U de Chile.
In the 1994 season, under the orders of Roberto Hernández, O'Higgins reached the Copa Chile finals, after beating Universidad de Chile 2–1 at the Estadio Nacional in the semi-finals. However, in the final against Colo-Colo, the club lost on penalties, whilst for the Primera División tournament, the Rancaguan side finished in the third place of the table, therefore missing out on achieving Copa Libertadores qualification. The next season, O'Higgins failed to qualify to the Libertadores Liguilla, ending only in the sixth position of the Primera División tournament.
The Instability: 1996–2004
In the 1996 season, the club signed great players, such as midfielder Clarence Acuña, Argentine playmaker Gerardo Martino, and strikers Carlos Poblete and Ariel Cozzoni. However, the team got relegated to the Primera B, after finishing last in the table. In 1997, an Apertura and Clausura format was used, which made it difficult to achieve promotion since it wasn't utilised in the Clausura. Although O'Higgins had great campaigns that season, finishing in the top 4 of both tournaments, it failed to achieve promotion.
Two years later, under the orders of René Serrano, the team achieved promotion to the First Division again. In 1999, the Rancagua club finished in tenth place, in which Mario Núñez and Jaime González also became the most successful goalscorer pair in Chilean football with 57 goals between both strikers. In the 2001 season, with financial problems and a poor season, it returned to the Primera B, having gone through three managers: Guillermo Páez, Rubén Espinoza, and Luis Droguett. Luis Droguett almost saved the club from being relegated, including a victory against Colo-Colo, but ultimately it was not enough to stay in the top tier.
In 2002, under Luis Droguett's orders, the club had a decent season in the second tier but wasn't fighting for the promotion playoffs. For the 2003 season, Droguett was replaced by Eduardo Salas. The economic problems in the club were evident again, and for the most part the club used youth players. These problems resulted in the club's failure to be promoted again, although they were in the promotion spots (top 2 of table) until a 2–0 loss with Everton, which moved the club to a fourth-place finish. The 2004 season was very similar to the previous season; although the club had a very promising start, it failed to reach the Primera División again after being defeated 3–0 by Deportes Melipilla, under the orders of the Paraguayan head coach Sergio Nichiporuk, who had replaced Eduardo Salas in June.
Despite the sports failure, the club was also experiencing hard financial problems, mainly because of Codelco but also because of irregularities in the board. However, in December 2004, it was reported that the ANFP's former president and entrepreneur Ricardo Abumohor would buy the team to fix the situation.
Abumohor takeover, Garcés and Sampaoli era
For the 2005 season, ex-goalkeeper Nelson Cossio became the club's new manager. However, the club started to distance itself from the promotion places after a run of six winless matches. After a draw to Deportes Copiapó in August, Cossio was sacked. Shortly after Cossio was sacked, the club was purchased by ANFP's former president, Ricardo Abumohor, who bought the team from Codelco, having the Primera B title as the principal objective for the return to the Primera División. He brought in manager Gerardo Silva as Cossio's replacement, and the club eventually achieved that long awaited objective, defeating Deportes Melipilla 4–3 on aggregate for the promotion with Hugo Brizuela and Mario Núñez as the key players of the success.
The next season, the club signed Jorge Garcés as coach, qualifying for the playoffs of the Torneo Clausura, where they beat Coquimbo Unido in the quarter finals and were eliminated by Audax Italiano in the semi-finals with controversial decisions made by referee Rubén Selman. In the 2007 season, O'Higgins finished twelfth in the Apertura table and were eliminated by Colo-Colo during the playoffs for the Clausura. The first leg ended in a 5–0 precipitous loss at Rancagua; this result basically sealed the series for the whites with the second leg at Santiago, which finished 1–1, but 6–1 in Colo-Colo's favor on global.
In December 2007, after the departure of Jorge Garcés to Deportes Concepción, the club reached an agreement with Jorge Sampaoli of Sporting Cristal. Sampaoli had a successful season during the Apertura 2008, with talented players like Jean Beausejour and Carlos Carmona, finishing third in the league table but being eliminated in the playoff quarter-finals by Universidad de Chile. In the Clausura, it had a similar season, and the team was eliminated by Palestino in the quarter-finals. In 2009, Sampaoli was fired after a game with Universidad de Concepción, due to failing to qualify for the Clausura play-offs because of a 15th-placed league finish, and having suffered a 6–1 defeat with Unión Española for the Apertura play-off quarter-finals at Estadio Santa Laura.
The board signed Roberto Hernández again as coach for the 2010 season. Hernandez brought the team into the top 5 places into the table during the first half of the season, but after the FIFA World Cup break he started to have poor results, so he was fired and Marco Antonio Figueroa arrived as a replacement. The most important achievements of Figueroa's period was beating Universidad de Chile 1–0 at the Estadio Nacional and Colo-Colo 2–1; however the team finished in a mediocre 10th place and Figueroa left the club for Mexican club Veracruz.
The club's board signed up Ivo Basay to face the 2011 season, where the club finished fifth in the Apertura league table and qualified to the play-offs, with Fernando De la Fuente and Enzo Gutiérrez as key players. In the play-offs stage, O'Higgins beat Palestino, reaching the semi-finals against Universidad de Chile, in which they were defeated 8–1 on aggregate. Basay was sacked in the 2011 Clausura, with poor results and the 7–1 loss against U de Chile in the Apertura semi-finals being the deciding factors.
Eduardo Berizzo era: First league and supercopa title
In December 2011, the club's board signed manager Eduardo Berizzo for the 2012 season. The year started of abrupt form with Fernando De la Fuente's departure after a strong discussion with new head coach Berizzo and his assistant, Roberto Bonano. It was then confirmed that the player would be loaned to Deportes La Serena, which meant that O'Higgins were losing of this form one of the best defensive midfielders in Chilean football to face the Torneo de Apertura, given that De la Fuente had a great 2011 season.
However, the club's board surprised the public with the signings of Argentine attacking midfielder Ramón Fernández, who had previously been tempted by the country's powerhouse clubs: Colo-Colo and Universidad de Chile, the Paraguayan footballer Rodrigo Rojas, who played for River Plate, and finally defender Julio Barroso, who played for Boca Juniors and was champion of the 2005 U-20 World Cup with Argentina.
Berizzo's first season and first final
On 27 January 2012, Berizzo achieved his first competitive victory with the club in a league match against Antofagasta with a goal from new signing Ramón Fernández, narrowly losing the next match at the capital Santiago with Colo-Colo 1–0. On 25 February, the team achieved its most important victory against Universidad de Chile at home, a 3–0 victory with goals from Enzo Gutiérrez, Guillermo Suárez and Ramon Fernández, in where Luis Marín saved a penalty to keep a clean sheet, earning of this form the first place in the league table, which was lost when Universidad Católica defeated the team 2–1 on 11 March. Despite this loss, the team achieved four consecutive wins, with Julio Barroso and Rodrigo Rojas as the key players, a run that finished when Huachipato defeated the club 2–1 on 15 April. Despite the defeat at the city of Talcahuano, the team bounced back and beat Palestino 5–0 at home in the next match. The following week, a 1–0 away victory over Santiago Wanderers in Valparaíso gave the club qualification to the 2012 Copa Sudamericana, where they were eliminated by Cerro Porteño in the first stage 7–3 on aggregate.
The team qualified for the play-offs after a successful Apertura tournament, where the club finished second in the table, only under U. de Chile. The club had to begin the play-offs by facing Unión La Calera in the quarter-finals. In the first match at La Calera on 24 May, the team won 1–0 with a free kick scored by Ramón Fernández, who did not celebrate the goal as he was planning to leave the club at the conclusion of the season. In Rancagua for the second match, the club clinched a 3–2 victory, thanks to Enzo Gutiérrez, who scored an incredible bicycle kick that defeated keeper Lucas Giovini. In the semi-finals, the club faced Unión Española at Santiago in the first leg, where the club was defeated 1–0 at the Estadio Santa Laura, but won the second match 2–1 with goals of Luis Pedro Figueroa and Rodrigo Rojas, earning a spot in the finals for the first time in its history on the away goals rule, after the 2–2 aggregate score.
In the first leg of the finals against U. de Chile, O'Higgins beat "La U" at home 2–1 with goals of Rojas and the Argentine full back Alejandro López. In the second leg on 2 July, played at the Estadio Nacional, the scoreline was 1–1 which put O'Higgins up 3–2 on aggregate, and was about to win their first league title by becoming Torneo de Apertura champions, until the 92nd minute, because with Guillermo Marino's goal the series was equalized at 3–3 and the match went to penalties. "La U" won the penalty shootout 2–0 thanks to their keeper Jhonny Herrera, who saved three penalties. However, the match was full of controversy, because the referee Enrique Osses conceded a non–existent penalty to Marino, that was scored by Aránguiz, and unfairly red-carded centre back Julio Barroso, after Universidad de Chile defender José Rojas had initially taunted Barroso.
Tomé Tragedy
In the Torneo Transición 2013, Berizzo brought in many reinforcements such as Osmán Huerta, Mariano Uglessich, Braulio Leal, Gonzalo Barriga and Pablo Calandria among others. In this tournament the club also played the last official match at Estadio El Teniente, after it was awarded for renovations ahead of the 2015 Copa America, rotating between Estadio Santa Laura, Estadio La Granja and Estadio Monumental David Arellano during the rest of the tournament.
After the away victory against Huachipato at Estadio CAP in the third matchday of the league, an unfortunate tragedy happened. On 9 February 2013 at around midnight in Tomé, a bus carrying O'Higgins fans crashed and 16 fans died. Instead of going back to Rancagua, the fans decided to make a stop in Dichato for a festival. Out of 37 fans in the bus, 16 died and 21 were injured. As a result of the tragic accident, a three-day mourning was declared in Tomé and Rancagua, and fans made a farewell to the deceased at the Estadio El Teniente.
O'Higgins eventually finished fourth after an acceptable campaign, where it was beaten by Unión Española, Universidad Católica and Cobreloa. However, the club had to finish third to qualify for the Copa Sudamericana, and therefore missed out.
Another fight for the title
For the 2013–14 Torneo Apertura, O'Higgins is reinforced with players like Fernando Gutiérrez, Francisco Pizarro and Pedro Pablo Hernández. The club started playing this tournament against Deportes Iquique, and win with a goal that was eventually scored by the tournament's top scorer, Pablo Calandria. In the next match the club defeats Deportes Antofagasta 2–1 with goals from Pizarro and Gonzalo Barriga. On the next match day, the club tied with Audax Italiano but after that they team went on a significant winning streak, which began by beating Cobresal in El Salvador, and then Cobreloa, Universidad de Concepción, Universidad Católica, Unión Española and a victory over Unión La Calera in the final minutes, with the club only losing two games against Palestino and Colo-Colo.
The match versus Rangers de Talca
On 7 December 2013, the last match day of the championship, the club has to visit Rangers de Talca, where the team starts losing with a Mauricio Gómez goal, but the team did not give up and turned the game around in their favor with a penalty from Pablo Calandria and a goal from Julio Barroso. In the second half, it seemed like the title was slipping from their hands, because Rodolfo González and Esteban Ciaccheri scored at the Estadio Fiscal de Talca, to put the score at 3–2 in favor of Rangers.
Berizzo makes changes and substitutes Francisco Pizarro and Osmán Huerta into the match, and Huerta, with his first touch of the game, overcomes goalkeeper Nicolás Peric and ties the game at 3–3 with 10 minutes left, but in the 90' Calandria was brought down in the penalty box and referee Patricio Polic awarded a penalty for O'Higgins, along with red-carding Rangers goalkeeper Peric. Since Rangers had already used up all of their available substitutions, midfielder Hugo Diaz had to be the goalkeeper. At the same time, Universidad Católica was winning against La Calera in Quillota, so if O'Higgins tied or lost then Universidad Catolica would be the champion. In the last minute of the match, Calandria scored his penalty, unleashing the wild celebrations of 4,500 fans, with the club having completed an epic comeback to win the match 4–3, after Universidad Católica overcame La Calera 2–0.
The final
After a hard-fought championship title fight against Universidad Católica, both finish the tournament with the same number of points. This meant there had to be a tiebreaking game, after an amendment to championship rules, since before the modification the champion was whoever had a better goal difference if both teams had the same number of points. This was the case for the 2013 tournament, in which Unión Española and Universidad Católica had equal points until the last matchday, but the league championship was given to Union Española because it had a better goal difference.
On 10 December 2013, in front of a sold-out Estadio Nacional de Chile, O'Higgins clinched a victory against the Crusaders, with Pablo Hernández scoring the only goal of the match, who ultimately entered club history and in the hearts of the fans as the person to give the club its first Primera División league title.
Supercopa Champion and back to Copa Libertadores
After winning the final of the 2013 Torneo Apertura, the club returns to the Copa Libertadores after almost three decades, (their last participation was in 1984), participating in Group 3 with Cerro Porteño, Deportivo Cali and Lanús. The first game was played against Lanús on 13 February 2014 at Estadio Ciudad de Lanús, where the match ends 0–0. In the second match, O'Higgins faced Deportivo Cali at Estadio Monumental in Santiago, where Yerson Opazo put the ball past Colombian goalkeeper Faryd Mondragón, becoming the first player to score for the club in a Copa Libertadores match in 30 years, with the match ending 1–0 in favor of the celestes. In the third match the club played at the Estadio Monumental again, this time against Cerro Porteño, where the Rancaguan club began winning 2–0 with one of the goals being scored by Eduardo Alejandro López from a nice free-kick. However, after midfielder Braulio Leal was sent off, the momentum decreased and the Paraguayan club tied the game 2–2.
In the next meeting the club played Cerro Porteño again but this time at Estadio General Pablo Rojas, where the club are defeated 2–1. In the fifth match the club traveled to Colombia to face Deportivo Cali at Estadio Olímpico Pascual Guerrero, where Yerson Opazo scored one of the best goals in the tournament from about 30 meters, but Deportivo Cali's Néstor Camacho tied the game at 1–1, and it finished with that score.
In the last group stage match against Lanus, O'Higgins returned to Estadio El Teniente after its renovation for the 2015 Copa América. O'Higgins had the chance to make the next round, but Calandria's penalty was saved by Agustín Marchesín, and the game ended 0–0, which meant the celestes were eliminated from the cup. O'Higgins finished with 7 points and in third place of its group.
In the Clausura 2014, O'Higgins ended in third place with 30 points, and in the Accumulated Table as second with 69 points, (surpassing Colo-Colo, Clausura champions) which qualified it to play the Supercopa de Chile to see who would be the Superchampion. The game was played at the Estadio San Carlos de Apoquindo against 2013–14 Copa Chile champion Deportes Iquique. Iquique started winning the match with a goal from Rodrigo Ezequiel Díaz, and O'Higgins leveled the score five minutes before the end of the first half with a goal from Luis Pedro Figueroa. The match ended 1–1 after 120 minutes and went into penalties. O'Higgins won 3–2 after Rodrigo Brito of Deportes Iquique missed his penalty, unleashing the joy of over 6,000 celeste fans who came to the Santiago Metropolitan Region, and becoming the second Superchampion of Chilean football.
Sava and Sánchez: After Berizzo era
Shortly after winning the Supercopa, Berizzo leaves O'Higgins and signs a contract with Spanish club Celta de Vigo. Berizzo also signed Pablo Hernández and took him to Celta, while Facundo Sava, a friend of Berizzo, became the new coach in June 2014, but he was fired because of irregular results in January 2015. After that, another Argentine took charge of the club, this time Pablo Sánchez.
Facilities
Stadium
The club's home ground is Estadio El Teniente, built in September 1945 and located in Rancagua, being named Braden Copper Company Stadium, because that company was the stadium's owner. The first professional game was during the 1955 Primera División tournament, in a match that O'Higgins won 3–2 to Ferrobádminton.
In 1960, after the 9.5 earthquake of Valdivia that destroyed the original venues of the 1962 FIFA World Cup, the Chilean delegation designed the city of Rancagua as a venue, after the refusal of Valparaíso and Antofagasta. The first international match was between Argentina and Bulgaria, where with a goal of Héctor Facundo, the South Americans defeated the Europeans on 30 May. El Teniente was the home stadium of all Group D matches, and one quarter-final game between West Germany and Yugoslavia.
The Government of Chile acquired the 51% of shares to United States' Braden Copper Company in 1967, as part of the copper nationalization, that culminated four years later, becoming property of Codelco Chile, being re–named with the current name of Parque El Teniente, in reference to mine ubicated in locality of Machalí.
A new stadium with capacity for 14,087 persons was confirmed by the club's owner Ricardo Abumohor in 2013, and the old stadium was demolished in 2014.
The new stadium was inaugurated on 8 April 2014. In the inaugural match, O'Higgins played against Lanús for the week 6 of the 2014 Copa Libertadores. The final result was 0–0, marking the elimination of the club from the competition, because it needed a victory to advance to the next round. In 2015, it hosted two group stage matches of the 2015 Copa América.
Monasterio Celeste
The training facilities of the club are called the Monasterio Celeste, located on the outskirts of Rancagua, exactly in Requínoa. It replaces the old complex La Gamboína, which until 2014 was the training ground of the club.
The complex consists of seven pitches of natural grass, a mini-stadium of artificial grass, and a hotel with the facilities for the team.
The complex was finished in 2014, but O'Higgins trained there for the first time on 4 January 2013. It was a national team host complex for the 2015 Copa América.
Players
Since the club's establishment in April 1955, more than one thousand of the players on the team have been Chilean. Aníbal González is the historic top−scorer of the club with 117 goals in all competitions. Mario Desiderio is considered the best player in the club's history.
1. Only includes Campeonato Nacional, Copa Chile and international competitions. Bold indicates player is still active.
Foreign players like Federico Vairo have also been important players in the history of club. During the mid–1960s, Vairo was a former River Plate player, earning three consecutive Primera División titles, alongside players like the keeper Amadeo Carrizo, the midfielder Omar Sívori, among others.
Another important player of the club is Pablo Hernández, also Argentine, who was part of the historic squad led by Eduardo Berizzo that won the 2013–14 Torneo de Apertura. He is also important because he scored the goal in the Super Final match against Universidad Catolica, which gave the league title to the club. He was one of the most important players of the team, alongside the goalkeepers Paulo Garcés and Roberto González, the defenders Julio Barroso, Mariano Uglessich and Yerson Opazo, the midfielders Luis Pedro Figueroa, César Fuentes, Braulio Leal, Gonzalo Barriga and the striker and top goalscorerPablo Calandria, among others.
The team has had several Argentine footballers in majority, but also players of Paraguay, Uruguay, Brazil, Colombia and Venezuela have been in minority.
In 2006, under the orders of the manager Jorge Garcés, Giancarlo Maldonado, Venezuela national team striker, was signed, becoming the first footballer of that nationality to play in the club, and Aílton da Silva, seasons later, was the first player of Brazilian nationality in 2008 to arrive at the club.
Juan Rodrigo Rojas, now playing in Cerro Porteño, and Octavio Rivero, who was signed by Vancouver Whitecaps of Major League Soccer for a US$1.5M fee, were the last players of Paraguayan and Uruguayan nationality, respectively. The last Colombian player was Marco Pérez.
First-team squad
Chilean teams are limited by the ANFP to have on their roster a maximum of seven foreign players. ANFP rules also say the number of shirts can't exceed the number of registered players. As of the 2019 season, all Chilean teams must have included in the line-up, at least two Chilean players born on or after January 1, 2000, plus that a youth player plays at least 675 minutes (These players are marked as U-20 players).
Players with multiple citizenship
Pablo Hernández
Facundo Castro
Arnaldo Castillo
Team of The Century
In 1999, the fans of the club voted to choose the team of the 20th Century. Among the players which are in the starting line-up are the Argentine defender Federico Vairo, Miguel Ángel Neira, Mario Núñez, Mario Desiderio and the top goal-scorer of the history of the club, Aníbal González. The manager chosen was Luis Santibáñez, which reached two of the four participations in the Copa Libertadores, and led the club to its furthest position in the competition, the semi-finals, in 1980.
Recent results
Season stats
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
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! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|Season
! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|Rank
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! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|
! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|
! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|Top scorer(s) in league
! style="color:white; background:#5f91ce;"|Goals
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|-
|Campeonato Nacional 2022
|8th
|30
|11
|11
|8
|31
|31
|44
|style="text-align:left;"|Facundo Barceló
|7
|2R
|
|
|
|-
|Campeonato Nacional 2021
|13th
|32
|9
|11
|12
|31
|41
|38
|style="text-align:left;"|Marcelo Larrondo
|8
|2R
|
|
|
|-
|Campeonato Nacional 2020
|10th
|34
|12
|9
|13
|40
|39
|45
|style="text-align:left;"|Facundo Castro
|7
|
|
|
|
|-
|Campeonato Nacional 2019
|8th
|24
|10
|4
|10
|34
|35
|34
|style="text-align:left;"|Maximiliano Salas
|6
|R16
|
|
|
|-
|Campeonato Nacional 2018
|8th
|30
|12
|5
|13
|41
|41
|41
|style="text-align:left;"|Nicolás Mazzola
|8
|2R
|
|
|
|}
Managers
The first coach of the club was Francisco Hormazábal, who was signed for the 1955 Primera División tournament. In 1957, the board hired European Carlos Snopec as manager, who was the first international coach of the club. From 1958 to 1960 Argentine José Salerno was the manager of the club. The club went through three managers in 1961, and four managers in 1972.
In 1978–79, the club achieved an historic season with Luis Santibáñez as coach, who qualified O'Higgins to the 1980 Copa Libertadores' semi-finals, where the team lost to Club Nacional of Uruguay. In the early 1990s, the club's board signed Manuel Pellegrini to face the 1992 Copa Conmebol, where the club was eliminated early by Gimnasia y Esgrima de La Plata Then, with a prior spell of Nelson Acosta, who potentiated players like Jaime Riveros, the club achieved the finals of the Copa Chile in 1994, being runner–up under Roberto Hernández as coach. In 2005, Nelson Cossio became coach with the objective of reaching the first division again, which he achieved. Oscar Meneses coached the team during the Apertura tournament in their return to the first division, but was sacked due to poor performances.
In 2006, Jorge Garcés became coach of the club to play the Torneo Clausura, who abandoned the institution the following season, after a 5–0 loss with Colo-Colo. In December 2007, Ricardo Abumohor, the club's owner, reported that he hired Argentine manager Jorge Sampaoli for the new tournament, where he had decent seasons with players like Jean Beausejour and Carlos Carmona as key players.
After a regular tournament in the 2010 season, Ivo Basay was signed for the 2011 Apertura. Basay was replaced by José Cantillana for the 2011 Clausura.
In January 2012, the club's board signed Eduardo Berizzo and his assistant coach, former River Plate's goalkeeper in the 1980s, Roberto Bonano. Under Berizzo's administration, the team reached the Apertura final, where the team finished runner-ups after losing 2–0 in penalties to Universidad de Chile. However, this result gave the club qualification to the 2012 Copa Sudamericana, which is important due to the fact that O'Higgins hadn't played a continental competition since 1992. Berizzo also lead the team to their first league title in the 2013–14 Apertura, and to the Supercup win in 2014.
Shortly after the Supercup win, Berizzo was replaced by Facundo Sava.
Current technical staff
Chronology of managers
This list includes the managers and the interim managers since the foundation of the club until today. Only 13 managers in the history of the club are or were foreigners.
Francisco Hormazábal (1955–56)
Salvador Calvente (1957)
Carlos Snopec (1957)
José Salerno (1958–60)
Carlos Orlandelli (1960)
Roberto Rodríguez (1961)
George Robledo (1961)
Hernán Carrasco (1961)
Ladislao Pakozdi (1961–62)
José Pérez (1963–67)
Dante Pesce (1968)
Leonardo Bedoya (1968–69)
Jorge Aretio (1970)
Leonardo Bedoya (1971)
Hernán Carrasco (1972)
Luis Vidal (1972)
Ovidio Casartelli (1972)
Caupolicán Peña (1972)
Luis Vera (1973)
Jorge Aretio (1973)
Jorge Venegas (1974)
Leonardo Bedoya (1974–75)
José Pérez (1975)
Jorge Aretio (1975)
Armando Tobar (1976–77)
Nelson Oyarzún (1977)
Luis Santibáñez (1978–79)
Orlando Aravena (1979)
Francisco Molina (1980)
Orlando Aravena (1981)
Germán Cornejo (1982–83)
Leonardo Bedoya (1984)
Gastón Guevara (1985)
Jorge Luco (1985)
Manuel Cáceres (1985)
Luis Santibáñez (1986)
Jaime Campos (1986)
Eugenio Jara (1987)
Ricardo Horta (1988)
Juan Carlos Gangas (1988)
Nelson Acosta (1988–91)
Germán Cornejo (1992)
Manuel Pellegrini (1992–93)
Roberto Hernández (1994–95)
Roque Alfaro (1996)
Jorge Socías (1996)
José Sulantay (1997)
Gerardo Pelusso (1997)
René Serrano (1998–99)
Eduardo Salas (interim) (2000)
Guillermo Páez (2000–01)
Joel Retamal (2001)
Rubén Espinoza (2001)
Luis Droguett (interim) (2002)
Eduardo Salas (2003–04)
Sergio Nichiporuk (2004)
Nelson Cossio (2005)
Gerardo Silva (2005)
Óscar Meneses (2006)
Ronald Yávar (interim) (2006)
Jorge Garcés (2006–07)
Jorge Sampaoli (2008–09)
Gerardo Silva (2009)
Roberto Hernández (2010)
Marco Antonio Figueroa (2010)
Ivo Basay (2011)
Cristián Arán (interim) (2011)
José Cantillana (2011)
Eduardo Berizzo (2012–14)
Facundo Sava (2014–15)
Pablo Sánchez (2015)
Cristián Arán (2015–17)
Gabriel Milito (2017–2018)
Mauricio Larriera (2018)
Marco Antonio Figueroa (2018–2019)
Patricio Graff (2020)
Dalcio Giovagnoli (2020-)
Management
The club has had 17 presidents throughout history. The first president of the institution was Francisco Rajcevich, who held the post between January and December 1955, while Patricio Mekis had the longest time period in charge of the institution (between January 1958 and January 1965) and is currently honorary president of the club.
Formerly in the corporation presidents elected the same 12 directors-leaders who take the time to divide the charges. In turn, the elected president must be accepted by a majority of members. This president was in principle intended to be the leader for two years, but after a year, when half-directory is renewed, 8 leaders who continue plus 8 new or re-elected decide whether the current president remains in charge or another is chosen.
In 2005, the club had three different presidents due to internal problems and economic problems facing the club. After this, Ricardo Abumohor purchases the club and takes the role of president.
Current management staff
Chronology of presidents
1955–56: Francisco Rajcevich
1957–58: Dionisio Valenzuela
1958–65: Patricio Mekis
1966–72: Alberto Musse
1973–75: Carlos Latife
1976–82: Alfonso Orueta
1983–88: Héctor Cortéz
1989–90: Óscar Albornoz
1991–92: Juan Romero
1992–93: Rodolfo Cueto
1994–96: Alex Acosta
1997: José Donoso
1997–00: Omar Pozo
2001–04: Francisco Arce
2005: Waldo Quiroz (interim)
2005: Daniel Sánchez
2005: Juan Carlos Latife
2006–present: Ricardo Abumohor
Club badge and colours
The current badge of the club is a Phoenix over a pentagon with the colours white, yellow, and green. The colors remember the club colors of Instituto O'Higgins, América de Rancagua and O'Higgins Braden respectively. Several Rancaguan people affirm that the phoenix represents the Chilean historic city, in where the founding father and hero of the country, Bernardo O'Higgins, led his army to win the Battle of Rancagua against Spain, highlighting that the club's name is in honour of him.
The club's current home kit colours are sky blue and white, whilst the traditional away colours are yellow in honour of América, but in recent years the away kits have been white and black. In the 2010 Campeonato Petrobras, O'Higgins wore the former kit of O'Higgins Braden as away colours.
An unusual fact was that in the 2012 Torneo de Apertura first leg final at home against Universidad de Chile, the team played with the away kit colours in Rancagua, the city where the team is based.
The current home kit of the club consists of a sky blue shirt, black shorts and socks. The kit is manufactured by Joma, and the main sponsor is LatamWin.
Current sponsors
Joma
Latamwin
Mall Patio Rancagua
Mundo
Clínica MEDS
PedidosYa
Homecenter Sodimac
Universidad de O'Higgins
Ruta del Maipo ISA
Gatorade
JAC Motors
All-time kits
Kit manufacturers and sponsors
Club culture
Supporter groups
Trinchera Celeste (barra brava)
Arca de Noé
Tomé Tragedy
On February 9, 2013, after the match between the club and Huachipato, a group of fans traveled in a bus to Tomé, where in the Cuesta Caracol fell into a ravine, causing the death of 16 fans. As a sign of solidarity, a minute of silence was carried out in the different leagues of the ANFP for matches played in the following days, and in Rancagua and Tomé a day of mourning was planned.
Rivalries
O'Higgins doesn't have a defined classic rival, but they do have a minor rivalry with CSD Enfoque because both clubs are from Rancagua. Since Enfoque's establishment, the club plays the Rancagua derby since 2011, the top–scorer of that derby is the Argentine striker Guillermo Suárez. The last official game between both clubs occurred during a 2–2 Copa Chile away draw, with goals scored by Boris Sagredo and Suárez. In the first leg match played at El Teniente, O'Higgins comfortably won 3–0 with goals from Guillermo Suárez, Tomás Lizana, and Enzo Gutiérrez. In 2013, the clubs played a friendly game, where O'Higgins won 3–1.
However, the club does have a regional rivalry with Curicó Unido and Rangers de Talca.
Club details
All-time statistics
This table includes only results pertaining to the Campeonato Nacional and the Primera B, separated by year of the realization of the tournament, as well as the different rounds that had tournaments.
Results
Overview
Last updated: Campeonato Nacional 2018.
1. 1955–63, 1965–75, 1977–85, 1988–96, 1999–01, 2006–
2. 1964, 1976, 1986–87, 1997–98, 2002–05
3. Did not participate in the years 1986, 1987, 1998
International record
In his history, the club has qualified for six international tournaments, including four times in Copa Libertadores, thrice in Copa Sudamericana and one in the Copa Conmebol.
Overview
Last updated: 31 December 2018.
Matches
Affiliated clubs
Chelsea
OGC Nice
Honours
Domestic Competitions
Campeonato Nacional
Winners (1): 2013–14 Apertura
Runners-up (1): 2012 Apertura
Primera B de Chile
Winners (1): 1964
Runners-up (3): 1976, 1986, 1998
Copa Chile
Runners-up (2): 1983, 1994
Liguilla Pre-Libertadores
Winners (2): 1978, 1979
Liguilla Pre-Sudamericana
Winners (1): 2015–16 Clausura
Supercopa de Chile
Winners (1): 2014
O'Higgins Braden
Segunda División
Segunda División (1): 1954
América de Rancagua
Segunda División
Segunda División (2): Runners-up 1953, 1954
Reserves and Youth leagues
O'Higgins had a reserve team called O'Higgins F.C. Fútbol Joven that competes in the Fútbol Joven de Chile.
References
External links
Official websites
O'Higgins at the ANFP official website
News sites
La Celeste a Fan site
Capo de Provincia a Fan site
Soy Celeste a Fan site
Football clubs in Chile
Association football clubs established in 1955
1955 establishments in Chile
Rancagua
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian%20Republic%20of%20Herzeg-Bosnia
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Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia
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The Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia () was an unrecognized geopolitical entity and quasi-state in Bosnia and Herzegovina. It was proclaimed on 18 November 1991 under the name Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia () as a "political, cultural, economic and territorial whole" in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and abolished on 14 August 1996.
The Croatian Community of Bosnian Posavina, proclaimed in northern Bosnia on 12 November 1991, was joined with Herzeg-Bosnia in October 1992. In its proclaimed borders, Herzeg-Bosnia encompassed about 30% of the country, but did not have effective control over the entire territory as parts of it were lost to the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) at the beginning of the Bosnian War. The armed forces of Herzeg-Bosnia, the Croatian Defence Council (HVO), were formed on 8 April 1992 and initially fought in an alliance with the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Their relations deteriorated throughout late 1992, which led to the Croat–Bosniak War.
The Constitutional Court of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared Herzeg-Bosnia unconstitutional on 14 September 1992. Herzeg-Bosnia formally recognized the Government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina and functioned as a state within a state, while some in its leadership advocated the secession of the entity and its unification with Croatia.
On 28 August 1993, Herzeg-Bosnia was declared a republic following the proposal of the Owen-Stoltenberg Plan, envisioning Bosnia and Herzegovina as a union of three republics. Its capital city was Mostar, which was then a war zone, and the effective control center was in Grude. In March 1994, the Washington Agreement was signed that ended the conflict between Croats and Bosniaks. Under the agreement, Herzeg-Bosnia was to be joined into the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, but it continued to exist until it was formally abolished in 1996.
Etymology
The term Herzeg-Bosnia () appeared in the late 19th century and was used as a synonym for Bosnia and Herzegovina without political connotations. It was often found in folk poems as a more poetic name for Bosnia and Herzegovina. One of the earliest mentions of the term was by Croatian writer Ivan Zovko in his 1899 book Croatianhood in the Tradition and Customs of Herzeg-Bosnia. Croatian historian Ferdo Šišić used the term in his 1908 book Herzeg-Bosnia on the Occasion of Annexation. In the first half of the 20th century the name Herzeg-Bosnia was used by historians such as Hamdija Kreševljaković and Dominik Mandić and Croatian politicians Vladko Maček and Mladen Lorković. Its usage decreased in the second half of the 20th century until 1991 and the proclamation of the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia. Since the 1990s, it has been used as a name for a Croat territorial unit in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
After the Washington Agreement was signed in March 1994 and the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was created, one of its cantons was named the Herzeg-Bosnia Canton. In 1997, that name was declared unconstitutional by the Constitutional Court of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and officially renamed Canton 10.
Background
In early 1991, following the 14th Extraordinary Congress of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, the leaders of the six Yugoslav republics began a series of meetings to solve the crisis in Yugoslavia. The Serbian leadership favored the centralisation of the country, whereas the Croatian and Slovenian leadership favored a confederation of sovereign states or federalization. Alija Izetbegović proposed an asymmetrical federation on 22 February, where Slovenia and Croatia would maintain loose ties with the 4 remaining republics. Shortly after that, he changed his position and opted for a sovereign Bosnia and Herzegovina as a prerequisite for such a federation. On 25 March 1991, Croatian president Franjo Tuđman met with Serbian president Slobodan Milošević in Karađorđevo, allegedly to discuss the partition of Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 6 June, Izetbegović and Macedonian president Kiro Gligorov proposed a weak confederation between Croatia, Slovenia and a federation of the other four republics, which was rejected by Milošević.
On 13 July, the government of Netherlands, then the presiding EC country, suggested to other EC countries that the possibility of agreed changes to Yugoslav Republics borders could be explored, but the proposal was rejected by other members. In July 1991, Radovan Karadžić, president of the self-proclaimed Republika Srpska, and Muhamed Filipović, vice president of the Muslim Bosniak Organisation (MBO), drafted an agreement between the Serbs and Bosniaks which would leave Bosnia in a state union with SR Serbia and SR Montenegro. The Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ BiH) and the Social Democratic Party (SDP BiH) denounced the agreement, calling it an anti-Croat pact and a betrayal. Although initially welcoming the initiative, Izetbegović also dismissed the agreement.
From July 1991 to January 1992, during the Croatian War of Independence, the JNA and Serb paramilitaries used Bosnian territory to wage attacks on Croatia. The Croatian government helped arm the Croats and Bosniaks in Bosnia and Herzegovina, expecting the war to spread there. By late 1991 about 20,000 Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina, mostly from the Herzegovina region, enlisted in the Croatian National Guard. During the war in Croatia, Bosnian president Alija Izetbegović gave a televised proclamation of neutrality, stating that "this is not our war", and the Sarajevo government was not taking defensive measures against a probable attack by the Bosnian Serbs and the JNA. Izetbegović agreed to disarm the existing Territorial Defense (TO) forces on the demand of the JNA. This was defied by Bosnian Croats and Bosniak organizations that gained control of many facilities and weapons of the TO.
History
Establishment
In October 1991 the Croat village of Ravno in Herzegovina was attacked and destroyed by Yugoslav People's Army (JNA) forces before turning south towards the besieged Dubrovnik. These were the first Croat casualties in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Izetbegović did not react to the attack on Ravno. The leadership of Bosnia and Herzegovina initially showed willingness to remain in a rump Yugoslavia, but later advocated for a unified Bosnia and Herzegovina.
On 12 November 1991, on a meeting chaired by Dario Kordić and Mate Boban, local party leaders of the HDZ BiH reached an agreement to undertake a policy of achieving an "age-old dream, a common Croatian State" and decided that the proclamation of a Croatian banovina in Bosnia and Herzegovina should be the "initial phase leading towards the final solution of the Croatian question and the creation of a sovereign Croatia within its ethnic and historical [...] borders." On the same day, the Croatian Community of Bosnian Posavina was proclaimed in municipalities of northwest Bosnia in Bosanski Brod.
On 18 November, the autonomous Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia (HZ-HB) was established, it claimed it had no secession goal and that it would serve a "legal basis for local self-administration". The decision on its establishment stated that the Community will "respect the democratically elected government of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina for as long as exists the state independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina in relation to the former, or any other, Yugoslavia". Boban was established as its president. One of Boban's advisers stated that Herzeg-Bosnia was only a temporary measure and that the entire area will in the end be an integral part of Bosnia and Herzegovina. From its inception the leadership of Herzeg-Bosnia and HVO held close relations to the Croatian government and the Croatian Army (HV). At a session of the Supreme State Council of Croatia, Tuđman said that the establishment of Herzeg-Bosnia was not a decision to separate from Bosnia and Herzegovina. On 23 November, the Bosnian government declared Herzeg-Bosnia unlawful.
On 27 December 1991, the leadership of the HDZ of Croatia and of HDZ BiH held a meeting in Zagreb chaired by Tuđman. They discussed Bosnia and Herzegovina's future, their differences in opinion on it, and the creation of a Croatian political strategy. Stjepan Kljuić favored that Croats stay within Bosnia and Herzegovina while Boban said that, in the event of Bosnia and Herzegovina's disintegration, Herzeg-Bosnia should be proclaimed an independent Croatian territory "which will accede to the State of Croatia but only at such time as the Croatian leadership [...] should decide." Kordić, the vice president of Herzeg-Bosnia, claimed that the spirit of Croats in Herzeg-Bosnia had grown stronger since its declaration and that Croats in the Travnik region were prepared to become a part of the Croatian State "at all costs [...] any other option would be considered treason, save the clear demarcation of Croatian soil in the territory of Herzeg-Bosnia." On the same meeting, Tuđman said that "from the perspective of sovereignty, Bosnia-Herzegovina has no prospects" and recommended that Croatian policy should be one of "support for the sovereignty [of Bosnia and Herzegovina] until such time as it no longer suits Croatia." He based this on the belief that the Serbs did not accept Bosnia and Herzegovina and that Bosnian representatives did not believe in it and wished to remain in Yugoslavia, and thought that such a policy would avoid a war. Tuđman declared "it is time that we take the opportunity to gather the Croatian people inside the widest possible borders".
Bosnian War
Between 29 February and 1 March 1992 an independence referendum was held in SR Bosnia and Herzegovina. The referendum question was: "Are you in favor of a sovereign and independent Bosnia-Herzegovina, a state of equal citizens and nations of Muslims, Serbs, Croats and others who live in it?" Independence was strongly favoured by Bosniak and Bosnian Croat voters, but the referendum was largely boycotted by Bosnian Serbs. The total turnout of voters was 63.6%, of which 99.7% voted for the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina.
On 8 April 1992 the Croatian Defence Council (HVO) was formed and was the official military of Herzeg-Bosnia. A sizable number of Bosniaks also joined the HVO, constituting between 20 and 30 percent of the army. The legal rationale for the formation of HVO was seen in the laws of Yugoslavia that allowed citizens to organize their own self-defense when their government was unable or unwilling to defend them. Boban said that the HVO was formed because "thirteen Croatian villages in the municipality of Trebinje – including Ravno – were destroyed and the Bosnian government did nothing thereafter".
At the beginning of the war a Croat-Bosniak alliance was formed, but over time there were notable breakdowns of it due to rising tensions and the lack of mutual trust, with each of the two sides holding separate discussions with the Serbs, and soon there were complaints from both sides against the other. The designated capital of Herzeg-Bosnia, Mostar, was besieged by the JNA and later the Army of Republika Srpska (VRS) from April 1992. In late May, the HVO launched a counter-offensive and, after more than a month of fighting, managed to suppress the VRS forces from Mostar and the surrounding area.
The Croatian and Herzeg-Bosnia leadership offered Izetbegović a confederation of Croatia and Bosnia and Herzegovina, but Izetbegović rejected it. On 3 July 1992, the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia was formally declared, in an amendment to the original decision from November 1991. It adopted the Croatian dinar as its currency and Croatian as the official language. It had its own school curriculum and a local government system. In the preamble it was attested:
On 21 July 1992, the Agreement on Friendship and Cooperation between Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia was signed by Alija Izetbegović and Franjo Tuđman, establishing a military cooperation between Bosnian and Croatian forces. Although it was often not harmonious, it resulted in the gradual stabilisation of the defence in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Weapons for the Bosnian army were sent through Croatia despite the arms embargo. At a session held on 6 August, the Bosnian Presidency accepted HVO as an integral part of the Bosnian armed forces.
On 14 September 1992, the Constitutional Court of Bosnia and Herzegovina declared the proclamation of Herzeg-Bosnia unconstitutional. The Croatian Community of Bosnian Posavina was formally joined into Herzeg-Bosnia in October 1992. Throughout late 1992, tensions between Croats and Bosniaks increased and in early 1993 the Croat–Bosniak War escalated. Clashes spread in central Bosnia, particularly in the Lašva Valley. Within two months most of central Bosnia was under ARBiH control.
In late July 1993 the Owen-Stoltenberg Plan was proposed by U.N. mediators Thorvald Stoltenberg and David Owen that would organize Bosnia and Herzegovina into a union of three ethnic republics. Serbs would receive 53 percent of territory, Bosniaks would receive 30 percent, and Croats 17 percent. The Croats accepted the proposal, although they had some objections regarding the proposed borders. The Serbs also accepted the proposal, while the Bosniak side rejected the plan, demanding territories in eastern and western Bosnia from the Serbs and access to the Adriatic Sea from the Croats. On 28 August, in accordance with the Owen-Stoltenberg peace proposal, the Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia was proclaimed in Grude as a "republic of the Croats in Bosnia and Herzegovina". However, it was not recognised by the Bosnian government.
Washington Agreement
On 26 February 1994 talks began in Washington, D.C. between the Bosnian government leaders and Mate Granić, Croatian Minister of Foreign Affairs to discuss the possibilities of a permanent ceasefire and a confederation of Bosniak and Croat regions. By this time the amount of territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina controlled by the HVO had dropped from 20 percent to 10 percent. Boban and HVO hardliners were removed from power while "criminal elements" were dismissed from the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina (ARBiH). Under strong American pressure, a provisional agreement on a Croat-Bosniak Federation was reached in Washington on 1 March. On 18 March, at a ceremony hosted by US President Bill Clinton, Bosnian Prime Minister Haris Silajdžić, Croatian Foreign Minister Mate Granić and President of Herzeg-Bosnia Krešimir Zubak signed the ceasefire agreement. The agreement was also signed by Bosnian President Alija Izetbegović and Croatian President Franjo Tuđman. Under this agreement, the combined territory held by the Croat and Bosnian government forces was divided into ten autonomous cantons. It effectively ended the Croat-Bosniak War.
Aftermath
In November 1995 the Dayton Agreement was signed by presidents of Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Serbia that ended the Bosnian war. The Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina (FBiH) was defined as one of the two entities of Bosnia and Herzegovina and comprised 51% of the territory. The Republika Srpska (RS) comprised the other 49%. However, there were problems with its implementation due to different interpretations of the agreement. An Army of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was to be created by merging units from the ARBiH and the HVO, though this process was largely ineffective. The Federation was divided into 10 cantons. Croats were a majority in three of them and Bosniaks in five. Two cantons were ethnically mixed, and in municipalities that were divided during the war parallel local administrations remained. The return of refugees was to begin in those cantons. The agreement stipulated that Herzeg-Bosnia be abolished within two weeks.
The Federation acted only on paper and failed to function as a working government, despite the pressure from Washington and with presidents Tuđman and Izetbegović assuring that Croat and Bosniak politicians would join together in the new government. On 14 August 1996 it was agreed that Herzeg-Bosnia will be formally abolished by the end of that month. On 24 May 1997, the Croatian Community of Herzeg-Bosnia association was founded in Neum as the main institution of Croats in the country.
According to a 1999 report by the European Stability Initiative (ESI), Herzeg-Bosnia structures continued to function and a parallel government acted to expand the independence of its financial institutions. HDZ leaders claimed that "the Herzeg-Bosnia side could not accept a common financial system, because such a system did not allow the Bosnian Croats to finance their own army and to follow up on their own social obligations in the long term." Parallel Herzeg-Bosnia budgetary systems collect revenue from Croat-controlled cantons. The Herzeg-Bosnia payments bureau controls Croat economic activity and there are separate Croat public utilities, social services, social insurance funds, and forestry administrations. A segregated education system with a Herzeg-Bosnia curriculum and textbooks from Croatia is maintained. According to the ESI report, Herzeg-Bosnia continued receiving financial support from Croatia, particularly the Ministry of Defence. The pension and education systems and the salaries of Croat politicians and military officers are subsidized by the Croatian government. An Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) report two years after the end of the war concluded that Herzeg-Bosnia became "in every respect, from military and security matters to business ties, part of Croatia."
Area and population
The Croatian Communities of Bosnian Posavina and Herzeg-Bosnia within its proclaimed borders in November 1991 extended at about 30% of Bosnia and Herzegovina. According to the 1991 census, in that territory there were 1,238,512 people with ethnicities as follows.
Croats – 556,274 (44.91%)
Bosniaks – 398,092 (32.14%)
Serbs – 203,612 (16.44%)
Yugoslavs – 56,092 (4.53%)
Others – 24,505 (1.98%)
During the initial negotiations organized by the international community, the Croatian side advocated for a Croat national unit at some 30% of Bosnia and Herzegovina – slightly altered borders of the Croatian Communities, but with Croat enclaves around Žepče, Banja Luka and Prijedor included.
This maximalist approach was done for a better position during negotiations, which would inevitably reduce the excessive demands to an optimal envision of a Croat unit. Based on later statements of Herzeg-Bosnia leading officials, the optimal range of a Croat territorial unit was within the borders of the 1939 Banovina of Croatia, thus excluding Bosniak and Serb majority areas on the outskirts of Herzeg-Bosnia. Those borders would include around 26% of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ethnic composition of this area in 1991 was:
Croats – 514,228 (50.94%)
Bosniaks – 291,232 (28.85%)
Serbs – 141,805 (14.05%)
Yugoslavs – 44,043 (4.36%)
Others – 18,191 (1.80%)
In the beginning of the war JNA and VRS forces gained control of Serb majority areas that were proclaimed part of Herzeg-Bosnia. By late 1992 Herzeg-Bosnia lost Kupres, most of Bosnian Posavina, and Jajce to VRS. The territory under the authority of Herzeg-Bosnia became limited to Croat ethnic areas in around 16% of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The arrival of Bosniak refugees from areas captured by the VRS to HVO-controlled parts of central Bosnia and Mostar altered the ethnic structure and reduced the share of Croats.
Economy
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, the Socialist Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina was the poorest republic of the SFR Yugoslavia, along with Socialist Republic of Macedonia. Infrastructure and industry were poorly developed. The economy of Bosnia and Herzegovina totally faded during the Bosnian War. Many companies, which were successful before the war, were robbed and destroyed just at the beginning of the war. There was no economic activity due to the Yugoslav wars. Agricultural output was diminished, the traffic infrastructure was in collapse, construction was almost non-existent, and unemployment was very high. As a result of the wars, between 1992 and 1995, industrial production declined by 80% and an already poor infrastructure declined further. Croats left the war the most prosperous. Former Yugoslav companies were left without headquarters which were located on the territory of Herzeg-Bosnia. All banks were based in Sarajevo.
Herzeg-Bosnia did not have a central bank. Credits were obtained from local commercial banks, meaning that the deficit was financed by the real sector and the households sector. Foreign banking branches had to legally close their operations and reregister as new banks in Bosnia and Herzegovina after it declared independence. The most important bank in Herzeg-Bosnia was Hrvatska banka d.d. Mostar. The second largest bank was Hrvatska poštanska banka. The official currency in the territory of Herzeg-Bosnia was the Bosnia and Herzegovina dinar, but two parallel currencies were also in use: the Deutsche Mark and the Croatian dinar (later the Croatian kuna).
Reconstruction in most of Herzeg-Bosnia resumed shortly after the Washington Agreement was signed. Civilian employment in Herzeg-Bosnia in 1994 was around 20% of its pre-war level. In 1995, industrial production growth rate in Croat-majority areas was 25%, average wages grew by 35%, and employment growth was 69%. The highest growth was recorded in the production of concrete. The average monthly wage was 250 DEM and each employee received a monthly food supplement of 50 DEM. Unemployment was estimated at 50% of the total labor force in mid-1995. GDP growth in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina was estimated at 28% in 1995, fueled by the renewal of the Croat-Bosniak alliance, while GDP in Republika Srpska declined by 23%.
Military
The Croatian Defence Council (, HVO) was formed on 8 April 1992 and was the official military of Herzeg-Bosnia, although the organization and arming of Bosnian Croat military forces began in late 1991. Each district of Herzeg-Bosnia was responsible for its own defence until the formation of four Operative Zones with headquarters in Mostar, Tomislavgrad, Vitez and Orašje. However, there were always problems in coordinating the Operative Zones. On 15 May 1992 the HVO Department of Defense was established. By that time the HVO Main Staff, Main Logistics Base, Military Police, and Personnel Administration were also formed. The backbone of the HVO were its brigades formed in late 1992 and early 1993. Their organization and military equipment was relatively good, but could only conduct limited and local offensive action. The brigades usually had three or four subordinate infantry battalions with light artillery, mortars, antitank and support platoons. A brigade numbered between a few hundred to several thousand men, but most had 2–3,000. In early 1993 the HVO Home Guard was formed in order to provide support for the brigades. The HVO forces became better organized as time passed by, but they started creating guards brigades, mobile units of professional soldiers, only in early 1994. The European Community Monitoring Mission (ECMM) estimated the strength of the HVO in the beginning of 1993 at 45,000–55,000. In July 1993, CIA estimated the HVO forces at 40,000 to 50,000 men.
Culture
The Government of Herzeg-Bosnia founded the National Theatre in 1993 in Mostar. From 1994 it had the title of Croatian National Theatre in Mostar and was the first one with the prefix Croatian. The first play performed in this theatre was A Christmas Fable (Božićna bajka) by Mate Matišić. Foundations of a new building were laid in January 1996.
Education
The Ministry of Education of Herzeg-Bosnia adopted Croatian as the official language and followed the education programme of Croatian schools. As the war escalated, teaching in schools and the University of Mostar was suspended in May 1993 for the remainder of the academic year. The Faculty of Pedagogy of the University of Mostar, located in western Mostar, temporarily moved its facilities to the towns of Široki Brijeg and Neum where there were no major armed conflicts. It returned to Mostar in 1994.
Sport
Organized football competitions in Bosnia and Herzegovina were canceled in 1992 due to the war. The First League of Herzeg-Bosnia as the top football league started on 20 April 1994 and was divided into two groups. The League was organized by the Football Federation of Herzeg Bosnia. The winner of the first season, that was played only in Spring, was NK Mladost-Dubint Široki Brijeg. The league was played for seven years, with NK Široki Brijeg winning five and NK Posušje two trophies.
Legacy
Since 2005, there have been attempts by irredentists to restore Herzeg-Bosnia by creating a new third entity in Bosnia and Herzegovina. This was started under the leadership of Ivo Miro Jović, as he said "I don't mean to reproach Bosnian Serbs, but if they have a Serb republic, then we should also create a Croat republic and Bosniak (Muslim) republic". The Croat representative on the federal Bosnian Presidency, Željko Komšić, opposed this, but some Bosnian Croat politicians advocated for the establishment of a third (Croatian) entity.
Dragan Čović, president of one of the main Croatian parties in Bosnia, Croatian Democratic Union of Bosnia and Herzegovina (HDZ BiH), said that "all Croatian parties will propose that Bosnia and Herzegovina be divided into three ethnic entities, with Sarajevo as a separate district. Croatian politicians must be the initiators of a new constitution which would guarantee Croats the same rights as to other constituent peoples. Every federal unit would have its legislative, executive and judiciary organs". He claimed the two-entity system is untenable and that Croats have been subject to assimilation and deprived of basic rights in the federation with Bosniaks.
Petar Matanović, president of the Croatian National Council, opposed creating a third entity, claiming that the division of Bosnia into four federal units (three proposed ethnically-based entities plus Sarajevo as a neutral capital entity) would lead to a new war. He added that "we have to establish the state of Bosnia-Herzegovina in accordance with European standards and then regulate entities. It seems to me that this agreement entails an intention to strengthen entities and weaken the country." Stjepan Mesić, former president of Croatia, opposed the creation of a third entity, stating that: "if the current division of Bosnia Herzegovina into two entities does not function, it will not function with divisions into three entities".
In 2009, Miroslav Tuđman, son of the late Franjo Tuđman, called for the establishment of a Croatian entity. Čović stated, "We want to live in Bosnia-Herzegovina where Croats will be equal to the other two peoples according to the Constitution."
In 2013, six political and military leaders of Herzeg-Bosnia, Jadranko Prlić, Bruno Stojić, Slobodan Praljak, Milivoj Petković, Valentin Ćorić, and Berislav Pušić, were convicted in a first instance verdict by the ICTY for being part of a joint criminal enterprise (JCE) against the non-Croat population of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The ICTY also ruled, by a majority, that Tuđman, Šušak and Boban were part of a JCE, whose goal was to annex or control territory that was part of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939. Judge Jean-Claude Antonetti, the presiding judge in the trial, issued a separate opinion in which he contested the notion of a joint criminal enterprise.
Slobodan Praljak and others (Prlić, Stojić, Petković, Ćorić and Pušić) was found guilty of committing violations of the laws of war, crimes against humanity and breaches of the Geneva Conventions during the Croat–Bosniak War by the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY) in November 2017.
In February 2017, Croatian Peasant Party of Bosnia and Herzegovina's president Mario Karamatić said his party will demand a reestablishment of Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia in its 1995 shape if the Republika Srpska secedes. Karamatić declared Croats have been "fooled" by the 1994 Washington Agreement that abolished Herzeg-Bosnia and established the Croat-Bosniak Federation, which was also "broken" numerous times and that Croats have the right to recede to the status quo ante, i.e., Herzeg-Bosnia. As far as the Herzeg-Bosnia's tentative territory, Karamatić proposed the area served by the electricity utility Elektroprivreda HZ HB, which covers most areas of Croat habitation.
18 November is celebrated as the holiday in West Herzegovina Canton as the day of Herzeg-Bosnia's foundation. One of the cantons of the Federation used the name "Herzeg-Bosnian Canton", but this name was deemed unconstitutional by the Federation Constitutional Court, and it is officially referred as Canton 10. A memorial plaque in honor of Herzeg-Bosnia and Mate Boban was placed in downtown Grude.
See also
Croatian Defence Forces
Footnotes
References
Books and journals
News articles
International, governmental, and NGO sources
External links
Text of Washington Agreement
Herzeg Bosnia Canton
Official website
Bosnian War
Former unrecognized countries
History of the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina
History of the Croats of Bosnia and Herzegovina
Separatism in Bosnia and Herzegovina
1992 establishments in Bosnia and Herzegovina
1994 disestablishments in Bosnia and Herzegovina
States and territories established in 1992
States and territories disestablished in 1994
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehuelche%20people
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Tehuelche people
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The Tehuelche people, also called the Aónikenk, are an indigenous people from eastern Patagonia in South America. In the 18th and 19th centuries the Tehuelche were influenced by Mapuche people, and many adopted a horseriding lifestyle. Once a nomadic people, the lands of the Tehuelche were colonized in the 19th century by Argentina and Chile, gradually disrupting their traditional economies. The establishment of large sheep farming estates in Patagonia was particularly detrimental to the Tehuelche. Contact with outsiders also brought in infectious diseases ushering deadly epidemics among Tehuelche tribes. Most existing members of the group currently reside in cities and towns of Argentine Patagonia.
The name "Tehuelche complex" has been used by researchers in a broad sense to group together indigenous peoples from Patagonia and the Pampas. Several specialists, missionaries and travelers have proposed grouping them together on account of the similarities in their cultural traits, geographic vicinity and languages, even though the languages they spoke amongst themselves were not related to each other and their geographic distributions were extensive.
Name
According to the historian Antonio Pigafetta from Ferdinand Magellan's expedition in 1520, he referred to the indigenous people he came across in the San Julian Bay as the "Patagoni". In 1535 the historian Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo y Valdés explained in his (General and Natural History of the Indies), that "We Spaniards call them the Patagones for their big feet", which the historian Francisco López de Gómara agreed with in 1552. Based on these accounts, the first name the Spanish used to refer to the Tehuelche people was the Patagones. However, some researchers speculate, without verifiable bases, that Magellan could have been inspired by the dog-headed monster from the 1512 novel Primaleón known as "Pathogan."
According to the most widespread view, the word Tehuelche comes from the Mapuche term chewel che, which would mean "brave people", "rugged people", or "barren land people". Another version suggests that it could be derived from one of their factions, the Tueshens, plus the Mapuche word "che" meaning 'people' or 'peoples'.
Classifications
The classification of indigenous groups that lived in the Pampas and Patagonia is confusing due to the different terms that were used to refer to the native population groups from these regions. There are various causes that have prevented the establishment of one unique and complete classification. Among these circumstances, the extinction of some of these groups, coupled with the vast amount of land on which these groups were distributed, which inhibited Spanish explorers who first identified certain Tehuelche peoples from making contact with all the groups. In other cases, the seasonal migrations that they practiced which involved traveling long distances made Europeans that observed them overestimate the number of people from a group or the distribution range of a language. In conjunction with all of these factors, the intrusion of the Mapuches, or Araucans, from the west deeply transformed their cultural reality, intermixing and absorbing ethnic groups from the Pampas and central and North of Patagonia, producing the Araucanization of a large part of the ancient inhabitants. Finally, the subsequent Conquest of the Desert carried out by the Argentine Army led to the near extinction of these indigenous communities. This historic overview has led to the disagreement among researchers.
In the 19th century, explorers such as Ramón Lista and George Chaworth Musters named them "tsóneka", "tsónik" or "chonik". The majority of experts agree that the Chubut river separated the two largest subdivisions: the "Southern Tehuelche" and "Northern Tehuelche". The first subdivision stretched towards the south to the Strait of Magellan, whereas the second group extended towards the north to the Colorado River (Argentina) and Rio Negro (Argentina). The presence, or lack thereof, Tehuelche people in the Pampas has led to disagreements among researchers, who have not agreed on the existence of a separate subdivision called the "Pampas", nor what their relationship and borders were with the Mapuches.
According to Thomas Falkner
One of the primary classifications was from English Jesuit Thomas Falkner in his 1774 work A description of Patagonia and the adjoining parts of South America, which introduced the ethnic name 'Het peoples' for the Puelche people, which included the Tehuelche:
or Falkner the "Tehuelhets" or "Patagones" were the Tehuelche people who lived from the banks of the Rio Negro to the Strait of Magellan:
According to Milcíades Vignati
In 1936 Milcíades Vignati published (The Indigenous Cultures of the Pampas and the Indigenous Cultures of Patagonia) in which he proposed that between the 16th and 19th centuries the "Gününa-küne" or "Tuelches" lived from the southern half of the province of Rio Negro to the boundary between the present Chubut and Santa Cruz provinces. The "Serranos" were to the North of them and the "Aônükün'k" or "Patagones" were located to the South. These peoples were divided between three groups: the "Peénken" (people of the North), the "Háunikenk" (people of the South), and the "Aónikenk" (the people of the West).
According to Federico Escalada
In his 1949 piece (The Tehuelche Complex. An Ethnographic study of Patagonians), the military doctor Federico A. Escalada classified the Tehuelche people from historic periods, on the basis of the (Study of Human Reality and Bibliography), into five simple categories, each with their own language derived from a mother language called "Ken". He grouped them together geographically into "dry land" and "islanders", denying the existence of a separate "Pampa" group.
The names used by Escalada, which he obtained from Mapuche-speaking informants, were:
Dry land Tehuelche people:
"Guénena-kéne": the group he considered the northern component of the Tehuelche complex. It is evident that the group, historically, lived primarily along the main rivers of North Patagonia and extended through the northern territories of Chubut, up to Río Negro, constantly entering in to the south of the present Buenos Aires Province and the southeastern region of La Pampa Province. The name Guénena-kéne was provided to Escalada in 1945 by Chief Ciriaco Chaquilla from the Chubut Panyanieyo area, who identified himself as a member of the "Pampa Verdadero". He spoke the Puelche language, which was used by the Guénena-kéne people. Escalada's classification of the Guénena-kéne people coincided with other individuals who encountered the same group such as: Guillermo Cox, a British traveler who traveled through the south of Neuquén in 1863 and referred to the group as the "Northern Tehuelche people"; Juan Federico Hunziker, a Swiss missionary who was in Patagonia in 1864 and referred to the Guénena-kéne as the "Genacin"; Francisco Pascasio Moreno who in 1876 called them the "Gennaken"; and Tomás Harrington, a rural teacher who went through Chubut between 1911 and 1935 and compiled a vocabulary which he published in 1946 stating that the indigenous peoples who informed him about their almost dead language referred to themselves as "Gününa küne". In combination with other neighboring groups the Guénena-kéne were generally referred to as the Puelches (i.e. 'Eastern') by the Mapuches, a name which Alcide d’Orbigny also gave them in his (1826–1833). The Salesian missionary Doménico Milanesio named the Guénena-kéne the "Pampas" in his 1898 vocabulary, published in 1915. In 1922, doctor and German ethnologist Robert Lehmann-Nitsche, who traveled through Argentina circa 1900, called them the "Agününa künnü".
"Aóni-kénk": The southern component of the Tehuelche complex, located from the Magellan Strait up to the Chubut River in Argentina and the Palena province in Chile. Escalada called their language Aonika áish, the Tehuelche language. He obtained the name from his informant Agustina Quilchaman de Manquel.
"Chehuache-kénk": The western or foothill component of the Tehuelche complex, located in the valleys and foothills of the Andean Mountains between General Carrera Lake and Fontana Lake up to Nahuel Huapi Lake in Argentina. In Chile they were in the Andean sectors of Osorno, Llanquihue Province and the Palena Province. Their language was called Teushen. Escalada was the first to suggest they were a separate component, since researchers who identified them before him positioned them as a southern faction of the Northern Tehuelche people: the "Southern Northern Tehuelche people", who Harrington called "Chulila küne" (Cholila People).
Island Tehuelche People, located on Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego:
"Selk'nam": The Onas, who lived on the northern steppe region of the island.
"Man(e)kenk": The Haush, an intermixed group of Onas with non-Patagonian Yaghan people. They lived in the Mitre Peninsula on the Eastern part of the island.
According to Rodolfo Casamiquela
Argentine historian and paleontologist Rodolfo Casamiquela reviewed Escalada's classifications in his books (Rectifications and ratifications towards a definitive interpretation of the ethnological panorama of Patagonia and the adjacent Northern area) (1965); (A new ethnological panorama of the Pan-Pampas and adjacent Patagonian area) (1969); and (Outline of an ethnology of the Río Negro province) (1985), reaffirming the existence of a Tehuelche complex.
Casamiquela proposed the following classification for the continental area circa 1700:
"Southern Southern Tehuelche people": Or "Aónik'enk" (which in their language means "southern"), also called "Aonik" or "Ch'oonükü". Their distribution was from the Strait of Magellan to the Santa Cruz River and they were nomadic hunters. Their language was "Aonek'o 'a'jen".
"Northern Southern Tehuelche people" or "Mech'arn": Their epicenter was in the Chico and Chalía river areas in Santa Cruz. Their language was "Téwsün". Casamiquela says they were similar to the southerners and they were absorbed by their southern neighborhoods and the Mapuches.
"Southern Northern Tehuelche people": Also called "Pampas" and "mountain-dwellers" by historians from Buenos Aires (who lived in the mountains of the Tandilia system and the Sierra de la Ventana). They lived between the Chubut river and Río Negro and Río Limay. Those who lived in the center or east of the Chubut and Río Negro provinces called themselves "Günün a künna" or "Gününa këna" (the excellent people). Those who lived in the foothill region north of the Chubut river and west of the Río Negro were called "Chüwach a künna" or "Chëwach a këna" ("People on the edge of the mountains). The common language to both groups was "Gününa iájech". Although culturally similar to the southern Tehuelche people, they differed from them because they were Pampian without mixing with Fuegians.
"Northern Northern Tehuelche people": The "Puelches" from north of Neuquén and the group called "Querandí" by the Guaraní people belong to this group. At the time of the Spanish arrival in the Pampas, these nomadic Pampian hunters were based in Mendoza Province, and extended in to the south of Córdoba Province and San Luis Province, to almost all of current Buenos Aires Province and the city of Buenos Aires. The Querandí disappeared as a Tehuelche faction, mixing in colonial times with other groups.
Languages
The different ethnic groups that are recognized under the broad term "Tehuelche" spoke languages whose exact quantity and relationships have been subject to different opinions. For Roberto Lehmann Nitsche, the languages stemming from the Pampas and Patagonia divided in to two groups, the Chonan languages and the Het languages. The available evidence distinguishes between six languages in the Tehuelche complex: the Chon group (Teushen, Aoenek'enk, Selk'nam and Haush), the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group and the language of the Querandí people.
The language of the Aonekkenk people appears more closely related to the language of the Teushen people (central eastern Chonan). These languages in turn maintain a closer relationship with the languages from Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego (southern Chonan) and a more distant relationship with the language of the Gününa küne indigenous group (northern Chonan). Escalada considered the idea that the entire Tehuelche complex had a common linguistic core, called Ken ('people').
Until the 19th century the following languages were recognized:
The Gününa küne indigenous group spoke Puelche (or Gününa yajüch, or Günün a'ajech, or Gününa küne), whose relationship to other languages in the group is disputed and it is often considered a language isolate in the absence of more information;
The "Tshoneka centrales", meaning, the indigenous groups located in the current Neuquén, Río Negro and northern Chubut provinces (between the Gennakenk people to the north and the Aonekenk people to the south), spoke a language called Pän-ki-kin (Peénkenk).
In central Patagonia there was also an ancient transition language between the Penkkenk and the Aonekkenk languages, called Tehuesh (Tewsün, Téushenkenk or Teushen), which was gradually replaced by the Aonekkenk language. However, a large portion of the current names of places in the central plateau retain their Tewsün roots today; for example, the name of the Chubut Province is derived from the term "chupat".
Finally, the Aonekken ("people of the South") people speak the language commonly known as the Tehuelche language or Tshoneka or Aonekkenk, which constitutes the language currently most studied from the group and the only language that continues to be used. There is a group of people who try to recover the language through a program called "Kkomshkn e wine awkkoi 'a'ien" ("I am not ashamed of speaking Tehuelche"). The organization focuses on spreading the language and culture.
Studies of Gününa yajüch
In 1864, Hunziker recorded a vocabulary and a collection of phrases from a language called Genakenn in the Viedma region. In 1865, the explorer Jorge Claraz traveled from south of Buenos Aires to Chubut being guided by individuals who spoke Gününa iajëch, collecting the names of places, words and sentences in his (Chubut exploration travel diary) (1865–1866).
In 1913, Lehmann Nitsche used the data collected by Hunziker and Claraz to create a comparative vocabulary of Tehuelche languages: (The Chonan Linguistic Groups of the Magellanic Territories).
In 1925, Harrington gathered words from bilingual Tehuelche speakers which he published in 1946 in (A Contribution to the Study of the Gününa küne Indian), claiming that they called their language Gününa yájitch or Pampa. During the 1950s, Casamiquela collected vocabulary, songs and prayers from various elders, outlining a morphosyntactic analysis.
In 1960, Ana Gerzenstein made a phonetic and phonological classification in her (Phonology of the Gününa-këna Language).
In 1991, José Pedro Viegas Barros outlined a morphosyntactic projection in (Linguistic Clarification of Intercultural and Inter-ethnic Relations in the Pampas-Patagonian Region), and in 2005 he developed a phonological description in (Voices in the Wind).
Puelche is a dead language. Casamiquela released the first and last name of the last Puelche speaker: José María Cual, who died in 1960 at the age of 90.
Social organization
Although mobile, Tehuelche groups tended to move in specific circuits, predominantly from west to east and vice versa. During each season, the groups had places where they would set up camps, known as aik or aiken among themselves, and referred to as tolderías by the Spanish and Creoles.
Each Tehuelche group was composed of various kinship and they had specific territories for hunting and gathering. The boundaries of these territories were defined through ancestry by markers with unknown significance: a hill, a trough, a hollow, or important tree. In cases where a group could not satisfy their needs in their own territory, they had to ask for the permission of neighboring people from the same ethnic group to use the resources from their territories; a violation of this rule led to war.
The Tehuelche had a very organized family unit, in which men were the authoritative figures and women were subordinate. In most family contexts, the father would offer his daughter for marriage in exchange for various goods. Each man could have two or three wives, depending on his status.
Religion
As in the case of other ethnic groups that did not develop a state structure, the Tehuelche did not possess an organized religious system (liturgy and vertical structure). However, like all the Pampas and Patagonian peoples, they had a corpus of beliefs based on their own myths and rituals, which were narrated and updated by the shamans who also practiced medicine with the help of the spirits invoked in themselves.
The Tehuelche people believed in diverse Earth spirits, along with a supreme deity who created the world but does not intervene in it. One of the cosmological versions of the creation myth is one in which the deity, known as Kóoch, brought order to the world's chaos, creating distinct elements. Similarly, the Selk'nam people from Tierra del Fuego in Argentina, narrated a similar myth where the world creator, a deity known as Kénos' (a variant of Kóoch through a common root), sent El-lal, son of the giant Nosjthej, Patagonia through the deity Temáukel. In Tehuelche myths, El-lal created humans and taught them to use bow and arrows. In the Tehuelche culture, they accepted the existence of an evil spirit, called Gualicho.
History
Pre-Columbian period
The ancestors of the Tehuelche are probably responsible for the creation of the rock art of Cueva de las Manos, created from about 13,000 to 9,000 years ago up until around 700 A.D. Six thousand years ago the Toldense industry emerged, consisting primarily of goods such as two-sided sub-triangular projectile points, lateral and terminal scrapers, bifacial knives and tools made from bone. Later, between 7000 and 4000 B.C., the Casapedrense industry appeared, characterized by a greater proportion of stone tools made in sheets, which was most likely a demonstration of a specialization in guanaco hunting, which is also present in the subsequent cultural developments of the Tehuelche people.
From this time and until the European arrival (early 16th century) the Tehuelche people were hunter-gatherers who utilized seasonal mobility, moving towards guanaco herds. During the winter they were in the low areas (meadows, wetlands, shores, lake shores, etc.), and during the summer they moved up to the central plateaus of Patagonia or to the Andes mountains where they had, among other sacred sites, Mount Fitz Roy.
Spanish arrival
On 31 March 1520 the Spanish expedition, under the command of Fernando de Magallanes, landed in San Julián Bay to spend the winter there. Here, they made contact with Tehuelche indigenous groups, who they referred to as "Patagones", as told by the scribe, Antonio Pigafetta. Pigaffetta described these people as a mythical tribe of Patagonian giants.
Prior to meeting the Tehuelche groups in person, the explorers had been amazed by the size of their footprints. Enlarged by the animal furs they used as footwear, their feet appeared much larger than those of the Europeans at the time. During the 16th century, the average male height of Europeans at around would have been shorter than the Patagonian men whose height reportedly averaged above by some accounts and around by other accounts. Thus the Europeans may have considered them to be "Patones" ('large footed') or the Patagonians may have reminded the explorers of the giant Pathoagón from the knighthood novel Primaleón. The Patagonians' large craniometry made them famous in European literature from the 16th to the 19th centuries due to their large stature and physical strength.
Influence from the Mapuches
Since the 18th century, there was important commercial activity and product exchanges among the native inhabitants of the Pampas plains and the Sierras of the current Buenos Aires Province, the inhabitants of Northern Patagonia, and those of both edges of the Andes. There were two very important trade fairs in Cayrú and Chapaleofú. These trade fairs, called "Poncho fairs" by the Jesuits at the time who recorded their existence (such as Thomas Falkner), were places for the exchange of various types of products: from livestock and agricultural products to garments, such as ponchos. Cayrú was located in the most western part of the Tandilia system (in the current territory of the Olavarría Partido). Chapaleofú refers to the homonymic water stream vicinity, situated in the current Tandil Partido. Both municipalities, or partidos, are located in the interior of the current Buenos Aires Province. The movements of people to participate in the exchanging of products generated certain cultural exchanges between different groups living anywhere from the humid Pampas, the northern Patagonia, the immediate area near the Andes (both on its western and eastern edges), to the coast of the Pacific Ocean. This was the start of cultural exchanges and migratory movements, between distinct groups such as the Tehuelche, Ranquel and Mapuche people.
Although Mapuche trade started as a means of fostering commerce and alliances, it was completed by generating a large cultural influence on the Tehuelche and other groups, to the point that it is referred to as the "Mapuchization" or "Araucanization of Patagonia". A large portion of the Tehuelche and Ranquel peoples adopted many of the Mapuche customs and their language, while the Mapuches adopted parts of the Tehuelche way of life (such as living in tolderías) and thereby, the differences between the two groups were blurred to the point that their descendants refer to themselves as Mapuche-Tehuelche people.
During the first half of the 18th century, Chief Cacapol and his son, Chief Cangapol, were the most important chiefs in the regions extending from the Andes Mountains to the Atlantic Oceans, and from the Río Negro to the Salado River. Cangapol had a seat in the government in the Sierra de la Ventana region, and their people were known as the "Mountain Pampas". The Pampas knew how to align themselves with the Mapuches from the west, to attack the Buenos Aires Campaign in 1740.
In this process there were also inter-ethnic struggles and by 1820 heavy combat erupted between the Patagones and Pehuenches on the banks of the Senguerr River; other combat occurred at Barrancas Blancas and Shótel Káike. By 1828, the Pincheira Royalist army attacked the Tehuelche group in the Bahía Blanca and Carmen de Patagones area.
The Tehuelche people south of the Río Negro had a female chief: María la Grande. Her successor, Casimiro Biguá, was the first Tehuelche chief to make treaties with the Argentine government. His sons, Chiefs Papón and Mulato, ended up on a reserve in southern Chile.
The Tehuelche people had to live with Welsh immigrants who, since the second half of the 19th century, began to settle in Chubut: the relations were generally harmonious between the two groups. In 1869, Chief Biguá recognized the need to defend the Welsh against a potential attack from Chief Calfucurá.
Little information is known about Tehuelche culture before the use of the horse, although their socioeconomic organization resembled that of the Ona people from Tierra del Fuego. The introduction of the horse by the Spaniards, which they became acquainted with as of 1570, transformed the social organization of Tehuelche people: the introduction caused groups to develop dependencies on horses in their daily lives. Like the indigenous groups in the North American Great Plains, the Tehuelche also worked the thicket steppes of Patagonia, living mainly off of guanaco and rhea meat (ñandú or choique), followed by South Andean deer, deer, Patagonian mara and even puma and jaguar meat, in addition to certain plants (although late, they learned how to cultivate the land). As for fish and shellfish, there were certain cases where their consumption was banned: for example, some groups had prohibited the consumption of fish. Their groups used to consist of between 50 and 100 members.The adoption of the horse meant an extensive social change in Tehuelche culture: the new mobility altered their ancestral territories and greatly affected their movement patterns. Before the 17th century east–west movements prevailed in pursuit of guanacos; however, as of the dawn of the equestrian complex, longitudinal movements (from south to north and vice versa) were very important in establishing extensive exchange networks. In the mid-19th century the Aonikenk exchanged their skins and mollusks for cholilas (strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, Magellan barberry, Chilean pine tree seeds, Cyttaria, buds and Chilean bamboo buds, etc.) and apples with the Gennakenk people of Neuquén, the upper valley of Río Negro and the so-called 'country of Strawberries', or Chulilaw (the region approximately bounded to the north by Lake Nahuel Huapi, to the east by the low mountains and morraines called Patagónides, to the west by the high summits of the Andes and to the south by Lake Buenos Aires/General Carrera).
The horse, or more precisely, the mare, became a principle part of the Tehuelche diet, leaving guanacos in second place. The Selk'nam from Tierra del Fuego did not develop a comparable dependency on horses.
Relations with Welsh settlers
Welsh settlers arrived to the Tehuelche lands of the lower Chubut Valley in 1865. Relations were mostly amicable and has been described as mutual feelings of "trust and admiration". Paternalistic attitudes toward the Tehuelche were common among the Welsh. There was a widespread critical view of the Argentine militaries treatment of the Tehuelche and of traders who provided Tehuelches with alcohol and weaponry. Tehuelches were reportedly seen as uncivilized, savage and childlike in nature by the Welsh.
Abduction and forced exhibition
As early as the second half of the 19th century, Tehuelche groups were abducted and displayed against their will in countries such as Belgium, Switzerland, (Germany), France and England. More specific data shows that a chief known as Pitioche and his wife and child were captured. Reports of these shocking facts form part of Christian Báez and Peter Mason's book (Human Zoos).
Anthropologist Robert Lehmann-Nitsche was also criticized for having studied members of the Tehuelche people who had been abducted and were exhibited in circuses.
Reservations in Santa Cruz
By decree of President José Evaristo Uriburu on 11 January 1898, the Camusu Aike reservation was created for the "gathering of Tehuelche tribes." The reservation is located in the Santa Cruz Province of Argentina.
In 1922, President Hipólito Yrigoyen created the following reserves by decree: Lago Viedma (Lots 119–117) between , Lago Cardiel (Lot 6) and Lago Cardiel (Lot 28 bis). The first two were stripped of their status in 1966 and the third in 1990.
Notable Tehuelche people
Inacayal
Loncopán
Salpul
Present-day status of the Tehuelche
According to the unfinished "National Indigenous Census" (1966–1968), there were only a few Tehuelche descendants that spoke the Tehuelche language. The population of Tehuelche descent that has remained the most attached to their culture is located in the central plateau of the Santa Cruz Province, although the population is intermixed with those of other descents. The census recorded that in Santa Cruz Province:
Deseado Department: 28 Tehuelches, no Aonekko 'a'ien speakers
Güer Aike Department: 44 Tehuelches, 24 Aonekko 'a'ien speakers (Camusu Aike Settlement)
Lago Argentino Department: 36 Tehuelches, 14 Aonekko 'a'ien speakers (Cerro Índice Settlement with 5 families, 24 people).
Lago Buenos Aires Department: 6 Tehuelches, 2 Aonekko 'a'ien speakers.
Río Chico Department: 52 Tehuelches, 11 Aonekko 'a'ien speakers (2 Tehuelche settlements in this department: Lot 6 with 34 inhabitants, and Lot 28 bis with 3 families)
There were also inter-mixed marriages in Tres Lagos, Puerto San Julián, Gobernador Gregores and Río Gallegos.
The "Complementary Survey of Indigenous peoples" (ECPI) 2004–2005, supplementary to the "2001 National Census of Population, Household and Housing," resulted in the recognition of 4351 people descended from the first generation of Tehuelche people in the Chubut and Santa Cruz Provinces. Another 1664 considered themselves Tehuelche within the city of Buenos Aires and the 24 partidos of Greater Buenos Aires; with 4575 in the rest of the country. In all of Argentina 10,590 people considered themselves Tehuelche.
The 2010 National Population Census in Argentina revealed the existence of 27,813 people who considered themselves Tehuelche throughout the country, 7924 in the Chubut Province, 4570 in the interior of the Buenos Aires Province, 2615 in the Santa Cruz Province, 2269 in the Río Negro Province, 1702 in the city of Buenos Aires, 844 in the Mendoza Province, 738 in the Neuquén Province and 625 in the La Pampa Province.
There are currently Tehuelche settlements in the Santa Cruz Province including:
Camusu Aike Territory: 180 km northwest of Río Gallegos, recognized in September 2007 with legal entity status.
Lago Cardiel Lot 6: Between Gobernador Gregores City and San Martín Lake.
Lago Cardiel Lot 28 bis: Close to Gobernador Gregores City.
Cerro Índice: 40 km southeast of Viedma Lake and 50 km south of Tres Lagos.
Copolque (or Kopolke): Located in the Leandro N. Alem Settlement in the surrounding area of Las Heras in the Deseado Department.
There are some bilingual Aonekko 'a'ien speakers in these settlements; the rest speak Spanish.
There are two reservations located in the Chubut Province. El Chalía, the Manuel Quilchamal community, in the Río Senguer Department, located 60 km from the Doctor Ricardo Rojas village. El Chalía was created in 1916 with 60,000 ha, but today its area has been reduced to 32,000, with 80 residents. Loma Redonda is a reservation located between Río Mayo and Alto Río Senguer, with 30 residents. 17.65% of the people inhabiting these reservations are bilingual in Spanish and Mapudungun and the rest speak Spanish. The 1991 census only reported two elderly women with memory of the Aonek'o 'a'ien language.
Since 1995, the Instituto Nacional de Asuntos Indígenas (INAI), or National Institute for Indigenous Affairs, began recognizing the legal status of indigenous communities in Argentina through registration in the National Registry of Indigenous Communities (Renaci). Among these were 2 Tehuelche communities in the Santa Cruz Province and 4 Mapuche-Tehuelche communities in the Chubut, Río Negro, Buenos Aires and Santa Cruz Provinces:
Santa Cruz Province (Tehuelche People)
Copolque Community (in the Deseado Department, 5 June 2007)
Camusu Aike Community (in the Güer Aike Department, 14 September 2007)
Santa Cruz Province (Mapuche-Tehuelche People)
Nehuen Mulfuñ Community (in the city of Pico Truncado in the Deseado Department, 25 March 2014)
Chubut Province (Mapuche-Tehuelche People)
Vuelta del Río Indigenous Community (in the Cushamen Department, 24 February 1997)
Río Negro Province (Tehuelche People)
Río Chico Indigenous Community (in the Ñorquinco Department, 1 September 2000)
Buenos Aires Province (Mapuche-Tehuelche People)
Tehuelche Callvu Shotel (in the La Plata Partido, 18 May 2010)
Mapuche-Tehuelche communities
In the Chubut Province, there are mixed communities of Mapuche and Tehuelche people, and they call themselves Mapuche-Tehuelche:
Four urban Mapuche-Tehuelche communities also exist in Santa Cruz: in Caleta Olivia (Fem Mapu), Gallegos River (Aitué), in Río Turbio (Willimapu) and in Puerto Santa Cruz (Millanahuel).
The Cushamen indigenous reserve in the Cushamen Department in Chubut was created in 1889 to accommodate Chief Miguel Ñancuche Nahuelquir's tribe, who was removed from the Neuquén mountain area by the Conquest of the Desert. It comprises 1250 km2 and 400 Mapuches-Tehuelche families.
In Chile
The Tehuelche group is nearly extinct in Chile. In 1905 they suffered a smallpox epidemic that killed Chief Mulato and other members of his settled tribe in the río Zurdo valley, near Punta Arenas. The survivors took refuge in Argentinian territory, possibly on the Cumusu Aike reserve. Their memory is present in the name Villa Tehuelches, a Chilean town in the Laguna Blanca commune.
Notes
Bibliography
Further reading
Martine Delahaye, Vers une description du tehuelche, Paris : Université René Descartes, 1983.
Ana Fernandez Garay, Textos tehuelches documentados por Martine Delahaye, Languages of the world, Text collections,1986.
Martine Delahaye, Ana V. Fernández Garay, José Pedro Viegas Barros, Situación lingüística de los tehuelches en la provincia de Santa Cruz, Viedma : Fundación Ameghino, 1990. Separata de: Mundo Ameghiniano, 9 (1990), Antropología. (Etnolingüística. Antropología social), pp. 61–73.
Christine Papp: Die Tehuelche. Ein Ethnohistorischer Beitrag zu einer jahrhundertelangen Nicht-Begegnung, A dissertation. Universitãt Wien (University of Vienna), 2002. (PDF)
Native Patagonians – Contains primary sources and reference material.
Efram Sera-Shriar, ‘Tales from Patagonia: Phillip Parker King and Early Ethnographic Observation in British Ethnology, 1826-1830’, Studies in Travel Writing, 19 (2015), 204-223
Hunter-gatherers of South America
Indigenous peoples of the Southern Cone
Indigenous peoples in Argentina
Indigenous peoples in Chile
Patagonia
Pre-Columbian cultures
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TIM%20barrel
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TIM barrel
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The TIM barrel (triose-phosphate isomerase), also known as an alpha/beta barrel, is a conserved protein fold consisting of eight alpha helices (α-helices) and eight parallel beta strands (β-strands) that alternate along the peptide backbone. The structure is named after triose-phosphate isomerase, a conserved metabolic enzyme. TIM barrels are ubiquitous, with approximately 10% of all enzymes adopting this fold. Further, five of seven enzyme commission (EC) enzyme classes include TIM barrel proteins. The TIM barrel fold is evolutionarily ancient, with many of its members possessing little similarity today, instead falling within the twilight zone of sequence similarity.
The inner beta barrel (β-barrel) is in many cases stabilized by intricate salt-bridge networks. Loops at the C-terminal ends of the β-barrel are responsible for catalytic activity while N-terminal end loops are important for the stability of the TIM-barrels. Structural inserts ranging from extended loops to independent protein domains may be inserted in place of these loops or at the N-terminus/C-terminals. TIM barrels appear to have evolved through gene duplication and domain fusion events of half-barrel proteins, with a majority of TIM barrels originating from a common ancestor. This led many TIM barrels to possess internal symmetries. Further gene duplication events of this ancestral TIM barrel led to diverging enzymes possessing the functional diversity observed today. TIM barrels have also been a longstanding target for protein designers. Successful TIM barrel designs include both domain fusions of existing proteins and de novo designs. Domain fusions experiments have resulted in many successful designs, whereas de novo designs only yielded successes after 28 years of incremental development.
Structure
Topology
The TIM barrel gets its name from the enzyme triose-phosphate isomerase (TIM), which was the first protein possessing the fold to be crystallized. TIM barrels contain 200-250 amino acid residues, folded into 8 alpha helices (α-helices) and 8 beta strand (β-strands). The β-strands are arranged into a parallel beta barrel (β-barrel), and are surrounded by the 8 α-helices. The defining property of TIM β-barrels is that they always possess a shear number of 8. The shear number is determined by picking a residue x on β-strand-1, and moving along the β-barrel, in a perpendicular direction to the direction of the strands, until residue y on the original β-strand-1 is reached. The number of residues between the start and end positions (|y−x|) is the shear number. Since the number of strands is equal to the shear number, side-chains point alternatively towards the pore and the core, giving a 4-fold symmetry. The α-helices surround and completely enclose the inner β-barrel. Short loops typically connect the α and β secondary structures, forming a (βα)8 repeat topology. In some cases, structures ranging from extended loops to independent domains may be inserted in place of these loops, or may be attached to the N/C-terminals. All TIM barrel enzymes possess catalytic sites at the C-terminal end of the β-barrel, and structural inserts present close to this end may aid in catalytic activity.
Core and pore regions
TIM barrels contain two distinct buried regions, where amino acid residues are completely enveloped by their neighbors and lack access to solvent. The term 'pore' is a misnomer, as no solvent channels exist within this region. The core region consists of all residues constituting the α-β interface, and lies exterior to the central β-barrel. The pore region consists of all interior β-barrel residues, which are surrounded and enclosed by the β-barrel backbone.
Due to the pleated nature of β-strands, alternate residues along a strand are almost evenly split between the pore (53%) and core (47%). For β-barrels, 95% of their core residues are buried. Only 11% of their core residues are polar, possessing an affinity for water, and possessing the ability to form hydrogen bonds or salt bridges. Similarly, 84% of β-strand pore residues are buried. However, 42% of their pore residues are polar. These residues form intricate salt bridge networks to compensate for their lack of solvent accessibility.
TIM barrel stabilizing elements
Salt bridges within TIM barrel pores are thought to contribute to the overall stability of the fold. An example of a large salt bridge network can be found in 2-deoxyribose-5-phosphate aldolase. This network was found to be conserved across the Class I aldolase family.
The exact reason for the overrepresentation of polar residues and salt bridges within the pore remains unclear. One study proposes that they improve foldability rather than thermodynamic stability of TIM barrels. During the folding process, inner pore residues on β-strands would be exposed to water. Partially-folded βαβα modules, called foldons, would be energetically stabilized by polar pore residues during this stage of folding.
In another study involving the S. solfataricus indole-3-glycerol phosphate synthase TIM barrel protein, a conserved βαβαβ module was found to be an essential folding template, which guided the folding of other secondary structures. β-barrel closure only occurred at the end of the folding process. In this case however, the authors credited branched aliphatic amino acids (valine, leucine, and isoleucine) for foldon stability.
Another stabilizing element in TIM barrels is the beta hairpin clamp. Side chain H-bond donors at the N-termini of even-numbered β-strands often form H-bonds with main chain amide hydrogens in preceding odd-numbered β-strands. These clamps (or hydrophobic side chain bridge analogs) are conserved in 3 indole-3-glycerolphosphate synthase TIM barrel orthologs from the bacterial and archaeal kingdoms, implying they arose in their last common ancestor and have been preserved for over a billion years.
Structural inserts
The N/C-terminal and loop regions on TIM barrel proteins are capable of hosting structural inserts ranging from simple secondary structural motifs to complete domains. These domains aid in substrate recognition and catalytic activity. Four diverse examples of TIM barrels containing additional motifs and domains are discussed below.
Bacillus subtilis Orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase () is a TIM barrel protein displaying 4 α-helices in place of the βα loops typically present at the C-terminal of the β-barrel (residues 35-42, 89-91, 126-133, and 215-219). One of these helices (R215→K219) contains a conserved arginineresidue (R215) required for interacting with a phosphate moiety on orotidine 5′-monophosphate. The other helices were not found to host residues critical for catalytic activity, and may serve in structural roles.
Mycobacterium tuberculosis bifunctional histidine/tryptophan biosynthesis isomerase (PriA) () possesses the ability to catalyse two reactions: (i) HisA reaction: the conversion of N-[(5-phosphoribosyl) formimino]-5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (ProFAR) to N-[(5-phosphoribulosyl)formimino]-5-aminoimidazole-4-carboxamide ribonucleotide (PRFAR), and (ii) TrpF reaction: N-(5’-phosphoribosyl)-anthranilate (PRA) to 1-(O-carboxyphenylamino)- 1’-deoxyribulose-5’-phosphate (CdRP). PriA is a TIM barrel enzyme that accommodates both substrates using active site loops (loops 1, 5, and 6, extended βα loops at the C-terminal end of the β-barrel) that change conformation depending on the reactant present. Loop 1 wraps over the active site only in the presence of ProFAR. Loop5 wraps over the active site, adopting a β-sheet conformation in the presence of CdRP, or a knot-like conformation in the presence of ProFAR. Loop 6 wraps over the active site for all reactants.
Lactococcus lactis Dihydroorotate dehydrogenase A (DHODA) () is an example of a TIM barrel possessing β-sheets and extended loops over the C-terminal end of the β-barrel. DHODA catalyzes the oxidation of dihydroorotate to orotate, which is part of the de novo uridine 5'-monophosphate (UMP) synthesis pathway. This oxidation is mediated by flavin mononucleotide (FMN). Here, β-sheets and extended loops enclose the active site forming a cavity, while also hosting several catalytic residues.
The Methylophilus methylotrophus trimethylamine dehydrogenase () TIM barrel is an example of a complete domain insertion. Here, a Rossmann fold domain is inserted at the C-terminal end of the TIM-barrel. Trimethylamine dehydrogenase catalyzes the conversion of trimethylamine to formaldehyde. This reaction requires both a reduced 6-S-cysteinyl Flavin mononucleotide (FMN) cofactor and a reduced iron-sulphur ([4Fe-4S]+) center. FMN is covalently bound within the C-terminal region of the β-barrel. The [4Fe-4S]+ center is too large to be accommodated within the TIM barrel, and is instead placed in close proximity, 7 Å away, at the interface between the TIM barrel and Rossmann fold domains.
Folding mechanisms
The conservation of the TIM barrel fold is mirrored by the conservation of its equilibrium and kinetic folding mechanisms in bacterial paralogs with phylogenetically distinct lineages. Chemical denaturation of several natural and 2 designed TIM barrel variants invariably involves a highly populated equilibrium intermediate. The kinetic intermediates that appear after dilution from highly denaturing solutions involve an early misfolded species that must at least partially unfold to access the productive folding pathway. The rate-limiting step in folding is the closure of the 8-stranded β-barrel, with the preceding, open barrel form corresponding to the equilibrium intermediate. Native-centric molecular dynamics simulations recapitulate the experimental results and point the way to testable computational models for complex folding mechanisms.
Conserved fitness landscapes
TIM barrel proteins possess an unusually high sequence plasticity, forming large families of orthologous and paralogous enzymes in widely divergent organisms. This plasticity suggests a sequence landscape that allows for protein adaptation to a variety of environmental conditions, largely independent of phylogenetic history, while maintaining function. A deep mutational scanning approach and a competition assay was used to determine the fitness of all possible amino acid mutants across positions in 3 hyperthermophilic indole-3-glycerolphosphate synthase (IGPS) TIM barrel enzymes in supporting the growth of a yeast host lacking IGPS. Although the 2 bacterial and 1 archaeal IGPS enzymes were only 30-40% identical in sequence, their fitness landscapes were strongly correlated: the same amino acids at the same positions in the three different proteins had very similar fitness. The correlation can be thought of as the conservation of the fitness landscape for a TIM barrel enzyme across evolutionary time.
Loop regions
Of the approximately 200 residues required to fully form a TIM barrel, about 160 are considered structurally equivalent between different proteins sharing this fold. The remaining residues are located on the loop regions that link the helices and strands; the loops at the C-terminal end of the strands tend to contain the active site, which is one reason this fold is so common: the residues required to maintain the structure and the residues that effect enzymatic catalysis are for the most part distinct subsets: The linking loops can, in fact, be so long that they contain other protein domains. Recently, it has been demonstrated that catalytic loops can be exchanged between different TIM barrel enzymes as semiautonomous units of functional groups.
Evolution and origins
The predominant theory for TIM barrel evolution involves gene duplication and fusion, starting with a half- barrel that eventually formed a full TIM barrel. Multiple studies support the theory of divergent evolution from a single ancestor, and are discussed below.
Evolution from a common ancestor
In the early 1990s, it was noted that all TIM barrel structures solved at the time were enzymes, indicating divergence from a common ancestor. Further, all TIM barrels possessed active sites at the C-terminal end of β-barrels. suggested that A common phosphate binding site, formed by a small α-helix and TIM barrel loops-7/8, strongly indicated divergent evolution. Further studies of these phosphate groups, concluding that 12 of 23 SCOP TIM barrel families diverged from a common ancestor. Similarly there were hints for common ancestry for 17 of the 21 CATH TIM barrel families. Based on these reports, it is considered plausible that the majority of TIM barrel proteins evolved from a common ancestor.
Origin through gene duplication and domain fusion
Many TIM barrel proteins possess 2-fold, 4-fold or 8-fold internal symmetry, suggesting that TIM barrels evolved from ancestral (βα)4, (βα)2, or βα motifs through gene duplication and domain fusion. A good example of 2-fold internal symmetry is observed in the enzymes ProFAR isomerase (HisA) and imidazole glycerol phosphate synthase (HisF) of the Thermotoga maritima histidine biosynthesis pathway. They catalyze 2 successive reactions in the pathway, possess 25% sequence homology, and possess root-mean-square deviations (RMSDs) between 1.5-2 Å, suggesting divergence from a common ancestor. More interestingly, the loops on the C terminal ends of both HisA and HisF showed a twofold repeated pattern, suggesting that their common ancestor also possessed 2-fold internal symmetry. Using these observations, a model was constructed for the evolution of the TIM barrels. An ancestral half-barrel would have undergone a gene duplication and fusion event, resulting in a single protein containing two half-barrel domains. Structural adaptations would have occurred, resulting in the merging of these domains to form a closed β-barrel, and forming an ancestral TIM barrel. Functional adaptations would have also occurred, resulting in the evolution of new catalytic activity at the C terminal end of the β-barrel. At this point, the common ancestor of HisA and HisF would have undergone a second gene duplication event. Divergent evolution of the duplicated genes of the ancestral TIM barrel would have resulted in the formation of HisA and HisF.
Interestingly, this evolutionary model has been experimentally validated using rational protein design and directed evolution. Höcker et al. first fused two C-terminal halves of HisF, yielding HisF-CC. This construct was then stabilized by the insertion of an internal salt-bridge, yielding HisF-C*C. Further stepwise stabilization and solubilization of HisF-C*C was achieved by optimizing the half-barrel interface, generating HisF-C**C and HisF-C***C, respectively. The crystal structure of HisF-C***C revealed a 2-fold symmetric TIM barrel, validating the possibility of natural domain fusion. Moreover, Höcker created the first chimeric HisAF and HisFA TIM barrels using HisA and HisF half-barrels. These experiments led to the proposal of a novel means of diversification and evolution of TIM-barrel enzymes through the exchange of (βα)4 half-barrel domains amongst preexisting TIM barrels. In accordance with this idea, a high catalytic activity on the HisAF construct was established. Similarly, chimeric βα5-flavodoxin-like fold (CheY)/HisF TIM barrels, and a perfectly 2-fold symmetric HisF-based TIM barrel have also been created.
The existence of 4/8-fold internal symmetry was suggested based on a computational analysis of TIM barrel sequences. For example, Escherichia coli KDPG aldolase () was suggested to possess a distinct 4-fold symmetry, with discernible 8-fold symmetry. The design of a 4-fold symmetric TIM barrel confirmed the possibility of higher orders of internal symmetry in natural TIM barrels, and will be discussed in detail in the next section. No experimental evidence for the existence of 8-fold symmetric TIM barrels has been reported to date.
De novo TIM barrel design
The TIM barrel fold has been a long-standing target for de novo protein designers. As previously described, numerous TIM barrels have been successfully designed based on preexisting natural half-barrels. In contrast, the de novo design of TIM barrels occurred in incremental steps over a period of 28 years.
The Octarellin series of proteins (Octarellin I→VI) were the first attempts to create a de novo TIM barrel. As the field of protein design was still in its infancy, these design attempts were only met with limited success. Although they displayed circular dichroism spectra consistent with αβ proteins and some cooperative folding characteristics, all Octarellin series peptides were insoluble, and had to be resolubilized from inclusion bodies for further characterization. Interestingly, Octarellin V.1 displayed a Rossmann-like fold under co-crystal conditions.
The Symmetrin series of proteins (Symmetrin-1→4) displayed more favorable biophysical characteristics. Symmetrin-1 was readily soluble, displayed circular dichroism spectra consistent with αβ proteins, and displayed excellent cooperative unfolding and refolding characteristics. Despite these advances, all proteins in this family displayed molten characteristics when analyzed using NMR (nuclear magnetic resonance), and further work to solve their structures could not be pursued.
Proteins of the sTIM series represented the first successful de novo TIM barrel design. sTIM-11 () was designed with an internal 4-fold symmetry, to reduce the complexity of computational design using the Rosetta software suite. Previously-derived first principles were used to delineate secondary structure topologies and lengths. sTIM-11 proved to be a highly thermostable, cooperatively folding design that adopted its intended structure.
See also
Protein folding
Triosephosphateisomerase
References
External links
SCOP list of proteins adopting the TIM barrel fold
Protein folds
Protein superfamilies
Protein tandem repeats
Protein domains
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5208803
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline%20of%20Mount%20Everest%20expeditions
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Timeline of Mount Everest expeditions
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Mount Everest is the world's highest mountain, with a peak at 8,849 metres (29,031.7 ft) above sea level. It is situated in the Himalayan range of Solukhumbu district (Province 1 in present days), Nepal.
Timeline
1921: Reconnaissance expedition
The first British expedition—organized and financed by the newly formed Mount Everest Committee—came under the leadership of Colonel Charles Howard-Bury, with Harold Raeburn as mountaineering leader, and included George Mallory, Guy Bullock, and Edward Oliver Wheeler. It was primarily for mapping and reconnaissance to discover whether a route to the summit could be found from the north side. As the health of Raeburn broke down, Mallory assumed responsibility for most of the exploration to the north and east of the mountain. He wrote to his wife: "We are about to walk off the map..." After five months of arduous climbing around the base of the mountain, Wheeler explored the hidden East Rongbuk Glacier and its route to the base of the North Col. On September 23, Mallory, Bullock, and Wheeler reached the North Col at before being forced back by strong winds. To Mallory's experienced eye, the route up the North ridge intersecting the NE Ridge and from there to the summit looked long, but feasible for a fresher party.
1922: First attempt
The second British expedition, under General Charles Granville Bruce and climbing leader Lt-Col. Edward Lisle Strutt, and containing Mallory, returned for a full-scale attempt on the mountain. On May 22, they climbed to 8,170 m (26,800 ft) on the North Ridge before retreating. They were the first humans to climb above on a mountain. The scope of this accomplishment is reflected by the fact that there are only 14 mountains on earth—the eight-thousanders—that reach and exceed 8,000 metres. At that moment, Mallory and Strutt had exceeded the summit of all but five other mountains on the planet.
A day later, George Finch and Geoffrey Bruce climbed up the North Ridge and Face to 8,320 m (27,300 ft) using oxygen for the first time. They climbed from the North Col to their highest camp at a phenomenal rate of 900 vert-ft/hr., and were the first climbers to sleep using oxygen.
1924: Mallory and Irvine
The third British expedition was led by Brigadier-General Charles Bruce, although becoming indisposed as a result of a flare-up of malaria, he relinquished leadership of the expedition to Lt-Col. Edward Norton, with Mallory promoted to climbing leader. Geoffrey Bruce, Howard Somervell, and John Noel returned from the previous year, along with newcomers Noel Odell and Andrew Irvine.
On June 2, Mallory and Bruce set off from the North Col (C-4) to make the first summit attempt. But extreme wind and cold, exhaustion, and the refusal of the porters to carry farther led Mallory to abandon the attempt and the next day the party returned to the North Col camp.
On June 4, Norton and Somervell attempted an oxygenless summit in perfect weather; throat trouble forced Somervell to abandon the climb at about 28,000 feet (8534 m) while Norton continued on alone, reaching a height of 8,573 m (28,126 ft), just 275 m (900 ft) short of the summit. Exhausted, he turned back and rejoined Somervell for the descent.
On June 8, Mallory and Irvine left their high camp (C-6 at 26,900-ft) to attempt the summit, using Irvine's modified oxygen apparatus. Odell, climbing in support below, wrote in his diary that at 26,000-ft he "saw Mallory & Irvine on the ridge, nearing base of final pyramid" climbing what he thought at the time was the very difficult Second Step at 12:50 p.m. It was the last time the two were seen alive; whether either of them reached the summit remains a question that has reverberated through the decades.
Back in England, the climbing establishment pressured Odell to change his view. After about six months he began to equivocate on which Step it was he saw them—from the Second to possibly the First. If the First, they had no chance of having reached the top; if the Second, they would have had about three hours of oxygen each and the summit was at least three hours away. It is conceivable (though unlikely) that Mallory might have taken Irvine's remaining oxygen and attempted to reach the summit.
A much more probable scenario is that the two reached First Step at about 10:30am. Mallory, seeing the treacherous nature of the traverse to the Second Step, went it alone. He reconnoitered the base of the climbing crux and decided it was not for him that day. He returned, picked up Irvine and the two decided to climb the First Step for a look around and to photograph the complex approach to the Second Step. It was when climbing this small promontory that they were spotted from below by Odell, who assumed that, since they were ascending, they must therefore have been on the Second Step, although it is now difficult to believe that the two would still be climbing from so low down at a time—five hours late—that was considered to be the turn-around hour.
Descending from the First Step, the two continued down when, at 2pm, they were hit by a severe snow squall. Roping up, Mallory, leading, may have slipped, pulling himself and Irvine down. The rope must have caught to inflict severe rope-jerk injury around Mallory's (and presumably, Irvine's) waist. Some researchers believe Irvine was able to stay high and struggle along the crest of the NE Ridge another 100 yards, only to succumb to cold and possible injuries of the fall. Others believe that the two became separated after the fall by the near white-out conditions of the squall. Based on his final location, it would seem that Mallory had continued straight down in search of his partner, while Irvine, also injured, might have continued diagonally down through the Yellow Band.
In 1979, climber Wang Hongbao of China revealed to the climbing leader of a Japanese expedition that in 1975, while taking a stroll from his bivouac he had discovered "an English dead" at 8100 m, roughly below the site of Irvine's ice axe discovered in 1933 near the NE Ridge. Wang was killed in an avalanche the next day before he could provide additional details.
In 1999, however, Conrad Anker of the Mallory and Irvine Research Expedition found Mallory's body in the predicted search area near the old Chinese bivouac. There are opposing views within the mountaineering community as to whether the duo may have reached the summit 29 years before the first successful ascent by Sir Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay in 1953. Despite the existence of many theories, the success of Mallory and Irvine's summit assault must be viewed as remote at best.
The leading theory amongst those supporting the summit push has Mallory overcoming the difficulty of the sheer face of the Second Step by standing on Irvine's shoulders. Armed with Irvine's remaining 3/4-full oxygen tank he could conceivably have reached the summit late in the day, but this would have meant that Irvine would have had to descend by himself. However, rope-jerk injuries around Mallory's waist must mean the two were roped when they fell from below the First Step. 1960s Chinese Everest climber Xu Jing told Eric Simonson and Jochen Hemmleb in 2001 that he recalled spotting a corpse somewhere in the Yellow Band. Despite numerous searches of the north face, no sign of Irvine has turned up so far. One researcher claims to have finally spotted Irvine's body using microscopic examination of aerial photographs. This possible discovery set off a new round of search expeditions in 2010 and 2011.
1933
A major expedition, under the leadership of Hugh Ruttledge, set out to climb with the great expectations that this time they would succeed. Oxygen was taken but not used because of the incorrect but lingering belief that it was of little benefit to a properly acclimated climber. After delays caused by poor weather and illness of team members, a much higher assault camp was placed than in 1924. On the first summit attempt, Lawrence Wager and Percy Wyn-Harris intended to follow the Northeastern ridge, but were unable to regain it, having bypassed (rather than climb over) the First Step, which they reached at 7:00am. The direct access to the Second Step from the First involves a treacherous traverse. Instead of taking it, they dropped down to follow the lower, easier traverse pioneered by Norton in 1924. Observing the Second Step from below it, Wyn-Harris declared it "unclimbable." Shortly after crossing the Great Couloir, they turned back for poor snow conditions and the lateness of the hour. A subsequent attempt by Eric Shipton and Frank Smythe followed the same route but Smythe, who pressed on alone when Shipton turned back because of illness, got no higher.
Lucy, Lady Houston, a British millionaire former showgirl, funded the Houston Everest Flight of 1933, which saw a formation of airplanes led by the Marquess of Clydesdale fly over the summit in an effort to photograph the unknown terrain.
1934
Maurice Wilson, a British eccentric, stated his intention to summit Everest by himself. After only a few flying lessons, Wilson flew illegally from Britain to India, hiking through Darjeeling and into Tibet and with the help of Sherpa guides began his attempt. Wilson was not a climber and had no climbing equipment. He expected to transport himself to the summit with spiritual help and signal the monks at the Rongbuk monastery of his success with a shaving mirror. It is not believed he attained the North Col (7000 m). Maurice Wilson's body and his diary were found wrapped in a tent in 1935 by another British expedition. Although dumped into a crevasse below the North Col, his body has been rediscovered a number of times, including in 1960 by the Chinese expedition. Unlike Mallory's body, Wilson's has decayed because the temperature at the head of the East Rongbuk Glacier does rise above freezing.
1935
Shipton led a small reconnaissance expedition during the monsoon season in preparation for the following year's expedition. The team climbed smaller peaks in the vicinity of Everest, and examined alternative possible routes on the mountain, including the West Ridge, and entry into the Western Cwm via Lho La. Both were dismissed as impractical, though Shipton did decide that an ascent from the Western Cwm would be possible if entry from the Nepalese side could be made. This would be the route by which the mountain would eventually be climbed in 1953. The expedition is also notable as the first visit to Everest for Tenzing Norgay, who was engaged as one of the 'porters'.
1936
Ruttledge's second expedition achieved little because of a very early monsoon.
1938
After taking part in the 1935 reconnaissance expedition, the prolific British mountaineering explorer Bill Tilman was appointed leader of the 1938 Everest expedition which attempted the ascent via the North Col but making an attempt from the west, from the main Rongbuk Glacier, as well as from the East Rongbuk. The North Col was reached from the west for the first time and the team went on to over without supplemental oxygen before being forced down by bad weather and sickness.
1947
In March 1947, a Canadian engineer named Earl Denman, Norgay, and Ang Dawa Sherpa entered Tibet illegally to attempt the mountain; the attempt ended when a strong storm at pounded them. Denman admitted defeat and all three turned around and safely returned.
1950
Nepal opened its borders to foreigners. Earlier expeditions had attempted the mountain from Tibet, via the north face. However, this access was closed to western expeditions in 1950, after the Chinese took control over Tibet.
In 1950, Bill Tilman and a small party which included Charles Houston, Oscar Houston, and Betsy Cowles undertook an exploratory expedition to Everest through Nepal along the route which has now become the standard approach to Everest from the south.
1951
A British expedition led by Shipton, and including Edmund Hillary, Tom Bourdillon, W. H. Murray, and Mike Ward travelled into Nepal to survey a new route via the southern face. On September 30 at on Pumori, Shipton and Hillary saw the whole of the Western Cwm and concluded that ascent was possible from the top of the Cwm to the west face of Lhotse followed by a traverse to the South Col. They spent the next month attempting to reach the Western Cwm through the Khumbu Icefall but were stopped just short of success when an insurmountable crevasse (100–300 ft wide) blocked further progress near the top of the icefall. Murray wrote: "We were defeated".
Klaus Becker-Larsen along with two Sherpas attempted the North col but turned back because of rockfall. He had no mountaineering experience and minimal equipment. First European to reach Nangpa La.
1952
A Swiss expedition led by Edouard Wyss-Dunant attempted to climb via the South Col and the southeast ridge. After five days of effort, the team found a route through the icefall; they got past the crevasse that stymied the 1951 expedition by first descending 60 ft into it to a snow bridge and then used a precarious rope bridge to reach the other side. They were the first people to stand in the Western Cwm. On May 27, four climbers (Raymond Lambert, Tenzing Norgay, Rene Aubert, and Leon Flory) started from their tents on the South Col, two teams of Lambert/Tenzing and Aubert/Flory. Lambert/Tenzing reached Camp VII first at followed by Aubert/Flory. The tent was too small for both teams and Aubert/Flory decided to return to the South Col. The team had only undergone the ascent for reconnaissance and so only one tent and a bit of food had been taken. On May 28 in unsettled weather, the final assault team of Lambert and Tenzing turned back 150 metres short of the south summit.
The Swiss attempted another expedition in the autumn of 1952 under the lead of Gabriel Chevalley. Besides Chevalley, the team included again Lambert and Tenzing from the spring expedition, as well as five new climbers. In late November, the team was stopped by bad weather after reaching an altitude of 8100 metres.
Several Western climbing journals reported that the Soviet Union had launched an attempt from Tibet in October with the aim of reaching the summit before the following year's British expedition. The alleged expedition, apparently led by Pavel Datschnolian, was said to have been a disaster, resulting in the deaths of Datschnolian and five other men. Both Russian and Chinese authorities have consistently denied that such an attempt took place; no physical evidence has ever been found to confirm its existence, nor is there any record of a person named Pavel Datschnolian.
1953: Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay
In 1953, a ninth British expedition, led by John Hunt and organized and financed by the Joint Himalayan Committee, returned to Nepal. Hunt planned for three assaults of two climbers each, including "a third and last attempt" if necessary after a delay of some days. After Wilfrid Noyce and Annullu had forced a passage to the South Col, two climbing pairs previously selected by Hunt attempted to reach the summit. The first pair, Charles Evans and Tom Bourdillon, using closed-circuit oxygen sets achieved the first ascent of the South Summit, within as little as of the final summit, but could go no further because of oxygen equipment problems and lack of time. Two days later, the second assault was made with the fittest and most determined climbing pair. Using conventional open-circuit oxygen sets, the summit was eventually reached at 11:30 a.m. local time on May 29, 1953, by the New Zealander Edmund Hillary and Tenzing Norgay, a Nepali, climbing the South Col route. They paused at the summit to take photographs, Hillary saying after ten minutes taking photographs on the summit without his oxygen set on that he "was becoming rather clumsy-fingered and slow-moving". They buried a few sweets and a small cross in the snow before descending. Although they characterized it as the culmination of a team effort by the whole expedition, there was intense public speculation as to which of the pair had set foot on the summit first. In 1955 Tenzing disclosed in his autobiography that it was Hillary. News of the expedition's success reached London on the morning of Queen Elizabeth II's coronation. Times reporter James Morris sent a coded message by runner to Namche Bazaar, where a wireless transmitter was used to relay the message to London. The conquest of Everest was probably the last major news item to be delivered to the world by runner. Returning to Kathmandu a few days later, Hillary and Hunt discovered that they had been knighted for their efforts.
1954 and 1955: French and Swiss Expeditions (proposed)
The French had permission for a 1954 Everest expedition if the 1953 British expedition did not reach the summit, and the Swiss had permission for a 1955 or 1956 Everest expedition.
1956: Swiss Expedition
The Swiss expedition of 1956 put the next four climbers on the top of Everest. The expedition made the first ascent of Lhotse (fourth highest) when Ernst Reiss and Fritz Luchsinger reached the top of Lhotse on May 18. The expedition set up camp 6 on the South Col and camp 7 at . On May 23, Ernst Schmied and Jürg Marmet reached the summit of Everest followed by Dölf Reist and Hansruedi von Gunten on May 24.
1960: The North Ridge
On May 25, a Chinese team consisting of Wang Fuzhou, Qu Yinhua, and a Tibetan, Gongbu (Konbu), claimed to have reached the summit via the North Ridge. Owing to the lack of photographic evidence, the Chinese claim was discounted in mountaineering circles. However, subsequent research and interviews have persuaded many experts that the Chinese did indeed climb Everest from the north in 1960.
1962
Woodrow Wilson Sayre and three colleagues made an illegal incursion into China from Nepal and reached about on the North Ridge before turning back from exhaustion. The attempt was documented in a book by Sayre entitled Four Against Everest.
1963
First ascent by an American: Jim Whittaker, accompanied by Nawang Gombu Sherpa who, in 1965, became the first man to climb Everest twice; first ascent via the Hornbein Couloir on May 22 by Americans Tom Hornbein and Willi Unsoeld. Hornbein and Unsoeld descended by the South Col, making the ascent the first traverse of Everest.
1965
On May 20, a 21-man Indian expedition, led by Lieutenant Commander M.S. Kohli Lieutenant Commander Captain M S Kohli, succeeded in putting nine men on the summit. Nawang Gombu became the first person to reach the summit twice, firstly with an American expedition in 1963.
1969
Two reconnaissance expeditions were undertaken in preparation for the summit expedition of 1970. Their primary objective was to scout the yet unclimbed southwestern face. On October 31, after establishing several camps on the southwestern face, a maximum elevation of was reached.
1970
On May 6, Yuichiro Miura skied from the South Col of Everest. The documentary of his feat The Man Who Skied Down Everest was the first sports film to win an Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. (see 2003 and 2008)
A separate Japanese team attempted but failed to establish a new summit route along the Southwest Face. Six Sherpa members of the team were killed in an avalanche, a porter was killed by a serac icefall, and climber Kiyoshi Narita died from a heart attack.
1971
International expedition
1972
European Expedition
1973
October 26 – First post-monsoon ascent by Hisahi Ishiguro and Yasuo Kato.
1974
1974 Tximist expedition
1974 French Mount Everest expedition (September, post-monsoon)
1975
On May 16, Junko Tabei of Japan became the first woman on the summit. Tabei was one of seven Japanese climbers injured in an avalanche at Camp II on May 4. Tabei and her climbing partner, Sherpa Ang Tshering I, were the 38th/39th unique individuals to complete the ascent. In 1992, Tabei became the first woman to complete the Seven Summits.
On May 27, nine members from a Chinese team reached the summit. The team fixed a ladder at the Second Step, the major obstacle on the North Ridge route, which continued to be in use until 2008. Phanthog became the first woman to ascend from the Tibetan side. In the expedition, the summit's altitude was measured as 8848.13 metres.
1975 British Mount Everest Southwest Face expedition - On September 24, a British expedition led by Chris Bonington achieved the first ascent of the Southwest Face. Summiteers Doug Scott and Dougal Haston made the first ascent by British citizens. A band of cliffs on the southwest face, known as the Rock Band, had defeated five previous expeditions between 1969 and 1973. On September 20, Nick Estcourt and Paul Braithwaite achieved the first ascent of the Rock Band. The summit was reached by two teams: first on September 24 by Scott and Haston, who survived the highest ever bivouac when they were benighted on the South Summit during their descent. On September 26 four more climbers attempted a second ascent. Peter Boardman and Sirdar Pertemba Sherpa were successful, but BBC cameraman Mick Burke, climbing alone after Martin Boysen turned back, failed to return from the summit.
1976
British and Nepalese Army Expedition to Everest - 16 May an expedition by the British Army and Royal Nepalese Army which was under the command of Tony Streather - the summiteers were Special Air Service soldiers Bronco Lane and Brummie Stokes who ascended up the South West face.
On October 8, 1976, as part of the American Bicentennial Everest Expedition, Bob Cormack and Chris Chandler reached the summit via the South Col Route.
1978
On 8 May 1978, Reinhold Messner (Italy) and Peter Habeler (Austria) reached the summit, the first climbers to do so without the use of supplemental oxygen. They used the southeast ridge route.
October 16, 1978, Wanda Rutkiewicz became the third woman, the first Pole and the first European woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
1979
Yugoslav West Ridge expedition, new route up the complete West Ridge from Lho La. Summit reached by two teams made up of Andrej Štremfelj and Nejc Zaplotnik (May 13, 1979), and then two days later by Stipe Božić, Stane Belak, and Ang Phu (Sherpa). Stane Belak, Ang Phu, and Stipe Božić bivouacked at 8400 meters. The next day, Ang Phu fell on the way down and died.
German expedition, called the 1979 Swabian Expedition; death of Ray Genet and Hannelore Schmatz.
1980: First winter ascent
February 17 – First winter ascent by Andrzej Zawada's team from Poland: Leszek Cichy and Krzysztof Wielicki. This was also the first winter summit of any of the world's fourteen 8000 metre peaks.
May 19 – New climbing route on the south face by Poles Andrzej Czok and Jerzy Kukuczka.
August 20 – Reinhold Messner became the first to climb Everest solo and without oxygen tanks. He pioneered a new route on the north col/face, roughly continuing Finch's climb in 1922. He traveled the Northwest route for three days entirely alone from his base camp at .
Takashi Ozaki and Tsuneo Shigehiro become the first to make a full ascent of the North Face.
1980 Everest Basque Expedition. First successful ascent to Everest for a Basque expedition.
1982
The first acknowledged Soviet expedition climbed a new route on the Southwest Face to the left of the Central Gully. Eleven climbers reached the summit, and the route was recognized as technically the hardest route yet climbed on Everest.
A small British expedition led by Bonington made the first attempt to climb the full length of the northeast ridge (the Chinese route gained the ridge at a high point via the north face). The summit was not reached, and Peter Boardman and Joe Tasker disappeared while making a final attempt to climb the Three Pinnacles at over 8000 m.
One of the best planned, equipped, and financed attempts took place in October when the 1982 Canadian Mount Everest Expedition arrived. Tragedy struck early; after the expedition's cameraman died in an icefall and three Sherpas died soon after in an avalanche, six of the Canadian team members threw in the towel. One of the remaining members, Laurie Skreslet along with two Sherpas, made it to the top on October 5, becoming the first Canadian to reach the summit; two days later, Pat Morrow became the second Canadian to do the same.
May 15 – Marty Hoey falls to her death from the North Side. Hoey was widely expected to become the first American woman to summit Everest, which did not occur for another six years (see September 29, 1988).
December 27 – Everest veteran Yasuo Kato made the second winter ascent and became the first climber to summit Everest in three different seasons. He climbed alone from the South Summit. On his descent, he and his climbing companion Toshiaki Kobayashi bivouacked below the south summit. They failed to return in bad weather.
1983
October 8 – Lou Reichardt, Kim Momb, and Carlos Buhler became the first to summit the East Face. The next day, Dan Reid, George Lowe, and Jay Cassell reached the summit.
1984
April 20 – Bulgarian Hristo Prodanov reached the summit via the West Ridge, alone and without oxygen, and died on the way back, becoming the first Bulgarian who summited Mount Everest and the second to summit via the West Ridge. On May 8–9, another four members, Metodi Savov and Ivan Valchev, on May 8; Nikolay Petkov and Kiril Doskov on May 9, reached the summit via the West Ridge route and descended the South Col route.
May 23 – Bachendri Pal via the standard southeast ridge route, becoming the first Indian woman to do so.
October 3 – First Australian ascent, without supplemental oxygen, on a new route ("White Limbo") on the North Face. Tim Macartney-Snape and Greg Mortimer summitted.
October 20 – Phil Ershler became the first American to summit Everest's North Face.
1985
August 28 - First Catalan ascent, without supplemental oxygen, along the northeast ridge by Òscar Cadiach, Antoni Sors and Carles Vallès.
1986
Erhard Loretan and Jean Troillet climbed the North Face in a single push without oxygen, ropes, or tents in 42 hours, then glissaded down in under five hours. They climbed mostly at night and carried no backpacks above 8000 m, a style that became known as "night naked".
Sharon Wood becomes the first North American (Canadian) woman to summit, on May 20 with Dwayne Congdon.
1988
Jean-Marc Boivin of France makes the first paraglider descent of the mountain. Boivin's 11–12 minute, descent to Camp II holds the altitude record for start of a paraglider flight.
Marc Batard completed the southeast route ascent without supplementary oxygen in the record time of 22h 30min from Base Camp to summit.
On May 5, a joint team from China, Japan, and Nepal reached the top from the north and the south simultaneously and crossed over to descend from the opposite sides. This event was broadcast live worldwide.
September 29 – Stacy Allison becomes the first American woman atop Everest.
16 October – Lydia Bradey, New Zealand, became the first woman to climb Everest without oxygen, via the SE ridge, climbing alone. Initially two of her teammates (who were not at base Camp at the time) disputed her claim but since then the ascent has been recognised by several governments and the Himalayan Data Base (Nepal).
17 October – Jozef Just, Slovakia, became the first and only climber to climb Bonnington's SW Face route without oxygen, after reaching South Summit with teammates Dušan Becík, Peter Božík and Jaroslav Jaško. Team was exhausted after last bivouac under South Summit and Just went to summit Everest solo, while other three began to descend towards South Col. After rejoining and their last radio contact with base camp they disappeared in strong storm and their bodies had never been found. Slovak expedition had two main objectives – to summit Lhotse and repeat British route – so Just and Becík also summited Lhotse 19 days before tragedy.
On 10 May 1988, Sungdare Sherpa became the first person to summit Everest five times. Sungdare first summitted on 2 October 1979.
On 12 May 1988, Stephen Venables became the first Briton to summit Everest without oxygen, alone. Team leader Robert Anderson and Ed Webster reached the South Summit. All three, with Paul Teare, had climbed a new route up the Kangshung Face to the South Col, with no oxygen and no high altitude porters.
In 1988, Jon Muir became the first Australian to reach the summit without a sherpa.
1989
May 10 Yugoslav expedition. Southeast Ridge. Stipe Božić, Viki Grošelj, Dimitar Ilievski-Murato, and Sherpas Sonam and Agiva all reached the summit. Ilievski-Murato failed to return.
May 16 – Ricardo Torres-Nava and two Sherpas, Ang Lhakpa and Dorje, got to the mountaintop with supplementary oxygen in an American expedition. Torres-Nava become the first Mexican and Latin American to do so.
July 18 – Carlos Carsolio reached the summit without bottled oxygen. This would be his fifth eight-thousander of fourteen.
1990
On October 7, and Andrej Štremfelj became the first married couple to reach the summit. Marija Štremfelj was the first Yugoslav woman to reach the summit.
Peter Hillary, Edmund Hillary's son, became the first offspring of a summiter to reach the summit.
Tim Macartney-Snape became the first person to walk and climb from sea level to the top of Mount Everest (his second ascent of the peak). Macartney-Snape began his approximately "Sea to Summit" expedition three months earlier, on foot, on Sagar Island in the Bay of Bengal.
1992
Two rival Chilean expeditions; one led by Rodrigo Jordan climbing the second ever ascent through the Kangshung, and the other led by Mauricio Purto became the first South Americans to reach the summit. The first Chilean and South American climber to set foot on the summit was Cristian Garcia-Huidobro at 10:25 on May 15, who is claimed to have insulted and mocked the rival team's leader, Purto, as he reached the summit on the second place. Supposedly a member of Purto's team pushed Garcia-Huidobro enticing him to fight, if this quarrel ever took place it has the dubious honour of being the highest brawl in the world.
1993
April 22 – First ascent by a Nepali woman, Pasang Lhamu Sherpa. She died while descending.
October 7 – Ramón Blanco of Spain/Venezuela became the oldest person to reach the summit aged 60 years, 160 days.
May 10 – Santosh Yadav of India became the first woman to climb Mount Everest twice within a year (May 1992 and May 1993).
1995
May 14 – First ascent by a Brazilian, Waldemar Niclevicz and Mozart Catão. Niclevicz summited again in 2005.
Alison Hargreaves became the first woman (and second person after Reinhold Messner) to climb Everest alone without oxygen tanks or support from a Sherpa team.
Nihon University climbers Kiyoshi Furuno and Shigeki Imoto become the first to summit along the full Northeast Ridge, the last remaining unclimbed route.
16 year old Mark Pfetzer became the youngest at the time to climb Everest.
1996
In 1996, fifteen people died trying to reach the summit, making it the deadliest year in Everest history. On May 10, a storm stranded several climbers between the summit and the safety of Camp IV, killing Rob Hall, Scott Fischer, Yasuko Namba, Doug Hansen, and guide Andy Harris on the south and the Indian (Ladakhi) climbers Tsewang Paljor, Dorje Morup, Tsewang Smanla on the north. Hall and Fischer were both highly experienced climbers who were leading paid expeditions to the summit.
Journalist Jon Krakauer, on assignment from Outside magazine, was in Hall's party. He published the bestseller Into Thin Air about the experience. Anatoli Boukreev, a guide who felt impugned by Krakauer's book, co-authored a rebuttal book called The Climb. The dispute sparked a large debate within the climbing community. In May 2004, Kent Moore, a physicist, and John L. Semple, a surgeon, both researchers from the University of Toronto, told New Scientist magazine that an analysis of weather conditions on that day suggested that freak weather caused oxygen levels to plunge approximately 14%.
During the same season, climber and filmmaker David Breashears and his team filmed the IMAX feature Everest on the mountain (some climbing scenes were later recreated for the film in British Columbia, Canada). The 70 mm IMAX camera was specially modified to be lightweight enough to carry up the mountain, and to function in the extreme cold with the use of particular greases on the mechanical parts, plastic bearings and special batteries. Production was halted as Breashears and his team assisted the survivors of the May 10 disaster, but the team eventually reached the top on May 23 and filmed the first large format footage of the summit. On Breashears' team was Jamling Tenzing Norgay, the son of Norgay, following in his father's footsteps for the first time. Also on his team was Ed Viesturs of Seattle, WA, who summited without the use of supplemental oxygen, and Araceli Segarra, who became the first woman from Spain to summit Everest.
The storm's impact on climbers on the mountain's other side, the North Ridge, where several climbers also died, was detailed in a first hand account by British filmmaker and writer Matt Dickinson in his book The Other Side of Everest.
Sherpa Ang Rita was the first person to summit ten times, between 7 May 1983 through 23 May 1996.
Hans Kammerlander climbed the mountain from the north side in the record ascent time of 17 hours from base camp to the summit. He climbed alone without supplementary oxygen and skied down from 7,800 metres.
Göran Kropp of Sweden became the first person to ride his bicycle all the way from his home in Sweden to the mountain, scale it alone without the use of oxygen tanks, and bicycle most of the way back.
1998
Naturalized American and British born Tom Whittaker, whose right foot had been amputated, became the first disabled person to successfully reach the summit.
Kazi Sherpa became the fastest to summit via southeast ridge (South Col), without supplemental oxygen. Kazi took 20 hours 24 minutes from basecamp to the summit, alone, unsupported, drug-unaided (Diamox not used); thereby breaking Marc Batard's previous record from 1988 by 2 hours 5 minutes.
Bear Grylls on 16 May; at 23 one of the youngest Britons to summit.
Ristam Radjapov and 11 alpinists including a woman Svetlana Baskakova from Uzbekistan first climbed Everest in 1998, then Ilyas Tukhvatullin and Andrey Zaikin climbed to the summit.
1999
Babu Chiri Sherpa of Nepal stayed for 21 hours on the mountaintop.
Cathy O'Dowd became the first woman to reach summit from northern and southern routes.
May 5 – Elsa Ávila became the first Mexican and Latin American woman to summit.
May 13 – Japanese Ken Noguchi's summitted, making him the youngest to reach the highest peaks on all seven continents at 25 years 265 days old.
May 18 – João Garcia became the first Portuguese to climb Mount Everest.
May 25 – Iván Vallejo became the first Ecuadorian to reach the top without bottled oxygen. It would be his third eight-thousander of his fourteen.
May 26 – Mamuka Tsikhiseli from Georgia climbed from the Tibet side at 11:32a.m. local time.
May 12 – Lev Sarkisov from Georgia became the oldest person to reach the summit aged 60 years, 160 days.
Constantine Niarchos, billionaire's Stavros Niarchos son, became the first Greek to summit Mount Everest.
On the north side of the mountain, as part of Eric Simonson and Jochen Hemmleb's search expedition, on 1 May, Conrad Anker discovered the body of George Mallory at 8,165 m, roughly below the ice axe discovered on the North East Ridge in 1933. No camera was found. Rope-jerk mottling around Mallory's waist suggest he was roped to Irvine during that—or a previous fall.
2000
On May 17 Nazir Sabir from Pakistan reached the highest summit at 0730 hours, becoming the first Pakistani to summit.
On May 17 Frits Vrijlandt from Netherlands reached the top at 11:20 hours, becoming the first Dutch to summit via the North side.
On October 7 Davo Karničar from Slovenia became the first man to accomplish an uninterrupted ski descent from the top to the base camp in five hours. Karnicar reached speeds of 75 mph. (While Japanese climber and skier Yuichiro Miura is known for his 6 May 1970 feat as The Man Who Skied Down Everest, his descent on skis began from Everest's South Col.)
Anna Czerwińska from Poland became the oldest woman to Summit Mount Everest (at the time) at the age of 50 (born 7/10/49 climbed Everest from the Nepal side on 5/22/2000).
On May 22, at 9:30 in the morning, Manuel González from Málaga and Iván Jara from Sevilla, became the first mountaineer from Andalucia to reach the summit. They were also accompanied by cameraman Juanjo Garra.
2001
On May 23, at 16 years and 14 days, Temba Tsheri Sherpa became the youngest person to reach the summit.
On May 24, 22-year-old Marco Siffredi of France became the first person to descend on a snowboard.
On May 25, 32-year-old Erik Weihenmayer, of Boulder, Colorado, became the first blind person to reach the summit.
64-year-old Sherman Bull, of New Canaan, Connecticut, became the oldest person to reach the summit.
Manuel Arturo Barrios and Fernando González-Rubio became the first Colombians to reach the summit.
19 people made it to the summit, surpassing the previous record of 10 people.
2002
Expedition by Ural Mountaineering from Yekaterinburg led by Gennady Kirievskiy summited Everest via the North side. All 9 members summited on 18 May 2002.
Tamae Watanabe summits at the age of 63 years and 177 days on 16 May, the oldest woman to do so until she sets the record again in 2012.
Phil and Susan Ershler first couple to climb the Seven Summits after reaching the Everest summit on May 16, 2002.
2003
Dick Bass, the first American to climb the Seven Summits, and who first reached the summit in 1985 at 55 years old, returned to attempt to reclaim his title at age 73, but he made it to base camp only. Bass's teammates included Jim Wickwire and John Roskelley.
The Outdoor Life Network staged a high-profile survivor style show on which the winners got the chance to climb Everest. Conrad Anker and David Breashears were commentators on this expedition.
Yuichiro Miura became the oldest person to reach the summit at 70 years and 222 days (on May 22).
Twenty-five-year-old Nepalese Sherpa Pemba Dorji made the world's fastest ascent in 12 hours 45 minutes on May 23.
Three days later, Sherpa Lakpa Gelu broke this record with 10 hours 56 minutes. After a short dispute with Dorjie, the tourism ministry confirmed Gelu's record in July.
Ming Kipa, 15, became the youngest woman to climb Everest (also becoming the youngest person from 2003 to 2010).
2004
The claimed fastest oxygen-supported ascent over the southeast ridge (South Col) was Nepalese Pemba Dorji Sherpa's 2004 climb, taking 8 hours 10 minutes for the 17 km route from base camp to the summit. Pemba's record-claim was subject to an unprecedented dispute by renowned Mt. Everest chronicler Elizabeth Hawley and other mountaineers in Nepal. Pemba was later arrested and jailed for his alleged involvement in a swindling scandal unrelated to Mt. Everest. In 2017, Pemba Dorje's record was rejected and removed by the Nepal Government. Also on this climb Robert Jen became the first Asian American to climb Mt. Everest.
A 13-man Russian expedition led by climbed Everest via the North Face, team members summited between May 29 and June 1, 2004.
First Greek expedition, led 5 climbers to the summit from the South side and 3 from the North.
2005
A Chinese government-sponsored survey team with 24 members reached the peak on May 22 to anchor surveying equipment for the remeasurement of summit height. Several methods were used to assess snow and ice thickness for the new measurement and to compare it with historical data.
On May 14, a Eurocopter AS-350 B3 helicopter flew and landed on the summit for the first time, repeating the feat the next day.
The World Record of ‘first couple married on top of the mount Everest’ has been achieved by Mr.Pem Dorjee Sherpa and Ms.Moni Mulepati from Nepal.On May 30, 2005; Pem & Moni reached at Mt. Everest and got married at 29035 feet height of Mt. Everest. They are the first couple to be married on the top in the history of climbing. Both were part of the Rotary Centennial Everest Expedition.
2006
On May 15, the New Zealander Mark Inglis became the first person to reach the summit with two artificial legs.
On May 15, sportsman Maxime Chaya was the first Lebanese to climb Mount Everest completing the Seven Summits challenge. On December 28, 2007, he also became the first from the Middle East to reach the South Pole on foot from the Antarctic coast after an unsupported and unassisted journey that lasted 47 days.
On May 17, 70-year-old Takao Arayama reached the peak, becoming the oldest man by three days to reach the summit.
On May 17, 32-year-old Leo Oracion became the first Filipino to reach the summit. He was part of the First Philippine Mount Everest Expedition along with fellow mountaineer Erwin "Pastor" Emata, who reached the summit the following day, May 18. The expedition was supported by TV network ABS-CBN. Another Filipino, Romi Garduce reached the summit on May 19. He was financed and supported by TV network GMA 7. Dale Abenojar, another Filipino mountaineer who made an independent summit attempt, claimed to have reached the summit on May 15—two days ahead of Oracion—from the northern side. Abenojar's claim has been registered in Elizabeth Hawley's Himalayan Database but the claim remains dubious.
On May 19, Apa Sherpa of Thame, Nepal summited for the 16th time, breaking his own world record.
Also on May 19, Sophia Danenberg became the first black American and the first black woman to reach the summit.
Pauline Sanderson became the first person to complete a self-propelled ascent of Mount Everest, the highest point on the earth's surface, starting from the Dead Sea, at the lowest point on the earth's surface. Sanderson began her approximately "EverestMax" expedition six months earlier, by bicycle, from the shore of the Dead Sea in Jordan. (Sanderson's husband, Phil, joined her for the final ascent, making them the first married British couple to summit Everest together.)
2007
On May 16, Apa Sherpa climbed Everest for the 17th time, breaking his own record.
On 15 and 16 May, 25 members, including 13 sherpas, of the Indian Army Everest Expedition 2007, scaled Mount Everest. This was the fourth expedition by the Indian Army to Everest; but the first from Tibet side.
On May 17, Omar Samra became the first Egyptian and youngest Arab to reach the summit of Everest, at 7:19 EGP.
On May 22, Katsusuke Yanagisawa became the oldest person to reach the summit at 71 years and 61 days.
On May 24, Kenton Cool reached the summit for the second time in a week.
On May 17, first traverse by three women, Noelle Wenceslao, Carina Dayondon, and Janet Belarmino (Filipina) coming North Side, Tibet and going down in South Side, Nepal.
The fastest ascent via the northeast ridge was accomplished by Austrian climber Christian Stangl, who took 16 hours 42 minutes for the 10 km distance from Camp III (Advanced Base Camp) to the summit, just barely beating Italian Hans Kammerlander's record of 17 hours, accomplished in 1996. Both men climbed alone. In 2010, Stangl was proven, and later confessed to, having claimed a fraudulent summit-climb of K2 in 2010.
2008
On May 21, Faruq Saad al-Zuman reached the summit of the Everest and became the first Saudi Arabian to climb Everest.
On May 22, 2008, Apa Sherpa climbed Everest for the 18th time, again breaking his own record.
Yuichiro Miura reclaimed his title of oldest person to reach the summit at age 75 years and 227 days on May 26, but it was later established that the day before, Nepali Min Bahadur Sherchan, aged 76 years and 330 days had summited. Yuichiro Miura once again reclaimed his title of oldest to reach the summit on May 22, 2013, age 80.
On May 21, Kalpana Dash was the first Oriya mountaineer to scale Mount Everest.
Axel Duhart Villavicencio becomes the fourth Mexican to summit Everest.
Laura Mallory Youngest Female Canadian to climb Mount Everest in May 2008 with her Father and two brothers.
2009
On May 16, Apa Sherpa climbed Everest for the 19th time, once again breaking his own record.
On May 19, Darija Boštjančić and Iris Boštjančić became the first pair of sisters to simultaneously climb Everest, also making Croatia the only country in the world with more female than male summiteers.
On May 20, Korean climbers Park Young-seok, Jin Jae-chang, Kang Ki-seok and Shin Dong-min reached the summit of Everest via a new route on the Southwest face (Park's Korean Route)
Ranulph Fiennes on 20 May; aged 65y, the oldest Briton to summit (on his third attempt).
2010
The youngest person to climb Mount Everest was 13-year-old Jordan Romero in May 2010 from the Tibetan side. His ascent, as part of an apparent "race" to bring younger and younger children to the mountain (shortly after Romero's ascent, Pemba Dorjie Sherpa announced plans to bring his 9-year-old son to the summit), triggered a wave of criticism that prompted Chinese authorities to establish age limits on Mount Everest. At the present time, China no longer grants permits to prospective climbers under 18 or over 60. Nepal sets the minimum age at 16 but has no maximum age. Romero later became the youngest person to climb the Seven Summits at 15 years old, 200 days.
The oldest climber to reach the summit of Mount Everest from both sides (Nepal and Tibet) of the mountain is 60-year-old Julio Bird, a Puerto Rican cardiologist who reached the summit of Mount Everest from the north side on 17 May 2010.
2011
Takashi Ozaki, 58, dies of altitude sickness while attempting his third ascent.
Apa Sherpa holds the record for reaching the summit more times than any other person, 21 times between 10 May 1990 and 11 May 2011. The record for a non-Sherpa is held by American climber and expedition guide Dave Hahn, reaching the summit 14 times between 19 May 1994 and 26 May 2012.
Suzanne Al Houby became the first Arab and Palestinian woman to reach the summit of Everest on May 21
2012
Tamae Watanabe breaks her own record as the oldest female summiteer, on May 19 at age 73 years and 180 days. She reached the summit from the north side.
2013
On April 1, Eli Reimer, 16, became the first teenager with Down syndrome to climb to Everest Base Camp. The expedition was organized to raise funds for Elisha Foundation, a non-profit that supports people living with disabilities.
Yuichiro Miura once again reclaimed his title of oldest to reach the summit on May 22, 2013, age 80.
Phurba Tashi Sherpa equals Apa Sherpa's record of 21 summits of Mount Everest.
Arunima Sinha Became the first female amputee to scale Mount Everest on 21 May 2013.
2014
2014 Mount Everest avalanche kills sixteen people, making it the second worst Everest disaster in history. As a result, most expeditions from the Nepalese side for the year are canceled.
On May 25, Malavath Purna became the youngest woman to reach the summit at age 13 years and 11 months. She climbed from the north side.
On May 25, became the first Faroese to climb Mount Everest.
2015
April 2015 Nepal earthquake triggered an avalanche on Mount Everest, killing at least 18 people at South Base Camp; an Indian Army mountaineering team reportedly recovered 18 bodies. Between 700 and 1,000 people were thought to be on the mountain at the time, with at least 61 injured and an unknown number missing or trapped at camps at higher altitudes.
August 2015: Everest was reopened to climbers in August, but only one climbing permit was issued, to Japanese mountaineer Nobukazu Kuriki. He turned around 700m below the summit in October (in the autumn post-monsoon season). He had tried four times previously, losing all his fingers to frostbite.
2016
2017
2018
2020
The Nepalese government announced on 13 March 2020 that it was suspending all climbing permits for Mount Everest and all other peaks in the country due to concern over the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic; the Chinese government has already closed its side of Everest.
On 3 April 2020 it was announced that more than two dozen Chinese climbers were tackling Mount Everest and were expected to reach the advanced base camp on Friday, although only Chinese climbers would be permitted in the spring season.
2021
The Chinese side of Everest remained closed to foreigners, however, the Nepalese government resumed issuing climbing permits (issuing a total of 408). Additionally, the Nepalese government imposed a limit on the number of climbers who could be on Everest at any one time, to prevent 'traffic jams' of climbers on the mountain.
During the season, there were several outbreaks of COVID-19 among climbers, compounded by the Nepalese Department of Tourism neglecting to establish any rules or regulations to mitigate the risk of outbreaks at the South Base Camp. Furthermore, the Nepalese government did not officially acknowledge any cases or outbreaks of COVID on Mount Everest, and there were prohibitions enforced about what climbers were allowed to take photographs of, prompting concerns about the Nepalese government attempting to cover up these problems.
In May 2021, citing concerns about COVID, the Chinese government announced plans to draw a 'separation line' at the peak of Everest, to prevent the spread of COVID from climbers whom ascended from the Nepalese side.
Over the 2021 season, a total of 534 people summitted Everest (195 members, 339 sherpas), and four people died.
2022
Once again, the Chinese government prohibited foreign expeditions on the north face of Everest, and only permitted one commercial expedition and one scientific expedition to climb Everest, with the scientific expedition installing a series of weather stations on the north face of Everest. The Nepalese side remained open, with 325 climbing permits issued - a sharp decline from 2022, in spite of attempts to attract more foreign climbers, such as removing COVID testing requirements on arrival in Nepal for vaccinated travellers. Coincidentally, a new weather station was installed on the south face of Everest as well, at roughly the same altitude as the highest-altitude Chinese weather station, to replace another weather station on the Nepalese side which broke down in January 2020 - neither expedition was aware of each other until after the stations were installed.
Towards the end of the season, due to a stalled high-pressure system, conditions on Everest were better than usual, being warmer, drier, and less windy, facilitating a higher-than-usual summitting success rate of 70%.
Over the 2022 season, a total of 690 people summitted Everest (640 from the south (240 members, 400 sherpas), 50 from the north), and three people died.
Timeline of regional, national, ethnic, and gender records
1975
On May 16, Junko Tabei of Japan became the first woman on the summit. Tabei was one of seven Japanese climbers injured in an avalanche at Camp II on May 4. Tabei and her climbing partner, Sherpa Ang Tshering I, were the 38th/39th unique individuals to complete the ascent. In 1992, Tabei became the first woman to complete the Seven Summits.
On May 27, a Tibetan woman, Phanthog, became the first woman to reach the summit from the Tibetan side. Tabei's team had used the South Col route.
1977
On September 15, Ko Sang-Don (고상돈) became the first Korean to reach the summit.
1978
On May 10, Reinhard Karl became the first German to reach the summit.
On October 15, Pierre Mazeaud, , and Nicolas Jaeger became the first French to reach the summit.
On October 16, Wanda Rutkiewicz became the first Pole, the first European woman, and the third woman to reach the summit.
1979
May 13 – Andrej Štremfelj and Jernej Zaplotnik became the first Yugoslavians—and the first from the region that later (1992) is recognized as the nation of Slovenia—to reach the summit, as well as the first to complete the West Ridge route.
May 15 – Stipe Božić from the Yugoslavian expedition becomes the first from the region that later (1992) is recognized as the nation of Croatia to summit.
1980
May 14 – Martín Zabaleta became the first Spaniard to reach the summit.
1982
October 5 – Laurie Skreslet became the first Canadian to summit.
1984
April 20 – Bulgarian Hristo Prodanov reached the summit via the West Ridge, alone and without oxygen, and died on the way back becoming the first Bulgarian to reach the summit.
Bachendri Pal was the first woman from India and fifth woman overall to reach the summit. She was guided to the top by Ang Dorji, who climbed without oxygen. The Indian expedition of which she was a part rescued two stricken Bulgarian climbers descending from the West Ridge ascent.
Jozef Psotka, at the time the oldest person to reach the summit without oxygen, together with and Sherpa Ang Rita reached the summit on October 15. Psotka died during this expedition.
becomes the first Dutch to summit Everest.
Tim Macartney-Snape and Greg Mortimer become first the Australians to reach summit, climbing new route up the Great Couloir on the North Face – 'White Limbo'. Lincoln Hall stops at top camp. Andrew Henderson turns back just short of the summit.
1985
April 29 – Arne Næss Jr. becomes the first Norwegian to reach the summit.
1986
Sharon Wood reaches the summit on May 20 thus becoming the first woman from North America and Canada to reach the top. Starting from the Rongbuk Glacier, her route went up to the West Shoulder of Everest and then followed the Hornbein Couloir to the summit.
1988
Stephen Venables became the first Briton to ascend the peak without use of oxygen. He pioneered a new route over the East Kangshung Face.
September 29 – Stacy Allison becomes the first American woman atop Everest.
1989
May 10 – Dimitar Ilievski-Murato became the first Macedonian to reach the summit.
1990
On May 11, Mikael Reuterswärd and become the first Swedes to summit Everest.
1992
On May 12, Ingrid Baeyens became the first Belgian woman to reach the summit. Another member of the same climbing party, Doron Erel, became the first Israeli to reach the summit.
On May 12, Cham Yick Kai became the first Hong Konger to reach the summit.
On May 15, two Chilean expeditions reached the summit, also becoming the first South Americans to do so. One team made the second ever ascent via the Kangshung Face.
Eugene Berger becomes the first Luxembourger to summit Mount Everest.
Augusto Ortega becomes the first Peruvian to summit Everest.
1993
Vladas Vitkauskas was the first Lithuanian to reach the summit.
Dawson Stelfox became the first Northern Irishman to reach the summit, and was the first UK citizen to ascend the north face.
Veikka Gustafsson became the first Finn to reach the summit.
On October 7, Ramón Blanco (Spanish born and Venezuelan naturalized) became the first Venezuelan and the oldest person at that time to reach the summit.
Ms. Santosh Yadav Became the first woman climb the Mount Everest twice.
1995
May 14 – Waldemar Niclevitz and Mozart Catão are the first Brazilians to summit.
May 14 – Teodors Ķirsis and Imants Zauls became the first Latvians to summit
May 15 – Tommy Heinrich became the first Argentinian to summit.
Pat Falvey became the first Irishman to reach the summit on the 27th of May 1995 at 09:10 am.
May 17 – Nasuh Mahruki became the first Turk to summit.
May 17 – Constantin Lăcătuşu became the first Romanian to summit.
May 23 – Caradog Jones became the first Welshman to summit.
Michael Knakkergaard Jørgensen becomes the first Dane to summit the tallest mountain in the world.
1996
Clara Sumarwati was the first Indonesian to reach the summit on September 26, 1996, according to the record of Everest Summiteers Association. []
1997
Veikka Gustafsson became the first Finn to reach the summit without the use of bottled oxygen.
M. Magendran, 23 May 1997 (11:55am) and N. Mohandas, 23 May 1997 (12:10pm) became the first Malaysians to reach the summit.
On May 21, Hallgrimur Magnusson, Bjorn Olafsson, and Einar Kristjan Stefansson become the first Icelandics to reach the summit.
1998
May 25 – Edwin and Khoo Swee Chiow became the first Singaporean to reach the summit on the first Singapore Mount Everest Expedition.
May 26. 7:22am. Bear Grylls reaches summit, becoming the youngest Briton of that time to summit Mount Everest.
Rustam Radjapov becomes the first Uzbek to reach the top of the world.
1999
May 18 – João Garcia became the first Portuguese to reach the summit.
May 25 – Iván Vallejo became the first Ecuadorian to reach the top.
Victor Koulabatchenko becomes the first Belarusian to summit Everest
Bernardo Guarachi becomes the first Bolivian to summit Everest.
May 5 – Renata Chlumska became first Swedish and Czech woman to reach the summit.
May 8 – Vladislav Terzyul, Vasily Kopytko and Vladimir Gorbach became the first Ukrainians to reach the summit.
2000
May 22 – Anna Czerwińska, known for being the oldest woman to Summit Mount Everest (at the time) at the age of 50.
2001
May 23 – 32-year-old Guatemalan mountaineer Jaime Viñals became the first Central American to reach the summit.
May 23 – 36-year-old Venezuelans José Antonio Delgado and Marcus Tobía reached the summit with the first Venezuelan expedition to the mountain.
May 23 – Temba Tsheri, age 16 years and 14 days, became the youngest person to reach the summit. He still holds the record title of 'youngest Everest Climber' according to the Guinness World Records.
2002
May 16- Igor Khalatian becomes the first Armenian to reach the top of the world.
May 25 – Zsolt Erőss became the first Hungarian to reach the summit.
2003
May 21 – 21-year-old Jess Roskelley became the youngest American to reach the summit.
May 22 – Alar Sikk became the first Estonian to reach the summit.
May 22 – Zed Al Refai became the first Arab and Kuwaiti man to reach the summit of Everest.
2004
16-05-2004 In an expedition under Panayiotis Kotronaros and Paul Tsiantos leadership, George Voutyropoulos became the first Greek climber to the top, followed by Panayiotis Kotronaros, Paul Tsiantos, Michael Styllas, and Antonis Antonopoulos.
2005
On May 29, a six-man Serbian expedition from the Vojvodina province reached the summit, the first expedition from Serbia to do so.
Gotovdorj Usukhbayar becomes the first Mongolian to summit Mount Everest on May 30, 2005.
On June 1, Farkhondeh Sadegh and Laleh Keshavarz become both the first Iranian women to reach the summit.
On May 21, Karma Gyeltshen becomes the first person from Bhutan to summit Everest.
2006
On May 6, Nepali woman Lhakpa Sherpa summits for the 6th time breaking her own record for most successful summits by any woman.
On May 15, Maxim Chaya, the first Lebanese on Everest, planted the Lebanese flag on the peak.
On May 15, Eylem Elif Maviş became the first Turkish woman to summit Everest. She was part of the first team from Turkey, of which all ten members, among them four women, made the summit.
On May 17, Leo Oracion became the first Filipino to reach the summit. He was followed by Erwin Emata on May 18 and Romi Garduce the following day. Another Filipino, Dale Abenojar claims to have reached the summit on May 15 although this is disputed.
Rob Gauntlett, on May 17, successfully reached the summit alongside his friend James Hooper, becoming the youngest Briton to do so.
On May 19, Brazilian Vitor Negrete reached the peak climbing through the north face without supplementary oxygen. During his descent he called Dawa Sherpa for help, who found and took Negrete down to camp 3, where he died.
2007
May 16 – Samantha Larson became the youngest American (also rumored the youngest non-Nepalese) ever to summit Everest at age 18; simultaneously becoming the youngest person in the world to climb all of the Seven Summits.
On May 17, Omar Samra became the first Egyptian and youngest Arab to reach the summit of Everest, at 7:19 EGP.
On May 17, the first 3 Filipino women reached the summit of Mt. Everest, coming from Tibet side and going down in Nepal side.
On May 19, Israfil Ashurly became the first Azerbaijani to summit.
2008
May 22 – Vitidnan Rojanapanich became the first Thai on Everest, held Thai flag and His Majesty King Bhumibol Adulyadej image on top of the summit for his 60th coronation ceremony.
May 23 – Cheryl Bart and Nikki Bart became the first mother and daughter combination to summit. They became the first mother/daughter duo to complete the "Seven Summits" challenge, climbing the highest peak of every continent.
May 25 – Mostafa Salameh became the first Jordanian to climb Everest, planting the Jordanian flag on the peak.
May – Nimdoma Sherpa, 16 years old, becomes the youngest woman to reach the summit.
Nadir Dendounne becomes the first Algerian to summit Everest.
Thanh Nhien Doan, Bui Van Ngoi, and MauLinh Nguyen became the first Vietnamese to summit Everest.
Laura Mallory Youngest Female Canadian to climb Mount Everest in May 2008 with her Father and two brothers
2009
On May 16, Apa Sherpa climbed Everest for the 19th time, once again breaking his own record.
On May 19, Darija Boštjančić and Iris Boštjančić became the first women from Croatia to summit.
May 20 – Scott Parazynski reached the summit, becoming the first astronaut to summit the world's tallest mountain.
May 20 – Sir Ranulph Fiennes, 65, became the oldest Briton to climb Everest.
May 20 – Li Hui, Esther Tan, and Jane Lee became the first Singaporean women to summit. They were part of the first Singaporean all-women team, of which five members out of six made the summit.
On May 20, Korean climbers Park Young-seok, Jin Jae-chang, Kang Ki-seok, and Shin Dong-min reached the summit of Everest via a new route on the Southwest face (Park's Korean Route)
On May 21, Krushnaa Patil summitted Everest via the South West Ridge, to become the youngest Indian person.
May 23 – Lori Schneider, 52, became the first person in the world with MS to summit Mt. Everest and complete the Seven Summits, as recognized by the World MS Federation
2010
May 17 – Gregory Attard - a medical doctor working at Saint James Hospital, Malta, Marco Cremona, and Robert Gatt became the first persons from Malta to summit.
May 20 – Đorđije Vujičić, Dragutin Vujović, and Marko Blečić became the first persons from Montenegro to summit Mt Everest. They are members of The Mountaineering-ski club "Javorak" from Nikšić.
May 22 – Arjun Vajpai became the youngest Indian to climb Mount Everest.
May 22 – Jordan Romero, 13, became the youngest person ever to climb Everest.
May 23 – Musa Ibrahim, 30, became the first person from Bangladesh to summit.
May 23 – Andrea Cardona, 27, became the first woman from Central America and Guatemala to climb Everest.
May 24 – John Dahlem, 66 years and 10 months, and son Ryan Dahlem, age 40 years, became the oldest father-son combination to stand on the summit of Mt. Everest together.
Andrei Carpenco became the first Moldovan to climb Everest.
The first person to reach the summit fifteen times (31 May 2005) and the only one to reach it a twentieth time (22 May 2010) is Apa Sherpa, who first summitted on 10 May 1990.
2011
May 12 – Hassan Sadpara, 47, became the first Pakistani man without oxygen supplement to scale Mount Everest.
May 21 – Karim Mella became the first Dominican to reach the summit.
May 21 – Arkhom Kijwanichprasert, became the second Thai to reach the summit and the first Thai who got to the summit from North Ridge route on Tibetan side.
May 21 – Suzanne Al Houby, became the first Palestinian and Arab woman to reach the summit.
May 26 – Jaysen Arumugum became the first Mauritian to reach the summit.
2012
May 18 – Parvaneh Kazemi, 42, is the first climber to reach the summit of Mount Everest in 2012. One week later on May 25, at 7 a.m., she climbed Lhotse, becoming the first woman to climb both Everest and Lhotse in the same season (28 men have accomplished this feat).
May 19 – Nishat Majumder, 31, became the first Bangladeshi woman to climb Mount Everest.
May 19 – George Andreou, 39, became the first Cypriot to climb Mount Everest.
May 24 – Warner Rojas became the first man from Costa Rica to climb Mount Everest.
May 25 – Paul Keleher, 28, of the United Kingdom takes the London 2012 Olympic Flag to the top of Mount Everest, following the 2008 Summer Olympics summit of Mt. Everest when the Olympic flame was relayed over the summit.
May 26- Gjergj Bojaxhi, 38, became the first Albanian to climb Everest.
Tamae Watanabe breaks her own record as the oldest female summiteer, on 19 May at age 73 years and 180 days. She reached the summit from the north side.
Wilfred Moshi becomes the first Tanzanian to summit Everest on May 25, 2012.
2013
May 17 – Ningthoujam Vidyapati Devi, 30, became the first woman from Manipur, India, to summit Mount Everest.
May 18 – Wansuk Myrthong became the first woman from Meghalaya, India, to scale Mount Everest.
May 18 – Raha Moharrak, 25, of Saudi Arabia, became the first Saudi woman and youngest Arab to summit Mount Everest.
May 19 – Samina Baig, 21, became the first Pakistani woman and the third Pakistani to scale Mount Everest.
May 19 – Ravindra Kumar, became the first IAS from Begusarai, Bihar, India, to summit Mount Everest.
May 19 – 21-year-old Indian twin sisters Tashi Malik and Nungshi Malik became the first twins in the world to climb the Mount Everest.
May 19 – United States Air Force, First US military climbing team to summit Mt. Everest.
May 20 – Nacer Ibn Abdeljalil, 33, became the first Moroccan man to summit Mount Everest.
May 21 – Raghav Joneja, 15, became the youngest Indian to climb Mount Everest.
May 21 – Arunima Sinha, 26, the first female amputee to reach the summit.
May 22 – Domi Trastoy Diaz, 32, became the first Andorran man to summit Mount Everest.
May 22 – Raed Zidan, 41, became the first Palestinian to reach the summit.
May 22 – Sheikh Mohammed Al Thani becomes the first Qatari to summit Mount Everest
May 22 – Edita Nichols becomes the first Lithuanian woman to summit Everest.
May 22 – Paulina Aulestia Enriquez becomes the first Ecuadorian woman to summit the world's tallest mountain.
2014
May 25 – Malavath Purna became the youngest girl to summit Mount Everest, at 13 years and 11 months old.
May 25 – Arne Vatnhamar became the first Faroese to reach the summit.
2016
May – Tahar Manaï becomes the first Tunisian to summit Mount Everest
May – Weerahennedige Jayanthi Kuru Utumpala becomes the first Sri Lankan to summit Mount Everest.
May 19 – the first people from Burma reached the summit of Mount Everest.
May 19 – Silvia Vasquez-Lavado becomes the first Peruvian woman to reach the summit of Mount Everest.
May 21 – Satoshi Tamura becomes the first deaf person to summit Mount Everest.
2017
May 16 – Viridiana Álvarez Chávez, seventh Mexican woman to reach the summit of Everest in 42 days as an expedition leader.
May 21 – Ada Tsang becomes the first Hong Kong woman to reach the summit of Everest. She is a former secondary teacher in Hong Kong. She completed the climb in her third attempt, together with a physiotherapist and mountaineer, Elton Ng.
May 21 – Vilborg Arna Gissurardóttir becomes the first Icelandic woman to summit Everest.
May 21 – Anshu Jamsenpa became the first woman to summit Everest twice within a week (she took five days to do so).
May 22 – Yusrina Ya'akob became the first female Malay Singaporean to summit Everest.
May 22 – Uta Ibrahimi becomes the first Albanian woman to reach to summit Everest.
2019
Saray Khumalo, a Zambia-born Johannesburg resident, became the first black African woman to summit Everest.
May 22 – Fatima Deryan, became the first Lebanese woman to summit Everest.
2021
Shehroze Kashif became youngest Pakistani to summit Everest.
See also
List of Mount Everest records
List of 20th-century summiters of Mount Everest
List of Mount Everest summiters by number of times to the summit
List of first person to summit Mount Everest by nationality
References
Bibliography
Features full 36-page article on this historic 1933 over-flight. "A major scientific object of the Expedition was to photograph the conformation of inaccessible southern declivities of the massif out of reach of any climbing party." (p. 137)
Hunt, John. The Ascent of Everest (Am. The Conquest of Everest''). Hodder & Stoughton (Mountaineers' Books). 1953.
External links
List of all British Mount Everest Summiteers
Everest Summiteers Association
Mount Everest
History of mountaineering
Mount Everest
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ex%20Libris%20%28bookplate%29
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Ex Libris (bookplate)
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An Ex Libris from , also known as a bookplate (or book-plate, as it was commonly styled until the early 20th century), is a printed or decorative label pasted into a book, often on the front endpaper, to indicate ownership. Simple typographical bookplates are termed "book labels".
Bookplates often bear a motif relating to the book's owner, such as a coat-of-arms, crest, badge, motto, or a design commissioned from an artist or designer. The name of the owner usually follows an inscription such as "from the books of..." or "from the library of...", or in Latin, "". Bookplates are important evidence for the provenance of books.
The most traditional technique used to make bookplates is burin engraving. The engraved copper matrix is then printed with an intaglio press on paper, and the resulting print can be pasted into the book to indicate ownership.
In the United States, bookplates replaced book rhymes (which replaced book curses) after the 19th century.
History
Early examples
The earliest known marks of ownership of books or documents date from the reign of Amenophis III in Egypt (1391−1353 BCE).
However, in their modern form, they evolved from simple inscriptions in books which were common in Europe in the Middle Ages, when various other forms of "librarianship" became widespread (such as the use of class-marks, call numbers, or shelfmarks). The earliest known examples of printed bookplates are German, and date from the 15th century. One of the best known is a small hand-coloured woodcut representing a shield of arms supported by an angel, which was pasted into books presented to the Carthusian monastery of Buxheim by Brother Hildebrand Brandenburg of Biberach, about the year 1480—the date being fixed by that of the recorded gift. The woodcut, in imitation of similar devices in old manuscripts, is hand-painted. An example of this bookplate can be found in the Farber Archives of Brandeis University. In France the most ancient ex-libris as yet discovered is that of one Jean Bertaud de la Tour-Blanche, the date of which is 1529. Holland comes next with the plate of Anna van der Aa, in 1597; then Italy with one attributed to the year 1622. The earliest known American example is the plain printed label of Stephen Daye, the Massachusetts printer of the Bay Psalm Book, 1642.
The history of the bookplate as a symbolical and decorative print used to mark ownership of books begins in Germany. Bookplates are often of art historical interest. Albrecht Dürer is known to have engraved at least six copper plates (some quite large) between 1503 and 1516, and to have supplied designs for several others. Notable plates are ascribed to Lucas Cranach and to Hans Holbein, and to the so-called Little Masters (Masters of the small format—the Behams, Virgil Solis, Matthias Zundt, Jost Amman, Saldorfer, Georg Hupschmann and others). The influence of these draftsman over the decorative styles of Germany has been felt through subsequent centuries down to the present day, notwithstanding the invasion of successive Italian and French fashions during the 17th and 18th centuries, and the marked effort at originality of composition observable among modern designers. The ornate and elaborate German style does not seem to have affected neighbouring countries; but as it was undoubtedly from Germany that the fashion for ornamental bookplates spread, the history of German ex-libris remains relevant to all those who are interested in their development.
Printed ex-libris became common in France in the early 17th century. Until then, the more luxurious custom of blind- or gold-stamping a book's binding with a personal device had been more widespread: the supralibros. From the middle of the century, however, the ex-libris proper became quite popular; examples of that period are numerous and exhibit a complex design sensibility. The term "ex-libris", used as a noun (Exlibris (written in one word) in German) originated in France.
England
The various styles of English bookplates from the Tudor period to the late Victorian period reflect the prevailing taste in decorative art at different epochs—as bookplates do in all countries. In 2010 John Blatchly asked whether the hand-painted armorial device attached to a folio of the first volume of Quatuor concilium generalium belonging to Cardinal Wolsey should be regarded as the first English bookplate. It is made of paper and was pasted onto the front pastedown of the book. However it was not printed. In this respect it is the only known example. The librarian David Pearson has argued that a plausible case can be made for regarding this as a kind of bookplate.
The earliest English bookplate appears to be the gift plate of Sir Nicholas Bacon; it adorns a book that once belonged to Henry VIII, and now is located in the King's library, British Museum. The next example is that of Sir Thomas Tresham, dated 1585. Until the last quarter of the 17th century the number of authentic English plates is very limited. Their composition is relatively simple compared to contemporary German examples. They are as a rule very plainly armorial, and the decoration is usually limited to a symmetrical arrangement of mantling, with an occasional display of palms or wreaths. Soon after the Restoration, however, the bookplate seems to have suddenly become an established accessory to most well-ordered libraries.
The first recorded use of the phrase book plate was in 1791 by John Ireland in Hogarth Illustrated. Bookplates of that period are very distinctive. In the simplicity of their heraldic arrangements they recall those of the previous age; but their appearance is totally different. First, they invariably display the tincture lines and dots, after the method originally devised in the middle of the century by Petra Sancta, the author of Tesserae Gentilitiae, which by this time had become adopted throughout Europe. Second, the mantling surrounding the face of the shield assumes a much more elaborate appearance which recalls that of the contemporary periwig. This style was undoubtedly imported from France, but it assumed a character of its own in England.
From then until the dawn of the French Revolution, English modes of decoration in bookplates generally followed French trends. The main characteristics of the style which prevailed during the Queen Anne and early Georgian periods are: ornamental frames suggestive of carved oak; a frequent use of fish-scales; trellis or diapered patterns, for the decoration of plain surfaces; and, in the armorial display, a marked reduction in the importance of the mantling. The introduction of the scallop-shell as an almost constant element of ornamentation gives a foretaste of the Rocaille-Coquille, the so-called Chippendale fashions of the next reign. During the middle third of the century this rococo style affects the bookplate as universally as all other decorative objects. Its chief element is a fanciful arrangement of scroll and shell work with curveing acanthus-like sprays—an arrangement which in the examples of the best period is generally made asymmetrical in order to give freer scope for a variety of countercurves. Straight or concentric lines and all appearances of flat surface are avoided; the helmet and its symmetrical mantling tends to disappear, and is replaced by the plain crest on a fillet. The earlier examples of this manner are generally simple. Later, however, the composition becomes exceedingly light and complicated; every conceivable and often incongruous element of decoration is introduced, from cupids to dragons, from flowerets to Chinese pagodas. During the early part of George III's reign there is a return to greater sobriety of ornamentation, and a style more truly national, which may be called the urn style, makes its appearance. Bookplates of this period exhibit an appearance which at once recalls the decorative manner made popular by architects and designers such as Chambers, the Adams, Josiah Wedgwood, Hepplewhite and Sheraton. The shield shows a plain spade-like outline, manifestly based upon that of the pseudo-classic urn then very alive. The ornamental accessories are symmetrical palms and sprays, wreaths and ribands. The architectural boss is also an important factor. In many plates, indeed, the shield of arms takes quite a subsidiary position by the side of the predominantly architectural urn.
Some bookplates were issued by institutions, often religious ones, which awarded books to individuals to recognise achievements such as academic performance and good behaviour. These would be inscribed with the name of the individual by hand. Such plates could be very elaborate, or very simple in their design, reflecting the character of the awarding institution.
From the beginning of the 19th century, no special style of decoration seems to have established itself. The immense majority of examples display a plain shield of arms with motto on a scroll, and crest on a fillet. At the turn of the 20th century, however, bookplate design diversified and flourished beyond traditional armorials.
The main styles of decoration have already been noted. But certain styles of composition were also prevalent at certain periods. Although the majority of the older plates were armorial, there were always pictorial examples as well, and these are the quasi-totality of modern ones.
Of this kind the best-defined English genre may be recalled: the library interior—a term which explains itself—and book-piles, exemplified by the ex-libris of W. Hewer, Samuel Pepys's secretary. We have also many portrait-plates, of which, perhaps, the most notable are those of Samuel Pepys himself and of John Gibbs, the architect; allegories, such as were engraved by Hogarth, Bartolozzi, John Pine and George Vertue; landscape-plates by wood-engravers of the Bewick school, etc. In most of these the armorial element merely plays a secondary part.
Art
Until the 19th century, the devising of bookplates was generally left to the routine skill of the heraldic-stationery salesman. Near the turn of the 20th century, the composition of personal book tokens became recognized as a minor branch of a higher art, and there has come into fashion an entirely new class of designs which, for all their wonderful variety, bear as unmistakable a character as that of the most definite styles of bygone days. Broadly speaking, it may be said that the purely heraldic element tends to become subsidiary and the allegorical or symbolic to assert itself more strongly.
Among early 20th-century English artists who have more specially paid attention to the devising of bookplates, may be mentioned C. W. Sherborn, G. W. Eve, Robert Anning Bell, J. D. Batten, Erat Harrison, J. Forbes Nixon, Charles Ricketts, John Vinycomb, John Leighton and Warrington Hogg and Frank C. Papé. The development in various directions of process work, by facilitating and cheapening the reproduction of beautiful and elaborate designs, has no doubt helped much to popularize the bookplate—a thing which in older days was almost invariably restricted to ancestral libraries or to collections otherwise important. Thus the great majority of plates of the period 1880–1920 plates were reproduced by process. Some artists continued to work with the graver. Some of the work they produce challenges comparison with the finest productions of bygone engravers. Of these the best-known are C. W. Sherborn (see Plate) and G. W. Eve in England, and in America J. W. Spenceley of Boston, Mass., K. W. F. Hopson of New Haven, Conn., and E. D. French of New York City.
Study and collection
Bookplates are of interest to collectors either as specimens of bygone decorative fashion or as personal relics of well-known people, and can command high prices. However the value attached to book plates, otherwise than as an object of purely personal interest, is comparatively modern.
The study and collection of bookplates dates back to around 1860. The first real impetus was given by the appearance of A Guide to the Study of Book-Plates (Ex-Libris), by Lord de Tabley (then the Honorable J. Leicester Warren M.A.) in 1880. This work established what is now accepted as the general classification of styles of British ex-libris: early armorial (i.e., previous to Restoration, exemplified by the Nicholas Bacon plate); Jacobean, a somewhat misleading term, but distinctly understood to include the heavy decorative manner of the Restoration, Queen Anne and early Georgian days (the Lansanor plate is Jacobean); Chippendale (the style above described as rococo, tolerably well represented by the French plate of Convers); wreath and ribbon, belonging to the period described as that of the urn, etc. Since then the literature on the subject has grown considerably.
Societies of collectors were founded, first in England in 1891, then in Germany and France, and later in the United States, most of them issuing a journal or archives: The Journal of the Ex-libris Society (London), the Archives de la Société française de collectionneurs d'ex-libris (Paris), both of these monthlies; the Ex-libris Zeitschrift (Berlin), a quarterly.
In 1901–1903, the British Museum published the catalog of the 35,000 bookplates collected by Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks (1826–97).
One of the first known English collectors was Maria Jenkins of Clifton, Bristol, who was active in the field during the second quarter of the 19th century. Her bookplates were later incorporated into the collection of Joseph Jackson Howard.
Some collectors attempt to acquire plates of all kinds (for example, the collection of Irene Dwen Andrews Pace, now at Yale University, comprising 250,000 items). Other collectors prefer to concentrate on bookplates in special fields—for example, coats of arms, pictures of ships, erotic plates, chess pieces, legal symbols, scientific instruments, signed plates, proof-plates, dated plates, plates of celebrities, or designs by certain artists.
Contemporary bookplates and their collection
Since the 1950s, there has been a renewed interest in the collection of bookplates and in many ways a reorientation of this interest. There are still substantial numbers of collectors for whom the study of bookplates spanning 500 years is a fascinating source of historical, artistic and socio-cultural interest. They have however been joined by a now dominant group of new collectors whose interest is more than anything the constitution—at quite reasonable cost—of a miniature, personalized art-print collection. In this miniature art museum, they gather together the works of their favorite artists. They commission numbered and signed editions of bookplates to their name which are never pasted into books but only serve for exchange purposes.
More than 50 "national" societies of ex-libris collectors exist, grouped into an International Federation of Ex-libris Societies (FISAE) which organizes worldwide congresses every two years.
See also
Book collecting
Lithograph
Library classification
Printer's mark
Title page
Book frontispiece
RFID
Percy Neville Barnett, Australian bookplate collector
Irena Sibley, contemporary Australian bookplate artist
References and sources
References
Sources
Further reading
Allen, Charles D., American Book-Plates (Arno 1968).
Arellanes, Audrey S., ed., Bookplates (Gale Res. 1971).
Arellanes, Audrey S., Bookplates in the News (Gale Res. 1986).
Faber, Bookplates in Britain (1984).
Johnson, Fridolf, A Treasury of Bookplates from the Renaissance to the Present (Dover 1978).
Jones, Louise S., Human Side of Bookplates (Ward Ritchie Press 1959).
O'Hagen, Lauren (2020). "Social Posturing in the Edwardian Book Plate, 1901-1915, The Book Collector 60 no. 4 (winter): 662-672.
Severin, Mark & Reid, Anthony. Engraved Bookplates: European Ex Libris 1950–70. Pinner, Middlesex: Private Libraries Association, 1972 SBN 900002-91-3
Shickell, Edward H., Bookplates for Libraries: Contemporary Designs for School, Public, College and University Libraries (Beacham 1968).
Sibbett, Ed, Children's Bookplates and Labels (Dover 1977).
External links
Bookplate engravers
Traditional French bookplate engraving
Societies
The Bookplate Society
American Society of Bookplate Collectors & Designers
International Ex Libris Competition Varna - Bulgaria, containing many samples of contemporary bookplates
The New Australian Bookplate Society
Journals
Selected articles published by the American Society of Bookplate Collectors & Designers since 1922
The Cyber Journal of Heraldic Bookplates
Institutional collections
Approximately 4,000-5,000 bookplates (including albums).
"Augustus Wollaston Franks" Franks Bequest. Catalogue of British and American Bookplates bequeathed to the Trustees of the British Museum by Sir Augustus Wollaston Franks.
An exhibition catalogue containing material on bookplates (PDF available).
A database of 897 bookplate images.
Book design
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Issa%20%28clan%29
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Issa (clan)
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The Issa (also spelled Eesah, Esa, or Aysa) (, , Osmanya: 𐒋𐒕𐒜𐒈, ) are a northern Somali clan, a sub-division of the Dir clan family.
Overview
As a Dir sub-clan, the Issa have immediate lineal ties with the Akisho, Gadabuursi, the Surre (Abdalle and Qubeys), the Biimaal (who the Gaadsen also belong to), the Bajimal, the Bursuk, the Madigan Dir, the Gurgura, the Garre (the Quranyow sub-clan to be precise as they claim descent from Dir), Gurre, Gariire, other Dir sub-clans and they have lineal ties with the Hawiye (Irir), Hawadle, Ajuran, Degoodi, Gaalje'el clan groups, who share the same ancestor Samaale.
The Issa clan has produced numerous noble Somali men and women over the centuries, consisted of a King (Ugaas) and including many Sultans. Throughout their known history the Issa where known for their military strength and viciousness, the British and many old world empires who came across them viewed the Issas as the strongest most warlike tribe of north east Africa. The British also tried to invade Zeila home of the White Issa (Aysa) which the natives reigned victorious, with that there was never any attempt made to occupy the interior of the Issa country, which was mostly inhabited by the Black Issa ; and not withstanding the cruel nature of the tribe, whose only aspirations in life could very accurately be summed up in the two words "Murder and Loot". With the typically villainous expression on their tribe members' faces as the British administration described. Tribal traditions with those of the Black Issa was that a young blood was not allowed to marry until he had slain a man in battle; as it was not essential to kill the man in a fair combat, this usually led to a cold-blooded killing and constant battles with neighboring tribes and ethnic groups, among the other Somali tribes such customs were unheard of , this was all in effort to keep themselves a militarized tribe. Given that they were always in a state of battle to the point it was viewed that killing was their pastime, as a way of honoring their deceased warriors, they would place upright stones, one for each victim, opposite the entrance of the deceased's dwelling. If the deceased had killed three or more men, stones would also be placed opposite each of the wives' three huts. If the deceased had killed one or more elephants, very large stones would be erected. Additionally, if any of the deceased's victims were mounted men, one upright stone surmounted by another flat stone would be put up. This practice of honoring their warriors through the placement of stones was a significant aspect of the Issa tribal traditions and culture.
History
Early 19th Century, Northern Conflicts & Engagements of the Issa Tribe
In the tumultuous era of warring Afar tribes, the Weima Danakil emerge as a prominent group maintaining a force of approximately 100 Somali archers, acting as mercenaries for various northwestern tribes, mostly the Issa. Despite attempts at assimilation, they steadfastly preserve their Somali language and prefer to intermarry within their own community, avoiding mixing with the Danakil at that time. Interestingly, the Danakil consider shooting to be unlawful and thus rely on the skilled Somalis to fulfill this role.
The Issa tradition endures with the continued utilization of bows and poisoned arrows among their ranks. In the preceding year, in 1838, a violent clash had occurred between the Debenik Weima and the Mudaito, resulting in a bloody skirmish. The casualties were substantial, with the Mudaito suffering 700 fatalities and the Debne Weima losing 140 individuals. There were discrepancies in the reported numbers, with Mahomed Ali stating that the Mudiato had 1500 casualties while the Weima had 120. During their conflicts, the Debne Weima consistently ally with the Issa against the Mudaito. In such cases, the Issa constitute approximately one-third of their combined forces.
Even so, with the Issa being against the Mudaito, it is noteworthy that the capital city of Aussa is predominantly inhabited by the Afar Mudaito having the city is divided into Assa-himera, Galeya, Dar, Koorha, and Issa. Centuries prior the Issa dynasty of Aussa faced rebellion from the Mudaitos, despite those events, the Issa still maintained a presence in Aussa, This observation was made by explorers Cornwallis and Harris R. Kirk in 1841.
Many of Issa inhabited territory the opposite coast of Ghoubbet-el-Kharab, driven by an insatiable thirst for human blood, frequently launch incursions into the territory of the Danakil. Exploiting the absence of a sentry at the far end of the beat, they stealthily descend the shaded bank of the hollow and commit the merciless act of violence. Engaged in ceaseless conflict with the Danakil, despite the outward appearance of friendship and even alliance among tribal chiefs, no opportunity is missed to retaliate against the mountain-dwelling Bedouins. Each fresh act of hostility sparks a new blood feud, with each life taken on either side demanding revenge twofold, perpetuating an endless cycle of violence.
While traveling from Tadjoura to the Ethiopian highlands of Shoa in 1841, explorer Major Y. Cornwallis Harris witnessed a harrowing ordeal. The protective escort accompanying him faced relentless attacks, with members being systematically targeted, picked off, and ultimately being killed he states the following: "Eesah, whose only honour and wealth consists in the number of foul butcheries with which their consciences are stained, and whomeven savages concur in representing as sanguinary and ferocious monsters fearing neither God nor Devil"
Arabedoura, an expansive plateau formed by volcanic materials, is covered with lush grass that serves as grazing land for the Bedouin herds. During the rainy season, the Bedouins, including the Issa nomads, migrate and settle in this region. Issa nomads can be found camping alongside the Danakiles on the pastures, as reported by explorer Rochet d'Hericourt in 1841. The Issa nomads' territory, located three leagues south of Arabedoura. Due to the asynchronous arrival of the rainy seasons in these territories, a reciprocal agreement allows the Issa nomads to bring their herds to graze among the Danakiles when vegetation flourishes with abundant rainfall. In return, the Danakils lead their cattle to the Issa nomads when their own pastures have dried up, and the rains commence to nourish their neighbors' lands. This interdependence fosters harmony between the two prominent tribes. Without this arrangement, their alliance could be endangered, potentially favoring the Issa nomads, renowned for their martial nature and remarkable archery skills, demonstrated by their adept use of bows to shoot arrows. Rochet d'Hericourt goes on to state : "The Somalis Issa, who are of a very fine race: their height is tall, their nose is almost aquiline; a large forehead with regular lines gives to their characteristic face the physical attributes of intelligence; endowed with fiery courage, they love battles, where their skill in throwing the arrow gives them a great superiority over their neighbors, who fear them."
In 1842, the Issa Somali people reside in the southern region of the Gulf of Tadjoura, extending to the territory of Weima Danakil. It is worth noting that a significant portion of the Issa Somali population recognizes Lohitu, the Sultan of Tadjoura, as their chief. Additionally, it is noteworthy that half of the Weima tribe in Tadjoura consists of Issa Somali individuals.
Mid 19th Century
The Issa were the most significant component in the trade routes that connected Harar to the coastal towns of Berbera and Zeila. The trade and agricultural ties of the Somali tribes with the Afran Qallo contributed, from the fifteenth century, to political and ethnic merging, expressed in the creation of the Oromo-Somali ethnic groups: the Girri-Jarso and the Girri-Babillee, which combined Oromo methods of agriculture while adopting Somali political institutions. The development of Somali institutions was intricately linked to the trading activities of the Issa tribe in the Zeila region. In this area, the Issa provided protection to merchants and their wares traveling along the trade routes between Zeila and the interior regions of the country. In exchange for their services, the tribe collected taxes from the traders. This arrangement helped to institutionalize and refine the role of the" Abban," the tribal chief who was responsible for ensuring the welfare and safety of his people. Over time, the Abban's duties and responsibilities became more formalized and well-defined, as he had to manage the economic and political affairs of his tribe, negotiate with other tribes, and ensure the security of his people and their property. Thus, the trade activities of the Issa tribe played a significant role in the development of the social and political structures of the Somali people. The Issa tribe held a virtual monopoly on camel raising in the region, and they were responsible for renting out these animals and leading convoys through the Oromo regions. However, the camels owned by the Issa were not well-suited for the hilly terrain leading up to Harar. To navigate this terrain, it was necessary to use donkeys provided by the Oromo.
Issa - Egypt Conflict, late 19th Century
In the mid 1870s after Khedivate of Egypt defeats in Ethiopia, they changed strategy to encircle Ethiopia from all sides and also gain a foothold on the Somali coast. In early 1875, Egyptian forces led by Werner Munzinger aimed to join forces with Menelik by traveling westward from the port of Tadjoura towards Awassa. However, the challenging topographical conditions and harsh climate depleted the troops' energy. On the night of November 14, warriors from the Somali Issa Madoobe tribe attacked the Egyptian force, resulting in the massacre of Werner Munzinger, his wife, and most of the military command. The remaining survivors escaped to Tadjoura. This defeat marked the end of the ambition to expand Egypt into the Christian Abyssinia.
Despite their previous defeats Egyptian eventually took control of the Somali coastal cities of Zeila and Berbera was successful. In exchange, Khedive Isma‘īl made pledges to keep the ports of Bulhar and Berbera open to trade with all countries, with the exception of slave trade, and to prevent European military presence in these ports. The khedival government also agreed to charge customs rates that did not exceed 5 percent of the value of exported merchandise, and to allow the British to establish consular representation in those areas. In the summer of 1875 the Egyptians appointed Abu Bakr Ibrahim Shahim, a slave trader from Zeila, as governor. Abu Bakr, apparently a descendent of the ‘Afar people, had a great deal of local influence. Abu-Bakr having ties to Menelik II was a great benefit to Khedive in Cairo and was highly valued by the French in the area. It is likely that they granted him French citizenship in the early 1860s and appointed him as their representative in exchange for the benefits he provided to their merchants in the Zeila and Obock region. With French citizenship, Abu Bakr solidified his status as the most influential leader of the Zeila region in the eyes of both the Afar people and the European powers. The Egyptians did not intervene in Somali affairs, rather they adhered to their agreement with Abu Bakr and utilized bribes to influence tribal leaders, commonly referred to as Ugas in Zeila. To establish their authority, they appointed leaders from the Issa and other Somali tribes in the Ogaden Desert region southeast of Harar as their authorized representatives. Along with territory from Zelia to Harar, the Issa controlled Zeila and majority of the Somali coast to Bulhar, the Khedivites used to pay tax to the ugaas of the Issa to use Zeila and Harar trade route.
Continuing onto Harar, the Egyptians had to go through the territory of the Issa Somalis, they marched through rocky gullies and dry river beds in the Guban region, which typically experiences scorching temperatures ranging from 105 to 110 degrees Fahrenheit from May to September. The area had limited vegetation and scarce water resources due to the harsh summer conditions. Issa people had an advantage over the invading army ,they were familiar with the difficult field conditions and climate, as noted, wiped out Munzinger’s forces in the middle of 1875 in Awassa. With only a limited number of matchlocks, or ‘Tower’-type percussion muskets, along with their traditional light arms, which included lances, daggers, javelins, a spear, sword, and shield. Some employed clubs, bows, hatchets, or, rarely, a pistol, despite the antiquated arsenal, Issa clans were not easy opponents . In comparison the military force that Ra’uf Pasha of the Eygptians commanded was made up of five infantry units, each unit had fourteen officers, 236 soldiers ( başhi bozuķ ), two Howitzer mountain cannons, and two rocket launchers. At the same time, the Issa tribe was engaged in conflicts with Nole Oromo, the Danakil (Afar) and Gadabuursi clans, with that taken into consideration after a 5 day stand off the leader of the federation of the Somali Issa tribes, Sheikh Rolia, surrendered to the Egyptian forces and was granted protection and the Egyptian flag in return. This eliminated the military threat posed to the Egyptians by the Somali Issa, allowing them to proceed towards Harar by crossing the Issa territory. British observers stationed in Aden sent reports to London, highlighting the ability the invading force had to use to compel the Issa to surrender, as they were the first to do so.
The Egyptians divided the societies in the Harar area into three categories: the Somali ‘Issa, the Nole Oromo, and the people of the city of Harar, with the Issa causing the Egypt administration much difficulty.
They have no stable leader, except for the leader of the sheikhs of the ‘Issa dignitaries. The government that they set up for themselves is a type of commonwealth. When they want to bring down the government, they undermine its authority. Their wise men and heads of clans assemble. They consult with one another, and sometimes this goes on for many weeks. When the majority opinion is accepted, the government carries it out. This is how the appointment or the dismissal of their dignitaries is carried out.
Between June and July 1878, the security situation in the region spanning from Harar to the Somali coast worsened significantly due to an uprising by the Somali 'Issa populations. The unrest, which initially erupted in the Berber area, eventually spread to the Harar region. In July 1878, Raduan Pasha and his deputy, Ahmad Rami Bey, attempted to suppress the uprising of several hundred rebels. However, they underestimated the strength of the rebel forces, who managed to surprise and defeat the small Egyptian army. The rebels then fled towards Zeila. In response, the Egyptians retaliated by invading deserted villages and burning the homes of ten tribal leaders. According to Raduan Pasha's assessment, the garrison force stationed in the city and surrounding areas would be unable to contain a widespread 'Issa rebellion. He alerted the khedival government to the danger and emphasized the urgent need for military reinforcements in Harar. Raduan Pasha demanded the return of the Egyptian warship, which had been stationed in the Berbera area until early 1878 but was ordered to leave by the khedival government. The ship carried two units tasked with providing support to forces in the region between coastal cities and Harar. Issa rebels achieved the area between Harar and the Somali coast to slip out of Egyptian control. Khiri Pasha's government was considering the option of re-annexing the Red Sea coastal region and Harar to the hikimdariya of Sudan. Raduan Pasha attempted to attack the rebel strongholds in the Harar region in October 1878 but faced another significant defeat. The rebels managed to kill twenty-six soldiers and loot twenty-nine guns and thirty-eight horses from Raduan Pasha's force. In November 1878, Raduan Pasha led a small force of fifty soldiers and one cannon from Zeila to Harar to negotiate with the rebel leaders. However, when they failed to arrive in the city, he traveled to their villages to meet with them. Raduan Pasha's calm and attentive approach towards the tribes played a key role in pacifying the rebellion. After a meeting at the rebels' stronghold outside Harar, Raduan Pasha negotiated with their leaders and agreed on reduced and graded taxes. In exchange, the rebels signed a ceasefire agreement in which they pledged to allow transportation to the coast and even return their plundered loot. Raduan Pasha reported his success to Gordon, who in turn informed the khedive's government that order had been restored and there was no need for any military reinforcement. The ceasefire achieved through Raduan Pasha's negotiations with the rebels was short-lived, and by early March 1879, it was clear that transportation on the roads was once again dangerous. The rebels had taken this as a sign of weakness and were joined by additional Somali tribes in their rebellion. They targeted convoys, damaged telegraph lines, and cut off communication with coastal cities. Raduan Pasha requested military reinforcement from the khedival government and a force of about 1,500 regular soldiers, along with other Somali tribes opposing the Issa tribe, arrived quickly by sea to Zeila. With this backup, Raduan Pasha led a successful attack against the rebels, defeating their force of about 370 armed men. Following this, the Somali 'Issa did not pose a significant threat again until the Egyptians evacuated Harar in 1885.
The Egyptian withdrawal from Harar was synchronized with their departure from Zelia and Berbera, as a precautionary measure to avoid a potential uprising by the Oromo and Issa Somali against the retreating Egyptian forces. Thomas Hunter, the first secretary of the British delegate in Aden from 1884 to 1887 was apprehensive that during the withdrawal, the tribal factions might launch surprise attacks on the Egyptians from behind, which could trigger a fresh Mahdiyya rebellion like the one witnessed in Sudan. Eygpts leave of Horn of Africa, expressed concern from the British about the sense of unease in Berbera and the possibility of the Somali Issa tribe taking over the city. To prevent this, Thomas Hunter suggested that a British warship, under the leadership of a naval officer based in Aden, should remain stationed in Berbera's harbor on a permanent basis. This move would serve as a deterrent to the Somali Issa until the evacuation of Harar was completed. To prevent another Issa revolt, Thomas Hunter recommended that the British rule over Zeila while the Egyptian forces were still there, by means of 150 local infantrymen reinforced with camels. Afterwards, from a state of military advantage, they would arrive at an agreement with the Issa regarding the evacuation from Harar, and that no difficulties were expected on the routes, due to assistance provided by the Somali ‘Issa populations. With Eygpt gone, the Somalis soon began to plunder and massacre European commercial convoys: ‘Issa warriors murdered 103 Europeans and locals in the roads between Harar, Zeila and Berbera. 44 Simultaneously with these attacks, which were directed against foreigners, a bloody conflict broke out during November 1885 between the Somali ‘Issa and the Gadabuursi about control of the trade routes between Harar and Zeila. Twenty were killed during the fighting, and the security condition on the routes was severely weakened. Then following in 1886 the Issa and Afars were at war , and all caravans trading paths where deserted from Zeila going through to Awsa.
20th Centurypresent
In the Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935/36, Issa fought on the Italian side, in return benefited from weapons and military training and lucrative marketing opportunities for their cattle. In the second half of the twentieth century, Somalia supplied additional weapons to the Issa, which it upgraded as part of the West Somalia Liberation Front.
The Aysha massacre was a massacre of ethnic Issa Somalis by Ethiopian army on 13 August 1960 in Aysha, Ethiopia. The Ethiopian troops had descended on the area to reportedly help defuse clan-related conflict. However, according to eye-witness testimony, that Somali men were then taken to a different location and then executed by Ethiopian soldiers. Among the latter, those who fled to Dikhil and Ali Sabieh in Djibouti. The drought and hunger crisis of 1972-1973/74 intensified the conflicts. The Ethiopian army intervened against the Issa and in 1971/72 killed hundreds and seized nearly 200,000 cattle. After the defeat of the Western Somali Liberation Front, the Issa Division remained under the name Issa and Gurgura Liberation Front. They continued to receive support from Somalia and joined the EPRDF. In 1987 the autonomous region of Dire Dawa was created for the Issa (which had previously belonged to the province of Xararge) as part of a new administrative division of Ethiopia. Since the EPRDF took over in 1991, the Issa areas in Ethiopia were part of the ethnic definition of the Somali Region.
In Djibouti, which was colonized by France under the name of the French Coast of Somalis, (up until 1967, then to the French Territory of the Afars and the Issas), there were also tensions between Issa and Afar, as the Issa and other Somalis natives of Djibouti sought to connect with Somalia independent since 1960. Most Afar preferred the fate of France. Mahamoud Harbi was a major leader of the independence movement but was killed on 29 September 1960 and his comrades Djama Mahamoud Boreh and Mohamed Gahanlo disappeared on a flight from Geneva to Cairo. Officially, they were killed in a plane crash, but a possible role of the organization de l'armée secrète is speculated. In 1977 Djibouti gained its independence, but did not unite with Somalia. During the Ogaden War, influential Issa politicians envisioned a Greater Djibouti or "Issa-land", where Djibouti's borders would extend from the Red Sea to Dire Dawa. That dream however was dashed towards the end of the war as Somali forces were routed from Ethiopia. Under Hassan Gouled Aptidon, Djibouti developed into the one-party state of the Rassemblement Populaire pour le Progrès (RPP) In which the interests of the Afar minority were little considered. In 1991–1994, there was therefore a civil war in Djibouti between the Issa-dominated government and the Afar rebels of the FRUD. Finally, other opposition parties were admitted and Afar was involved in the government, while Issa still dominated political life. In 1999 Ismail Omar Guelleh, a nephew of Hassan Gouled Aptidon, succeeded Djibouti as his successor.
In the Awdal region of Somaliland there were battles with the Gadabuursi, another Dir subclans. The conflict drove some of the Issa to escape to Ethiopia in the late 1990s. A refugee camp was opened at Degago/Ayisha. A second wave of Issa refugees left the coastal town of Zeila in 1991 after fighting with the SNM of the Isaaq and Gadabuursi.
Distribution
The Issa primarily live in Ethiopia largely where they reach the Oromia and Afar regions and make a large chunk of the Chartered city of Dire Dawa. They also inhabit Djibouti, where they make up more than half of the population, thirdly they inhabit Awdal, Somaliland too. The Issa are the largest clan by population within the Djibouti. Also the Issa is the second largest sub-clan within the borders of the Somali Region of Ethiopia based on the Ethiopian population census 2008.
The immediate neighbor to the Issa to the west are the Afar (or Danakil)
with whom the Issa used to frequently fight. I. M. Lewis used to refer to it as "a of an almost
constant state of enmity between the 'Ise and the 'Afar" , To their east the 'Ise are in contact with the Somali Gadabursi
to whom they feel themselves akin and share same descent and culture. To the South the Gurgura, Hawiye and Oromo.
The titles White and Black, as prefixed to the Issa, simply refer to their geographic distribution; a range of hills that runs west of and parallel to the Djibouti-Harrar road serves as their dividing line; the White Issa are those closest to the sea, while the Black Issaare those beyond the range. These differences are due to how the two countries look, with the country to the west being almost entirely made up of sand and the country to the east being mostly covered in basaltic rock. As a result, the former has a black appearance due to its volcanic nature, while the latter is a white sandy desert.
The Black Issa typically consist of the Wardiq, certain factions of Muse Eleye, the entirety of Horrone, and certain segments of Furlabe and Walaldon. The White Issa typically encompass some of Furlabe, a portion of Muse Eleye, and a portion of Mamassan, along with some Walaldon.
The Customary Law Xeer & Administration
The Issa elders, functioning as a cohesive clan family, faced a series of adversities, including civil strife, famine, banditry, trade disruptions, and societal chaos. In response, they established a traditional constitution called Xeer Cisse, characterized by power-sharing principles, uniting the community in their pursuit of stability and order.
According to oral tradition, as narrated by Issa elders, several centuries ago, the forefathers of the Issa community embarked on a migration journey from Zayla, eventually converging atop Sitti Mountain in what is now Aisha Wereda. This specific location was known as Las Harad. To become an Issa elder and serve as a representative of the twelve Issa sub-clans, one had to meet two fundamental criteria: both parents had to be alive, and they needed to have a son. To facilitate their governance and decision-making processes, a group of forty-four elders convened month-long conferences on Mount Sitti. Each of the twelve Issa sub-clans took turns providing food for the elders during these gatherings. Over time, this assembly of elders devised a comprehensive set of 362 unwritten legal codes known as "hera." Legend has it that a significant event occurred during one of these Mount Sitti conferences when a cloud appeared to hang directly over the representatives of one Issa sub-clan, the Wardik. This extraordinary phenomenon was universally interpreted as a divine sign, signifying the Wardiks as being chosen, even by God, to fulfill leadership roles within the Issa/Somali community. Consequently, from that point forward, the Issa/Somali leader, known as the Ugaas, has been consistently selected from the Wardik sub-clan.
Even though the Ugaas had the highest authority, the Issa clan upholds a notably egalitarian social structure rooted in clan affiliations, where all individuals, regardless of gender, are regarded as equals, and each person possesses the right to express their viewpoint on matters pertaining to their clan. Consequently, consensus-based decision-making is the norm among them.
The decision-making process primarily involves consultation, where every male member of the lineage has the entitlement to partake in discussions related to tribal affairs within a collective gathering referred to as 'shir.' Additionally, there exists a court composed of forty-four representatives, representing various sections of the clan, known as the 'Rer Gendi.' This entity serves dual purposes as both a judicial court of appeal and a ritual congregation. It is convened exclusively during periods of national emergencies or crises.
Lineage
The Issa traditionally traces its connections through Dir, his actual grave lies between Rugay and Maydh in eastern Somaliland. Sheikh Issa tomb most likely pre-date the local arrival of Islam, which would mean their construction took place in the 13th century or earlier.
Genetics
The Issa belong to the T-M184 haplogroup and the TMRCA is estimated to be 2100–2200 years or 150 BCE.
Clan tree
Based on the Notes on the social organisation of the Issa Somal. The Issa is divided into the following branches.
Issa
Ēlēye' (Musse & Mamasan)
Walaldon (Idleh & Youssouf)
Hōlle (Mahadle & Saaib)
Hōrrōne (Habar Walaal & Geele Walaal)
Ūrweyne(Cabdelle & Siciid)
Wardīq (Wakhtishiil & Rumawaaq)
Gallery
Notable Issa people
Mahmoud Harbi: Vice-president of the Government Council of French Somaliland.
Hassan Gouled Aptidon: 1916–2006, first President of Djibouti from 1977 to 1999.
Ismaïl Omar Guelleh: President of Djibouti as of 1999.
Lula Ali Ismaïl: Djiboutian-Canadian film director
Abdo Hamargod: Musician
Daher Ahmed Farah: Djiboutian politician
Abdourahman Waberi: Novelist
Ahmed-Idriss Moussa:Djiboutian politician
Nima Djama: Musician
Aicha Bogoreh: First lady of Djibouti
Ahmed Boulaleh Barreh: Djiboutian politician
Ahmed Salah: Djiboutian athlete
Idriss Arnaoud Ali: Djiboutian politician
Xabiiba Cabdilaahi: Musician
Omar Farah Iltireh: Djiboutian politician
Aden Robleh Awaleh: President of the National Democratic Party.
Hawa Ahmed Youssouf: Djiboutian politician
Mohamed Ali Fourchette: Musician
Roble Olhaye: Permanent representative to the United Nations for the Republic of Djibouti.
Kadra Ahmed Hassan: Permanent Representative to the United Nations and the World Trade Organization for the Republic of Djibouti.
Yacin Bouh: Djiboutian politician.
Hussein Ahmed Salah: Djiboutian marathon runner.
Moumin Bahdon: Djiboutian politician.
Aïcha Mohamed Robleh: Writer
Jamal Abdi Dirieh: Athlete
Fadumo Ahmed Dhimbiil: Musician
Abdi Waiss Mouhyadin: Athlete
Ahmed Daher: Football
Aden Farah Samatar: Musician
Youssouf Hiss Bachir: Athlete
Mohamed Youssef: Sailor
Ahmed Goumane-Roble: Politician
Djama Robleh: Athlete
Roda Ali Wais: Athlete
Mohamed Ali Fourchette: Musician
Mouna-Hodan Ahmed: Novelist
Hoche Yaya Aden: Athlete
Moumina Houssein Darar: Djiboutian Anti-Terrorism police investigator.
Aden Farah: Speaker of House of Federation - Ethiopia
Choukri Djibah: Politician and Women's equality activist.
See also
Issa (name)
Dir
Djibouti
Zeila
Notes
References
Somali clans
Somali clans in Ethiopia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Romm
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Joe Romm
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Joseph J. Romm (born June 27, 1960) is an American researcher, author, editor, physicist and climate expert, who advocates reducing greenhouse gas emissions to limit global warming and increasing energy security through energy efficiency and green energy technologies. Romm is a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. In 2009, Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of "100 People Who Are Changing America", and Time magazine named him one of its "Heroes of the Environment (2009)", calling him "The Web's most influential climate-change blogger".
Romm is a Senior Research Fellow at the University of Pennsylvania's Penn Center for Science, Sustainability and the Media. In 2019, he founded, and served as the first Editor-in-Chief of, progressive news aggregator Front Page Live. He has written for various energy and news sources, and he was the Chief Science Advisor for documentary series Years of Living Dangerously, which won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series. At the Center for American Progress, where he was a Senior Fellow, he founded the blog Climate Progress in 2006, which became part of the Think Progress website. Time magazine named Romm's blog one of the "Top 15 Green Websites". In 2009, Thomas L. Friedman, in The New York Times, called Climate Progress "the indispensable blog", and Time included it in a list of the 25 "Best Blogs of 2010".
In the 1990s, Romm served at the U.S. Department of Energy including, for six months, as Acting Assistant Secretary. He has published 10 books and many articles on global warming, clean energy and communications. His 2006 book Hell and High Water summarized observations and forecasts of climate change, discussed technology and policy solutions, and criticized political disinformation used to undermine climate science. His 2015 book, Climate Change: What Everyone Needs to Know, covers basic climate science in a Q&A format. He has also written books on how scientists and activists can communicate more persuasively to explain science and policy to the public. His 2012 book, Language Intelligence, concerns the effective use of rhetoric, and his 2018 book, How to Go Viral and Reach Millions, discusses how to tell scientific stories in ways that draw attention and connect with people emotionally.
Biography
Early life and career
Romm was born and grew up in Middletown, New York, the youngest of three sons of Al Romm (1926–1999), managing editor of the Times Herald-Record newspaper, and Ethel Grodzins Romm, an author, journalist, project manager, former CEO of an environmental technology company and former chair of the Lyceum Society of the New York Academy of Sciences. Romm's brother David was the host and producer of Shockwave Radio Theater on KFAI-FM, and his brother Daniel is a retired physician. His uncle is physicist Lee Grodzins, and his aunt was library science expert Anne Grodzins Lipow. Romm graduated from Middletown High School in 1978.
Romm attended the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he earned a Bachelor of Science degree in 1982 and a Ph.D. in 1987, both in physics. He pursued part of his graduate work at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography. In 1987, Romm was awarded an American Physical Society Congressional Science Fellowship for the U.S. House of Representatives, where he provided science and security policy advice on the staff of Representative Charles E. Bennett.
From 1988 to 1990, Romm worked as Special Assistant for International Security at the Rockefeller Foundation. From 1991 to 1993, he was a researcher at the Rocky Mountain Institute. He co-authored the 1994 Rocky Mountain Institute Report, Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through Energy-Efficient Design. For the Global Environment and Technology Foundation, he performed the first environmental analysis of a system integrating cogenerating fuel cells, fly wheels, and power electronics aimed at achieving very high-availability power. In 1990 and 1991, Romm taught a course entitled "Rethinking National Security" at Columbia University's School of International and Public Affairs.
In 1992, Romm published The Once and Future Superpower, a book describing his views on how to spend the peace dividend to restore America's economic, energy and environmental security. In 1993, he wrote Defining National Security: The Nonmilitary Aspects, for the Council on Foreign Relations, describing how America's security depends on non-military factors such as how it obtains energy. In 1994, Romm published Lean and Clean Management, a book that discussed management techniques that can reduce the impact of manufacturing and other industries on the environment while increasing productivity and profits. He co-authored, with Charles B. Curtis, "MidEast Oil Forever," the cover story of the April 1996 issue of the Atlantic Monthly, which discussed alternative energy strategies. The same year, he co-authored a paper for the ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings on "Policies to Reduce Heat Islands". In 1999, Romm published Cool Companies: How the Best Businesses Boost Profits and Productivity by Cutting Greenhouse Gas Emissions, the first book to benchmark corporate best practices for using advanced energy technologies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
Service at the U.S. Department of Energy
Romm served as Acting Assistant Secretary of the U.S. Department of Energy, in charge of the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy for six months in 1997, Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for the rest of the period from August 1995 through June 1998, and Special Assistant for Policy and Planning from 1993 to July 1995. This office, with an annual budget at the time of $1 billion and 550 employees, assists businesses in the industrial, utility, transportation and buildings sectors to develop and use advanced clean energy technologies to cut costs, increase reliability, and reduce pollution.
As Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary, Romm was in charge of all policy and technology analysis and programmatic development for the Office, which was then developing PEM fuel cells, microturbines, advanced cogeneration, superconductivity, building controls, photovoltaics and other renewables, biofuels, and hydrogen production and storage. Among other projects, he initiated, supervised, and publicized a comprehensive technical analysis in 1997 by five national laboratories of how energy technologies can best reduce greenhouse gas emissions cost-effectively, entitled Scenarios of U.S. Carbon Reductions.
1998 to 2006
After leaving the Department of Energy, Romm was the executive director and founder of the non-profit Center for Energy and Climate Solutions, an organization based in the Washington DC area that helped businesses and U.S. States adopt high-leverage strategies for saving energy and cutting pollution and greenhouse gas emissions. He was also a principal of the Capital E Group, which consulted on technology assessment and sustainable design services for clean energy technologies, sat on the Advisory Board of Securing America's Future Energy, and was a registered lobbyist for Ion America and Sunpower Corp.
During these years, Romm wrote widely on global warming and energy technology solutions. His 2004 book, The Hype about Hydrogen, argues that putting off the implementation of current green technologies in favor of waiting for technological breakthroughs in hydrogen cars is a dangerous distraction that will delay urgently needed government action on reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The book was named one of the best science and technology books of 2004 by Library Journal. In reviewing the book, Daniel I. Sperling, then a member of California Air Resources Board, offered dissenting views. Also in 2004, Romm wrote the National Commission on Energy Policy's report, "The Car and Fuel of the Future", which was rated the #1 Hottest Article on Energy Policy by ScienceDirect. He was also the principal investigator for the National Science Foundation project, Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education (2004). Romm is interviewed in the 2006 documentary film Who Killed the Electric Car?, in which he gives a presentation intended to show that the government's "hydrogen car initiative" was a bad policy choice and a distraction that was delaying the exploitation of more promising technologies, such as electric and hybrid cars that could reduce greenhouse gas emissions and increase America's energy security.
Romm's 2006 book Hell and High Water projected that humans have a limited window of opportunity to head off the most catastrophic effects of global warming. It calls upon Americans to demand government action to encourage and require the use of emission-cutting technologies. Tyler Hamilton, in his review of the book for The Toronto Star, wrote: "Whereas the first third of Romm's book presents overwhelming and disturbing evidence that human-caused greenhouse gases are the primary ingredients behind global warming, the pages that follow offer alarming detail on how the U.S. public is being misled by a federal government (backed by conservative political forces) that is intent on inaction, and that's also on a mission to derail international efforts to curb emissions." Technology Review wrote that Hell and High Water "provides an accurate summary of what is known about global warming and climate change, a sensible agenda for technology and policy, and a primer on how political disinformation has undermined climate science."
Climate Progress and later years
Beginning in 2006, Romm was a Senior Fellow at the Center for American Progress, where he founded their climate blog, Climate Progress, which focused on climate science, policy and reporting. In 2008, Time magazine named his blog one of the "Top 15 Green Websites", writing that it "counters bad science and inane rhetoric with original analysis delivered sharply. ... Romm occupies the intersection of climate science, economics and policy. Resist temptation to lump him in with knee-jerk enviros. On his blog and in his December 2006 book, Hell and High Water, you can find some of the most cogent, memorable, and deployable arguments for immediate and overwhelming action to confront global warming." In 2010, Time magazine wrote, "Viewing climate change through the prism of national security, Romm analyzes breaking energy news and the relevant research, but most important, he challenges the beliefs and conclusions of the mainstream media on climate-change issues." Romm contributed to the site until 2019. At the same time, he continued to write for other energy and news sites, including The Huffington Post, Grist, Slate, CNN, and Salon.com. His 2012 New York Times opinion piece was called "Without Carbon Controls, We Face a Dust Bowl". After Queen Elizabeth II died in 2022, Romm urged Charles III to continue his climate advocacy as a non-political, moral imperative.
Romm has testified at various times before congressional committees on energy and global warming issues, offering his views on government action to curb global warming. For example, in July 2012, he testified before a Natural Resources Subcommittee of the U.S. House of Representatives on the 2012 U.S. drought and wildfires. In March of the same year, he testified before the House Energy & Commerce Committee on "The American Energy Initiative" and rising gasoline prices. In 2010, he testified before the House Ways and Means Committee on how to optimize "Energy Tax Incentives Driving the Green Job Economy", and in 2007, he testified before the House Committee on Science and Technology on the subject of "Fuels for the Future", specifically the use of liquid fuel from coal and its potential to accelerate global warming. He also lectures on energy technology, global warming and how the media portrays climate change.
Romm's 2010 book, Straight Up, is "largely a selection of his best blog postings over the past few years related to climate change issues". TreeHugger describes the book as "a whirlwind tour through the state of climate change, the media that so badly neglects it, the politicians who attempt to address it (and those who obstruct their efforts and ignore [the] science), and the clean energy solutions that could help get us out of the mess." In 2011, Romm sat on the panel of the Green Car Summit of the Washington Auto Show. His 2012 book, Language Intelligence, concerns persuasion and the effective use of rhetoric. Ed Markey commented of the book, "Joe masterfully ... scripts ways to master the metaphor, and incorporate irony. Solutions the reader can use for speeches, social media, or just winning the debate around the kitchen table." Romm's August 2012 article for Time used the research from Language Intelligence to analyze whether Mitt Romney or Barack Obama was the more effective communicator. In speeches and lectures since then, Romm has encouraged scientists to use the principles of effective communication outlined in the book (instead of their accustomed, technical, neutral style) to better explain the dangers of, and solutions to, climate change to non-scientists and the media.
Romm was the chief science editor for the documentary TV series Years of Living Dangerously, about the impact of and solutions to climate change. The first season of the series ran in 2014 on the Showtime network and won the 2014 Emmy Award for Outstanding Documentary or Nonfiction Series. Romm wrote "Climate Change 101: An Introduction", for the series' website. A second season ran in 2016 on the National Geographic Channel. In 2015, The Weather Channel included Romm as one of "the world's 25 most compelling voices" on climate. That year, Romm also wrote the book Climate Change: What Everyone Needs to Know, a primer on the topic, in Q&A format. Ralph Benko in Forbes magazine wrote that the "impressive book ... lucidly presents the case both for deep concern and optimism". In New York magazine, David Wallace-Wells cited the book as an "authoritative primer". Romm's 2018 book, How to Go Viral and Reach Millions, "teaches everything from word choice to how to recast your scientific stories in ways that connect with people emotionally. … Romm teaches [how] to become a force of good in this world using time-tested techniques".
In June 2019, Romm founded a progressive news aggregator, Front Page Live, together with Carl Cameron, Laura Dawn, Sunny Hundal, Helen Stickler and others. Romm was its first Editor-in-Chief. In 2023 he became a Senior Research Fellow at the University of Pennsylvania's Penn Center for Science, Sustainability and the Media.
Media comment and interviews
Romm is often cited, quoted or interviewed by journalists to explain the impact of public policy and energy technologies and applications on global warming and energy security, or to explain causes and impacts of climate change or the influence of the media. For example, In 2009, MSNBC relied on him to assess natural gas hydrates, and he was featured on 60 Minutes discussing the scientific evidence that "clean coal" is not clean. In 2010, MSNBC's Countdown with Keith Olbermann program interviewed Romm on how the military is taking action on climate change to improve national security; Guernica Magazine interviewed him on the science and politics of global warming; The New Yorker asked him to comment on the Koch-funded exhibit on evolution and climate change at the National Museum of Natural History; and The Atlantic and CBS News each reviewed a media call by Romm concerning the relationship between the January 2010 snowstorms in Washington, DC and global warming.
In 2011, The Washington Post linked with approval to Romm's review of the scientific literature on climate change. Time magazine explored Romm's critique of Matthew Nisbet and praised his analysis of the decline of media coverage regarding climate change. National Geographic quoted him about the part that the media has played in the dearth of information about climate reaching the public. The same year, Technology Review quoted Romm regarding the relationship between government-assisted deployment and rapid innovation in energy technologies, and the Toronto Star quoted him regarding President Obama's 2011 State of the Union address. In 2012 in The New York Times, economist Paul Krugman cited Romm on the connection between drought and Climate change, and The Atlantic interviewed and cited him on the reluctance of the Democrats to discuss climate change. National Geographic quoted him about disappearing arctic ice and the effect of climate change on the polar bear, and Current TV's Bill Press interviewed Romm about record-breaking heat.
In 2014 Businessweek quoted Romm regarding the lack of commercial viability of hydrogen fuel cells for cars, and The Guardian quoted him concerning international cooperation on climate change. In 2015, The Guardian quoted Romm about historic high global temperatures, and MarketWatch quoted him on actions that Donald Trump might take concerning climate agreements if he were to be elected president. Later that year, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists interviewed Romm about nuclear power and climate change. The Wall Street Journal quoted him in 2016 about the cost and pace of change in clean energy technology. In 2017, Mother Jones listed Romm's reading recommendations for "understanding in this age of rancor". The same year, Huffington Post said that Romm's 2017 appearance on Sam Harris's podcast "over the course of two hours unpacks the scientific case for climate change like only Romm can."
In 2018, Tucker Carlson interviewed Romm on Fox News about the threat of global warming. Later that year, Romm was quoted by Alaska Public Media regarding Lisa Murkowski's record on climate change and in The Guardian about President Trump and the Clean Power Plan. Friedman cited Romm in The New York Times in 2019 regarding the proposed Green New Deal. GQ Britain quoted Romm in 2020 criticizing carbon offsets. William S. Becker, writing in The Hill, cited Romm's 2023 white paper on carbon offsets. In August 2023, Peter Coy, in The New York Times, quoted Romm concerning carbon markets.
Romm's views
The New York Times "Dot Earth" column reviewed Romm's views on global warming solutions on November 24, 2008, including his belief that, to combat global warming, humans cannot wait for new technologies and scientific breakthroughs; that instead we must "deploy existing and near-term low-carbon technologies as fast as is humanly possible". In his blog, Romm has described the technology solutions that he believes can control global warming. The New York Times also quoted Romm as stating that, to solve the climate crisis, "We will need a WWII-style approach". The article noted Romm's belief that "credible people" and the press should publicly support the notion that government action is needed to help solve the global warming crisis. In particular, the press should explain how current news stories, such as hurricanes, droughts and insect infestations are related to global warming.
According to U.S. News & World Report, Romm believes that global warming "is advancing more swiftly than most people think and than the mainstream media usually report. He has called for significantly ramping up government spending on clean energy technology, halting the construction of new coal plants, rapidly increasing the use of energy-efficient technologies, and imposing a cap and trade system to sharply limit carbon dioxide emissions". In 2006, in a radio interview, Romm stated, "Global warming is going to transform this country and our transportation and the way we live our lives. If we don't act pretty soon, in an intelligent fashion, then change will be forced upon us by the radically changed climate... global warming is the issue of the century". In March 2009, Romm summarized and updated his views in an "introduction" to his blog, and in another post, setting forth a summary of "global warming impacts".
In 2011, Romm stated that "Feeding some 9 billion people by mid-century in the face of a rapidly worsening climate may well be the greatest challenge the human race has ever faced." Romm's 2010 book, Straight Up notes: "the bottom line is that the economic cost of action is low, whereas the cost of inaction is incalculably greater". Romm calculates that deployment of existing technologies on the massive scale that can save the climate can be accomplished at the cost of 0.12 percent of global GDP per year. He also asks in the book, "will the United States be a global leader in creating jobs and exports in clean energy technologies, or will we be importing them from Europe, Japan, and the likely clean energy leader in our absence, China." In 2005, with respect to the U.S. Congress's actions on climate, including its votes on the XL Pipeline, Romm told The Guardian: "Future generations suffering from the consequences of our inaction will be bewildered that the legislative body of the richest country in the world could devote so little effort to ameliorating the climate problem and so much effort to making it worse."
Romm has been critical of media coverage of global warming. In his 2010 book, Straight Up, he wrote, "Historically, even the most respected newspapers have fallen into the trap of giving the same credence – and often the same amount of space – to a handful of U.S. scientists, most receiving funds from the fossil fuel industry, as they give to hundreds of the world's leading climate scientists. No surprise that much of the public has ended up with a misimpression about the remarkable strength of our scientific understanding and the need for action". He concludes, "more and more pieces are being written by senior political reporters, who know very little about global warming". Romm also believes that scientists and politicians need to be more effective communicators about climate change.
Reputation
In 2008, Romm was elected a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for "distinguished service toward a sustainable energy future and for persuasive discourse on why citizens, corporations, and governments should adopt sustainable technologies". In 2009, Rolling Stone magazine named Romm to its list of "100 People Who Are Changing America", quoting journalist David Roberts as follows: "Joe combines two qualities you don't often find together. A deep knowledge of technology, policy and science along with genuine moral passion." Former Houston, Texas mayor Bill White called Romm "the nation’s leading expert on energy efficiency." U.S. News & World Report featured Romm as one of eight "key players" who were "Driving Public Policy in Washington", calling Romm an "oft-cited expert on climate change issues, and a go-to witness at congressional hearings". Time magazine named Romm one of its "Heroes of the Environment (2009)", writing, "He combines ... intellect with a strong sense of moral outrage. He also possesses a Jon Stewart-like quality for pointing out the absurdity of his opponents." Time named his blog as one of the "Top 15 Green Websites" in 2009. The same year, Thomas L. Friedman, in The New York Times, called Climate Progress "the indispensable blog".
In 2010, Time included Romm's blog in a list of the 25 "Best Blogs of 2010" and one of the "Top Five Blogs TIME Writers Read Daily". The same year, TreeHugger named Romm's blog the "Best Politics Website", adding, "this is the art of blogging at its best". The UK's The Guardian ranked Climate Progress at the top of its list of blogs in its "Top 50 Twitter climate accounts to follow". Reviewing Romm's 2010 book Straight Up, Bill McKibben wrote that Romm "knows his climate science ... [and] has been a persuasive voice for the most important truth about global warming: that it is a far worse problem than either politicians or the general public understand. ... Romm has been consistent in insisting that we have much of the technology necessary to at least begin tackling the problem." He called Romm "a tireless foil to the 'right-wing disinformation machine' that has tried – with great success ... to delay action by confusing and disheartening Americans about global warming. ... It requires a thick skin to take on the daily task of dealing with the disinformers, but Romm has the taste for this kind of blood sport, and the talent as well." In 2011, The New York Times called Romm "one of the country’s most influential writers on climate change". In 2012, Planetsave wrote that Romm is "considered the world’s best blogger on climate science, and politics related to it."
Personal life
Romm lives in Washington, D.C. He has long had an interest in comedy. From 1994 through 2007, he was a regular contributor to The Style Invitational, a weekly humor contest run by The Washington Post. Among his submissions was the winning entry of what was later declared to be the best overall week's results of the Style Invitational's first decade.
Bibliography
In addition to his books and other publications listed below, Romm has written or co-written numerous articles and lectured widely on global warming effects and solutions, clean technologies, business and environment issues and distributed energy. His articles have been published in Nature, U.S. News & World Report, Technology Review, Issues in Science and Technology, Forbes, Foreign Affairs, The New York Times, the Los Angeles Times, The Guardian, The Washington Post, Science, Scientific American, Physics Today, Physics World, The Economist, Time magazine, Grist magazine, Businessweek and Mother Earth News, among other publications.
In 2006, Romm and Prof. Andrew A. Frank co-authored "Hybrid Vehicles Gain Traction", published in Scientific American, in which they argue in favor of Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The same year, Romm published "California's Hydrogen Highway Reconsidered" in Golden Gate University Law Review. In 2007, he co-authored "Plugging into the Grid: How Plug-In Hybrid-Electric Vehicles Can Help Break America's Oil Addiction and Slow Global Warming" in the Progressive Policy Institute's Policy Report. Romm contributed a chapter to the 2007 book Energy and American Society: Thirteen Myths, disputing that "The Hydrogen Economy Is a Panacea". In 2008, Nature published Romm's article "Cleaning up on Carbon", in which he advocated "accelerating the deployment of the 11 wedges ... originally modelled by Socolow and Pacala." In 2011, Nature published Romm's article Desertification: The next dust bowl, exploring the dangers to the world economy and populations of droughts that are projected to be caused by climate change, such as food insecurity.
In 2023, Romm released a white paper for the Penn Center for Science, Sustainability, and the Media: "Are carbon offsets unscalable, unjust, and unfixable – and a threat to the Paris Climate Agreement?"
Books by Romm
An updated edition was published in 2005 (). The book has also been translated into German as Der Wasserstoff-boom.
(Chapter 7, available online)
Selected journal articles and reports
Report: "The Self-Limiting Future of Nuclear Power" AmericanProgressAction.org, 2008
"The Car and Fuel of the Future", Energy Policy, 34 (2006), pp. 2609–14
"Future Directions for Hydrogen Energy Research and Education" (Principal Investigator), Report to the National Science Foundation, November 2004
"The internet and the new energy economy", Resources, Conservation and Recycling, p. 36 (2002) pp. 197–210
"Combined Heat and Power for Saving Energy and Carbon in Buildings" (with Kaarsberg, Koomey, Rosenfeld and Teagen), Proceedings of 1998 ACEEE Summer Study, Pacific Grove, CA, 1999
Report: "The Internet Economy and Global Warming" (with Arthur H. Rosenfeld and Susan Herrmann), Center for Energy and Climate Solutions, The Global Environment and Technology Foundation, 1999–2000
"Engineering-Economic Studies of Energy Technologies to Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions: Opportunities and Challenges" (with Brown, Levine, Rosenfeld and Koomey), Annual Review of Energy and the Environment, 1998
"A Roadmap for U.S. Carbon Reductions" (with Levine, Brown, and Petersen), Science, January 30, 1998, vol. 279, no. 5351, pp. 669–70
"Cool Communities: Strategies for Heat Island Mitigation and Smog Reduction" (with Rosenfeld, Hashem Akbari and Melvin Pomerantz), Energy and Buildings 28 (1998) pp. 51–62
"Policies to Reduce Heat Islands" "Policies to Reduce Heat Islands" (with Rosenfeld, Akbari, Pomerantz and Haider G. Taha), 1996 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings, Pacific Grove, CA. Vol. 9, p. 177
"Greening the Building and the Bottom Line: Increasing Productivity Through Energy-Efficient Design" (with Browning), Rocky Mountain Institute, November 1994 (peer-reviewed by U.S. Green Building Council); first published as Proceedings of 1994 ACEEE Summer Study, Pacific Grove, CA
Notes
External links
Interview of Romm by Keith Olbermann regarding the News Corp. hacking scandal (2011)
Interview at The Commonwealth Club (2010)
Romm featured on Climate Denial Crock of the Week (2013)
Interview about the 5th IPCC report, by Thom Hartmann (2012)
Interview about the Clean Power Plan (2015)
Keynote speech at the annual sustainability event of the Colorado Renewable Energy Society, at University of Colorado Denver (2016)
American bloggers
American climate activists
American editors
American non-fiction environmental writers
American political writers
American science writers
American male journalists
American male non-fiction writers
Center for American Progress people
Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science
Jewish American journalists
Jewish American scientists
Jewish American writers
Journalists from New York (state)
Living people
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni
People from Middletown, Orange County, New York
Sustainability advocates
Writers from Washington, D.C.
Writers from New York (state)
1960 births
Environmental bloggers
Activists from New York (state)
21st-century American non-fiction writers
American male bloggers
21st-century American Jews
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5209939
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment%20Computer%20System
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Entertainment Computer System
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The Entertainment Computer System (ECS) was an add-on peripheral for the Intellivision. It was Mattel Electronics' second attempt at creating a peripheral to upgrade the Intellivision into a home computer, and was rushed into production to appease the Federal Trade Commission after they began fining Mattel for false advertising following consumer complaints about the repeated delays in releasing the originally planned Intellivision Keyboard Component add-on. The ECS includes the Computer Module, Music Synthesizer, and additional hand controllers; each sold separately. Any Intellivision Master Component is compatible and a requirement to use the system. A second requirement is a cartridge plugged into the ECS, although any ECS or Intellivision cartridge will do; pressing anything on the Intellivision hand controllers will then bring up the three-option menu of BASIC, CARTRIDGE or MUSIC.
History
When Mattel Electronics originally released the Intellivision in late 1979, they advertised that the Intellivision — unlike its primary rival, the Atari 2600 (then known as the Atari VCS) — would be upgradeable to a fully functional home computer via a hardware add-on accessory called the Keyboard Component, internally sometimes called the "Blue Whale" or the "Intelliputer". Many potential buyers were excited by the notion (especially parents, who liked the idea of a machine that could be turned into an educational tool, or at least something more useful and practical than just a game-playing system), and many bought Intellivisions on that basis alone.
The planned Keyboard Component would have offered a 16kB of RAM (expandable to an unprecedented 8 megabytes), built-in cassette storage for programs and data (plus a simultaneous audio track that could be played under computer control), an optional 40-column thermal printer, and a secondary CPU to run all of these expanded features independently of the Intellivision's CP1610 processor. While the planned Keyboard Component was an ambitious design, it had reliability problems that proved difficult to overcome, and it was far too expensive to manufacture and sell. The Keyboard Component — originally planned for a 1981 release — was continually delayed and pushed back as Mattel's engineering group, headed by David "Papa Intellivision" Chandler, kept going back to the drawing board trying to find ways to overcome these problems.
Eventually, complaints from Intellivision owners who had chosen to buy the Intellivision specifically on the promise of a "Coming Soon!" personal-computer upgrade caught the attention of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), which launched an investigation of Mattel Electronics for fraud and false advertising. Mattel tried to claim that the Keyboard Component was a real product that was still being test-marketed, and even released a small number of Keyboard Components and a handful of software titles to a few select retail stores (as well as offering them via mail-order to any customers who complained loudly enough) in order to support this claim.
Mattel Electronics already had a "plan B" in progress. Increasingly concerned that the Keyboard Component division might never actually produce a sellable product, in mid-1981 Mattel Electronics' management set up a competing internal engineering team headed by Richard Chang. Ostensibly, this group was working on a low-cost add-on called the BASIC Development System, or BDS, which would be sold as an educational device to introduce kids to the concepts of computer programming via a simplified color-coded BASIC interpreter and an inexpensive keyboard. Only a few people within Mattel knew the team's real mission: to either fix the Keyboard Component, or replace it.
Chang's "Design & Development" group (who had to keep the project's real purpose a closely guarded secret among themselves, fearing that if Chandler found out about it he would use his influence at Mattel, Inc. to get the project killed) eventually came up with an alternative to the Keyboard Component. Originally dubbed the LUCKI (from "Low User-Cost Keyboard Interface"), it lacked many of the sophisticated features envisioned for the original Keyboard Component: instead of a full 16kB of RAM, it only offered a mere 2kB (not all of which was actually available to the user); the cassette interface was stripped down to the bare essential needed to save and load data (and was now an optional extra, rather than built-in), and there was no secondary CPU. Still, it fulfilled the original promises—turn the Intellivision into a computer, make it possible to write programs and store them to tape, and interface with a printer—well enough to allow Mattel to claim that they had delivered the promised computer upgrade and, it was hoped, to get the FTC off Mattel's back.
On the plus side, the ECS did include a built-in BASIC that was somewhat functional, if idiosyncratic and occasionally buggy, and a second AY-3-8910 sound chip which expanded the system's audio capabilities to six-voice synthesized sound and, when paired with the optional 49-key Music Synthesizer keyboard, could potentially turn the Intellivision into a polyphonic synthesizer for playing, recording, or learning music. It would also allow two additional hand-held Game Controllers to be connected in place of the alphanumeric keyboard, which opened up the possibility of four-player games.
In the fall of 1982, the LUCKI—now renamed the Entertainment Computer System, or ECS—was presented at the annual sales meeting, officially signaling the end of the ill-fated Keyboard Component project. (Although it didn't go quietly. Not only did Mattel have to agree to buy back all of the existing Keyboard Components, but the manufacturer which had been contracted to make the Keyboards (Compro, Inc.) promptly sued Mattel for $10 million claiming breach of contract, fraud, and nonpayment for the last 1,300 units. At least a number were modified (and dubbed internally "Black Whales") to use as part of development systems for creation of Intellivision software.) A new advertising campaign was hastily rushed onto the air in time for the 1982 Christmas season, promising once again that a home-computer upgrade was just around the corner, and the ECS itself was shown to the public at the January 1983 Consumer Electronic Show (CES) in Las Vegas. A few months later, the ECS hit the market, and the FTC agreed to drop the $10K/day fines.
By the time the ECS made its retail debut, an internal shake-up at the top levels of Mattel Electronics' management had caused the company's focus to shift away from hardware add-ons in favor of software, and the ECS received very little further marketing push. Further hardware developments, including a planned Program Expander that would have added another 16kB of RAM and a more sophisticated, fully featured Extended-BASIC to the system, were halted, and in the end only a half-dozen titles were released for the ECS.
Hardware
ECS EXEC/BASIC ROM, containing the built-in BASIC programming language and additional BIOS routines to handle the added hardware features (12K)
additional 2kB of system RAM, of which about 1.5K is available for BASIC programming (supposedly, the system could be further expanded to as much as 64kB with add-on memory modules, but no such modules ever made it to production)
AY-3-8917 sound chip (similar to the sound chip used in the Intellivision), doubling the system's audio and controller capability
an audio tape recorder interface with two 3.5mm mono jacks and one 2.5mm jack for optional tape control. It is compatible with the Aquarius Data Recorder, but requires a different cable than the Aquarius, and is also compatible with most cassette recorders with MIC, EAR and REM jacks.
auxiliary jack for a serial printer connection (Mattel Aquarius compatible), 3.5mm stereo jack that is RS-232C compatible, where tip is data transmit, ring is DSR/DCD, sleeve is ground, 1200 baud, 8 data bits, 2 stop bits, and no parity
two DE-9 ports for the alphanumeric Computer Keyboard, the Music Synthesizer keyboard, or two additional Intellivision Game Controllers
What was included
Computer Adaptor add-on module (plugged into the Intellivision)
alphanumeric 49 key Computer Keyboard
AC adapter, Input 120 V, 60 Hz, 17 VA; Output 10 VAC, 1.0 amp. The connector is a size larger than the Intellivision II connector.
spiral-bound "Computer Module Owner's Guide", including a language reference for the built-in BASIC
Optional add-ons
"Step-By-Step Guide to Home Computing" programming guide (available via mail order)
Music Synthesizer 49-key music keyboard
extra Intellivision game controllers (for 4-player games)
data cassette drive
40-column thermal printer
(Note: the latter two options were never actually marketed with Intellivision/ECS boxes and logos. The system would use the same cassette and printer units which were being sold for the Mattel Aquarius home computer, but this fact seems to have not been widely advertised by Mattel.)
Games
Initially, at least a half-dozen ECS-supporting software titles were slated to roll out along with the ECS, with more to follow. Unfortunately, as noted above, by the time the ECS made its retail debut in 1983 a new management team had taken over at Mattel Electronics which was no longer interested in selling or promoting hardware add-ons, which they viewed as money-losers that had tied up too much of the company's capital for too little return. (Perhaps not without some justification, given the history of the long-delayed, never-released Keyboard Component and the lower-than-expected sales of the Intellivoice module.) The Marketing and Applications departments were also not particularly enthusiastic about the ECS unit, since it really didn't add any revolutionary features to the system and it was a struggle to come up with game ideas that would justify requiring the user to have one.
As a result, the ECS was not well-promoted, and few of the planned software titles were released before Richard Chang's "Design & Development" group was closed down in August 1983, effectively halting further work on ECS-supporting titles. A very few titles that were already well in progress were eventually completed, but none of them made it to production before Mattel Electronics ceased operations in January 1984.
Released Titles
The Jetsons' Ways With Words, a/k/a Jetsons' Word Fun (educational title)
Melody Blaster (Music Synthesizer game title)
Mind Strike (strategy game title)
Mr. BASIC Meets Bits 'N Bytes (educational game title)
Scooby Doo's Maze Chase (strategy / maze game title)
World Series Major League Baseball (sports title)
Melody Blaster was the only title ever released for the Music Synthesizer add-on unit.
Mr. BASIC Meets Bits 'N Bytes plays without the ECS Computer Module with BASIC commands support disabled.
Unreleased Titles
BASIC Programmer (educational/productivity title, unfinished)
Doubles Tennis (4-player sports title, unfinished)
Flintstones Keyboard Fun (educational title, completed but unreleased)
Game Factory (educational/productivity title, completed but unreleased)
Melody Maker (Music Synthesizer title, unfinished)
Music Conductor (Music Synthesizer title, unfinished)
Number Jumble (educational title, completed but unreleased)
Super NFL Football (sports title, completed but unreleased)
Super NASL Soccer (4-player sports title, completed but unreleased)
Number Jumble plays without the Computer Module.
Super NASL Soccer was eventually released as World Cup Soccer by Mattel Electronics' French division, which reformed under the name Nice Ideas when Mattel Electronics was shut down. World Cup Soccer was sold as a standard Intellivision cartridge but does support ECS 4-player with the Computer Adaptor and extra game controllers.
Keywords in ECS BASIC
The BASIC keywords built into the ECS, discussed at length in the manual, are a maximum of four characters long. Some ECS BASIC keywords are simply a truncation or abbreviation of the standard BASIC terms, e.g. "print" becomes PRIN, "input" becomes INPU, and "gosub" becomes GSUB. The ECS will display help menus covering its commands: type MENU 0 for monitor commands, MENU 1 for BASIC keywords, MENU 2 for BASIC functions, and MENU 3 for BASIC routines.
Eight sprites at a time may be SHOWn or GRABbed from a storehouse of such images in each individual Intellivision cartridge, and such sprites can then be manipulated by changing their colors (1 color available per sprite), doubling their height or width, flipping their shape to a mirror image, creating motion sequences, and so forth. However, the sprites are only "borrowed" and cannot be integrated into the user's own program unless the same cartridge is on board when the program is run.
Video
In BASIC mode, the display on the ECS is 20 columns across (while the maximum program line length is 39 characters), and any text is shown in all capital letters. The normal text color is black against a green background. Color codes are used by the ECS to mark different elements of a program as each line is entered or (in immediate mode) executed. The color-coding scheme, which is explained in the back of the manual or can be discerned from direct observation, is useful in determining how the ECS understood (or misunderstood) any command. As to graphics, the background screen is composed of 240 "cards" (20 wide by 12 high, numbered 0 to 239, each composed of 8x8 pixels), in a choice of one of 16 colors (eight primary and eight pastel). Eight sprites at a time may be SHOWn or GRABbed from a storehouse of such images in each individual Intellivision cartridge, and such sprites can then be manipulated by changing their colors (1 color available per sprite), doubling their height or width, flipping their shape to a mirror image, creating motion sequences, and so forth. However, the sprites are only "borrowed" and cannot be integrated into the user's own program unless the same cartridge is on board when the program is run. (Professional programmers found ways to create the illusion of putting more than eight sprites on the Intellivision screen at the same time through multiplexing-- redefining and repositioning a single object from one frame to the next and back again, resulting in flickering images of two objects-- and sequencing graphics RAM to animate background cards.)
Interfacing
For 600-baud cassette tape recorder access to load and save programs, the ECS has jacks marked OUT TO TAPE, IN FROM TAPE, and REMOTE. While almost any recorder with similar ports can be used, Mattel marketed the Aquarius Data Recorder for use with the ECS, and that unit has the appropriate sockets (labeled MIC, EAR and REM). To attach to the ECS, three straight-through cables are needed, two with mini-plugs on both ends and one with sub-mini-plugs on both ends (for the REMOTE connection). Tape access on the ECS is supported by BASIC keywords for loading (CLOD), saving (CSAV) and verifying (CVRF). The Intellivision hand controllers are pressed to advance through the SET-GO-SAVE/LOAD/VERF sequence. While programs can be saved and accessed without file names, file names up to four characters long (e.g., CSAV PROG) are supported (quote marks are not used around the file names), and the computer will search for the named program to load or verify.
The printer interface, being the AUX jack, is the same as on the Mattel Aquarius: a mini-stereo socket with just 3 lines. The Aquarius printers could be used with the ECS, and came with their own cables. However, the ECS like the Aquarius used standard RS-232C serial signals (±12VDC), so it was possible to interface many RS-232C serial printers. The ECS/Aquarius used a 1200 baud rate, 8 data bits, 2 stop bits, and no parity; the printer needed to be set to these selections with no line feed (sometimes called "carriage return only", "CR", "new line invalid", or "line feed inhibit"), and Busy/Ready instead of X-on/X-off. Typical serial printers had DB-25 interfaces; some had DE-9 interfaces; and, some Radio Shack (RS) printers had round 4-pin female DIN connector serial interfaces (with the pin sockets numbered left-to-right: 4, 3, 2, 1). The proper cable for connecting such a printer is as follows:
MINI-STEREO PLUG DB-25 DE-9 RS FUNCTION
Tip/Center of Plug Pin 3 Pin 2 Pin 4 Data to Printer
Middle of Plug Pin 20 Pin 4 Pin 2 Printer Busy/Ready
Base/Outside Pin 7 Pin 5 Pin 3 Signal Ground
To access the printer, the command sequence is:
D=-1
CALL OUTP
and to cancel the access:
D=1
CALL OUTP
References
Intellivision
Products introduced in 1982
Video game console add-ons
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5210189
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banjo-Kazooie
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Banjo-Kazooie
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Banjo-Kazooie is a series of video games developed by Rare. The games feature a male bear named Banjo and his friend, a large female red bird named Kazooie, who are both controlled by the player. Banjo originally made his debut as a playable character in 1997 as part of the cast of Diddy Kong Racing. Throughout the various games, they are tasked with thwarting the various evil schemes of a witch named Gruntilda. The first game, Banjo-Kazooie, was released in 1998 to critical acclaim and was followed by three sequels and a spin-off racing game.
The franchise debuted on the Nintendo 64 and subsequent entries in the series also appeared on Game Boy Advance and Xbox 360. The three main titles then saw a release on Xbox One as part of Rare Replay. The franchise has been largely dormant since the release of Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts in 2008. However, Banjo and Kazooie have made occasional appearances in later crossover titles such as Sega's All-Stars Racing series and Nintendo's Super Smash Bros. series.
Games
Console
Banjo-Kazooie (1998)
Banjo-Kazooie was released on 29 June 1998 for the Nintendo 64, re-released in 2008 for the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade and is available on Nintendo Switch via Nintendo Switch Online. In a region called Spiral Mountain, Banjo's sister Tooty is kidnapped by Gruntilda the witch, who wants to steal Tooty's beauty for herself, and Banjo and Kazooie must save her. The goal is to progress through Gruntilda's lair and the various worlds within it, collect items such as golden jigsaw pieces and music notes that allow Banjo and Kazooie to progress through their quest, and defeat Gruntilda. At the final battle, she is knocked off of her castle-like lair and is trapped beneath a boulder. The game has a central focus on 3D platforming challenges, in conjunction with action-adventure game elements as well as a large variety of puzzles.
Banjo-Tooie (2000)
Banjo-Tooie was released in 2000 for the Nintendo 64 and was re-released in 2009 for the Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade. Two years after Banjo and Kazooie defeat Gruntilda in the game's predecessor, two of her sisters arrive and free her from beneath the boulder. Now reduced to a skeleton, Gruntilda plans to drain the life energy from the entirety of the game's hub world, the Isle O' Hags, to restore herself to normal, leaving Banjo and Kazooie to stop her plans. Saving the day once again, the bear and bird cause the destruction of most of Gruntilda's skeletal body, leaving only her skull. Tooie is controversial for being significantly harder than the first game in that, besides tougher obstacles and platforming challenges, it places a higher emphasis on puzzle-solving and backtracking, often requiring the player to revisit previous worlds to complete them. Many features not included in the previous game appear, including improved graphics and controls, and a four-player multiplayer mode.
Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts (2008)
Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts was released in 2008 for the Xbox 360. The ending sequence in Banjo-Tooie suggested the title of a third game would be Banjo-Threeie, with early press releases tentatively calling it Banjo-Kazooie 3. Eight years after the events of Tooie, Banjo and Kazooie, under the direction of the Lord of Games (L.O.G.), the grand creator of all video games, compete with Gruntilda in a series of challenges to claim control of Spiral Mountain. The first original Banjo-Kazooie game released on a non-Nintendo system, Nuts & Bolts features several departures from the concepts used by the first two games, the most notable being that Banjo and Kazooie must construct vehicles to control and complete challenges with, as opposed to nonlinear platforming and basic puzzle-solving. These changes to gameplay mechanics, along with a heavily updated visual style for the world and characters, have been controversial among fans and critics.
Re-releases
Banjo-Kazooie and Banjo-Tooie were re-released on Xbox 360 via Xbox Live Arcade in 2008 and 2009 respectively. These versions featured fully HD graphics for both the polygonal models and 2D images. They also included revised controls and the reinstatement of the Stop 'N' Swop feature. Both re-releases were included alongside Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts as part of the 30 game compilation Rare Replay, released for Xbox One on 4 August 2015. Banjo-Kazooie was added to the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack on 20 January 2022, marking the series' first re-release on a Nintendo console in over 20 years.
Handhelds
Banjo-Kazooie: Grunty's Revenge (2003)
Banjo-Kazooie: Grunty's Revenge was released in 2003 for the Game Boy Advance. Taking place two months after Banjo-Kazooie, Klungo, Gruntilda's most loyal henchman, makes a robot for Gruntilda's spirit to dwell inside. The newly created "Mecha-Grunty," infused with a transferred Gruntilda's spirit, travels back in time to prevent the first meeting of Banjo and Kazooie. Banjo and Kazooie, with assistance from their shaman friend Mumbo Jumbo, stop her plans and send her back to beneath the boulder in Spiral Mountain. Gruntilda commands Klungo to contact her sisters, setting the events of Banjo-Tooie in motion. The game features mechanics very similar to those of Banjo-Kazooie and Banjo-Tooie, but is played from an isometric perspective and has simplified controls. A port for mobile phones was released in 2004, and a mobile compilation of the game's minigames, titled Banjo-Kazooie: Grunty's Revenge Missions, was released in 2005.
Banjo-Pilot (2005)
Banjo-Pilot was released in 2005 for the Game Boy Advance. This game is not part of the plot of the series, but is a racing game similar to Mario Kart in which the characters race planes. The game was originally planned as a sequel to Diddy Kong Racing, titled Diddy Kong Pilot, but was retooled to feature Banjo-Kazooie characters following the purchase of Rare by Microsoft.
Other appearances
Prior to Banjo-Kazooie, Banjo's first appearance was as a playable racer in Diddy Kong Racing, released for Nintendo 64 in 1997. Following Microsoft's purchase of Rare, Banjo was absent from the game's Nintendo DS remake, Diddy Kong Racing DS. In Conker's Bad Fur Day & Conker: Live & Reloaded, Banjo's head can be seen, disembodied, above the fireplace in the main menu. Additionally, Kazooie's head can be found on the end of an umbrella in the chapter select screen for both games. In Grabbed by the Ghoulies, pictures of the characters and levels are seen throughout the game, along with monster versions of Banjo and Kazooie's heads mounted on the walls. Banjo and Kazooie also appear as a playable racer in the Xbox 360 version of Sonic & Sega All-Stars Racing. Developer Sumo Digital collaborated with Rare for the character's inclusion, with Rare giving Sumo access to their asset library as well as designing and modeling Banjo and Kazooie's in-game vehicle. Several character skins based on the series are available as downloadable content in various versions of Minecraft.
Banjo and Kazooie also appear as a single playable fighter via downloadable content in the 2018 crossover fighting game, Super Smash Bros. Ultimate. Phil Spencer, head of the Xbox brand, stated that negotiating the characters' inclusion was an "easy deal to make" thanks to their strong third-party relationship with Nintendo. The characters were released on 4 September 2019, along with a stage based on Spiral Mountain and Banjo-Kazooie musical arrangements, including one by original composer Grant Kirkhope.
Stop 'N' Swop
Stop 'N' Swop is a feature from Banjo-Kazooie that was supposed to be a means of unlocking special content in Banjo-Tooie. Though it was shown in an ending sequence in Banjo-Kazooie, evidence suggests that it was never fully implemented due to the Nintendo 64 revisions completed in 1999 that kept the feature from being practical. The feature was widely publicised through a column published by Nintendo Power. Rare announced that special areas and items in the game could only be reached by completing certain tasks in its sequel, Banjo-Tooie. It was later discovered that Banjo-Kazooie contains seven special items which can be accessed using lengthy in-game cheat codes or by using a cheat cartridge. Once collected, these items would be viewable in a menu titled "Stop 'N' Swop". Even if the game is reset, all of the items will remain permanently.
History
An ending sequence in Banjo-Kazooie, should the player collect all 100 Jiggies in the game, indicated that two coloured eggs in the game would be put to use in the sequel Banjo-Tooie. There was also an inaccessible ice key shown in the sequence, which induced gamers to search for a way to get it. While only two eggs were shown in the sequence, hackers Alan "Ice Mario" Pierce and Mitchell "SubDrag" Kleiman of the Rare Witch Project fansite discovered in-game cheat codes to unlock a total of six different eggs and the ice key. Other ways of getting the six eggs and key were previously discovered via the use of a cheat cartridge. Once acquired, these items would be viewable by all three game files, and would remain even after erasing the files.
In the years between the two Banjo-Kazooie games, Rare representatives were questioned on "Stop 'N' Swop" and how it would be implemented. Ken Lobb was reportedly unwilling to discuss how the connection would be made between the games.
Banjo-Tooie was released in 2000 and offered a way to retrieve the items without the need to acquire Banjo-Kazooie. The player would attain them by destroying in-game Banjo-Kazooie Game Paks. These eggs could then be brought to Heggy the hen to hatch. There were three eggs in total (i.e. the pink, yellow, and blue eggs), one of which was already with the hen, but which Kazooie had to hatch herself. The ice key, however, was to be used to obtain an item locked in an ice vault, containing a Mega Glowbo, which could turn Kazooie into a dragon. No explanation for "Stop 'N' Swop" was revealed in the game. Nintendo released a statement on the matter expressing that the feature "was not implemented in the game, and although we know there is a code that opens this menu, it does not do anything at all. And as much as I would like to be able to answer your question about why it was not implemented in the game, this is not information that our Consumer Service Department has access to."
In 2004, a patent filed by Rare was published which suggests that Stop 'N' Swop involved swapping cartridges with the power off to transfer data. The information would be momentarily retained by utilising the Rambus memory in the Nintendo 64. As a result of changes done to the Nintendo 64 systems produced in 1999, the system could no longer do this effectively.
In February 2004, fansite Rare-Extreme was invited to tour Rare HQ which was the first outsider tour of the studio since Rarenet's visit in 1999. When Rare's management was asked about the Stop 'N' Swop feature in a 2004 HG Tour, they pointed out that "It was never officially announced as being part of the game," and immediately requested that the tour "move on."
Another Stop 'N' Swop reference appeared in 2005's Banjo-Pilot. After completing most of the game, Cheato sells an item called "STOP 'N' SWOP" for 999 Cheato Pages. The only result of buying is Cheato saying: "So you want to know about Stop 'N' Swop, eh? I hope you're ready. Here goes...Why don't you stop annoying me and swop this game for a nice book or something?"
In a 2007 interview with Retro Gamer, Rare employees told the magazine reporters that they may have to wait until the release of Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts for the details of Stop 'N' Swop to be revealed. In March 2008, a new website appeared with an animation of the ice key rotating, the eggs, and the words "the answers are coming." On 1 April, however this was revealed to be an April Fool's joke created by The Rare Witch Project.
In 2008, MTV conducted an interview with Salvatore Fileccia, lead software engineer at Rare. Fileccia cited that the abandonment of Stop 'N' Swop was due to revisions made to the Nintendo 64 circuitry. He stated that older versions of the system would have given the player 10 seconds to successfully swap data between cartridges, while newer iterations of the console reduced this time to one second. Paul Machacek, a Rare software engineer, clarified that Nintendo shut down Stop 'N' Swop before Donkey Kong 64's release, anticipating the aforementioned circuitry changes as well as fearing hardware damage (a fear which Machacek claimed was unfounded), although the "Swopping" system was never fully removed from Kazooie. Rare did not initially plan to implement cheat codes for accessing the items, fearing that they could be shared with players that did not own Tooie.
At Microsoft's E3 press conference on 14 July 2008, it was announced that the original Banjo-Kazooie would be made available through the Xbox Live Arcade (XBLA) and feature Stop 'N' Swop connectivity with Nuts & Bolts to unlock new features. In Nuts & Bolts, Bottles' shop also offers a "Stop 'N' Swop Truth" item for 6000 music notes, more than is possible to obtain in the game. Extracting the game's text strings reveals that when Bottles is paid 6000 notes, he replies "I could tell you, but then I'd have to kill you, and we couldn't show that in a game with this rating. Put it out of your mind and think happy thoughts! Thanks for the notes!"
On 27 January 2009, Rare announced that Banjo-Tooie would be released in April on XBLA and that the "original plan" for Stop 'N' Swop would be implemented. It was revealed that the eggs and key in the XBLA version of Banjo-Kazooie would unlock bonus vehicle parts in Nuts & Bolts such as fuzzy dice. In Nuts & Bolts there is an imprint of the ice key on top of Boggy's gym and drawings of the eggs throughout Showdown Town. When a Stop 'N' Swop item is collected in Banjo-Kazooie, a corresponding crate appears at each drawing. Banjo and Kazooie can take them to Mumbo to get the special vehicle parts. The level Banjoland (a museum-like level that contains various artefacts from the first two games) also features large fake Stop 'N' Swop eggs that contain enemies.
In the XBLA port of Banjo-Tooie, the six eggs and key from Banjo-Kazooie unlock the bonuses included in the original N64 version, as well as new content related to the Xbox 360. Using the Stop 'N' Swop items in Banjo-Tooie will also unlock seven additional vehicle blueprints in the "L.O.G.'s Lost Challenges" downloadable content for Nuts & Bolts. In place of the three preexisting eggs are gold, silver and bronze eggs. The three unlock achievements listed under a "Stop 'N' Swop II" submenu. Additional Stop 'N' Swop II achievements can be unlocked by completing specific objectives in the game. These achievements, however, currently serve no in-game or cross-game functionality.
In 2018, Paul Machacek clarified that Stop 'N' Swop was not only going to involve the two Banjo-Kazooie titles, but also other Rare titles planned for release on the Nintendo 64, including Donkey Kong 64, Conker's Bad Fur Day and Blast Corps (the latter was initially planned to release after Banjo-Kazooie as it was slated for Christmas 1997 before being delayed). In a 2020 interview conducted by Rare Gamer, Machacek stated that the six eggs included in the final release of Kazooie were each meant to correspond to a different Rare title, and that if a player could transfer the Ice Key through all of the games and back to Kazooie, some sort of "super-code" would be unlocked for a final, grand bonus.
Reception
Following Banjo-Kazooie release in 1998, the series has been met with critical and commercial success. Websites such as Metacritic have marked the original two games as Universal Acclaims. The original Nintendo 64 version sold three million six hundred fifty thousand copies worldwide.
The fact that Banjo-Kazooie received high reviews from critics along with the fact that several planned features and worlds were ultimately scrapped from the game, led Rare to begin development of a sequel titled Banjo-Tooie, also for the Nintendo 64. Banjo-Tooie was released on 20 November 2000 to very positive reviews, and largely adopts the gameplay mechanics of its predecessor. Upon release, Banjo-Tooie was critically acclaimed and sold more than three million copies worldwide.
Later titles were not met with reviews that topped critics as such. Banjo-Kazooie: Grunty's Revenge was met with mixed reviews. and so was the follow-up spinoff title Banjo-Pilot. Banjo-Kazooie would not receive a well-received title until the release of Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts for the Xbox 360 in 2008, eight years after the last console game. Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts received positive reviews from release according to Metacritic, but many die-hard Banjo-Kazooie fans felt they were let down by the game featuring a very separate gameplay style to the previous console games. Banjo-Kazooie: Nuts & Bolts sold 1.2 million sales at last count.
The re-releases of Banjo-Kazooie from 2008 and Banjo-Tooie from 2009 were met with more criticism than the original releases, with Banjo-Kazooie meeting mostly positive reviews and Banjo-Tooie being met with mixed reviews, both according to Metacritic.
Banjo & Kazooie's appearance in Super Smash Bros. Ultimate was also met with a large amount of praise from many internet YouTubers and gaming sites, claiming it as a long-awaited come back.
Spiritual successor
In early 2015, a group of former Rare employees who worked on Banjo-Kazooie announced their formation of a new studio named Playtonic Games, planning a spiritual successor called Yooka-Laylee. The developer initially sought funding for the game via the Kickstarter crowdfunding platform; its initial funding goal of £175,000 was reached within thirty-eight minutes, eventually raising over £2 million by the time the campaign concluded. The game was released for Microsoft Windows, MacOS, Linux, PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch in 2017 to mixed reviews.
References
External links
Donkey Kong 64 Stop 'n' Swop Special – includes a brief introduction to Stop 'N' Swop
Stop 'N' Swop: An Explanation and Retrospective – includes a detailed history of Stop 'N' Swop discoveries
Microsoft franchises
Rare (company)
Video games about bears
Video games about birds
Video games about witchcraft
Video games developed in the United Kingdom
Video game franchises
Video game franchises introduced in 1998
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bojan%20Krki%C4%87
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Bojan Krkić
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Bojan Krkić Pérez (; , ; born 28 August 1990), also known as simply Bojan, is a Spanish former professional footballer who played as a forward or winger.
Bojan began his career at Barcelona after progressing through the youth ranks at La Masia. His early promise saw him make his first-team debut at the age of 17 years and 19 days, breaking the record set by Lionel Messi. In his debut season, he scored 12 goals in 48 matches. In total, he spent four seasons at Camp Nou, scoring 41 goals in 162 games before he was sold in July 2011 to Italian side Roma for a fee of €12 million. While in Rome, he scored seven goals in 37 appearances in 2011–12 and then spent the 2012–13 on loan at Milan, where he scored three goals in 27 games.
Roma did not exercise their option of an additional €28 million to sign Bojan definitively, and so Barcelona re-signed him for €13 million. He spent the 2013–14 season on loan at Dutch club Ajax with whom he helped win the Eredivisie title. In July 2014, Bojan joined the English club Stoke City for €1.8 million. After subsequent loans to play on the European continent, once for FC Mainz 05 in 2017, and in his home country Spain for Alavés in 2018, Krkić then played in North America for a season for the Montreal Impact, and then finally in Japan for Vissel Kobe for 2 seasons before being released by his club in January 2023.
As a Spanish youth international, he won European Championships with the Under-17 team in 2007 and the Under-21 team in 2011, as well as earning his only cap for the senior team in 2008. He has also represented the Catalan national team eight times since 2007.
Club career
Early years
Born in Linyola, Lleida, Catalonia, to a Serbian father, Bojan Krkić Sr., who was a professional footballer for Serbian side OFK Beograd, and a Spanish mother, Maria Lluïsa Pérez, Bojan played for Barcelona's youth teams from 1999 to 2006. A quick striker with quite notable dribbling skills, it was reported that he scored over 900 goals for various youth teams since joining the club as an eight-year-old, breaking Lionel Messi's record. He then played the 2006–07 season with the Barcelona B team until he signed a professional contract with the first team upon turning 17. Bojan played his first match with Barcelona on 24 April 2007, scoring a goal in a friendly match against Egyptian club Al Ahly.
Barcelona
2007–08 season
On 16 September 2007 (at 17 years and 19 days), Bojan made his official debut for Barcelona against Osasuna, replacing Giovani dos Santos in the 78th minute and breaking Lionel Messi's record of the youngest Barcelona player to feature in a La Liga match. Three days later, he made his UEFA Champions League debut against Lyon, coming on at the 88th minute for Messi. He was, at the time, the youngest Barcelona player ever to feature in a Champions League game, at 17 years and 22 days. He made his second Champions League appearance on 2 October, coming on at the 81st minute for Ronaldinho against VfB Stuttgart. On 20 October 2007 (at 17 years and 53 days), Bojan made his first league start for Barcelona away to Villarreal and scored in the 25th minute. It was his first goal for the club's first team and it made him the youngest ever goalscorer for Barcelona in a league match.
Bojan scored his first ever Champions League goal on 1 April 2008 (at 17 years and 217 days) against Schalke 04, netting the only goal in the first (away) leg of the quarter-finals, making him the first person born in the 1990s to score in the Champions League, and the youngest player to score in the knockout phase. Bojan finished the season with a record of ten goals, breaking Raúl's record of most goals scored in a debut season.
2008–09 season
Upon the departure of Gianluca Zambrotta, Bojan was handed the number 11 shirt. After 14 games (13 of which he entered as a substitute), Bojan ended a goal drought by netting a brace against Almería in a 2–0 victory. Despite featuring less compared to the previous season, Bojan helped Barcelona to their 19th La Liga title. He also aided Barcelona to their first Copa del Rey win in 11 years by scoring five goals in the competition, including one in the final against Athletic Bilbao. Bojan was an unused substitute in the 2009 UEFA Champions League Final against Manchester United, which Barcelona won 2–0 and saw them cap off a treble-winning campaign. Bojan's three goals in ten appearances throughout the competition saw him finish as the equal sixth-highest goalscorer for the season.
2009–10 season
On the first day of the 2009–10 La Liga campaign against Atlético Madrid, Bojan scored a header in the 18th minute courtesy of a flick-on from Seydou Keita. Barcelona went on to win the game by a scoreline of 3–0. On 10 November, he scored twice in the second leg of the Copa del Rey against Cultural Leonesa, helping his team to a 5–0 victory. Coming off the bench as a late substitute for Andrés Iniesta, Bojan scored his first and only Champions League goal of the season against VfB Stuttgart. He began finding the net more often towards the end of the season; seven of his eight league goals for the season came from the last 12 games.
2010–11 season
Bojan took the number 9 shirt after Zlatan Ibrahimović moved on loan to A.C. Milan. The season saw Bojan find himself behind Lionel Messi, Pedro and newly-signed David Villa in the pecking order. In the match against Ceuta in the Copa del Rey, Bojan captained Barcelona for the first time in an official match. He came off of the bench against Almería to score the sixth and eighth goals in an 8–0 win and later came on against Real Madrid in El Clásico to set up the fifth goal for Jeffrén in the famous 5–0 win. In a La Liga match against Real Sociedad, Bojan again came off the bench to score the fifth goal in 5–0 win. He scored a crucial league goal from a Dani Alves assist for Barcelona against Sevilla in a 1–1 draw, then marked his 100th league appearance for the Catalan club with a goal against Getafe.
Roma
On 22 July 2011, Italian club Roma bought Bojan for a fee of €12 million. The sale includes a buyback clause giving Barcelona the option to re-sign Bojan in 2012 or obligatory in 2013, although with the option of Roma paying an additional €28 million to retain the player.
He made his unofficial debut on 3 August 2011 against Vasas in Budapest. He scored his first goal from an assist from Daniele De Rossi for Roma against Atalanta on 1 October 2011. He made 33 league appearances for Roma in his first season with the club, scoring seven times in total.
Loan to A.C. Milan
On 29 August 2012, Bojan joined A.C. Milan on a season-long loan from Roma. Barcelona later announced that the move would not affect the prior buyback agreement between Roma and them. Milan CEO Adriano Galliani, however, stated that a new agreement was worked out so that Milan have an option to sign the player at the end of the season, but Barcelona would still retain their buyback option. Bojan made his debut for Milan on 1 September, coming off the bench during the second half of a 3–1 away win over Bologna.
He scored his first goal for Milan against Chievo on 3 November 2012, the third of a 5–1 win at the San Siro.
Return to Barcelona
Following the 2012–13 season in Italy, Bojan returned to his former club Barcelona for €13 million, having made 19 league appearances for Milan, and scoring three goals. He revealed his desire for more playing time, or otherwise interest to play for a club where he will receive more minutes. Milan decided not to extend their loan of the young player, as they were not able to guarantee him minutes, while Roma did not exercise their option of additional €28 million to sign Bojan definitively. He was free to find an alternative club to play for if he pleased, and talks began with Ajax, Feyenoord and PSV Eindhoven.
Loan to Ajax
On 6 July 2013, it was announced that Ajax had signed Bojan on a one-year loan deal, with an option for a second year loan spell from Barcelona. Director of football Marc Overmars and CEO Michael Kinsbergen flew into Barcelona a day prior to finalize the deal. Bojan explained that conversations with Johan Cruyff had influenced his decision to move to Ajax, as well as the opportunity to play in the Champions League. Bojan made his debut for his new club on 13 July 2013 in a pre-season friendly encounter against Waalwijk. The match ended in a 5–1 victory for Ajax at the Mandemakers Stadion, as he was substituted on for Danny Hoesen in the 60th minute, assisting Boban Lazić in the final goal for the Amsterdam side in the closing minutes of the game. He scored his first goal for Ajax in another pre-season friendly encounter, this time against Werder Bremen on 19 July 2013, scoring the second goal for Ajax in the 43rd minute in the 3–2 away win in Germany.
On 27 July 2013, Bojan won his first trophy with Ajax, winning the Johan Cruyff Shield (Dutch Super Cup) against AZ Alkmaar, 3–2 after extra time. He started the match on the right wing, playing for 61 minutes before being substituted off for Lucas Andersen, as Ajax acquired their eighth Dutch Super Cup title overall. Following a hamstring injury sustained on 29 September 2013 in a 6–0 victory over Go Ahead Eagles, Bojan scored his first regular season goal after eight weeks of absence on 1 December 2013 in a 4–0 victory in The Hague over Den Haag in the 90th minute of the match. On 8 May 2014, it was announced that Ajax would waive the option to extend Bojan's contract, with Bojan returning to Barcelona, having scored four goals in 24 regular season matches (5 goals in 32 matches overall) and helping Ajax to secure their 33rd Eredivisie title and fourth consecutive.
Stoke City
2014–17
On 22 July 2014, Bojan signed a four-year contract with Premier League side Stoke City for €1.8 million. Manager Mark Hughes said, "Anyone who knows European football will be aware of him as a player and the fact that he sees his future at Stoke City is really exciting."
Bojan scored his first goal for Stoke in a 1–2 friendly defeat against Schalke 04 on 29 July 2014. He also scored in friendlies against Blackburn Rovers and Real Betis. He made his league debut at home on 16 August, playing the full 90 minutes of a 1–0 defeat to Aston Villa. BBC Sport said that Bojan "impressed" for Stoke in the match. However, after a couple of ineffective performances, Hughes stated that he was prepared to give Bojan time to adapt to English football. He returned to the starting line-up on 1 November 2014 in a 2–2 draw against West Ham United. Eight days after that, he scored his first Stoke goal to open a 2–1 win at Tottenham Hotspur, a dribble followed by a shot from outside the penalty area. On 6 December 2014, Bojan scored in a 3–2 win over Arsenal. On 26 December, he won a contested penalty in the first half at Goodison Park when referee Lee Mason declared that he had been fouled by Everton's James McCarthy; Bojan then converted the spot-kick past Tim Howard for the only goal of the game. Bojan scored in a 1–0 victory against Leicester City on 17 January 2015. Nine days later, he scored his fifth goal of the season in a 4–1 victory in the FA Cup fourth round against Rochdale, but was later substituted having suffered a knee injury which ruled him out for the remainder of the 2014–15 season.
Bojan returned from injury in July 2015 playing in a pre-season friendly against Brentford. He made his first league start for over eight months on 19 September 2015, scoring in a 2–2 draw against Leicester City. A month later, he won a fourth-minute penalty when fouled by Swansea City's Ashley Williams, and dispatched it past Łukasz Fabiański for the only goal of the game at the Liberty Stadium. Bojan signed a new contract with Stoke in February committing him to the club until the summer of 2020. Towards the end of the campaign, however, he lost his place in the side, spending most of his time on the bench. In total, he played 31 times for Stoke in 2015–16, scoring seven goals as the Potters finished in ninth position.
Bojan struggled for playing time under Hughes in 2016–17 starting just five league matches in six months and in January 2017, Bojan admitted he would be ready to leave Stoke in order to gain regular football.
2017–18: Loans to Mainz and Alavés
On 29 January 2017, Bojan joined Bundesliga side Mainz 05 on loan for the remainder of the 2016–17 season. Mainz were struggling in a relegation battle at the bottom of the table and Bojan admitted he was surprised at their situation. He scored his first goal for Mainz in a 2–2 against Bayern Munich, making him only the seventh player to score in the four top leagues in Europe. Bojan helped Mainz secure their Bundesliga status with a 4–2 win against Eintracht Frankfurt on 13 May 2017.
On 31 August 2017, Bojan joined La Liga side Alavés on a season-long loan deal. Bojan played 15 times for Alavés in 2017–18 as the team finished in 14th position.
Return to Stoke
Bojan remained with Stoke in the second tier for the 2018–19 season. Despite being a fan favorite he struggled to impress manager Gary Rowett. The situation came to a head in late December when Bojan was left out the squad against Bolton Wanderers and supporters began chanting for his inclusion which angered Rowett. Rowett was soon sacked and replaced by Nathan Jones, but Bojan again struggled to establish himself as a regular starter. He played 23 times in 2018–19 as Stoke finished in 16th position and it was reported that he was told to look for another club. He left Stoke by mutual consent on 6 August 2019.
Montreal Impact
On 7 August 2019, Bojan joined Major League Soccer side Montreal Impact with a deal through to the end of the 2020 season. He made his debut four days later in a 2–3 loss against Chicago Fire, replacing Shamit Shome in the 63rd minute. On 25 August, he scored his first goal with a 25-yard strike to open a 1–2 loss away to Toronto FC in the Canadian Classique; it was his first goal in 11 months.
In December 2020, with the Impact declining to activate the option to keep him for the next year, Bojan was left out of their CONCACAF Champions League squad.
Vissel Kobe
In August 2021, Bojan joined J1 League club Vissel Kobe. He made his debut on 5 September, coming on in the 75th minute for former Barcelona teammate Andrés Iniesta in a 1–1 draw at Sanfrecce Hiroshima. On 2 October, on for the same player, he scored his first goal to conclude a 5–1 home victory over Urawa Red Diamonds. Krkić found himself without a club as of January 2023 after being left out of the squad by Vissel Kobe.
Retirement
Bojan officially retired at the age of 32, with the announcement made at the Camp Nou in Barcelona on 23 March 2023.
International career
Spain
Youth
Bojan shot to prominence as a 15-year-old at the UEFA European Under-17 Championship in Luxembourg in May 2006 when he was joint top-scorer, despite being a year younger than most of the other players in the tournament and only playing 40 minutes in four out of Spain's five matches. He scored a hat-trick against Luxembourg before inspiring his side to a 3–0 victory over the eventual champions Russia, with all of the goals being scored after he came on as a second-half substitute. In the third match, he scored a penalty after once again being introduced at half time. He started the semi-final against the Czech Republic but, after his teammate Roberto García was sent off, Spain struggled and lost 0–2 in a shock result. In the third-place play-off, Bojan was once again a second-half substitute and scored the opener in the 53rd minute. When the match went to penalties, he scored and Spain won 5–4 to finish third. In the 2007 European Under-17 Football Championship, Bojan led Spain to victory, scoring the only goal against England in the final. He also scored in the semi-final against Belgium.
There was controversy surrounding Bojan's call up to the Spain U17 squad for the 2007 FIFA U-17 World Cup in South Korea, because Barcelona wanted to keep him so that he could be part of their Asian tour. The Royal Spanish Football Federation (RFEF) denied the request, and further controversy arose when the RFEF denied one of Barcelona's medics, Ricard Pruna, the opportunity to accompany Bojan to the tournament to monitor a tendon problem in the player's knee.
During the tournament, Bojan scored five goals, finishing as joint third top scorer along with Germany midfielder Toni Kroos. He was inspirational in leading Spain to the final. In the semi-final against Ghana, however, Bojan was sent off for his second yellow card with only seconds left to play. He was suspended for the final and Spain lost to Nigeria on penalties. Because of his performances, Bojan was given the Adidas Bronze Ball, naming him the third best player in the tournament, behind Nigeria's Macauley Chrisantus (silver) and Toni Kroos (gold).
Bojan scored for the Spanish under-21s in their 2–0 win over Poland, on 12 October 2007, quickly establishing himself as an important player, also prompting rumours of an eventual call-up from senior side's manager Luis Aragonés. Bojan was selected in the squad for the 2009 UEFA Under-21 Championship. The Spanish team, however, underperformed and picked up one point from their first two games, leaving progression almost impossible. Bojan was called up to the Spain U-21 squad for 2011 UEFA European Under-21 Football Championship.
Senior
Bojan was approached to play for Serbia in 2008 but declined because of his wish to play for Spain. He was included in the Spanish squad for a friendly game against France on 6 February 2008. Should he have featured in that match, Bojan would have made history by becoming the youngest player ever to represent Spain at 17 years, 5 months and 9 days, eclipsing Ángel Zubieta's record of 17 years and 9 months, which had stood for over 70 years. Bojan, however, fell ill and could not play.
On 17 May 2008, it was revealed that Bojan had been left out of Spain's 23-man squad for UEFA Euro 2008 having asked if he could be left out on personal grounds, and also citing fatigue. In an interview with The Guardian ten years later, he revealed that he missed both his international debut and UEFA Euro 2008 because of anxiety issues, covering it up by giving other reasons he could not play. Bojan claims that his mental health issues were well known by members of the Spanish Football Federation, such as first team coach Luis Aragonés, sporting director Fernando Hierro and teammate Carles Puyol.
He made his full Spanish debut on 10 September 2008 (at 18 years and 13 days) under Vicente del Bosque against Armenia, where he came on during the last ten minutes for Santi Cazorla and played on the right wing for his only senior cap.
Catalonia
Bojan made his official debut with Catalonia in the friendly match against the Basque Country, on 29 December 2007 in Bilbao and he scored the Catalan goal in the 1–1 draw. He also scored a year later on 29 December 2008 in the 2–1 win over Colombia and in the 4–2 win against Argentina, on 22 December 2009. He scored twice and also provided two assists in a 4–0 win against Honduras, on 29 December 2010.
On 25 March 2019, Bojan scored the opening goal in a 2–1 friendly match victory over Venezuela at Girona's Montilivi Stadium.
Post-retirement
On 13 September 2023, he became the football coordinator at his former club FC Barcelona, with his main task being monitoring the youngsters at La Masia, along with head of youth department, Alexanko.
Personal life
According to a genealogical research conducted by Diari Segre in 2011, Bojan is a fourth cousin of former teammate Lionel Messi; both are the great-great-great-grandchildren of Mariano Pérez Miralles and Teresa Llobrera Minguet, who married in El Poal in the Spanish Province of Lleida in 1846. The finding had a very significant coverage in Spanish media: it was reported by all four major sports newspapers and by some of the largest general-interest newspapers, including ABC and La Vanguardia.
In 2021, Bojan obtained his academic degree as a master in Sport Management from Johan Cruyff Institute.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Barcelona
La Liga: 2008–09, 2009–10, 2010–11
Copa del Rey: 2008–09
Supercopa de España: 2009, 2010
UEFA Champions League: 2008–09, 2010–11
UEFA Super Cup: 2009
FIFA Club World Cup: 2009
Ajax
Eredivisie: 2013–14
Johan Cruyff Shield: 2013
Montreal Impact
Canadian Championship: 2019
Spain U17
UEFA U-17 European Championship: 2007
Spain U21
UEFA U-21 European Championship: 2011
Individual
UEFA U-17 Championship Golden Player: 2007
UEFA U-17 Championship Top Scorer: 2006
FIFA U-17 World Cup Bronze Ball: 2007
FIFA U-17 World Cup Bronze Shoe: 2007
La Liga Breakthrough Player of the Year: 2007–08
References
External links
National team data at BDFutbol
1990 births
Living people
Spanish people of Serbian descent
People from Pla d'Urgell
Footballers from the Province of Lleida
Spanish men's footballers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odia%20people
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Odia people
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The Odia (), formerly spelled Oriya, are an Indo-Aryan ethnic group native to the Indian state of Odisha who speak the Odia language. They constitute a majority in the eastern coastal state, with significant minority populations existing in the neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand and West Bengal.
Etymology
The earliest Odias were called by the names of Odra and Kalinga janapadas (township) of ancient Odisha, which later became Utkal. The word Odia is mentioned in epics like the Mahabharata. The Odras are mentioned as one of the peoples that fought in the Mahabharata. Pali literature calls them Oddakas. Ptolemy and Pliny the Elder also refer to the Oretas who inhabit India's eastern coast. The modern term Odia dates from the 15th century when it was used by the medieval Muslim chroniclers and adopted by the Gajapati kings of Odisha.
History
Ancient period
The Odias are distinguished by their ethnocultural customs as well as the use of the Odia language. Odisha's relative isolation and the lack of any discernible outside influence has contributed towards the preservation of a social and religious structure that has disappeared from most of north and southern part of India.
The inhabitants of Odisha were known as Odras, Utkal and Kalinga in the Mahabharata. During the 3rd century BCE, coastal Odisha was known as Kalinga. According to the Mahabharata, the Kalinga extended from the mouth of the Ganga in the north to the mouth of the Godavari in the south.
During the 4th century, Mahapadma Nanda conquered Kalinga. During the rule of Ashoka, Kalinga was annexed as part of Maurya Empire. During the 2nd century BCE, Kharavela emerged as a powerful ruler. He defeated several kings in north and south India. During this period, Utkala was the centre of Buddhism and Jainism.
During the reign of the Gupta Empire, Samudra Gupta conquered Odisha.
Medieval period
The Shailodbhava dynasty ruled the region from the 6th to the 8th century. They built the Parashurameshvara Temple in the 7th century, which is the oldest known temple in Bhubaneswar. The Bhauma-Kara dynasty ruled Odisha from the 8th to the 10th century. They built several Buddhist monasteries and temples, including that of Lalitgiri, Udayagiri and Baitala Deula. The Keshari dynasty ruled from the 9th to the 12th century. They constructed the Lingaraj Temple, Mukteshvara Temple and Rajarani Temple in Bhubaneswar. They introduced a new style of architecture in Odisha, and their rule saw a shift from Buddhism to Brahmanism. The Eastern Ganga dynasty then ruled Odisha from the 11th to the 15th century. They constructed the Konark temple. The Gajapati Empire ruled the region in the 15th century. The empire extended from the Ganga River in the north to the Kaveri River in the south during the reign of Kapilendra Deva.
Modern period
Odisha remained an independent regional power until the early 16th century A.D. It was conquered by the Mughals under Akbar in 1568 and was thereafter subject to a succession of Mughal and Maratha rule before coming under British control in 1803.
In 1817, a combination of high taxes, administrative malpractice by the zamindars and dissatisfaction with the new land laws led to a revolt against Company rule breaking out, which many Odias participated in. The rebels were led by general Jagabandhu Bidyadhara Mohapatra Bhramarbara Raya. Another series of rebellions and uprisings led by numerous Odias, such as the Tapang rebellion (1827), Banapur rebellion (1835), Sambalpur uprising (1827–62), Ghumsur Kondh uprising (1835), Kondh rebellion (1846–55), Bhuyan uprising (1864), and Ranapur Praja Revolt (1937–38), made it difficult for the British to maintain absolute authority over Odisha.
During the period of Maratha control, major Odia regions were transferred to the rulers of Bengal that resulted in successive decline of the language over the course of time in vast regions that stretched until today's Midnapore district of West Bengal. The British colonial administration subsequently transferred Odia areas to the neighbouring non-Odia administrative divisions that also contributed to the decline of the Odia language in the formerly core regions of Odisha, or Kalinga, due to linguistic and cultural assimilation. Following popular movements and the rise of consciousness of Odia identity, a major part of the new Odisha state was first carved out from the Bengal Presidency in 1912.
Finally, Odisha became a separate province and the first officially recognized language-based state of India in 1936 after the amalgamation of the Odia regions from Bihar and Orissa Province, Madras Presidency and Chhattisgarh Division was successfully executed. Twenty-six Odia princely states, including Sadheikala-Kharasuan in today's Jharkhand, also signed a merger with the newly formed Odisha state, while many major Odia-speaking areas were left out due to political incompetence.
Geographic distribution
Although the total Odia population is unclear, the 2001 census of India puts the population of Odisha at around 36 million. There are smaller Odia communities in the neighbouring states of West Bengal, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh. Most Odias in West Bengal live in the districts of Midnapore and Bankura. Surat in Gujarat also has a large Odia population, primarily diamond workers in the southern district of Ganjam. Bengaluru and Hyderabad have sizable Odia population due to an IT boom in the late 2000s. Some Odias have migrated to Bangladesh, where they are known as the Bonaz community.
While the southern part of the state has intermigration within India, the northern part has migration towards the Middle East and the Western world. Balasore and Cuttack are known as the immigration centres of Odisha.
Diaspora
The Odia population abroad originates predominantly from the northern district of Balasore, followed by Cuttack and Bhadrak. The migrants who work within the country predominantly originate from the Ganjam and Puri districts.
Most American Odias prior to 1980 came from Balasore, Sambalpur and Cuttack. Increased demand for software engineers and adoption have brought Odias from other areas.
Migration to the United Kingdom has been recorded since 1935, where mostly people from Balasore in undivided Bengal province went to work, thereafter continuing a chain migration, very predominant then, which continues to this day. Most British Odias have obtained British citizenship.
In the late 2000s, many Odias, predominantly from Balasore and Cuttack, emigrated to the East Coast of the United States. This resulted in chain migration, predominantly from Balasore and Cuttack.
During the 2009 construction boom in Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Qatar, Odias predominantly from Balasore, Bhadrak and Cuttack migrated to the region to earn high salaries in the IT and construction sectors.
Communities
The Odia people are subdivided into several communities such as the Brahmin, Jyotish, Karan, Khandayat, Gopal, Kumuti (Kalinga Vaishya), Chasa, Bania, Kansari, Gudia, Patara, Tanti, Teli, Badhei , Kamara, Barika, Mali, Kumbhar, Siyal caste(panjab origin), Sundhi, Keuta, Dhoba, Bauri, Kandara, Domba, Pano, and Hadi.
Language and literature
Around 35–40 million people in Odisha and adjoining areas speak and use the Odia language, which is also one of the six classical languages of India. Odia words are found in the 2nd century B.C. Jaugada inscriptions of emperor Ashoka and 1st century B.C. Khandagiri inscriptions of emperor Kharavela. Known as Odra Bibhasa, or as Odra Magadhi Apabrhamsa in ancient times, the language has been inscribed throughout the last two millennia in ancient Pali, Prakrit, Sanskrit and Odia scripts.
The Buddhist Charyapadas were composed from the 7th to the 9th century by Buddhists like Rahula, Saraha, and Luipa.
The literary traditions of Odia achieved prominence towards the rule of the Somavamshi and Eastern dynasty. In the 14th century, during the rule of emperor Kapilendra Deva Routray, the poet Sarala Dasa wrote the Mahabharata, Chandi Purana, and Bilanka Ramayana, praising the goddess Durga. Rama-bibaha, written by Arjuna Dasa, was the first long poem written in Odia. Major contributions to the Odia language in the Middle Ages were contributed by Panchasakha, Jagannatha Dasa, Balarama Dasa, Acyutananda, Yasovanta and Ananta.
Mughalbandi or Kataki Odia, spoken in the Cuttack, Khordha and Puri districts, is generally considered to be the standard dialect and is the language of instruction and media.
There are eight major forms of Odia spoken across Odisha and adjoining areas, while another thirteen minor forms are spoken by tribal and other groups of people.
New literary traditions are emerging in the western Odia form of the language which is Sambalpuri and prominent poets and writers have emerged like Haldar Nag.
Culture
Art
Odissi is one of the oldest classical dances of India. The Applique work of Pipili and Sambalpuri sarees are notable. The silver filigree work from Cuttack and Pattachitra of Raghurajpur are some really authentic representation of ancient Indian art and culture.
Odias were the master of swords and had their own form of martial arts, later popularly known as "Paika akhada".
Architecture
Odia architecture has a regional architectural tradition that dates back to at least the 6th century from the times of the Shailodbhava dynasty. From the times of the Somavamshi and the Eastern Ganga dynasty the Kalinga architecture form achieved prominence with its special style of temple designs which consist of four major sections of a religious structure, namely Mukha Deula, Nata Mandapa, Bhoga Mandapa and Garba Griha (or the inner sanctum). The examples of these marvelous structures are prevalent across the several hundreds of temples build across the state of Odisha mainly in Bhubaneswar which happens to be known as the temple city. Puri Jagannath temple, ruins of the Konark Sun temple, Lingaraj temple, etc. are the living examples of ancient Kalinga architecture.
Cuisine
Seafood and sweets dominate Odia cuisine. Rice is the staple cereal and is eaten throughout the day. Popular Odia dishes are Rasagolla, Rasabali, Chhena Poda, Chhena kheeri, Chhena jalebi, Chenna Jhilli, Chhenagaja, Khira sagara, Dalma,Tanka torani and Pakhala. Machha Besara (Fish in mustard gravy), Mansha Tarkari (Mutton curry), sea foods like Chingudi Tarakari (Prawn curry), and Kankada Tarakari (Crab curry). A standard Odia meal includes Pakhala (watered rice), Badhi Chura, Saga Bhaja (Spinach fry), Macha Bhaja, Chuin Bhaja, etc.
Festivals
A wide variety of festivals are celebrated throughout the year; There is a saying in Odia, ‘Baarah maase, terah pooja’, that there are 13 festivals in 12 months of a year. Well known festivals, that are popular among the Odia people, are the Ratha Yatra, Durga Puja, Kali Puja, Nuakhai, Pushpuni, Pua Jiunita, Raja, Dola Purnima, Astaprahari, Pana Sankranti (as Vaisakhi is called in Odisha ), Kartik Purnima / Boita Bandana, Khudrukuni puja /Tapoi Osa, Kumar Purnima, Ditia Osa, Chaitra Purnima, Agijala Purnima, Bhai Juntia, Pua Jiuntia, Jhia Juntia, Sabitri Brata, Sudasha Brata, Manabasa Gurubara etc.
Religion
Odisha is one of the most religiously homogeneous states in India. More than 94% of the people are followers of Hinduism. Hinduism in Odisha is more significant due to the specific Jagannath culture followed by Odia Hindus. The practices of the Jagannath sect is popular in the state and the annual Rath Yatra in Puri draws pilgrims from across India. Under the Hindu religion, Odia people are believers of a wide range of sects with roots to historical times.
Before the advent of the Vaisnava sects Purrushotam Jagannath cult in Odisha, Buddhism and Jainism were two very prominent religions. According to Jainkhetra Samasa, the Jain tirthankar Prasvanth came to Kopatak which is now Kupari of Baleswar district and was the guest of a person called Dhanya. The Kshetra Samasa, says that Parsvnath preached at Tamralipti (now Tamluk in Bengal) of Kalinga. The national religion of ancient Odisha became Jainism during the time of the emperor Karakandu in the 7th century B.C. The Kalinga Jina asana was established and the idol of Tirthankara Rishabhanatha then also known as the "Kalinga Jina"was the national symbol of the kingdom. Emperor Mahmeghvahana Kharavela was also a devout Jain and a religiously tolerant ruler who reclaimed and re-established the Kalinga Jina that was taken away as a victory token by the Magadhan king, Mahapadma Nanda.
Buddhism was also a prevalent religion in the Odisha region until the late Bhaumakar dynasty's rule. Remarkable archaeological findings like at Dhauli, Ratnagiri, Lalitgiri, khandagiri and Puspagiri across the state have unearthed the buried truth about the Buddhist past of Odisha in a large scale. Even today we can see the Buddhist impact on the socio-cultural traditions of the Odia people. Though a majority of Buddhist shrines lay undiscovered and buried, the past of Odia people is rich with descriptions about them in the Buddhist literature. The tooth relic of Buddha was first hosted by ancient Odisha as the king Brahmadutta constructed a beautiful shrine in his capital Dantapura (assumed to be Puri) of Kalinga. Successive dynasties in ancient Odisha's Kalinga or Tri Kalinga region were tolerant and secular in their governance over all the existing religions with Vedic roots. This provided a peaceful and secure environment for all the religious ideologies to flourish in the region for over a time period of three thousand years. The founder of Vajrayana Buddhism, King Indrabhuti was born in Odisha along with other prominent monks like Saraha, Luipa, Lakshminara and characters of Buddhist mythology like Tapassu and Bahalika were born in Odisha.
Hindu sects like Shaivism and Shaktism are also the oldest ways of Hindu belief systems in Odisha with many royal dynasties dedicating remarkable temples and making them state religion over their time of rule in history. Lingaraja, Rajarani, Mausi Maa Temple and other Temples in Bhubaneswar are mostly of Shaivaite sect while prominent temples of goddesses like Samleswari, Tara-Tarini, Mangala, Budhi Thakurani, Tarini, Kichekeswari and Manikeswari, across Odisha are dedicated to the Shakti and Tantric cult.
The Odia culture is now mostly echoed through the spread of Vaishnavite Jagannath culture across the world and the deity Jagannath himself is deeply rooted to every household traditions, culture and religious belief of Odia people today. There are historical references of wooden idols of Hindu deities being worshiped as a specific trend of Kalinga region far before the construction of Puri Jagannath temple by the king, Choda Ganga Deva in 12th century.
Lately converted Christians are generally found among the tribal people especially in the interior districts of Gajapati and Kandhamal. Around 2% of the people are Odia Muslims, most of them are indigenous though a small population are migrants from North India and elsewhere. The larger concentration of the minority Muslim population is in the districts of Bhadrak, Kendrapada and Cuttack.
Music and dance
Odissi music dates back as far as the history of the classical Odissi dance goes back. At present, the Odissi music is being lobbied by the intellectual community of the state to be recognized as a classical form of music by the cultural ministry of India. Be side Classical Odissi dance, there are some other prominent cultural and folk dance forms of the Odia people that have followed different parts if evolution over the ages.
Odissi: A Major ancient classical dance.
Mahari: A predecessor of Odissi dance that was mostly performed by the temple Devadashi community or royal court performers.
Laudi Badi Khela:Is a traditional dance of Odisha. This is performed during Dola Purnima by Gopal (Yadav) community of Odisha.
Dhemsa: Is a very popular dance format of the tribal area Undivided Koraput districts of Odisha. This generally performed by the Bhartas/Gouda/Parja Community of Koraput & Nabarangapur during the celebration.
Gotipua
The folk dance forms have evolved over ages with direct tribal influence over them. They are listed as below.
Chhau: The Odia Chhau dance is a direct result of its ancient martial traditions which are depicted in dance performances. Though Chhau is basically an Odia art form, it is also performed in West Bengal. Saraikella Chhau and Mayurbhanj Chhau are the only two Odia variants that have survived over time with its originality.
Ghumura dance: Is a direct result of the ancient martial traditions of the Odias when Odia Paikas who marched into the battlefield or rested on the beats and tunes of the Ghumura music.
Dalkhai Dance: Though this dance form has evolved from tribal dance forms, it shows a complex mix of the themes taken from various religious texts of Hinduism. It is very a popular folk dance form of western Odisha.
Jodi Sankha: It also derives itself from the martial traditions of ancient Odisha and the performers use only the music generated from the two conchs held by each of them.
Baagh Nach
Modern Odias have also adopted western dance and forms. Remarkably, the Prince dance group was declared as the winner of TV reality show "India's Got Talent" in the year 2009 and Ananya Sritam Nanda was declared as the winner of junior Indian Idol in the year 2015.
Entertainment
Ancient traces of entertainment can be traced to the rock edicts of Emperor Kharavela which speaks about the festive gatherings held by him in the third year of his rule that included shows of singing, dancing and instrumental music. Ancient temple art of the Odias give a strong and silent testimony to the evolution of Odissi classical dance form over the ages. Bargarh district's Dhanujatra which is also believed to be world's largest open air theater performance, Pala and Daskathia, Jatra or Odia Opera, etc. are some of the traditional ways of entertainment for masses that survive to this day. Modern Odia television shows and movies are widely appreciated by a large section of the middle class section of the Odias and the it continues to evolve at a rapid rate with innovative ways of presentation.
Notable people
See also
Odia diaspora
References
External links
Odisha.gov.in
Indo-Aryan peoples
Ethnic groups in India
Linguistic groups of the constitutionally recognised official languages of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Right-wing%20terrorism
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Right-wing terrorism
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Right-wing terrorism, hard right terrorism, extreme right terrorism or far-right terrorism is terrorism that is motivated by a variety of different right-wing and far-right ideologies, most prominently, it is motivated by Ultranationalism, neo-Nazism, anti-communism, neo-fascism, ecofascism, ethnonationalism, religious nationalism, and anti-government patriot/sovereign citizen beliefs, and occasionally, it is motivated by opposition to abortion, tax resistance, and homophobia. Modern right-wing terrorism largely emerged in Western Europe in the 1970s, and after the Revolutions of 1989 and the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, it emerged in Eastern Europe and Russia.
Right-wing terrorists aim to overthrow governments and replace them with right-wing regimes. They believe that their actions will trigger events that will ultimately lead to the establishment of these authoritarian governments. Although they frequently take inspiration from Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany, Imperial Japan and Francoist Spain with some exceptions, right-wing terrorist groups frequently lack a rigid ideology. Right-wing terrorists tend to target people who they consider members of foreign communities, but they may also target political opponents, such as left-wing groups and individuals. The attacks which are perpetrated by right-wing terrorists are not indiscriminate attacks which are perpetrated by individuals and groups which simply seek to kill people; the targets of these attacks are carefully chosen. Because the targets of these attacks are often entire sections of communities, they are not targeted as individuals, instead, they are targeted because they are representatives of groups which are considered foreign, inferior and threatening by them.
Causes
Economy
German economist Armin Falk et al. wrote in a 2011 article that Right-Wing Extremist Crime (REC), which includes anti-foreigner and racist motivations, is associated with unemployment rates; as unemployment rates increase, REC also increases. A 2014 paper argues that right-wing terrorism increases with economic growth, seemingly due to its proponents often being people who lose out under economic modernisation. Conversely, a 2019 study found that economic predictors did not predict right-wing terrorism in Europe, rather, levels of extra-European immigration did; right-wing terrorists did not want immigrants in their countries and they sought to drive them out with force. Thus, increased migration caused greater resentment and thus, their greater resentment was a greater motive for their attacks.
Right-wing populist politics
In 2016, Thomas Greven suggested that right-wing populism is a cause of right-wing terrorism. More simply put, populism supports the advancement of "the average citizen", not the agendas of the privileged elite. Greven defines right-wing populists as those who support ethnocentrism, and oppose immigration. Because right-wing populism creates a climate of "us versus them", terrorism is more likely to occur. Vocal opposition to Islamic terrorism by Donald Trump has been obscuring right-wing terrorism in the US, where right-wing terror attacks outnumber Islamist and left-wing attacks combined.
In the wake of the Christchurch mosque shootings at the Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, by terrorist Brenton Harrison Tarrant, expert in terrorism Greg Barton, of Deakin University in Australia (the home country of Tarrant), wrote of the "toxic political environment that allows hate to flourish". Saying that although right-wing extremism in Australia is not nearly as serious as the European neo-Nazi movements or the various types of white supremacy and toxic nationalism seen in American politics, both major parties attempted to win votes by repeating some of the tough language and inhumane policies which appeared to reward right-wing populists. He further argued: "The result has been such a cacophony of hateful rhetoric that it has been hard for those tasked with spotting the emergence of violent extremism to separate it from all the background noise of extremism".
Fringe groups
According to Moghadam and Eubank (2006), groups which are associated with right-wing terrorism include white power skinhead gangs, far-right hooligans, and their sympathizers. The "intellectual guides" of right-wing terrorist movements espouse the view that the state must "rid itself of the foreign elements that undermine it from within" so the state can "provide for its rightful, natural citizens."
In Australia, experts, police and others have been commenting on the failure of the authorities to act effectively in order to combat right-wing radicalisation, and the government has vowed to put right-wing extremist individuals and groups under greater scrutiny and pressure, with the home affairs secretary Mike Pezzullo making strong comments to a parliamentary committee. A week after the Christchurch mosque shootings in Christchurch, New Zealand, it emerged that three years earlier, Australian-born Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the perpetrator of the shootings, had been active on the Facebook pages of two Australian-based white nationalist groups, the United Patriots Front (UPF) and True Blue Crew (TBC) and praised the UPF's leader neo-Nazi Blair Cottrell as they all celebrated Donald Trump's victory in the 2016 presidential election in the United States. Tarrant was also offered but declined a membership in the Lads Society, a white nationalist fight club which was founded by Cottrell.
In the United States, Brian Levin, director of the Center for the Study of Hate & Extremism at California State University, San Bernardino and former NYPD officer, wrote of the growth of white nationalism by saying that the political climate of polarization "has provided an opportunity for violent bigots, both on- and offline. Times of change, fear and conflict offer extremists and conspiracists a chance to present themselves as an alternative to increasingly distrusted traditional mainstream choices." He quotes former FBI agent Erroll Southers' view that white supremacy "is being globalized at a very rapid pace", and he urged the government to hold hearings to investigate homegrown extremism. Sociologists at the University of Dayton pointed to the origin of white nationalism in the US and its spread to other countries, and they also noted that the Christchurch attacker's hatred of Muslims was inspired by American white nationalism.
The Anti-Defamation League reports that white supremacist propaganda and recruitment efforts both on and around college campuses have been increasing sharply, with 1,187 incidents in 2018 compared to 421 incidents in 2017, far exceeding any previous year. Far-right terrorists rely on a variety of strategies such as leafleting, the performance of violent rituals, and house parties in order to recruit, mostly targeting angry and marginalized youth who are looking for solutions to their problems. But their most effective recruitment tool is extremist music, which avoids monitoring by moderating parties such as parents and school authorities. Some risk factors which are facilitating recruitment include exposure to racism during childhood, dysfunctional families such as divorced parents, physical, emotional, and sexual abuse, neglect, and disillusionment.
Copycat terrorism
In the cases of far-right extremists, they will sometimes seek inspiration from other mass murderers and use it as a template to carry out future terrorist attacks. A notable case of this is Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the Australian-born perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings that killed 51 and injured 49; he cited several earlier far-right attackers, including Anders Behring Breivik, who carried out the 2011 Norway attacks; and Dylann Roof, who killed nine black people in the Charleston church shooting.
John T. Earnest, the perpetrator of an arson attack on a mosque in Escondido, California, and a mass shooting in a synagogue in nearby Poway, wrote an open letter in which he stated that he was inspired by Tarrant and Robert Bowers, the perpetrator of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. Following the Escondido arson attack, he had left graffiti that read "For Brenton Tarrant, -t /pol/", and prior to the synagogue shooting, he published the said open letter on 8chan and attempted to livestream the attack on Facebook Live, just like Tarrant. In the open letter, Earnest also mentioned "The Day of the Rope", a talking point in white nationalist and neo-Nazi circles which refers to the execution of all non-whites, Jews, and liberals, as it is detailed in the 1978 novel The Turner Diaries.
Patrick Crusius, the 21-year-old suspect in the mass shooting at a Walmart store in El Paso, Texas, on August 3, 2019, which killed 23 people and injured 23 others (almost all of whom were Hispanic Americans and Mexicans), wrote an online manifesto titled The Inconvenient Truth, and in it, he stated that he supported Tarrant and his manifesto. Just like Tarrant, Crusius posted his manifesto on 8chan, as well as a Collin College notification letter.
Role of the media
Social media
Social media platforms have been one of the principal means by which right-wing extremist ideas and hate speech have been shared and promulgated, leading to extensive debate about the limits of free speech and its impact on terrorist action and hate crimes. In 2018, researchers in the US identified the YouTube recommendation system as promoting a range of political positions from mainstream libertarianism and conservatism to overt white nationalism. Many other online discussion groups and forums are used for online right-wing radicalization. Robert Bowers the perpetrator of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting at Tree of Life - Or L'Simcha Congregation in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was a regular verified user on Gab, a "free speech" alternative to Twitter, and spread antisemitic, neo-Nazi, and Holocaust denial propaganda as well as interacted with and/or reposted at least five alt-right figures: Brad "Hunter Wallace" Griffin of Occidental Dissent and League of the South (LS), Daniel "Jack Corbin" McMahon, a self-described "Antifa Hunter" and "fascist", former California Republican Patrick Little, Jared Wyand of Project Purge and Daniel "Grandpa Lampshade" Kenneth Jeffreys of The Daily Stormer and Radio Aryan. Twitter was found to be offering advertisements targeted to 168,000 users in a white genocide conspiracy theory category, which they removed shortly after being contacted by journalists in the wake of the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting. After a Brooklyn synagogue was vandalized with death threats, the term "Kill all Jews" was listed as a trending topic on Twitter.
Australian-born terrorist Brenton Harrison Tarrant the perpetrator of the Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, recorded a video of the attacks on Facebook Live which was shared extensively on social media as well as spreading his manifesto The Great Replacement on his Facebook and Twitter accounts and on 8chan /pol/ where he would announce the attacks and prior to this his social media was filled with white nationalist, anti-Islamic and neo-fascist material and his profile picture was "The Australian Shitposter" an image of a tanned, blonde-haired Akubra hat wearing man from Australia used to represent users on 4chan and 8chan as well as the alt-right subculture "The Dingoes". The government of New Zealand already had laws in place relating to terrorism under which people sharing the video can be prosecuted, and it was announced that this would be vigorously pursued. Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern also vowed to investigate the role played by social media in the attack and take action, possibly alongside other countries, against the sites that broadcast the video.
Facebook and Twitter became more active in banning extremists from their platform in the wake of the tragedy. Facebook pages associated with Future Now Australia had been removed from the platform, including their main page, Stop the Mosques and Save Australia. Far-right activist leaders in Australia urged their supporters to follow them on Gab after being banned from Twitter and Facebook. On March 28, 2019, Facebook announced that they have banned white nationalist and white separatist content along with white supremacy. Patrick Crusius the man responsible for the 2019 El Paso shooting which killed 23 people and injured 23 others had prior to the incident liked/posted/retweeted content on his Twitter account in support of Donald Trump.
Mass media
Owen Jones wrote in The Guardian about how the press in Britain can play a role in helping to radicalise far-right terrorists, quoting Neil Basu, Britain's counter-terrorism chief. Basu cited the Daily Mail and Daily Mirror as particular culprits, while Jones also give examples from The Times, The Telegraph, The Spectator and others, with articles bemoaning so-called Cultural Marxism and misleading headlines such as "1 in 5 Brit Muslims" having sympathy with jihadists (The Sun).
Africa
South Africa
In 1993, Chris Hani, the General Secretary of the South African Communist Party was murdered by Polish-born far-right anti-Communist Janusz Waluś who had been lent a firearm by far-right pro-Apartheid MP Clive Derby-Lewis.
The Afrikaner Weerstandsbeweging, a neo-Nazi paramilitary organisation, has often been described as terrorist.
In 2010, South African authorities foiled a plot by far-right terrorists to commit attacks as revenge for the murder of Eugène Terre'Blanche, seizing explosives and firearms.
International organisations
Atomwaffen Division is an accelerationist neo-Nazi terror organization founded in 2013 by Brandon Russell responsible for multiple murders and mass casualty plots. Atomwaffen has been proscribed as a terror organization in United Kingdom, Canada and Australia.
The Base is a neo-Nazi, white supremacist and accelerationist paramilitary hate group and training network, formed in 2018 by Rinaldo Nazzaro and active in the United States, Canada, Australia, South Africa, and Europe. it is considered a terrorist organization in Canada, Australia and the United Kingdom.
Combat 18 is a neo-Nazi organization that has been proscribed in Canada and Germany and is tied to the assassination of Walter Lübcke and the 2009 Vítkov arson attack.
Nordic Resistance Movement is a pan-Nordic neo-Nazi organization that adheres to accelerationism and is tied to ONA and multiple terror plots and murders, like the murder of an antifascist in Helsinki in 2016. There has been an international effort to proscribe NRM as a terrorist organization, and it was banned as such in Finland in 2019.
Order of the Nine Angles is a neo-Nazi satanist organization that has been connected to multiple murders and terror plots. There has been an international effort to proscribe ONA as a terror organization. Further, the ONA is connected to the Atomwaffen and the Base and the founder of ONA David Myatt was one-time leader of the C18.
Russian Imperial Movement is a white supremacist accelerationist organization found in Russia and proscribed as a terror organization in United States and Canada for its connection to neo-fascist terrorists. People trained by RIM have gone on to commit a series of bombings and joined the separatist militants in Donbass. While based in Russia, RIM trains and maintains contacts with neo-Nazis internationally, including with Atomwaffen.
Americas
Argentina
The Argentine Patriotic League (Liga Patriótica Argentina) was a Nacionalista paramilitary group, founded in Buenos Aires on January 16, 1919, during the Tragic week. It was merged into the Argentine Civic Legion in 1931.
The Argentine Anticommunist Alliance (, usually known as the Triple A or the AAA) was a far-right death squad which was founded in Argentina in 1973 and was active during Isabel Perón's rule (1974–1976).
Brazil
During the rule of Brazil's military regime, some right-wing military organizations engaged in violent repression. The Riocentro 1981 May Day Attack was a bombing attempt that happened on the night of April 30, 1981. Severe casualties were suffered by the terrorists. While an NGO held a fundraiser fighting for democracy and free elections and celebrating the upcoming holiday, a bomb exploded at Riocentro parking area killing army sergeant Guilherme Pereira do Rosário and severely wounding captain Wilson Dias Machado, who survived the bomb explosion. The bomb exploded inside a car where both were preparing it. Rosário died instantaneously. They were the only casualties.
The Para-SAR example was revealed by Brazilian Air Force captain Sérgio Ribeiro Miranda de Carvalho in 1968 before it reached the execution phase as it was made public to the press after a meeting with his superior Brigadier General João Paulo Burnier and chief of Para-SAR unity. Burnier discussed a secret plan to bomb a dense traffic area of Rio de Janeiro known as "Gasômetro" during commute and later claim that Communists were the perpetrators. He expected to be able to run a witch-hunt against the growing political military opposition. Burnier also mentioned his intentions on making the Para-SAR, a Brazilian Air Force rescue unity, a tool for eliminating some military regime political oppositors throwing them to the sea at a wide distance of the coast. On both of these events, no military involved on these actions or planning was arrested, charged or faced retaliation from the Brazilian military dictatorship. The only exception is captain Sérgio de Carvalho which had to leave the air force for facing his superiors retaliation after whistleblowing brigadier Burnier's plan.
Colombia
Colombian paramilitary groups were responsible for most of the human rights violations in the latter half of the ongoing Colombian conflict. According to several international human rights and governmental organizations, right-wing paramilitary groups were responsible for at least 70 to 80% of political murders in Colombia per year during the 1980s and 1990s. The first paramilitary groups were organized by the Colombian government following recommendations made by U.S. military counterinsurgency advisers who were sent to Colombia in the early 1960s, during the Cold War, to combat leftist political activists and armed guerrilla groups.
These groups were financed and protected by elite landowners, drug traffickers, members of the security forces, right-wing politicians and multinational corporations. Paramilitary violence and terrorism has principally been targeted towards peasants, unionists, indigenous people, human rights workers, teachers and left-wing political activists or their supporters.
Nicaragua
The Contras were a right-wing militant group, backed by the United States, that fought against the Sandinista National Liberation Front in Nicaragua. They were responsible for numerous human rights violations and carried out over 1300 terrorist attacks.
United States
Reconstruction era
Scholars label acts of terrorism which were committed against African Americans during the Reconstruction era "white terrorism".
Pre-2001
According to American political scientist George Michael, "right-wing terrorism and violence has a long history in America". In the aftermath of the Brown v. Board of Education decision (1954), members of a resurgent Ku Klux Klan waged a campaign of terrorism against black people, civil rights activists, Jews, and others. Klansmen bombed the 16th Street Baptist Church in Birmingham, Alabama, in 1963, killing four African American girls and injuring 14–22 others, and they also committed other murders, including those of James Chaney, Andrew Goodman, and Michael Schwerner (1963), Lemuel Penn (1964), Viola Liuzzo (1965), and Michael Donald. Between 1956 and 1963, an estimated 130 bombings were perpetrated in the South.
During the 1980s, more than 75 right-wing extremists were prosecuted for acts of terrorism in the United States, they carried out six attacks. In 1983, Gordon Kahl, a Posse Comitatus activist, killed two federal marshals and he was later killed by police. Also that year, the white nationalist revolutionary group The Order (also known as the Brüder Schweigen or the Silent Brotherhood) robbed banks and armored cars, as well as a sex shop, bombed a theater and a synagogue and murdered radio talk show host Alan Berg.
The 19 April 1995 attack on the Murrah federal building in Oklahoma by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols killed 168 people and it was the deadliest act of domestic terrorism in the history of the United States. McVeigh stated that it was committed in retaliation for the government's actions at Ruby Ridge and Waco.
Eric Rudolph executed a series of terrorist attacks between 1996 and 1998. He carried out the 1996 Centennial Olympic Park bombing – which claimed two lives and injured 111 – aiming to cancel the games, claiming they promoted global socialism and to embarrass the U.S. government. Rudolph confessed to bombing an abortion clinic in Sandy Springs, an Atlanta suburb, on January 16, 1997, the Otherside Lounge, an Atlanta lesbian bar, on February 21, 1997, injuring five and an abortion clinic in Birmingham, Alabama on January 29, 1998, killing Birmingham police officer and part-time clinic security guard Robert Sanderson and critically injuring nurse Emily Lyons. He was linked an extreme right-wing group.
The Jewish Defense League is a Jewish religious-political organization in the United States, its stated goal is to "protect Jews from antisemitism by whatever means necessary". The FBI has classified it as "a right wing terrorist group" since 2001, and it has been designated as a hate group by the Southern Poverty Law Center. According to the FBI, the JDL has been involved in plotting and executing acts of terrorism within the United States. As of 2015, most terrorism watch groups classified the group as inactive.
Post-2001
According to a report published by the Center for Strategic and International Studies, as of 2020, right-wing terrorism accounted for the majority of terrorist attacks and plots in the United States. As of June 2023, the New America Foundation placed the number killed in terrorist attacks in the United States since the September 11, 2001 attacks (9/11) as follows: 130 killed in far-right attacks, 107 killed in jihadist attacks, 17 killed in "ideological misogyny/incel" attacks, 12 killed in black separatist/nationalist/supremacist attacks, and 1 killed in a far-left attack.
According to a 2017 Government Accountability Office report, 73% of violent extremist incidents that resulted in deaths since 9/11, were caused by right-wing extremist groups, while radical Islamist extremists were responsible for 27%. The total number of deaths which were caused by each group was about the same, but 41% of the deaths which were attributable to radical Islamists occurred in a single event – the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting in which 49 people were killed by a lone gunman. No deaths were attributed to left-wing terrorist groups.
In October 2020, the U.S. Department of Homeland Security reported that white supremacists posed the top domestic terrorism threat, which FBI director Christopher Wray confirmed in March 2021, noting that the bureau had elevated the threat to the same level as the threat which was posed by ISIS.
A 2019 report stated that 50 people in the United States were killed in murders which were committed by domestic extremists (the murders included ideologically and non-ideologically motivated homicides) during the previous year. Of these killings, 78% of them were perpetrated by white supremacists, 16% of them were perpetrated by anti-government extremists, 4% of them were perpetrated by "incel" extremists, and 2% of them were perpetrated by domestic Islamist extremists. Over the broader 2009 to 2018 time period, a total of 313 people were killed by right-wing extremists in the United States (the crimes included ideologically and non-ideologically motivated homicides), of those homicides, 76% of them were committed by white supremacists, 19% of them were committed by anti-government extremists (including those extremists who were affiliated with the militia, "sovereign citizen", tax protester, and "Patriot" movements), 3% of them were committed by "incel" extremists, 1% of them were committed by anti-abortion extremists, and 1% of them were committed by other right-wing extremists.
As of 2023, according to New America's tally, 130 people have been killed in right-wing extremist terrorist attacks since 9/11. The incidents which caused deaths were the following:
A report in The Washington Post, published on November 25, 2018, showed violent right-wing-related incidents up, and left-wing-related incidents down. Total domestic terrorism incidents was down to 41 in 2001, from a high of 468 in 1970, but then went up to 65 in 2017. Of those 65 events in 2017, 36 were right-wing-related (with 11 fatalities), 10 were left-wing-related (with 6 fatalities), 7 were related to Islamist extremism (with 16 fatalities), and 12, including the 2017 Las Vegas shooting, were categorized as "Other/Unknown" (with 62 fatalities, including 58 from the Las Vegas incident at the time). The report found that 2018 was a particularly deadly year, with 11 people dying in the Pittsburgh synagogue shooting, 2 others in an incident in Kentucky, and two more in a shooting in Tallahassee. All three incidents were right-wing related.
The Post reported that the upsurge in right-wing violence began during the Barack Obama administration and picked up steam under the presidency of Donald Trump, whose remarks after the Unite the Right rally in Charlottesville, Virginia, in 2017 that there were "some very fine people on both sides" is widely seen as giving confidence to the right that the administration looked favorably on their goals, providing them with "tacit support". A former FBI assistant director for counterintelligence, is quoted as saying that "[political leaders] from the White House down, used to serve as a check on conduct and speech that was abhorrent to most people. I see that eroding. ... The current political rhetoric is at least enabling, and certainly not discouraging, violence."
According to analysis by the newspaper of data from the Global Terrorism Database, 92 of 263 domestic terrorism events – 35% – that occurred from 2010 to 2017 were right-wing related, while 38 (14%) were Islamist extremist-related, and 34 (13%) were left-wing related. Not only that, but a criminologist from John Jay College stated that right-wing attacks were statistically more likely to result in fatalities.
On January 6, 2021, a mob of rioters supporting President Trump's attempts to overturn the 2020 United States presidential election, stormed the U.S. Capitol during speeches made by Trump and his allies at a rally. After breaching multiple police perimeters, they damaged and occupied parts of the building for several hours. National Guard units from several states were called up to deal with the violence, while the riots resulted in six deaths (four rioters and two police officers), over 80 arrests, and 116 officers being injured. Several high-profile members of the government and Capitol security resigned, including the chief of the Capitol Police, the Sergeant-at-Arms of both the House of Representatives and the Senate. Over 70 other countries and international organizations expressed their concerns over the protests and condemned the violence. One group involved, the Proud Boys, was designated a terrorist organisation in Canada. Since then, at least two dozen Proud Boys members and affiliates have been indicted for their alleged roles in the insurrection.
During congressional testimony two months after the Capitol assault, FBI director Christopher Wray characterized the incident as "domestic terrorism". Although he did not attribute the assault to a specific group, he made clear that the evidence showed a connection to right-wing extremism, particularly militia groups. When asked if "right-wing white supremacist groups played an instrumental role," Wray explained that the FBI did not use labels about political positioning, but agreed "we're basically saying the same thing." Wray testified that the top threat of domestic violent extremists were "specifically those who advocate for the superiority of the white race," alongside the threat posed by ISIL. Despite efforts by many conservatives, including during the congressional hearing, to blame antifa for the attack, Wray reiterated that the FBI had found no evidence to support the allegations. A February 2021 poll found that found that 58% of Republicans believe the Capitol riot was "mostly an antifa-inspired attack that only involved a few Trump supporters."
Europe
Belgium
Westland New Post was an underground neo-Nazi terror group in the 1980s. They are suspected to be linked to the Brabant killings over four years killing 28 people.
Croatia
According to Prime Minister of Croatia at the time, Andrej Plenković, 2020 Zagreb shooting was motivated by the ruling party Croatian Democratic Union (HDZ)'s coalition with the largest Serb party in the country, Independent Democratic Serb Party (SDSS).
Denmark
Neo-Nazis were suspected to have perpetrated the 1992 Copenhagen bombing, in which the office of a left-wing socialist party was attacked, killing one of its members.
Finland
Arguably the first modern act of right-wing terrorism is the assassination of general-governor Nikolay Bobrikov by Finnish nationalist Eugen Schauman in 1904. However, this characterization is controversial in Finnish society where Schauman is widely idolized; Prime Minister Matti Vanhanen had to defend himself against backlash after describing the act as such.
Schauman's act inspired the nationalist movement and was quickly followed by the assassination of Eliel Soisalon-Soininen, the Chancellor of Justice by Lennart Hohenthal. Soisalon-Soininen was the highest ranking servant of the Tsar in Finland after the governor-general, and therefore an "arch-traitor" in the eyes of the nationalists. In 1904–1905, a secret Finnish nationalist society Verikoirat (the Bloodhounds) assassinated Russians, police officers and informants and bombed police stations. The group also planned assassinating the Tsar while he was vacationing in Primorsk but missed him. In 1905–1907, another secret society Karjalan Kansan Mahti (Might of the Karelians) were responsible for multiple murders of Russians and weapon thefts and bank robberies.
10,000 leftists were killed by right-wing death squads during the white terror in 1918.
In 1919, the Aktivistien Keskus (Base of the Activists) group planned destroying St. Petersburg. Thirty-five Ingrian Finns were armed with handguns and explosives. The plan was to blow up the water works, the power plant and certain factories and set up fires all around the city that could not be put out. The operation was partially successful; the waterworks were destroyed and targets around the city were bombed and set on fire, but the bombing of the power plant failed and one man was captured. Dozens of people were killed and wounded.
In 1927, a group consisting of Finnish guides and White Russian emigres crossed into the USSR from Finland and bombed Soviet government offices with dozens of casualties. The Russians belonged to a group called the "White Idea" that aligned with the Russian Fascist Party.
In the 1920s–1940s, far-right and fascist groups attacked left-wing events and politicians systematically, resulting in deaths. The groups were responsible for bombing and burning down gathering places of the leftists. Minister of the Interior Heikki Ritavuori was assassinated for supposedly being too lenient towards communists. Conservative and White Guard authorities supported the far-right to a large extent, for instance the social democrat politician Onni Happonen was arrested by police who then turned him over to a fascist lynch mob to be killed.
In 1945, after the armistice with the Soviet Union, nationalist groups bombed multiple left-wing targets in Helsinki. Attacks in Haaga and Vallila against left-wing papers and meeting halls followed. A group identifying themselves as "fascists from Munkkiniemi" used dynamite and IEDs built from anti-aircraft shells to blow up the headquarters of Vapaa Sana newspaper.
During the Cold War, far-right activism was limited to small illegal groups like the clandestine Nazi occultist group led by Pekka Siitoin who made headlines after arson and bombing of the printing houses of the Communist Party of Finland. His associates also sent letter bombs to leftists, including to the headquarters of the Finnish Democratic Youth League. Another group called the "New Patriotic People's Movement" bombed the left-wing Kansan Uutiset newspaper and the embassy of communist Bulgaria. Member of the Nordic Realm Party Seppo Seluska was convicted of the torture and murder of a gay Jew.
In neo-Nazis hijacked an airliner in Oulu Airport, demanding 60,000 marks for a neo-Nazi party they were affiliated with.
The skinhead culture gained momentum during the late 1980s and peaked during the late 1990s. In 1991, Finland received a number of Somali immigrants who became the main target of Finnish skinhead violence in the following years, including four attacks using explosives and a racist murder. Asylum seeker centres were attacked, in Joensuu skinheads would force their way into an asylum seeker centre and start shooting with shotguns. At worst Somalis were assaulted by 50 skinheads at the same time.
The most prominent neo-Nazi group Nordic Resistance Movement that is tied to multiple murders, attempted murders and assaults of political enemies was found in 2006 and proscribed in 2019. During the European migrant crisis 40 asylum seeker reception centres were targets of arson attacks. In its annual threat assessment for 2020, the National Bureau of Investigation found that despite the ban, the threat of far-right terrorism had risen and identified 400 persons of interest "motivated and with the capacity to perform terrorism in Finland". International links and funding networks were pointed out as a special source of concern.
On 4 December 2021, the Finnish police arrested a five-man cell in Kankaanpää on suspicion of planning a terror attack and confiscated numerous firearms including assault rifles and forty kilos of explosives and hundreds of litres of explosive precursors. According to the Finnish media the men adhered to the ideology of Atomwaffen and James Mason and used Atomwaffen-like symbols.
In July 2022, a group of youth stole all the rainbow flags from a library in Lapua and left an improvised explosive device behind. There were no casualties but a gay pride event was interrupted by the explosion. On 26 August 2022 a bomb exploded near a pride in Savonlinna, the police has arrested two locals for the act. In July 2023 the Finnish police arrested five men in Lahti who possessed assault rifles and adhered to accelerationism and Siege and planned to ignite a race war by attacking the infrastructure, electric grid and railroads.
France
France has a modern history of right-wing terrorism that dates back to the middle of the 20th century. Historically, right-wing terrorism was tied to rage over the loss of France's colonial possessions in Africa, particularly Algeria. In 1961, the Organisation armée secrète or OAS, a right-wing terrorist group that protested Algerian independence from France, launched a bomb attack on board a Strasbourg–Paris train which killed 28 people.
On 14 December 1973, the far-right Charles Martel Group orchestrated a bomb attack at the Consulate of Algeria, killing 4 people and injuring 20. The group targeted mostly Algerian targets several more times.
In the town of Toulon, a far-right extremist group called SOS-France existed. On 18 August 1986, four members were driving a car carrying explosives, apparently in an attempt to bomb the offices of SOS Racisme. However it exploded while they were still in it, killing all four of them.
In more recent history, far-right extremism in France has been fueled by the rise of anti-immigrant far-right political movements. Neo-Nazi members of the French and European Nationalist Party were responsible for a pair of anti-immigrant terror bombings in 1988. Sonacotra hostels in Cagnes-sur-Mer and Cannes were bombed, killing Romanian immigrant George Iordachescu and injuring 16 people, mostly Tunisians. In an attempt to frame Jewish extremists for the Cagnes-sur-Mer bombing, the terrorists left leaflets bearing Stars of David and the name Masada at the scene, with the message "To destroy Israel, Islam has chosen the sword. For this choice, Islam will perish."
On 28 May 2008, members of the neo-Nazi Nomad 88 group fired with machine guns at people from their car in Saint-Michel-sur-Orge.
In the aftermath of the Charlie Hebdo shooting, six mosques and a restaurant were attacked in acts deemed as right-wing terrorism by authorities. The acts included grenade throwing, shooting, and use of an improvised explosive device.
Germany
In 1980, a right-wing terrorist attack, known as Oktoberfest bombing in Munich, Germany, killed 13 people, including the attacker, and injured 215. Fears of an ongoing campaign of major right-wing terrorist attacks did not materialize.
In 1993, four neo-Nazi skinheads committed arson against the house of a Turkish German family in Solingen, Germany, resulting in the death of 5 female Turks and the injury of 14 others, including several children.
On 14 June 2000, the neo-Nazi Michael Berger killed three policemen in Dortmund and Waltrop.
In addition to several bank robberies, the Nationalsozialitscher Untergrund/National Socialist Underground (NSU) was responsible for the Bosphorus serial murders (2000–2006), the 2004 Cologne bombing and the murder of policewoman Michéle Kiesewetter in 2007 leaving at least 10 people dead and others injured. In November 2011, two members of the National Socialist Underground committed suicide after a bank robbery and a third member was arrested some days later.
Right-wing extremist offenses in Germany rose sharply in 2015 and 2016. Figures from the German government tallied 316 violent xenophobic offences in 2014 and 612 such offenses in 2015.
In August 2014, a group of four Germans founded a Munich-based far-right terrorist group, the Oldschool Society. The group, which held racist, antisemitic, and anti-Muslim views, eventually attracted 30 members. They stockpiled weapons and explosives and plotted to attack a refugee shelter in Saxony, but the group's leaders were arrested in May 2015 before carrying out the attack. In March 2017 four of the group's leaders were sentenced to prison terms.
The perpetrator of a mass shooting in Munich in 2016 had far-right views.
According to figures which were released by the interior ministry in May 2019, of an estimated 24,000 far-right extremists in the country, 12,700 Germans are inclined towards violence. Extremists belonging to Der Dritte Weg/The III. Path marched in through a town in Saxony on 1 May, the day before the Jewish remembrance of the Holocaust, carrying flags and a banner saying "Social justice instead of criminal foreigners".
Walter Lübcke, a Christian Democratic Union (CDU) politician from Hesse was assassinated at his home via gunshot because of his pro-migrant views by Stephan Ernst, a German Neo-Nazi who was a member of the British neo-Nazi terrorist group Combat 18 (C18) and the National Democratic Party of Germany (NPD) who had engaged in a series of anti-migrant crimes and had been convicted for knife and bomb attacks against minorities. Following the murder, the self-described "doomsday prepper" group Nordkreuz (German: Northern Cross) was discovered to have made kill lists of politicians and acquired body bags for a hypothetical "Day X" doomsday scenario; using the messaging app Telegram and a police database with 25,000 names, the group amassed firearms and ammunition.
On 9 October 2019, a mass shooting broke out near a synagogue and kebab stand in Halle, Saxony-Anhalt, Germany, resulting in two dead and two others injured. The perpetrator Stephan Balliet committed the attack out of antisemitic, antifeminist and racist beliefs which he live-streamed the attack on Twitch for 35 minutes.
On 19 February 2020, two mass shootings occurred at two shisha bars in Hanau, resulting in the death of nine people, all with an immigrant background. The attacker then killed his mother at their house and committed suicide. The 43-year-old attacker was identified as a far-right extremist, who expressed a hatred for immigrants.
In February 2020, following the observation of a meeting of a dozen right-wing extremists, those involved were arrested after they had decided to launch attacks on mosques in Germany to trigger a civil war.
Italy
In the 1970s and 1980s, Italy endured the Years of Lead, a period characterized by frequent terrorist attacks: between 1969 and 1982, the nation suffered 8,800 terrorist attacks, in which a total of 351 people were killed and 768 were injured. The terrorist attacks have been both ascribed both to the far-left and the far-right, yet many of the terrorist attacks remain without a clear culprit; many have claimed that responsibility for the attacks could be ascribed to rogue members of the Italian secret service. Some of the terrorist attacks ascribed to a particular political group may have actually been the work of these rogue agents: this has been claimed, among many others, by Francesco Cossiga, who was the Prime Minister during the last years of lead, and by Giulio Andreotti, who, during the same period of time, held the office of Prime Minister more than once.
The Years of Lead are considered to have begun with the Piazza Fontana bombing in Milan in December 1969, perpetrated by Ordine Nuovo, a right-wing neofascist group. Sixteen people were killed, and 90 injured, in the bombing.
In July 1970, this same group carried out a bombing on a train traveling from Rome to Messina, killing six and wounding almost 100. The group also carried out the Piazza della Loggia bombing in 1974, killing eight antifascist activists. Perhaps the most infamous right-wing terrorist attack in post-war Italy is the August 1980 Bologna bombing, in which neo-fascist Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari ("Armed Revolutionary Nuclei"), an Ordine Nuovo offshoot, killed 85 people and injured 200 at the Bologna railroad station. Valerio Fioravanti, Francesca Mambro, and two others were convicted of mass murder in the attacks, although both have always denied any connection with them.
In December 2011, Gianluca Casseri targeted Senegalese peddlers in Florence, killing two and injuring three others before killing himself. The perpetrator was a sympathizer of CasaPound, a neo-fascist party that Italian judges have recognized as not posing a threat to public or private safety.
In February 2018, neo-Nazi Lega Nord member Luca Traini shot and injured six African migrants in the town of Macerata.
Latvia
On the night of 5 June 1997, members of the far-right Pērkonkrusts unsuccessfully bombed the Monument to the Liberators of Soviet Latvia and Riga from the German Fascist Invaders. Two of them were killed in the explosion, while six others, including Igors Šiškins, were sentenced for up to three years in prison in 2000. The group ceased organised activities or was banned around 2006.
In late 2018, the State Security Service arrested a self-proclaimed follower of the ideas of Anders Behring Breivik who was planning to perform terrorist attacks on an ethnic minority school and several commercial outlets in Jūrmala on 13 February, the birthday of Breivik. The individual had previously published comments on different websites for an extended period of time aimed against the Roma and Russian people, including calls to exterminate them. He was found guilty but exempted from criminal liability on medical grounds and assigned to a psychiatric hospital for treatment.
Norway
On 22 July 2011, Norwegian right-wing extremist with neo-Nazi and fascist sympathies Anders Behring Breivik carried out the 2011 Norway attacks, the deadliest attack in Norway since World War II. First, he bombed several government buildings in Oslo, killing eight people and injuring more than 200. After the bombings, he went to Utøya island in a fake police uniform and began firing on people attending a political youth camp for the Worker's Youth League (AUF), a left-wing political party, killing 69 and injuring more than 110. Overall, the two terrorist attacks in Utøya and Oslo, Norway resulted in 77 dead and 319 injured. Anders Behring Breivik also had written a manifesto 2083: A European Declaration of Independence in which he accused Islam, Cultural Marxism, multiculturalism, and feminism of causing a "cultural suicide" of Europe and claimed to belong to an organization called the Knights' Templar (named after the medieval military order).
Philip Manshaus was arrested for attacking Al-Noor Islamic Centre in Baerum, on the outskirts of Oslo, on August 10, 2019. According to police, the man appeared to hold "far-right" and "anti-immigrant" views and had expressed sympathy for Vidkun Quisling – the fascist World War II leader of Norway – as well as Australian-born terrorist Brenton Harrison Tarrant, the perpetrator of the Christchurch, New Zealand mosque shootings, John T. Earnest the perpetrator of the Escondido, California mosque fire and the Poway, California synagogue shooting, as well as Patrick Crusius the man behind the El Paso, Texas Walmart shooting targeting Mexicans. He has been charged with attempted murder in this case and with the murder of his 17-year-old stepsister in an unrelated incident. The mosque shooting is being investigated as a possible act of terrorism.
Russia
The Savior was a Russian neo-Nazi militant nationalist organization which claimed credit for the August 2006 Moscow market bombing, which killed 13. Media reports indicate that the market, located near Cherkizovsky, was targeted due to its high volume of Central Asian and Caucasian clientele. Four members of The Saviour were sentenced to life imprisonment, while four others received lesser prison terms. The Russian Imperial Movement is a Russian ultranationalist, white supremacist, far-right paramilitary organization based in Saint Petersburg. It has been designated as a terrorist group by the United States and Canada.
Russian separatist forces in Donbas include several right-wing militias, connected to the official armed forces of the right-wing breakaway Donetsk People's Republic and Luhansk People's Republic in eastern Ukraine, which are designed terrorist organisations by the Ukrainian government. International volunteers for the militias have been arrested for plotting terror attacks.
Spain
Far-right terrorist acts surged after the death of dictator Francisco Franco in Spain 1975 and continued until the early 1980s, ranging from assassination of individuals to mass murder.
Sweden
Both the 2009–10 Malmö shootings and the Trollhättan school stabbing were conducted by right-wing terrorists along with a refugee centre bombing in 2017. A notable serial killer motivated by far-right motives is John Ausonius. Far-rightists were also responsible for attacking an anti-racist demonstration in Stockholm in December 2013.
Slovakia
On October 12, 2022, two people were killed and another was injured after a right-wing terrorist opened fire against an LGBT venue in Bratislava.
Turkey
The neo-fascist ultranationalist Grey Wolves have been involved in terror attacks targeting both left-wing groups and ethnic minorities. The group is notable for its death squads during the political violence of the late 1970s, such as the Taksim Square massacre in 1977 (killings of leftists) or the Bahçelievler massacre in 1978 when seven students belonging to a socialist party were assassinated. The organization was responsible for Maraş and Çorum massacres where hundreds of Alevis, Kurds and leftists were killed.
In 1979, Left-wing journalist Abdi İpekçi was assassinated by Grey Wolves member Mehmet Ali Ağca. In 1981 Ağca attempted to assassinate Pope John Paul II.
United Kingdom
In April 1999, David Copeland, a neo-Nazi, planted a series of nail bombs over 13 days. His attacks, which were aimed at London's black, Bangladeshi and gay communities, resulted in three dead and more than 100 injured. Copeland was a former member of two far-right political groups, the British National Party (BNP) and the National Socialist Movement. Copeland told police, "My aim was political. It was to cause a racial war in this country. There'd be a backlash from the ethnic minorities, then all the white people will go out and vote BNP."
In July 2007, Robert Cottage, a former BNP member, was convicted for possessing explosive chemicals in his home – described by police at the time of his arrest as the largest amount of chemical explosive of its type ever found in that country. In June 2008, Martyn Gilleard, a British Nazi sympathizer, was jailed after police found nail bombs, bullets, swords, axes and knives in his flat. Also in 2008, Nathan Worrell was found guilty of possession of material for terrorist purposes and racially aggravated harassment. The court heard that police found books and manuals containing recipes to make bombs and detonators using household items, such as weedkiller, at Worrell's flat. In July 2009, Neil Lewington was planning a terror campaign using weapons made from tennis balls and weedkiller against those he classified as non-British.
In 2012, the British Home Affairs Committee warned of the threat of far-right terrorism in the UK, claiming it had heard persuasive evidence about the potential danger and cited the growth of similar threats across Europe.
Members of Combat 18 (C18), a neo-Nazi organisation based on the concept of "leaderless resistance", have been suspected in numerous deaths of immigrants, non-whites and other C18 members. Between 1998 and 2000, dozens of members were arrested. A group calling itself the Racial Volunteer Force split from C18 in 2002, retaining close links to its parent organization. Some journalists believed that the White Wolves were a C18 splinter group, alleging that the group had been set up by Del O'Connor, the former second-in-command of C18 and member of Skrewdriver Security. C18 attacks on immigrants continued through 2009. Weapons, ammunition and explosives were seized by police in the UK and almost every country in which C18 was active.
In 2016, Jo Cox, the Member of Parliament (MP) for the Batley and Spen constituency was murdered by Thomas Mair, who was motivated by neo-Nazi far-right political views and had connections to several far-right organisations in the UK, US, and South Africa such as National Vanguard and English Defence League (EDL).
On 16 December 2016, Home Secretary Amber Rudd designated the far-right, neo-Nazi group National Action (NA) as a terrorist organisation which criminalises membership or support for the organisation. On 12 June 2018, Jack Renshaw, 23, a former spokesperson for NA, admitted in a guilty plea to buying a 48 cm (19 in) replica Roman gladius (often wrongly referred to in the media as a machete) to murder Rosie Cooper, the Member of Parliament (MP) for the West Lancashire constituency.
In June 2017, Darren Osborne drove a van into a crowd leaving a mosque in Finsbury Park, north London, killing one and injuring nine others. Darren Osborne had acquired far-right publications from Tommy Robinson's English Defence League (EDL) and Jim Dowson and Jayda Fransen's Britain First Party (BF).
In March 2018, Mark Rowley, the outgoing head of UK counter-terror policing, revealed that four far-right terror plots had been foiled since the Westminster attack in March 2017.
In February 2019, an unnamed 33-year-old was arrested in West Yorkshire "as part of an investigation into suspected extreme right wing activity".
Northern Ireland
Loyalist paramilitaries such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), Ulster Defence Association (UDA), Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF) and Orange Volunteer Force (OVF) have been aligned with far-right politics and ideology and have been involved in numerous sectarian attacks and killings on Catholics both during and after the Troubles. During the conflict, British far-right activists supplied funds and weaponry to these groups in Northern Ireland. Following the Good Friday Agreement, some members of Loyalist groups orchestrated racist attacks in Northern Ireland, including pipe bomb and gun attacks on the homes of immigrants. As a result, Northern Ireland has a higher proportion of racist attacks than other parts of the UK, and was branded the "race-hate capital of Europe".
Vatican City
On 13 May 1981, Pope John Paul II was shot and wounded by Mehmet Ali Ağca, a member of Grey Wolves, a Turkish ultranationalist organization.
Oceania
Australia
In August 2016, Phillip Galea was charged with several terrorist offences. Galea had conducted "surveillance" of "left-wing premises" and planned to carry out bombings. Explosive ingredients were found at his home. Galea had links with organisations such as Combat 18 (C18) and the United Patriots Front (UPF). On 5 December 2019, a jury found Galea guilty of planning and preparing a terror attack.
In 2017 the Sydney Morning Herald reported on the conviction of neo-Nazi Michael James Holt, 26 who had threatened to carry out a mass shooting attack and considered Westfield Tuggerah as a target. He had manufactured home-made guns, knuckle dusters and slingshots in his grandfather's garage. Raids on his mother's home and a hotel room discovered more weapons including several firearms, slingshots and knuckle dusters.
New Zealand
The Christchurch mosque shootings at Al Noor Mosque and Linwood Islamic Centre in Christchurch, New Zealand, which resulted in 51 deaths and injuries to 49 others, were committed by Australian Brenton Harrison Tarrant, who was motivated by white nationalism, neo-fascism (primarily ecofascism) and racism. Tarrant published a manifesto titled The Great Replacement, named after a French far-right white genocide conspiracy theory of the same name by writer Renaud Camus, and livestreamed the shootings on Facebook Live after announcing them on 8chan /pol/ (a centre of neo-Nazi/far-right discussion). The gunman also praised various other far-right mass murderers and killers such as Anders Behring Breivik (Utoya and Oslo attacks, Norway); Dylann Roof (Charleston church shooting, United States); Luca Traini (Macerata shooting, Italy); Anton Lundin Pettersson (Trollhattan school attack, Sweden); Darren Osborne (2017 Finsbury Park attack, United Kingdom); Alexandre Bissonnette (Quebec City mosque shooting, Canada/Quebec); and Josue Estèbanez (Murder of Carlos Palomino, Spain). He also referred to Breivik as "Knight Justiciar Breivik", and claimed to have briefly contacted him and his organisation, the Knights Templar, as well as etching the names of Pettersson, Traini and Bissonnette onto his guns which also contained references to various historical battles and figures, such as Charles Martel and the Battle of Tours, the Rotherham child sexual exploitation scandal, the neo-Nazi slogan Fourteen Words and "Kebab Remover". Additionally, he expressed support for British Union of Fascists (BUF) leader Oswald Mosley and wished to start a Second American Civil War to balkanize the United States over the Gun rights' issue and the Second Amendment. Prior to the terrorist attacks, the gunman had ties to Australia's prominent far-right organizations United Patriots Front (UPF), led by Blair Cottrell; and True Blue Crew (TBC), led by Kane Miller via interactions on Facebook and affectionately called Blair Cottrell "Emperor Blair" as well as an offer to join the Lads Society but declined and donated to Gènèration Identitaire (GI) and Identitäre Bewegung Österreich (IBÖ), the Austria and France branches of Generation Identity, an Identitarian organization, and exchanged emails with Martin Sellner of the latter group between January 2018 and July 2018. One email asked if they could meet up for coffee or beer in Vienna; another asked the former to send the latter a link to his English language YouTube channel. In August 2020, the gunman was sentenced to life in prison without parole for the attacks, the first such sentence in New Zealand history.
Asia
India
In 1992, the 16th-century Babri Masjid in the city of Ayodhya, in Uttar Pradesh was demolished by the far-right Hindu nationalist Vishva Hindu Parishad. The demolition resulted in intercommunal rioting between India's Hindu and Muslim communities, causing the death of at least 2,000 people.
Israel
A number of right-wing Revisionist Zionist groups have been designated as terrorist organisations. Lehi, known as the Stern Gang, was a Zionist paramilitary and terrorist organization founded in Mandatory Palestine in 1940, professing National Bolshevism and influenced by Italian fascism. It carried out assassinations and alleged massacres until it was disbanded in 1949. The Jewish Underground was a radical right-wing organization considered terrorist by Israel. It plotted and carried out car and bus bombings, and attacks on students and on religious sites in the early 1980s until the arrest of its main activists in 1984. Kach and its splinter group Kahane Chai were a right-wing Orthodox Jewish, ultranationalist political party in Israel, formed in 1971 and designated as terrorist from the 1990s by Israel, Canada, the European Union, Japan, and the United States.
Syria & Lebanon
See Falangist militancy in Lebanon. and Fascist militancy in Syria and Lebanon.
See also
Alt-right links to violence and terrorism
Anti-communist mass killings
Eco-terrorism
Environmental terrorism
Ethnic violence
Far-left politics
Far-right politics
Left-wing terrorism
Misogynist terrorism
Narcoterrorism
Nationalist terrorism
Political violence
Radical right (Europe)
Radical right (United States)
Religious terrorism
Religious violence
State terrorism
Terrorgram
Ultranationalism
References
Notes
Bibliography
Michael, George. 2010. The Enemy of My Enemy: The Alarming Convergence of Militant Islam and the Extreme Right. University Press of Kansas. .
Further reading
Right-wing terrorism and violence in Western Europe: the RTV dataset. C-REX - Center for Research on Extremism.
Florian Hartleb: Lone wolves. The New Terrorism of Right-Wing Single Actors, Heidelberg et al. 2020, Springer, .
Anti-communist terrorism
1970s establishments in Europe
Hate crime
Right-wing terrorism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20composers%20by%20nationality
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List of composers by nationality
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The following is a list of composers by nationality.
Albania
Simon Gjoni (1926–1991), composer of orchestral and piano pieces
Tonin Harapi (1925–1991)
Agim Krajka (1937–2021), composer of the National Song Festival
Aleksandër Peçi (born 1951)
Çesk Zadeja (1927–1997), often nicknamed the "Father of Albanian music"
Argentina
Armenia
Australia
Azerbaijan
Belgium
Bolivia
Asunta Limpias de Parada (1915–1995)
Bosnia and Herzegovina
Sinan Alimanović (born 1954)
Anđelka Bego-Šimunić (born 1941)
Franciscus Bossinensis (1485–1535)
Rade Jovanović (1928–1986)
Vuk Kulenovic (1946–2017)
Mladen Milicevic (born 1958)
Dino Rešidbegović (born 1975)
Ališer Sijarić (born 1969)
Aleksa Šantić (1868–1924)
Dino Zonić (born ?)
Hanan Hadžajlić (born 1991)
Brazil
Ernani Aguiar (born 1950)
Jorge Antunes (born 1942)
Antônio Francisco Braga (1868–1945), composer of operas, piano and symphonic works.
Oscar Lorenzo Fernández (1897–1948)
Sílvio Ferraz (born 1959)
Antônio Carlos Gomes (1836–1896), celebrated opera composer in Italy, 19th century
Mozart Camargo Guarnieri (1907–1993)
José Maurício Nunes Garcia (1767–1830), composer of classical era; priest, wrote both sacred and secular music.
Radamés Gnatalli (1906–1988)
César Guerra-Peixe (1914–1993)
Osvaldo Lacerda (1927–2011)
Elias Álvares Lobo (1834–1901), composer of sacred and secular music; wrote first Brazilian opera.
Alexandre Levy (1864–1892)
Emerico Lobo de Mesquita (1746–1805)
Francisco Mignone (1897–1986)
Ronaldo Miranda (born 1948)
Alberto Nepomuceno (1864–1920)
Marlos Nobre (born 1939)
José Antônio Rezende de Almeida Prado (1943–2010)
Cláudio Santoro (1919–1989)
Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887–1959), one of the most performed Brazilian composers worldwide
José Carlos Amaral Vieira (born 1952)
Edson Zampronha (born 1963)
Bulgaria
Georgi Arnaoudov (born 1957), composer of stage, orchestral, chamber, film, vocal and piano music
Alexandra Fol (born 1981), composer and organist, currently writing her dissertation at McGill University's Schulich School of Music
Marin Goleminov (1908–2000), composer, violinist, conductor
Michail Goleminov (born 1956), composer, pianist, conductor, and co-founder of music publishing house The Orange Factory
Dobri Hristov (1875–1941), composer of choral music as well as music for the church and orchestra
Petar Krumov (born 1934), composer, arranger, conductor and expert on Bulgarian folk music
Filip Kutev (1903–1982), composer, arranger and founder of Bulgaria's State Ensemble for Folk Song and Dance
Kiril Lambov (born 1955) composer, pianist, and conductor
Milcho Leviev (1937–2019), composer, arranger, jazz performer and pianist
Emanuil Manolov (1860–1902), composed the first Bulgarian opera Siromahkinia based on the work of Ivan Vazov with the same title
Albena Petrovic-Vratchanska (born 1965), composer and director in Luxembourg, one of her most famous works is "Gladius"
Anna-Maria Ravnopolska-Dean (born 1960), composer, harpist, pedagogue
Petko Staynov (1896–1977), a founding member and first chairman of the Bulgarian Contemporary Music Society (1933), which later became the Union of Bulgarian Composers
Veselin Stoyanov (1902–1969), composer of classical music including two symphonies
Emil Tabakov (born 1947), composer of symphonies and concertos
Dobrinka Tabakova (born 1980), composer
Julia Tsenova (1948–2010), contemporary composer, pianist, jazz pedagogue
Georgi Tutev (1924–1994), composer of contemporary classical music, one of the main representatives of Bulgarian modernism
Pancho Vladigerov (1899–1978), a founding member of the Bulgarian Contemporary Music Society (1933)
Canada
Airat Ichmouratov (1973), composer, pedagogue, conductor, klezmer clarinetist
Chile
Víctor Jara (1932–1973), composer, pedagogue, theatre director, poet, singer-songwriter, and political activist
Juan Orrego-Salas (1919–2019)
Jorge Urrutia (1905–1981), composer, influenced by Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel
China
Du Mingxin (born 1928), composer who collaborated on the ballet Red Detachment of Women
Nie Er (1912–1935), wrote March of the Volunteers, the national anthem of the People's Republic of China
Qu Xiao-Song (born 1952), composer, student of Du Mingxin
Xian Xinghai (1905–1945), composer known for the Yellow River Cantata, a patriotic song during the Second Sino-Japanese War
Xiao Shuxian (1905–1991), composer who blended elements of Chinese folk culture with Western techniques in her music
Colombia
Jacqueline Nova (1935–1975), pioneer on experimental music and Colombian feminist movement.
Croatia
Cyprus
Nicolas Economou (1953–1993), composer and conductor
Czech Republic
Antonín Dvořák (1841–1904)
Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst (1812–1865)
Denmark
Niels Gade (1817–1890)
Carl Nielsen (1865–1931)
Dominican Republic
Luis Alberti (1906–1976) composer of Merengue music
Charytín (born 1949), significant 1970s pop music composer
Juan Luis Guerra (born 1957) significant contemporary merengue and pop ballad composer
Johnny Pacheco (born 1935) composer of Salsa music
Anthony Santos (born 1981) significant bachata composer
Sandra Zaiter (born 1943) significant children's songs composer
Ecuador
Mesías Maiguashca (born 1938)
Egypt
Sayed Darwish (1892–1923)
Mohamed El Qasabgi (1892–1966)
Zakariya Ahmad (1896–1961)
Mohammed Abdel Wahab (1901–1991)
Riad Al Sunbati (1906–1981)
Estonia
Arvo Pärt (born 1935)
Finland
France
Germany
Greece
Jani Christou (1926–1970)
Manos Hatzidakis (1925–1994)
Manolis Kalomiris (1883–1962), classical composer. He was the founder of the Greek National School of Music.
Stefanos Korkolis (born 1960)
Nikolaos Lavdas (1879–1940)
Nikolaos Mantzaros (1795–1872), composer of the Greek national anthem
Yannis Markopoulos (born 1939)
Thanos Mikroutsikos (1947–2019)
Mimis Plessas (born 1924)
Nikos Skalkottas (1904–1945), member of the Second Viennese School
Giannis Spanos (1934–2019)
Mikis Theodorakis (1925–2021)
Stavros Xarchakos (born 1939)
Iannis Xenakis (1922–2001)
Manos Loizos (1937–1982)
Guatemala
Ricardo Arjona (born 1964), modern pop composer
Hungary
Béla Bartók (1881–1945), 20th-century composer, considered one of the founders of ethnomusicology
Gábor Darvas (1911–1985), composer and musicologist
Ernő Dohnányi (1877–1960), 20th-century composer, Variations on a Nursery Tune, Suite in F-sharp minor, Ruralia Hungarica
Péter Eötvös (born 1944)
Karl Goldmark (1830–1915), Romantic composer influenced by Richard Wagner
Stephen Heller (1813–1888), Early Romantic composer and pianist
Joseph Joachim (1831–1907)
Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967), 20th-century composer and ethnomusicologist
Rezső Kókai (1906–1962), composer and musicologist
György Kurtág (born 1926), 20th-century composer
Franz Lehár (1870–1948), 20th-century composer most known for The Merry Widow
György Sándor Ligeti (1923–2006), 20th-century composer best known for the various pieces featured in the Stanley Kubrick films 2001: A Space Odyssey, The Shining, and Eyes Wide Shut
Franz Liszt (1811–1886), Romantic composer-pianist, wrote a number of tone poems and extended piano technique
Ervin Nyiregyházi (1903–1987), romantic composer-pianist
Miklós Rózsa (1907–1995), 20th-century composer, best known for his film music
Tibor Szemző (born 1955), composer, performer and media artist
Leo Weiner (1885–1960), 20th-century composer of the "Fox Dance"
Iceland
India
M. Balamuralikrishna (1930–2016), carnatic music
Clarence Barlow (1945–2023), contemporary art music
Sandeep Bhagwati (born 1963), contemporary art music
R.D. Burman (1939–1994), film composer, musician and singer
Sachin Dev Burman (1906–1975), music composers for Hindi movies and a Bengali singer and composer
Pritam Chakraborty (born 1971), film composer
Salil Chowdhury (1922–1995), film music composer, western classical and folk fusion music writer and arranger
Ilaiyaraja (born 1943), film composer, record producer, musician and singer
Jatin–Lalit, music composer duo
Khayyam (1927–2019), film composer
Shirish Korde (born 1945), contemporary art music
Bappi Lahiri (born 1952), film composer
Laxmikant–Pyarelal, film composer duo
Madan Mohan (born 1981), film composer, musician and singer
Nadeem-Shravan, film composer duo
Naushad (1919–2006), film composer
O.P. Nayyar (1926–2007), film composer
A. R. Rahman (born 1966 as Dilip), film composer, record producer, musician and singer
Harris Jayaraj (born 8 July 1975), Indian film composer
Yuvan Shankar Raja (born 1979), singer-songwriter, film score, and soundtrack composer
Santhosh Narayanan (born 1983), Indian film composer
Sean Roldan (born 1987), Indian musician
Darbuka Siva (born 1982), Indian musician, director and actor
Armaan Malik (born 1995), Indian composer, singer and songwriter
Amaal Malik (born 1990), Indian composer, singer and songwriter
Vivek-Mervin, Indian film composer duo
Ravi (1926–2012), film composer
Anirudh Ravichander (born 1990), singer, music director, film composer
Shankar–Ehsaan–Loy trio of record producers, musicians, multi-instrumentalists
Shankar Jaikishan, music composer duo
Naresh Sohal (1939–2018), contemporary art music
Amit Trivedi (born 1979), film composer
Param Vir (born 1952), contemporary art music
Indonesia
Otto Sidharta (born 1955), music composer
Ananda Sukarlan (born 1968)
Iran
Ireland
Italy
Japan
Latvia
Liechtenstein
Josef Rheinberger (1839–1901)
Lithuania
Luxembourg
Jean-Marie Kieffer (born 1960)
North Macedonia
Dimitrije Bužarovski (born 1952)
Todor Skalovski (1909–2004)
Madagascar
Raymond Razafimbahiny (1919–1963)
Malta
Charles Camilleri (1931–2009), 20th century classical composer
Carmelo Pace (1906–1993), music teacher and composer
Robert Samut (1869–1934), composer of Malta's National Anthem, l-Innu Malti
Mexico
Miguel Bernal Jiménez (1910–1956), 20th Century composer
Julián Carrillo (1875–1965), discovered the 13th sound
Ricardo Castro (1864–1907), composer and pianist
Daniel Catán (1949–2011), composer of operas
Carlos Chávez (1899–1978), 20th-century classical composer and conductor
Jose Mariano Elizaga (1786–1842), composer and theoretician
Manuel Enriquez (1926–1994), modern classical composer
Julio Estrada (born 1943), composer and theoretician
Blas Galindo (1910–1993), 20th-century composer
María Grever (1884–1951), composer of romantic songs like "Júrame"
Carlos Jiménez Mabarak (1916–1994), 20th century composer
Agustin Lara (1897–1970), composer of romantic songs like Maria Bonita, Solamente una Vez, Granada, etc.
Mario Lavista (born 1943), composer and writer
Francisco López Capillas (1608–1674), composer of the Baroque
Armando Manzanero (1935–2020), singer, pianist and composer of Boleros
Arturo Márquez (born 1950), wrote Danzón No. 2
José Pablo Moncayo (1912–1958), composer of "Huapango"
Melesio Morales (1839–1908), composer of the opera Ildegonda
Conlon Nancarrow (1912–1997), wrote for player piano
Manuel María Ponce (1882–1948), 20th-century composer
Silvestre Revueltas (1899–1940), 20th-century classical composer of Sensemayá
Juventino Rosas (1868–1894), composer of vals "Sobre las olas"
Manuel de Sumaya (1678–1755), composer of the Baroque
Eugenio Toussaint (1954–2011), contemporary jazz and classical composer
Consuelo Velázquez (1924–2005), wrote the song "Bésame Mucho"
Mongolia
Netherlands
Michel van der Aa (born 1970), modern classical composer
Hendrik Andriessen (1892–1981), classical composer of symphonies, songs and organworks
Louis Andriessen (1939–2021), modern classical composer
Henk Badings (1907–1987), classical composer of symphonic works, songs, electro-acoustical works
Henriëtte Bosmans (1895–1952), classical composer of instrumental music and songs
Jan Brandts Buys (1868–1933), composer of operas and chamber music
Johannes van Bree (1801–1857), classical composer of symphonies, orchestral works, operas, songs, chamber music
Lex van Delden (1919–1988), modern classical composer (symphonies, vocal music)
Bernard van Dieren (1887–1936), composer of chamber music, symphonies, vocal works
Cornelis Dopper (1870–1939), classical composer of symphonies, operas, concertos
Rudolf Escher (1912–1980), classical composer of songs, symphonies, chamber music
Carel Anton Fodor (1768–1846), classical composer of symphonies, concertos
Jan van Gilse (1881–1944), classical composer of operas, symphonies, chamber music
Pieter Hellendaal (1721–1799), classical composer of concerti grossi, chamber music, psalms and oratorios
Elisabeth Kuyper (1877–1953), classical composer of orchestral works, concertos, chamber music, choral music, and songs
Guillaume Landré (1905–1968), classical composer of vocal music, operas and symphonies
Samuel de Lange (1840–1911), classical composer of operas, organ music, symphonic works, chamber music
Fred Momotenko (born 1970), classical composer
Leon Orthel (1905–1885), classical composer of symphonies and chamber music
Willem Pijper (1894–1947), classical composer of chamber music, songs, symphonic works
Julius Röntgen (1855–1932), classical composer of symphonies, concertos, chamber music, vocal works
Leo Smit (1900–1943), classical composer of chamber music, songs, symphonic music
Johannes Verhulst (1816–1891), classical composer of vocal music, symphonic works
Matthijs Vermeulen (1888–1967), classical composer of symphonies and songs
Alexander Voormolen (1895–1980), classical composer of chamber music, piano music and orchestral works
Bernard Zweers (1854–1924), classical composer of vocal music, orchestral works and symphonies
New Zealand
Gillian Bibby (born 1945)
Jack Body (1944–2015)
Ivan Bootham (1939–2016)
Helen Bowater (born 1952)
Dorothy Buchanan (born 1945)
Edwin Carr (1926–2003), 20th century classical
Lyell Cresswell (born 1944), 20th century classical
Eve de Castro-Robinson (born 1956)
Gareth Farr (born 1968)
Sir Dean Goffin (1918–1984), brass band composer
Peter Hobbs (born 1970)
Mihi-ki-te-kapua (?–c. 1872), composer of waiata
Douglas Lilburn (1915–2001)
Andrew Perkins (born 1961)
Robert J. Pope (1865–1949), songwriter
John Psathas (born 1966), 20th century classical
Rihi Puhiwahine Te Rangi-hirawea (?–1906), composer of waiata
John Rimmer (born 1939)
Anthony Ritchie (born 1960), 20th century classical
Stephen Roche (born 1964), composer of film music
Michael Smither (born 1939)
Sir William Southgate (born 1941)
Ronald Tremain (1923–1998), 20th century classical
Peter van der Fluit (born 1963)
Gillian Karawe Whitehead (born 1941)
Michael Williams (born 1962), 20th century classical
Kenneth Young (born 1955)
Wayan Yudane, composer of Balinese music
Nigeria
Joshua Uzoigwe (1946–2005), 20th century classical and Nigerian folk composer
Norway
Torstein Aagaard-Nilsen (born 1964), composer
Ole Bornemann Bull (1810–1880) was a Norwegian violinist and composer, wrote The Herdgirl's Sunday
Edvard Grieg (1843–1907), Romantic composer, known for his incidental music for Peer Gynt and his Piano Concerto
Agathe Backer Grøndahl (1847–1907), Romantic composer and pianist, contemporary of Edvard Grieg
Kjell Habbestad (born 1955), Norwegian composer
Johan Halvorsen (1864–1935), Norwegian composer, famous for Entry March of the Boyars and Passacaglia in G minor on a Theme by George Frideric Handel
Hans Fredrik Jacobsen (born 1954)
Ståle Kleiberg (born 1958), classical composer and musicologist
Herman Severin Løvenskiold (1815–1870), Romantic composer who wrote the score for the ballet La Sylphide
Jan Erik Mikalsen (born 1979)
Finn Mortensen (1922–1983), Norwegian composer, famous for bringing serialism and twelve-tone music to Norway
Arne Nordheim (1931–2010), Norwegian composer, famous for bringing the modernism and electro acoustic music to Norway. Wrote Epitaffio for orchestra and tape, the ballet The Storm and Solitaire
Marcus Paus (born 1979), Norwegian composer who writes tonal contemporary music and who has been described as a lyrical modernist
Christian Sinding (1856–1941), Norwegian composer, wrote Rustle of Spring and the Suite for Violin and Orchestra
Johan Svendsen (1840–1911), Norwegian composer of the Romance for Violin and Orchestra and 2 Symphonies
Olav Anton Thommessen (born 1946), Norwegian composer, famous for "A Glass Bead Game"
Lasse Thoresen (born 1949)
Geirr Tveitt (1908–1981)
Fartein Valen (1887–1952), Norwegian composer writing atonal polyphonic music. Famous for Le Cimetère Marin and the Violin Concerto
Pakistan
Nisar Bazmi (1924–2007)
Peru
Jaime Delgado Aparicio (1943–1983), contemporary jazz, pop and film score composer
Jose Bernardo Alcedo (1788–1878), 19th-century Peruvian romantic composer, wrote the Peruvian National Anthem
Daniel Alomía Robles (1871–1942), romantic composer, wrote El Cóndor Pasa
Sadiel Cuentas (born 1973), contemporary composer
Chabuca Granda (1920–1983), singer, contemporary and folk music composer
Rafael Leonardo Junchaya (born 1965), contemporary composer
Celso Garrido Lecca (born 1926), contemporary composer
Jimmy Lopez (born 1978), contemporary composer
Clara Petrozzi (born 1965), contemporary composer
Felipe Pinglo Alva (1899–1936), poet and songwriter, father of Música criolla
Jorge Villavicencio Grossmann (born 1973), contemporary composer
Philippines
Poland
Portugal
Alfredo Keil (1850–1907)
Jaime Reis (born 1983)
Puerto Rico
Romania
Russia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
South Africa
South Korea
Spain
Sri Lanka
Sweden
Lars-Erik Larsson (1908–1986)
Johan Helmich Roman (1694–1758)
Dag Wirén (1905–1986)
Switzerland
Fritz Bovet (fl. 1845–1888), violinist, composed at least one string quartet (still in print), watchmaker, Swiss vice-counsel to Canton, China
Caroline Charrière (1960–2018), composer, flautist, choir director
Heinz Holliger (born 1939)
Arthur Honegger (1892–1955)
Frank Martin (1890–1974)
Othmar Schoeck (1886–1957)
Andreas Vollenweider (born 1953)
Taiwan
Tyzen Hsiao (1938–2015)
Liu Shueh-Shuan 劉學軒 (born 1969), 21st century contemporary classical composer
Turkey
Ahmed Adnan Saygun (1907–1991)
Ulvi Cemal Erkin (1906–1972)
Cemal Reşit Rey (1904–1985)
Hasan Ferit Alnar (1906–1978)
Necil Kazım Akses (1908–1999)
United Kingdom
Malcolm Arnold (1921–2006)
Arnold Bax (1883–1953)
Harrison Birtwistle (1934–2022)
Arthur Bliss (1891–1975)
John Blow (1649–1708)
Frank Bridge (1879–1941)
Benjamin Britten (1913–1976)
William Byrd (1540–1623)
Eric Coates (1886–1957)
Peter Maxwell Davies (1934–2016)
Frederick Delius (1862–1934)
John Dowland (1563–1626)
John Dunstable (c. 1390–1453)
Edward Elgar (1857–1934)
George Frideric Handel (1685–1759)
Gustav Holst (1874–1934)
Herbert Howells (1892–1983)
John Ireland (1879–1962)
Hubert Parry (1848–1918)
Henry Purcell (1659–1695)
Arthur Sullivan (1842–1900)
Thomas Tallis (died 1585)
Michael Tippett (1905–1998)
Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872–1958)
William Walton (1902–1983)
United States
Ukraine
Uruguay
Miguel del Águila (born 1957)
References
External links
Union of Belgian Composers (in Dutch and French)
Union of Bulgarian Composers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ein%C3%B6d
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Einöd
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The municipal district of Einöd (; ) is a quarter (Stadtteil) of the city of Homburg and with it part of Saarpfalz-Kreis in Saarland. It includes three municipal fractions: Einöd, Ingweiler and Schwarzenacker. In 2021, Einöd had 3,392 inhabitants.
Geography, Climate, and Population
Geography
Einöd sits north-east of the cross point of the Blies and the left side tributary to it, the Schwarzbach. The village is located in the southern part of Homburg at the eastern border of Saarpfalz-Kreis at the south-eastern border of the State of Saarland. To the southeast, Einöd borders with the town of Zweibrücken in the State of Rhineland-Palatinate. To the south-west sits the town of Blieskastel in Saarpfalz-Kreis.
Climate
The weather patterns in the region are embedded within the Central European climate. According to the Köppen climate classification, the climate in the area around Einöd can be classified as CFB. These climates are often found on the western coasts of continents.
They are characterized by a humid climate with short dry summers. Heavy precipitation occurs during the mild winters because of continuous presence of mid-latitude cyclones. In Einöd the climate is warm and temperate. Even in the driest months, there is a significant amount of precipitation. The average annual temperature is 9.2 °C and approx. 699 mm of precipitation falls annually.
During the winter months, temperatures below 0 °C can be reached and the summer months can be rather hot reaching up to 40 °C.
The Bliesgau, to which Einöd belongs, is thus considered one of the warmest areas in Germany and is only bested by Oberrheingraben and Breisgau in southern Germany.
Population
According to statistics provided by the city of Homburg (August 2021), the quarter of Einöd has a total of 3,392 inhabitants. The three fractions Einöd, Ingweiler, and Schwarzenacker have 2,636, 152, and 604 inhabitants respectively. After Erbach and Homburg, Einöd is currently the third largest district in the city of Homburg contributing 7.8% out of the overall population of 42.843 inhabitants.
History
Einöd has had a long and interesting history that can be traced back to Roman and Celtic times and might reach back to paleolithic times as artifacts and remains may indicate.
Fraction Ingweiler
The fraction Ingweiler was mentioned as early as 1180 CE in a deed of donation of Wörschweiler Abbey.
It is believed that there could be traces of Roman remains at the Ingweiler cemetery, where a chapel may have been built on top of a former Roman building. Until 1603 CE Ingweiler belonged to the county of Nassau-Saarbrücken. In an exchange agreement in 1603 CE Ingweiler came under the administration of the Duchy of Palatine Zweibrücken, of which also Einöd was part.
Fraction Schwarzenacker
There is strong historic evidence that the area of Schwarzenacker was populated since the Bronze Age (approx. 1100 BCE) and from the late La Tène period 450 BCE to the Roman conquest in the 1st century BCE.
During the reign of Augustus a Gallo-Roman Vicus was founded in 1 CE at the site of a more ancient Celtic settlement in the Celtic tribal area of the Mediomatrici. The Vicus was built in the area of today's Schwarzenacker and was situated approximately two kilometers south of the intersection of the Roman long-distance routes between Trier-Strasbourg and Metz-Worms. Remains of other Roman habitations can be found close to the Vicus such as the Roman Villa in Bierbach, Temple District on the Rödersberg, and the Roman Sanctuary in the snake caves in Einöd.
Roman Settlement (Vicus)
The Vicus, whose name has not been determined at this point in time, prospered for nearly three centuries during the long era of peace, the Pax Romana. However, at the end of that period, the ancient town was destroyed by Alemanni and Frank tribes in the spring of 276 CE. In the first half of the 4th century CE, the Gallo-Roman site was again inhabited, but the villas and houses were only temporarily rebuilt and the settlement was abandoned.
In the Middle Ages, Monks from the Wörschweiler Abbey found evidence of an ancient town below the fields that they used as farmland. They observed a black layer of earth that was interpreted as evidence of an ancient fire, and stone foundations under the earth that damaged the plows. They interpreted the findings as the remains of an ancient Roman settlement. However, it was not until the 1950s that scientific excavations were conducted. Incidentally the layer of black earth became eponymous of Schwarzenacker (black field).
Only small parts of the former Vicus have been uncovered, however, the ruins and artifacts found at the archaeological site are of regional and national importance. The ancient ruins can be visited and are part of an open-air museum. Some of the discovered artifacts are on display at the Edelhaus, a noble house that is adjacent to the excavations. Excavated buildings, basements, streets and water channels can be seen and inspected. Some of the buildings such as the Taberna Capitolinus and the house of the Gallo-Roman ophthalmologist Sextus Ajacius Launus have been partially reconstructed in order to provide a deeper insight of the everyday life of that historic era.
Museum at the site of the Roman Settlement
The Edelhaus hosts the museum, where a number of artifacts are on display. These artifacts come from the settlement itself or from the nearby environment. Replicas of life-sized Roman equestrian statues that were discovered in 1887 in nearby Breitfurt and represent the largest of their kind north of the Alps, were erected in front of the entrance staircase of the noble house. The original statues stood for many years in front of the entrance of the Historical Museum of the Palatinate in Speyer. However, they were moved and placed under a roof in the courtyard of the museum of Speyer as they were sustaining damage due to environmental influences.
These statues are of particular historical interest, as they may illustrate an important historical event of the last usurper emperor of the Gallic Empire Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus I (271 CE to 274 CE) and his son Gaius Pius Esuvius Tetricus II whom he had declared Caesar in 273 CE. The horses with the riders were probably sculptured in honor of Tetricus I and his son, Tetricus II, however, they were never completed. Tetricus I and his son were defeated in 274 CE by the rightful Emperor Lucius Domitius Aurelianus Augustus in the Battle of Châlons, near modern-day Châlons. However, notwithstanding their defeat, Tetricus I was given the post of senator and corrector (governor) of either Lucania and Bruttii, in southern Italy, or all of Italy and his son Tetricus II was gifted with an important administrative post. Thus the unfinished statues may be an ancient witness of the events that let to the defeat of the usurper emperor.
Fraction Einöd
Close to where the river Schwarzbach merges with the smaller Blies, foundations of a Salian castle were uncovered that may be dated to the 10th or 11th century CE. In 1928 excavations under the leadership of the conservator Karl Klein brought to light the foundations of a rectangular, tripartite tower house.
On the south side was a rectangular extension, that could have functioned as a cesspool, similar to the one found at the castle Schlössel in Klingenmünster. Fragments of Roman reliefs were found between the bricks of the destroyed castle walls. Two of these reliefs are exhibited in the neighboring Römermuseum Schwarzenacker. The spolia probably belonged to an ancient Roman cemetery or sanctuary that had been on site or in its vicinity and could have been associated with the Roman Vicus in Schwarzenacker. There were also found Romanesque column shafts with cushion capitals and imposts that may have been part of double windows at the upper floor of the tower. Unfortunately, no above-ground structures are visible and the ruins have been reduced over time to a Burgstall.
In addition to these finds, even earlier remains of human habitation have been discovered, that may date back to the paleolithic period.
The first documented mention of Einöd (Eynot) was recorded in a contract between Count Walram I. of Zweibrücken and Ludwig of Homburg that was signed on June 3, 1290 CE.
In 1760 CE Einöd became its own Schultheißerei, which meant that it had its own Schultheiß, a position that was similar to that of a mayor. It included the villages Einöd, Bierbach, Ingweiler, Nieder- and Obereschweiler, Audenkellerhof, Gutenbrunnen and Schwarzenacker.
In 1849 CE, Einöd-Ingweiler and Schwarzenacker got their own administration. The first mayor of Einöd was Joseph Schwarz. As a consequence of the territorial and administrative reform of 1974, Einöd ceased to be an independent municipality and became a municipal district of the city of Homburg and incorporated within Saarpfalz-Kreis (Saarpfalz-Kreis) of which Homburg is the administrative seat. The former town hall which was the administrative seat with a local mayor became later the "Bürgerhaus" or citizen hall. The Bürgerhaus has still an important cultural function in Einöd. It is the home of several local associations and institutions. These include the local district council, the district archive, the choir association Einöd-Ingweiler with the mixed choir, the Young Voices and the Young Foxes, as well as the Red Cross, the pensioners' association and the local associations of the political parties SPD and the CDU.
Natural Environment
Bliesgau
The district Einöd is part of the biosphere reserve Bliesgau with the Pfänderbachtal in Einöd forming a core zone of 45 hectares. The region is a sanctuary for many rare animal and plant species such as the little owl, beaver, red kite, lizard orchid, and the yellow rattle. Almost half of all types of orchids that occur in Germany can be found here, on the vast, semi-dry grasslands that cover formations of limestone. Over the years the area has become a breeding ground for storks and nests with young birds can be observed. At certain periods dozens of storks can be observed in the air or on the ground.
The Bliesgau is located at the south-eastern corner of Saarland, bordering France and Rhineland-Palatinate. It is an area of outstanding natural beauty and cultural richness. The area is characterized by wide meadow orchards, beech groves and the impressive meadow landscape of the Blies River. Because of its picturesque landscape it is often referred to as the "Tuscany of Saarland". On May 26, 2009, the Bliesgau was recognized by the UNESCO as a German Biosphere Reserve.
Guldenschlucht
The Guldenschlucht (Gulden Canyon) named after Alfred Gulden, is an impressive ravine with a small creek flowing at the bottom, and surrounded by looming boulders made of red sandstone. From top to bottom, it is approximately 460m long and has an elevation differential of 80m.
The canyon was forged post glacially and is thus of relatively recent geological origins. Immersed in a forest and enshrined by beech trees, the high humidity in the gorge has led to a unique vegetation. The rare lunar ivy (Lunaria rediviva), can be found in Saarland only at the Guldenschlucht.
Protected species such as the fire salamander (Salamandra salamandra) have their habitat in the Guldenschlucht. The rare fauna and flora make it thus an area of particular ecological interest.
A popular path leads through the canyon. It crosses over numerous small bridges and stairs from the State of Saarland to Rhineland-Palatinate with two thirds of the canyon belonging to the territory of Einöd and one third belonging to Zweibrücken.
The path is part of the Saar-Mosel hiking trail and often traversed by pilgrims as it is also a part of the Peregrinatio Compostellana (Jakobsweg or Way of Saint James), an international network of Pilgrimage routes that led to the shrine of the apostle Saint James the Great in the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela in Galicia in northwestern Spain.
The Schlangenhöhlen (Snake Caves)
An area of geographic and natural interest are the snake caves. The designation of the area as snake caves can be traced back at least 500 years. The snake caves are a network of sandstone caves that are of natural and man made origins. A central cave was rediscovered during the first World War. Its creation is still debated. It is believed that it served as a sacred Roman burial ground and was associated to the Roman Vicus in Einöd Schwarzenacker.
The cave shows traces of artificial building activity and has dozens of cavities branching off from the main cavity into all directions. A number of caves were used as a source of building material.
The snake caves serve as a natural shelter for wild animals, such as foxes, badgers, and bats. In the war years 1944/55, however, they also served as a shelter for humans. In the 1950s, the snake caves became a tourist attraction and an electrical light system was installed. However, because of continued vandalism the caves were closed.
The Schlangenhöhler Weg passes through this area and some of the cave exits are visible when hiking on the path. The trail is part of a hiking network and quite popular as it passes a ski and hiking cabin and a Kneipp water health treatment installment, that can be freely used by the public. The Ehrhard Brunnen which was an important well and water reservoir in the early 20th century is on the left side of the path close to the Kneipp installation. The trail follows the Pfänderbach and rises 110 m from the bottom to the top. After reaching the top of the path and exiting the forest, it is only a short distance to the Berghof farm.
Churches
Currently there are two church buildings in the fraction Einöd, the Protestant Apostelkirche and a church building of the Seventh-Day Adventist Church. The Apostelkirche belongs to the Protestant Palatinate Deanery of Zweibrücken. The church was built between 1752 CE and 1753 CE as an extension of an earlier chapel. In 1808 CE, there was a further extension of the church which was followed by a reconstruction 1868. In the course of this reconstruction, the present church tower was built. After the Second World War, the church was restored from 1949 to 1950. Currently the church building is listed as a cultural monument.
In the fraction Schwarzenacker there are also two church buildings, the Roman Catholic Church Maria Geburt and the Protestant Christuskirche. Maria Geburt was built between 1960 and 1962. Canon Otto Wokart laid the foundation stone on June 25, 1961. The church was consecrated on August 12, 1962 by bishop Dr. Isidore Markus Emanuel. Since January 1, 2016, Maria Geburt is a parish church of the Holy Cross in Homburg and includes the fractions and districts of Schwarzenacker, Schwarzenbach, Einöd, Wörschweiler and Ingweiler. The Patronal Feast of the church, is the feast of the Nativity of the Blessed Virgin Mary, on the 8th of September. The Protestant Christuskirche is the parish church of Schwarzenbach, Schwarzenacker and Wörschweiler and is part of the Protestant Palatinate Deanery of Homburg. The foundation stone was laid in June 1958 and the inauguration took place on November 27, 1960.
Politics
Einöd has the status of a municipal district with its own district head and local council. The district council supports the city council in an advisory function but does not have voting rights.
Similar to the elections in previous cycles the SPD won the elections in 2019 with an absolute majority. In the city council elections the CDU became the majority party whereas the SPD maintained its majority in Einöd. Dr.med. Karl Schuberth (SPD) has been the council head of the district of Einöd since 2004.
Transportation
Einöd is easily accessible by car, bus and train. A highway ramp at the exit of the village connects to the motor-highway autobahn A8. A train-station provides easy and efficient access to nearby towns such as Pirmasens and the capital city of the State Saarbrücken. Unfortunately there is currently no direct train connection to Homburg. However, there are discussions and possible plans to reactivate the railway to Homburg and thus extend the commuter train rail S1 from Rhein Neckar to Zweibrücken, passing through Homburg and Einöd.
Two bus lines connect Einöd, Saar-Mobil with a half hour frequency, and DB Regio Mitte with an hourly frequency.
Personalities
Friedrich Burger (1879–1939), State assembly representative of Bavaria
Gertrud Wetzel (1914–1994), State assembly representative of Rhineland Palatinate
Erni Deutsch-Einöder (1917–1997), Writer
Georg Hüssler (1921–2013), Roman Catholic Priest
Horst Ehrmantraut (* 1955), Football Player and National Football Coach
Picture Gallery
Notes
Works cited
Homburg, Saarland
Villages in Saarland
Former municipalities in Saarland
Historic sites in Germany
Tourism in Germany
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5211982
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability%20advertising
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Sustainability advertising
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Sustainability advertising is communications geared towards promoting social, economic and environmental benefits (sustainability) of products, services or actions through paid advertising in media in order to encourage responsible behavior of consumers.
Definition
Conventional advertising is part of the promotion of products and services.
Sustainability advertising is used to advert customers to sustainable products, services and actions. It is not only focused on environmental issues and the product or service itself, but includes communication about the entire life cycle of the product. It furthermore informs about the sustainability of the producing company and communicates desirable lifestyles changes to consumers. Advertising in general is a one-way communication through mass media and is used to create brand recognition, brand knowledge and some brand preference. Sustainability advertising contributes to all three pillars of triple bottom line: economic development, environmental protection and social responsibility.
Objectives
Whenever an advertisement campaign is developed and launched as a marketing strategy for a sustainable product or service, it must be aligned to the objectives defined by the company in the context of sustainability. Some of the common objectives of marketing communications are: generation of awareness, informing consumers, reminding consumers, persuading consumers, reassuring consumers, motivating and rewarding consumers and connecting with them. These are the basis for more specific objectives of sustainability advertising with the emphasis on environmental and social aspects.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) has developed documents that give insights about the objectives of the sustainability advertising. They include:
"Ensuring truth in advertising – the advertising codes provided and supported by the advertising industry and other mechanisms to ensure that claims can be substantiated, to prevent consumers from being misled". This is related to the objectives of informing consumers and reassuring them whenever there is misleading critics or arguments against a particular product, service or implemented action.
"Ensuring ethical behavior from advertisers, so that messages are legal, decent, honest and truthful". Advertisement should not include attempts of greenwashing and reference to false social responsibility claims.
"Ensuring that all sectors of society, including women, minorities, the elderly and children are sensitively portrayed." This "is associated with the challenge of sustainability advertising to address and "connect" with different audiences through a mass media message".
"How advertising agencies, and the advertisers themselves, operate. As with all other sectors, organizations in the advertising industry need to address their direct effects on the environment and society, and the need for environmental management systems, reporting and corporate social responsibility programs." This area refers to the coherence needed whenever a sustainability message in advertising is set. The advertising message and the behavior of the company should be consistent to create trust and credibility.
Background
The conventional marketing mix concept was gradually developed during the economic miracle right after World War II and included the 4P's model, introduced around 1960. This model, in which the promotion of products with advertising as one of its main tools plays an important role, was helpful for many industries in many markets." However, the market situation changed: consumers became more aware of the social and ecological implications of their purchases and at the same time inherent attributes like efficiency and cost effectiveness, health and safety, symbolism and status needed to be highlighted by companies in order to remain competitive in the market. The companies have been adapting to the changes and now move towards "relationship marketing focused more on communicating with the consumer" rather than just promoting the product. They use advertising, along with other activities and resources, as a tool to inform the consumers and stakeholders about the sustainability solutions the company provides and about the company as a whole.
Of the three pillars, the environmental dimension has captivated the most attention and has a large body of marketing literature that is not discussed in social sustainability. "The relationship between marketing and the environment has been examined since the early 1970s". First, the idea of ecological marketing was developed and mainly centered in the "depletion of energy and non-energy natural resources and the pollution created as by-product of production and consumption." "The first tentative steps of non-polluting industry and first uses of nature in advertising arose" and were later accompanied by an intensive mediatization of environmental issues in the 1980s. For example: the discovery of the 'hole in the ozone layer' in 1985 and Chernobyl in 1986. By this time, green marketing and environmental marketing concepts were built up and elements from the product life cycle assessment (associated with environmental marketing) as well as destruction of ecosystems and poverty in developing countries (associated with green marketing) were considered in the advertising campaigns.
Lately, the concept of sustainability advertising has evolved as it is defined in the first part of this article. It has encountered critics, and limitations, but also challenges that are guiding the companies, governments and organizations to the implementation of more holistic and sustainable practices in the process of providing products and services worldwide.
Information carriers
Information carriers of marketing messages are mainly mainstream media like national television, national radio and print. Those media are also engaged in sustainability promotion, because they are central players in building consumers culture. Within radio, print or television campaigns sustainability advertisements are pointing out the social, environmental and economical benefits of sustainable products and services. Strategic advertising messages are then connected with corporate communication leading towards the development of a responsible and civic image of the company. However, mainstream media have constrains in promoting sustainability issues due to limitations to the application of persuasive, motivational or educative communication. Most sustainability advertising campaigns therefore combine different types of mainstream media to approach the consumer on different levels of information reception.
Radio
Sustainability advertising on the radio refers only to audio. High imagery ads that elicit visual images in the minds of listeners show positive effects on attitude toward the brand and purchase intention. The right choice of words for the campaign and the possibility to activate imagination of the consumer and raise the desire for the product or service is the challenge for radio advertising.
Print
Print media are paper based media methods like magazines, newspaper, books, flyers or posters. Therefore, print advertising generally includes a higher resource use in terms of paper, compared to digital radio and television campaigns.
The choice of the right print media is important to inform the defined target group about the sustainable products and services. Advertisements in daily newspapers whose readers are educated and interested in sustainability issues, as well as in magazines promoting a sustainable lifestyle contribute to raise consumers' interest in sustainable products and services. Posters on the other hand are often used for social marketing campaigns.
Television
Television is the dominant type of media in the developed countries and combines audio and visual possibilities of sustainability advertising. Its effectiveness results from 'learning without involvement' which means that the consumer takes up the information even without being interested at first. Consequentially, television is an essential media for sustainability advertising.
Social Media
Social media and internet use is rapidly increasing, with a reported 4.62 billion active social media users each averaging 2 and a half hours daily. Among the primary reasons people use social media is to follow trends on what to do or to buy. Therefore, social media can be a valuable platform for promoting sustainability in products and lifestyle choices.
Target group
The target group for sustainability advertising is "responsible consumers". They are aware of sustainable development issues or in the niche of activists and follow sustainability principles. These consumers have a continuously developing commitment towards a more responsible lifestyle and are serious in their sustainable intentions and behavior. They are interested in information about products or services, real product labeling and have an independent attitude towards mass media and advertising. Responsible consumers can be seen as 'optimistic realists' encouraging society to continue development in a sustainable way. They are critical towards their own behavior concerning environmental impact of the products or services they consume. Responsible consumers are sensitive for corporate behavior and are careful in trusting companies which laud their social or environmental commitment even if it is independently monitored. They consume efficiently, see economic growth decoupled from environmental degradation and focus on 'common but differentiated responsibility' to improve the quality of life. Responsible consumers demand a higher value from their purchases in terms of social responsibility and environmental impact. They show an increasing awareness on social and environmental issues and offers in domestic and export markets. Focusing on the responsible consumer as an overall target group, further division into the following target subgroups can be made:
LOHAS – who are strongly concerned about their health, taste of food and with a high level of responsibility for environmental and social issues.
Status addicts – who are strongly concerned about social visibility of the purchase and want to be perceived as sustainability consumers.
Transition towns community members – narrow group with the focus on local consumption and sustainability.
Concerned parents – who want the best and the healthiest products for their children.
Currently constrained – who would like to be more sustainable, but do not think there is much they can do in their current circumstances.
Advantages
Range of coverage: speed and scale with which the message is spread refers to one of the most significant advantages of the sustainability advertising. Advertising is capable of reaching a large or dispersed market repeatedly with persuasive and informative messages and is considered to be one of the most powerful sources of symbolic meaning in modern society. Sustainability advertising campaigns motivate pro-environmental attitudes. Being one of the tools of sustainability communication strategy, advertising campaigns focus on the intrinsic motivations of the consumers, their attitudes and beliefs as one of the determinants of the sustainability friendly consumption behavior.
Sustainability advertising represents the primary communication tool to which major part of consumer group is exposed on the market. It serves as a source of initial information for the consumers, concerning the social and environmental status of product and company. On the basis of the primary impression the consumer than takes the decision whether the product and the company behind deserve further evaluation as a potential purchase choice. Therefore, sustainability advertising "helps to inform consumers and facilitates consumer choice".
As a marketing communication tool, sustainability advertising can be used as an instrument to modify the impact of human activities on the planet. There are three factors that contribute to the total human impact: population, affluence and technology.
Sustainability advertising addresses affluence by promoting reduction of the environmental and social footprint of the society on the planet. Originally advertising was one of the factors that created consumption culture, thus playing an important role in shaping consumer preferences and the social and environmental impact they produce. Sustainability advertising, however, is responsible for the lifestyle changes in the society, from materialistic towards more sustainable.
A variety of marketing communication tools offer producers a wide range of opportunities to build relationships with a consumer. Due to the format restrictions sustainability advertising often is not able provide comprehensive information about the product. Nevertheless, it serves as a link to more substantial sources of information (e.g. a company's web page) where consumer can find more data on environmental and social aspects of the product. This link enables further development of the communication process between the company and the consumer. So, under favorable conditions and linked to a competent communication strategy it can be transformed into long lasting mutually beneficial relationships between the two.
Disadvantages, limitations, and challenges
Promoting sustainable solutions through sustainability advertising provides corporations with big competitive advantages and allows them to educate and inform consumers as well as stimulate their emotions towards the product. Nevertheless, there are some limitations:
General advertising as well as sustainability advertising operate by sending out unidirectional messages to its entire audience at one. At the same time the ability to connect with the single consumers as well as the chances for them to respond are strongly limited. That means the creation of feedback-relationships between corporations and its customers through sustainable advertisement is limited too. To avoid the typical one-way communication and to provide consumers and corporations with the chance to give and receive feedback, advertising can be used in combination with other key media such as online communication or labeling. Interactive advertising then enables the company to build op strong customer-relationships despite the primer lack of personalized messages.
A special challenge for sustainability advertising is the complexity of the messages that have to be communicated. To avoid what is called 'Sustainability Advertising Myopia' – an exclusive focus on the "green" aspects of the product – the advertising message should not only include the social and environmental attributes of a product, but also connect them to the inherent consumer benefits, as well as mention the main buying criteria influencing the consumers' buying decision. However, communicating meaningful about the complex interplay of social, environmental, economic, technical and consumer benefits of a product from a sustainability perspective using a 30-second radio or television slot or a single printed page can be a serious challenge. To make information uptake easier for consumers a selection of the core information and its transformation into simple advertising messages in combination with other key media, like annual environmental reports or links to web pages that provide more detailed information about the product, can be helpful.
A challenge related to the complexity of messages is the risk of information overload. It results from the corporations' effort to gain more credibility and trust by providing search qualities in form of text and fact oriented advertising. However, facing the information overload of today's consumers mainly socio-ecologically conscious consumers perceive the fact focused advertising. Enhancing the emotional appeal of sustainability advertising can create emotional connections with a larger range of consumers and stimulate their involvement with the product. One of the most common approaches is the so-called "Ecotainment" – the creation of consumer's involvement by including a celebrity into the advertisement.
A strong threat to the credibility of sustainability advertising can be seen in corporate "greenwashing", a form of disinformation from organizations seeking to repair public reputations and further shape public images. It allows firms to manipulate an image of environmental, social, and cultural responsiveness by communicating false or misleading sustainability claims. This common practice damages the overall credibility of corporate sustainability claims and leads to mistrust of the consumers. This general inconsistency between a company's messages and it actions could finally explain the value-action gap between consumers strongly expressed concerns about socio-ecological issues and their nevertheless relatively low purchase of sustainable goods and services.
Therefore, the most important future challenge concerning firms as well as advertising agencies is certainly a better understanding of the benefits of corporate socio-ecological responsibility in communications. Especially advertising agencies often lack the technical expertise to ensure that the communications of new sustainable messages are credible and fail to ensure that there is alignment between a client's corporate practices and external communications. This often leads to passed up marketing opportunities and hinders the creation of positive brand value. To overcome those barriers advertising agencies must gain expertise and experience in the fields of sustainable advertising, so the promotion of sustainability issues becomes part of a real corporate philosophy advertised through all communication channels.
See also
Carrying capacity
Ecological economics
Ecologically sustainable development
Green building
Greenwashing
Limits to growth
List of sustainability topics
Sustainable living
Sustainable yield
Zero carbon city
Notes
References
Further reading
Sustainability
Advertising
Environmental communication
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelmendi%20%28tribe%29
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Kelmendi (tribe)
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Kelmendi is a historical Albanian tribe (fis) and region in Malësia (Kelmend municipality) and eastern Montenegro (parts of Gusinje Municipality). It is located in the upper valley of the Cem river and its tributaries in the Accursed Mountains range of the Dinaric Alps. The Vermosh river springs in the village of the same, which is Albania's northernmost village. Vermosh pours into Lake Plav.
Kelmendi is mentioned as early as the 14th century and as a territorial tribe it developed in the 15th century. In the Balkans, it is widely known historically for its longtime resistance to the Ottoman Empire and its extensive battles and raids against the Ottomans which reached as far north as Bosnia and as far east as Bulgaria. By the 17th century, they had grown so much in numbers and strength that their name was sometimes used for all tribes of northern Albania and Montenegro. The Ottomans tried several times to expel them completely from their home territory and forcefully settle them elsewhere, but the community returned to its ancestral lands again and again.
Kelmendi's legacy is found throughout the region. Kelmendi is found beyond the Cem valley (Selcë, Vukël, Nikç and others), Gusinje (in particular, the villages Vusanje, Doli, Martinovići and Gusinje itself) and Plav (Hakaj) to the east in Rožaje and the Pešter plateau. In Kosovo, descendants of Kelmendi live in the Rugova Canyon and western Kosovo mainly. In Montenegro, half of the tribe (pleme) of Old Ceklin and a part of Kuči which settled there in the 16th century come from Kelmendi. The northernmost settlement from Kelmendi is in the villages of Hrtkovci and Nikinci in Syrmia when 1,600 Catholic Albanian refugees settled there in 1737.
Name
A folk etymology explains it as Kol Mendi. The historical origin of the toponym is traced to the Roman fort of Clementiana which Procopius of Caesarea mentions in the mid 6th century in the road that connected Scodra and Petrizên. As a surname it first appears in 1353 in a Latin document which mentions dominus Georgius filius Georgii Clementi de Spasso (Lord Georgius, son of Georgius Clementi of Spas) in northern Albania.
Geography
The Kelmendi region is located in the District of Malësi e Madhe in northern Albania, situated in the northernmost and most isolated part of the country. It borders the Albanian tribal regions of Gruda to the west, Hoti to the southwest, Boga to the south, Shala to the east, and the Montenegrin tribal regions of Kuči and Vasojevići to the north.
History
Early
There are many theories on the place of origin of the Kelmendi. Before the 20th century, several travellers, historians and clergymen have recorded various oral traditions and presented their own interpretations. In modern times, archival research has provided a more historically grounded approach. Milan Šufflay in the 1920s found the first reference to the Kelmendi name in the Venetian archives. The publication of the Ottoman defter of the sanjak of Scutari in 1974 marks the publication of the first historical record about the people of Kelmendi, their anthroponymy, toponymy and social organization.
In the early centuries of Kelmendi, in the 15th and 16th centuries the only information that is mentioned about them is their language, ethnic group and religion. As Catholic bishop Frang Bardhi writes in his correspondence with the Roman Curia, they belong to the Albanian nation, speak Albanian, hold our holy Roman Catholic beliefs. The first writing about Kelmendi's area of origin is from Franciscan missionary, Bernardo da Verona who in 1663 wrote that it is not easy to make comments about Kelmendi's origin, but it has become customary to say that they came from Kuči or one of the neighbouring tribes.. The second commentary about Kelmendi's place of origin comes in 1685 in a letter by Catholic archbishop Pjetër Bogdani who writes that according to oral stories the progenitor of Kelmendi came from the Upper Morača.
French consul Hyacinte Hecquard (1814–1866), noted that all of the Kelmendi (Clementi) except the families called Onos believe that they descend from one ancestor, Clemens or Clement (Kelment or Kelmend in Albanian). A Franciscan priest in Shkodra, Gabriel recounted a story about a Clemens who was a Venetian who was a priest in Venetian Dalmatia and Herzegovina before taking refuge in Albania. The story went on to say he originated from either of those two provinces, and that he was encountered by a pastor in Triepshi.
Johann Georg von Hahn recorded the most widely spread oral tradition about Kelmendi's origins in 1850. According it a rich herdsman in the region of Triepshi (which administratively in the past fell within Kuci) employed as a herdsman a young man who came to Triepshi from an unknown region. The young man had an affair with Bumçe, the daughter of the rich herdsman. When she became pregnant, the two were married but because their affair was punishable by customary law they left the area and settled to the south in the present Kelmendi area. Their seven sons are the historical ancestors of the settlements of Kelmendi in Albania and the Sandžak. Kola, the eldest is the founder of Selcë. Johan Georg von Hahn placed the settlement of Kelmendi's progenitor in Bestana, southern Kelmend.
Yugoslav anthropologist Andrija Jovićević recorded several similar stories about their origin. One story has it that the founder settled from Lajqit e Hotit, in Hoti, and to Hoti from Fundane, the village of Lopare in Kuči; he was upset with the Hoti and Kuči, and therefore left those tribes. When he lived in Lopare, he married a girl from Triepshi, who followed him. His name was Amati, and his wife's name was Bumçe. According to others, his name was Klement, from where the tribe received its name. Another story, which Jovićević had heard in Selce, was that the founder was from Piperi, a poor man that had worked as a servant for a wealthy Kuči, there he sinned with a girl from a noble family, and left via the Cem.
In oral tradition, Bumçe, the wife of Kelmendi came from the Bekaj brotherhood of Triepshi.
The first historical record about Kelmendi is the Ottoman defter of the sanjak of Scutari 1497, which was a supplementary registry to that of 1485. The defter of households and property was initially carried out in 1485, but Kelmendi doesn't appear in the registry as they resisted the entry of the Ottoman soldiers in their lands. It had 152 households in two villages divided in five pastoral communities (katund). The katund of Liçeni lived in the village of Selçisha, while the other four (Leshoviq, Muriq, Gjonoviq, Kolemadi) lived in the village of Ishpaja. The heads of the five katunds were: Rabjan son Kolë (Liçeni), Marash son of Lazar (Gjonoviq), Stepan son of Ulgash (Muriq), Lulë son Gjergj (Kolemadi). Kelmendi was exempted from almost all taxes to the new central authorities. Of the five katuns of Kelmendi, in four the name Kelmend appears as a patronym (Liçeni, Gjonoviq, Leshoviq, Muriq), an indication of kinship ties between them. The leader of Liçeni in Selca Rabjan of Kola recalls the oral tradition of the son Kelmend, Kola who founded Selca and who had three sons: Vui, Mai and Rabin Kola.
The katun that was spelled as Kolemadi in the defter belongs to the historical tribe of Goljemadhi that became part of Kelmendi.
In the Ottoman register of the area of Corinth (southern Greece), there are two Albanian villages called Kelmendi. Their names indicate that the settlers who founded them came from the region of Kelmendi.
Ottoman
The self-governing rights of northern Albanian tribes like Kelmendi and Hoti increased when their status changed from florici to derbendci, which required mountain communities to maintain and protect land routes, throughout the countryside, which connected regional urban centres. In return they were exempted from extraordinary taxes. The Kelmendi were to guarantee safe passage to passengers in the route from Shkodra to western Kosovo (Altun-ili) and that which passed through Medun and reached Plav.
As early as 1538, the Kelmendi rose up against the Ottomans again and appear to have done so also in 1565 as Kuči and Piperi were also in rebellion. The 1582–83 defter recorded the nahiya of Clementi with two villages (Selca and Ishpaja) and 70 households. The katunds of the previous century had either settled permanently or moved to other areas like Leshoviq which moved northwards and settled in Kuči. Thus, the population in Kelmendi was less than half in 1582 in comparison to 1497. Anthroponymy remained roughly the same as in 1497 as most names were Albanian and some showed Slavic influence. In the mid-1580s, the Kelmendi seemed to have stopped paying taxes to the Ottomans. They had by this time gradually come to dominate all of northern Albania. They were mobile and went raiding in what is today Kosovo, Bosnia, Serbia and even as far as Plovdiv in Bulgaria.
Venetian documents from 1609 mention the Kelmendi, the tribes of the Dukagjin highlands and others as being in a conflict with the Ottomans for 4 consecutive years. The local Ottomans were unable to counter them and were thus forced to ask the Bosnian Pasha for help.
Kelmendi was very well known in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries because of it constant rebellion against the Ottomans. This caused the name of Kelmendi to be used as a synonym for all Albanian and Montenegrin tribes of the Ottoman borderlands as they were the best known community of that region to outsiders. Thus, Marino Bizzi (1570–1624), the Archbishop of Bar writes in 1610 that the Kelmendi peoples, who are almost entirely Latin, speak Albanian and Dalmatian and are divided in ten katuns: Kelmendi, Gruda, Hoti, Kastrati, Shkreli, Tuzi all Latins and Bjelopavlici, Piperi, Bratonosici, these are Dalmatians and Kuci of whom half are schismatics and half Latin.
In 1613, the Ottomans launched a campaign against the rebel tribes of Montenegro. In response, the tribes of the Vasojevići, Kuči, Bjelopavlići, Piperi, Kastrati, Kelmendi, Shkreli and Hoti formed a political and military union known as “The Union of the Mountains” or “The Albanian Mountains”. The leaders swore an oath of besa to resist with all their might any upcoming Ottoman expeditions, thereby protecting their self-government and disallowing the establishment of the authority of the Ottoman Spahis in the northern highlands. Their uprising had a liberating character. With the aim of getting rid of the Ottomans from the Albanian territories Bizzi reported an incident in 1613 in which an Ottoman commander, Arslan Pasha, raided the villages of the Kelmendi and started taking prisoners, until an agreement was reached with the Kelmendi clans. According to the agreement, the Kelmendi would surrender fifteen of their members as slaves, and pay a tribute of 1,000 ducats to the Ottomans. However, as Arslan Pasha waited for the payment of the tribute, the Kelmendi ambushed part of his troops and killed about thirty cavalrymen. After this incident the Ottoman troops retreated to Herceg Novi (Castelnuovo). Mariano Bolizza recorded the "Climenti" in his 1614 report as being a Roman rite village, describing them as "an untiring, valorous and extremely rapacious people", with 178 houses, and 650 men in arms commanded by Smail Prentashev and Peda Suka. In 1614, they, along with the tribes of Kuči, Piperi and Bjelopavlići, sent a letter to the kings of Spain and France claiming they were independent from Ottoman rule and did not pay tribute to the empire.
Clashes with the Ottomans continued through the 1630 and culminate in 1637-38 where the tribe would repel an army of 12,000 (according to some sources 30,000) commanded by Vutsi Pasha of the Bosnia Eyalet.
According to Albanian bishop Frang Bardhi writing in 1638, the Kelmendi tribe grew very rich by attacking and stealing merchandise from Christian merchants in Albania, Bosnia and Serbia, killing those who resisted them. After merchants travelled to Constantinople, and representative of the local population of Novi Pazar and northern Kosovo sent a petition, to complain about Klemendi raids and ask for protection, the Sultan ordered Vučo Pasha, the Pasha of Bosnia, to lead the 1638 Ottoman expedition against Kelmendi.
According to Bardhi after being ambushed by the tribe in the mountains and suffering heavy casualties the Ottoman force returned to Bosnia. Robert Elsie calls Bardhi's report a "glorified text about the Kelmendi tribe". The legend of Nora of Kelmendi would come to life during this epic struggles.
According to French historian Ernest Lavisse and to François Lenormant, in 1638 Sultan Mourad IV asked Doudjé-Pasha, the governor of Bosnia, to lead a punitive expedition, in the heart of winter, against the Kelmendi. The tribe weakened by famine and lacking ammunition, put up a desperate defense, rolling huge blocks of rock from the tops of the mountains onto the Turkish army. The death of their knèze Vokodoud, killed in a fight, and a few days after that of the Voivode Hotasch, whom the Pasha himself surprised by climbing an inaccessible peak with crampons, deprived the Clementi of their best chiefs and determined their submission, the other Kelmendi leaders were decapitated by the Ottomans and their heads sent to the Sultan.
When Pasha of Herzegovina attacked city of Kotor 1657, Albanian tribes of Kelmendi and Bjelopavlići also participated in this battle
In the Cretan War the Kelmendi played a tactical role between the Ottomans and the Venetians. In 1664, Evliya Çelebi mentioned Kelmendi Albanians among the "infidel warriors" he saw manning Venetian ships in the harbour of Split. The Kelmendi promised support to whichever side would fulfil their requests. in 1666, for instance some of the Kelmendi supported the Ottomans on condition that they be exempted from paying tribute for five years. Some of them also converted to Islam.
In 1651, they aided the army of Ali-paša Čengić, which attacked Kotor; the army raided and destroyed many monasteries in the region. In 1658, the seven tribes of Kuči, Vasojevići, Bratonožići, Piperi, Kelmendi, Hoti and Gruda allied themselves with the Republic of Venice, establishing the so-called "Seven-fold barjak" or "alaj-barjak", against the Ottomans.
The Kelmendi appear in a report of 1671 written by the apostolic visitor Stefano Gaspari. According to the report, the Kelmendi had constructed a church dedicated to Saint Clement in the settlement of Speia di Clementi (Ishpaja) 20 years earlier in 1651, that was used by the entire tribal community to attend mass and receive the holy sacrament. Gaspari also reports that the Kelmendi were primarily concentrated in the following villages: Morichi (Muriqi) with six households and 40 inhabitants; Genovich (Gjonoviq or Gjenoviq) with seven households and 60 inhabitants; Lesovich (Leshoviq) with 15 households and 120 inhabitants; Melossi with seven households and 40 inhabitants; Vucli (Vukël) with 32 households and 200 inhabitants; Rvesti with six households and 30 inhabitants; Zecca (Zeka) with seven households and 40 inhabitants; Selza di Clementi (Selcë) with 28 households and 250 inhabitants; and the villages of Rabiena and Radenina which, together, had 60 households and 400 inhabitants. However, it is also reported that the Kelmendi had come to occupy and absorb the plateau of Nixi (Nikç) and Roiochi, which collectively had 112 households and 660 inhabitants, following a series of incursions and attacks on the local population.
In 1685, Süleyman, sanjak-bey of Scutari, annihilated the bands of Bajo Pivljanin that supported Venice at the Battle on Vrtijeljka. Süleyman was said to have been aided by the Brđani (including the Kelmendi), who were in feud with the Montenegrin tribes. The Kelmendi lived off of plundering. Plav, Gusinje, and the Orthodox population in those regions suffered the most from the Kelmendi's attacks. The Kelmendi also raided the Pejë area, and they were so powerful there that some villages and small towns paid them tribute. In March 1688, Süleyman attacked the Kuči tribe; the Kuči, with help from Kelmendi and Piperi, destroyed the army of Süleyman twice, took over Medun and got their hands of large quantities of weapons and equipment. In 1692, Süleyman defeated the Montenegrins at Cetinje, once again with the help of the Brđani.
In 1689 the Kelmendi volunteered in the Imperial Army of the Holy Roman Empire during the Kosovo campaign. Initially they were serving Süleyman, but after negotiations with a Venetian official, they abandoned the Ottoman ranks. In October 1689, Arsenije III Čarnojević allied himself with the Habsburgs, gaining the title of Duke. He met up with Silvio Piccolomini in November, and put under his wings a large army of Serbs, including some Kelmendi. However, Noel Malcolm does not support this statement at all since he has found sources which confirms that, Arsenje III Čarnojevíc, did not meet with General Piccolomini in Kosovo, but instead Pjeter Bogdani did since he was there in the name of the Kelmendi army, he was then given the name Patriarch of Kelmendi, by the Habsburgs.
In 1700, the pasha of Pejë, Hudaverdi Mahmut Begolli, resolved to take action against the continuing Kelmendi depredations in western Kosovo. With the help of other mountain tribes, he managed to block the Kelmendi in their homelands, the gorge of the upper Cem river, from three sides and advanced on them with his own army from Gusinje, In 1702, having worn them down by starvation, he forced the majority of them to move to the Peshter plateau. Only the people of Selcë were allowed to stay in their homes. Their chief had converted to Islam, and promised to convert his people to. A total of 251 Kelmendi households (1,987 people) were resettled in the Pešter area on that occasion. Other were resettled in Gjilan, Kosovo. However five years later the exiled Kelmendi managed to fight their way back to their homeland, and in 1711 they sent out a large raiding force to bring back some other from Pešter too.
In the 18th century, Hoti and Kelmendi assisted the Kuči and Vasojevići in the battles against the Ottomans; after that unsuccessful war, a part of the Kelmendi fled their lands. After the defeat in 1737, under Archbishop Arsenije IV Jovanović Šakabenta, a significant number of Serbs and Kelmendis retreated into the north, Habsburg territory. Around 1,600 of them settled in the villages of Nikinci and Hrtkovci, where they later adopted a Croat identity.
In ca. 1897, the Boga would become a fully integrated bajrak of the Kelmendi tribe.
Modern
During the Albanian revolt of 1911 on 23 June Albanian tribesmen and other revolutionaries gathered in Montenegro and drafted the Greçë Memorandum demanding Albanian sociopolitical and linguistic rights with three of the signatories being from Kelmendi. In later negotiations with the Ottomans, an amnesty was granted to the tribesmen with promises by the government to build one to two primary schools in the nahiye of Kelmendi and pay the wages of teachers allocated to them.
On May 26, 1913, 130 leaders of Gruda, Hoti, Kelmendi, Kastrati and Shkreli sent a petition to Cecil Burney in Shkodër against the incorporation of their territories into Montenegro. Baron Franz Nopcsa, in 1920, puts the Kelmendi as the first of the Albanian clans, as the most frequently mentioned of all.
By the end of the Second World War, the Albanian Communists sent its army to northern Albania to destroy their rivals, the nationalist forces. The communist forces met open resistance in Nikaj-Mertur, Dukagjin and Kelmend, which were anti-communist. Kelmend was headed by Prek Cali. On January 15, 1945, a battle between the Albanian 1st Brigade and nationalist forces was fought at the Tamara Bridge. Communist forces lost 52 soldiers, while in their retaliation about 150 people in Kelmend people were brutally killed. Their leader Prek Cali was executed.
This event was the starting point of other dramas, which took place during Enver Hoxha's dictatorship. Class struggle was strictly applied, human freedom and human rights were denied, Kelmend was isolated both by the border and by lack of roads for other 20 years, agricultural cooperative brought about economic backwardness, life became a physical blowing action etc. Many Kelmendi people fled, some others froze by bullets and ice when trying to pass the border.
Tradition
During Easter processions in Selcë and Vukël the kore, a child-eating demon, was burnt symbolically. In Christmas time alms were placed upon ancestors' graves. As in other northern Albanian clans the Kanun (customary law) that is applied in Kelmend is that of The Mountains ().
Families
Kelmend
The region consists of six primary villages: Boga, Nikç, Selcë, Tamarë, Vermosh and Vukël, all part of the Kelmend municipality. In terms of historical regions, Kelmendi neighbours and Hoti neighbours are Kuči , to the west, and the Vasojevići to the north. In the late Ottoman period, the tribe of Kelmendi consisted of 500 Catholic and 50 Muslim households. The following lists are of families in the Kelmend region by village of origin (they may live in more than one village):
Vermosh
Hysaj
Peraj
Cali
Hasanaj
Hasangjekaj
Hasani
Racaj
Lelçaj
Lekutanaj
Lumaj
Macaj
Mitaj
Mernaçaj
Naçaj
Miraj
Pllumaj
Preljocaj (also Tinaj)
Bujaj
Selmanaj
Shqutaj
Vukaj
Vuktilaj
Vushaj
Vukël
Bardhecaj
Pepushaj
Vukel
Nilaj
Vucinaj
Vucaj
Mirukaj
Gjikolli
Drejaj
Martini
Aliaj
Dacaj
Gjelaj
Nicaj
Kajabegolli
Nikç
Delaj
Djala
Smajlaj
Preldakaj
Nikçi
Rukaj
Gildedaj
Prekelezaj
Hasaj
Nikac
Kapaj
Ujkaj
Alijaj
Hutaj
Bikaj
Bakaj
Tamarë
Rukaj
Mernaçaj
Lelcaj
Vukaj
Cekaj
Selcë
Kelmendi
Miraj
Tinaj
Mernaçaj
Vushaj
Pllumaj
Lekutanaj
Vukaj
Rugova
Selca
Montenegro
Plav-Gusinje
Ahmetaj or Ahmetović, in Vusanje. They descend from a certain Ahmet Nikaj, son of Nika Nrrelaj and grandson of Nrrel Balaj, and are originally from Vukël in northern Albania.
Bacaj
Balaj (Balić), in Grnčar. Immigrated to Plav-Gusinje in 1698 from the village of Vukël or Selcë in northern Albania and converted to Islam the same year. The clan's closest relatives are the Balidemaj. Legend has it that the Balaj, Balidemaj and Vukel clans descended from three brothers. However, a member of the Vukel clan married a member of the Balić clan, later resulting in severed relations with the Vukel clan.
Balidemaj (Bal(j)idemaj/Balidemić), in Martinovići. This branch of the clan remained Catholic for three generations, until Martin's great-grandson converted to Islam, taking the name Omer. Since then, the family was known as Omeraj. Until recently was the family's name changed to Balidemaj, named after Bali Dema, an army commander in the Battle of Novšiće (1789). The clan's closest relatives are the Balajt. Legend has it that the Balaj, Balidemaj and Vukel clans descended from three brothers.
Bruçaj, they are descendants of a Catholic Albanian named Bruç Nrrelaj, son of Nrrel Balaj, and are originally from Vukël in northern Albania.
Cakaj
Canaj, in the villages of Bogajići, Višnjevo and Đurička Rijeka. Immigrated to Plav-Gusinje in 1698 from the village of Vukël in northern Albania and converted to Islam the same year.
Çelaj, in the villages of Vusanje and Vojno Selo. Claims descendance from Nrrel Balaj. The Nikça family are part of the Çelaj.
Dedushaj, in Vusanje. They are descendants of a Catholic Albanian named Ded (Dedush) Balaj, son of Nrrel Balaj, and are originally from Vukel in northern Albania.
Berisha
Hakaj, in Hakanje.
Hasilović, in Bogajiće.
Goçaj, in Vusanje.
Gjonbalaj, in Vusanje, with relatives in Vojno Selo. Their ancestor, a Catholic Albanian named Gjon Balaj, immigrated with his sons: Bala, Aslan, Tuça and Hasan; along with his brother, Nrrel, and his children: Nika, Ded (Dedush), Stanisha, Bruç and Vuk from the village of Vukël in northern Albania to the village of Vusanje/Vuthaj in the late-17th century. Upon arriving, Gjon and his descendants settled in the village Vusanje/Vuthaj and converted to Islam and were known as the Gjonbalaj. Relatives include Ahmetajt, Bruçajt, Çelajt, Goçaj, Lekajt, Selimajt, Qosajt, Ulajt, Vuçetajt.
Kukaj, in Vusanje
Lecaj, in Martinovići. They are originally from Vukël in northern Albania.
Lekaj, in Gornja Ržanica and Vojno Selo. They are originally from Vukël in northern Albania. They are descendants of a certain Lekë Pretashi Nikaj.
Martini, in Martinovići, GusinjeMartinovići. The eponymous founder, a Catholic Albanian named Martin, immigrated to the village of Trepča in the late 17th century from Selcë.
Hasangjekaj, in Martinovići, GusinjeMartinovići. They descend from a Hasan Gjekaj from Vukël, a Muslim of the Martini clan.
Prelvukaj, in Martinovići. They descend from a Prelë Vuka from Vukël, of the Martini clan.
Musaj, Immigrated to Plav-Gusinje in 1698 from village Vukël in northern Albania and converted to Islam the same year.
Novaj
Pepaj, in Pepići
Rekaj, in Bogajići, immigrated to Plav-Gusinje circa 1858.
Rugova, in Višnjevo with relatives in Vojno Selo and Babino Polje. They descend from a Kelmend clan of Rugova in Kosovo.
Qosaj/Qosja (Ćosaj/Ćosović), in Vusanje. They are descendants of a certain Qosa Stanishaj, son of Stanisha Nrrelaj and are originally from Vukël in northern Albania.
Selimaj,
Smajić, in Novšići.
Ulaj, in Vusanje. They are originally from Vukël in northern Albania. They are descendants of a certain Ulë Nikaj, son of Nika Nrrelaj.
Vukel, in Dolja. They immigrated to Gusinje in 1675 from the village of Vukël in northern Albania. A certain bey from the Šabanagić clan gave the clan the village of Doli. Also, they are ancestors of Shala brtherhood in Rugova.
Vuçetaj (Vučetaj/Vučetović), in Vusanje. They are originally from Vukël in northern Albania. They are descendants of a certain Vuçetë Nikaj, son of Nika Nrrelaj.
Zejnelović in Gusinje, oral tradition shows that most Zejnelović migrated east to Rozhaje, and Kruševo
Skadarska Krajina and Šestani
Dabović, in Gureza, Livari and Gornji Šestani. Can be found in Shkodër. Their relatives are the Lukić clan in Krajina.
Lukić - Related to the Dabović clan in Krajina.
Radovići, in Zagonje.
Elsewhere
The families of Dobanovići, Popovići and Perovići in Seoca in Crmnica hail from Kelmend. Other families hailing from Kelmend include the Mujzići in Ćirjan, Džaferovići in Besa, and the Velovići, Odžići and Selmanovići in Donji Murići. The Mari and Gorvoki families, constituting the main element of the Koći brotherhood of Kuči, hail from Vukël.
In Rugova, Kosovo, the majority of the modern Albanian population descends from the Kelmendi. The Kelmendi fis in Rugova also include immigrant Shkreli, Kastrati and Shala families, but later is confirmed that Shala brotherhood is not related to that tribe, indeed they came from the Vukel brotherhood. A number of families of Kelmendi descent also live in Prizren and Lipjan. The oldest Kelmendi families in Rugova, the Lajqi, claim descent from a Nika who settled there.
Notable people
By birth
Prek Cali (1872–1945), Kelmendi chieftain, rebel leader, World War II guerrilla. Born in Vermosh.
Nora of Kelmendi (17th century), legendary woman warrior.
By ancestry
Ahmet Zeneli, Albanian freedom fighter. Born in Vusanje.
Ali Kelmendi (1900–1939), Albanian communist. Born in Peja.
Ibrahim Rugova, former President of Kosovo. Born in Istok.
Majlinda Kelmendi, Kosovo Albanian judoka, Born in Peja.
Jeton Kelmendi, Kosovo Albanian writer. Born in Peja.
Sadri Gjonbalaj, Montenegrin-born American footballer. Born in Vusanje.
Bajram Kelmendi (1937–1999), Kosovan lawyer and human rights activist. Born in Peja.
Aziz Kelmendi, Yugoslav soldier and mass murderer. Born in Lipljan.
Faton Bislimi, Albanian activist. Born in Gjilan.
Emrah Klimenta, Montenegrin football player.
References
Sources
Further reading
External links
Discover Kelmend & Shkrel
Kelmend Municipal Unit
Documentary on Logu Bjeshkeve Beauty Contest Tradition (Albanian)
Malësia
Historical regions in Albania
Historical regions in Montenegro
Tribes of Albania
Gegëri
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiriel%20%28poem%29
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Tiriel (poem)
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Tiriel is a narrative poem by William Blake, written c.1789. Considered the first of his prophetic books, it is also the first poem in which Blake used free septenaries, which he would go on to use in much of his later verse. Tiriel was unpublished during Blake's lifetime and remained so until 1874, when it appeared in William Michael Rossetti's Poetical Works of William Blake. Although Blake did not engrave the poem, he did make twelve sepia drawings to accompany the rough and unfinished manuscript, although three of them are considered lost as they have not been traced since 1863.
Synopsis
Many years before the poem begins, the sons of Har and Heva revolted and abandoned their parents. Tiriel subsequently set himself up as a tyrant in the west, driving one of his brothers, Ijim, into exile in the wilderness, and chaining the other, Zazel, in a cave in the mountains. Tiriel then made slaves of his own children, until eventually, led by the eldest son, Heuxos, they too rebelled, overthrowing their father. Upon his demise, Tiriel refused their offer of refuge in the palace, and instead went into exile in the mountains with his wife, Myratana. Five years later, the poem begins with the now blind Tiriel returning to the kingdom with his dying wife, as he wants his children to see her death, believing them to be responsible and cursing them for betraying him five years previously; "Come you accursed sons./In my weak arms. I here have borne your dying mother/Come forth sons of the Curse come forth. see the death of Myratana" (1:7-9). Soon thereafter, Myratana dies, and Tiriel's children again ask him to remain with them but he refuses and wanders away, again cursing them and telling them he will have his revenge;
After some time wandering, Tiriel eventually arrives at the "pleasant gardens" (2:10) of the Vales of Har, where he finds his parents, Har and Heva. However, they have both become senile and have regressed to a childlike state to such an extent that they think their guardian, Mnetha, is their mother. Tiriel lies about who is he is, claiming that he was cast into exile by the gods, who then destroyed his race; "I am an aged wanderer once father of a race/Far in the north. but they were wicked & were all destroyd/And I their father sent an outcast" (2:44-46). Excited by the visit, Har and Heva invite Tiriel to help them catch birds and listen to Har's singing in the "great cage" (3:21). Tiriel refuses to stay, however, claiming his journey is not yet at an end, and resumes his wandering.
He travels into the forest and soon encounters his brother Ijim, who has recently been terrorised by a shapeshifting spirit to whom he refers as "the Hypocrite". Upon seeing Tiriel, Ijim immediately assumes that Tiriel is another manifestation of the spirit;
Tiriel assures Ijim that he is in fact the real Tiriel, but Ijim does not believe him, and decides to return to Tiriel's palace to see the real Tiriel and thus expose the spirit as an imposter; "Impudent fiend said Ijim hold thy glib & eloquent tongue/Tiriel is a king. & thou the tempter of dark Ijim" (4:36-37). However, upon arriving at the palace, Heuxos informs Ijim that the Tiriel with him is indeed the real Tiriel, but Ijim suspects that the entire palace and everyone in it is part of the spirit's deception; "Then it is true Heuxos that thou hast turnd thy aged parent/To be the sport of wintry winds. (said Ijim) is this true/It is a lie & I am like the tree torn by the wind/Thou eyeless fiend. & you dissemblers. Is this Tiriels house/It is as false as Matha. & as dark as vacant Orcus/Escape ye fiends for Ijim will not lift his hand against ye" (4:72-77). As such, Ijim leaves, and upon his departure, Tiriel, descending ever more rapidly into madness, curses his children even more passionately than before;
Upon this declamation, four of his five daughters and one hundred of his one hundred and thirty sons are destroyed, including Heuxos. Tiriel then demands that his youngest and only surviving daughter, Hela, lead him back to the Vales of Har. She reluctantly agrees, but on the journey she denounces him for his actions; "Silence thy evil tongue thou murderer of thy helpless children" (6:35). Tiriel responds in a rage, turning her locks of hair into snakes, although he vows that if she brings him to the Vales of Har, he will return her hair to normal. On the way through the mountains, as they pass the cave wherein lives Zazel and his sons, Hela's cries of lamentation awaken them, and they hurl dirt and stones at Tiriel and Hela, mocking them as they pass; "Thy crown is bald old man. The sun will dry thy brains away/And thou wilt be as foolish as thy foolish brother Zazel" (7:12-13). Eventually Tiriel and Hela reach the Vales of Har, but rather than celebrating his return, Tiriel condemns his parents, and the way they brought him up, declaring that his father's laws and his own wisdom now "end together in a curse" (8:8);
Upon this outburst, Tiriel then dies at his parents' feet; "He ceast outstretch'd at Har & Heva's feet in awful death" (8:29).
Characters
Tiriel – as the former king of the west, Tiriel is of the body in Blake's mythological system, in which the west is assigned to Tharmas, representative of the senses. However, when he visits the Vales of Har, Tiriel falsely claims to be from the north, which is assigned to Urthona, representative of the imagination. Most scholars agree that Tiriel's name was probably taken from Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa's De occulta philosophia libri tres (1651), where the name is associated with the planet Mercury and the elements sulphur and mercury. Harold Bloom, however, believes the name is a combination of the word 'tyrant' and the Hebrew word for God, El. In terms of Tiriel's character, David V. Erdman believes that he is partially based on King George III, who suffered bouts of insanity throughout 1788 and 1789. Erdman argues that "the pattern of Tiriel's "madness and deep dismay" parallels that of King George's," and thus the poem is "a symbolic portrait of the ruler of the British Empire. [Blake] knew that the monarch who represented the father principal of law and civil authority was currently insane." As evidence, Erdman points out that during his bouts of insanity, George tended to become hysterical in the presence of four of his five daughters, only the youngest, (Amelia), could calm him (in the poem, Tiriel destroys four of his daughters but spares the youngest, his favourite). Bloom believes that Tiriel is also partially based on William Shakespeare's King Lear and, in addition, is a satire "of the Jehovah of deistic orthodoxy, irascible and insanely rationalistic." Northrop Frye makes a similar claim; "He expects and loudly demands gratitude and reverence from his children because he wants to be worshipped as a god, and when his demands are answered by contempt he responds with a steady outpouring of curses. The kind of god which the existence of such tyrannical papas suggests is the jealous Jehovah of the Old Testament who is equally fertile in curses and pretexts for destroying his innumerable objects of hatred." Alicia Ostriker believes the character to be partially based on both Oedipus from Sophocles' Oedipus Rex and the prince of Tyre from the Book of Ezekiel (28:1-10), who is denounced by Ezekiel for trying to pass himself off as God. Looking at the character from a symbolic point of view, Frye argues that he "symbolises a society or civilisation in its decline."
Har – Mary S. Hall believes that Har's name was derived from Jacob Bryant's A New System or Analysis of Antient Mythology (1776), where Bryant conflates the Amazonian deities Harmon and Ares with the Egyptian deity Harmonia, wife of Cadmus. Blake had engraved plates for the book in the early 1780s, so he would have certainly have been familiar with its content. As a character, S. Foster Damon believes that Har represents both the "decadent poetry of Blake's day" and the traditional spirit of Christianity. Northrop Frye reaches a similar conclusion, but also sees divergence in the character, arguing that although Har and Heva are based on Adam and Eve, "Har is distinguished from Adam. Adam is ordinary man in his mixed twofold nature of imagination and Selfhood. Har is the human Selfhood which, though men spend most of their time trying to express it, never achieves reality and is identified only as death. Har, unlike Adam, never outgrows his garden but remains there shut up from the world in a permanent state of near-existence." Bloom agrees with this interpretation, arguing that "Har is natural man, the isolated selfhood." Bloom also believes that Har is comparable to Struldbruggs from Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels (1726) and Tithonus from Alfred, Lord Tennyson's poem of the same name (1859). In another sense, Frye suggests that "Har represents the unborn theory of negative innocence established by obeying a moral law." On the other hand, Anne Kostelanetz Mellor sees Har as representing simple innocence and the Vales of Har as representative of Eden. 'Har' is the Hebrew word for 'mountain', thus giving an inherent irony to the phrase "Vales of Har". Damon believes this conveys the ironic sense that "he who was a mountain now lives in a vale, cut off from mankind.
Heva – Frye believes she is "a reduplicate Eve." Damon argues that she represents neoclassical painting.
Ijim – Ostriker feels he represents superstition. Damon believes he represents the power of the common people. Ijim's name could have come from Emanuel Swedenborg's Vera Christiana Religio (1857); "the ochim, tziim and jiim, which are mentioned in the prophetical parts of the Word." In the poem, Ijim encounters a tiger, a lion, a river, a cloud, a serpent, a toad, a rock, a shrub and Tiriel. In Swedenborg, "self-love causes its lusts to appear at a distance in hell where it reigns like various species of wild beasts, some like foxes and leopards, some like wolves and tigers, and some like crocodiles and venomous serpents." The word is also found in the Book of Isaiah 13:21, where it is translated as "satyrs". According to Harold Bloom, "The Ijim are satyrs or wild men who will dance in the ruins of the fallen tyranny, Babylon. Blake's Ijim is a self-brutalised wanderer in a deathly nature [...] The animistic superstitions of Ijim are a popular support for the negative holiness of Tiriel." On the other hand, W.H. Stevenson reads Ijim as "an old-fashioned Puritan – honest but grim, always a ready adversary of Sin." Nancy Bogen believes he may be partially based on William Pitt, especially his actions during the Regency Crisis of 1788.
Zazel – Damon argues that Zazel represents the outcast genius. As with Tiriel, his name was probably taken from Agrippa, where it is associated with Saturn and the element earth. The name could also be a modification of the Hebrew word Azazel, which occurs in the Book of Leviticus, 16:10, and tends to be translated as "scapegoat". Nancy Bogen believes he may be partially based on the Whig politician Charles James Fox, archrival of William Pitt.
Myratana – her name may have come from Myrina, Queen of Mauretania, who was described in Bryant's A New System.
Heuxos – Hall believes the name was derived from the Hyksos, an Asiatic people who invaded the Nile Delta in the Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt c.1720 BC.
Yuva – son of Tiriel
Lotho – son of Tiriel
Hela – Damon argues that she symbolises touch and sexuality. She is possibly named after Hel, the Scandinavian goddess of Hell in Thomas Gray's "The Descent of Odin" (1768).
Mnetha – Damon believes she represents the spirit of neoclassicism, which Blake felt encouraged inferior poetry and painting. He also points out that Mnetha is "almost" an anagram of Athena, goddess of wisdom. Frye suggests that the name is an amalgamation of Athena and Mnemosyne, the personification of memory in Greek mythology. Anne Kostelanetz Mellor sees her as representative of "that memory that preserves the vision of the past."
Clithyma and Makuth – sons of Tiriel mentioned in a deleted passage
Four unnamed daughters and one hundred and twenty-five unnamed sons
Manuscript
Tiriel survives in only a single manuscript copy, located in the British Museum. An eight-page document written in Blake's hand, the manuscript is inscribed "Tiriel / MS. by Mr Blake". It is believed that up to page 8, line 4 ("Lead me to Har & Heva I am Tiriel King of the west"), the poem is a fair copy, transcribed from somewhere else, but at 8:4 the quantity of corrections and alterations increases, and the writing becomes scribbled and in a different ink to the rest of the poem. This difference has led Erdman to argue that the later part of the poem was not transcribed, but was worked out in the manuscript itself, and may have been rushed. Additionally, many of the handwritten corrections, emendations and deletions in the parts of the poem prior to 8:4 are in the same ink as the lines after 8:4, suggesting Blake went back over the manuscript and revised earlier parts of it when he returned to finish it.
A considerable amount of material has been deleted by Blake in the manuscript. For example, when Tiriel initially arrives in the Vales of Har, he lies about his identity. In the poem as Blake left it, the scene reads "I am not of this region, said Tiriel dissemblingly/I am an aged wanderer once father of a race/Far in the north" (2:43-44). However, in the original manuscript, between these two lines is contained the line "Fearing to tell them who he was, because of the weakness of Har." Similarly, when Har recognises Tiriel he proclaims "Bless thy face for thou are Tiriel" (3:6), to which Tiriel responds "Tiriel I never saw but once I sat with him and ate" (3:7). Between these two lines were originally the lines "Tiriel could scarcely dissemble more & his tongue could scarce refrain/But still he fear'd that Har & Heva would die of joy and grief."
The longest omissions occur during the encounter with Ijim and when Tiriel returns to the Vales of Har. When Ijim arrives at the palace with Tiriel, he begins by saying "Then it is true Heuxos that thou hast turned thy aged parent/To be the sport of wintry winds" (4:72-73). However, originally, Ijim begins
The second large deletion occurs towards the end of the poem, when Tiriel asks Har "Why is one law given to the lion & the patient Ox/And why men bound beneath the heavens in a reptile form" (8:9-10). Originally, however, between these two lines was
A major question concerning the manuscript is whether or not Blake ever intended to illuminate it. Whether he had devised his method for relief etching at the time of composition is unknown, although he did make twelve drawings which were apparently to be included with the poem in some shape or form. Peter Ackroyd suggests that the illustrations, "conceived in the heroic style," were inspired by the work of James Barry and George Romney, both of whom Blake admired and were intended for illustration rather than illumination. Most scholars agree with this theory (i.e. the images wouldn't be combined with the text, they would simply accompany the text) and it has been suggested that Blake abandoned the project when he discovered the technique to realise his desire for full integration of text and image. His first relief etching was The Approach of Doom (1788), and his first successful combination of words and pictures were All Religions are One and There is No Natural Religion (both 1788), but they were experiments only. His first 'real' illuminated book was The Book of Thel (1789) and it is possible that he abandoned Tiriel to work on Thel after making his breakthrough with All Religions and Natural Religion. According to David Bindman, for example, "Tiriel's clear separation of text and design is transitional in being an example of the conventional method of combining text with design implicitly rejected by Blake in developing the method of illuminated printing. He probably abandoned the series because his new technique took him beyond what had now become for him an obsolete method."
Blake's mythology
Although Blake was yet to formulate his mythological system, several preliminary elements of that system are present in microcosm in Tiriel. According to Peter Ackroyd, "the elements of Blake's unique mythology have already begun to emerge. It is the primeval world of Bryant and of Stukeley, which he had glimpsed within engravings of stones and broken pillars." Elements of his later mythology are thus manifested throughout the poem.
Although Northrop Frye speculates that the Vales of Har are located in Ethiopia, due to the pyramids in the illustration Tiriel supporting Myratana, S. Foster Damon believes the poem to be set in Egypt, which is a symbol of slavery and oppression throughout Blake's work. For example, in The Book of Urizen (1794), after the creation of mortal man,
Similarly, in The Book of Los (1795), Urizen is imprisoned within "Coldness, darkness, obstruction, a Solid/Without fluctuation, hard as adamant/Black as marble of Egypt; impenetrable" (Chap. I, Verse 10). Many years later, in On Virgil (1822), Blake claims that "Sacred Truth has pronounced that Greece & Rome as Babylon & Egypt: so far from being parents of Arts & Sciences as they pretend: were destroyers of all Art." Similarly, in The Laocoön (also 1822), he writes "The Gods of Greece & Egypt were Mathematical Diagrams," "These are not the Works/Of Egypt nor Babylon Whose Gods are the Powers of this World. Goddess, Nature./Who first spoil & then destroy Imaginative Art For their Glory is War and Dominion" and "Israel delivered from Egypt is Art delivered from Nature & Imitation."
Another connection to Blake's later mythology is found in The Vales of Har, which are mentioned in The Book of Thel (1789). It is in the Vales where lives Thel herself, and throughout the poem they are represented as a place of purity and innocence; "I walk through the vales of Har. and smell the sweetest flowers" (3:18). At the end of the poem, when Thel is shown the world of experience outside the Vales, she panics and flees back to the safety of her home; "The Virgin started from her seat, & with a shriek./Fled back unhinderd till she came into the vales of Har" (6:21-22).
The characters of Har and Heva also reappear in the Africa section of The Song of Los (1795), which is set chronologically before Tiriel. Disturbed by the actions of their family, Har and Heva flee into the wilderness, and turn into reptiles;
Damon refers to this transformation as turning them into "serpents of materialism," which he relates back to their role in Tiriel.
Har and Ijim are also briefly mentioned in Vala, or The Four Zoas (1796–1803), where Har is the sixteenth son of Los and Enitharmon, and Ijim the eighteenth. Har's immediate father is Satan, representative of self-love in Blake, and his children are Ijim and Ochim (The Four Zoas, VIII:360).
Although Tiriel himself is not featured in any of Blake's later work, he is often seen as a foreshadowing of Urizen, limiter of men's desires, embodiment of tradition and conformity, and a central character in Blake's mythology, appearing in Visions of the Daughters of Albion (1793), America a Prophecy (1793), Europe a Prophecy (1794), The Book of Urizen (1794), The Book of Ahania (1795), The Book of Los (1795), The Song of Los (1795), Vala, or The Four Zoas (1796–1803), Milton a Poem (1804–1810), and Jerusalem The Emanation of the Giant Albion (1804–1820). Tiriel is similar to Urizen insofar as "he too revolted, set himself up as a tyrant, became a hypocrite, ruined his children by his curse, and finally collapsed."
Other aspects of Blake's mythology also begin to emerge during the poem. For example, Damon argues that the death of the four unnamed daughters and the corruption of the fifth is Blake's first presentation of the death of the four senses and the corruption of touch, or sex; "all imaginative activity based on the senses disappears except automatic sexual reproduction. Even this proves too much for his moral virtue." As Damon elaborates, "Hela's Medusan locks are the torturing thoughts of suppressed lust." The corruption of the senses plays an important role throughout Europe a Prophecy ("the five senses whelm'd/In deluge o'er the earth-born man"), The Book of Urizen ("The senses inwards rush'd shrinking,/Beneath the dark net of infection"), The Song of Los ("Thus the terrible race of Los & Enitharmon gave/Laws & Religions to the sons of Har binding them more/And more to Earth: closing and restraining:/Till a Philosophy of Five Senses was complete"), The Four Zoas ("Beyond the bounds of their own self their senses cannot penetrate") and Jerusalem ("As the Senses of Men shrink together under the Knife of flint").
Harold Bloom points out that the points of the compass, which would come to play a vital role in Blake's later mythological system, are used symbolically for the first time in Tiriel; "the reference to "the western plains" in line 2 marks the onset of Blake's directional system, in which the west stands for man's body, with its potential either for sensual salvation or natural decay." In The Four Zoas, Milton and Jerusalem, after the Fall of the primeval man, Albion, he is divided fourfold, and each of the four Zoas corresponds to a point on the compass and an aspect of Fallen man; Tharmas is west (the body), Urizen is south (Reason), Luvah is east (emotions) and Urthona is north (imagination).
Another subtle connection with the later mythological system is found when Tiriel has all but thirty of his sons killed; "And all the children in their beds were cut off in one night/Thirty of Tiriels sons remaind. to wither in the palace/Desolate. Loathed. Dumb Astonishd waiting for black death" (5:32-34). Damon believes this foreshadows The Book of Urizen, where Urizen brings about the fall of the thirty cities of Africa; "And their thirty cities divided/In form of a human heart", "And the thirty cities remaind/Surrounded by salt floods" (27:21-22 and 28:8-9).
Another minor connection to the later mythology is that two lines from the poem are used in later work by Blake. The deleted line "can wisdom be put in a silver rod, or love in a golden bowl?" is found in the Motto from The Book of Thel, and a version of the line "Why is one law given to the lion & the patient Ox?" (8:9) is found as the final line of The Marriage of Heaven and Hell (1790); "One Law for the Lion & Ox is Oppression."
Critical interpretations
Tiriel has provoked a number of divergent critical responses. For example, according to G.E. Bentley, "Tiriel has always proved a puzzle to commentators on Blake." Similarly, Kathleen Raine points out, "this phantasmagoria on the theme of the death of an aged king and tyrant-father may be – indeed, must be – read at several levels." Making much the same point, W.H. Stevenson argues that "the theme is not clearly related to any political, philosophical, religious or moral doctrine."
Northrop Frye reads the poem symbolically, seeing it primarily as "a tragedy of reason," and arguing that "Tiriel is the puritanical iconoclasm and brutalised morality that marks the beginning of cultural decadence of which the lassitude of Deism is the next stage, and Ijim is introduced to show the mental affinity between Deism and savagery."
A different reading is given by S. Foster Damon, who argues that it is "an analysis of the decay and failure of Materialism at the end of the Age of Reason." Similarly, arguing that Har represents Christianity and Heva is an Eve-figure, Damon believes the poem illustrates that "by the end of the Age of Reason, official religion had sunk into the imbecility of childhood."
David V. Erdman looks at the poem from a political perspective, reading it in the light of the commencement of the French Revolution in July 1789, with the Storming of the Bastille. He believes the poem deals both with pre-revolutionary France and "unrevolutionary" England, where people were more concerned with the recently revealed madness of George III than with righting the wrongs of society, as Blake saw them; "in France the people in motion were compelling the King to relax his grasp on the spectre. In England, the royal grasp had suddenly failed but there seemed nothing for the people to do but wait and see [...] when the King's recovery was celebrated, a bit prematurely, in March 1789, "happiness" was again official. Popular movements did exist, but except for the almost subterranean strike of the London blacksmiths for a shorter workday, they were largely humanitarian or pious in orientation and in no immediate sense revolutionary." He also feels the poem deals with "the internal disintegration of despotism," and finds a political motive in Tiriel's final speech, which he sees as inspired by Jean-Jacques Rousseau's Emile, or On Education.
Anne Kostelanetz Mellor also reads the poem as a political tract, although from a very different perspective than Erdman. She argues that the poem engages with "Blake's increasing uncertainty about both the social and the aesthetic implications of a closed form or system" and concludes with the edict that Tiriel's "repressive reign of deceit, slander, discontent and despair enslaves not only the ruled but the ruler as well [...] his closed mind, chained to closed palaces and legal systems ends by destroying both itself and everything over which it gains power. In this sense, she reads Tiriel's final speech as "reflecting the agony of a self trapped in the repressive social mores and intellectual absolutism of eighteenth century England."
Harold Bloom, however, is not convinced of a political interpretation, arguing instead that "Tiriel's failure to learn until too late the limitations of his self-proclaimed holiness is as much a failure in a conception of divinity as it is of political authority."
Another theory is suggested by Peter Ackroyd, who argues that the poem is "a fable of familial blindness and foolishness – fathers against sons, brother against brother, a family dispersed and alienated – which concludes with Blake's belief in the spiritual rather than the natural, man."
Alicia Ostriker believes that the poem deals with "the failure of natural law."
Perhaps the most common theory, however, is summarised by Nelson Hilton, who argues that it "suggests in part a commentary on the state of the arts in an age which could conceive of poetry as a golden structure built with "harmony of words, harmony of numbers" (John Dryden) [...] exchanging the present for the past, Tiriel views late eighteenth-century English artistic material and practice as an impotent enterprise with nothing left but to curse its stultifying ethos of decorum and improvement." Hilton is here building on the work of Damon, who argued that Mnetha represents "neoclassical criticism, which protects decadent poetry (Har) and painting (Heva)." Additionally, Har sings in a "great cage" (3:21), which to Damon suggests the heroic couplet, which Blake abhorred. Hilton believes the phrase "great cage" recalls the poem 'Song: "How sweet I roamd from field to field"' from Poetical Sketches (1783), which also deals with oppression and failure to achieve fulfillment. Similarly, in this same line of interpretation, Ostriker argues that "our singing birds" (3:20) and "fleeces" (3:21) suggest neoclassical lyric poetry and pastoral poetry, while Erdman argues that "To catch birds & gather them ripe cherries" (3:13) "signifies triviality and sacchurnity of subject matter", whilst "sing in the great cage" (3:21) "signifies rigidity of form."
Adaptations
Tiriel () is a 1985 opera with libretto and music by Russian/British composer Dmitri Smirnov partially based on Blake's text. The opera incorporates material from several of Blake's other poems; the "Introduction", "A Cradle Song" and "The Divine Image" from Songs of Innocence (1789), and "The Tyger" from Songs of Innocence and of Experience (1794).
References
Citations
Further reading
Ackroyd, Peter. Blake (London: Vintage, 1995)
Behrendt, Stephen C. "The Worst Disease: Blake's Tiriel", Colby Library Quarterly, 15:3 (Fall, 1979), 175-87
Bentley, G.E. and Nurmi, Martin K. A Blake Bibliography: Annotated Lists of Works, Studies and Blakeana (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1964)
Bentley, G.E. (ed.) Tiriel: facsimile and transcript of the manuscript, reproduction of the drawings and a commentary on the poem (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1967)
. (ed.) William Blake: The Critical Heritage (London: Routledge, 1975)
. Blake Books: Annotated Catalogues of William Blake's Writings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1977)
. William Blake's Writings (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1978)
. The Stranger from Paradise: A Biography of William Blake (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001)
Bindman, David. "Blake as a Painter" in Morris Eaves (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to William Blake (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 85-109
Bogen, Nancy. "A New Look at Blake's Tiriel", BYNPL, 73 (1969), 153-165
Damon, S. Foster. A Blake Dictionary: The Ideas and Symbols of William Blake (Hanover: University Press of New England 1965; revised ed. 1988)
Erdman, David V. Blake: Prophet Against Empire (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1954; 2nd ed. 1969; 3rd ed. 1977)
. (ed.) The Complete Poetry and Prose of William Blake (New York: Anchor Press, 1965; 2nd ed. 1982; Newly revised ed. 1988)
Essick, Robert N. "The Altering Eye: Blake's Vision in the Tiriel Designs" in Morton D. Paley and Michael Phillips (eds.), Essays in Honour of Sir Geoffrey Keynes (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1973), 50-65
Frye, Northrop. Fearful Symmetry: A Study of William Blake (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1947)
Gilchrist, Alexander. Life of William Blake, "Pictor ignotus". With selections from his poems and other writings (London: Macmillan, 1863; 2nd ed. 1880; rpt. New York: Dover Publications, 1998)
Hall, Mary S. "Tiriel: Blake's Visionary Form Pedantic", BYNPL, 73 (1969), 166-176
Raine, Kathleen. "Some Sources of Tiriel", Huntington Library Quarterly, 21:1 (November, 1957), 1-36
. Blake and Tradition (New York: Routledge, 1968)
Hilton, Nelson. "Literal/Tiriel/Material", in Dan Miller, Mark Bracher and Donald Ault (eds.), Critical Paths: Blake and the Argument of Method (Durham: Duke University Press, 1987), 99-110
. "Blake's Early Works" in Morris Eaves (ed.) The Cambridge Companion to William Blake (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003), 191-209
Keynes, Geoffrey. (ed.) The Complete Writings of William Blake, with Variant Readings (London: Nonesuch Press, 1957; 2nd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1966)
Mellor, Anne Kostelanetz. Blake's Human Form Divine (Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1974)
Ostriker, Alicia (ed.) William Blake: The Complete Poems (London: Penguin, 1977)
Ostrom, Hans. "Blake's Tiriel and the Dramatization of Collapsed Language," Papers On Language and Literature, 19:2 (Spring, 1983), 167-182
Sampson, John (ed.) The poetical works of William Blake; a new and verbatim text from the manuscript engraved and letterpress originals (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1905)
Schuchard, Marsha Keith. "Blake's Tiriel and the Regency Crisis: Lifting the Veil on a Royal Masonic Scandal", in Jackie DiSalvo, G.A. Rosso and Christopher Z. Hobson (eds.), Blake, Politics, and History (New York: Garland, 1998) 115-35
Spector, Sheila A. "Tiriel as Spenserian Allegory Manqué", Philological Quarterly, 71:3 (Autumn, 1992), 313-35
Stevenson, W.H. (ed.) Blake: The Complete Poems (Longman Group: Essex, 1971; 2nd ed. Longman: Essex, 1989; 3rd ed. Pearson Education: Essex, 2007)
External links
William Blake Dreamer of Dreams article
Stephen C. Behrendt, "The Worst Disease: Blake's Tiriel", Colby Library Quarterly, 15:3 (Fall, 1979), 175-87
1789 poems
British poems
Poetry by William Blake
William Blake
William Blake's mythology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurika%20Rauch
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Laurika Rauch
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Laurika Rauch, (born 1 November 1950 in Cape Town) is a South African singer who performs in both Afrikaans and English. She had a hit single in 1979 with Kinders van die Wind (Children of the Wind), written by Koos du Plessis. The song featured prominently in the Afrikaans television series "Phoenix & Kie" in the late seventies.
Early life
Laurika was born in Cape Town on 1 November as the youngest child of Fritz and Rina Rauch. Her father was the public relations manager at Old Mutual until his retirement and her
mother was a trained social worker, the editor of Die Huisvrou magazine and was also very involved in charity work, especially amongst the elderly. She started playing the piano at the age of five, and sang alto in Oom Hannes Uys se Kindersangkring, a children’s choir from Pinelands, for 10 years.
Laurika matriculated at Jan van Riebeeck High School in Cape Town, studied drama at the University of Stellenbosch and obtained her degree in 1972. She moved to Gauteng in 1974 and became a household name in 1979 with the release of her first hit, Kinders van die wind. It was the first Afrikaans song in the late seventies to simultaneously reach the number one position on the Radio 5 and Springbok radio hit parades.
Career
,She was an actress with PACT PLAYWORK in 1975-1976 under the leadership of Robin Malan. In the early eighties she also attracted attention with her interpretation of Jacques Brel’s music
with her performances in Taubie Kushlick's two Jacques Brel productions at the Chelsea Theatre in Hillbrow.
In August 1996, Laurika performed with the Transvaal Philharmonic Orchestra (renamed NAPOP, now disbanded) in the Opera of the State Theatre in a program that consisted entirely of her repertoire. Both performances were sold out. Laurika has performed in Belgium, The Netherlands, Germany, London, the Czech Republic, New Zealand, and Australia. In December 1993, she performed for an audience of 13,000 people in Utrecht, accompanied by the well-known Metropole Orchestra.
In March 1997 the Charles University in Prague invited her and her pianist (Fanie Fouché) to represent Afrikaans as the youngest member of the Dutch language group to an audience of academics from Europe and Eastern Europe. The performances formed part of the Department of Neerlandistiek’s 75th Jubilee festivities at the university.
Laurika is married to Christopher Torr, the composer and writer of many of her hits, such as Stuur Groete aan Mannetjies Roux, Op Blouberg se Strand, Hot gates, Die Gang, Die mense op die Bus, My ou Tante Koba, Die Siener, Stille waters and many more. In 2011, Chris's first musical - Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux - was staged. It played to more than 50 sold-out performances in four main centres. The film titled Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux, which is based on the play, with Anna-Mart van der Merwe and Ian Roberts in lead roles, was released in 2013.
In September 2013, she toured Australia and New Zealand. Laurika and her team performed in Auckland, Brisbane, Melbourne, and Perth.
Laurika released her first album in 4 years, Wals, wals, Willemien in 2014, Die reis followed in October 2016 and Gunstelinge in October 2017. In 2018, she performed with Loki Rothman at the Festival voor het Afrikaans in Amsterdam. In 2019, she commemorated her 40 years in the music industry by releasing a limited edition (1000 copies) box set of 15 of her most loved albums, titled Laurika Rauch: 40 Jaar.
Chris and Laurika have two children - Simon and Nina, and a first grandchild.
‘Encore! Brel’ and ‘Met permissie gesê’
After the success of ‘Kinders van die wind’ and her ‘Debuut’-album, the singer and songwriter Anton Goosen asked her in October 1979 to accompany him on a tour. At that time Goosen was also establishing a name for himself with his original Afrikaans music and his hit ‘Kruidjie-Roer-my-nie’. Before him it was often the case that German and other songs of foreign origin were translated and released in South Africa. Original local songwriters were few and far between. The tours did much to further establish Rauch's name.
Around this time the ‘grand dame’ of theatre, Taubie Kushlick, heard of Rauch. In 1980 she asked her for an audition as she was looking for somebody to interpret the music of the Belgian songwriter Jacques Brel in a new production with Ann Hamblin and Ferdie Uphof. Kushlick quickly decided that this "boeremeisie" (Afrikaner girl)– as she called Rauch – was the appropriate choice for her new production, ‘Encore! Brel’. It was a great success and played for six months in the Chelsea Theatre in Hillbrow. An ensuing production, ‘The Best of Brel’, followed in 1983.
In 1981 she was also in the cast of ‘Met permissie gesê’, written by Hennie Aucamp. " The show was the first Afrikaans cabaret." With Janice Honeyman as director and people such as Amanda Strydom, Rina Nienaber, Gerben Kamper and Bill Curry in the cast, it was a form of "civilised protest" against the government of the day.
Christopher Torr develops as a songwriter
In 1984, English-speaking husband, Christopher Torr, wrote a song in English about the bank robber André Stander, who had obtained almost legendary notoriety in South Africa. The song was never recorded or performed.
When somebody gave Rauch a cassette recording of the music of the Udo Jürgens, she didn't listen to it at first, choosing to focus on original Afrikaans material, rather than translating foreign songs. Torr began listening to the German songs, and without knowing what the German meant, wrote Afrikaans words for one of the songs which was eventually recorded and released as one of Rauch's greatest hits –‘Op Blouberg se strand’. Torr still provides much of Rauch's most successful material.
Laurika Rauch as a songwriter
Rauch has put quite a few poems to music and recorded them, such as Nalekokers and Niks hang so rooi soos wingerdblaar by Hexrivier by Boerneef, Ballade vir ‘n koningsdogter by ID du Plessis and Windliedjie and Toemaar die donker man by Ingrid Jonker.
Career highlights and awards
Rauch received a ‘Sarie’ award in 1980 as most promising singer. She was the first recipient of a medal of honour awarded by the ‘South African Academy for Arts and Science’ for her contribution to light Afrikaans music in 1997. In 2006 ‘Huisgenoot Skouspel’ crowned her with an award for her lifelong achievement.
‘Van Berlyn tot Bapsfontein’, together with Jannie du Toit in 1988, was another highlight for her. Stephan Bouwer was the director of this singular production.
She took part in Huisgenoot Skouspel in 2000 for the first time, with further performances in 2001, 2002, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2008 en 2009. She was also involved in the ‘Huisgenoot's Kaapse Jol’ in 2007, and ‘Skouspel Plus' in 2009 and 2010. There were various overseas performances, amongst them a concert tour to Belgium in 1985 (a documentary for television was also made during this tour), performances in the Netherlands in 1993 and 1994, three performances in London (2002–2004) at the Ukkasie festival, two performances in Prague (1997 and 1998) and a performance in Antwerp in 2006.
‘Samekoms/Kopano’ with Vusi Mahlasela in 1998/99 is another high point of her career. Rauch was producer and singer, and Deon Opperman the director.
In 2011 her husband, Christopher Torr, completed the musical theatre piece, Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux, and sold-out runs at the Atterbury Theatre in Pretoria, the Artscape in the Cape, Emperor's Palace in Johannesburg and the Sand du Plessis theatre in Bloemfontein, were completed at the end of July. Her most popular songs were used in the production, and Rauch also sang and acted in the show. The musical, with a cast of 12 actor/singers, surpassed all expectations – artistically and at the box office.
In 2016 she was awarded the Order of Ikhamanga for "her outstanding contribution in the field of music and raising awareness on political injustices through music."
Discography
‘Debuut’ (1979), ‘ ’n Jaar in my lewe’ (1980), ‘Vir Jou’ (1981), ‘Jy is te dierbaar’ (1983) ‘Laurika op versoek’ (1985) and ‘Encore! Laurika’ (1988):
These vinyl albums provided some of Rauch's greatest hits. Anton Goosen still provided many of the compositions on Debuut, with songs such as ‘Neanderdalman’ and ‘Vergeet om my te vergeet/onthou om te onthou’. Kupido, who would later achieve fame as a country singer, provided ‘Jy is te dierbaar’ and ‘Lied van die natuur’ on the 1983 album ‘Jy is te dierbaar’.
With ‘Encore!Laurika’ Chris Torr emerged on the scene as a songwriter with tracks such as ‘Miekie’ and ‘Die ballade van Jakob F de Beer’. It was actually ‘Op Blouberg se strand’ – his translation of the Udo Jürgens song – that was particularly popular with the public.
'Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux’ (1990), ‘Die gang’ (1992) and afterwards:
'Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux’ was her first Afrikaans album to reach platinum status, and it was the first female Afrikaans album ever to appear in South Africa as a CD. Chris Torr provided the title track about the legendary rugby player Mannetjies Roux.
Die gang was the first album that Rauch released in the name of her own record company, ‘Laurika Rauch Productions’.
The gripping title track of the ‘Hot Gates’ album of 1995 was also one of Torr's compositions.
It remains one of Rauch's greatest hits. Rauch received a SAMA for this album. With The Brel Album (1997) she returned to her roots as a great interpreter of the music of Jacques Brel.
Although there have been other successful greatest hits compilations, her ‘19 Treffers van 21 jaar’ (1999) was a collection spanning more than 20 years of her career. This compilation has obtained double platinum status with sales of more than 120 000 and remains a good seller.
Gian Groen provided the title track of Vier Seisoene Kind (2002) and it remains one of her most popular songs.
My ou tante Koba (2004) was nominated for a SAMA. On her album Tweeduisend-en-tien! (2010), she performs a duet with Kurt Darren (‘Slang in die gras’) and the Robbie Wessels song Skouspel 2010, about a baboon that creates chaos in a hotel room, provides comic relief with the aid of baboon sounds provided by the musician Leon Ecroignard.
Her first and only full-length DVD of a performance, with Deon de Bruyn as director and Louis Brittz as musical director, appeared in 2006. The title is LAURIKA RAUCH: Grootste treffers LIVE.
Including compilations of her greatest hits, Rauch has released 22 albums.
Debuut (1979) – (Gold status) Arranged and directed by Dan Hill
'n Jaar in my lewe (1980) – Arranged and directed by Dan Hill
Vir jou (1981) – Arranged and directed by Dan Hill
Jy is te dierbaar (1983) – (Gold status) Arranged and directed by Zane Cronjé
Laurika op versoek (1985) – compilation
Encore! Laurika (1988) – (Gold status) Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
Stuur Groete aan Mannetjies Roux (1990) – (Platinum status) Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
Grootste Treffers Vol. 1 (1991) – (Gold status) Compilation
Die gang (1992) – Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
Hot gates (1995) – (Gold status) Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
Grootste treffers Vol.2 (1996) – Compilation
The Brel album (1997) – Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
19 Treffers van 21 Jaar (1999) – (Triple Platinum status) Compilation of hits until 1999
Die Mense op die bus (1999) – (Gold status) Arranged and directed by Marshall Harmse. The title track was the theme song of the popular Afrikaans TV series - Iemand om lief te hê
Hei Mevrou Brown (dit gaan goed) (2000) – Arranged and directed by Jahn Beukes
Vier seisoene kind (2002) – Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
My ou tante Koba (2004) – Leon Ecroignard, Wouter van de Venter and Clinton Waring (her band members between 1998 and 2004) were the musical directors. Peter McLea managed the production and did the supporting arrangements.
Die nuwe trefferalbum (2004) – Compilation
Chris se trefferliedjies (2005) – Compilation of all Christopher Torr’s songs between 1988 en 2006
'n Lekker verlang liedjie (2007) – Arranged and directed by Louis Brittz
Tweeduisend-en-tien! (2010) – The album consisted of one CD with brand new songs plus a bonus CD with 11 previous songs. Arranged and directed by Peter McLea
Laurika Rauch sing die liedjies uit Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux (2011) - This compilation album also includes three new songs of Christopher Torr. Lulu van der Walt was the arranger and musical director of the three new tracks.
Wals, wals Willemien (2014) - This album was Laurika’s first featuring mainly original songs since Tweeduisend-en-tien!. The album was well-received and As ek eendag oud is and Murg en Been were placed on high rotation on all the important radio stations. Wals, wals Willemien reached gold status within three months of its release. Jaconell Mouton was main arranger and musical director, together with Juan (Floors) Oosthuizen.
Die reis (2016) - Juan (Floors) Oosthuizen – was die main arranger and Devereaux van der Hoven-Oosthuizen, Loki Rothman and Bittereinder also contributed as arrangers. Arnold Coleske was responsible for the musical direction, production and vocal production.
Gunstelinge (2017) - A compilation of some of Laurika’s favourite songs that she recorded between 2000 and 2017. A new version of Kyk hoe glinster die maan can also be heard on this compilation.
Laurika Rauch – 40 Jaar (Limited edition box set to commemorate her 40 years in the industry) (April 2019)
DVDs
Kom laat ons sing - 'n musikale reis van Laurika Rauch (2002) - A documentary on the development of Afrikaans songs from the 1930s until 2002. Laurika is the narrator and presenter and Johan Badenhorst the director. 6 Episodes.
Laurika Rauch: Grootste Treffers LIVE (Gold Status) (2006) - This is a live recording of Laurika performing her best-known songs accompanied by a band. Louis Brittz is the musical arranger and Deon de Bruyn is the video director.
Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux (2013) - The film, released in December 2013. Laurika plays a character role and is responsible for all the vocals on the sound track.
Hart en See (2015) - With Elvis Blue - released in 2015. Huisgenoot is the media partner. Laurika an Elvis receive a Tempo-award in 2016 for best seller and DVD of the year and a Ghoema award in the same year for best DVD production for Hart en See.
Television performances
Fyn net van die Woord
Musiek en Liriek
In revue met ... Laurika Rauch
Debuut
Spies en Plessis
Potpourri
Teletreffers
Klub 88
Laurika in België
Lekker Ligte Liedjies
Kom kuier saam met Laurika Rauch
Middagvertoning
Platepraatjies
Hot Gates: 'n Dokumentêr
April 1980 (Film)
Noot vir Noot
Draadloos
Geraas
Kom Laat Ons Sing - 'n dokumentêr
Huisgenoot Skouspel (2000 - 2003; 2006 - 2009; 2012 - 2014)
Kyknet Fiëstas 2013
Kwêla 2014
Jam interview (2014)
Die Republiek van Zoid Afrika (2015)
Afrikaans is Groot (2015 - 2017)
For kykNET: Laurika takes part in a symposium about the entertainment industry, and the business aspect in particular (2016)
Adjudicates 2 episodes for Varsity Sing for kykNET (2016)
A Bravo interview (2016)
A Kliphard interview (2017)
A Bravo interview (2017)
Afrikaans is Groot 2015/2016/2017/2019
The Voice – Guest performance during 2019 the final show
Directing
Laurika directs and compiles most of her solo performances, and has also been involved in the productions of other singers such as:
Performances
Personal life
She married Christopher Torr in 1984. At the time he was a lecturer in economics (later to become a professor). They have two children, Simon and Nina and a grandchild.
Awards
Sarie-award for the most promising singer (1980)
Dalro-nomination for the best performance in a musical for Taubie Kushlick’s Encore! Brel (1980)
Gallo-award for her performance in the musical Van Berlyn tot Bapsfontein (1988)
Octave-award for her album Stuur groete aan Mannetjies Roux (1990)
FAK-award for her sustained and exceptional promotion of Afrikaans songs (1995)
FNB/SAMA-award for Hot Gates (1996)
The first award of its kind by the South African Academy for Arts and Science for her contribution to light Afrikaans music. (1997)
Honorary-award from her high school, Jan van Riebeeck, in Cape Town (1997)
Standard Bank/SAMA nomination in the category BEST ADULT CONTEMPORARY ALBUM: Afrikaans, for Hei mevrou Brown (dit gaan goed). (1999)
GERAAS-award, sponsored by SABC 2 en PUKK, for her life-long contribution to South African music (2001)
Two Vonk-Oscars for: Life-long contribution to Afrikaans music and Album of the year – Die nuwe Trefferalbum (2004)
SAMA-nomination for best adult contemporary album for My ou Tante Koba (2004)
GERAAS-award for the best compilation album - Die nuwe Trefferalbum (2005)
Laurika is chosen as one of five Afrikaans icons (chosen by independent market research) as part of the ATKV’s media campaign for AFRIKAANS KOOK. (2005)
KANNA-nomination for PLAKBOEK (together with Amanda Strydom) (2005)
RAPPORT en CITY PRESS prestige-award (2005)
HUISGENOOT Life-long achievement award (2006)
An award from Dames Aktueel for her Contribution to Afrikaans music. (2009)
An award from the Gariep Arts festival, Kimberley, for her Outstanding contribution to the Arts in South Africa (2009).
An award from the organisation Want ons kan!/’Cause we can! For Years of Inspiration. (2012)
An award from Cultivaria for Exceptional Hits in Afrikaans (2012)
KANNA-award for the production Dorothy 60 jaar at the KKNK– Laurika performs with the legendary Dorothy Masuka, Karen Zoid and Zolani Mahola Directed by Carien Loubser. Musical director: Melissa van der Spuy.
Woordtrofee from the US Woordfees for Best contemporary Musical Production (Beste kontemporêre musiekproduksie) at the festival for Liedjies vir alle tye. She is accompanied by Llewellyn George (piano and musical director), Kenny Williams. (2014)
Laurika is the VLU’s (Vroue landbou Unie) artist of the year. (2014)
KANNA-nomination for ‘Hart en See’ at the KKNK. This is a duet production with Elvis Blue. Director: Deon Opperman and musical director: Janine Neethling. (2014)
The Clover-award for the Most popular production at Aardklop, for Nie as ek sing nie with Juan (Floors) Oosthuizen (guitar), Devereaux van der Hoven-Oosthuizen (piano and musical direction) and Vernette Rautenbach Wessels (backing vocals).(2015)
Versnit award in Recognition of her exceptional contribution to Afrikaans Culture. (Erkenning vir ‘n besondere bydrae tot die Afrikaanse Kultuurskat) (2015)
Ghoema- award for Best female contemporary album for Wals, wals Willemien. (2015)
Kyknet Fiësta-nomination for Best achievement in a musical production as well as a nomination for Best music-driven production both for Nie as ek sing nie. (2016)
A Gold status award from Coleske Artists for Sales in excess of 20,000 units for Wals, wals Willemien (2016)
Ghoema-award together with Elvis Blue, for Best DVD-production for Hart en See. (2016)
Tempo-award together with Elvis Blue, for Hart en See (DVD) as Top seller and DVD of the year. (2016)
FAK Prestige-award for a Lifetime’s contribution to the advancement of Afrikaans music. (2016)
An award of the order of Ikhamanga (bronze) from the Presidency.(2016)
A Ghoema-award for Ringtone of the year for ‘Blou’ with Loki Rothman. (2017)
Ghoema-award for Best female contemporary album of the year for ‘Die reis’.(2017)
Bokkie award for Lifetime achievement from Bokradio. (2017)
A Lifetime achievement award from Innibosfees – awarded jointly to her and her husband and collaborator/songwriter, Chris Torr (2019)
Laurika is inducted in the South African Hall of Fame for her contribution to the performing arts.(2019)
See also
List of Afrikaans singers
List of South African musicians
Music of South Africa
References
https://maroelamedia.co.za/vermaak/musiek/laurika-rauch-die-musiek-ma-van-ons-menswees/
External links
Laurika Rauch's Homepage
1950 births
Living people
Musicians from Cape Town
Afrikaner people
20th-century South African women singers
South African people of German descent
Afrikaans-language singers
Recipients of the Order of Ikhamanga
Alumni of Hoërskool Jan van Riebeeck
21st-century South African women singers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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Energy in the United Kingdom
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Energy in the United Kingdom came mostly from fossil fuels in 2021. Total energy consumption in the United Kingdom was 142.0milliontonnes of oil equivalent (1,651TWh) in 2019. In 2014, the UK had an energy consumption per capita of 2.78tonnes of oil equivalent (32.3MWh) compared to a world average of 1.92tonnes of oil equivalent (22.3MWh). Demand for electricity in 2014 was 34.42GW on average (301.7TWh over the year) coming from a total electricity generation of 335.0TWh.
Successive UK governments have outlined numerous commitments to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. One such announcement was the Low Carbon Transition Plan launched by the Brown ministry in July 2009, which aimed to generate 30% electricity from renewable sources, and 40% from low-carbon content fuels by 2020. Notably, the UK is one of the best sites in Europe for wind energy, and wind power production is its fastest growing supply. Wind power contributed almost 21% of UK electricity generation in 2019. In 2019, the electricity sector's grid supply for the United Kingdom came from 43% fossil fuelled power (almost all from natural gas), 48.5% zero-carbon power (including 16.8% nuclear power and 26.5% from wind, solar and hydroelectricity), and 8% imports.
Government commitments to reduce emissions are occurring against a backdrop of economic crisis across Europe. During the European financial crisis, Europe's consumption of electricity shrank by 5%, with primary production also facing a noticeable decline. Britain's trade deficit was reduced by 8% due to substantial cuts in energy imports. Between 2007 and 2015, the UK's peak electrical demand fell from 61.5GW to 52.7. By 2022 it reached 47.1 GW.
UK government energy policy aims to play a key role in limiting greenhouse gas emissions, whilst meeting energy demand. Shifting availabilities of resources and development of technologies also change the country's energy mix through changes in costs and consumption. In 2018, the United Kingdom was ranked sixth in the world on the Environmental Performance Index, which measures how well a country carries through environmental policy.
Energy sources
Oil
After UK oil production peaked at nearly 3 million barrels per day in 1999, concerns over peak oil production were raised by high-profile voices in the United Kingdom such as David King and the Industry Task-Force on Peak Oil and Energy Security. The latter's 2010 report states that "The next five years will see us face another crunch – the oil crunch. This time, we do have the chance to prepare. The challenge is to use that time well." (Richard Branson and Ian Marchant). However, world peak oil production was not reached and instead the debate is about oil imports and when peak oil demand will be reached.
In October 2022, it was confirmed that UK Prime Minister, Liz Truss, would be issuing hundreds of new oil and gas licenses. In the same month, Truss said she will not tax the profits of oil and gas corporations to pay for a freeze in energy bills.
Natural gas
United Kingdom produced 60% of its consumed natural gas in 2010. In five years the United Kingdom moved from almost gas self-sufficient (see North Sea gas) to 40% gas import in 2010. Gas was almost 40% of total primary energy supply (TPES) and electricity more than 45% in 2010. Underground storage was about 5% of annual demand and more than 10% of net imports. There is an alternative fuel obligation in the United Kingdom. (see Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation)
Gasfields include Amethyst gasfield, Armada gasfield, Easington Catchment Area, East Knapton, Everest gasfield and Rhum gasfield.
A gas leak occurred in March 2012 at the Elgin-Franklin fields, where about 200,000cubicmetres of gas was escaping every day. Total missed out on about £83million of potential income.
Coal
Coal power in England and Wales has reduced substantially in the beginning of the twenty-first century. The power stations known as the Hinton Heavies closed, and coal is rarely used for power generation as of October 2023.
Electricity production from coal in 2018 was less than any time since the industrial revolution, with the first "coal free day" in 2017 and the first coal free week in 2019. Coal supplied 5.4% of UK electricity in 2018, down from 7% in 2017, 9% in 2016, 23% in 2015 and 30% in 2014.
The UK Government announced in November 2015 that all the remaining 14 coal-fired power stations would be closed by 2025. In February 2020, the government said that it would consult on bringing the closure date forward to 2024.
As of October 2023 there is only one active coal-fired power plant left, Ratcliffe-on-Soar Power Station, which has a planned closure date of September 2024.
Nuclear
Britain's fleet of operational reactors consists of 10 advanced gas-cooled reactors at four discrete sites and one PWR unit at Sizewell B. The total installed nuclear capacity in the United Kingdom is about 6.8GW.
In addition, the UK experimented with Fast Breeder reactor technologies at Dounreay in Scotland; however the last fast breeder (with 250MWe of capacity) was shut down in 1994.
Even with changes to the planning system to speed nuclear power plant applications, there are doubts over whether the necessary timescale could be met to increase nuclear power output, and over the financial viability of nuclear power with present oil and gas prices. With no nuclear plants having been constructed since Sizewell B in 1995, there are also likely to be capacity issues within the native nuclear industry. The existing privatised nuclear supplier, British Energy, had been in financial trouble in 2004.
In October 2010, the coalition British Government gave the go-ahead for the construction of up to eight new nuclear power plants. However, the Scottish Government, with the backing of the Scottish Parliament, has stated that no new nuclear power stations will be constructed in Scotland.
Renewable energy
In 2007, the United Kingdom Government agreed to an overall European Union target of generating 20% of the European Union's energy supply from renewable sources by 2020. Each European Union member state was given its own allocated target; for the United Kingdom it is 15%. This was formalised in January 2009 with the passage of the EU Renewables Directive. As renewable heat and fuel production in the United Kingdom are at extremely low bases, RenewableUK estimates that this will require 35–40% of the United Kingdom's electricity to be generated from renewable sources by that date, to be met largely by 3335GW of installed wind capacity.
In the third quarter of 2019, renewables contributed towards 38.9% of the UK's electricity generation, producing 28.8TWh of electricity.
In June 2017, renewables plus nuclear generated more UK power than gas and coal together for the first time and new offshore wind power became cheaper than new nuclear power for the first time.
Wind power
In December 2007, the United Kingdom Government announced plans for a massive expansion of wind energy production, by conducting a Strategic Environmental Assessment of up to 25GW worth of wind farm offshore sites in preparation for a new round of development. These proposed sites were in addition to the 8GW worth of sites already awarded in the two earlier rounds of site allocations, Round 1 in 2001 and Round 2 in 2003. Taken together it was estimated that this would result in the construction of over 7,000 offshore wind turbines.
Wind power delivers a growing fraction of the energy in the United Kingdom and at the beginning of November 2018, wind power in the United Kingdom consisted of nearly 10,000 wind turbines with a total installed capacity of just over 20 gigawatts: 12,254MW of onshore capacity and 7,897MW of offshore capacity.
In August and September 2021, the UK had to restart coal plants, amidst a lack of wind, as power imports from Europe were insufficient to satisfy demand.
Solar
At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the United Kingdom, with a total installed generating capacity of 750MW. By February 2012 the installed capacity had reached 1,000MW. Solar power use has increased very rapidly in recent years, albeit from a small base, as a result of reductions in the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels, and the introduction of a Feed-in tariff (FIT) subsidy in April 2010. In 2012, the government said that 4million homes across the UK will be powered by the sun within eight years, representing 22,000MW of installed solar power capacity by 2020.
Biofuels
Gas from sewage and landfill (biogas) has already been exploited in some areas. In 2004 it provided 129.3GW·h (up 690% from 1990 levels), and was the UK's leading renewable energy source, representing 39.4% of all renewable energy produced (including hydro) in 2006. The UK has committed to a target of 10.3% of renewable energy in transport to comply with the Renewable Energy Directive of the European Union but has not yet implemented legislation to meet this target.
Other biofuels can provide a close-to-carbon-neutral energy source, if locally grown. In South America and Asia, the production of biofuels for export has in some cases resulted in significant ecological damage, including the clearing of rainforest. In 2004 biofuels provided 105.9GW·h, 38% of it wood. This represented an increase of 500% from 1990.
The UK is importing large quantities of wood pellets from the United States, replacing coal at several generating stations.
Geothermal power
Investigations into the exploitation of Geothermal power in the United Kingdom, prompted by the 1973 oil crisis, were abandoned as fuel prices fell. Only one scheme is operational, the Southampton District Energy Scheme. In 2004, it was announced that a further scheme would be built to heat the UK's first geothermal energy model village near Eastgate, County Durham.
Hydroelectric
As of 2012, hydroelectric power stations in the United Kingdom accounted for 1.67GW of installed electrical generating capacity, being 1.9% of the UK's total generating capacity and 14% of UK's renewable energy generating capacity. Annual electricity production from such schemes is approximately 5,700GWh, being about 1.5% of the UK's total electricity production.
There are also pumped-storage power stations in the UK. These power stations are net consumers of electrical energy however they contribute to balancing the grid, which can facilitate renewable generation elsewhere, for example by 'soaking up' surplus renewable output at off-peak times and release the energy when it is required.
Electricity sector
History
During the 1940s, some 90% of the electricity generation was by coal, with oil providing most of the remainder. With the development of the national grid, the switch to using electricity, United Kingdom electricity consumption increased by around 150% between the post-war nationalisation of the industry in 1948 and the mid-1960s. During the 1960s, growth slowed as the market became saturated.
The United Kingdom is planning to reform its electricity market, see also Decarbonisation measures in proposed UK electricity market reform.
It plans to introduce a capacity mechanism and contracts for difference to encourage the building of new generation.
The United Kingdom started to develop nuclear power capacity in the 1950s, with Calder Hall nuclear power station being connected to the grid on 27 August 1956.
Though the production of weapons-grade plutonium was the main reason behind this power station, other civil stations followed, and 26% of the nation's electricity was generated from nuclear power at its peak in 1997.
Despite the flow of North Sea oil from the mid-1970s, electricity generation from oil remained relatively small and continued to decline.
Starting in 1993, and continuing through the 1990s, a combination of factors led to a so-called Dash for Gas, during which the use of coal was scaled back in favour of gas-fuelled generation. This was sparked by the privatisation of the National Coal Board, British Gas and the Central Electricity Generating Board; the introduction of laws facilitating competition within the energy markets; and the availability of cheap gas from the North Sea. In 1990, just 1.09% of all gas consumed in the country was used in electricity generation; by 2004 the figure was 30.25%.
By 2004, coal use in power stations had fallen to 50.5milliontonnes, representing 82.4% of all coal used in 2004 (a fall of 43.6% compared to 1980 levels), though up slightly from its low in 1999. On several occasions in May 2016, Britain burned no coal for electricity for the first time since 1882. On 21 April 2017, Britain went a full day without using coal power for the first time since the Industrial Revolution, according to the National Grid.
From the mid-1990s, new renewable energy sources began to contribute to the electricity generated, adding to a small hydroelectricity generating capacity.
Electricity generation
In 2020, total electricity production stood at 312TWh (down from a peak of 385TWh in 2005), generated from the following sources:
Gas: 35.7% (was 0.05% in 1990)
Nuclear: 16.1% (19% in 1990)
Wind: 24.2% (0% in 1990), of which:
Onshore Wind: 11.1%
Offshore Wind: 13%
Coal: 1.8% (67% in 1991)
Bio-Energy: 12.6% (0% in 1990)
Solar: 4.2% (0% in 1990)
Hydroelectric: 2.2% (2.6% in 1990)
Oil and other: 3.3% (12% in 1990)
The UK energy policy had targeted a total contribution from renewable energy to achieve 10% by 2010, but it was not until 2012 that this figure was exceeded; renewable energy sources supplied 11.3% (41.3TWh) of the electricity generated in the United Kingdom in 2012.
The Scottish Government had a target of generating 17% to 18% of Scotland's electricity from renewables by 2010, rising to 40% by 2020.
Regional differences
While in some ways limited by which powers are devolved, the four nations of the United Kingdom have different energy mixes and ambitions. Scotland currently has a target of 80% of electricity from renewables by 2020, which was increased from an original ambition of 50% by 2020 after it exceeded its interim target of 31 percent by 2011. Scotland has most of the UK's hydro-electric power generation facilities. It has a quarter of the EU's estimated offshore wind potential, and is at the forefront of testing various marine energy systems.
Cogeneration
Combined heat and power (CHP) plants, where 'waste' hot water from generating is used for district heating, are also a well tried technology in other parts of Europe. While it heats about 50% of all houses in Denmark, Finland, Poland, Sweden and Slovakia, it currently only plays a small role in the United Kingdom. It has, however, been rising, with total generation standing at 27.9TWh by 2008. This consisted of 1,439 predominantly gas-fired schemes with a total CHP electrical generating capacity of 5.47GW, and contributing 7% of the UK's electricity supply. Heat generation utilisation has fallen however from a peak of 65TWh in 1991 to 49TWh in 2012.
Energy research
Historically, public sector support for energy research and development in the United Kingdom has been provided by a variety of public and private sector bodies.
The Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council funds an energy programme spanning energy and climate change research. It aims to "develop, embrace and exploit sustainable, low carbon and/or energy efficient technologies and systems" to enable the United Kingdom "to meet the Government’s energy and environmental targets by 2020". Its research includes renewable, conventional, nuclear and fusion electricity supply as well as energy efficiency, fuel poverty and other topics.
Since being established in 2004, the UK Energy Research Centre carries out research into demand reduction, future sources of energy, infrastructure and supply, energy systems, sustainability and materials for advanced energy systems.
The Energy Technologies Institute, set up to 'accelerate the development of secure, reliable and cost-effective low-carbon energy technologies towards commercial deployment', began its work in 2007 and is due to close at the end of 2019.
In relation to buildings, the Building Research Establishment carries out some research into energy conservation.
There is currently international research being conducted into fusion power. The ITER reactor is currently being constructed at Cadarache in France. The United Kingdom contributed towards this project through membership of the European Union. Prior to this, an experimental fusion reactor (the Joint European Torus) had been built at Culham in Oxfordshire.
Energy efficiency
The United Kingdom government has instituted several policies intended to promote an increase in efficient energy use. These include the roll out of smart meters, the Green Deal, the CRC Energy Efficiency Scheme, the Energy Savings Opportunity Scheme and Climate Change Agreements.
In tackling the energy trilemma, saving energy is the cheapest of all measures. Improving home insulation helps reduce fossil gas imports.
Climate change
The Committee on Climate Change publishes an annual progress report in respect to control the climate change in the United Kingdom.
Scotland cut greenhouse gas emissions by around 46% between 1990 and 2014.
Scotland aims to have a carbon-free electricity sector based on renewable energy sources by 2032. Scotland also aims to repair of degraded peatlands, which store a total of 1.7gigatonnes of .
Since 2013, an Energy Company Obligation (ECO) levy on electricity has been in effect. As of 2022, the levy generates around 1 billion pounds.
See also
A Green New Deal
Compulsory stock obligation
Energy policy of the United Kingdom
Energy conservation in the United Kingdom
Energy switching services in the UK
Greenhouse gas emissions by the United Kingdom
2021 United Kingdom fuel supply crisis
2021 United Kingdom natural gas supplier crisis
References
External links
UK Energy Research Centre
Map of United Kingdom power stations
Energy Analyses in UK
Map of the UK oil and gas infrastructure
ENTSO-E Transparency Platform
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duchy%20of%20Nassau
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Duchy of Nassau
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The Duchy of Nassau (German: Herzogtum Nassau) was an independent state between 1806 and 1866, located in what is now the German states of Rhineland-Palatinate and Hesse. It was a member of the Confederation of the Rhine and later of the German Confederation. Its ruling dynasty, now extinct, was the House of Nassau. The duchy was named for its historical core city, Nassau, although Wiesbaden rather than Nassau was its capital. In 1865, the Duchy of Nassau had 465,636 inhabitants. After being occupied and annexed into the Kingdom of Prussia in 1866 following the Austro-Prussian War, it was incorporated into the Province of Hesse-Nassau. The area today is a geographical and historical region, Nassau, and Nassau is also the name of the Nassau Nature Park within the borders of the former duchy.
Today, the Grand Duke of Luxembourg still uses "Duke of Nassau" as his secondary title, and "Prince" or "Princess of Nassau" is used as a title by other members of the grand ducal family. Nassau is also part of the name of the Dutch royal family, which styles itself Orange-Nassau.
Geography
The territory of the duchy was essentially congruent with the Taunus and Westerwald mountain ranges. The southern and western borders were formed by the Main and the Rhine, while in the northern part of the territory, the Lahn river separated the two mountain ranges. The neighbouring territory to the east and south was the Grand Duchy of Hesse. The Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg and the Free City of Frankfurt were also to the east. To the west was the Rhine Province of the Prussia, which also controlled an exclave in the eastern part of Nassau, called Wetzlar.
Population
At its foundation in 1806, the Duchy had 302,769 inhabitants. The citizens were mostly farmers, day labourers, or artisans. In 1819, 7% of Nassauers lived in settlements with more than 2,000 inhabitants, while the rest lived in 850 smaller settlements and 1,200 isolated homesteads. Wiesbaden was the largest settlement with 5,000 inhabitants, and Limburg an der Lahn was the second-largest with around 2,600 inhabitants. By 1847, Wiesbaden had grown to 14,000 inhabitants and Limburg to 3,400. The third-largest city was Höchst am Main.
History
Establishment
The House of Nassau had produced many collateral lines in the course of its nearly one-thousand-year history. Up to the 18th century, the three main lines were the small princedoms of Nassau-Usingen, Nassau-Weilburg, and Nassau-Dietz (later Orange-Nassau), with large, scattered territories in what is now the Netherlands and Belgium. From 1736, many treaties and agreements were made between the different lines (The Nassau Family Pact), which prevented further splitting of territories and enabled general political co-ordination between the branches. In this context, the administrative subdivisions of the individual territories were adjusted, laying the foundations for the later unification of the territories.
After the War of the First Coalition (1792–1797), Nassau-Dietz lost its possessions in Belgium and the Netherlands, while Nassau-Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg lost all their territories west of the Rhine to France. On the other hand, like other German secular principalities, the Nassaus gained territory that had formerly belonged to the church as a result of secularisation. The Nassaus participated in negotiations at the Second Congress of Rastatt (1797) and in Paris, in order to secure the territories of the Prince-Bishops of Mainz and Trier. The Imperial Recess of 1803 largely accorded with the desires of Nassau-Usingen and Nassau-Weilburg. Orange-Nassau had already agreed separate terms with Napoleon.
Nassau-Usingen had lost Saarbrücken, two-thirds of Saarwerden, Ottweiler, and some smaller territories (totalling 60,000 inhabitants and 447,000 guilders of income per year). In compensation, it received: from Mainz, Höchst, Königstein, Cronberg, Lahnstein and the Rheingau; from Cologne some districts on the east bank of the Rhine; from Bavaria, the sub-district of Kaub; from Hesse-Darmstadt, the lordship of Eppstein, Katzenelnbogen, and Braubach; from Prussia, Sayn-Altenkirchen, Sayn-Hachenburg; and several cloisters were received from Mainz. Thus Nassau-Usingen regained its lost population and increased its annual income by around 130,000 guilders.
Nassau-Weilburg lost Kirchheim, Stauf, and its third of Saarwerden (15,500 inhabitants and 178,000 guilders in revenue). For these, it received many small possessions of Trier, including Ehrenbreitstein, Vallendar, Sayn, Montabaur, Limburg an der Lahn, three abbeys, and the holdings of Limburg Cathedral. This totalled 37,000 inhabitants and 147,000 guilders of revenue.
In the course of these arrangements, the Kammergut of the Princely house was considerably extended to more than 52,000 hectares of forests and agricultural land. These domains encompassed 11.5% of the flat land and yielded around a million guilders per year – the largest part of their total income.
Even before the actual Imperial Recess, in September and October 1802, both principalities deployed troops in the territories of Cologne and Mainz that they had received. In November and December, after civilian officials had taken possession of the territory, new oaths were sworn by officials of the previous regimes and the new subjects. According to the reports of Nassau officials, the new administrations were welcomed, or at least accepted without protest, in most regions, since the Nassau principalities were considered very liberal, compared to the former ecclesiastical rulers. Between December 1802 and September 1803, the wealth monasteries and religious communities were disbanded. The closures of monasteries without possessions continued until 1817 since the state had to provide pensions to monks and converses after disbanding their communities. Between October 1803 and February 1804, the territories of many Imperial Knights and other possessors of Imperial immediacy were occupied and annexed. Only in August/September 1806 were these acquisitions confirmed by edict, affirmed by the treaty of the Confederation of the Rhine. This process encountered considerable resistance, led by the Imperial Knights, but this resistance had no serious consequences and ultimately failed since the Nassau princes' seizures were enforced by French officials and soldiers.
On 17 July 1806, Prince Frederick Augustus of Nassau-Usingen and his cousin Prince Frederick William of Nassau-Weilburg joined the Confederation of the Rhine. Prince Frederick Augustus, the senior member of the House of Nassau received the title of Sovereign Duke of Nassau, while Frederick William was granted the title of Sovereign Prince of Nassau. Under pressure from Napoleon I both counties merged to form the Duchy of Nassau on 30 August 1806, under the joint rule of Frederick Augustus and Frederick William. This decision was encouraged by the fact that Frederick Augustus had no male heirs and Frederick William was thus in line to inherit his principality anyway.
In 1815, at the Congress of Vienna, there was a further territorial expansion. When the Orange-Nassau line received the Dutch crown on 31 May, they had to surrender the Principality of Orange-Nassau to Prussia, which passed part of it to the Duchy of Nassau the next day.
Frederick William died from a fall on the stairs at Schloss Weilburg on 9 January 1816, and it was his son William who became the first sole Duke of Nassau after Frederick Augustus' death on 24 March 1816.
Reform period
The Chief ministers in 1806 were Hans Christoph Ernst von Gagern and Ernst Franz Ludwig von Bieberstein. Von Gagern resigned in 1811, after which von Bieberstein served alone until his death in 1834.
A series of reforms were carried out in the first years of the Duchy: the abolition of serfdom in 1806, the introduction of freedom of movement in 1810, and a fundamental tax reform in 1812, which replaced 991 direct taxes with a single progressive tax on land and trade. Degrading corporal punishment was abolished and the Kulturverordnung (cultivation ordinance) promoted the autonomous management of soil and land. After a transitional period with four districts, the new Duchy was consolidated into three districts on 1 August 1809: Wiesbaden, Weilburg, and Ehrenbreitstein. In turn, these were abolished in 1816, with the establishment of Wiesbaden as sole capital. The number of Amt subdivisions was slowly reduced, from sixty-two in 1806 to forty-eight in 1812. Due to the religious heterogeneity of the territory, a system of "combined schools" was introduced on 24 March 1817. On 14 March 1818, a state-wide public health system was established – the first such system in Germany.
Constitution of 1814
On 2 September 1814, a constitution was promulgated. It was the first modern constitution in any of the German states. Because there was (very limited) parliamentary involvement in government, especially in taxation, it was considered to be a "Parliamentary Constitution" in the language of the day. The constitution guaranteed the freedom of the individual, religious tolerance, and the freedom of the press. It was heavily influenced by Heinrich Friedrich Karl vom und zum Stein, who originally came from Nassau and had substantial holdings there. The princes encouraged his involvement because he was part of the class of Imperial Knights who had been dispossessed by them and due to his involvement, the opposition of the Knights was diminished. However, the legislation of the Concert of Europe period, especially the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, marked a new restriction of freedoms in Nassau as elsewhere.
On 28 December 1849, the constitution was replaced by a reformed constitution which took account of the democratic demands of the German revolutions of 1848–49. On 25 November 1851, this constitution was repealed and the old constitution was restored.
Parliament
Under the constitution of 1814, the Parliament (Landstände) of Nassau had two chambers: a chamber of deputies (Landesdeputiertenversammlung) and a house of lords (Herrenbank). The eleven members of the house of lords were all princes of the House of Nassau or representatives of the nobility. The twenty-two members of the chamber of deputies were mostly elected by census suffrage but had to be land owners, except for three representatives of ecclesiastics and one representative of teachers.
Only four years after the establishment of the constitution, in 1818, did the first election in the Duchy take place. As a result, Parliament was prevented from playing a role in the establishment of the Duchy. The electorate consisted of 39 nobles, 1448 owners of substantial amounts of land, and 128 wealthy city dwellers. Given that the population of the Duchy at the time was about 287,000, this was a tiny number of electors.
The Parliament met for the first time on 3 March 1818.
The Nassau Domain dispute
At the foundation of the Duchy, Minister von Bieberstein established a strong fiscal distinction between the treasury of the general domain and that of the regional taxes. The domain, which included court estates and land, and mineral water springs, as well as the tithe and other feudal dues was the property of the Ducal House, which could not be used for paying state expenses and which Parliament had no power over. Even in the very earliest years of the Duchy, this system was loudly criticised. The parliamentary president Carl Friedrich Emil von Ibell in particular complained about this in letters to Bieberstein and petitions to the Duke, with ever greater frequency. His hostile position was one of the justifications for his impeachment in 1821.
In the following years, there was more debate with and within Parliament, as well as with the government, about the division between Ducal and state funds. The conflict only came out into the open, however, in the course of the July Revolution of 1830 sparked unrest in neighbouring countries. In 1831, the government prevented the submission of petitions to the Duke on the subject and held a joint manoeuvre in Rheingau with Austrian troops from the fortress in Mainz. At its next sitting, Parliament, which had not been very active up to this point, drafted several reform proposals, few of which were accepted. The issue of the Domain thus progressed to burning point. On 24 March, the deputies of the lower chamber put forward a proposal for the Domain to become property of the populace. The government forbade a public assemblies on this issue and announced the opposite opinion. To suppress any revolt following this decision, several hundred troops were called in from the neighbouring Grand Duchy of Hesse. However, no revolt actually broke out. In the press within the state and in the neighbouring principalities, articles in newspapers and pamphlets supported both sides of the issue.
The president of the chamber Georg Herber was the main figure on the side of the deputies, especially in a polemical piece published in the Hanauer Zeitung on 21 October 1831. At the end of 1831, the Nassau court began investigations against Herber. On 3 December 1832, Herber was finally sentenced to three years in prison for 'Abuse of the sovereign' and 'libel' against Bieberstein. On the night of 4 December, the president of the chamber was arrested as he slept in his bed. On 7 January 1833, he was released on bail. Herber's lawyer, , later the revolutionary Chief Minister of Nassau, attempted to get him a reduced sentence, but he was prevented. However, the sentence was never enforced, because Herber, who was very sick, died on 11 March 1833.
The Ducal government had already prepared to expand the house of lords in the course of 1831 and this was effected by an edict on 29 October 1831. The bourgeois were thus put into a minority and failed in their attempt to prevent the levying of taxation in November 1831. Additionally, the house of lords voted down a targeted action of the bourgeois against Bieberstein. In the following months, there were ever more assemblies, rallies, newspaper articles (especially from outside Nassau), and pamphlets by the different parties of the conflict. Officials who had expressed sympathies for the bourgeois were reprimanded or fired and liberal newspapers from outside Nassau were banned.
In March 1832, there was a new election for the lower chamber. However, the bourgeois deputies demanded that the house of lords were reduced to their previous numbers. Since the government refused this, the deputies ended the session and left the chamber on 17 April. The three ecclesiastical members, the member for teachers and one other deputy declared that the rest had forfeited their right to participate and approved the Ducal tax levy.
Accession of Duke Adolphe
After the Domain Dispute, the politics of Nassau became quiet. After the death of von Bieberstein, Nassau entered the German Zollverein in 1835, which Bieberstein had energetically resisted. In 1839, Duke William also died and his twenty-two-year-old son Adolphe replaced him as Duke. Adolphe moved his residence to the Wiesbaden City Palace in 1841 and in January 1845, he married the Russian Grand Duchess Elizabeth Mikhailovna, who died in childbirth a year later. To honour her, he had the Russian orthodox church in Wiesbaden. In 1842, Adolphe was one of the founding members of the Mainz Adelsverein, which was intended to establish a German colony in Texas, but was not successful.
From 1844, there was a wave of community foundations in Nassau, especially trade and athletic associations. These were initially apolitical, but they would play a role in the upcoming Revolution. Wiesbaden was additionally one of the centres of German Catholicism. The government attempted some tentative reforms in 1845 with a somewhat more liberal municipalities law and with a law about district courts in 1846. In 1847, Parliament drafted laws on press freedom and damage to the land by animals, in response to complaints from the rural population about the consequences of Ducal hunts.
Revolution of 1848
Like most of Europe, Nassau was engulfed in a revolutionary wave after the February Revolution in France in 1848. On 1 March a liberal group headed by the jurist August Hergenhahn gathered at the Vier Jahreszeiten Hotel in Wiesbaden to present a list of moderate liberal nationalist demands to the government. This list included civil freedoms, a German national assembly, and a new electoral law. The next day, the Neun Forderungen der Nassauer (Nine Demands of the Nassauers) were presented to Chief Minister Emil August von Dungern, who immediately approved the formation of a citizens' militia, freedom of the press, and the convocation of the lower chamber of Parliament to discuss electoral reform. Decisions on the other demands were reserved for the Duke, who was in Berlin at that moment.
In accordance with a proclamation of Hergenhahn, around 40,000 men assembled in Wiesbaden on 4 March. There was a clear conflict in this action, which would shape the subsequent development of events: while the circle around Hergenhahn hoped to receive confirmation of their demands by the acclamation of the people, they were mainly peasants, armed with scythes, cudgels, and axes, seeking the abolition of old Feudal impositions and an easing of forest and hunting laws. As the crowd moved restlessly through the city, the Duke announced from the balcony of his residence that he would meet all their demands. Then the crowd happily dispersed.
With the advent of press freedom, thirteen political newspapers appeared within weeks, including five in Wiesbaden alone. Numerous local gazettes in rural areas also began to print political texts.
From the second week of March, electoral reform took centre stage in the political scene. The most important demand of the liberals was that the right to vote should no longer be tied to a minimum property requirement. On 6 March, the lower chamber held a debate on this subject. When the house of lords sought to discuss voting rights as well, there were protests among the populace of Wiesbaden. Around 500 people gathered in Wiesbaden in the evening to publicly debate the question of voting rights. Smaller meetings occurred in other cities of nassau. By the middle of the month however, these public discussions had faded away. Meanwhile, the lower chamber agreed that the future parliament should be unicameral with 40–60 members and that the property requirement for voting should be abolished. Most controversial was whether the members of the new parliament should be elected directly or by an electoral college. A draft bill was presented on 20 March and finally passed on 28 March. They decided in favour of an electoral college by 18 votes to three. On 5 April the electoral law came into effect. It stated that every hundred people would choose an elector, who in turn would meet in one of 14 electoral colleges, each of which would choose one member of parliament. The right to vote was extended to several groups that had hitherto been excluded, such as noblemen, officials, pensioners, and Jews. Those who received poor relief or were bankrupt were not allowed to vote. All citizens were eligible to serve as members of Parliament except for the highest administrative officials, military officers, and court officials.
Meanwhile, on 31 March, the Pre-Parliament gathered in the St. Paul's Church in Frankfurt-am-Main. Fifteen of its deputies were drawn from the lower chamber of the Nassau parliament and two from the Nassau house of lords. There were another nine citizens of the Duchy in the Pre-Parliament as well.
As a result, chaotic conditions developed in rural areas. Many officials had lost their jobs at the beginning of the revolution, so there was no ordered administration. The farmers completely stopped paying taxes and drove out the forest rangers. Many young officials and teachers proved to be revolutionary agitators for a radical democracy. The Ducal government contributed to this situation with hectic actions to calm the rural population, like amnesties (particularly for poaching, rural, and forest crimes), conceding free elections of the Schultheißen, the abolition of the last feudal dues, and the removal of various unpopular administrative officials. In the cities, the people often reacted to the general lawlessness by establishing their own neighbourhood watches. In Wiesbaden, a central safety committee for the whole of Nassau under the leadership of Augustus Hergenhahn was established and came to enjoy a level of authority throughout the Duchy. Hergenhahn developed into the moderate liberal leading light of the revolution and also secured the trust of Duke Adoplhe. After Emil August von Dungern resigned as Chief Minister, the Duke appointed Hergenhahn as his replacement on 16 April.
1848 elections
Since the elections for the Parliament of Nassau were drawing near, political societies began to form and these eventually consolidated into true political parties. From the end of March, the Bishop of Limburg, , began to encourage Catholic societies in rural areas. They had the clearest programme of any of the parties, with 21 core principles, which the Bishop had promulgated on 9 March. Additionally, pastoral letters and religious services provided a platform for propagating ecclesiastical politics. On 4 April, a radical liberal pamphlet was distributed in Wiesbaden, announcing the "Committee of the Republican Society" as the first party that stood against the Catholic political agitation. The next day, a special issue of the Nassauische Allgemein announced a Democratic-Monarchist opposition party, which was formally founded on 7 April. On 5 April, there were significant protests calling for the establishment of a Wiesbaden committee for electoral preparation. In the morning, the Liberals called for a public assembly to take place at 1 pm, at which the electoral college would be chosen for which they had already prepared a list of candidates. In midmorning, the Moderates secured a two hour postponement, which they used to draft their own list, which secured a large majority of the votes when the meeting took place.
In the following weeks, the Ducal government began preparations for the Parliamentary elections and for elections to the Pan-German Frankfurt Parliament. Since this was the first time that such a task had been attempted, it was an incredibly difficult process in many areas to create the lists of voters. There were protests by the populace and newspapers against limitations on the right to vote that were considered unfair. In particular, they pushed back against the fact that the adult sons of artisans and farmers would not be allowed to vote if they worked in their father's business.
Finally, on 18 April, the election of the electoral colleges took place. In each town and region they were chosen by assemblies of voters. The total number of the 420,000 inhabitants of the Duchy who voted could not be determined for certain. Estimates varied between 84,000 and 100,000 people (20–23%). Turnout varied by region from very low to nearly full participation, but there was a tendency for higher participation in the cities than in the countryside. Many procedural irregularities were reported from the electoral assemblies. Ideological programmes played a minor role in the selection of electors. Promises of lower rates of taxation were thrown around in many of the hustings during the assemblies. In most cases they elected people who were already socially prominent, like mayors, teachers, forest rangers, or clergymen (especially in the Westerwald). The Catholics provided their followers with pre-prepared ballot papers with the Catholic candidates marked on them. This was explicitly forbidden by the electoral law and was strongly criticised by the liberals.
The 4,000 electors chose the six representatives of Nassau for the Frankfurt Parliament on 25 April. It proved difficult to find suitable and willing candidates. Only with difficulty did the Wiesbaden electoral committee (as representatives of the moderate liberals, the Catholic church and its societies, and the various ideological newspapers) find candidates for the six vacancies. Everyone in the committee's list was a government employee.
In District 1 (Rennerod, in the north of the duchy) and District 4 (Nastätten, southwest), there was not much conflict; Procurator Carl Schenck of Dillenburg was elected in the former with 76% of the vote, while Friedrich Schepp, a member of the governing council, was chosen in the latter with 90% of the vote. In District 2 (Montabaur, in the northwest), there had been a much more heated campaign, but Freiherr Max von Gagern won with 82% of the vote. Von Gagern had been approached to be a candidate by the liberals, but was also a devoted Catholic and close confidant of the Duke. This position between the camps provided opportunities for Catholics and Liberals to attack him, but these attacks ultimately had little impact, since he retained the church's support. Controversy also surrounded Friedrich Schulz, the committee's candidate for District 3 (Limburg, in the centre of the duchy). He was a deputy headmaster in Weilburg and editor of the Lahnboten, who pushed a reformist line, which in his opinion would lead to a Republic. For this ambitious plan, which was criticised as "fantastical", Schulz was criticised by the liberals. But in the end, Schulz secured 85% of the vote in his district. District 5 (Königstein, the southeast) was won by Karl Philipp Hehner, who held the most radical views of any of the representatives. He was a former member of a Burschenschaft and had been temporarily expelled from state service in 1831 for his political views, but had risen by March 1848 to one of the highest positions in the government. Hehner considered a constitutional monarchy as only a transitional stage and kept his main focus on a Republic. Probably because of this radical position, he secured only 61% of the vote in his district. In District 6 (Wiesbaden), Augustus Hergenhahn himself stood and won with 80% of the vote.
In the course of 1848, the Nassau deputies in the Frankfurt Parliament aside from Schenk developed into factions. Von Gagern, Hergenhahn and Schep joined the moderate liberal Casino faction, while Schulz and Hehner joined the centre left Westendhall. As the Frankfurt Parliament collapsed, Max von Gagern resigned his position along with 65 other monarchist representatives on 21 May 1849. He was followed shortly after by Hergehahn, Schepp and Schenk. Hehner and Schulz remained members until the final dissolution of the Parliament in June 1849.
In the election for the Nassau parliament on 1 May, which was also carried out by the 4,000 members of the electoral colleges, local interests played a much larger role than in the elections for the Frankfurt Parliament. The parties and societies did not have a serious impact. The majority of the successful candidates were civil servants and mayors, with a couple of merchants, industrialists, and farmers. Noticeably few Catholics and absolutely no Catholic clergy were elected.
End of the Revolution
The Nassau Parliament met for the first time on 22 May 1848. Over the summer, groupings based on the Left-Right schema began to appear in the parliament. The unrest in Nassau was not calmed after the elections. In July 1848, it reached a new crisis point, with physical clashes on the right of the Duke to veto decisions of Parliament. While the left wing in the Parliament did not recognise this power, the right wing and the Ducal government insisted on it. Soon this dispute led to unrest among the general population. Finally, Hergenhahn called in Prussian and Austrian troops from Mainz, who put down the riots in Wiesbaden. In September, after fighting in the streets in Frankfurt, Federal troops occupied part of the Taunus.
In parallel with the Parliament, the landscape of political societies and publications also began to develop a firmer ideological divide and became increasingly active. Many petitions and rallies took place in the second half of the year. The Freie Zeitung became the mouthpiece of the left wing of the National assembly over the course of the summer and frequently criticised the governments of Prussia and Nassau. The Nassauische Allgemeine abandoned strict neutrality and transformed into a supporter of a constitutional monarchy, as did the Weilburg Lahnbote. Even in 1848, an abatement of the revolutionary force was notable. Except for the Freie Zeitung and the Allgemeine all papers ceased publishing in the second half of the year, because sales rapidly dropped and the Ducal government began to suppress the press. As a result of these developments, the Nassauische Allgemeine became increasingly dependent on the Ducal government for money and content. From the end of 1849, there was again a comprehensive censorship regime.
The political societies, which had formed by autumn 1848, mostly took up democratic positions, including explicitly political clubs, but also many sports clubs and workers' clubs. On 12 November, the democratic societies joined together as the Kirberger Union, which was to serve as an umbrella organisation. As the reaction against the revolution began, there were many new foundations, so that by the end of 1848, there were around fifty organisations in the Kirberger Union, many with their own sub-organisations. In the following months however, the democratic movement collapsed rapidly. After the middle of 1849, there were no active democratic societies. A few societies were formed, supporting constitutional monarchy. They gained an over-arching structure on 19 November 1848, when the Nassau and Hessian constitutional societies named themselves the Deutsche Vereine (German Society) as an umbrella organisation with its base in Wiesbaden.
Elections for the Erfurt Parliament
After the collapse of the Frankfurt Parliament, there was conflict between Prussia, Austria, and the smaller German states. The Duchy of Nassau was among the small German principalities which supported the Prussians and their plans to convoke a Union Parliament at Erfurt. On 3 December 1849, the Ducal government oversaw elections for this body in the four Nassau districts, using Prussian three-class franchise
Although the political movements had passed their peak, there was even so an electoral campaign for the positions. Constitutionalists, the government and the Nassauische Allgemeine all sought a high voter turnout in the hope that this would add legitimacy to the Prussian plans for a monarchist Germany. The so-called Gotha Post-Parliament, an informal successor of the Frankfurt Parliament, came decisively under the influence of Max van Gagern. August Hergenhahn also participated in that Post-Parliament in June 1849. On 16 December, the constitutional monarchists organised a large electoral assembly in Wiesbaden, at which nominations took place. By contrast, the democrats tried to ensure a low voter turnout and sought the implementation of the Frankfurt Constitution. In June 1849, the organised people's assemblies all over Nassau for this purpose. The largest assembly, with around 500 participants, took place on 10 June in Idstein and formulated ten demands, including the withdrawal of Nassau troops from Baden, Schleswig-Holstein, and the Palatinate, where they were stationed as representatives of the German Federation to prevent revolutionary movements. Beyond that, they wanted the reconstitution of a German parliament with full powers. The Catholic political societies had already disappeared by this point. The church itself made no effort to influence the election.
Preparation for elections to the Erfurt Parliament began in December 1849. On 20 January 1850, the initial election of the electoral college took place in Nassau. Due to the higher voting age, the number of voters participating was a bit lower than in 1848. The turnout varied between 1% and 20%. Only two districts had a turnout of more than 60%. In some places, the only participants were the polling officials themselves. In at least 27 of the 132 electoral districts, the vote could not take place at all because of low turnout and had to be rescheduled for 27 January. The men chosen to be members of the electoral colleges were all civil servants. In the following days, the constitutional monarchists nominated candidates to be elected as representative. On 31 January, the electoral colleges chose Carl Wirth, a local official in Selters, Max von Gagern, August Hergenhahn and the Duke's brother-in-law Hermann, Prince of Wied as Nassau's deputies to the Erfurt Parliament. Although a nobleman, the Prince of Wied was the most liberal of the elected representatives.
The Restoration
After a brief period of calm, Duke Adolphe began a reactionary programme. There were ever more conflicts between the Duke and the Chief Minister who was only moderately conservative and resigned at the end of 1851. His successor was , who took his position on 7 February 1852. With his help, the Duke reduced the freedoms that had been granted over the following years and began to remove liberal officials from office. By the middle of 1852, nearly all political societies had been banned.
In 1849, the government submitted a proposal for new elections to Parliament, which were to elect a bicameral system in which the upper chamber would be elected by wealthy citizens. This proposal was opposed by the Liberals, while the constitutional monarchists supported it. After that there was no further discussion about elections until September 1850, when the government submitted a new proposal for a twenty-four member chamber elected using the Prussian three-class franchise, modelled on the Erfurt Parliament. There was no further consultation with Parliament about the new elections, since the Duke dissolved Parliament on 2 April 1851. On 25 November, the Duke finally brought regulations into effect for the election of a Parliament similar to the bicameral system that existed before 1848. The political groups and the few remaining societies made no attempt at campaigning. On 14 and 16 February 1852 the landowners and merchants in the highest tax-bracket (less than a hundred people in the whole duchy) voted first for the six members of the upper chamber. The electoral college for the lower house was elected on 9 February and the elected college met on 18 February. The eligible voters for the lower chamber numbered 70,490. Voter turnout was between 3–4%. In some areas, lack of interest meant that the elections could not take place at all. Unlike the previous Parliament, farmers were the largest group in the new lower house.
Bitter political strife returned once more in 1864, when the Government made plans to sell Marienstatt Abbey in the Westerwald. It had been secularised in 1803 and passed into private ownership. In 1841 the site was put up for sale and the government made plans to turn the abbey into the first state-run home for the elderly and poor in Nassau. The Minister of Construction estimated the costs for the required renovations at 34,000 guilders. In 1842, the Duchy bought the Abbey for 19,500 guilders. Shortly after that it was reported the buildings were in too bad a condition for the project. By the 1860s, the buildings had declined even further. The diocese of Limburg began to be interested in acquiring it, in order to make it into an orphanage. The government was also interested in selling it because of the costs of maintaining the unused complex. The abbey was sold on 18 May 1864 for 20,900 guilders.
Shortly before this, in the 25 November 1863 elections, the liberals had won a large majority in the lower chamber of Parliament. Their manifesto had proposed, among other things, that the privileges held by the Catholic church should also be extended to other religious groups. On 9 June 1864, the liberals in parliament argued that the sale of the Abbey should not be completed. They argued that the buildings and estate were worth more than the price that they had been sold for, and that Parliament had a right to veto sales of land. The government's officials denied that Parliament had any such right and stressed the social value that the structure would have after its sale. In the course of the debate, which continued over several sittings, a fierce war of words developed between the pro- and anti-clerical members of Parliament. The anti-clerical members disapproved of giving the Catholic church oversight of children. In the end, the sale went ahead despite Parliament's opposition.
End of the Duchy
When the Austro-Prussian War broke out on 14 June 1866, the Duchy of Nassau took the side of Austria. The war was won at the Battle of Königgrätz on 3 July and the "victory" of Nassau over Prussia at the Battle of Zorn near Wiesbaden on 12 July 1866 did nothing to prevent the of Nassau by Prussia. Nassau become the Wiesbaden Region into the Province of Hesse-Nassau.
Before the conclusion of the Prague Peace on 23 August 1866 and two days before the creation of the North German Confederation, on 16 August 1866, the king announced to both houses of the Landtag of Prussia that Prussia would annex Hannover, Hesse-Kassel, the city of Frankfurt, and Nassau. Both houses were asked to give their assent to a law bringing the Prussian constitution into force in those territories on 1 October 1867. The law was passed by both houses of the Prussian Landtag on 20 September 1866 and was published in the gazette. The next step was the publication of the notice of annexation, which made the citizens of the nine annexed regions into citizens of Prussia. After these official actions, further practical actions were taken to bring the annexed regions into full union with the rest of Prussia.
Duke Adolphe, the last Duke of Nassau, received 15,000,000 guilders as compensation, as well as Biebrich Palace, Schloss Weilburg, and Luxemburgisches Schloss in Königstein. He became Grand Duke of Luxembourg in 1890 after the male line of Orange-Nassau became extinct.
In 1868, Nassau, along with Frankfurt and the Electorate of Hesse were united in the new Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau. The capital of the new province was Kassel, which had previously been the capital of the Electorate of Hesse. Nassau and Frankfurt became the administrative region of Wiesbaden. In 1945, the majority of the old Duchy of Nassau fell within the American occupation zone and became part of the state of Hesse. Wiesbaden remained an administrative region within Hesse until 1968, when it was incorporated into Darmstadt. A small part of the Duchy of Nassau fell within the French occupation zone and became the administrative region of Montabaur in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate. In 1956, a referendum on joining the state of Hesse was rejected by voters.
Politics
Foreign affairs
In foreign affairs, the Duchy's geographic location and economic weakness greatly limited its room to manoeuvre – in the Napoleonic period, it had no autonomy at all. The Nassau 'army' was at the beck and call of Napoleon. In 1806, they were stationed as occupation troops in Berlin. Then three battalions were stationed at the Siege of Kolberg. Two regiments of infantry and two cavalry squadrons fought for more than five years in the Peninsular war; only half of them came back. In November 1813, Nassau joined the Sixth Coalition against Napoleon.
Nassau troops fought at the battle of Waterloo: 1/2 rgt. was part of the crew of the fortified Hougemont farm which hold out against Napoleon, 1/1 rgt. was heavily battered after the French taking of La Haye Sainte. Of 7507 men inc. volunteers, 887 were killed in action.
After the Congress of Vienna in 1815, Nassau was a member of the German Confederation.
Military
Nassau's military policy was shaped by Duchy's membership of the German Confederation. Like the rest of the administration, the military was reformed in order to unite the various military forces inherited from Nassau's predecessor states into a single body.
The majority of the troops consisted of two regiments of infantry, created in 1808/09. During the Napoleonic Wars, these were supported by squadrons of Jäger. After the Battle of Waterloo, the Duchy raised an artillery company, which became an artillery division with two companies in it after 1833. Further units were added (pioneers, Jägers, baggage trains, reserves). Further contingents were added as required during wartime. The whole military was placed under a brigade command structure. At its head was the Duke, but day-to-day operations were organised by an Adjutant general. Ordinarily, the Nassau army contained roughly 4,000 soldiers.
After the annexation of the Duchy, most of the officers and soldiers joined the Prussian Army.
Education
The Duchy could not afford its own university, so Duke William I made a treaty with the Kingdom of Hannover, which allowed citizens of Nassau to study at the University of Göttingen. In order to finance schools and university scholarships, on 29 March 1817, Duke William established the Nassau Central Study Fund, which still exists today, by consolidating a number of older secular and religious funds, and endowed it with farmland, forests, and bonds.
In Göttingen, non-Nassau students occasionally participated illicitly in a free dinner funded by the Central Study Fund. The German term nassauer, meaning 'someone who partakes of a privilege they are not entitled to' is said to derive from this practice, although etymologists report that the word is actually a Berlin dialect term derived from Rotwelsch Yiddish and that this story was invented after the fact.
Religion
As a result of the disparate territories that were joined together to form the Duchy, Nassau was not a religiously unified state. In 1820, the breakdown of religious groups was: 53% United Protestant, 45% Catholic, 1.7% Jewish, and 0.06% Mennonite. However, settlements with more than one religion were unusual. Most villages and cities were clearly dominated by the members of one of the two major Christian groups. As was common in Protestant parts of Germany, the constitution placed the church under state control. The Lutheran and Reformed churches agreed to unite into the single Protestant Church in Nassau in 1817, at the Unionskirche in Idstein, making it the first united Protestant church in the German Confederation.
Even in 1804 there was an effort to establish a Catholic diocese of Nassau, but it was only in 1821 that the Duchy of Nassau and the Holy See came to an agreement on the establishment of the diocese of Limburg, which was formally established in 1827.
Alongside the actual church policy, there were other points of interaction between state politics and ecclesiastical matters. The relocation of a religious society, the order of the Redemptorists, to Bornhofen led to conflict between the state and the Bishop. The Redemptorists stayed in Bornhofen. The Poor Handmaids of Jesus Christ, founded in Dernbach were another religious society, which soon took charge of care for the sick within the diocese. After some initial problems at lower levels, they were tolerated by the government of the Duchy and even tacitly supported, because they had received enthusiastic commendation by doctors. In many places 'hospitals' or mobile medical stations were established, the fore-runners of modern .
Dukes
The Dukes of Nassau derived from the Walram line of the House of Nassau. Members of the Walram line of the House of Nassau still reign in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg (Nassau-Weilburg). The reigning Grand Duke still uses Duke of Nassau as a courtesy title.
The royal family of the Netherlands derives from the Ottonian line of Orange-Nassau, which split from the Walramian line in 1255.
Chief ministers
Economy
The economic situation of the small Duchy was precarious. The majority of the land area of the country was Mittelgebirge, which had little agricultural value and represented a substantial barrier to internal transport. Even so, more than a third of the population worked on their own farmland, which was broken up into small areas as a result of partible inheritance. This smallholdings generally had to supplement their income from other sources – often in the Westerwald, this was by service as a peddler. Among tradesmen, the overwhelming majority were artisans.
Currency
The Duchy belonged the south German currency area. The most important denomination was therefore the guilder. This was minted for use as currency money. Up to 1837, there were 24 guilders to the Cologne silver marks (233.856 grammes). The guilder was divided into 60 kreutzer. Small change was minted in silver and copper, at 6, 3, 1, 0.5, and 0.25 grammes.
From 1816, there were also Kronenthaler of 162 kreutzer (i.e. 2.7 guilders). Between 1816 and 1828, the mint of the Duchy was located in buildings in Limburg, which are now the Bishop's curia. From 1837, the Duchy was one of the members of the Munich Currency Treaty, which set the silver mark (233.855 g) at 24.5 guilders. After the conclusion of the Dresden Coinage Convention in 1838, the Thaler was also legal tender and was minted in small quantities. Two dollars were equivalent to 3.5 guilders. In 1842, the Heller, valued at a quarter of a kreutzer, was introduced as the smallest denomination. After the Vienna Currency Treaty of 1857, the Duchy also minted the Vereinsthaler. A Pfund (500 g) of silver was equivalent to 52.5 guilder or 30 taler. The Heller was replaced by the Pfennige, also worth a quarter of a Kreutzer.
Banknotes, known as Landes-Credit-Casse-Scheine were produced at Wiesbaden by the Landes-Credit-Casse from 1840. They had a face value of one, five, ten, and twenty-five guilders.
References
Bibliography
Michael Hollman: Nassaus Beitrag für das heutige Hessen. 2nd edition. Wiesbaden 1994.
1806 establishments in Europe
1866 disestablishments in Europe
States of the Confederation of the Rhine
States of the German Confederation
Former states and territories of Rhineland-Palatinate
Former countries
Taunus
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Princess%20on%20the%20Glass%20Hill
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The Princess on the Glass Hill
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"The Princess on the Glass Hill" or The Maiden on the Glass Mountain (Norwegian: Jomfruen på glassberget) is a Norwegian fairy tale collected by Peter Christen Asbjørnsen and Jørgen Moe in Norske Folkeeventyr. It recounts how the youngest son of three obtains a magical horse and uses it to win the princess.
It is Aarne–Thompson type 530, which is named after it: the princess on the glass mountain. It is a popular type of tale, although the feats that the hero must perform in the second part, having obtaining the magical horse in the first, vary greatly.
Synopsis
A farmer's haymeadow was eaten every year on the Eve of the Feast of St. John the Baptist, also Midsummer. He set his sons, one by one, to guard it, but the older two were frightened off by an earthquake. The third, Boots also called Cinderlad, was despised by his brothers, who jeered at him for always sitting in the ashes, but he went the third year and stayed through three earthquakes. At the end, he heard a horse and went outside to catch it eating the grass. Next to it was a saddle, bridle, and full suit of armor, all in brass. He threw the steel from his tinderbox over it, which tamed it. When he returned home, he denied that anything had happened. The next year, the equipment for the horse was in silver, and the year after that, in gold.
The king of that country had a beautiful daughter and had decreed that whoever would marry her must climb a glass mountain to win her. She sat on the mountain with three golden apples in her lap; whoever took them would marry her and get half the kingdom.
The day of the trial, Boots's brothers refused to take him, but when the knights and princes had all failed, a knight appeared, whose equipment was brass. The princess was much taken with him, and when he rode one-third of the way up and turned to go back, she threw an apple to him. He took the apple and rode off too quickly to be seen. The next trial, he went in the equipment of silver and rode two-thirds of the way, and the princess threw the second apple to him. The third trial, he went in the equipment of gold, rode all the way, and took the third apple, but still rode off before anyone could catch him.
The king ordered everyone to appear, and in time Boots' two brothers came, and the king asked if there was anyone else. His brothers said that he sat in the ashes all three trials, but the king sent for him, and when questioned, Boots produced the apples, and therefore the king married his daughter to him and gave him half the kingdom.
Motifs
Origins
It has been suggested by scholarship (e.g., Carl von Sydow, Hasan M. El-Shamy, Emmanuel Cosquin, Kurt Ranke) that the origins of the tale type may have been first recorded in Ancient Egyptian literature, in The Tale of the Doomed Prince, wherein a prince needs to reach the princess's window by climbing a very tall tower.
Researcher Inger Margrethe Boberg, in her study of the tale type through the use of the historic-geographic method, argued that the tale type must have originated with an equestrian people. Since variants are found among Germanic, Slavic, Indian, and Romano-Celtic peoples, and the main type (the princess sitting on the Glass Mountain) is distributed throughout Northern, Eastern and Central Europe, Boberg concluded that tale "came from the ages of Indo-European community". She also suggested that Finnish variants derived in part from Sweden and in part from Russia, variants among the Sámi originated from Norway, and Hungarian tales came from their neighbours.
Professor John Th. Honti, in an opposite view from that of Boberg's, observed that she did not seem to be aware of the Ancient Egyptian story of The Tale of the Doomed Prince. According to Honti, the setting of the engagement challenge, the country of Naharanna or Nahrin, in ancient Syria, was famed for its high-towered constructions - and excavations give support to this claim.
Another hypothesis was developed by Kaarle Krohn. In his Übersicht über einige Resultate der Märchenforschung, Krohn argued for a migration of the narrative from India, through Asia Minor and into Europe, until reaching Western Europe.
Ossetian-Russian folklorist formulated a hypothesis that the versions with the tower developed in a southern region (possibly the Caucasus), migrated northwards via Russia and merged in Finland with the motif of the glass mountain - a motif that, to him, appears very late and seems to be geographically limited.
The horse helper
The Aarne–Thompson–Uther tales types ATU 530, 531 (The Clever Horse) and 533 (The Speaking Horsehead) fall under the umbrella of Supernatural Helper in the folk/fairy tale index and pertain to a cycle of stories in which a magical horse helps the hero or heroine by giving advice and/or instructing him/her.
Structure of the tale
Scholarship recognizes that the tale can be divided in two parts: (1) the method of acquisition of the magical horse; and (2) the rescue of the princess (the Glass Mountain Challenge).
Ashlad, the foolish hero
Folklorists Johannes Bolte, Jiří Polívka and Marian Roalfe Cox named the main character of the tale type männlichen Aschenbrödel (a Male Cinderella), because the protagonist usually sleeps in the ashes, or plays in ashes and soot. Alternatively, he is usually found at home by the stove, in shabby and dirty clothes, and is often mocked by his family for this strange behaviour. As such, English translations commonly name the protagonist "Ashboy", "Ashlad", "Cinderface" or some variation thereof. He appears as lazy and foolish at first, but as the story progresses, develops more heroic attributes.
The acquisition of the horses
The motif of the brothers' vigil at a garden or meadow and the failure of the elder ones hark back to the ATU 550, The Golden Bird. Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald noted in Ehstnische Mährchen (1869) that in several variants the youngest of three brothers, often called stupid or simpleton, is helped by his father's spirit when he is told to hold a vigil for three nights.
August Leskien acknowledged that the "numerous" Slavic variants "almost universally begin" with the father's dying wish for his sons to hold a vigil for his coffin or dead body at night. The vigil on the grave is also considered to be "the most popular trial" in Lithuanian variants.
The foolish youngest son is speculated by professor Gražina Skabeikytė-Kazlauskienė to have some connection with the ancestors, since it is by respecting his father's dying wish that he is granted the magical horses by his spirit.
In these tales, either the hero receives one single horse, or tames/captures three horses of different colors: copper, silver and gold; of white, black and red; or, as in Latvian variants, of silver, gold and diamond color. Professor suggests that their different color gradient indicates the magical power of each horse.
Hungarian scholars János Berze Nágy and Linda Dégh saw a possible connection between the copper, silver and golden horses of the Hungarian variants of type 530 with the táltos horse of Hungarian mythology. The same coloured horses appear in the context of another tale type: former type AaTh 468, "The Tree that Reached up to the Sky".
The Glass Mountain challenge
Some scholars, such as Clara Ströbe, Emil Sommer (de) and Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald, noted that the tale of a princess on the Glass Mountain seemed to hark back to the Germanic legend of Brunhilde, who lay atop a mountain, inaccessible to most people.
In some variants, the princess is not located atop a Glass Mountain. Instead she is trapped or locked in a high-store tower. The latter type seems more common to Eastern Europe, Russian and Finland.
French comparativist Emmanuel Cosquin noted that the motif of the hero's ascension on the Glass Mountain, in Western variants, was parallel to the motif of jumping to the roof of a palace, present in Indian variants.
Carl von Sydow detected three oikotypes: the Glass Mountain belongs to the Teutonic one; the Slavic one contains the high tower; and the Indian version shows a high palisade.
Scholar Kurt Ranke noted that another ecotype of the ATU 530 developed in the "West European-Celtic Romance" area, where tellings replace the Glass Mountain for a tournament.
In some variants, the tournament part is similar to Iron John (Iron Hans), where the prince (who was working as a gardener) wears an armor to take part in the contest and catch the apples the princess throws. Under this lens, the tale type (ATU 530) becomes contaminated with similar tale types about a horse: ATU 314, "Goldener"; ATU 502, "Wild Man as Helper" and former type AaTh/AT 532, "I Don't Know" (The Helpful Horse).
Variants
Scholarship states that that tale type is one of the most popular, being found all over Europe, "particularly northern and eastern". The tale is also present in collections from the Causasus, the Near East, Turkey and India. Folklorist argued that the tale type seemed widespread among the Turkic peoples.
Europe
Scandinavia
The tale is said to be popular in Scandinavian countries.
G. A. Åberg collected a variant from Pyttis (Pyhtää), in Nyland, titled Om pojtjin som bläi djift me kuggns dótro ("The boy who married the princess") that begins with the vigil at the father's grave. He also collected two dialectal variants, Prinsässan up glasbjärji and Prinsässan upa glasbjärji.
Anders Allardt collected a dialectal variant from Liljendal, titled Torparpojtjis tjénsten (Swedish: Torparpojkens tjänst), wherein the youth acquires three horses, one shod with steel, another with silver, and the third with golden. He later climbs the Glass Mountain.
Finnish folklorist Oskar Hackman summarized some Finnish-Swedish variants in his publication Finlands svenska folkdiktning. In one variant from Vörå, a father shares his property with his two elder sons, while giving nothing to the youngest. However, the father asks his third son to hold a vigil on his grave. He does and is given three pipes, with which he summons three horses: the first shining like the moon, the second shimmering like the stars, and the third glowing like the sun. Meanwhile, the local king builds a glass tower and announces that, whoever jumps high to touch his daughter's hand, shall marry her.
In another Finnish-Swedish variant, from Oravais, a rich lord asks his three sons to hold a vigil on his grave. The elder two sends the youngest in their stead, and the youngest receives three pipes from his father's spirit, which he uses to summon three horses: the first of a copper colour, the second of a silver colour, the third of a golden colour. The local king places his daughter atop a great mountain and sets a challenge for any suitor.
Norway
Scholar , in his book The Types of the Norwegian Folktale, listed 33 Norwegian variants of type 530, Prinsessen på Glassberget ("Princess on Glass Hill").
Sweden
Benjamin Thorpe, in his compilation of Scandinavian fairy tales, provided a Swedish version on his book and listed variants across Norwegian, German and Polish sources.
Several other variants have been collected in Sweden such as The Princess and the Glass Mountain, and Prinsessan uppå Glas-berget ("The Princess on the Glass Mountain") (from South Smaland), George Webbe Dasent also gave abridged summaries of four other variants: one from "Westmanland" (Västmanland), a second from "Upland" (Uppland), a third from "Gothland" (Götaland) and a last one from "West Gothland" (Västergötland).
A version of the tale exists in a compilation of Swedish fairy tales, by Frithjuv Berg. In this story, a young prince is tricked into releasing a dwarf his father captured. The prince is exiled from the kingdom to another realm and finds work as a shepherd. In this realm, the princess wants to marry no one, but the knight who dares climb the Glass Mountain. The prince wants to beat the princess's challenge, and the dwarf, in gratitude, gives him a shining steel armor and gray horse, a gleaming silver armor and white horse, and, finally, a bright gold armor and gold-coloured horse.
Swedish folktale collectors George Stephens and Gunnar Olof Hyltén-Cavallius listed at least two Swedish variants that begin with a "Wild Man" character (akin to Iron Hans). They also gave an abridged summary of a version where the peasant hero finds three horses and three armors, in silver and golden color and the third gem-encrusted.
Denmark
Denmark also attests its own versions: one by Jens Nielsen Kamp (Prinsessen paa Glasbjaerget), and a second, by Svend Grundtvig, translated as The Bull and the Princess at the Glass Mountain, where the hero's helper was a bull, and later it is revealed the bull was the titular princess's brother. In a third variant by Svend Grundtvig, Den sorte Hest ("The black horse"), Kristjan, the youngest brother, herds his sheep to a meadow in the forest and discovers a cave with a (white, red and black) horse, a (white, red and black) armor and (white, red and black) sword. Kristjan then uses the horses to reach the princess atop a Glass Mountain.
In a variant collected by Evald Tang Kristensen, titled Prinsessen på glasbjærget, Perde, the youngest son of a farmer, receives a stick from a donor. Later, when he takes the pigs to graze, he sees a troll with three heads on the first night; a troll with six heads on the second night, and a troll with nine heads on the third night. Perde kills the trolls and discovers their hideout in the mountain: he finds a black horse and a copper armor, a brown horse with a silver armor and a golden horse with a golden armor. After he beats the challenge of the Glass Mountain, he asks the princess to find him on his father's farm.
Faroe Islands
Faroese linguist Jakob Jakobsen listed four Faroese variants, grouped under the banner Øskudólgur ("Ash-lad") and compared it to the Scandinavian versions available at the time.
Western Europe
Professor Maurits de Meyere listed one variant under the banner "Le Mont de Cristal", attested in Flanders fairy tale collections, in Belgium.
In an Austrian variant, Der Aschentagger, Hansl holds a vigil at his father's grave in the churchyard for three nights and is rewarded for his efforts. Later, his brothers take part in the king's challenge: to climb a very steep hill in order to gain the hand of the princess.
In a Swiss variant from Schams, Der Sohn, der drei Nächte am Grab des Vaters wacht ("Of the Son, who watches his father's grave for three nights"), the youngest of three brothers - also the most foolish - fulfills his father's last wish for their sons to watch over his grave for three nights. He is rewarded by his father's spirit with three bridles and three splendid horses. Later, he uses the horses to beat the king's contest: to jump so high as to reach the princess in the tower for a kiss.
The tale type reportedly exists in 66 versions in Ireland.
France
Scholarship acknowledges that the tale type is one of the least or barely attested types in France and in Occitania. It has been suggested that the region of Montiers-sur-Saulx was "the furthest extension" of the geographical reach of the tale type.
Germany
Kurt Ranke stated that the tale type was "very popular in Germany", and reported more than 60 variants.
Ludwig Bechstein recorded a similar tale in Germany, titled Hirsedieb ("The Millet-Thief") (de), in his book of German fairy tales. This version was translated as The Thief in the Millet and published in 1872. Benjamin Thorpe also translated the tale, with the name Millet-Thief and indicated its origin as North Germany.
Professor Hans-Jorg Uther classifies German tale Old Rinkrank, collected by the Brothers Grimm (KHM 196), as a variant of the tale type. The story involves a king that builds a glass mountain and puts his daughter atop it, setting a challenge for any potential suitors.
Germanist Emil Sommer (de) collected another German variant, from Gutenberg, titled Der dumme Wirrschopf: the youngest brother discovers that a small grey man on a horse has been stealing his father's haystacks for years, but he spares the creature's life and gains three horses (in brown, white and black colors). The king then sets a challenge for all brave knights: to rescue his daughter, trapped at the top of the glass mountain.
In a variant collected from Oldenburg by jurist Ludwig Strackerjan (de), Der Glasberg, the three sons of a farmer, Hinnerk, Klaus and Jan (the youngest and the most stupid), try to discover who or what has been stealing their father's straw from the barn. Only Jan is successful: he follows a giant into a secret cave and finds three armors and three horses.
Heinrich Pröhle collected two variants about a "Mannchen" (a small man) that gives the farmer's son the magnificent horses with which to beat the king's challenges: in the first variant, the farmer's son uses the horses to fetch three wreaths the princess throws, and later she has a tall wall built for him to fail. In the second variant, a small man gives the youngest son a golden key; when the king announces the challenge of the Glass Mountain, the farmer's son uses three different getups: a silver armor on a white horse, a golden armor on a black horse and a gem-encrusted armor on the spotted horse.
In a variant collected by medievalist Karl Bartsch from Mecklenburg, Der dumme Krischan, Fritz, Johan and Krischan are tasked with a midnight watch on their father's coffin, but only Krischan obeys, and is rewarded three horses (of a white, bay and black color, respectively).
Johann Reinhard Bünker collected a variant from the Heanzisch dialect (Ta' Këinich mit 'n Prant'''), where the father asks his sons to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights - each son on each night.
A study of fifteen versions of the tale was published by Wilhelm Wisser, with the name Ritt auf den Glasberg. In some of the variants he collected, the hay thieves are giants, the horse itself or human robbers. In other versions, the ride up the Glass Mountain is to redeem the princess from a curse, or is replaced by a simple horse-riding contest with the magical horses the hero found.
German philologist Karl Müllenhoff mentioned a variant from Dithmarschen where the hero, Dummhans, steals the eye of a one-eyed giant that has been stealing the crops. In return for the eye, the giant gives Dummhans three sets of armor and three horses in order to climb the Glass Mountain. In another variant he collected, Das Märchen vom Kupferberg, Silberberg und Goldberg, Hans works as a king's hare herder and, on three occasions, finds a (copper, silver, gold) sword, a horse with a (copper, silver, gold) bridle and a dog with a (copper, silver, gold) collar.
Josef Haltrich (de) collected a variant from the Transylvanian Saxons, titled Der Wunderbaum ("The Wonderful Tree"): a shepherd boy, while herding his sheep to graze in the fields, sees a tall tree reaching to the heavens. He decided to climb up the tree and arrives at a copper kingdom, then a silver kingdom and finally a golden kingdom. In each of the kingdoms, there is a pool, where he dips his feet, hands and hair, and takes a twig from each kingdom. He climbs downs the tree and cannot see his sheep, so he travels to another realm. The king of this realm sets a challenge of the Glass Mountain for all potential suitors of his daughter.
Professor Wilhelm Wisser collected a "Plattdeutsche" (Low German) variant titled Simson, tu dich auf!. The story begins when a father's three sons vow to keep watch on their garden, but only the youngest, dumb Hans, is successful. Hans discovers that three giants come in the night and retreat to a cave in the mountain by reciting an incantation "Simson, tu dich auf!" (akin to "Open, Sesame!"). Hans kills the giants, opens the cave and discovers magical horses. Later, the king establishes the challenge of the Glass Mountain ("glåsern Barg").
In a variant from Flensberg, Knæsben Askfis, a farmer's three sons, Pe'r, Poul and Knaesben Askfis try to discover the hay thief, by hiding in a haystack. Knaesben Askfis hides in a haystack and is carried by the thief to a castle. He jumps out of the haystack and kills the thief. He also discovers in the castle three horses, of black, gray and white colors. Later the king sends his daughter to a glass mountain with three golden apples, to await for her future husband.
Some variants from Hessen were collected, in fragmented and in complete form.
Professor Alfred Cammann (de) collected a "West Prussian" variant, "Der gläserne Berg", wherein the king, after his wife's death, erects the Glass Mountain and sends his daughter there. Meanwhile, a farmer's three sons are sent to guard their fields, when a mysterious old man appears to each son and asks for a bit of food. The older sons insult the man and their food is turned into excrement; the youngest shares his food and the man alerts him about the magical horses that come in the night.
Otto Knoop collected a German-language variant from the historical region of the Hinterpommern (Farther Pomerania), named Der dumme Hans. Hans, the youngest and foolish son, is paid talers by his brothers to go in their place for the night vigil for their father's corpse in the barn. Hans gains three whistles, of silver, golden and diamond colors, from his father's spirit. Later, he summons the horses to climb the Glass Mountain.
Eastern Europe
In the Bosnian fairy tale Die Pferde der Wilen ("The Horse of the Vilas"), the youngest of three brothers stands guard in a meadow and captures three wild horses, respectively, of a white, a black and a reddish-brown color. With them, he beats the Sultan's challenges and gains the Sultan's daughters as wives for him and his brothers.
In a Romanian variant, Der Gänsehirt ("The Gooseherd"), the youth, as a baby, was lulled by a nanny that whispered that he would grow up to marry the king's daughter. Years later, the boy intends to make it a reality. He goes to his three pastor godfathers, and the second gives him three feathers (copper, silver and gold) to summon three horses (copper, silver and gold) to climb up the Glass Mountain. He uses the horses to reach the kingdom located atop the glass mountain to woo the king's daughter.
In the Croatian tale Vilen weiden einen Hirseacker ab, a farmer plants fields of millet, but on some nights the entire crop is destroyed by something. He orders his sons to stand guard, but only the youngest is successful: he captures the horse that has been eating the millet. Suddenly, a vila appears and gives him a copper bridle, a silver bridle and a golden bridle. Later, the king announces that whoever fetches a golden apple from the palace's roof shall gain his daughter for wife.
Poland
The tale type is said to be one of the most frequent in Polish tradition, with several variants grouped under the banner Szklanna Góra (The Glass Mountain),Kolberg, Oskar. Lud: Jego zwyczaje, sposób życia, mowa, podania, przysłowia, obrzędy, gusła, zabawy, pieśni, muzyka i tańce. Serya XIV. Kraków: w drukarni Dr. Ludwika Gumplowicza. 1881. pp. 3-7. which is the name of the tale type in the Polish tale corpus.
Polish ethnographer Oskar Kolberg, in his extensive collection of Polish folktales, compiled several variants: O trzech braciach rycerzach ("About three knightly brothers"), O głupim kominiarzu, O głupim z trzech braci ("About the foolish of the three brothers"), Klechda.
In a Masurian (Poland) tale, Der Ritt in das vierte Stockwerk ("The Ride to the Fourth Floor"), the youngest son of a farmer holds a vigil on his father's grave, receives a magical horse and tries to beat the King's challenge: to find the princess in the fourth floor of the castle.
Swedish folktale collectors George Stephens and Gunnar Olof Hyltén-Cavallius listed a Polish variant collected by Woycicki, named Der Glasberg ("The Glass Mountain").
In the Polish version O Jasiu Głuptasiu, wieszczym Siwku Złotogrzywku i Śwince Perłosypce ("About foolish Jasiu, the prophetic Siwku with Golden-Mane, the Golden-Beaked Duck and the Swine with Pearls"), foolish Jasiu holds a vigil for his father's coffin and his spirit teaches him a spell to summon the marvellous Sivko horse, the golden-beaked duck and a swine with pearls. The foolish boy uses the horse to grab the princess's ring from a tall pole. Later, after Jasiu and the princess are married, his brothers insist that their younger brother should find the duck and the swine and present them to the king.
In the Polish-Gypsy version Tale of a Foolish Brother and of a Wonderful Bush, collected by Francis Hindes Groome, the youngest son, a foolish boy, beats a bush with a stick and summons a fairy who grants him a silver horse, a golden horse and a diamond horse. In the second part of the tale, the foolish boy dresses up as a prince and defeats an invading army.
Polish ethnographer Stanisław Chełchowski collected a variant from Przasnysz, titled O Trzech Braciach ("About Three Brothers"), wherein the youngest holds a vigil for his father and receives a cane. With the cane, he summons the horses to reach the princess on the second floor on the castle. Later, he uses the cane to summon an army to repel an enemy invasion.
Polish ethnographer Stanisław Ciszewski (pl) collected a variant from Szczodrkowice, titled O dwóch braciach mądrych a trzecim głupim, który wjechał na szklanną górę po królewnę i ożenił się z nią ("About two smart brothers and a foolish one, who climbs the Glass Mountain and marries the princess"). The youngest brother receives a silver, a golden and a diamond horse from his father's spirit after the vigil on his grave.
Bulgaria
The tale type is also present in the Bulgarian tale corpus, with the title "Келеш с чудесен кон спечелва царската дъщеря" ("The Boy with Wonderful Horses Wins the Tsar's Daughter").
Seventeen variants have also been collected in Bulgaria, some naming the hero Ash-boy or a variation thereof. In one Pomak tale, the hero Pepelífchono receives a white, a black and a red horse and uses them to win the king's daughters for himself and his brothers.
The title of the Bulgarian tale "Най-Малкият брат и трите коня" (Nay-Malkiyat brat i tritye konya; "The Youngest Brother and the Three Horses") attests the presence of the three horses, akin to other variants.
In the tale Drei Brüder ("Three Brothers"), the youngest son, mockingly called Grindkopf, tames a horse that has been ruining his father's fields and receives a tuft of white, red and black hair. He uses the hair to summon three horses in white, red and black color to jump over a large ditch three times in order to reach each of the king's daughters. In the second part of the tale, after his marriage to the youngest princess, Grindkopf moves to a small house near the palace.
Slovakia
Professors Viera Gasparíková and Jana Pacálová state that the tale type is very popular in Slovakia, with "numerous variants [početné slovenské varianty]" collected.
In the Slovak variant Popelvár špatná tvár ("Ugly-faced Ashface"), first collected by Pavol Dobšinský and later published by literary historian Michal Chrástek (sk), the youngest son, a foolish prince mockingly named "Popelvár špatná tvár" by his brothers, stands guard in his father's meadow of soft silk. The youth is the only one kind enough to share his food with a little mouse, who gives him a bridle to tame three ferocious horses that have been trampling the meadow. Some time later, the queen plants a golden egg, a golden ring and a golden crown inside a golden towel, upon a high hill, and announces that she will marry the man who is able to get the three items. Popelvár špatná tvár tries his luck with the tamed horses, of copper, silver and golden color.
In a second variant by Pavol Dobšinský, Popelvár – Hnusná tvár ("Ashface - ugly-face"), a farmer orders his three sons to guard their crop of oats from whatever is coming at night. Popelvár and his brothers have a meal before their duty, and his brothers soon fall asleep, leaving Popelvár the only one awake. The youth climbs up a tree to await for something's arrival. The "something" is three horses, of golden, silver and copper color, which Popelvár tames and receives a bridle of each respective color. Later, the king sets a challenge: he will give his daughter's hand in marriage for the one who can jump very high and take out a ring, an apple and the golden handkerchief from the castle's highest arch.
Slovak author Ján Kollár published a variant titled Tátoš a biela Kňažná ("The Tátos Horse and the White Princess"), wherein it is the princess who sets the engagement challenge for her suitor: she puts a sword, an apple and a little flag on the highest tower for anyone brave enough to jump very high and obtain them. Despite the unusual form, the tale is still classified as AT 530, or "Neznámy rytier sa na zázračných koňoch preteká o princeznú" ("The Mysterious Rider reaches the Princess on Wonderful Horses").
Czech Republic
In a Moravian tale, Mr. Cluck, the titular Mr. Cluck (actually, the devil) gives Hans a black horse and a suit of armor, a silver armor with a brown horse and a white horse with another suit of armor. Hans uses the horses to beat the king's three tasks.
In another Moravian tale, Jak se pasák stal králem ("How the herdsman became king"), the herdsman is warned not to take the sheep to graze on a certain meadow, where three giants are said to roam. He shared his food with an old lady by the well and receives a stick that turns someone into dust. The herdsman uses the stick to kill the giants and obtains three keys to open three different doors, of copper, silver and golden colours. Then the king announces a challenge for all brave knights: he hides three treasures (a golden sword, his sceptre and his crown) atop a Glass Mountain, and whoever brings them back, shall marry his daughter and inherit the kingdom. The herdsman opens each door with a key he found and mounts a splendid horse with golden color and diamond hooves.
In the variant O mramorovém kopci ("The Marble Mountain"), the youngest son, foolish Honza, watches his father's haystacks to protect them from a thief. Later, he sees that a bird is the culprit and latches onto the animal to capture it. Honza is transported to a castle where he finds a talking horse. When the king announces that he will give his daughter to anyone who scales the marble mountain. Honza seizes the opportunity, rides the talking horse and succeeds three times, in silver, golden and diamond armors.
In the Moravian tale Janíček s voničkou ("Janicek with the perfume"), Janicek, a prince, dresses in peasant attire and travels to a king's castle. On his way, he gives alms to four beggars and is rewarded with four magical items: a musket, a club, a whistle and a bag. He employs himself as a shepherd in the king's country. One day, he herds the sheep to the forest and sees a castle in the distance. He enters the castle and faces a giant, killing him with the musket. The next day and the day after, he kills the giant's other brothers and takes control of the castle. Soon after, he opens a closet and two servants appear. Janicek also takes three fragrant flowers from the garden and gives to the princess. Later, once each month, a procession of princes pass under the princess's balcony, and each time Janicek grabs her handkerchief when riding a white horse with silver bridle, a red horse with golden bridle, and a black horse with diamond ornaments.
Author Božena Němcová published a variant titled Diwotworný meč, wherein the prince acquires a magical sword and is helped by a talking horse. Some time later, the prince travels to a kingdom where the king built a dam on a huge circle, placing his daughter upon it, and promised his daughter for anyone who jumped very high and got the gifts his daughter held with her. The prince is successful and the tale continues as ATU 314, "The Goldener" (the prince as gardener), after the horse instructs the prince to disguise himself as a lame and ugly gardener.
Czech author Václav Tille (writing under pseudonym Václav Říha) published the tale Tátoš: a man's three sons are tasked with guarding his fields. On the first two nights, a fox approaches the older brothers and asks for a bit of food to eat. Both shoo it away. On the third night, the youngest son, Jan, shares a bit of food with the fox and it warns him of the Tátoš (a powerful and magical horse) that comes in the night. Jan tames the horse and uses it to beat the king's challenge: to jump very high and reach the three princesses sat atop a "gallery" ornate with diamonds and gems. In the second part of the tale (type ATU 530A), the king sends his new sons-in-law after a cooper pine tree with silver branches and golden pines, and a jumping goat with golden horns and a white beard.
Serbia
In a Serbian fairy tale, The Three Brothers, of considerable complexity and length, after their father dies, three brothers need to decide what to do with his properties. However, for two years, the farm's haystacks are devoured by winged horses led by fairies. On the third year, the eldest brother tames one of the horses and gets a piece of hair to summon the winged steed, should the need arise. When the brothers go their separate ways, the eldest one arrives at three different kingdoms where each king sets a horse-racing contest: any competitor should ride their horse and jump to reach the princess on the other side of a wide and deep ditch.
In a second Serbian tale, collected by Elodie Lawton Mijatovich, The Dream of the King's Son, the youngest prince reveals his prophetic dream: his brothers, his mother and his father would serve him in the future. The king promptly expels him from home. He later finds work with an old man, who, in reality, want to kill the prince. The youth escapes with a talking golden horse and flees to another kingdom, where the king announces that any suitor should jump over a large ditch to reach the princess.
Slovenia
In a Slovene variant titled Trije kmečki sinovi ("The Three Peasant Sons"), three sons volunteer to guard their father's crops from whatever is destroying the fields. The first two brothers meet a little mouse that asks for food and rebuff it, but the third brother, who "played in ashes and straw" shares his food. As a reward, the little mouse informs the boy about the horse and gives him a bridle: a copper bridle for the copper horse in the first night, a silver bridle for the silver horse in the second night, and finally a golden bridle for the golden horse in the third night. The boy tames the wild horses and receives a stick to summon them. Soon after, the king issues a proclamation that whoever climbs the tall tower on the high mountain and grab the golden ball shall marry the princess. This tale was collected in Porabje (Rába Valley), by Károly Krajczár (Karel Krajcar), from an old storyteller named Tek Pista (hu).Porabje (2007): Zveza Slovencev na Madžarskem, letnik 17, številka 37. p. 7. <http://www.dlib.si/?URN=URN:NBN:SI:DOC-BWE9HVXF>
In a tale from Prekmurje, Pepelko, a peasant couple has three sons, the older two help the father in the fields and the third helps his mother in the kitchen, which is why he is always covered in soot and ashes. When the mother dies, she asks for a hazelnut tree to be planted on her grave. Time passes, and the king decided that his daughter must marry. But she is too stubborn, for she will only marry the man who can reach her balcony by jumping and take her ribbon off her hair. The three brothers want to try his luck, but Pepelko cracks a hazelnut from the tree and finds a horse and garments. He wears the fine clothes and accomplishes the impossible task. The princess becomes enamoured of the mysterious stranger and repeats the challenge two other times: to take her golden necklace from her neck, and to allow her to put a ring on their finger as soon as they reach her.
In a Slovenian tale translated into Russian with the title "Стеклянный мост" ("The Glass Bridge"), a commoner has three sons, the elder two smart and the youngest called Zapechnik ("the one that stays on the pech' [oven]"), for he is lazy and stays on the pech' all day. On his deathbed, the man asks his three sons to come to his grave at night in the cemetery for their inheritance. The man dies. Soon after, the elder two, too afraid to go visit to their father's grave, sends their youngest in their stead. Their father's spirit appears on each night and gives Zapechnik a nut, which he hides in the cemetery. Later, the king prepares a suitor selection test for his daughter, the princess: he commissions a glass bridge to be built, and any suitor must jump over it to win the princess's hand. Zapechnik goes back to the cemetery to crack open each nut: inside, a suit of armor and a horse, which he uses to beat the challenge.
Mari people
In a tale from the Mari people titled "Конь с серебряной гривой" ("The Horse with the Silver Mane"), a beautiful princess wants to get married, so she sets a suitor contest. Meanwhile, a father on his deathbed leaves divides his properties among his three sons and asks them to light 40 candles on his grave for three nights. The two elder brothers buy the candles, but are too afraid to visit his grave at night. The youngest son, named Kori, fulfills his wish and, on the third night, a white winged horse with silver mane appears to him, thanks him for his filial devotion, and gives him three tufts of hair. Kori returns from the vigil and learns that the princess will only marry the bravest and most agile suitor. The brothers go to compete, and Kori summons the horse, named Argamak, to ride him and beat the princess's challenge: to touch a kerchief fixed on a huge poplar, and to run and jump into the princess's verandah to steal the ring from her finger.
Kalmyk people
Hungarian Mongolist translated the tales collected by linguist in the 19th century from Kalmyk sources. In the eighth tale of his collection, named Ačit köwǖn ("The benefaction of the son") or Öwgnǟ γurwn köwǖn ("The old man’s three sons") by Birtalan, after his wife dies, an old man marries his two daughters to two yellow giants and orders his three sons to hold a vigil on his grave, one on each night. The elder brothers send their youngest, who is rewarded by his father's spirit with three horses: a yellow brown horse on the first night, a black brown horse on the second night, and a blue grey horse on the third. Later, the king sets a challenge: he will marry his three daughters to any suitor who can jump on a horse and steal an apple from the king's three daughters, sat on a high tree. The youngest brother accomplishes this and marries the youngest princess. However, his wife is kidnapped by a yellow giant and later he has to find another horse to get her back.
Komi people
Linguist Paul Ariste collected two variants from the Komi people. In the first one, a poor couple have four sons, the youngest named Ivan the Fool. When the man notices their wheat fields are being trampled every night, and orders his sons to keep watch at night. The three elders pretend to go to the fields, and lie to their father that they did. When it is Ivan's turn, he discovers a white horse that appears at midnight. He approaches the horse and captures it. In return, the white horse says he can help Ivan and departs. In the same kingdom, a Tsar sets an engagement challenge for his daughter's suitors: he ties a golden ring to a church cross, and whoever gets it, shall marry the princess. Ivan the Fool summons the white horse and rides it to the church, succeeding in the third time.
In another variant collected by Paul Ariste and titled Once there was an old farmer, a farmer has three sons, Ivan, Vasilyi and Peder (Fedor). On his deathbed, the man asks his three sons to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights, one on each night. The two elder brothers send Peder on the first two nights, and their father's spirit gifts him with a black horse in the first night and a grey horse in the second. Peder goes in the last night and is gifted with a chestnut horse. Some time later, a local Tsar sets a challenge: he places his daughter, Jelena Prekrasa, sat on the church cross, and whoever jumps high enough to get her golden ring from her finger, shall marry her.
Mordvin people
In a tale from the Mordvin people titled "Три брата" ("Three Brothers"), a father has three sons, the elder two smart and the youngest a fool. On his deathbed, he asks his sons to watch over his grave for three nights. After he dies, the elder two sends their youngest brother in their place. Their father's spirit gives the third son a black hair (that summons a black horse with golden bridle) on the first night; on the second night, a gray-white hair (which summons a gray horse with silver bridle) and on the third night a red hair (which summons a pig and 12 piglets). In the kingdom, the king announces a challenge: his daughter, the princess, shall marry one that can jump to reach her highest room atop a tower and take out her golden ring.
Chuvash people
In a tale from the Chuvash people titled "Кукша" ("Kuksha"; English: "Baldhead"), a man has three sons. The youngest, Ivan, is bald, so his brothers psuh him around and call him Kuksha. One day, on his deathbed, the man asks his sons to bury him and hold a vigil for three nights. After he dies, the eldest orders Kuksha to go in his place to their father's grave. Once there, the man's spirit appears to the boy, who confides in him about being mistreated by his elder brothers. His father's spirit tells him not to worry, and gives him a copper ring. On the next nights, Kuksha gets a silver ring and a golden one. Meanwhilw, a local rich man sets a challenge: any of his daughter's suitor shall jump over a five-story building. Kuksha's brothers go to try their luck, and the boy uses the copper ring to summon a black horse. He rides it the first time, but cannot beat the challenge. The rich man tells the people to return in three years time for a repeat of the challenge. Again, Kuksha uses the silver ring to summon a gray horse, and, in a third attempt after another three years, uses the golden ring to summon a bay mount and win the challenge.
Gagauz people
In a tale from the Gagauz people with the title "Кюллю-Пиперчу" ("Kyullyu Piperchu"), an old man finds his fields are being trampled every night, and his sons offer to stand guard on the fields. The elder two fail on their vigils, due to falling asleep, but the third son, the titular Piperchu (named so for always playing in the ashes) discovers the culprit: a "sea horse". Piperchu tames the horse and, in return, it allows the youth to pluck three hair from its tail, one black, one red (bay) and one gray. Later, Piperchu's brothers to town and go back home to tell their father the padishah announce a challenge: he will marry his daughter to anyone who can jump to the third floor of the palace to reach the princess's window. Piperchu's brothers go ahead of him, while he rides behind them on a lame donkey. After they are out of sight, Piperchu summons the black horse on his first attempt, a bay horse on the second, and a gray on the third attempt.
Baltic Region
Estonia
The tale type is said to be quite popular in Estonia, amounting to a number between 157 and 180 variants in Estonian archives. According to Estonian folklorists, the introductory episode is the vigil on the father's grave, which rewards the third son with a copper, a silver and a golden horse that can be summoned with similarly coloured whistles or whips.
An Estonian variant, The Princess who slept for seven years, translated by William Forsell Kirby, begins with the Snow White motif of the princess in a death-like sleep. Her glass coffin is placed atop a glass mountain by her father, the king, who promises her daughter to any knight that can climb the mountain. A peasant's youngest son stands vigil at his father's grave and is given a bronze horse by his father's spirit. The tale was first collected by Friedrich Reinhold Kreutzwald in Ehstnische Mährchen (1869), with the title Wie eine Königstochter sieben Jahre geschlafen. The tale was also translated as La Montagne de Verre by Xavier Marmier.
Finland
Finnish author collected a Finnish tale from Karelia originally titled Tuhkimo, which Emmy Schreck translated as Der Aschenhans. In this tale, the youngest son of a farmer, called Tuhkimo ("The One of the Ashes"), prays at his father's grave for three nights and is rewarded for his filial piety with a copper-bridled black horse, a silver-bridled "water-grey" horse and a golden-bridled snow-white horse. Tuhkimo (or Aschenhans) uses the horses to reach the king's daughter, atop the tallest tower.Schreck, Emmy. Finnische Märchen. Weimar: Hermann Böhlau. 1887. pp. 50-63. This tale also merges with ATU 675,"The Lazy Boy" or "At the Pike's Behest".
In another Finnish variant collected by Salmelainen, Tytär kolmannessa linnan kerroksessa or Das Mädchen im dritten Stockwerke der Hofburg ("The Girl in the Third Floor of the Castle"), a variant of the above, the youngest son, Tuhkimo ("Aschenbrödel") visits his father's grave for three nights and receives a red horse with a "Sternblässe" (a star-like shape on its head), a gray horse with a "Mondblässe" (a moon-shaped patch on its head) and a black horse with a "Sonneblässe" (a sun-shaped mark). He uses them to reach the princess on the third store of the palace.
In a tale collected by August von Löwis de Menar with the title Das Zauberroß ("The Magic Steed"), the dumb hero gets from the devil a magical horse that can make him a handsome knight. The youth, named Aschenhans, will try his luck when the king announces his daughter's hand in marriage for anyone who can reach her, inside a house atop a "hall three fathoms large".
In a Finnish tale translated as Aschenputtel ("The Ash-Sitter"; "Male Cinderella"), a father has three sons, the youngest named Aschenputtel for he spends his time on the oven and wears a shirt dirtied with soot. One day, he notices that someone has been stealing the hay in their barn, and tasks his three sons to guard it. The elder two hide in the haystack and see some thieves, but decides to do nothing. The youngest, Aschenputtel, hides is a sack and waits for the thieves. The bag he is in is taken by the bandits; he springs out of the bag and hits one with a stick, while the others thieves kill each other in the fracas. Aschenputten goes to the thieves' hideout, kills an old woman there and finds armours and three steeds. Later, the king announces that whoever can climb a glass mountain to fetch the princess' portrait shall marry her. Aschenputtel rides the three horses he found at the hideout, each studded with diamond hooves, to beat the challenge.
Sámi people
The tale type has also been collected from the Inari Sami. A variant was translated into English with the name The Poor Boy and the King's Daughter, where, after his father dies, the poor youngest son captures a golden horse and rescues the king's daughter from a mountain.
In Sámi tale De tre brødre ("The Three Brothers"), a father's dying wish is for his sons to visit his grave for three nights, but only Ruöbba, the youngest, respects his last will. As such, his father's spirit grants him a cane to open a hidden storehouse with a horse and splendid garments. Then, the king announces his daughter is sitting atop a mountain and a knight brave enough should ride or jump and reach her to allow her to mark an imprint of her ring on the knight's flesh. Its collectors acknowledged it as a variant of the Norwegian tale.
Lithuania
According to Lithuanian folklorist , the tale type is reported to register 330 (three hundred and thirty) Lithuanian variants, under the banner The Princess on The Glass Mountain, with and without contamination from other tale types. Another research indicates that the number is still high, but amounting to 254 (two hundred and fifty-four) variants.
In some variants of the tale type, the hero tames three horses: in one version, the horse of the sun (saulės arklį), the horse of the moon (mėnesio arklį) and the horse of the star (žvaigždės arklį); in another, three steeds with astronomical motifs on their bodies, and the first two are renamed "Sun-horse" and "Moon-horse". In another Lithuanian variant, the foolish brother, while guarding the oat field, captures the third horse, which was "bright as the moon", and narrative explicitly refers to it as "Moon-horse" (mėnesio arkliuką).
German professor Karl Plenzat (de) tabulated and classified some Lithuanian variants, originally collected in German language. In three of them, the hero finds three horses, of a silver, golden and diamond colors.
In a Lithuanian tale, Little White Horse, the youngest of three brothers stands vigil at midnight on his father's barley field and captures a magical, flying steed of a white color. This tale was also collected by August Leskien with the name Vom Dümmling und seinem Schimmelchen.
Latvia
The work of Latvian folklorist Peteris Šmidts (lv), beginning with Latviešu pasakas un teikas ("Latvian folktales and fables") (1925-1937), recorded 77 variants of the tale type, plus another eleven in his annotations, all under the banner Ķēniņa meita glāžu kalnā ("The King's Daughter on the Mountain of Glass"). The tale is also said to record nearly 420 (four hundred and twenty) variants in Latvian archives.
In a Latvian variant collected in 1877, "Братъ дуравъ и его звѣри помощники" ("The foolish brother and his animal helpers"), the youngest brother, taken as a fool by his brothers, uses a silver horse, a golden goat and a diamond horse to climb up the mountain and retrieve a handkerchief and a ring for the princess. In another variant, the foolish brother rides a silver horse on the first day, a golden horse on the second day and a diamond horse on the third day.
In another Latvian variant, "Братъ дуракъ и отцовская могила" ("The foolish brother and his father's grave"), the foolish brother is the only one to visit his father's grave at night. For his efforts, his father's spirit gives him two sticks with which he can summon a shining horse of gold and diamond colors.
Professor Stefania Ulanowska (pl) published a variant collected from Latgale, originally in Latgalian, titled Ap div bruoli gudri, trešš duraks (Polish: O dwu braciach rozumnych, trzecim durniu; English: "About two smart brothers and the foolish third one"). In this version, the youngest brother visits his father's grave at midnight in his brothers' stead and his father's spirit gives him a copper, a silver and a golden horse. The father explicitly tells his son that he would have given the copper and the silver horses for his elder sons, had they come.
In another variant, "Серебряный конь, золотой конь, алмазный конь" ("Silver Horse, Golden Horse, Diamond Horse"), a poor man, as his dying wish, asks his three sons to stand guard on his grave for three nights. The elder brothers feign sleep and the youngest, the most foolish of all three, fulfills his father's request. For his efforts, his father's spirit gives him three two-sided whistles in different colors: a silver, a golden and a diamond one. The father's spirit explains that if his son blows on one side of the whistle, the respective horse appears in garments of that color, and if he blows on the other side, the horse will be dismissed. Some time later, the king announces a challenge: he places his daughter on a glass mountain and promises her hand to anyone brave enough to climb it on horseback and take her ring as proof of their bravery. The youngest uses the horses on three days, each time reaching a bit higher than the last, and getting the princess's ring with the diamond horse. At the end of the tale, the foolish hero gives his brothers two of the magic whistles.
In a Latvian variant from Aumeisteri, translated into Hungarian with the title A királykisasszony az üveghegyen ("The King's Daughter on the Glass Hill"), the foolish third brother holds a vigil on his father's grave for three nights and receives a silver whistle, a golden whistle, and a diamond whistle to summon three horses of these colours. He uses the horses to beat the king's challenge to climb the Glass Mountain.
In another tale, The Princess on the Glass Mountain, a father asks his three sons to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights. After he dies, the elder two send the youngest brother, whom they consider a fool, in their place. Their father's spirit gives the foolish brother a silver whistle on the first night, a golden whistle on the second night, and a diamond whistle on the third night. Later, a king establishes a suitor test for his daughter: he commissions the building of a glass mountain, places the princess atop it and a diamond ring on her finger. The foolish brother, for three days, summons a silver horse, a golden horse and a diamond horse, climbs the glass mountain and wins the challenge.
Southern Europe
Variants have been attested in Spain with the name The Horse of Seven Colors (Catalan: Es cavallet de set colors).
In a Portuguese variant, As Três Nuvens ("The Three Clouds"), the youngest son of a rich farmer goes to investigate a seemingly haunted property that belongs to his father. He takes his guitar with him and, before he sleeps, hits some notes on the strings, an event that disenchants three fairy maidens in the form of clouds: a black one, a "parda" (brownish) and a white one. When the king announces three tournaments, the youth summons the fairies, which grant him the armors and the horses.
A scholarly inquiry by Italian Istituto centrale per i beni sonori ed audiovisivi ("Central Institute of Sound and Audiovisual Heritage"), produced in the late 1960s and early 1970s, found two variants of the tale across Italian sources, under the name La Principessa sulla Montagna di Cristallo.
Author Iuliu Traian Mera published a Romanian variant titled Cenuşotca ("[Male] Cinderella"). In this tale, an old man has three sons, the youngest mockingly named Cenuşotca, for he spends his days near the fireplace/oven and dresses in shabby clothes. One day, the man prepares to harvest his large crops, but, the next morning, everything is trampled over, as if a horse trotted through his fields. His elder sons decide to keep watch, each on each night, but they fall asleep and fail. The third night, Cenuşotca offers to watch over the fields and finds a wild horse. He jumps over the horse and manages to tame it. Recognizing Cenuşotca as its new master, the horse allows the youth to take three hairs of its mane, one in silver colour, the second of a golden colour, and the third of a diamond colour. Meanwhile, the local Imparatul Verde ("Green Emperor") sets a task for any suitor brave enough to marry his daughter: he ties a golden crown to a high flag pole on the castle walls, and any rider shall jump very high to take it off the flag pole. Cenuşotca summons three horses and makes three attempts to fetch the crown, the first with the silver horse and in silver clothes; the second with a gold horse and in golden clothes, and finally with a diamond horse and in diamond garments.
Chechnya
In a variant from Chechnya, Die Drei Brüder ("The Three Brothers"), a father asks his three sons to hold a vigil for him for three nights, each son on each night. On the first two nights, the oldest and the middle brother do not stay at their father's grave for the whole night out of fear. On the final night, the youngest son completes the vigil and witnesses the arrival of three horses: a black, a red and a white one. The youth tames the three horses and gains three horsehairs from each one. Later, a sovereign with three daughters orders his slaves to dig a deep ditch and erect three high platforms.
In another Chechen tale, translated as "Три брата" ("Three Brothers"), a father, sensing his approaching death, asks his three sons to build him a grave out of rock salt, and to visit the grave. The sons bury him and visit his resting place. The brothers notice that the tombstone is being chipped away, and decide to protect it during the night. The elder brother sleeps through his three nights vigil, so does the middle brother. As for the youngest, in the first night, a black mist descends near the grave, and the youngest attacks it; the mist becomes a black horse that he tames. In the second night, a white apparition becomes a gray horse, and in the third night, a red mist becomes a bay horse. The youth tames all three and is given one of their hairs in return. Some time later, the three brothers take part in a series of contests set by the prince: a racing contest; to get his daughter's ring from beneath a tree at the foot of Mount Kazbek; to get two falcons from a nest atop a high mountain; and to fetch a ram located in a deep well. In another version of the tale, titled "Три брата, три облака, три волшебных коня и три княжеские дочери" ("Three Brothers, Three Clouds, Three Magical Horses and Three Princesses"), the youngest brother is named Ali; and the test of the falcons is to ride up the mountain to steal a feather from their nest.
Caucasus Region
According to scholar K. S. Shakryl, tale type 530 appears in the Caucasus in combination with type 550 or type 552A.
In an Avar language version collected by Anton Schiefner, Der schwarze Nart, the youngest prince heeds his father's request to pay his final respects on his grave for three nights. In the first night, the prince tames a "himmelfarbener Apfelschimmel" stallion ("a sky-coloured" gray horse); in the second, a red horse and in the third night a black steed. All animals give him a bit of horsehair to summon them. Later, the first horse is described as a "blue" ride, with blue ornaments, and he uses it to beat the challenge of the "King of the Occident": to jump very high and reach the princess on a tower. Anton Schiefner also connected the tale to similar European variants of The Three Enchanted Princes, a folktype classified as ATU 552, "The Girls Who Married Animals".
Philologist published an Armenian variant, Das Feuerpferd ("The Fire-Horse"), extracted from his book on Eastern Armenian language. The youngest brother tames the titular Fire-Horse and in return learns a command to summon it. Later, the king invites the entire kingdom for a banquet and a challenge: to reach his daughter on the highest tower on horseback.
In an Azeri tale, "Мелик-Джамиль" ("Melik-Jamil"), a king is dying and as a last request asks his three sons, Melik-Achmed, Melik Jamshid and Melik-Jamil, to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights, and to marry their sisters to whoever passes by 40 days after his death. The youngest, Melik-Jamil, fulfills his father's wish and protects his grave against three assailants: one on a dark brown horse, the other on a white one and the third on a red. The prince steals the horses and uses them to win another king's trial: to jump over a large ditch to get his daughters. He gets the third one, but she is kidnapped by a man whose soul lies in an external place (type ATU 302, "Ogre's Heart in an Egg").
In a Kabardian tale translated into Russian as "Три брата" ("Three Brothers"), an old knyaz has three sons. On his deathbed, he asks his sons to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights, a son on each night. He is buried and the youngest is sent by his brothers to guard their father's grave. On the first night, a knight in red armor and bay horse tries to desecrate the father's grave, but the third son defeats the knight and takes his garments. On the second night, the same event happens, but with a white knight on a white horse, and on the third night, with a black knight on a black horse. Time passes; a rich knyaz announces a series of games and trials for his daughter's hand. The youth's older brothers join in the games and leave him home, but he rides one horse on each day of competitions: he rides the red horse and shoots an arrow at a high target; he rides the white horse and joins a horse-racing contest, and lastly the black horse to defeat a bull.
Ossetian-Russian folklorist Grigory A. Dzagurov published a tale from the Ossetians with the title "Фунуктиз, младший из трех братьев" ("Funuktiz, the Youngest of Three Brothers"), three brothers live together, the youngest named Funuktiz, for he likes to play in the ashes. One day, they learn that their cereal crops near the forest are being trampled by a wild horse, and organize a watch. The elder two claim they will have the first turns, but sleep elsewhere. Finally, the youngest, Funuktiz goes himself one night and finds the wild horse; he approaches the animal and grabs it by its mane. The horse recognizes the youth a his new master and gives him a bridle. Later, an aldar has a beautiful daughter locked up in a tower for her whole life, and announces a challenge: whoever can reach the girl and steal the ring from her finger shall have her for wife. Funuktiz takes part in the challenge on the wild horse and, after two tries, he snatches her ring.
Georgia
Georgian scholarship registers variants of type ATU 530, "Magic Horse", in Georgia, and notes that the type "contaminates" with type 552A, "Animals as Brothers-in-Law". In the Georgian variants, the hero (the third and foolish brother) holds a vigil on his father's grave, gains the horse and jumps high to reach the princess on a tower.
In a Georgian variant, sourced as Mingrelian, The Priest's Youngest Son, a father's dying wish is for his three sons to read the psalter over his grave, one son on each night. However, only the youngest son appears and is rewarded with three horses. He later rides the horses to jump very high in order to kiss the princess on the castle's balcony.
Americas
United States
A variant named The Three Brothers was recorded from West Virginia by Ruth Ann Musick, which she identified as hailing from a Polish source (a man named John Novak). The tale begins with the night vigil on the father's grave by the youngest son, who is awarded by his father's spirit with a switch, a magic ring and a magic horse. A neighbouring king has a daughter who lives on a glass hill, and the youth and their brothers decide to try their luck. Only the youth accomplishes it, with the help of a black horse, a roan coloured one and a white one.
Richard Dorson collected a variant titled Cinders in Michigan, from a man named Frank Valín: the princess waits at the top of the glass mountain with her photograph, and the bashful Tuhkimo, with the help of an old man, rides horses with silver, golden and diamond shoes to scale the mountain. He also collected a variant from a man named Joe Woods. In his tale, Crazy Johnny, or Marble Castle, the king builds a marble castle atop a great mountain to house his daughter. When she is 18 years old, she requests her father to issue a challenge: anyone who "can climb the back horse to the castle" will be her husband. Elsewhere, "a mile from the city", gullible Johnny observes ants carrying a silver ring. He takes it from them. He scrubs the ring a voice tells him it is his servant. When Johnny learns of the engagement challenge, he uses the ring to wish for a silver-, golden- and diamond-coloured horse and garments to beat the challenge. When he marries the princess, a neighbouring king issues a declaration of war. Johnny, once again, dons the splendid clothes and summons an army three times with ring. When the princess's father asks about his good-for-nothing son-in-law, Johnny plays up the foolish act by a pond full of frogs.
A variant from New Mexico was collected by José Manuel Espinosa in the 1930s from a sixty-three-year-old Sixto Cháves, who lived in Vaughn, New Mexico. The tale was republished by Joe Hayes in 1998 with the title El caballo de siete colores ("The Horse of Seven Colors"). In this tale, three brothers move to another city and take up a job offer to hold a vigil on the prince's garden. The youngest brother discovers the horse of seven colors. In another city, the king promises to give their daughters in marriage to anyone who can snatch rings from the balcony of the palace.
Latin America
Variants of the tale type ATU 530 are attested and widespread in Latin-American traditions with the name The Horse of Seven Colors.Bierhorst, John. "Myths and Folktales in Latin America". In: The Fairy Tale World. ed. Andrew Teverson. Abingdon: Routledge. 2019. p. 202. Accessed 04 dez 2020. Routledge Handbooks Online. Scholarship points to its presence in regions of Hispanic colonization.
A variant was collected from the Qʼanjobʼal language and translated into English.
Mexico
A variant was collected from Tepecano people in the state of Jalisco (Mexico) by J. Alden Mason titled Fresadiila and published in the Journal of American Folklore. Despite not following the tale type to the letter, the youth Fresadilla captures the "caballo con siete colores" and later takes part in a rodeo as a mysterious horseman, to the delight of the crowd and admiration of his clueless brothers.
Puerto Rico
J. Alden Mason and Aurelio Espinosa collected some Puerto Rican variants grouped under the title El Caballo de Siete Colores ("The Horse of Seven Colors"). In 5 of these variants, the story begins with the night vigil on the father's fields by his three sons and the discovery of the culprit by the youngest son: a mysterious multicoloured horse. In another, El Caballo de Siete Colores, the youngest brother is saved by the multicoloured horse, and later rides the mount to grab a "sortija" (a ring) on the palace's balcony.
Venezuela
Professor John Bierhost (de) collected and published a Venezuelan version titled "The Horse of Seven Colors".
Argentina
Folklorist and researcher Berta Elena Vidal de Battini collected a variant from Neuquén Province (Argentina), titled El Caballo de Siete Colores ("The Horse of Seven Colors"): youngest son Manuelito traps a talking horse that has been eating his father's wheat crops, but frees him in exchange for the services of the horse. Manuelito's envious brothers try to kill the boy, but fail, thanks to the horse's protection. Later, Manuelito becomes aware of a princess in a city who will marry the man who can ride at full speed and grab an apple from the princess's hand.
Brazil
Author Elsie Spicer Eells recorded a Brazilian variant titled The Three Horses: the youngest of three brothers tries to seek his own fortune and arrives at a kingdom where the royal gardens were being trampled by wild horses. He manages to tame the horses and gain their trust. In return, the steeds (one of a white color, another of a black color and the third of a sorrel tone) help him win the hand of the princess.
Brazilian folklorist Sergio Romero collected a variant from Sergipe, Chico Ramela: the Virgin Mary, the hero's godmother, disguised as an old lady, instructs the titular Chico Ramela on how to free his elder brothers from the princess. Soon after, the ungrateful brothers take him as their servant and the trio reaches another kingdom. In this new place, the hero discovers and tames three horses.
In another variant, from Minas Gerais, Os Cavalos Mágicos ("The Magical Horses"), by Lindolfo Gomes, the Virgin Mary gives the hero some items to use in his midnight watch for the three enchanted horses.
Asia
Middle East
In an Arab tale, "Три призрака" ("Three Ghosts"), a father's dying wish is for his three sons, Omar, Zeid and Muhammed, to guard his grave for three days and three nights. When the time comes, Mohammed fills in for his brothers, and stops three ghostly riders (a white, a black, and a red) to seek revenge on his father. He defeats the ghosts and steal their horses. Next, a padishah announces a racing contest: whoever defeats his daughter, the vizier's daughter and the magistrate's daughter, shall win them for wives. Mohammed uses the horses and wins them as wives for himself and his brothers.
Turkey
Scholars Wolfram Eberhard and Pertev Naili Boratav established a catalogue for Turkish folktales, the Typen türkischer Volksmärchen ("Turkish Folktale Catalogue"). In their joint work, Eberhard and Boratav grouped tales with the helpful horse under Turkish type TTV 73, "Das wunderbare Pferde" ("The Wonderful Horse"), which corresponded in the international classification to tale type AaTh 530. Eberhard and Boratav listed three Turkish variants: in one, the hero rides the horse up a Crystal Mountain as part of an engagement challenge; in another, the hero has to take off the princess's ring while riding past her.
Researcher Barbara K. Walker published a Turkish tale titled Keloğlan and the Magic Hairs, collected from an informant from Trabzon. In this tale, Keloğlan is a bald-headed boy. His two older brothers order him around. One day, Keloğlan hears the town crier's announcement and goes back home to tell his brothers: the padishah is summoning all horsemen skillful enough to take part in a challenge for the hand of the princess. After his elder brothers go to the padishah's palace, Keloğlan takes out a white hair that an old man gave him and summons a white horse with white garments. Back to the padishah's palace, the princess declares she shall marry one that can jump on a horse over the ravine behind the palace. Keloğlan, in white garments, beats the challenge, but, since he rode back to his home, neither the padishah nor the princess can find him. So the princess issues a second challenge the next day: to jump over an even wider part of the ravine. Keloğlan takes out a tuft of brown hair and summons a brown horse with brown garments, and rides to the second challenge. Thirdly, the princess orders a giant hurdle to be built, and two women to stand behind it with two red stamps to mark the horseman that jumps over it. Keloğlan takes out a black hair and summons a black horse with black garments. He beats the challenge, and is stamped with the red marks, and vanishes back to his house soon after. The princess then asks her father to summon every man to the palace, so that she can identify the mysterious horseman.
Assyrian people
French orientalist collected a Chaldean variant titled Le Testament du Roi ("The King's Will"). In this story, the king asks his sons to ensure that his coffin will not be disturbed after he is interred. His youngest son is the only one to pay heed to the king's request and, during three nights, stops three bandits from desecrating his father's grave and taking revengs on his corpse. The youth kills the bandits and steals their (red, black and white) garments and (red, black and white) horses. Later, he takes part in a horse-racing contest to win three brides for himself and his brothers. The tale was later translated to Russian language by Russo-Assyrian author with the title "Завещание царя" ("The King's Testament"), and published in a compilation of folktales from the Assyrian people.
Iraq
In an Iraqi folktale, collected by E. S. Drower, The Boy and the Deyus, a dying king has two wishes for his sons and daughters: one, to guard his tomb from any one who tries to profane his grave, and to marry his daughters to the first passersby. The youngest son guards the tomb from three "deyus", one riding a "coal-black" mare in the first night, a second one on a red mare and a third on a white mare. The prince kills the deyus and takes the mares for himself. Meanwhile, the youth also marries his sisters to three passing "darwishes". Later on, the prince learns of a challenge set by a neighbouring Sultan: he ordered a wide and deep ditch to be dug out and their daughters to be put there, until someone rescued them.
Pamir Mountains
In a tale from the Pamir Mountains, "Царевич и маланг" ("The Prince and the Malang"), a king orders his three sons, two from one wife and the youngest from another, to guard his grave. The first two princes fail, but the youngest protects the grave: a cloud descends from the sky and materializes next to the king's grave. It is a diva, who has promised three horses to the king, but delivers the horses to the prince. Meanwhile, a king with no children is contacted by a malang with an apple as a birthing implement to give to his wife, with the promise to deliver one of his daughters to him. Three daughters are born and, after they grow up, he builds a "козлодранья" (a racing course for a typical Central Asian equestrian game, like the Buzkashi), with enormous walls adorned with battlements. He wraps three kerchiefs around poles, plants them like flags, and announces that he will win his daughters for wife who circles the square three times and removes the kerchiefs. The youngest son summons the horse, beats the challenge and wins a wife. The tale continues as he has to deal with the malang, who comes to collect his due.
Tajikistan
In a Tajik tale, "Отцовское наставление" ("A Father's Instructions"), a miller shares his property with two of his sons, while the youngest is advised to visit his father's grave for three nights. While working as a shepherd for his brothers, he takes the flock to his father's grave before sunrise for three times, and each time a winged horse appears, the first of a black color, the second of a chestnut horse and the third of a white color - each giving a hair of their mane to the youth. One day, the king announces a contest: to know the best rider in the kingdom, they must climb up a set of 40-step ladders. The youngest brother uses the horses to win the contest.
Turkmenistan
In a tale from Turkmenistan, "Мамед" ("Mamed"), an old man marries his three daughters to three animals: the oldest to the wolf, the middle one to the tiger, and the youngest to the lion. Some time later, the old man is dying, and asks his three sons to hold a vigil on his grave for three nights. Only the youngest fulfills the request: on each night, a knight riding on a horse appears in a whirlwind near the grave, and gives him a tuft of hair, each from a different horse (the first red, the second a chestnut horse, and the third a gray horse). Then, the king announces that whoever jumps over a plane tree riding a horse, shall marry his daughters. Mamed summons the horses, jumps over the plane tree and throws an apple each time for each of the three princesses. Mamed gives the elder princesses to his brothers and marries the youngest. One day, a div on a horse kidnaps his wife and his animal brothers-in-law help him to rescue her (tale type ATU 552, "The Girls who Married Animals").
Uzbekistan
In an Uzbek tale titled "Завещание отца" ("The Father's Will"), a father asks his sons to guard his grave when he dies. The youngest promises to do so. When the time comes, the youngest goes to his grave and on each night, at midnight, a horse appears and circles the grave to honor its fallen rider: a white horse on the first, a black horse on the second, and a roan/red horse on the last. Each horse gives him a tuft of hair. Some time later, the three brothers go to the city, where the local ruler build a verandah on top of a high palace wall, with a steep staircase for access. The ruler promises to marry his daughter to anyone who climbs the staircase to reach the princess, be it on horse, on camel or on donkey.
Iran
Professor , in his catalogue of Persian folktales, listed three Iranian variants. These tales are about the youngest prince holding a vigil on his father's grave, his killing/defeating three knights that wanted to attack it, and obtaining three magical horses.
In a variant published by professor Mahomed-Nuri Osmanovich Osmanov (ru) with title "Сказка о трех померанцах" ("The tale of the Three Pomerancs"), a dying merchant orders his sons to guard his grave for three nights. Meanwhile, a padishah erects a glass pillar and places three pomerancs atop of it; he declares that whoever gets the big fruit, shall marry his eldest daughter, and so and so forth for the other daughters. The merchant's youngest son digs up a hole next to his father's grave, and awaits through the night until a rider appears on a horse to burn the grave. The son defeats the rider three times and gets hairs from his three horses.
Afghanistan
In an Afghan tale titled The Story of a Poor Prince, a king, on his deathbed, asks his three sons for a last request: after he dies, the princes are to go to his grave and say prayers from night to dawn. The king dies, and his sons try to have the next one go in their place. On the first night, the youngest son goes in the elder brother's place, and on the second in the middle one's. On the third night, when it is his turn, a giant appears in a flash of thunder and wind. The youngest prince surprises the giant and grabs him by the hair (which the story explains is their weak spot). The giant surrenders and gives some tufts of hair to the prince, and disappears. Later, the elder princes spend their father's riches, and have to leave their kingdom. They reach another kingdom, where the three princesses have set a suitor test: whoever wants to marry them, they shall climb 40 stairs on horseback, enter a tower to beat a drum, then ride back to the princesses' palace. The elder princes decide to take their chances with the challenge, but, on seeing the continuous failures of the other horse riders and them being hanged for it, opt out of it. The younger prince declares he will try, and is mocked by his elder brothers. However, the prince burns the giant's hairs and summons three horses: one on the first day, a red one on the second, and a brown one on the third. The prince rides the horses up the stairs, beat the drums, and goes in hiding. At the end of the tale, he reveals his ruse to his brothers, and they all get to marry the three princesses.
India
An Indian variant was collected in New Goa, with the title Juão Peken ("João Pequeno" or "Little John") and its compiler remarked on the similarity of the tale to the Norwegian tale by George Dasent. In this variant, the king's garden is trampled every night, so he sends his sons to guard it. They fail. He sends the minister's son, Littlejohn, to guard it: he stays awake and sees a white, a sorrel and a black horse trampling the garden on three consecutive nights. Later he and the king's two sons arrive at a kingdom, where they are informed about the engagement challenge: the rider should throw a ball up where the princess is.
Francis Hindes Groome stated that the Indian fairy tale The Monkey Prince was "strikingly identical" to the Polish-Gypsy version he collected. In this tale, published by Maive Stokes, six cowives of a rajah eat birth-inducing mangoes, and the seventh eats a mango stone. The seventh queen gives birth to a monkey named Bandarsábásá, or Prince Monkey. In a neighbouring kingdom, King Jamársá promised his daughter, Princess Jahúran, to anyone who would lift a heavy iron ball and throw at the princess. The Monkey Prince tries his luck by removing his "monkey skin" in a remote part of the jungle and summoning a horse from the heavens. He tries his hand at the contest in the second visit, by hitting the verandah, and in third visit, hits the little toe of the princess.
In a story published in The Indian Antiquary by Orientalist William Crooke, The Tale of Paṅchphúla Ráņi, a rajah dreams of a splendid garden and plans to make it a reality. Soon after its construction, some fairies of Raja Indra's court come by and take offense by the beauty of the garden; they send four demons (Red, Green, White and Black) to ravage the garden in the form of horses. The rajah's seventh son, the youngest prince, manages to defend the garden against the creatures and obtains from them a tuft of hair. Later, all seven princes travel to another country, where the princess Paṅchphúla Ráņi sets a challenge: her suitor should jump on the topmost roof of the palace, and also should strike her with a ball five times.
Ethnologist Verrier Elwin collected a tale from Raipur district, titled The Youngest Son. The titular youngest son, the seventh prince, is tasked with guarding his father's crops of "every king of grain" after his older brothers fail. During his watch, he sees the seven horses of Bhagavan coming to eat the crops, but he manages to tame one of them. He later uses the divine horse to jump over the palace and win the princess of a neighbouring kingdom.
In a variant from Uttar Pradesh (Braj), published in Russian language with the title "Грошовый слуга", a king with three sons has a beautiful garden, but every year Indra's horses appear out of thin air and trample everything. The king announces that he will pass on his kingdom to anyone who can stop the horses. His sons, however, anticipate themselves and stand guard on the garden. The youngest prince captures the leader of the horses and the animal gives him a magical tuft of his mane. The next morning, the prince uses the hair to summon a white horse with white garments to tell his father, the king, about his victory. His older brothers decide to leave the kingdom and the young prince follows after them. In a nearby kingdom, the princess announces she will marry whoever can jump with their horse the roof of the palace and throw a ball at her. Seven times, for the next seven days, with horses with different colors (green, red, yellow, blue, black, brown and white), the young prince throws the ball at the princess and wins her.
Tuva
Folklorist Erika Taube collected a variant from the Tuvan people in 1969. In this tale, titled "Отгек Джуман" (Otgek Juman), an elderly hunter named Jagyr Mergen has three sons: Mayshgak, the eldest; Shoyushgak, second eldest, and Otgek Juman, the youngest. Sensing his death approaching, he asks for his sons to bury him near three memorial stones (of white, red-brown and black color), and for each of them to hold a vigil. The elders send Otgek on the first night. The father's spirit sees the boy and acknowledges his presence, but insists the other must come, too. They don't. and the father, on the third night, says it their loss, for the son that came will find happiness. When the khan announces a week-long festival, Otgek Juman opens up each of the three memorial stones and finds a white, a red-brown and a black horse. He takes the horses on the khan's contests: horse racing, wrestling and archery. He marries the youngest princess. As the tale continues, Otgek's brothers try in vain to impress their father-in-law with hunting game and preparing tea.
Myanmar
Scholars Johannes Bolte and Jiří Polívka indicated that Burmese tale Le prince et les chevaux volants ("The prince and the flying horses") is another variant of the tale type. In this tale, first collected in the "Maghi" dialect, the youngest son (of seven half-brothers) captures flying horses that have been eating the king's mangoes in the garden. Later, the seven royal half-brothers travel to another realm, where the king announces that whoever can beat the princess in a series of horse-racing contests, shall marry her. The prince summons the flying horses to ride them in the contest.
Indonesia
The tale type is reported to have reached even Indonesia: a variant titled Der wundertätige Vogel was collected from "Ceram" (Seram Island). In this story, a rajah has seven sons, the youngest with boils on his skin. The father tasks them with watching their fields at night from robbers, but only the youngest is successful: he discovers it was a bird. The bird pleads for his life and gives him one of his feathers that becomes a ring. Later, the seven brothers travel to another town where the local rajah promises his daughter for anyone who can jump very high on a horse and reach her on the window of her room, located in the highest tower. The youngest drops the ring on a well and suddenly a white horse appears with white garments on the first day, a brown horse with brown clothes on the second day, a black horse with black clothes on the third day and finally a golden horse with golden clothes on the fourth day.
Nepal
In a Nepalese titled The Miracle of the White Horse, a man with three sons has a garden filled with flowers that he fences to keep animals away. One day, however, he finds that the flowers have been eaten, and plans to discovers the culprit by holding a nightly watch. However, he falls asleep and fails. He sends his sons on the following nights: the elder two also fall asleep, but the youngest, Kancho, manages to stay awake. The youth discovers that three horses are grazing the fields: first, a brown horse; next, a black horse, and lastly, a white horse. Kancho threatens each with a khukuri (a type of knife), but the animals beg to be released and allow the youth to call upon them. Later, Kancho and his elder brothers leave home and arrive at another kingdom, where they see people building walls to reach a hovering ball in the sky. The people explain that whoever brings down the ball shall marry the king's daughter. Kancho's brothers decide to build walls to get the ball in the sky and force the youth to prepare their food, but the youth calls upon the horses to help him reach the ball, managing to get it while riding the white horse.
Africa
West Africa
Professor Katrin Pfeiffer collected and published a tale from the Mandinka people of West Africa which was noted to "ha[ve] much the same structure as the European tale of the princess on the glass mountain". In this tale, Jomma, the hero Jomma, disguised as a leper, intends to win the princess sat upon a silk-cotton tree.
Literary variants
Professor Jack Zipes states that the tale type inspired Russian poet Pyotr Pavlovich Yershov to write his fairy tale poem The Little Humpacked Horse: a young peasant, Ivan, befriends a white mare, which gives to the human two stallions and a humpbacked horse. The tale mixes motifs with tale type ATU 550, "Bird, Horse and Princess", and ends with the concluding event of variants of type ATU 531, "The Clever Horse" (hero bathes in vat of boiling milk or water).
A literary treatment of the tale exists in The True Annals of Fairy-Land: The Reign of King Herla, titled The Princess on the Glass Mountain: a king captures a wild man that the young prince releases by accident. The prince escapes to another kingdom, where a king sets a challenge: he puts his obstinate daughter atop a tall glass mountain. The young prince is helped by the wild man, who gives him three equipments: a blue-shimmering steel armor, a silver suit of armor and a snow-white steed; and, lastly, a suit of golden armor.
The tale was also published in a fairy tale compilation titled Swanhilde, and other fairy tales, by Catherine Norris Horwitz. In this version, a prince releases a "dwarf old man" his father captured and is exiled to another kingdom. When the other king announces the challenge of the Glass Mountain, the wild man guides the prince to his cave and gives him a steel armor and a bay horse, a diamond-sparkling silver armor and a black horse, and, finally, a golden armor and a white horse.
Professor Jack Haney suggested that the theme inspired American writer Washington Irving, who wrote The Legend of Prince Ahmed al Kamel, or, The Pilgrim of Love, in his book Tales of the Alhambra. The story tells about an Arab prince who acquires a magical horse to compete in a tournament for the hand of a Christian princess of Toledo.Irving, Washington. The Alhambra. London: MacMillan & Co. 1911 [1896]. pp. 217-258.
The tale serves as one of the two inspirations for Amal el-Mohtar's short story "Seasons of Glass and Iron", one of whose two protagonists is a princess sitting atop a glass hill.
Adaptations
The tale was adapted into a play by Latvian poet Rainis, with the title Zelta zirgs (lv) ("The Golden Horse" or "The Golden Steed"), wherein hero Antiņš must rescue the princess, lying in deep sleep atop the glass mountain.
The tale was also adapted into the 1982 Czechoslovakian film Popolvár najväčší na svete (sk). In this version, the titular Popolvár tames three horses (one chestnut, other black and the third white). When Princess Láskykvet is captured by "The King of the Underworld" and trapped into a mountainous prison, Popolvár rides the three horses and dons copper, silver and golden armors to ascend the mountain and rescue her.
See also
Cinderella
The Glass Mountain (fairy tale)
Fire Boy (Japanese folktale)
Old Rinkrank
The Boots or Askeladden series of folk and fairy tales
Iron Hans (German fairy tale by the Brothers Grimm)
The Magician's Horse
Little Johnny Sheep-Dung
The Gifts of the Magician
The Black Colt
Footnotes
References
Bibliography
Boberg, I.M. (1928). "Prinsessen på glasbjoerget". In: Danske Studier (1928): 16–53.
Bolte, Johannes; Polívka, Jiri. Anmerkungen zu den Kinder- u. hausmärchen der brüder Grimm. Dritter Band (NR. 121–225). Germany, Leipzig: Dieterich'sche Verlagsbuchhandlung. 1913. pp. 111–113 (footnotes).
Leskien, August and Brugman, K. Litauische Volkslieder und Märchen. Straßburg: Karl J. Trübner, 1882. pp. 524–526.
Pácalová, Jana. "Ján Kollár a rozprávky v Národných spievankách". In: Slovenská literatúra. Bratislava: SAP, 2008, roč. 55, č. 6, pp. 432–451.
Further reading
Kahn, Otto. "Kommentar zu dem Märchen von der Prinzessin auf dem Glasberge". In: Österreichische Zeitschrift für Volkskunde. Neue Serie: Band XXXII; Gesamtserie Band 81. Wien: im Selbstverlag des Vereines für Volkskunde. 1978. pp. 165–177.
Pácalová, Jana. 2004. "Genéza knižnej podoby Dobšinského rozprávok [The genesis of fairy tales by Pavol Dobšinský]". In: Slavica Slovaca, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 143–155. (In Slovak)
Toomeos-Orglaan, Kärri. "Gender Stereotypes in Cinderella (ATU 510A) and The Princess on the Glass Mountain (ATU 530)." In: Journal of Ethnology and Folkloristics'', [S.l.], v. 7, n. 2, p. 49-64, dec. 2013. Available at: <https://www.jef.ee/index.php/journal/article/view/142>.
External links
Norwegian fairy tales
Fictional princesses
Scandinavian folklore
Female characters in fairy tales
Fictional horses
Horses in culture
ATU 500-559
Asbjørnsen and Moe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/123rd%20Airlift%20Wing
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123rd Airlift Wing
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The 123rd Airlift Wing (123 AW) is a unit of the Kentucky Air National Guard, stationed at Louisville International Airport (Louisville Air National Guard Base), Kentucky. If activated to federal service, the Wing is gained by the United States Air Force Air Mobility Command.
Overview
The Kentucky Air National Guard's 123rd Airlift Wing mission is to provide worldwide theater airlift for U.S. military and humanitarian operations. The wing is equipped with eight C-130H Hercules aircraft. Multiple groups, squadrons and flights carry out the unit's mission by providing administrative and logistical support, including airlift operations, combat control, pararescue, maintenance, supply, transportation, contracting, communications, civil engineering, personnel, base services, security forces and medical functions.
In November 2021, the 123rd was re-equipped with C-130J Super Hercules
Units
The 123rd Airlift Wing consists of the following units:
123rd Operations Group
165th Airlift Squadron
123rd Special Tactics Squadron
123rd Maintenance Group
123rd Mission Support Group
123rd Medical Group
123rd Contingency Response Group
History
Korean War Federalization
With the surprise invasion of South Korea on 25 June 1950, the 123rd Fighter Group and its component squadrons were mobilized into federal active duty at Godman Air Force Base at Fort Knox, Kentucky. Shortly after being federalized, the group and its support units of the 223rd Air Service Group were reorganized under the wing base organization and the 123rd Fighter-Bomber Wing was activated to control the operational and support elements that had been mobilized.
After over a year of training at Godman, the 123rd deployed to RAF Manston, Kent, England to replace the Strategic Air Command (SAC) 12th Fighter-Escort Wing which returned to Bergstrom Air Force Base, Texas. In England, the mission of the 123rd was to provide fighter escort for SAC Boeing B-50 Superfortress and Convair B-36 Peacemaker bombers while flying over Western European airspace on their deterrence alert missions. The 123rd left their F-51Ds at Godman AFB and the personnel
boarded C-47s to Westover Air Force Base, Massachusetts and later to transport ships to England. They arrived in early December, 1951 at Manston where they began conversion training on Republic F-84E Thunderjets.
The training program began with the inexperienced F-51D pilots experiencing training difficulties with the jet aircraft, with several aircraft being lost in accidents. However, by March 1952 the unit was judged to be 80% combat ready on the Thunderjets. However, the period of federalization for the 123rd was expiring and in July 1952, the unit personnel were returned to the United States, the aircraft at Manston being passed on to the active duty 406th Fighter-Bomber Wing took over its personnel and equipment.
Tactical Fighter mission
After returning from England, the unit re-formed at Louisville. Because most jet aircraft were still in USAF use, the squadron received P-51D Mustangs and initially returned to its pre-federalization air defense mission, being designated as a fighter interceptor unit. However, with the P-51s, the Kentucky Air National Guard was limited to daylight training only.
On 1 January 1953, the wing was transferred to Tactical Air Command jurisdiction and re-equipped with refurbished North American F-86A Sabre air superiority fighter. With the switchover to TAC, the unit designation was changed to "Fighter-Bomber".
Tactical Reconnaissance mission
The wing only flew the Sabre for two years, when it was re-equipped with Martin RB-57A Canberra reconnaissance aircraft and became the 123rd Tactical Reconnaissance Wing.. The 123rd became a Tactical Reconnaissance Wing, in which it would remain for the next thirty years.
The wing would perform day and night, high and low, and visual and photographic reconnaissance. Unlike the Sabre fighters, the RB-57A was totally unarmed. The crew was two—one pilot and one photo-navigator One of their major activities of the 123rd in the United States was to carry out photographic surveys of areas hit by natural disasters such as hurricanes or tornadoes. In 1965, the 123rd was awarded its second Spaatz Trophy for superior combat readiness and flight training.
In 1965, the unit transferred its RB-57s to active duty to be deployed to South Vietnam. In return the 123rd was re-equipped, receiving the RF-101G Voodoo. The RF-101G was a derivative aircraft from twenty-nine ex-USAF F-101A Tactical Fighters that were withdrawn from fighter duty and were modified by Lockheed Aircraft Service Company of Ontario, California to serve as unarmed tactical reconnaissance aircraft for use by the Air National Guard. These aircraft were redesignated as RF-101G. As compared to the RF-101A dedicated photo-reconnaissance version of the F-101A, the RF-101G had a shorter and broader nose. These aircraft went to the Kentucky Air National Guard in July 1965, replacing the RB-57B.
On 26 January 1968, the Pueblo Crisis precipitated the 123rd's recall to federal service. The unit flew just under 20,000 tactical flying hours with the RF-101G and delivered nearly 320,000 reconnaissance prints to requesting agencies. Assigned personnel served on active duty for 16 months.
The 123rd experienced a rocky tour of active duty. The wing had not been rated combat-ready when mobilized on 26 January 1968 primarily due to equipment shortages. It was not part of Secretary McNamara's Selected Reserve Force. The unit was given an unsatisfactory ORI rating in October 1968. Despite those problems, the 123rd made a significant contribution to active force operations. It began functioning as the primary Air Force tactical reconnaissance unit in the continental U.S. Elements of its squadrons rotated temporary duty assignments in Japan and South Korea from July 1968 until April 1969 providing photo reconnaissance support to American forces in those areas, including service in South Vietnam flying combat reconnaissance missions.
The 123rd was released from active duty and returned to Kentucky state control on 8 June 1969. The wing earned its first Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for its exceptional performance during this period.
In 1971, there was a re-organization of Air National Guard tactical reconnaissance units, with all the RF-101Gs being sent to the Arkansas Air National Guard's 184th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron. The Kentucky ANG transferred its RF-101Gs to the Arkansas ANG and transitioned to the RF-101H Voodoo, a follow-on to the RF-101G. Being derived from the F-101C tactical fighter, the RF-101H differed from the RF-101G in having a strengthened airframe designed to allow maneuvers at up to 7.33 G. and having different fuel pumps and fuel feed and control systems, increasing its maximum available afterburner time from six minutes to 15.
During 1976, a no-notice conversion announced by the National Guard Bureau brought the two-seat RF-4C Phantom II to the Kentucky Air National Guard, with the RF-101Hs aircraft being retired to AMARC. The unit attained combat-ready status within seven months—a record time. The Phantom years were marked with many overseas deployments, participation in international photo reconnaissance competitions and a remarkable flight safety record. In 1981, the unit placed first in the Air National Guard Photo Finish Competition and earned an unprecedented third Spaatz Trophy.
In May 1983 the unit reached another historic milestone when it earned the highest possible rating from Tactical Air Command during its Operational Readiness Inspection. This was the first time that a TAC unit had received an outstanding rating. On 1 January 1989 the unit was awarded its seventh Air Force Outstanding Unit Award—a record for any Air National Guard unit.
Tactical airlift
The collapse of the Soviet Union and the dissolution of the Warsaw Pact led to accelerated retirement plans for active duty USAF RF-4Cs. In 1988, the Kentucky Air National Guard's Phantoms were sent to AMARC, and on 9 January 1989 the 123rd was officially re-designated the 123rd Tactical Airlift Wing and began conversion to the C-130B Hercules transport aircraft. By the end of the year, the unit had been involved in many worldwide airlift missions, including Exercise Volant Oak in Panama. The unit also participated in an airlift competition, Sentry Rodeo. The wing's first humanitarian airlift came in the aftermath of Hurricane Hugo.
Although the wing's 165th Tactical Airlift Squadron was not federally mobilized for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, unit volunteers served during the conflict. From August 1990 to March 1991, the 165th flew 1,240 airlift sorties worldwide in direct support of the Gulf War—the most for any Air National Guard unit. An additional 88 wing members were activated in support of Desert Shield/Storm.
Post Cold War era
In May 1992 the 123rd received the 2000th C-130 straight off the assembly line as it began conversion to the C-130H Hercules. Eight months later, the 123rd deployed to Mombassa, Kenya, to fly relief missions into Somalia for Operation Restore Hope and Operation Provide Relief. Citizen-soldiers from the 123rd flew 150 sorties and transported 720 tons of relief supplies and 1,444 passengers into some of the hardest-hit areas in Somalia.
When the world's attention shifted to Eastern Europe in February 1993, the 123rd responded again, deploying in support of Operation Provide Promise. The unit flew 1,082 airdrop and air-land sorties and delivered 2,215 tons of food and supplies into war-torn Bosnia-Herzegovina. To support the operation, the wing deployed 451 personnel into Rhein-Main Air Base, Germany, over several rotations until May 1994.
In July 1994 the 123rd answered another call for help and deployed within 72 hours of notification to fly relief missions into Rwanda and Zaire for Operation Support Hope. Operating out of Mombassa, Kenya, unit personnel flew 147 sorties, transporting 652.5 tons of relief supplies to the beleaguered Rwandan refugees. Personnel from the unit's 205th Combat Communications Squadron also deployed to Haiti that year as part of Operation Uphold Democracy, providing satellite communications links for the theater commander.
In September 1994 the wing's sustained record of achievement was recognized by award of the 1993 Curtis N. Rusty Metcalf Trophy, presented annually to the best Air National Guard airlift or air refueling unit. The wing also earned the Air National Guard Distinguished Flying Unit Plaque and Air Force Flight Safety Plaque. In November 1994 the unit was granted its eighth Air Force Outstanding Unit Award.
The wing returned to Bosnia in 1996 to provide airlift for U.S. and NATO troops who were protecting the fragile peace. More than 170 Kentuckians volunteered for the mission, which delivered 913 tons of cargo and transported 2,296 passengers. The wing also achieved the highest readiness rate of any unit in the theater. That commitment to service continued in 1997, when the unit participated in several overseas deployments while offering a helping hand at home. More than 100 Kentucky Air Guard troops provided security forces, medical aid, communications links and civil engineering crews after record flooding ravaged several Kentucky communities.
The unit also made its presence felt overseas, offering civil engineering skills in Spain and airlift services in Saudi Arabia as part of Operation Southern Watch, which enforced the no-fly zone in Southern Iraq. Other wing members deployed to Egypt as part of a multinational training exercise that integrated 7,000 troops from every branch of the U.S. military and six foreign countries.
In February 1998, the 123rd Airlift Wing received its ninth Air Force Outstanding Unit Award. The following month, the wing accepted its sixth Distinguished Flying Unit Plaque, recognizing the 123rd Airlift Wing as one of the top five Air Guard flying units in the nation for 1997. A mere three months later, the wing as presented with the 15th Air Force Reserve Forces Trophy as the top reserve unit in the numbered Air Force.
1998 continued the 123rd Airlift Wing's tradition of global deployments with missions to Panama as part of Operation Coronet Oak and Ecuador for Nuevos Horizontes '98. The latter operation, whose name means New Horizons in Spanish, was a Southern Command joint training exercise that gave Kentucky Army and Air Guard engineers the opportunity to fine-tune military skills while constructing clinics, schools, and latrines in rural areas of the South American nation. Nearly 1,300 of the Commonwealth's citizen-soldiers participated in the effort, which also provided impoverished Ecuadorians with basic dental and medical care.
The following year, the wing returned to Bosnia once more to provide theater airlift for the continuing peacekeeping mission, now called Operation Joint Forge. More than 350 Kentucky aircrew, maintainers, and support personnel deployed for the operation, along with about 200 members of the Ohio Air National Guard's 179th Airlift Wing.
The two unit's C-130s flew nearly 500 sorties during the deployment, delivering 3,500 passengers and more than 1,000 tons of cargo to sites across Europe and inside Bosnia, including Sarajevo and Tuzla. The units also were tasked with helping stockpile equipment for what became Operation Allied Force, the NATO air campaign against Serbian forces in the former Republic of Yugoslavia. Working around the clock with the 37th Airlift Squadron at Ramstein Air Base, Germany, the Kentucky and Ohio crews flew more than 70 tons of fighter support equipment from U.S. bases in England and Germany to bases in Italy. The Kentucky Air Guard closed out 1999 by again deploying for Operation Southern Watch, providing theater airlift services from an air base in Muscat, Oman.
Air Expeditionary deployments
In mid-1996, the Air Force, in response to budget cuts, and changing world situations, began experimenting with Air Expeditionary organizations. The Air Expeditionary Force (AEF) concept was developed that would mix Active-Duty, Reserve and Air National Guard elements into a combined force. Instead of entire permanent units deploying as "Provisional" as in the 1991 Gulf War, Expeditionary units are composed of "aviation packages" from several wings, including active-duty Air Force, the Air Force Reserve Command and the Air National Guard, would be married together to carry out the assigned deployment rotation.
Shortly thereafter, the unit began planning for a 90-day deployment to Muscat, Oman, to again support U.S. troops enforcing the no-fly zone in Southern Iraq. More than 160 personnel were joined by members of the Ohio Air Guard's 179th Airlift Wing to support Operation Northern Watch. Together, the two units flew 345 sorties during their three-month tasking, delivering 895 tons of cargo and 1,122 passengers to destinations in Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. The mission, which was part of the Air Force's first-ever Aerospace Expeditionary Force, concluded in December 1999.
By April 2000 the 123rd Airlift Wing had received its 10th Air Force Outstanding Unit Award, and global deployments continued to mark the wing's activities.
More than 580 Kentucky Air Guard members deployed overseas from December 2000 to March 2001 as part of Air Expeditionary Forces based in Germany and Southwest Asia. Other unit members were sent to South America to participate in drug interdiction efforts. The largest contingent of Kentucky forces—nearly 470 aircrew, maintenance and support personnel—operated from Ramstein Air Base, Germany, in support of Operation Joint Forge, the multinational peacekeeping mission in Bosnia-Herzegovina. While there, unit members transported approximately 2,500 passengers and 410 tons of cargo to locations like Sarajevo and Tuzla, Bosnia; and Taszar, Hungary.
Other 123rd members deployed to Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Turkey in support of Operation Joint Forge, Operation Southern Watch and Operation Northern Watch. The latter two missions are responsible for enforcing no-fly zones imposed upon Iraq following the 1991 Gulf War.
Global War on Terrorism
After the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, unit members were tasked to participate in the war against terrorism and in homeland defense. Currently, more than 500 Kentucky ANG troops have been called to active duty for at least a year while scores of additional troops are serving on short-term duty as needed to support Operation Noble Eagle and Operation Enduring Freedom.
In the first half of 2002, the wing received three major honors recognizing its superior performance in 2001. The awards were the 15th Air Force Solano Trophy, given each year to the top reserve unit in the 15th Air Force; the Metcalf Trophy, given annually to the best tanker or airlift unit in the Air National Guard; and the Air Force Outstanding Unit Award—the wing's 11th such honor.
A member of the wing's 123rd Special Tactics Squadron, MSG Keary Miller (retired) was awarded the Air Force Cross for his actions on 4 March 2002. During a 17-hour battle on an Afghan mountaintop, then TSG Miller, a special tactics pararescueman, against overwhelming odds and a barrage of heavy fire from al-Qaida militants, dashed through deep snow into the line of fire multiple times to assess and care for critically wounded fellow service members. Sergeant Miller was the combat search and rescue lead to recover two fellow special operations members from the top of Takur Ghar. During this mission, Miller is credited with saving the lives of 10 service members, and the recovery of seven others who were killed in action.
The wing also stood up the Air National Guard's first Contingency Response Group—a rapid-reaction "airbase in a box" with all the personnel, training and equipment needed to deploy to a remote site, open up a runway and establish airfield operations so that aid and troops can begin to flow into affected areas after a disaster.
The group was instrumental in responding to the statewide ice storm last year that left nearly 770,000 households without power and water for days. All told, the wing deployed more than 380 Airmen across the Commonwealth to clear roads, distribute food and water and conduct house-to-house "wellness checks" credited with saving two people from death by carbon monoxide poisoning.
The unit was equally engaged back home. When Hurricane Gustav began closing in on the Gulf Coast in August 2008, the 123rd Airlift Wing provided the facilities and support for relief agencies to evacuate more than 1,400 New Orleans residents to Louisville and then repatriate them after the danger had passed.
In 2009, the Wing was awarded its 14th Air Force Outstanding Unit Award for accomplishments from 1 October 2007 to 30 September 2009. During those two years, the wing stepped up to perform numerous critical missions at home and abroad, deploying 759 personnel to 62 locations in 20 countries—many of them in harm's way. For example, about 300 Kentucky Airmen and multiple C-130 aircraft were deployed to Bagram Air Base, Afghanistan, from March through May 2009 to provide key airlift support for U.S. forces engaged with the enemy in Operation Enduring Freedom.
The unit maintained an unprecedented 100 percent mission-capable rate during the deployment, never missing a single scheduled flight due to aircraft maintenance issues while completing more than 1,500 combat sorties that delivered 3,900 tons of cargo and transported 20,000 troops throughout the theater of operations. The wing also deployed more than 120 Airmen and two C-130 aircraft to the Caribbean in support of Operation Coronet Oak, an ongoing U.S. Southern Command mission to provide theater airlift capability for U.S. military and government agencies in Central and South America.
A third major overseas deployment saw more than 200 Kentucky Air Guardsmen and three C-130 aircraft deploy to Ramstein Air Base, Germany, from January through March 2008 and August through September 2009 as part of Operation Joint Enterprise. Kentucky aircrews transported more than 200 tons of cargo and 700 troops to 18 nations across Europe and Africa during their tours.
BRAC 2005
In its BRAC 2005 Recommendations, DoD recommended that Berry Field Air National Guard Base, Nashville, Tennessee, be realigned. This recommendation would distribute the C-130H Hercules aircraft of the 118th Airlift Wing (ANG) to the 123rd Airlift Wing (ANG), Louisville Air National Guard Base at Louisville Airport (four aircraft) and another installation. Military judgment was the predominant factor in this recommendation—this realignment would create one right-sized squadron at Louisville (79) and would retain experienced ANG personnel.
C-130J upgrade
On 25 November 2020, Kentucky Governor Andy Beshear and the Kentucky congressional delegation jointly announced that the 123rd would soon receive C-130J Hercules aircraft from the United States Air Force to replace the "H" model aircraft that have been in service for over 25 years.
Lineage
Constituted as the 123rd Fighter-Bomber Wing c. 26 September 1950
Activated on 26 October 1950
Released from active duty and returned to Kentucky state control, 10 July 1952
Redesignated 123rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing and activated on 10 July 1952
Redesignated 123rd Fighter-Bomber Wing on 1 January 1953
Redesignated 123rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing c. 1 July 1955
Redesignated 123rd Tactical Reconnaissance Wing on 1 June 1958
Federalized and ordered to active service on 26 January 1968
Released from active duty and returned to Kentucky state control on 9 June 1969
Redesignated: 123rd Tactical Airlift Wing on 8 January 1989
Redesignated: 123rd Airlift Wing on 16 March 1992
Assignments
Ninth Air Force, 26 October 1950
Third Air Force, 30 November 1951 – 20 July 1952
Kentucky Air National Guard, 20 July 1952
Tactical Air Command, 26 January 1968
Kentucky Air National Guard, 9 June 1969 – present
Gained by: Tactical Air Command, 20 July 1952
Gained by: Military Airlift Command, 8 January 1989
Gained by: Air Mobility Command, 1 June 1992
Gained by: Air Combat Command, 1 October 1993
Gained by: Air Mobility Command, 1 April 1997
Components
123rd Fighter-Bomber Group (later 123rd Fighter-Interceptor Group, 123rd Tactical Reconnaissance Group, 123rd Operations Group0, 26 October 1950 – 20 July 1952, 20 July 1952 – 9 December 1974, 16 March 1992 – present
165th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron (later 165th Tactical Airlift Squadron, 165th Airlift Squadron), 9 December 1974 – 16 March 1992
Stations
Godman Air Force Base, Kentucky, 26 October 1950
RAF Manston, England, 30 November 1951 – 10 July 1952
Standiford Field, Louisville, Kentucky, 10 July 1952
Richards-Gebaur Air Force Base, Missouri, 26 January 1968 – 9 June 1969
Standiford Airport (later Louisville International Airport, Kentucky, 1985
Aircraft
F-51D Mustang, 1950–1951; 1952–1956
F-84E Thunderjet, 1951–1952
F-86A Sabre, 1956–1957
RB-57A Canberra, 1957–1965
RF-101G Voodoo, 1965–1971
RF-101H Voodoo, 1971–1976
RF-4C Phantom II, 1976–1989
C-130B Hercules, 1989–1992
C-130H Hercules, 1992–2021
C-130J Super Hercules, 2021–Present
Decorations
Air Force Outstanding Unit Award
Awarded: 1970, 1979, 1982, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1989, 1994, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2006, 2008, 2010, 2012, 2015, 2017, 2019, 2021, 2023
General Carl A. Spaatz Trophy
Top Flying Unit for Air National Guard
Awarded: 1950, 1965, 1981
Distinguished Flying Unit Plaque
Awarded: 1960, 1980, 1983, 1987, 1993, 1998, 2014, 2017, 2018, 2020
Curtis N. “Rusty” Metcalf Trophy
Outstanding Airlift or Refueling Unit for Air National Guard
Awarded: 1994, 2002. 2007, 2014, 2020
Air Force Meritorious Unit Award
Awarded: 2023
References
Notes
Explanatory notes
Citations
Bibliography
Further reading
Globalsecurity.org 123rd Airlift Wing
123rd Airlift Wing history factsheet
Rogers, B. (2006). United States Air Force Unit Designations Since 1978.
External links
123rd Airlift Wing Official Website
Global Security
Kentucky National Guard eMuseum
Facebook
YouTube
Fogginthecockpit
usaaf.com 359th Fighter Group
littlefriends.co.uk 359th Fighter Group
USAF Aircraft Serial Number Search
Wings of the United States Air National Guard
Military units and formations in Kentucky
0123
Military units and formations established in 1943
1943 establishments in Kentucky
Louisville International Airport
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Demetrius
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Operation Demetrius
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Operation Demetrius was a British Army operation in Northern Ireland on 9–10 August 1971, during the Troubles. It involved the mass arrest and internment (imprisonment without trial) of people suspected of being involved with the Irish Republican Army (IRA), which was waging an armed campaign for a united Ireland against the British state. It was proposed by the Unionist government of Northern Ireland and approved by the British Government. Armed soldiers launched dawn raids throughout Northern Ireland and arrested 342 in the initial sweep, sparking four days of violence in which 20 civilians, two IRA members and two British soldiers were killed. All of those arrested were Irish republicans and nationalists, the vast majority of them Catholics. Due to faulty and out-of-date intelligence, many were no longer involved in republican militancy or never had links with the IRA. Ulster loyalist paramilitaries were also carrying out acts of violence, which were mainly directed against Catholics and Irish nationalists, but no loyalists were included in the sweep.
The introduction of internment, the way the arrests were carried out, and the abuse of those arrested, led to mass protests and a sharp increase in violence. Amid the violence, about 7,000 people fled or were forced out of their homes.
The policy of internment lasted until December 1975 and during that time 1,981 people were interned; 1,874 were nationalist, while 107 were loyalist. The first loyalist internees were detained in February 1973.
The interrogation techniques used on some of the internees were described by the European Commission of Human Rights in 1976 as torture, but the superior court, the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), ruled on appeal in 1978 that while the techniques were "inhuman and degrading", they did not constitute torture in this instance. It was later revealed that the British government had withheld information from the ECHR and that the policy had been authorized by British government ministers. In light of the new evidence, in 2014 the Irish government asked the ECHR to revise its judgement, but the ECHR eventually declined the request. In 2021, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom found that the use of the five techniques amounts to torture.
Background and planning
Internment had been used several times in Ireland during the 20th century, but had not previously been used during the Troubles, which began in the late 1960s. Ulster loyalist paramilitaries, such as the Ulster Volunteer Force (UVF), had been engaged in a low-level violent campaign since 1966. After the August 1969 riots, the British Army was deployed on the streets to bolster the police, the Royal Ulster Constabulary (RUC). Up until this point, the Irish Republican Army (IRA) had been largely inactive. However, as the violence worsened, the IRA was divided over how to deal with it. It split into two factions, the Provisional IRA and Official IRA. In 1970–71, the Provisionals began a guerrilla campaign against the British Army and the RUC. The Officials' policy was more defensive. During 1970–71, there were numerous clashes between state forces and the two wings of the IRA, and between the IRAs and loyalists. Most loyalist attacks were directed against Catholic civilians, but they also clashed with state forces and the IRA on a number of occasions.
The idea of re-introducing internment for Irish republican militants came from the Unionist government of Northern Ireland, headed by Prime Minister, Brian Faulkner. It was agreed to re-introduce internment at a meeting between Faulkner and British Prime Minister Edward Heath on 5 August 1971. The goal of internment was to weaken the IRA and reduce their attacks, but it was also hoped that tougher measures against the IRA would prevent a loyalist backlash and the collapse of Faulkner's government. The British cabinet recommended "balancing action", such as the arrest of loyalist militants, the calling in of weapons held by (generally unionist) rifle clubs in Northern Ireland, and an indefinite ban on parades (most of which were held by unionist/loyalist groups such as the Orange Order). However, Faulkner argued that a ban on parades was unworkable, that the rifle clubs posed no security risk, and that there was no evidence of loyalist terrorism. It was eventually agreed that there would be a six-month ban on parades but no interning of loyalists, and that internment would go ahead on 9 August.
On the initial list of those to be arrested, which was drawn up by RUC Special Branch and MI5, there were 450 names, but only 350 of these were found. Key figures on the list, and many who never appeared on them, had got wind of the swoop before it began. The list also included leaders of the non-violent Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association and People's Democracy such as Ivan Barr and Michael Farrell.
Ulster loyalist paramilitaries were also carrying out attacks, mainly directed against Catholics and Irish nationalists. However, security officials advised ministers that loyalists did not represent an immediate and serious threat to the security of the state or the criminal justice system, and no loyalists were interned. Tim Pat Coogan has commented:What they did not include was a single loyalist. Although the UVF had begun the killing and bombing, this organisation was left untouched, as were other violent loyalist satellite organisations such as Tara, the Shankill Defence Association and the Ulster Protestant Volunteers. Faulkner was urged by the British to include a few Protestants in the trawl but, apart from two republicans, he refused.Faulkner himself later wrote, "The idea of arresting anyone as an exercise in political cosmetics was repugnant to me".
Internment was planned and implemented from the highest levels of the British government. Specially trained personnel were sent to Northern Ireland to familiarize the local forces in what became known as the 'five techniques', methods of interrogation described by opponents as "a euphemism for torture". The available evidence suggests that some members of the Royal Ulster Constabulary, trained in civilian policing, were unwilling to use such methods. In an internal memorandum dated 22 December 1971, one Brigadier Lewis reported to his superiors in London on the state of intelligence-gathering in Northern Ireland, saying that he was "very concerned about lack of interrogation in depth" by the RUC and that "some Special Branch out-station heads are not attempting to screw down arrested men and extract intelligence from them". However, he wrote that his colleagues "were due to do a quick visit by helicopter to these out-stations... to read the riot act".
Legal basis
The internments were initially carried out under Regulations 11 and 12 of 1956 and Regulation 10 of 1957 (the Special Powers Regulations), made under the authority of the Special Powers Act. The 1922 Special Powers Act (also known as the "Flogging Act") was renewed annually, in 1928 was renewed for five year and made permanent in 1933. The Act was repealed 1973. The Detention of Terrorists Order of 7 November 1972, made under the authority of the Temporary Provisions Act, was used after direct rule was instituted.
Internees arrested without trial pursuant to Operation Demetrius could not complain to the European Commission of Human Rights about breaches of Article 5 of the European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) because on 27 June 1957, the UK lodged a notice with the Council of Europe declaring that there was a "public emergency within the meaning of Article 15(1) of the Convention".
Operation and immediate aftermath
Operation Demetrius began on Monday 9 August at 4 am and progressed in two parts:
Arrest and movement of the detainees to one of three regional holding centers: Girdwood in Belfast, Ballykinler in County Down, or Magilligan in County Londonderry;
The process of identification and questioning, leading either to release of the detainee or movement into detention at Crumlin Road prison or aboard HMS Maidstone, a prison ship in Belfast Harbour.
In the first wave of raids across Northern Ireland, 342 people were arrested. Many of those arrested reported that they and their families were assaulted, verbally abused and threatened by the soldiers. There were claims of soldiers smashing their way into houses without warning and firing baton rounds through doors and windows. Many of those arrested also reported being ill-treated during their three-day detention at the holding centres. They complained of being beaten, verbally abused, threatened, harassed by dogs, denied sleep, and starved. Some reported being forced to run a gauntlet of baton-wielding soldiers, being forced to run an 'obstacle course', having their heads forcefully shaved, being kept naked, being burnt with cigarettes, having a sack placed over their heads for long periods, having a rope kept around their necks, having the barrel of a gun pressed against their heads, being dragged by the hair, being trailed behind armoured vehicles while barefoot, and being tied to armoured trucks as a human shield. Some were hooded, beaten and then thrown from a helicopter. They were told they were hundreds of feet in the air, but were actually only a few feet from the ground.
The operation sparked an immediate upsurge of violence, the worst since the August 1969 riots. The British Army came under sustained attack from the IRA and Irish nationalist rioters, especially in Belfast. According to journalist Kevin Myers: "Insanity seized the city. Hundreds of vehicles were hijacked and factories were burnt. Loyalist and IRA gunmen were everywhere". People blocked roads and streets with burning barricades to stop the British Army entering their neighbourhoods. In Derry, barricades were again erected around Free Derry and "for the next 11 months these areas effectively seceded from British control". Between 9 and 11 August, 24 people were killed or fatally wounded: 20 civilians (14 Catholics, 6 Protestants), two members of the Provisional IRA (shot dead by the British Army), and two members of the British Army (shot dead by the Provisional IRA).
Of the civilians killed, 17 were shot by the British Army and the other three were killed by unknown attackers. In west Belfast's Ballymurphy housing estate, 11 Catholic civilians were killed by the 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment over two days in what became known as the Ballymurphy Massacre. Another flashpoint was Ardoyne in north Belfast, where soldiers shot dead three people on 9 August. Sectarian violence also flared between Protestants and Catholics. Many Protestant families fled Ardoyne and about 200 Protestants burnt their own homes as they left, lest they "fall into Catholic hands". Protestant and Catholic families fled "to either side of a dividing line, which would provide the foundation for the permanent peaceline later built in the area". Catholic homes were burnt in Ardoyne and elsewhere too. About 7,000 people, most of them Catholics, were left homeless. About 2,500 Catholic refugees fled south of the border to the Republic of Ireland, where new refugee camps were set up.
By 13 August, media reports indicated that the violence had begun to wane, seemingly due to exhaustion on the part of the IRA and security forces. On 15 August, the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP) announced that it was starting a campaign of civil disobedience in response to the introduction of internment. By 17 October, it was estimated that about 16,000 households were withholding rent and rates for council houses as part of the campaign of civil disobedience.
On 16 August, over 8,000 workers went on strike in Derry in protest at internment. Joe Cahill, then Chief of Staff of the Provisional IRA, held a press conference during which he claimed that only 30 Provisional IRA members had been interned.
On 22 August, in protest against internment, about 130 Irish nationalist/republican councillors announced that they would no longer sit on district councils. The SDLP also withdrew its representatives from a number of public bodies. On 19 October, five Northern Ireland Members of Parliament (MPs) began a 48-hour hunger strike against internment. The protest took place near 10 Downing Street in London. Among those taking part were John Hume, Austin Currie, and Bernadette Devlin. Protests would continue until internment was ended in December 1975.
Long-term effects
The backlash against internment contributed to the decision of the British Government to suspend the Northern Ireland Government and Parliament and replace it with direct rule from Westminster, under the authority of a British Secretary of State for Northern Ireland. This took place on 23 March 1972.
Following the suspension of the Northern Ireland Government, internment was continued with some changes by the direct rule administration until 5 December 1975. During this time a total of 1,981 people were interned: 1,874 were from an Irish nationalist background, while 107 were from a unionist background.
Historians generally view the period of internment as inflaming sectarian tensions in Northern Ireland, while failing in its goal of arresting key members of the IRA. Senator Maurice Hayes, Catholic Chairman of the Northern Ireland Community Relations Commission at the time, has described internment as "possibly the worst of all the stupid things that government could do". A review by the British Ministry of Defence (MoD) assessed internment overall as "a major mistake". Others, however, have taken a more nuanced view, suggesting that the policy was not so much misconceived in principle as badly planned and executed. The MoD review points to some short-term gains, maintaining that Operation Demetrius netted 50 Provisional IRA officers, 107 IRA volunteers, and valuable information on the IRA and its structures, leading to the discovery of substantial arms and explosives dumps.
Many of the people arrested had no links with the IRA, but their names appeared on the list through haste and incompetence. The list's lack of reliability and the arrests that followed, complemented by reports of internees being abused, led to more nationalists identifying with the IRA and losing hope in non-violent methods. After Operation Demetrius, recruits came forward in huge numbers to join the Provisional and Official wings of the IRA. Internment also led to a sharp increase in violence. In the eight months before the operation, there were 34 conflict-related deaths in Northern Ireland. In the four months following it, 140 were killed. A serving officer of the British Royal Marines declared:It (internment) has, in fact, increased terrorist activity, perhaps boosted IRA recruitment, polarised further the Catholic and Protestant communities and reduced the ranks of the much needed Catholic moderates.
In terms of loss of life as well as number of attacks, 1972 was the most violent year of the Troubles. The fatal march on Bloody Sunday (30 January 1972), when 14 unarmed protesters were shot dead by British paratroopers, was an anti-internment march.
Interrogation of internees
All of those arrested were interrogated by the British Army and RUC. However, twelve internees were then chosen for further "deep interrogation", using sensory deprivation. This took place at a secret interrogation centre, which was later revealed to be Shackleton Barracks, outside Ballykelly. In October, a further two internees were chosen for deep interrogation. These fourteen became known as "the Hooded Men", or "the Guineapigs".
After undergoing the same treatment as the other internees, the men were hooded, handcuffed and flown to the base by helicopter. On the way, soldiers severely beat them and threatened to throw them from the helicopter. When they arrived they were stripped naked, photographed, and examined by a doctor.
For seven days, when not being interrogated, they were kept hooded and handcuffed in a cold cell and subjected to a continuous loud hissing noise. Here they were forced to stand in a stress position for many hours and were repeatedly beaten on all parts of their body. They were deprived of sleep, food and drink. Some of them also reported being kicked in the genitals, having their heads banged against walls, being shot at with blank rounds, and being threatened with injections. The result was severe physical and mental exhaustion, severe anxiety, depression, hallucinations, disorientation and repeated loss of consciousness.
The interrogation methods used on the men became known as the 'five techniques'. Training and advice regarding the five techniques came from senior intelligence officials in the British government. The European Court of Human Rights (ECHR) defined the five techniques as follows:
The fourteen Hooded Men were the only internees subjected to the full five techniques. However, over the following months, some internees were subjected to at least one of the five techniques, as well as other interrogation methods. These allegedly included waterboarding, electric shocks, burning with matches and candles, forcing internees to stand over hot electric fires while beating them, beating and squeezing of the genitals, inserting objects into the anus, injections, whipping the soles of the feet, and psychological abuse such as Russian roulette.
Parker Report
When the interrogation techniques used on the internees became known to the public, there was outrage at the British government, especially from Irish nationalists. In response, on 16 November 1971, the British government commissioned a committee of inquiry chaired by Lord Parker (the Lord Chief Justice of England) to look into the legal and moral aspects of the 'five techniques'.
The "Parker Report" was published on 2 March 1972 and found the five techniques to be illegal under domestic law:
On the same day (2 March 1972), British Prime Minister Edward Heath stated in the House of Commons:
As foreshadowed in the Prime Minister's statement, directives expressly forbidding the use of the techniques, whether alone or together, were then issued to the security forces by the government. The five techniques were still being used by the British Army in 2003 as a means for training soldiers to resist harsh interrogation if captured.
Irish Government
The Irish Free State government had used internment during the Irish Civil War in the 1920s and the Irish government again used it during the IRA's campaign in the 1950s. In December 1970, Justice Minister Des O'Malley had announced that the policy was again under consideration. The Irish Times reported that if internment were introduced in Northern Ireland, it would follow in the Republic almost at once. However, when British Ambassador John Peck asked Taoiseach Jack Lynch on 30 July 1971 about this, Lynch replied that he had no grounds for introducing internment, and that if he did his government would collapse. Lynch also advised Peck to consider the consequences carefully.
After Operation Demetrius, the Irish government pushed for radical changes in how Northern Ireland was governed. Paddy Hillery, the Irish Minister for External Affairs, met British Home Secretary Reginald Maudling in London on 9 August to demand that the Unionist government should be replaced by a power-sharing coalition with 50/50 representation for the nationalist and unionist populations. This was a significant break from the Republic's previous position, which had been to press for unification. British Prime Minister Ted Heath's reaction was a dismissive telegram telling Lynch to mind his own business. He later accepted the advice of his own diplomats that humiliating Lynch and Hillery would make it less likely that they would co-operate in tackling the IRA. Thereafter, Heath took a more conciliatory tone. He invited Lynch for a two-day summit at Chequers, his official country residence, on 6–7 September 1971. This encounter seems to have changed his view of the problem: from then on, Heath took the view that there could be no lasting solution to the Northern Ireland problem without the co-operation of the Irish government, and that the Irish nationalist population in Northern Ireland should have full participation in the government of Northern Ireland. In that sense, the illegal actions of the British government and armed forces during internment and the violent reaction against it led to a profound transformation in British policy.
Irish ministers made the most of the leverage that the torture allegations had given them. Hugh McCann, a senior Irish diplomat, noted the tactical advantage the Irish government could gain through taking a case against the UK before the European Court, which would take years to be adjudicated: it would "make the British much more careful in their handling of detainees... To the extent that this would slow down their gathering of intelligence information, it would make it more difficult for them to make progress in the direction of a military solution. If they succeeded in containing the situation from a military point of view, there would be less incentive for them to take unpalatable political action". The implications are (a) that the Irish government recognised the value of the intelligence which the British were acquiring (albeit illegally), and (b) that Dublin had a stake in impeding Britain's attempt to overcome the IRA by military means, at least until the British had implemented radical constitutional reforms opening up the path to Irish unification.
European Commission of Human Rights
The Irish Government, on behalf of the men who had been subject to the five techniques, took a case to the European Commission on Human Rights (Ireland v. United Kingdom, 1976 Y.B. Eur. Conv. on Hum. Rts. 512, 748, 788–94 (Eur. Comm'n of Hum. Rts.)). The Commission stated that it
European Court of Human Rights
The commission's findings were appealed. In 1978, in the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) trial Ireland v. the United Kingdom (Case No. 5310/71), the court ruled:
On 8 February 1977, in proceedings before the ECHR, and in line with the findings of the Parker Report and British Government policy, the Attorney-General of the United Kingdom stated:
Later developments
In 2013, declassified documents revealed the existence of the interrogation centre at Ballykelly. It had not been mentioned in any of the inquiries. Human rights group the Pat Finucane Centre accused the British Government of deliberately hiding it from the inquiries and the European Court of Human Rights. In June 2014, an RTÉ documentary entitled The Torture Files uncovered a letter from the British Home Secretary Merlyn Rees in 1977 to the then British Prime Minister James Callaghan. It confirmed that a policy of 'torture' had in fact been authorized by British Government ministers—specifically the Secretary for Defence Peter Carrington—in 1971, contrary to the knowledge of the Irish government or the ECHR. The letter states: "It is my view (confirmed by Brian Faulkner before his death) that the decision to use methods of torture in Northern Ireland in 1971/72 was taken by ministers – in particular Lord Carrington, then secretary of state for defence".
Following the 2014 revelations, the President of Sinn Féin, Gerry Adams, called on the Irish government to bring the case back to the ECHR because the British government, he said, "lied to the European Court of Human Rights both on the severity of the methods used on the men, their long term physical and psychological consequences, on where these interrogations took place and who gave the political authority and clearance for it". On 2 December 2014, the Irish government announced that, having reviewed the new evidence and following requests from the survivors, it had decided to officially ask the ECHR to revise its 1978 judgement.
In March 2018, the ECHR announced a 6–1 decision against revising the original judgement. In September of the same year, the ECHR refused to consider the case before its Grand Chamber, meaning that the case cannot be appealed any longer.
In 2021, the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom found that the use of the five techniques amounts to torture.
References
Further reading
Miller, Mike (1975), The Politics of Internment, in Calgagus 1, Winter 1975, pp. 34 & 35,
1971 in Northern Ireland
British Army in Operation Banner
Conflicts in 1971
Human rights abuses in the United Kingdom
Internments by the United Kingdom
Demetrius
Riots and civil disorder in Northern Ireland
The Troubles (Northern Ireland)
Torture in the United Kingdom
August 1971 events in the United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brihanmumbai%20Electric%20Supply%20and%20Transport
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Brihanmumbai Electric Supply and Transport
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The Brihanmumbai Electricity Supply and Transport Undertaking (BEST) is a civic transport and electricity provider public body based in Mumbai, Maharashtra, India. It was originally set up in 1873 as a tramway company called "Bombay Tramway Company Limited". The company set up a captive thermal power station at the Wadi bunder in November 1905 to generate electricity for its trams and positioned it to also supply electricity to the city and re-branded itself to "Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways (BEST)" Company. In 1926, BEST also became an operator of motor buses. In 1947, the BEST became an undertaking of the Municipal Corporation and rebranded itself to "Bombay Electric Supply & Transport (BEST)". In 1995 the organisation was renamed to "Brihanmumbai Electric Supply & Transport (BEST)" alongside Mumbai. It now operates as an autonomous body under the Municipal Corporation.
BEST operates one of India's largest fleets of buses. The bus transport service covers the entire city and also extends its operations outside city limits into neighbouring urban areas. In addition to buses, it also operates a ferry service in the northern reaches of the city. The electricity division of the organisation is also one of the few electricity departments in India to garner an annual gross profit.
History
1865–1873: Early proposals
The idea of a mass public transport system for Bombay was first put forward in 1865 by an American company, which applied for a licence to operate a horse-drawn tramway system. Although a licence was granted, the project was never realized due to the prevailing economic depression in the city due to the end of the American Civil War, during which Bombay had made vast strides in its economy by supplying cotton and textiles to the world market. On 27 November 1871, a notice in the Times of India newspaper found to be too expensive and the tender was promptly abandoned.
1873–1905: Bombay Tramway Company Limited, introduction of horse-drawn trams
The "Bombay Tramway Company Limited" was formally set up in 1873. After a contract was entered into between the Bombay Tramway Company, the municipality and Stearns and Kitteredge company, the Bombay Presidency enacted "The Bombay Tramways Act, 1874", under which the company was licensed to run a horsecar tramway service in the city. On 9 May 1874, the first horse-drawn tram made its début in the city, plying on the Colaba–Pydhone via Crawford Market, and Bori Bunder to Pydhonie via Kalbadevi routes. The initial fare was three annas (15 paise) , and no tickets were issued. As the service became increasingly popular, the fare was reduced to two annas (10 paise). Later that year, tickets were issued for the first time to curb increasing ticketless travel. Stearns and Kitteredge reportedly had a stable of 900 horses when tram service began.
In 1882 the municipality entered into an agreement with the Eastern Electric Light and Power Company to provide electric lighting in the Crawford Market and on some of the roads. But the company went into liquidation the following year and the market reverted to gas lighting. In 1899, Bombay Tramway Company applied to the municipality, for operation of electrically operated trams. Due to the high investment required, the company suggested that the Bombay Municipal Corporation (BMC) should waive its right to take over the tramways, which was to take place in 1901 according to the Bombay Tramways Act. Instead, the BMC decided to take over the company, but was met with several legal problems. In 1904 the British Electric Traction Company (England) applied for a license to supply electricity to the city. The "Brush Electrical Engineering Company" was its agent. It got "The Bombay Electric License" on 31 July 1905 signed by Bombay Tramways Company, the Bombay Municipality and its agent, the Brush Electrical Company.
1905–1947: Bombay Electric Supply & Tramway Company Limited, introduction of electric trams and buses
In 1905, "Bombay Electric Supply & Tramway Company Limited" (B.E.S.T.) was formed. The B.E.S.T. Company was granted the monopoly for electric supply and the running of an electric tram service in the city. It bought the assets of the Bombay Tramway Company for . Two years later in 1907, the first electric tram debuted in the city. Later that year, a steam power generator was commissioned at Wari Bunder. In 1916, the Tata Power group began purchasing power and by 1925, all power generation was outsourced from Tata. The passing years aggravated the problem of rush-hour traffic and to ease the situation, double-decker trams were introduced in September 1920.
Since 1913, the company had been pondering over starting a motorised bus service. The main factor against its introduction was the high accident rate for a similar service in London. After years of debate, the company came to a decision on 10 February 1926, to start a bus service later that year. Bombay saw its first bus run on 15 July 1926 between Afghan Church and Crawford Market. The people of Bombay received the bus with enthusiasm, but it took some time before this means of conveyance really established itself. Despite stiff opposition and protests by taxi drivers, the service ran without a hitch, transporting 600,000 passengers by the end of that year. The following year the number had increased to 3.8 million. For several years, it was looked upon as transport for the upper-middle class. Those were the days when the tram was the poor man's transport; it carried one all the way from the Sassoon Docks to Dadar. The bus fare for the same journey was 25 paise. In response to the pleas made by the Government and the Bombay Municipal Corporation, the company extended its services to the northern part of the city in 1934. The Indian independence movement's call for mass non-violent strikes and general civil disobedience led to regular service disruptions, leading to the company incurring huge losses in 1929. The next year was a particular bad year for the company in the wake of the Great Depression. To remain solvent, the company decided to introduce discounted fares for short routes, and increase its coverage to the northern portions of the city. In 1937, the introduction of double-decker buses proved to be extremely popular.
1947–1995: Bombay Electric Supply & Transport, further expansion
Pursuant to the option given to it under the deed of concession granted to the Bombay Electric Supply and Tramways Co. Ltd, the BMC acquired the assets of the combined undertaking, namely the operation of tramways and distribution of electricity in the city of Bombay as a going concern on 7 August 1947. By mutual agreement, the corporation also took over the operation of the bus services, which was run by the Bombay Electric Supply & Transport Company. Thus, "Bombay Electric Supply & Tramways Company" was renamed "Bombay Electric Supply & Transport".
As the company grew, it increased its fleet from 242 to 582 buses over the next decade. In 1949, it took over the Bandra Bus Company, which used to ply buses in the suburbs. In 1951, the electricity division switched over from direct current (DC) to the more efficient alternating current (AC). The company launched its services in the eastern suburbs in 1955. That year, the Undertaking and private operators went to court with BEST asking for a complete closure of the private companies. The case dragged on for four years before the Supreme Court of India granted the organisation a complete monopoly over bus services in the Greater Bombay area. In 1964, due to high operational costs and poor public support, its long-running tram services were terminated. The company became the first company in the country to issue computerised billing in 1974. In 1994, the company introduced electronic meters in a move to replace the less accurate electric meters.
1995–present: Brihanmumbai Electric Supply & Transport, recent developments
With the renaming of the city from Bombay to Mumbai in 1995, the organization was renamed to "Brihanmumbai Electric Supply & Transport (BEST)". Following a Supreme Court directive, the company gradually phased out old buses and introduced new buses which complied with the Euro III pollution control standards. On 19 November 2004, route SPL-8 travelling from Churchgate to the World Trade Centre had started accepting cashless smart cards for automatic fare collection in BEST buses. BEST currently has over 3000 buses in its fleet and plans to increase the number of buses.
After the 9/11 bombings, BEST had installed an audio-visual surveillance system (CCTV) on each of its buses to monitor suspicious behavior on-board its vehicles but it is no longer done. Almost all buses had two LCD TVs per bus which showed BEST TV but it was discontinued. BEST had introduced A/C Cerita services on certain routes but due to high maintenance it got discontinued.
The A/C bus "AS-4" from Oshiwara Depot to Backbay Depot was the route with the highest revenue for BEST.
A new era for BEST began in 2019 when it revised its fare and increased bus fleet by inducting non-AC and AC buses on wet lease. Passenger numbers which were all-time low started to increase and in 2020 it achieved its passenger numbers which it had in 2012. Since 2019, BEST revenue has also improved, however it is still not in profit.
Organisational structure
The company is headed by a general manager, currently Lokesh Chandra.
The transport department is overseen by a "Deputy General Manager (Traffic Operations)" who is assisted by the "Chief Manager (Traffic)." The 'Chief Manager (Traffic)' oversees the five BEST zones, each headed by a 'Dy. Chief Manager (traffic)'. Each zone consists of 7 to 8 depots, whose operations are overseen by an 'assistant general manager (Traffic Operation)'. A 'Depot Manager' or 'Dy. Depot Manager' heads each depot.
The electricity department is headed by a "Deputy General Manager (Electric Supply)' (DGM (ES))," who is assisted by an "Assistant General Manager (Electric Supply)" (AGM (ES)), and is in charge of planning, new projects, construction, street lighting, computer applications and the generation cell. The "Chief Engineer – Electric Supply" (CEES) is in-charge of material testing and the Standards, Meters and Relays and the Review departments. Two "Chief Engineer – Distribution" (CED) officials manage the two administrative zones.
BEST enjoys a high degree of autonomy under the BMC; the latter approves its yearly budget and permits increases in bus fares when required. A body of 17 municipal corporate officials from the ruling party in the BMC form the BEST committee. The committee, headed by a chairman, keeps a tab on the undertaking's daily operations. The committee has a staggered two-year term.
Transport department
Rolling stock and depot
In 1936, the company owned 433 tram vehicles and 128 busses.
, BEST has a fleet of 3,228 buses which includes BEST-owned buses and buses on wet lease. The fleet comprises 525 diesel single-decker buses, 2,250 CNG buses, 406 battery electric single-decker buses, 45 diesel double-decker buses and 2 battery electric double-decker buses. The fleet numbers are dynamic due to the National Vehicle Scrappage Policy under which all State and Central government-owned vehicles older than 15 years (including buses owned by transport corporations) will be scrapped from 1 April 2023. These will be replaced by new vehicles running on alternative fuels.
BEST placed a order with Olectra Greentech to supply and maintain 2,100 battery electric single-decker buses for a 12 year period in May 2022. In February 2023, India's first battery electric double-decker AC bus was deployed by BEST on the A- 115 route. 200 of these Switch EiV 22 double-decker buses have been ordered from Switch Mobility to replace the existing diesel double-decker fleet. The target is to have a 100 percent electric fleet by 2027.
BEST also have goods carrier buses, break-down vans, blue coloured sightseeing and party buses, tree cutting double decker buses and driving school buses which are used to train drivers.
All buses are tagged with a route number and its corresponding destination. They are displayed in the front in Marathi and on the side in English. All buses have GPS devices installed which give real time information about arrival to management as well as passengers. Inside the bus there are LED indicators displaying route and destination as well as upcoming stop name in Marathi and English. The newer wet leased buses have cctv cameras installed but the older buses do not have cctv cameras.
All unit overhauling, repairing of body damages, tyre cut repairs, plant and equipment installation and repairs, and reclamation activities are carried out in the workshop. There are roughly 4,500 to 5,000 bus stops in Mumbai Metropolitan Region. Some of them are equipped with bus ETA system. The bus stops are of two types, shelter and pole. All bus stops have route numbers which stop and stop name in Marathi and English. They even have a unique code on all stops. Each bus has a unique number and depot code assigned to it. The depot codes are mentioned below.
Mostly all BEST buses are painted in standard original red colour with "BEST" logo in English and Marathi. There are different coloured stripes on these buses to indicated some features and type of fuel the bus uses. The following are the different stripes and its meaning :-
1. Yellow and Green strip- it indicates the bus is run on CNG.
2. Grey strip- it indicates the bus is run on Diesel. (These types are almost scrapped)
3. White strip- these are also run on diesel but are procured under MUTP-II and MUTP-III. (By 2023 these types will be scrapped)
4. Silver strip- it indicates the bus is electric powered.
5. Black, Yellow and Green strip- it indicates that a AC CNG bus is converted into non AC CNG bus. (They were earlier Purple coloured King Long AC buses)
Best has some special livery buses too with BEST logo on it.
1. Full grey coloured "Safety is our Motto" in red or white text livery.
2. Yellow and Black livery to indicate that the bus is hybrid and given by MMRDA.
3. Yellow and Pink livery to indicate ladies special 'Tejaswini' buses.
Until BEST was taken over by the municipality, only the Colaba depot was available for the maintenance of buses and minor repairs. As the fleet grew, more depots were needed. In 1961 the fleet comprised 1045 buses. Six new depots were constructed for their maintenance. The Wadala depot was equipped for the maintenance of 300 buses. At this time it was the largest depot in Asia. After this, the authorities decided that no depot should be called on to look after more than 125 to 150 buses after taking long maintenance times into account. Accordingly, small depots were built at convenient spots in the city and its suburbs. The most recent depot was Kalakilla and Malad. Each depot is a work center that provides bus services effectively every day, carries out preventive maintenance, as well as repairs on buses. Depots carry out maintenance practices such as preventive maintenance, unit replacement, RTO passing, body damage repairs of buses. BEST buses are operated out of the 27 bus depot located in four zones viz. City, Central, Western, and Eastern Suburban zones.
In late 2019, BEST began operating air-conditioned mini-buses and midi-buses that were hired on a wet lease. BEST also plans to increase its fleet size to 6,00 buses by 2022.
In April 2022, it came up with 100% digital buses with a ‘Tap in and Tap out’ ticketing system, making Mumbai the first city in India to get fully digital buses.
Bus routes
BEST bus routes are spread citywide and to neighboring cities. BEST operates inter-city services to three areas beyond the municipal limits of Mumbai City; i.e., into the limits of the bordering corporations of Navi Mumbai, Thane, and Mira-Bhayandar. BEST supplements suburban rails, metro rail and monorail in the Mumbai region. It is for this reason that BEST always gives priority for feeder routes over other routes. BEST uses CNG, electric and diesel-powered buses for its operation. BEST introduced Air-conditioned buses in 1998.
The majority of BEST buses consist of ordinary routes. Limited bus services that skip minor stops are used on long routes, high-capacity routes, and routes that provide connectivity beyond Mumbai city. The buses have "LTD" appended to the route number. "C" routes are ultra long routes. 5xx LTD numbered buses connect Navi Mumbai with Mumbai. Some buses like A-504, 504 LTD, and C 53 Exp plies till Navi Mumbai's Raigad district, also called as South Navi Mumbai, thereby connecting the nodes of Kharghar and Kalamboli with Mumbai. Buses numbered 4xx mostly like 496 LTD and 497 LTD serve Mulund and Thane and provide the connection to greater Mumbai and buses numbered 6xx LTD and 7xx LTD serves Mira-Bhayander region like 706 LTD and 720 LTD. Buses number 3xx most likely cater to eastern suburbs. Buses numbered 2xx mostly serve western suburbs. Buses numbered 1xx mostly serve central suburbs. Buses numbered from 1 to 99 mostly serve South Mumbai (SoBo).
As of 2021, the BEST runs approximately 3,800 buses, ferrying 5 million passengers over 443 routes, and has a workforce strength of 38,000, which includes 22,000 bus drivers and conductors.
BEST plans to induct more AC & Non AC buses on wet lease and increase total fleet to 6,000 buses by 2021.
Besides buses, BEST operates a ferry service since 1981 in northern Mumbai, across the Manori Creek. The barges operate at regular intervals across the shallow creek linking Manori to Marve.
The BEST bus service suffered two bombings on 6 December 2002 and 28 July 2003 killing six people. In August 2006, BEST introduced payphone system and CCTVs on its buses as a response to terror attacks on the city's buses and trains.
Bus routes are updated till 20th January 2023.
Mumbai Ordinary Bus Routes
The following is a list of the bus routes operated by BEST in Mumbai.
Mumbai Air Condition bus routes
The following is a list of the air conditioned bus routes operated by BEST in Mumbai.
Mumbai Limited Bus Routes
The following is a list of the limited bus routes operated by BEST in Mumbai.
Mumbai Corridor Bus Routes
The following is a list of the corridor bus routes operated by BEST in Mumbai.
Special Ring Routes (AC and Non AC)
The following is a list of the special ring routes operated by BEST in Mumbai. Operated from Monday to Saturday except for Sundays and Public Holidays for BKC routes, rest routes operated everyday. These routes connect railway & metro stations to business & residential areas.
Mumbai Airport bus routes
The following is a list of the airport bus routes operated by BEST in Mumbai. As of March 2023, Chalo premium reserved buses are operated on Airport routes.
On September 9, 2022 BEST announced an advance ticket reservation system for its airport bus service through the Chalo App
Mumbai HOHO bus routes
The following is a list of the hop in hop off (HOHO) bus route operated by BEST in Mumbai.
Mumbai Premium Bus Routes
The following is a list of the premium bus routes operated by BEST under banner of Chalo Bus in Mumbai.
Types of bus services
The routes operated by BEST can be broadly classified in the following categories.
Feeder Routes: These routes feed the railway stations and metro stations either from the residential complexes or business districts.
East-west connectors: These are the routes, which run east/west, where railways have no role to play and connect the western suburb with the eastern suburb.
Trunk routes: These routes run south–north through the city and are almost parallel to the railways.
Loop routes: Normally BEST routes are point to point, but there are some routes in the city which are one way loops.
Sometimes there are ladies special buses which are deployed during peak hours. Boards are fixed on windows of bus reading 'Ladies Special'.
Since 2019, BEST runs special Tejaswini livery buses which are in yellow and pink colour specially for women passenger.
AC standard routes: These are air-conditioned routes across the city.
AC express routes: These route runs on western and eastern express highways, to provide faster services to the commuters.
AC standard routes: These are air-conditioned ordinary routes across the city.
AC feeder routes: These routes feed the railway stations and metro stations either from the residential complexes or business districts.
Since 2019, BEST has introduced conductor-less AC & non-AC buses where passengers have to buy the ticket before boarding the bus or on bus stops. However this is a test project and many passengers as well as staff are not satisfied with this new test project.
Since 2021, BEST has partnered with Chalo app, providing Chalo smart cards and app based ticket booking.
The aforementioned routes are further classified into types depending on the number of stops the bus takes and the type of bus used.
Fares and ticketing
BEST has several options to pay bus fares:
Single journey (paper ticket issued by the bus conductor and validated by ticket punch)
Chalo App (digital ticket)
Chalo Card
National Common Mobility Card
Daily pass on Chalo App
The fares vary depending on the type. Paper tickets are valid only for single journey. Commuters have the option to buy a daily pass, distance-wise bus pass values and zonal pass. Students are eligible for discounts on monthly and quarterly passes and senior citizens for discounts on weekly, fortnightly, monthly and quarterly passes.
BEST Transport Museum
The BEST Transport Museum is at Anik Bus depot at Wadala. The museum was founded by P D Paranjape, the BEST officer who religiously collected bus tickets, engines, ticket-issuing machines from depots across the city. The museum was set up in 1984 at BEST's Kurla depot and was shifted to Anik depot in 1993. The museum traces the evolution of BEST. It houses mini models of charming old BEST buses and ancient trams. Hand-written placards in Marathi and photographs are on display for the public. Entry to the museum is free.
Electric department
Since 1926, the BEST has been sourcing its power from Tata Power, part of the Tata Group conglomerate. The power cables are laid underground, which reduces pilferage and other losses that plague most other parts of India. The nominal rating of power supplied by BEST is 3-phase, 50 Hz, 220/110 kV. Unlike the transport company, the electricity department services only the Mumbai City area, and not the suburbs. It provides power to 5 million residential and commercial establishments and over 33,000 street lights within the city limits. As of 2000, BEST supplies a total of , with a consumption of . The electricity department has 6,000 employees. The city has four 110-kV, twenty-two 33-kV and 22-kV substations. BEST has a distribution loss of around 10% (2001), among the lowest in India. In 2006, the RPS (Renewable purchase specification) framework came into force, which has made it mandatory for electricity providers to generate or purchase fixed percentage (6% for FY 2009–10) of their power through renewable sources. To comply with this act, BEST plans to install photovoltaic cells in each of its 25 depots. They also plan to use solar power in gardens and street lighting where the demand is low. Another option being considered is the possibility of using the of garbage disposed by the city on a daily basis, which can be potentially used to generate of electricity.
Issues
In the financial year 2004–05, the company earned 15142.2 million from its electricity department, and 839.18 crore from its transport department. Profits from its electricity department totalled 152.82 crore (US$35m), and losses in its transport department totalled 212.86 crore ($48.8m), giving the company a net loss of 62.04 crore ($14.2m). For the financial year 2005–06, BEST is expected to earn 15401.3 million ($352.92m) with a profit of 1408 million ($32.3m) from the electricity department alone. However, its transport department is expected to earn 9486.8 million ($217.39m), with a loss of 1403.0 million ($32.26m). This gives it an estimated net loss of 5 million ($114,575). Newer management techniques, such as retrenching of excess staff (494 till date), and the closure of less patronised routes, have reduced the losses in recent years, from a high of 1.75 billion ($40.1m) in 2001. Daily earnings from its transport system is 20 million ($458,450). It collects 7 million ($160,450) worth of five rupee coins daily, 4.8 million ($110,000) worth of ten and twenty rupee notes, and 6 million ($137,535) worth of fifty rupee notes, through its fare collection system. This has led a unique situation wherein it has accumulated a surplus of short change. In July 2005, the company floated tender inquiries to 54 banks to exchange the loose change, which totalled 46.7 million ($1.07m). However, none of the banks sent in a single bid, some citing that their vaults are full, and others saying it would be unprofitable for low denominations, given security considerations.
Though the BEST is a government-owned company, it does not receive any financial assistance from the BMC, or the state government. BEST also earns revenues by way of advertisements on its buses and bus-stops, and through rent from offices on owned properties. The BEST, being a public utility company, cannot increase electricity and bus fares to maximise its profits. An increase, when effected, is usually carried out to curb losses due to inflation. BMC approval is needed before such an increase goes into effect. Prior 2003 the BEST Understanding was a case Peter paying for Paul means the Electricity Division was in profit and Transport loss, so profit of Electricity was diverted to Transport so break even. The company downstream started after the inception of Electricity Act 2003, in that act it is stated that the profit of Electricity supply cannot be diverted but to be used for same entity. After taking the issue with Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission the company was running by adjusting the profit but after Supreme Court order, it could not adjusted the profit to transport now running in loss.
Culture and awards
BEST has been a quintessential part of life in Mumbai. The red double-decker buses, modelled on the AEC Routemaster buses of London, are one of the defining characteristics of the city. When BEST decided to do away with the double-deckers for operational reasons recently, public protests and sentiment forced it to continue with the service. A move to colour all its buses saffron from red in 1997 also drew in criticism, resulting in the red colour being retained. Bus drivers and conductors have come in for praise in the media for their service during the 2005 Mumbai floods, when they ensured that all the stranded passengers were dropped safely to their respective destinations. A total of 900 buses were damaged.
The organisation has received the following awards for safety and management:
The prize for the second best production achievement by an urban transport body in the country for the year 1982.
The second prize for production achievement in Urban Transport during the year 1984.
A memento for the Administrative Report and Statement of Accounts of the Undertaking for the year 1983–84 awarded by the selection committee nominated by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India.
The first place and the Best production achievement award in the category of urban transport for the year 1986–87.
National Productivity Award for the year 1991–92.
Award for the best passenger-safety record for the year 1994.
The award for the Best Passenger-Safety performance in Urban Transport in the whole country instituted by the Association of State Road Transport Undertaking (ASRTU) for the year 1995–96.
International Road Safety Award for the year 2003.
Future
Among its future plans is the "digitisation project", wherein all underground cables, sub-stations, street lights and bus-stops would be tracked digitally through the geographical information system. It also plans to connect all its electricity meters through a network, so that the readings can be taken remotely, and in realtime, thus obviating the need for monthly manual door-to-door inspection.
See also
Mumbai Suburban Railway
Mumbai Metro
Public transport in Mumbai
Water transport in Mumbai
Transport in Maharashtra
Transport in India
Maharashtra State Electricity Board
Maharashtra Electricity Regulatory Commission
References
Notes
May the Best Man Win; Manu Joseph; Times of India, Mumbai; p. 3; 21 August 2005
BEST will have to wait to become smart; Ashley D'Mello/Times News Network; p. 3;Times of India; 2 July 2005.
Short of funds, BEST looks to solar power; Olav Albuquerque; Times of India; p. 3; 8 July 2005.
Exit clause introduced in BEST-TPC pact; Times News Network; p. 4; Times of India; 7 July 2005.
BEST to hire buses from private operators; Olav Albuquerque; Times of India; p. 7; 4 June 2005.
You could now approach BEST for some loose change; Olav Albuquerque/TNN; Times of India; p. 3; 2005-07-06.
External links
BEST Undertaking – Official site of the BEST.
Bus companies of India
Companies based in Mumbai
Companies established in 1873
Defunct town tramway systems by city
Electric power distribution network operators in India
Energy companies established in 1873
Energy in Maharashtra
Municipal transport agencies of India
Railway companies established in 1873
Tram transport in India
Transport in Mumbai
1873 establishments in India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-National%20Force%20%E2%80%93%20Iraq
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Multi-National Force – Iraq
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The Multi-National Force – Iraq (MNF–I), often referred to as the Coalition forces, was a military command during the 2003 invasion of Iraq and much of the ensuing Iraq War, led by the United States of America (Operation Iraqi Freedom), United Kingdom (Operation Telic), Australia, Italy (Operation Ancient Babylon), Spain and Poland, responsible for conducting and handling military operations.
The MNF-I replaced the previous force, Combined Joint Task Force 7, on 15 May 2004, and was later itself reorganized into its successor, United States Forces – Iraq, on 1 January 2010. The Force was significantly reinforced during the Iraq War troop surge of 2007. As of May 2011, all non-U.S. coalition members had withdrawn from Iraq, with the U.S. military withdrawing from the country on December 18, 2011, thus, bringing about an end to the Iraq War.
The United Nations Assistance Mission in Iraq, which does humanitarian work and has a number of guards and military observers, has also operated in Iraq since 2003. The U.N. Assistance Mission in Iraq was not a part of the MNF-I, but a separate entity. The NATO Training Mission – Iraq, was in Iraq from 2004 to December 2011, where it trained the Iraqi Army and the Iraqi Police.
Definition
The news media in the United States generally used the term "U.S.-led coalition" to describe Multi-National Force – Iraq, as the vast majority of military forces in MNF-I were contributed from the United States. The majority of countries that deployed military forces to Iraq as part of the MNF-I generally confined them to their respective military installations, due to widespread violence throughout the country.
History
The MNF-I's objectives, as expressed in an annex to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1546, a June 2004 letter from U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to the U.N. Security Council, were stated to be:
The government of Iraq enjoyed broad international recognition, including from constituent countries of the Arab League. Jordan assisted in training of Iraqi security forces, and the United Arab Emirates donated military equipment, though purchased from Switzerland.
As of September 2008, over 545,000 Iraqi security forces have been trained.
In November 2006, the United Nations Security Council voted to extend the mandate of the multinational force in Iraq until the end of 2007. The move was requested by the Iraqi government, which said the troops were needed for another year while it built up its own security forces. In December 2007, the Security Council unanimously approved resolution 1790, which extended the mandate until December 31, 2008.
In December 2008, the American and Iraqi governments signed the U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, which covered only American troops. It allowed them to remain in the country until 2011, but changed the status on several issues. Iraq regains sovereignty of its airspace, gains sovereignty over American contractors U.S. forces who commit crimes, if they are both off-duty and off base. The U.S. were given until July 31, 2009 to withdraw from Iraqi cities and the whole agreement was subject to a referendum of Iraqi voters held prior to June 30, 2009. If the referendum failed to approve the agreement, the Iraqi government would have given the U.S. until July 31, 2010 to withdraw completely.
On December 18, 2008 the Iraqi government published a law that covered the status of non-U.S. foreign forces in the country from the end of the U.N.'s mandate on December 31, 2008 through to their withdrawal on July 31, 2009. The Iraqi parliament voted on Saturday December 20, 2008, after a second reading of this law, to reject it and send it back to the Iraqi cabinet. The majority of Iraqi parliamentarians wanted it to be made into a binding international agreement rather than simply presenting it as a local Iraqi law. A compromise was reached and the law passed on December 23, 2008, with the Iraqi government agreeing to then sign bilateral agreements with the affected countries.
List of countries in the coalition
Troop deployment in Iraq 2003–2011
Clandestine deployment of Canadian forces
– According to the U.S. State Department, a total of 15 countries participated covertly. According to classified U.S. documents released by WikiLeaks, despite the Canadian government's official position that they would not participate in the invasion, Canadian officials allegedly promised to clandestinely support it. In addition to naval vessels and personnel already in the region, Canadian officers, Major Generals Walter Natynczyk, Peter Devlin, and Nicholas Matern, served as Deputy Commanding Generals of Multi-National Corps – Iraq. and Canadian pilots flew Boeing C-17s into Iraq to "season" the flight crews. In 2003, Prime Minister Chrétien admitted that some Canadian troops could be serving alongside U.S. and British troops in Iraq. "It's possible," he said, "but they are not in combat roles." Canadian Defense Minister John McCallum refused to give Parliament details about the locations of Canadian soldiers in Iraq.
Notable deployment of military equipment
– contributed with ARTHUR counter-battery radar systems, which pointed out 1,500 bombing targets during" the first days of the war (the British minister of defence, Geoff Hoon, thanked Norway for its "robust" contribution).
Countries that deployed troops to Iraq
2011 withdrawals
– 3,700 troops were in Southern Iraq, leading the Multi-National Division (South East), which includes troops from several other countries. The deployment includes infantry, mechanized infantry and armored units as well as water-borne patrol personnel and a range of aircraft. After the invasion (which involved 46,000 British troops), approximately 8,500 troops were stationed in the south of the country, but 1,300 were withdrawn in early 2006. The British government then gradually reduced the number of troops in Iraq until May 22, 2011 when all the remaining British troops left Iraq after the Iraqi government rejected their request to stay and to extend their mission. The UK has lost 179 soldiers in Iraq as of 12 February 2009: 136 in roadside bombings, firefights, and rocket attacks. Out of the remaining 43, the cause of death included accidents, 'friendly fire' incidents, illnesses, and suicide. See Operation Telic for further information.
– In the cities, U.S. forces operate in support of Iraqi forces, and outside the cities U.S. forces operate in partnership with Iraqi forces. Support includes, for example, aerial surveillance, tactical advice, logistics, and intelligence, while partnership includes actual combat, for example patrolling, mine clearing, and serving arrest warrants. Additionally, a major line of operations is the logistical work of transporting millions of pieces of equipment back to the United States. On 1 January 2010 the five major command groups in the country were consolidated into a headquarters command called U.S. Forces – Iraq (USF–I), and MNF–I was deactivated. Subordinate commands (MNC–I, MNSTC–I, and Task Force 134), responsible for detainee operations, were also deactivated in the same ceremony and their responsibilities now fall under the aegis of USF–I. In August 2010 all U.S. combat operations in Iraq ceased, and by then it is planned that all combat brigades will be AABs. In accordance with the U.S.–Iraq Status of Forces Agreement, all U.S. troops were withdrawn from Iraq by December 31, 2011. On October 21, 2011, President Barack Obama confirmed that all U.S. military personnel would leave Iraq by the end of 2011. As of December 6, 2011 there were 4,485 U.S. soldiers killed in combat operations within Iraq. On December 15, 2011, the United States formally ended its mission in Iraq. On December 18, 2011, the United States completed its withdrawal from Iraq.
2009 withdrawals
– Australia contributed 2,000 personnel to the 2003 Iraq invasion. The largest force was the Overwatch Battle Group (West), which comprised 515 soldiers based at Camp Terendak in Talil (Southern Iraq), which terminated operations on June 2, 2008 along with the attached Australian Army training team (composed of 60–95 personnel). The battle group was previously known as the Al Muthanna Task Group, which had about 450 troops and was deployed on February 22, 2005 to reinforce Task Force Eagle, a British Army Battlegroup, which had recently replaced outgoing Dutch forces in Al Muthana Province. The Australian military presence in Iraq ended on July 28, 2009 per an agreement with the Iraqi government. There have been several injuries but no deaths of Australian troops in Iraq attributed to hostile action, however, a SASR operator was killed in a vehicle accident in Kuwait, and a soldier named Jacob Kovco, assigned to the Baghdad SECDET, died from an accidental discharge of his pistol. (See also: Australian contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq)
– Salvadoran troops were involved in guarding convoys. The last Salvadoran troops left Iraq on January 22. El Salvador lost five soldiers in Iraq, four in hostile incidents and one in an accident. Twenty soldiers were wounded.
– Estonia has decided not to send a fresh troop contingent to Iraq, ending the involvement of units of up to 40 soldiers in the mission in Iraq since June 2003, Estonia's defence ministry announced in January. The mission officially ended on February 7, 2009. Their task was to conduct raids and combat patrols alongside American Forces in Baghdad and Fallujah. Two soldiers were killed in Iraq in separate insurgent attacks, 18 soldiers were wounded. Three staff officers remain with the NATO-led training mission in Iraq.
– Romania had originally had 730 soldiers (400 infantry, 100 military police, 150 de-miners, 50 intelligence officers, and 30 medics) deployed in Iraq. At its peak, it operated in three different zones (South-East, Central, and Baghdad). They performed a wide range of missions—prisoner interrogation at Camp Cropper and Camp Bucca in the American sector, reconnaissance and surveillance missions (often involving Romanian Air Force RQ-7 Shadow UAVs) in the Polish sector, and training, peacekeeping missions, and base protection missions in the British sector. Romania also temporarily deployed a force of 130 soldiers to support UNAMI, a Coalition force in Iraq working under the authority of the United Nations. The force was deployed in March 2005, and withdrawn after six months. Romania reduced it, first to 501 by November 2008, and by early 2009, Romania had reduced its contingent to 350. They were stationed in Nasiriyah and Al-Kut. In an agreement signed with Iraqi Defense Minister Abdul Qader al-Ubeidi and the Romanian ambassador, Romania promised to withdraw its troops on July 31, 2009. It had been previously announced on November 6, 2008 that Romania would withdraw its then 501-strong contingent by the end of the year and leave a small group of advisers to assist the Iraqi authorities. In 2008, the president announced that the troops would stay until 2011. However, under the terms of the SOFA agreement between the United States and Iraq, all non-US forces must leave Iraq prior to July 31, 2009. As a result, Romania decided to withdraw. Romania formally terminated its mission in Iraq on June 4, 2009, and pulled out its troops. On July 23, 2009 the last Romanian soldiers left Iraq. Three Romanian soldiers had been killed during their mission, and at least eight were wounded.
2008 withdrawals
– Albania was one of the first countries participating in the invasion as they sent 70 troops to Iraq in April 2003. Albania increased its deployment from 120 to 240 in September 2008, with the new troops serving in a different, unspecified part of Iraq. Half of the troops were stationed at Mosul airport, where they manned guard towers and conducted internal and external patrols. On December 17, the departure of all 240 Albanian troops, under U.S. command, was announced. Five soldiers were wounded during the deployment.
deployed a total of 46 personnel divided into three units: a logistics platoon providing vehicles and drivers for supply convoys that run from Kuwait into the Polish sector of Iraq, an ordnance disposal engineer team attached to the Salvadoran contingent, and a medical unit at Camp Echo. On December 5, 2005 the Armenian government declared its intention to stay in Iraq for another year, and did the same on December 6, 2006. However, in October 2008, Armenia ended its military presence in Iraq, citing improved security and the ongoing withdrawal of a much larger Polish army contingent that has supervised Armenian troops deployed in the country.
– The original contingent numbered 150 troops, increasing to 250 after an additional 100 were sent on December 29, 2004, before decreasing to 88 by September 2007. They had been stationed in the vicinity of Haditha Dam in western Iraq, providing security for a nearby US Marine camp and patrolling the dam complex. The Azerbaijanis formally terminated their operations and handed over their mission to the Iraqis on December 4, 2008. One soldier, Rafael Seyidbala Agayev, died during the mission due to an unspecified cause.
deployed a total of 85 soldiers. This included a unit of 36 troops involved in ordnance disposal in Diwaniyah. In August 2008, Bosnia and Herzegovina sent an additional 49 soldiers to help guard the US Camp Victory in Baghdad. A farewell ceremony for the Bosnian troops was held on November 29, 2008.
– Bulgaria withdrew its original contribution of about 485 soldiers in 2005; the unit's objective had been guarding the city centre of Diwaniyah. From March 2006 to late 2008, this unit had guarded the headquarters of the MEK at Camp Ashraf, 100 km west of the Iranian border. On December 17, 2008 Bulgaria's last 155 troops stationed in Iraq returned home. 13 soldiers were killed during this deployment. At least five Bulgarian contractors were also killed by insurgents.
– The original Czech contingent consisted of 300 troops and three civilians running a field hospital, operating under British command Multi-National Division (South-East) (Iraq). After 2006, the goal changed from training Iraqi police to providing Force Protection to Contingency Operation Base (Basrah Air Station) at the vehicle checkpoints. Two thirds of these soldiers were pulled out by late 2007, and 80 out of the remaining 100 were withdrawn in summer 2008 On October 1, 2008 it was announced that the remaining 17 Taji-based Czech troops, who were training Iraqi troops in the use of armoured vehicles, would be withdrawn in December, leaving five troops supporting the NATO Training Mission (NTM-I). On December 4, a ceremony was held marking the end of the Czech mission. One Czech soldier died in May 2003 from injuries sustained in a vehicle accident in Iraq.
– Role of Georgia in the Iraq War: Georgia's contingent originally consisted of 300 special forces troops under U.S. command in Baqouba, who guarded two bridges and three American Forward Operating Bases. Five hundred and fifty more troops were deployed in June 2005, ostensibly to serve as UNAMI guards, although they were placed under U.S. command on a dangerous 'Middle Ring Security' mission in the Green Zone. On March 9, 2007 Georgian President Mikhail Saakashvili announced his plans to increase total Georgian troop strength in Iraq to 2000, by sending an extra 1,200 troops and moving those already in Iraq to join the new unit. Politicians had already stated that the contingent would be reduced to 300 in summer 2008. Following the outbreak of war between Georgia and Russia on August 8, 2008, Mikhail Saakashvili said that Georgia was pulling its entire 2,000-strong contingent of troops from Iraq. During 10 and 11 August the US Air Force airlifted the whole contingent out of Iraq. The troops, all of whom had been trained by American instructors, were based east of Baghdad, close to the border with Iran. As of July 2008, five Georgian soldiers had died in Iraq (one in a vehicle accident, one committed suicide, while three were killed in combat) and 19 were wounded.
– 29 ordnance disposal experts were deployed to Kut, under Polish command. The contingent was withdrawn from Iraq on October 21, 2008, thereby concluding a five-year mission. One soldier was killed in 2005 along with eight Ukrainians when a pile of booby-trapped munitions was detonated by insurgents.
– A farewell ceremony for the remainder of the Irbil-based South Korean contingent was held on December 1, 2008, with its withdrawal from Iraq scheduled for December 5. Total of 20,308 troops had deployed. See Zaytun Division for further information.
– Latvian troops were initially deployed to Kirkuk (under U.S. command) for a year, then transferred to Camp Charlie in Al Hillah, followed by Camp Delta in Al Kut. Finally, the Latvians were stationed at Camp Echo in Ad Diwaniyah where they conducted external security patrols. During their final posting, three Latvian soldiers were killed in action. On June 18, 2007, all but 7 of Latvia's 125 troops left Iraq. Four of the remainder left within two weeks, leaving three officers who participated in intelligence analysis and operational planning from July 2007 onwards. The last three Latvian soldiers concluded their mission on November 8, 2008.
– Lithuania originally deployed 120 troops to Iraq, approximately 50 under Polish command near Hillah (designation: LITDET), where they guarded Camp Echo; and an equal number under Danish command near Basra (designation: LITCON), where they conducted joint patrols with the Danish troops. The remainder served at various command centers throughout the country. The unit in the Polish sector was withdrawn during the course of 2006. Nine Lithuanian soldiers remain in Iraq under NTM–I. The remaining 33 members of the Lithuanian contingent arrived home on August 1, 2008.
– 77 soldiers under U.S. command in Taji conducted a wide range of missions including patrols, raids, training, and manning checkpoints. In 2007, it was announced that Macedonia would increase its contingent from 44 to 80 the following year. A farewell ceremony for the Macedonian troops was held on November 26, 2008, with the withdrawal of the contingent scheduled for the second half of December.
– On October 15, 2008 it was announced that Moldova would withdraw its 20-member unit from Iraq before the end of the year. On December 17, the U.S. military announced the withdrawal of the Moldovan contingent.
– The Mongolians, who originally numbered 180, had operated under Polish command and were tasked with guarding the main Polish base, Camp Echo. Prior to that posting, they had been protecting a logistics base dubbed 'Camp Charlie' in Hillah. All 100 troops were withdrawn on September 25, 2008.
– Following Polish involvement in the 2003 invasion of Iraq, 2,500 troops were deployed to the south of the country. Poland led the Multinational Division Central-South. The contingent was reduced in size from 2,500 to 1,500 in 2005. In January 2006 Polish troops handed over control of Babil province to U.S. troops and decided to remain on bases in Kut and Diwaniyah for the remainder of their mandate. Two months later, the number of troops was reduced to 900. These soldiers were pulled out in October 2008, following a dispute between President Lech Kaczyński and newly elected Prime Minister Donald Tusk over how long they should remain in the country. Twenty-two Polish soldiers were killed in Iraq, along with three security personnel and two journalists, one of whom was Waldemar Milewicz, a famous Polish war correspondent.
– In general, Singapore's ships and aircraft return home after two or three months' deployment in the Persian Gulf, but there were no ground troops. Singapore's withdrawal was acknowledged on 23 December 2008.
– A separate contingent of 45 Royal Marines had previously operated in Iraq from early July 2004 to mid-December 2004, augmenting the 1st Marine Expeditionary Force by guarding Camp Blue Diamond in Anbar Province. 55 Royal Marines were deployed in late 2007, guarding the command headquarters at Camp Victory in Baghdad. The Tongan unit concluded its mission on December 5.
– An independent contingent, consisting of 1,650 troops from the 5th Mechanized Brigade, was deployed to Kut (South Central Iraq) in late 2003. In May 2005, the brigade was replaced with the 81st Tactical Group, numbering around 900 troops. A training team of around 40 troops remained in Diwaniyah & Al Kut until December 9, 2008. The deployment was then reduced continuously until the remaining 44 troops were pulled out on December 22, 2005. This fulfilled a long-planned withdrawal pledged by newly elected President Viktor Yushchenko. Ukraine suffered 18 fatalities: twelve in attacks, three in accidents, two in suicides and one as a result of a heart attack, while 33 were wounded or injured. Early in 2004, three Ukrainian engineers were taken hostage in Iraq but were freed shortly after.
2007 withdrawals
– By December 21, 2007 Denmark's main contribution to the Multinational Force in Iraq, a 55-member air force contingent based in Basra, had been completely withdrawn. Their task had been to operate a unit of four helicopters in support of British and Iraqi forces until December, following the withdrawal of the original contingent in July 2007. The so-called Dancon/Irak mission consisted of 430 troops operating under UK command (South-East Iraq), and included military police involved in the training of local security forces as well as infantry. They were based south of Basra at "Camp Danevang".
A number of troops remain in Baghdad, Iraq, where they train Iraqi forces under the NATO Training Mission – Iraq, but NTM-I is not part of the Multinational Force. Under the Iraqi Law agreed December 16, 2008 the NATO Training Mission seems to be treated as the remaining non-US foreign contingents and will withdraw during 2009.
A separate unit of 35 troops temporarily served under UNAMI.
On February 21, 2007 Prime Minister Anders Fogh Rasmussen had announced that the withdrawal of Danish 'combat' troops in Iraq would be completed by August 2007, however, on July 26, 2007, it was reported that 250 of the Danish troops had already withdrawn, at least two weeks ahead of schedule. The Danish government repeatedly guaranteed that its forces would remain as long as the Iraqi government requested. On April 28, 2007 the Danish military reported that it was in the process of temporarily deploying an unspecified number of special forces to "resolve a special problem". Denmark has lost seven soldiers in Iraq; one to friendly fire, one in a vehicle accident, and five to hostile incidents, while several more have been wounded. In early 2006, the Iraqi insurgency released a statement calling for more attacks on the Danish army in the retaliation to the Danish cartoon controversy.
– On January 27, 2007 Slovak Prime Minister Robert Fico announced that all but 11 of the 110 Slovak troops (primarily engaged in destroying ordnance) operating under the US-led Coalition had been transferred from Diwaniya in Iraq to Kuwait. They arrived home the following month. The remaining troops were sent to perform liaison duties at the Multinational Forces HQ in Baghdad: nine were withdrawn in stages, while the last two returned by the end of the year. Four Slovak soldiers were killed by mortars and roadside bombs during their deployment in Iraq.
2006 withdrawals
– The original contingent consisted of about 3,200 troops, but on July 9, 2005, former PM Berlusconi announced that Italian soldiers would gradually be withdrawn in groups of 300. New Prime Minister Romano Prodi had pledged to withdraw the troops in his first speech to the senate and called the war "a grave mistake that has complicated rather than solved the problem of security". Shortly after, on May 26, 2006, Italian foreign minister Massimo D'Alema announced that the Italian forces would be reduced from 1,800 to 1,600 by June. On June 8, he said Italy's military presence in Iraq would end before 2007. On September 21, 2006, Italian forces handed over Dhi Qar province in southern Iraq to newly trained Iraqi security forces, thus ending their military mission. About a month earlier, on August 23, the Italian contingent stood at 1,600 troops. The 'Garibaldi Brigade' served its final four-month tour of duty between May and September 2006, and included mechanized infantry, helicopters and Carabinieri in South Central Iraq, based around Nasiriyah. The Military of Italy lost 33 soldiers in Iraq. See Operation Ancient Babylon for more information.
– In early January 2004, 600 Japanese soldiers were deployed in Samawah and 6,100 cumulative till withdrawal in July 2006, Iraq in what was called the Japanese Iraq Reconstruction and Support Group. Most Japanese soldiers were there for humanitarian work and reconstruction, not combat, and were prohibited from opening fire on Iraqi insurgents unless fired on first. Japanese Special Forces soldiers and Australian soldiers provided security. Iraqi insurgents also threatened attacks against Japanese soil unless all Japanese forces were withdrawn from Iraq. Incidents like these furthered public demand in Japan that Japan withdraw from Iraq. Insurgents launched several mortar attacks on Japanese positions, but these caused no casualties. In July 2006 all Japanese soldiers were withdrawn from Iraq. There were no Japanese military casualties during the Operation.
– 140 of 150 troops (engineers and mine clearers) withdrawn on June 30, 2004 citing growing domestic opposition and the need for the troops elsewhere; the ten remaining staff officers assigned to MND-SE and MND CS had been withdrawn by August 2006. The Bondevik II government insists the troops were never part of the invasion force, citing a UN humanitarian mandate. This does not seem to have come to the attention of the international community, as Al-Qaeda has included Norway in videotaped threats on at least two occasions, and U.S. organizations have included Norway on their lists of participating nations.
2005 withdrawals
– An independent contingent of 1,345 troops (including 650 Dutch Marines, three or four Chinook helicopters, a military police unit, a logistics team, a commando squad, a field hospital and Royal Netherlands Air Force AH-64 attack helicopters) was deployed to Iraq in 2003, based in Samawah (Southern Iraq). On June 1, 2004 the Dutch government renewed their stay until 2005. The Algemeen Dagblad reported on October 21, 2004 that the Netherlands would pull its troops out of Iraq in March 2005, which it did, leaving half a dozen liaison officers until late 2005. The Netherlands lost two soldiers in separate attacks.
– had 128 military policemen (GNR – Guarda Nacional Republicana) under Italian command (South East Iraq). These troops were withdrawn on February 10, 2005, two days ahead of schedule.
2004 withdrawals
– 302 troops withdrawn by the end of May 2004, shortly after Spain and Honduras withdrew their contingents, citing growing domestic opposition and the fall from power of PRD candidate Hipólito Mejía and the election of center-left PLD candidate Leonel Fernández to the presidency in 2004. The decision to withdraw came just two days after President Mejia promised to keep the troops in Iraq until the expiration of their mandate in August. Dominican troops were under constant mortar attacks but suffered no casualties. While in Iraq, the troops were under Spanish command (South East Iraq).
– 368 troops withdrawn by the end of May 2004 along with Spain's contingent, citing that the troops were sent there for reconstruction, not combat. While in Iraq, the troops were part of the Spanish led Plus Ultra Brigade in South East Iraq.
– Hungary's contingent of 300 transportation troops had begun arriving home in Budapest from Iraq on December 22, 2004, reported by the AFP. All of Hungary's troops were reported by the Defence Ministry to have left Iraq by the end of that day. While in Iraq, one Hungarian soldier was killed in an insurgent attack.
– Iceland had two Explosive Ordnance Disposal Soldiers prior to their withdrawal.
– Two rotations of 61 military engineers, known as Task Force Rake, operated in Iraq from September 26, 2003 to September 25, 2004. They were deployed to undertake humanitarian and reconstruction tasks consistent with UN Security Council Resolution 1483; they were not part of the invading force. While in Iraq the unit was under British command (South East Iraq) and was based in Basra.
– 230 troops left in February 2004, no replacement, attributed to financial reasons. While in Iraq, the troops were under Spanish command.
– 51 medics, engineers and other troops led by Jovito Palparan were withdrawn on July 14, 2004 in response to the kidnapping of a truck driver. When the hostage takers' demands were met (the withdrawal of Filipino troops from Iraq), the hostage was released. While in Iraq, the troops were under Polish command (Central South Iraq). During that time, three Filipino soldiers were wounded in an insurgent attack, although none died.
– had 1,300 troops (mostly assigned to policing duties) in Najaf and commanded, through the Plus Ultra Brigade, the troops of Honduras, El Salvador, the Dominican Republic, and of Nicaragua. Newly elected Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero fulfilled one of his campaign pledges and declared the end of the mission on April 28, 2004 with the withdrawal of the last 260 troops. While in Iraq, Spain lost 11 military personnel: ten killed in insurgent attacks and one in an accident.
Thailand – Thai Humanitarian Assistance Task Force 976 Thai-Iraq Withdrawal of the last 100 troops from Thailand's 423-strong humanitarian contingent was completed on September 10, 2004, in accordance with Thailand's mandate in Iraq, which expired in September. Thailand lost two soldiers in Iraq in an insurgent attack.
Public relations
YouTube
In early March 2007, Multi-National Force – Iraq announced that it had launched an official YouTube channel for the first time. The channel's videos have over eight million views.
The stated purpose of the YouTube channel is to "document action as it appeared to personnel on the ground and in the air as it was shot." The video clips posted to the site are edited for "time, security reasons, and/or overly disturbing or offensive images."
Commanders
Controversy
Critics of the war have argued that, in addition to direct incentives, the involvement of other members of the coalition was in response for indirect benefits, such as support for North Atlantic Treaty Organization membership or other military and financial aid. Estonian Foreign Minister Urmas Paet, stated in April 2006, that Estonian military forces were to remain in Iraq due to Estonia's "important partnership" with the United States.
Incentives given to MNF-I member countries
Many MNF-I member countries had received monetary gain, among other incentives from the United States, in return for their sending of military forces to Iraq, or otherwise supporting coalition forces during the Iraq War.
Georgia
Georgia, is believed to have sent soldiers to Iraq as an act of repayment for U.S. training of security forces that could potentially be deployed to the break-away regions of South Ossetia and Abkhazia. Indeed, Georgian troops that were sent to Iraq have all undergone these training programs.
Turkey
Turkey was offered approximately $8.5 billion in loans in exchange for sending 10,000 peacekeeping troops in 2003. Even though the United States did say the loans and the sending of troops to Iraq were not directly linked, it also said the loans are contingent upon "cooperation" on Iraq. The Turkish government swiftly rejected all offers of financial aid, and on March 1, 2003, the Turkish Grand National Assembly rejected sending military forces to help participate in the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The decision of the Turkish parliament to do so, at the time, was seen as both a response against American interests in the Middle East, and a desire to keep Turkey out of the Iraq War. The Turkish government, however, allowed all humanitarian flights into and out of Turkey, such as the airlifting of wounded coalition forces.
United Kingdom
In March 2006, British newspaper, The Independent, reported that companies based within the United Kingdom had received at least £1.1bn in contracts for reconstruction work in post-invasion Iraq.
Deaths
When U.S. forces withdrew in December 2011, 4,804 coalition military personnel had been killed in Iraq. This list, which includes withdrawn countries, lists those deaths.
See also
Coalition of the willing
Combined Joint Task Force – Operation Inherent Resolve
Coalition of the Gulf War
References
Further reading
External links
MNFI's official Flickr Photostream
Top UN envoy Sergio Vieira de Mello killed in terrorist blast in Baghdad – UN News Centre
Multi-national troop deployments: Raw data, graphs and rankings, Collected from various news sources.
21st-century military alliances
Iraq–United States relations
Military units and formations established in 2004
Military units and formations disestablished in 2009
Occupation of Iraq
United States Marine Corps in the Iraq War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism%20in%20Asia
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Racism in Asia
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Racism in Asia is multi-faceted and has roots in events that have happened from centuries ago to the present. Racism in Asia may occur from nation against nation, or within each nation's ethnic groups, or from region against region.
Bangladesh
In 2015, the ruling Awami League Member of Parliament, Elias Mollah, commented on his trip to the Democratic Republic of the Congo: "Our army has gone there (Africa) to civilise those black people. I am sure they will accomplish the task." He constantly referred to the Congolese as "uncivilized black people" and added "People there are yet to become civilised. They take bath every 15 days. After applying soaps before bath, they do not even use water in a bid to retain the aroma."
Bhutan
In 1991–92, Bhutan is said to have deported between 10,000 and 100,000 ethnic Nepalis (Lhotshampa). The actual number of refugees who were initially deported is debated by both sides. In March 2008, this population began a multiyear resettlement to third countries including the U.S., Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands and Australia. At present, the United States is working towards resettling more than 60,000 of these refugees in the US as a condition of its third country settlement programme.
Brunei
Brunei law provides affirmative action to Bumiputera.
Myanmar
Ne Win's rise to power in 1962 and his persecution of "resident aliens" (groups of immigrants whose members were not recognized as citizens of the Union of Burma) led to an exodus of some 300,000 Burmese Indians and Burmese Chinese who were victims of Ne Win's discriminatory policies, particularly after the wholesale nationalization of private enterprise in 1964. Some Muslim refugees who entered Bangladesh also suffer there because the Bangladeshi government provided no support to them as of 2007. In late 2016, the Myanmar military forces and extremist Buddhists started a major crackdown on the Rohingya Muslims in the country's western region of Rakhine State.
Since 2015, over 900,000 Rohingya refugees have fled to southeastern Bangladesh alone, and more have fled to other surrounding countries, and major Muslim nations. More than 100,000 Rohingyas in Myanmar are confined in camps for internally displaced persons. Shortly before a Rohingya rebel attack that killed 12 security forces, August 25, 2017, the Myanmar military had launched "clearance operations" against the Rohingya Muslims in Rakhine state that left over 3,000 dead, many more injured, tortured or raped, villages burned. Over 603,000 Rohingya from Myanmar, fled to Bangladesh alone, and more have fled to other countries. According to the Refugee Relief and Repatriation Commission, about 624,000 Rohingyas entered Bangladesh until November 7.
Cambodia
Cambodia has disproportionately targeted ethnic minority groups. These included ethnic Chinese, Vietnamese, Thai, and foreigners who live in Cambodia. Part of this conflict stems from Chinese involvement in Cambodia before the Vietnam War. In the late 1960s, an estimated 425,000 ethnic Chinese lived in Cambodia, but by 1984, as a result of the Khmer Rouge's genocide and emigration, only about 61,400 Chinese remained in the country. The Cham, a Muslim minority group whose members are the descendants of migrants from the old state of Champa, were forced to adopt the Khmer people's language and customs. A Khmer Rouge order stated that henceforth "The Cham nation no longer exists on Kampuchean soil belonging to the Khmers" (U.N. Doc. A.34/569 at 9). Only about half of the Cham survived.
China
Scholars have suggested that the People's Republic of China largely portrays racism as a Western phenomenon which has led to a lack of acknowledgement of racism in its own society. For example, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination reported in 2018 that Chinese law does not define "racial discrimination" and lacks an anti-racial discrimination law in line with the Paris Principles.
Discrimination against African students has occurred since the arrival of Africans to Chinese universities in the 1960s. A known incident in 1988 featured Chinese students rioting against African students studying in Nanjing. In 2007, police anti-drug crackdowns in Beijing's Sanlitun district were reported to target people from Africa as suspected criminals, though police officials denied targeting any specific racial or ethnic group. According to Foreign Policy, African students have reportedly been subjected to more frequent drug testing than students from other regions. Accordingly, some Chinese vloggers have attempted to change the negative stereotypes in their country regarding Africa, while black expats residing in China have reported a mixture of positive and negative experiences. Reports of racism against Africans in China grew during the COVID-19 pandemic in mainland China. In August 2023, Human Rights Watch reported that racist content against Black people is widespread on the internet in China.
Hong Kong
With a population of 7.3 million Hong Kong has gained a reputation as an international city, while remaining predominantly Chinese. This multi-culturalism has raised issues of racial and gender discrimination, particularly among the 350,000 ethnic minorities such as Africans, Nepalese, Indians, Indonesians, Pakistanis, Mexicans and Filipinos, who have long established minority communities since the founding days of the former colony or have come to Hong Kong recently to work as domestic workers. For example, Filipino females are sometimes addressed by the derogatory term "Bun Mui" and Filipino males "Bun Jai" (literally Filipino sister and Filipino son, respectively). In 2003, the number of complaints filed with the body handling discrimination issues, the Equal Opportunities Commission increased by 31 percent.
Since the transfer of sovereignty in 1997, there has been greater tension and more conflicts have risen between residents of the PRC (People's Republic of China or the "Mainland") and Hong Kong over a variety of political and socio-economical issues concerning the governance and constitutional autonomy of the territory. The issues partly involve the intrusive policies of the central government and also partly the behaviors of Mainland residents when they travel to Hong Kong. Mainland residents suffered considerable set-backs in the 1960s and 1970s due to catastrophes such as the Great Chinese Famine that resulted from the poor governance of the PRC. However, since the 1990s, the Mainland has had considerable economic growth, and a large number of mainland tourists have visited Hong Kong in recent years. There also have been many reports that visiting Mainland parents let their child defecate or urinate openly in the street in busy shopping districts or in public transports.
Similarly, with the introduction of China's Individual Visit Scheme in 2003, which effectively grants Mainland residents an unlimited entry travel visa to Hong Kong, and following the 2008 Chinese milk scandal and other food safety incidents in China an influx of Mainland residents travel regularly to Hong Kong to buy baby formula and other daily necessities. In the process, this influx caused shortages of supply for Hong Kong parents and escalated rents; it also greatly harmed the commercial diversity of Hong Kong business. Due to the great demand from mainland residents, smugglers organizations have grown rapidly. This deleterious effect on the economy has caused some Hong Kong residents to refer to Mainland residents as "locusts"; they are seen as invaders who swarm into the city and drain its resources.
On the other hand, a race discrimination bill has been demanded by human rights groups for the last 10 years, and the government has been accused of putting the issue on the back burner. Last 3 December 2006 was the first time a drafted bill was proposed at the Legislative Council, and was expected to be passed before the end of 2008. However, the bill was criticized for being "too conservative".
Tibet
Critics of Chinese rule of Tibet use the phrase Sinicization of Tibet in reference to programs and laws which impose "cultural unity" in Tibetan areas of China, including the Tibet Autonomous Region and the surrounding Tibetan-designated autonomous areas. These efforts are undertaken by China in order to forcefully assimilate Tibetan culture into mainstream Chinese culture. Another term for sinicization is cultural cleansing or genocide, a term which has been used in reference to the results of China's sinicization programs and laws in Tibet by the 14th Dalai Lama and the Central Tibetan Administration.
Uyghur genocide
The Uyghur genocide is the ongoing series of human rights abuses perpetrated by the Chinese government against the Uyghur people and other ethnic and religious minorities in and around the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) of the People's Republic of China. Since 2014, the Chinese government, under the direction of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the administration of CCP general secretary Xi Jinping, has pursued policies leading to more than one million Muslims (the majority of them Uyghurs) being held in secretive internment camps without any legal process in what has become the largest-scale detention of ethnic and religious minorities since the Holocaust. Critics of the policy have described it as the Sinicization of Xinjiang and have called it an ethnocide or cultural genocide, while some governments, activists, independent NGOs, human rights experts, academics, government officials, and the East Turkistan Government-in-Exile have called it a genocide. Uyghur individuals are being relocated to factories within mainland China, where they are exploited as contemporary forms of forced labor.
In particular, critics have highlighted the concentration of Uyghurs in state-sponsored internment camps, suppression of Uyghur religious practices, political indoctrination, severe ill-treatment, and testimonials of alleged human rights abuses including forced sterilization, contraception, and abortion. Chinese government statistics show that from 2015 to 2018, birth rates in the mostly Uyghur regions of Hotan and Kashgar fell by more than 60%. In the same period, the birth rate of the whole country decreased by 9.69%, from 12.07 to 10.9 per 1,000 people. Chinese authorities acknowledged that birth rates dropped by almost a third in 2018 in Xinjiang, but denied reports of forced sterilization and genocide. Birth rates have continued to plummet in Xinjiang, falling nearly 24% in 2019 alone when compared to just 4.2% nationwide.
Discrimination against Mongols
The CCP has been accused of sinicization by gradually replacing Mongolian languages with Mandarin Chinese. Critics call it cultural genocide for dismantling people's minority languages and eradicating their minority identities. The implementation of the Mandarin language policy began in Tongliao, because 1 million ethnic Mongols live there making it the most Mongolian-populated area. The 5 million Mongols are less than 20 percent of the population in Inner Mongolia.
India
Racism in India first started during the colonial era, when European colonialists, using prevailing theories of scientific racism, formulated racial differences between Europeans and Indians that included dividing various ethnic groups in India into different "classes". The first Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, wrote:We in India have known racialism in all its forms ever since the commencement of British rule. The idea of a master race is inherent in imperialism. India as a nation and Indians as individuals were subjected to insult, humiliation and contemptuous treatment. The English were an imperial race, we were told, with the God-given right to govern us and keep us in subjection; if we protested we were reminded of the 'tiger qualities of an imperial race'.
In recent years, discrimination against people from North-East India and from South India has been reported. In 2007, the North East Support Centre & Helpline (NESC&H) was started as a separate wing of All India Christian Council. Its stated goal is to increase awareness regarding prejudice and attacks against people from North-East India. Many North-Eastern Indians face discrimination, are refused living accommodations when they travel to urban areas to study and are subjected to racial slurs in reference to the appearance of their eyes. A spokesman for the NESC&H has stated that abuse and harassment of North-Easterners is increasing.
A World Values Survey reported India as the second-least tolerant country in the world, as 43.5% of Indians responded that they would prefer not to have neighbors of a different race. The most recent survey, however, in 2016, conducted by the World Values Survey, found that 25.6% of the people living in India would not want a person of a different race to be their neighbor.
Indonesia
A number of discriminatory laws against Chinese Indonesians were enacted by the government of Indonesia. In 1959, President Sukarno approved PP 10/1959, which forced Chinese Indonesians to close their businesses in rural areas and to relocate to urban areas. Moreover, political pressures in the 1970s and the 1980s restricted the role of Chinese Indonesians in politics, academics, and the military. As a result, they were constrained professionally to becoming entrepreneurs and professional managers in trade, manufacturing, and banking. In the 1960s, after the alleged communist coup attempt in 1965, there was a strong sentiment against Chinese Indonesians, who were accused of being communist collaborators. In 1998, Indonesia riots over higher food prices and rumors of hoarding by merchants and shopkeepers often degenerated into anti-Chinese attacks. There is also discrimination based on religion and belief across the country, especially between Muslims and Christians.
Amnesty International has estimated more than 100,000 Papuans, one sixth of the population, have died as a result of violence against West Papuans, and others had specified much higher death tolls. The 1990s saw Indonesia accelerate its Transmigration program under which hundreds of thousands of migrants from Java and Sumatra were resettled to Papua over a ten-year period. The Indonesian government saw that as the improvement of the economy and also the population density in Indonesia. Critics suspect that the program's purpose is to tip the balance of the province's population from the heavily-Melanesian Papuans toward western Indonesians to consolidate Indonesian control further.
Iran
Israel
Organizations such as Amnesty International, the Association for Civil Rights in Israel, and the United States Department of State have published reports documenting racial discrimination in Israel.
The Association for Civil Rights in Israel (ACRI) published reports documenting racism in Israel, and the 2007 report suggested that racism in the country was increasing. One analysis of the report summarized it: "Over two-thirds Israeli teen believe Arabs to be less intelligent, uncultured and violent. Over a third of Israeli teens fear Arabs all together....The report becomes even grimmer, citing the ACRI's racism poll, taken in March 2007, in which 50% of Israelis taking part said they would not live in the same building as Arabs, will not befriend, or let their children befriend Arabs and would not let Arabs into their homes." The 2008 report from ACRI says the trend of increasing racism is continuing.
Japan
In 2005, a United Nations report expressed concerns about racism in Japan and that government recognition of the depth of the problem was not total. The author of the report, Doudou Diène (Special Rapporteur of the UN Commission on Human Rights), concluded after a nine-day investigation that racial discrimination and xenophobia in Japan primarily affects three groups: national minorities, Latin Americans of Japanese descent, mainly Japanese Brazilians, and foreigners from poor countries.
Japan only accepted 16 refugees in 1999, while the United States took in 85,010 for resettlement, according to the UNHCR. New Zealand, which is 30 times smaller than Japan (in terms of population), accepted 1,140 refugees in 1999. Just 305 persons were recognized as refugees by Japan from 1981, when Japan ratified the U.N. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, to 2002. Former Prime Minister Taro Aso called Japan a "one race" nation. A 2019 Ipsos poll has also suggested that Japanese respondents had a lower sympathy for refugees compared to the other surveyed nations.
Ainu people are an ethnic group indigenous to Hokkaidō, northern Honshū, the Kuril Islands, much of Sakhalin, and the southernmost third of the Kamchatka peninsula. As Japanese settlement expanded, the Ainu were pushed northward, until by the Meiji period they were confined by the government to a small area in Hokkaidō, in a manner similar to the placing of Native Americans on reservations.
Lack of anti-discriminatory laws
Japan lacks any law which prohibits racial, ethnic, or religious discrimination, or discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity. The country also has no national human rights institutions. Non-Japanese individuals in Japan often face human rights violations that Japanese citizens may not. In recent years, non-Japanese media has reported that Japanese firms frequently confiscate the passports of guest workers in Japan, particularly unskilled laborers. Critics call this practice, which is legal and encouraged in Japan, coercive and a form of human trafficking.
Forced assimilation of Ainu and Ryukyuans
In the early 20th century, driven by an ideology of Japanese nationalism under the guise of national unity, the Japanese government identified and forcefully assimilated marginalized populations, which included Ryukyuans, Ainu, and other underrepresented groups, imposing assimilation programs in language, culture and religion. Japan considers these ethnic groups as a mere "subgroup" of the Japanese people and therefore synonymous to the Yamato people, and do not recognize them as a minority group with a distinct culture.
Jordan
According to a 2013 study conducted by Scandinavian academics, Jordanians are the most racist nationality in the world, followed by Indians at second place.
Malaysia
Malaysia is a multi–ethnic country, with Malays making up the majority—close to 52% of the 28 million population. About 30% of the population are Chinese Malaysians (Malaysians of Chinese descent), and Indian Malaysians (Malaysians of Indian descent) comprise about 10% of the population. Government policies of positive discrimination often favor the Malay majority with Bumiputera status, particularly in areas such as housing, finance and education. Such policies are protected by article 153 of the Constitution of Malaysia. The former long-term ruling party of UMNO also promoted Ketuanan Melayu: the idea that the Bumiputeras should get special privileges in Malaysia. It was written into The Federation of Malaya Agreement signed on 21 January 1948 at King House by the Malay rulers and by Sir Edward Gent, as the representative of the British government, that Malays would lead the three main races. Malays dominate in: politics at both national and state levels; the civil service; military and security forces. Chinese have traditionally dominated the economy and live in large numbers in urban areas of Malaysia.
For Ramadan 2011, Chinese-language television station 8TV had some advertisements featuring a Chinese woman at a Ramadan bazaar. The condescending advertisements were pulled for being racist following an online uproar, and the station was expected to apologize. Instead, they claimed the Ramadan advertisements were an "honest mistake" and went on to claim that the viewers misunderstood the clips. The Ramadan advertisements – released as public service announcements (PSA) – appeared to be stereotyping Chinese people, depicting a socially inept Chinese woman embarrassing others at a Ramadan bazaar. Some parts of the community claimed that they were "Islamophobic", especially among the Chinese in Malaysia. Quoting Austrian philosopher Karl Popper, the station said in its Facebook note: "It is impossible to speak in such a way that you cannot be misunderstood." The PSAs highlighted the clueless behaviour of a Chinese woman played by an actor in scenes to demonstrate what might embarrass Muslim Malay hawkers and bazaar patrons alike. In one instance, the Chinese woman dressed in a sleeveless singlet, showing her armpits censored by pixels, to passers-by while touching a bunch of bananas. Each PSA was soon followed by a message on public behavior. One of them included "Do not be greedy and eat in public".
In the 2010–2014 World Values Survey, 59.7% of Malaysian respondents indicated that they would not want immigrants or foreign workers as neighbors, which was among the highest out of the countries surveyed.
In the 2020 survey by IndexMundi, Malaysia ranked second in the proportion of the population recognizing a racism issue in their country.
Ketuanan Melayu
The Malaysian government ensures that all Bumiputeras are given preferential treatment when it comes to the number of students placed in government universities. The Education Ministry's matriculation programme allocates 90% for Bumiputeras and 10% for non-Bumiputera students.
Bumiputeras are also given 7% discounts for new houses they purchase, and special Malay status reserved land in most housing settlements. Burial plots in most urban areas are for deceased Bumiputeras, while the rest have to be cremated at such locations. All key government positions are to be held by Malays, including most sporting associations. Other forms of preferential treatment include the requirement of a minimum of a 30% Malay Bumiputera equity to be held in Listed Companies, full funding for mosques and Islamic places of worship (Islam is an official religion in Malaysia), special high earning interest trust funds for Bumiputeras, special share allocation for new share applications for Bumiputeras, and making the Malay language a compulsory examination paper to pass with a high emphasis given to it.
Even school textbooks have been criticized as racist, especially from Chinese and Indian-type schools who adopted learning methods from their respective countries. "Interlok" is a 1971 Malay language novel written by Malaysian national laureate Abdullah Hussain, with Chinese groups today condemning its depiction of Chinese characters as greedy, opium-smoking lechers keen to exploit Malays for profit. Some folks said that the Chinese were trying to "conquer Malaysia" as "they did with Singapore". The Indian community earlier complained over the novel's use of the word "pariah" and "keling". Chinese associations said the book was not only offensive to Indians but Chinese as well, as it depicted the character Kim Lock as a "miserly opium addict and callous adulterer" and his son, Cing Huat, as "cunning, greedy, unscrupulous and someone who would sell his daughters". "Interlok" was written based on the ideology of Ketuanan Melayu. The groups also condemned the "major thread" in the book, which depicts the Chinese "cheating and oppressing" Malays or as "nasty and immoral" communist guerrillas.
ICERD
Malaysia is also one of the only few countries (less than 10) in the world not to ratify the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD) at the United Nations (UN), due to the possibility of "conflicts" with the Constitution of Malaysia and the "race and religious norms" that may jeopardize the special status of Malays in the country.
When BN lost its majority after the country's 2018 Malaysian general election there were fears among the Malay population of eventual ratification by the Pakatan Harapan (PH) coalition, which could possibly signal the end of Bumiputera privileges and special positions of the Malays in the country. Race relations eventually severely deteriorated to the point where a mass rally was held in the country's capital of Kuala Lumpur to pressure the government against ratification.
Nepal
In Nepal, there are concerns about racism towards Dalits, indigenous, refugees, and other ethnic communities.
Singapore
Since independence, Singapore has declared itself to be a multi-cultural society. The Singapore National Pledge is a declaration of anti-racism and the acceptance of all races and religions. Racial Harmony Day is celebrated in Singapore to mark the progress made since the 1964 race riots in Singapore.
There is a tendency towards collective cultural identity; that is a tendency to focus on group dynamics more at a societal than individual level. This in turn leads to an increased emphasis on being part of the 'in' group and not part of the 'other'. Many have on their identity document an ethnic classification of Other, although there have been recent reforms in 2011 that allow for double-barrel ethnic identifications like "Indian Chinese" or "Chinese Indian" for individuals of mixed heritage.
However, there have been cases of racism including the social stigma attached to intermarriage of different ethnic groups. Such racist sentiments have also not escaped those in power. In 1992, former People's Action Party Member of Parliament Choo Wee Khiang said: "One evening, I drove to Little India and it was pitch dark but not because there was no light, but because there were too many Indians around."
Since 2010, anti-foreigner sentiments have been significant with house-owners and landlords refusing to rent properties to people from China and India. A 2019 YouGov poll has revealed similar results, with Singaporean respondents showing the highest percentage of bias against mainland Chinese and Indian travelers out of all the nations surveyed.
In January 2019, a 30-year-old man was arrested following a vandalism incident in which hateful slurs against the Malay community were scrawled on poles just outside Aljunied MRT station, Geylang which is near a primary and secondary school. The racial slurs contained words like: "" (death to Malays) and other slurs displaying graphic sexual acts and one seemed to refer to Malaysian politician Anwar Ibrahim, although it is not independently verifiable if it actually did refer to Anwar.
In July 2019, A 47-year-old man was sentenced to four weeks' jail and issued a S$1,000 fine for a number of offences including subjecting an lift passenger of Indian origin to racist remarks. In June 2020, a mother and son were being investigated for using racist terminology in breach of racial harmony, when referring to people of African origin during an Instagram video. Another form of racism in Singapore will be rental racism where people of certain races are objected rental of house and it has been rampant in the current years due to low house supply. The link beside will be an example on rental racism in Singapore. - Rental racism in Singapore
In 2019, a 'brownface' advert featuring Dennis Chew in multiple racial attire with make up applied to exaggerate various racial features. This advertisement triggered a rap video in response which not only brought attention to the casual racism that minorities face in day-to-day life, but also attracted the attention of the authorities to the video creators. Chew eventually apologized for his actions, with the broadcaster Mediacorp also dropping the advertisement. Prior to this advertisement, it raised the question on whether the acceptance of 'brownface' should be continued.
However, foreigners have also engaged in expressing racist ideas against Singaporeans. There have also been incidents by foreigners who have been accused of being discriminatory to locals and has generated a lot of negative publicity over comments made about locals. In the case of British banker Anton Casey, he had posted comments on Facebook in 2014 which had abused, variously, a taxi driver and Singaporean commuters in general. For Filipino nurse Ello Ed Mundsel Bello, in 2015 he suggested that Singaporeans could not compete with Filipinos. Sonny Truyen, an Australian of Vietnamese origin, in his exasperation that Pokémon Go was not available in Singapore at the time, made condescending remarks about Singapore, calling it a "shit country with shit people".
South Korea
Korean ethnic nationalism
Koreans, both north and south, tend to equate nationality or citizenship with membership in a single, homogeneous politicized ethnic group or "race" (minjok in Korean). A common language and culture also are viewed as important elements in Korean identity.
Some South Korean schools have been criticized for preferentially hiring white teachers who apply to teach English, due to perceptions that white teachers are more "Western" and therefore have better English skills.
South Korea lacks an anti-discrimination law, which was recommended by the UN Human Rights Committee in 2015. The law has been reported stalled due to "lack of public consensus".
Treatment of non-Koreans
Due to the lack of an anti-discrimination law, it is common for people not of Korean ethnicity to be denied service at business establishments or in taxis without consequences.
According to a survey conducted by the National Human Rights Commission of Korea among foreign residents in South Korea in 2019, 68.4% of respondents declared they had experienced racial discrimination, and many of them said they experienced it due of their Korean language skills (62.3%), because they were not Korean (59.7%), or due to their race (44.7%).
In 2009, assistant professor Paul Jambor at Korea University claimed that Korean college students exhibit discrimination towards non-Korean professors by calling them by their first names and not showing the same amount of respect towards them as students traditionally show towards their Korean professors. He also added that such outright discrimination at South Korean universities is the reason why they are not highly ranked or seen as prestigious in Asia and beyond.
With South Korean society's passion for education, South Koreans can hold a stereotypical view of Jews as the model of academic excellence as well as Jews being very intelligent. Conversely, a survey by the Anti-Defamation League found that 53% of South Koreans show anti-semitic tendencies. However, the half-Jewish journalist Dave Hazzan investigated on this result and found very little anti-semitism in South Korea. Moreover, Abe Foxman, head of the Anti-Defamation League, admitted that cultural norms affected the respondents' answers which has to be considered in future surveys.
Sri Lanka
Pakistan
Racist sentiments exist between citizens of Pakistan towards the citizens of Bangladesh. A strong anti-Bengali Pakistani regime during the Bangladesh Liberation War were strongly motivated by anti-Bengali racism within the establishment, especially against the Bengali Hindu minority. This conflict goes back to when India was first partitioned into West Pakistan and East Pakistan when citizens of today's Pakistan dominated the original Pakistani government. Between 300,000 and 3 million people were killed during the 9-month-long conflict in 1971. The Government of Bangladesh demands a formal apology for those atrocities from the Pakistani head of state, as well as putting on trial former military and political leaders who had played a role in the army action in then East Pakistan. Pakistan has continued to ignore this demand.
Discrimination in Pakistan now is mainly based on religion, social status and gender.
Philippines
Polls have shown that some Christian Filipinos hold negative views directed against the Muslim Moro population due to perceptions of endorsing Islamic terrorism.
The status of Filipinos of Chinese descent varied throughout the colonial period. It is accepted generally, though, that repressive treatment toward Chinese was practised by both Filipinos and Spaniards together with Japanese immigrants and Americans during the colonial period. After independence in 1946, Chinese quickly assumed some of the top posts in finance and business. There were several setbacks, however, such as immigration policies deemed unfair toward migrants from China during President Ramon Magsaysay's term, as well as the limiting of hours for studying Chinese subjects in Chinese schools throughout the country, as promulgated by President Ferdinand Marcos.
In some ways, the Philippines is a surprisingly homogeneous society considering its multiplicity of languages, ethnicities and cultures.
Taiwan
The Taiwanese nationality law has been criticized for its methods of determining which immigrants get citizenship, depending on their ethnic origin. Even so, immigrants already in Taiwan also report being treated as second-class citizens, and that the state should implement anti-discrimination laws.
Thailand
Turkey
Vietnam
The Sino-Vietnamese War resulted in the discrimination and consequent migration of Vietnam's ethnic Chinese. Many of these people fled as "boat people". In 1978–79, some 450,000 ethnic Chinese left Vietnam by boat as refugees (many officially encouraged and assisted) or were expelled across the land border with China. There has also been racism from the Kinh Vietnamese majority towards minority groups, including Chinese, Khmers, Thai, Montagnards, Eurasians, etc.
Regional racism
A topic not often discussed is the racism between regions of Asia. For instance, specific regions may be looked down upon or are subjected to discrimination and racism due to perceived differences caused by development indexes that are in part due to economic and governmental differences, most notably, between developed nations (Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Taiwan, etc.), often seen to be in East Asia, towards developing regions, such as countries comprised in Southeast Asia or South Asia, even though groups of people can be close in racial and sometimes cultural terms. These may also include discriminating based on government forms, such as those in democracies vs those currently still communist. Terms such as "Fancy Asians" (or pale, white skin Asians, primarily East Asians) vs "Jungle Asians" (or brown Asians) exacerbate this divide. Fetishisation of Asian cultures are almost exclusively those who are considered "East Asian" in appearance or attitude. Alternatively, Chinese in Southeast Asia have been discriminated against due to fears closely aligned with anti-Semitism in Europe, or being vehemently against Chinese expansionism.
Southeast Asians typically do not fit in the model minority myth as many countries are not as developed and immigrants from Southeast Asia were first experienced as waves of immigrants as refugees from wars such as the Indochina War or Vietnam War, leading to more discriminatory efforts regionally towards Southeast Asia and a perception that Southeast Asians were "brown skin" or "Jungle Asians" and that East Asians were "white skin" or "fancy Asians".
See also
Fascism in Asia
Geography of antisemitism
Index of racism-related articles
Racism by country
References
Asia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delay%20%28audio%20effect%29
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Delay (audio effect)
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Delay is an audio signal processing technique that records an input signal to a storage medium and then plays it back after a period of time. When the delayed playback is mixed with the live audio, it creates an echo-like effect, whereby the original audio is heard followed by the delayed audio. The delayed signal may be played back multiple times, or fed back into the recording, to create the sound of a repeating, decaying echo.
Delay effects range from a subtle echo effect to a pronounced blending of previous sounds with new sounds. Delay effects can be created using tape loops, an approach developed in the 1940s and 1950s and used by artists including Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly.
Analog effects units were introduced in the 1970s; digital effects pedals in 1984; and audio plug-in software in the 2000s.
History
The first delay effects were achieved using tape loops improvised on reel-to-reel audio tape recording systems. By shortening or lengthening the loop of tape and adjusting the read-and-write heads, the nature of the delayed echo could be controlled. This technique was most common among early composers of musique concrète such as Pierre Schaeffer, and composers such as Karlheinz Stockhausen, who had sometimes devised elaborate systems involving long tapes and multiple recorders and playback systems, collectively processing the input of a live performer or ensemble.
American producer Sam Phillips created a slapback echo effect with two Ampex 350 tape recorders in 1954. The effect was used by artists including Elvis Presley (such as on his track "Blue Moon of Kentucky") and Buddy Holly, and became one of Phillips' signatures. Guitarist and instrument designer Les Paul was an early pioneer in delay devices. According to Sound on Sound, "The character and depth of sound that was produced from tape echo on these old records is extremely lush, warm and wide."
Tape echoes became commercially available in the 1950s. Tape echo machines contain loops of tape that pass over a record head and then a playback head. An echo machine is the early name for a sound processing device used with electronic instruments to repeat the sound and produce a simulated echo. The time between echo repeats was adjusted by varying head position or tape speed. The length or intensity of the echo effect was adjusted by changing the amount of echo signal was fed back into the signal recorded to tape.
A landmark device was the EchoSonic made by American Ray Butts. It is a portable guitar amplifier with a built-in tape echo, which became used widely in country music (Chet Atkins) and especially in rock and roll (Scotty Moore).
Dedicated machines for creating tape loops were introduced One example is the Echoplex which uses a tape loop. The length of delay is adjusted by changing the distance between the tape record and playback heads. Another is the Ace Tone EC-1 Echo Chamber.
With the Roland RE-201, introduced in 1973, Japanese engineer Ikutaro Kakehashi refined the tape delay to make it more reliable and robust, with reduced tape wear and noise, wow, and flutter, additional controls, and additional tape heads. Different effects could be created by enabling different combinations of playback heads. By adjusting the controls and tape speed, musicians could create pitch-shifting and oscillated effects. The RE-201 was used by acts including Brian Setzer, Bob Marley, Portishead, and Radiohead.
In the 1970s, Jamaican dub reggae producers used delay effects extensively; Lee Scratch Perry created "lo-fi sci-fi" effects by using delay and reverb on a mixing console test tone and dub techno producers such as Basic Channel introduced delay to electronic music. Digital delay effects were developed with the arrival of digital recording.
Analog delay
Before the invention of audio delay technology, music employing an echo had to be recorded in a naturally reverberant space, often an inconvenience for musicians and engineers. The demand for an easy-to-use real-time echo effect led to the production of systems offering an all-in-one effects unit that could be adjusted to produce echoes of any interval or amplitude. The presence of multiple taps (playback heads) made it possible to have delays at varying rhythmic intervals; this allowed musicians an additional means of expression over natural periodic echoes.
Tape delay
Delay processors based on analog tape recording use magnetic tape as their recording and playback medium. Electric motors guide a tape loop through a device with a variety of mechanisms allowing modification of the effect's parameters. Popular models include Ray Butts' EchoSonic (1952), the Watkins Copicat (1958), the Echoplex (1959) and the Roland Space Echo (1974).
In the Echoplex EP-2, the play head position was fixed, while a combination record and erase head was mounted on a slide, thus the delay time of the echo was adjusted by changing the distance between the record and play heads.
The Space Echo uses a free-running tape transport system to reduce tape wear, noise, and wow and flutter, and made the units more reliable and easy to transport. It was more reliable and sturdy than previous tape echo devices, making it easy to travel and perform with. It has been used by musicians in genres such as reggae, dub, trip hop, post-punk and experimental rock.
Thin magnetic tape was not entirely suited for continuous operation, however, so the tape loop has to be replaced from time to time to maintain the audio fidelity of the processed sounds. The Binson Echorec used a rotating magnetic drum or disc (not entirely unlike those used in modern hard-disk drives) as its storage medium. This provided an advantage over tape, as the durable drums were able to last for many years with little deterioration in the audio quality. In later years, tape delay effects remained popular for the way the tape compresses and distorts, "creating the impression that the echoes are receding rather than just getting quieter".
Oil can
An alternative echo system was the so-called oil-can delay method, which uses electrostatic rather than electromagnetic recording.
Invented by Ray Lubow, the oil-can method uses a rotating disc of anodized aluminium coated with a suspension of carbon particles. An AC signal to a conductive neoprene wiper transfers the charge to the high impedance disc. As the particles pass by the wiper, they act as thousands of tiny capacitors, holding a small part of the charge. A second wiper reads this representation of the signal, and sends it to a voltage amplifier that mixes it with the original source. To protect the charge held by the particles and to lubricate the entire assembly, the disc runs inside a sealed can with enough of a special insulating oil to assure that an even coating is applied as it spins.
The effect resembles an echo, but the whimsical nature of the storage medium causes variations in the sound that can be heard as a vibrato effect. Some early models featured control circuitry designed to feed the output of the read wiper to the write wiper, causing a reverberant effect as well.
Many different companies marketed these devices under various names. Fender sold the Dimension IV, the Variable Delay, the Echo-Reverb I, II, and III, and included an oil can in their Special Effects box. Gibson sold the GA-4RE from 1965–67. Ray Lubow himself sold many different versions under the Tel-Ray/Morley brand, starting out in the early sixties with the Ad-n-echo, and eventually producing the Echo-ver-brato, the Electrostatic Delay Line, and many others into the eighties.
Solid-state delay
The bucket-brigade devices (BBD) was developed at Philips in 1969. Delay effects utilizing this technology eventually became available. Notable examples include the Memory Man from Electro-Harmonix, released in 1976 and the Boss DM-2 released in 1981. BBD-based devices offered a convenient alternative to tape delays and leslie speakers but were eventually largely supplanted by digital delays.
Digital delay
Digital delay systems function by sampling the input signal using an analog-to-digital converter. The resulting digital audio is passed through a memory buffer and recalled from the buffer a short time later. Through feedback of some of the delayed audio back into the buffer, multiple repeats of the audio are created. The delayed (wet) output may be mixed with the unmodified (dry) signal after, or before, it is sent to a digital-to-analog converter for output.
Digital delay effects were initially available as expensive rack-mounted units intended for use in television and audio production studios. One of the first was the Eventide DDL 1745 from 1971. Another popular rack-mount digital delay was the AMS DMX 15-80 of 1978. As digital memory became cheaper in the 1980s, units like Lexicon PCM42, Roland SDE-3000, TC Electronic 2290 offered more than three seconds of delay time, enough to create background loops, rhythms, and phrases. The 2290 was upgradeable to 32 seconds and Electro-Harmonix offered a 16-second delay and looping machine. Eventually, as costs came down further and the electronics grew smaller, they became available in the form of foot pedals. The first digital delay offered in a pedal was the Boss DD-2 in 1984. Rack-mounted delay units evolved into digital reverb units and on to digital multi-effects units capable of more sophisticated effects than pure delay, such as reverb and audio time stretching and pitch scaling effects.
Digital delays present an extensive array of options, including control over the time before playback of the delayed signal. Most also allow the user to select the overall level of the processed signal in relation to the unmodified one, or the level at which the delayed signal is fed back into the memory, to be repeated again. Some systems allow more exotic controls, such as the ability to add an audio filter and modulate the playback rate.
Looping
While the early delay units with a long delay capacity could be used to record a riff or chord progression and then play over it, they were challenging to work with. The Paradis Loop Delay, created in 1992, was the first unit with dedicated looping functions such as record, overdub, multiply, insert, and replace, which made it more intuitive and user-friendly. Gibson manufactured a slightly improved version as the Echoplex Digital Pro until 2006.
Computer software
A natural development from digital delay-processing hardware was the appearance of software-based delay systems. In large part, this coincided with the popularity of audio editing software. Software delays, in many cases, offer much greater flexibility than even the most recent digital hardware delays. Software implementations may offer shifting or random delay times, or the insertion of other audio effects in the feedback path. Many software plugins have added functionality to emulate the sounds of the earlier analog units. Abundant main memory on modern personal computers offers ample delay time.
Artistic uses
In popular and electronic music, electric guitarists use delay to produce densely overlaid textures of notes with rhythms complementary to the music. U2 guitarist the Edge uses delay while he plays arpeggios on electric guitar, thus creating a sustained, synth pad-like background. Vocalists and instrumentalists use delay to add a dense or ethereal quality to their singing or playing. Extremely long delays of 10 seconds or more are often used to create loops of a whole musical phrase. Robert Fripp used two Revox reel-to-reel tape recorders to achieve very long delay times for solo guitar performance. He dubbed this technology "Frippertronics", and used it in a number of recordings.
John Martyn was a pioneer of the echoplex. Perhaps the earliest indication of his use can be heard on the songs "Would You Believe Me" and "The Ocean" on the album Stormbringer! released in February 1970.
Function
Delay effects add a time delay to an audio signal. Blending the delayed audio with the original audio creates an echo-like effect, whereby the original audio is heard followed by the delayed audio. The delayed signal may be treated separately from the input audio - for example, with an equalizer.
Most delay effects allow users to set the delay time, or the amount of time between each audio playback. The may be synchronized to a BPM, allowing users to set time values as beat divisions. Delay is used to create other effects, including reverb, chorus, and flanging.
Delay effects typically allow users to add and adjust feedback. By feeding some of the delayed audio back into the delay mechanism, multiple repeats of the audio are heard. At low feedback settings, each repeat fades in volume. High levels of feedback can cause the level of the output to rapidly increase, becoming louder and louder; this may be managed using a limiter.
Haas effect
Short delays (50 ms or less) create a sense of broadening the sound without creating a perceptible echo and can be used to add stereo width or simulate double-tracking (layering two performances). The effect is known as the precedence effect or Haas effect, after the German scientist Helmut Haas.
Ping-pong delay
In a ping-pong delay, the delayed signal alternates between the two channels of a stereo program.
Multi-tap
In a multi-tap delay, multiple taps (outputs) are taken from a delay buffer, each with independent times and levels, and summed with the original signal. Multi-tap delays can be used to create rhythmic patterns or dense, reverb-like effects.
Doubling echo
Doubling echo is produced by adding short delay to a recorded sound. Delays of thirty to fifty milliseconds are the most common; longer delay times become slapback echo. Mixing the original and delayed sounds creates an effect similar to doubletracking, or unison performance.
Slapback echo
Slapback echo uses a longer delay time (60 to 250 milliseconds), with little or no feedback. A slapback delay creates a thickening effect. The effect is characteristic of vocals on 1950s rock-n-roll records. In July 1954, Sam Phillips produced the first of five 78s and 45s that Elvis Presley would release on Sun over the next year and a half, all of which featured a novel production technique that Phillips termed slapback echo. The effect was produced by re-feeding the output signal from the playback head tape recorder to its record head. The physical space between heads, the speed of the tape, and the chosen volume being the main controlling factors. Analog and later digital delay machines also easily produced the effect. It is also sometimes used on instruments, particularly drums and percussion.
Flanging, chorus effect, and reverb
Flanging, chorus and reverb are all delay-based sound effects. With flanging and chorus, the delay time is very short and usually modulated. With reverberation there are multiple delays and feedback so that individual echoes are blurred together, recreating the sound of an acoustic space.
Straight delay
Straight delay is used in sound reinforcement systems; a straight delay is used to compensate for the propagation of sound through the air. Unlike audio delay effects devices, straight delay is not mixed back in with the original signal. The delayed signal alone is sent to loudspeakers so that the speakers distant from the stage, as in a large outdoor rock festival, will reinforce the stage sound at the same time or slightly later than the acoustic sound from the stage. The delayed signal uses approximately 1 millisecond of straight delay per foot of air or 3 milliseconds per meter, depending on the air temperature's effect on the speed of sound. Because of the Haas effect, this technique allows audio engineers to use additional speaker systems placed away from the stage and still give the illusion that all sound originates from the stage. The purpose is to deliver sufficient sound volume to the back of the venue without resorting to excessive sound volumes near the front.
Straight delay is also used in audio to video synchronization to align sound with visual media (e.g., on TV or web broadcasting), if the visual source is delayed. Visual media can become delayed by a number of mechanisms or reasons, in which case the associated audio must be delayed to match the visual content.
Samples
See also
Analog delay line
Digital delay line
Send tape echo echo delay
Notes
References
External links
Audio effects
Broadcasting
Effects units
Music looping
Sound recording
Sound reinforcement system
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison%20Hemings
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Madison Hemings
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James Madison Hemings (January 19, 1805 – November 28, 1877) was the son of the mixed-race enslaved woman Sally Hemings and, according to most Jefferson scholars, her enslaver, President Thomas Jefferson. He was the third of her four children to survive to adulthood. Born into slavery, according to partus sequitur ventrem, Hemings grew up on Jefferson's Monticello plantation, where his mother was also enslaved. After some light duties as a young boy, Hemings became a carpenter and fine woodwork apprentice at around age 14 and worked in the joiner's shop until he was about 21. He learned to play the violin and was able to earn money by growing cabbages. Jefferson died in 1826, after which Sally Hemings was "given her time" by Jefferson's surviving daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph.
The historical question of whether Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings' children is the subject of the Jefferson–Hemings controversy. At the age of 68, Hemings claimed the connection in an 1873 Ohio newspaper interview, titled, "Life Among the Lowly," which attracted national and international attention. Following renewed historical analysis in the late 20th century, and a 1998 DNA study (completed in 1999 and published as a report in 2000) that found a match between the Jefferson male line and a descendant of Sally Hemings' youngest son, Eston Hemings, the Monticello Foundation asserted that Jefferson fathered Eston and likely her other five children as well.
After Hemings and his younger brother Eston were freed, they each worked and married free women of color; they lived with their families and mother Sally in Charlottesville until her death in 1835. Both brothers moved with their young families to Chillicothe, Ohio to live in a free state. Hemings and his wife Mary lived there the remainder of their lives; he worked as a farmer and highly skilled carpenter. Among their ten children were two sons who served the Union Army in the Civil War: one in the United States Colored Troops and one who enlisted as a white man in the regular army.
Among Madison and Mary Hemings' grandchildren was Frederick Madison Roberts, the first African American elected to office on the West Coast. He served in the California legislature for nearly two decades. In 2010, their descendant Shay Banks-Young, who identifies as African American, together with one Wayles and one Hemings descendant, who each identify as European American, received the international "Search for Common Ground" award for work among the Jefferson descendants and the public to bridge gaps and heal "the legacy of slavery." They founded "The Monticello Community" for descendants of all the people who lived and worked there in Jefferson's lifetime.
Slavery
James Madison Hemings was born into slavery at Monticello, where his mother Sally Hemings was a mixed-race enslaved woman inherited by Martha Wayles Skelton, the wife of Thomas Jefferson. Sally and Martha were half-sisters, both fathered by the planter John Wayles. Sally worked in the main house as a domestic servant. Jefferson's wife Martha died on September 6, 1782. While in Paris, from 1787 to 1789, Sally Hemings cared for Jefferson's daughters. She lived her teenage years as a free person in France, where there was no slavery. According to Hemings's memoir, his mother told him that his father was Thomas Jefferson, and that their relationship had started in Paris, where he was serving as a diplomat, having been appointed the Minister to France in 1784. Pregnant, she agreed to return with Jefferson to the United States based on his promise to free her children when they came of age at 21. Sally returned to Monticello and remained a domestic servant in the main house and she also became Jefferson's chambermaid. Her living quarters, located in the South Wing, adjacent to Jefferson's bedchamber, were built in 1809. Although there was no window to the outside, it likely gave her and her children a higher-level lifestyle than other enslaved people at Monticello.
Hemings referred to Sally Hemings as "mother" and Jefferson as "father", who treated one another with respect. Hemings described Jefferson as even-tempered and "uniformly kind". He compared Jefferson's affectionate treatment of his white grandchildren to that of the Hemings children, who were not treated with affection or partiality. Henry Wiencek asserts that while Jefferson felt no emotion when he saw "eternal monotony" in the faces of black-skinned enslaved people, seeing himself in the faces of the Hemings children, who were enslaved, caused him to remain emotionally distant from his off-spring with Sally.
Hemings grew up at Monticello with an older brother Beverley, older sister Harriet, and a younger brother Eston. Two or more other siblings died young. Sally and her four surviving children were listed together in Jefferson's Farm Book at Monticello in 1810. The children were fair-skinned and some bore a remarkable resemblance to Jefferson. Jefferson's grandchildren were not told that they were related to the Hemings children.
Hemings was named for Jefferson's close friend, James Madison. According to Hemings, Dolley Madison requested the honor of his being named after her husband, who was afterwards President of the United States. As a young child, Hemings and his siblings stayed in or near the main house, sometimes running errands. Unlike other enslaved children, they had light work, were able to stay near their mother, and knew that they would be freed upon coming of age. Hemings learned to read and write from white children and was partially self-taught. At the age of 12 or 14, Hemings was apprenticed to his uncle, Sally's brother John Hemings, to learn carpentry and fine woodworking. Beverley and Eston were also apprentices. The brothers worked in the joiner's shop at Poplar Forest and Monticello in total from 1810 to 1826. By 1824, Jefferson gave Hemings and his younger brother a patch of land to grow vegetables. At harvest, the boys were paid for 100 heads of cabbage. All three of the Hemings brothers learned to play the violin, the instrument associated with Jefferson. As an adult, Eston Hemings made a living as a musician. Their sister, Harriet, learned to weave.
Hemings stated that Beverley and Harriet moved to Washington D.C. in 1822 when they "ran away" from Monticello. Jefferson ensured that Harriet was given $50 () for her journey to Washington, D.C. Because of their light skin and appearance (they were 7/8 European or octoroon), both identified with the white community and probably changed their names. After Beverley had left, Jefferson updated his Farm Book with his name and "runaway 22". Harriet's leaving was similarly recorded. Hemings said they had married white spouses of good circumstances, and moved into white society. They apparently kept their paternity a secret, as it would have revealed their origins as slaves.
Freedom
According to the terms of Jefferson's will, twenty-one-year-old Madison Hemings and his brother Eston were emancipated in 1827. As stipulated in Jefferson's will, the state legislature was petitioned to allow the brothers, their mother, and Joseph Fossett to remain in the state after the one-year residency limit for freedmen. The Hemings rented a house in Charlottesville, where Sally lived with them. At the age of 50, she was considered an old woman in the slave trade. She was not formally freed but was "given her time" by Jefferson's surviving daughter Martha Jefferson Randolph, who was also Hemings' niece. Sally Heming's children were the only family unit freed (or helped to escape) by Jefferson. In the 1830 Albemarle County census, Madison, Eston and Sally Hemings were all classified as free whites, sometimes they were classified as mixed race. Sally Hemings died in Charlotte in 1835. During their time in Charlottesville, Hemings had built a wood-and-brick house on Main Street.
Married life
On November 21, 1831, Madison wed Mary Hughes McCoy, a free woman of mixed-race ancestry (her grandfather Samuel Hughes, a white planter, freed her grandmother Chana from slavery and had children with her).
In 1836, Hemings, his wife, and their infant daughter Sarah left Charlottesville for Pike County, Ohio. Eston and his family—and Mary's family—had already moved there. They lived in Chillicothe, which had a thriving free black community, abolitionists among both races, and a station of the Underground Railroad. Surviving records in Pike County state that Hemings purchased for $150 on July 22, 1856, sold the same area for $250 on December 30, 1859, and purchased for $10 per acre on September 25, 1865 in Ross County, Ohio. During that time, Hemings helped build houses in Waverly, Ohio, which was known for its anti-black sentiment.
Madison and Mary Hemings were the parents of ten children: Unnamed son, Sarah, Thomas Eston, Harriet, Mary Ann, Catherine Jane, William Beverly, James Madison, Julia Ann, and Ellen Wayles Hemings. Their daughter Sarah was born in Virginia; the rest of the children were born in Ohio. Hemings had a quiet life as a modestly successful free black farmer and carpenter.
Following passage of the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850, Eston and his family moved in 1852 to Madison, Wisconsin, to get further from possible danger from slave catchers. Slave catchers were known to kidnap free black people and sell them into slavery, as demand and prices were high in the Deep South. Eston lived as a white man in Wisconsin. Of Sally Hemings' children, Hemings was the only one that lived among African Americans after he attained his freedom. (In September 1831, in his mid-twenties, Madison Hemings was described in a special census of the State of Virginia as being: 5 feet 7 3/8 inches high light complexion no scars or marks perceivable". Forty-two years later, a journalist described him as "five feet ten inches in height, sparely made, with sandy complexion and a mild gray eye.")
In 1873, Hemings used an Ohio newspaper interview about his life, titled, "Life Among the Lowly," to address the Jefferson/Hemings controversy, stating that Jefferson was his and his three siblings' father. Hemings was a widower when he died of consumption on November 28, 1877, in Huntington Township, Ross County, Ohio.
Jefferson–Hemings controversy
Sally Hemings had at least six children whose births were recorded. Some sources, including Hemings's memoir, says that Sally Hemings conceived her first child while in Paris with Jefferson, but that the baby died shortly after birth. Another daughter named Harriet, whose birth was recorded at the time, also died shortly after birth, but four other children lived to adulthood, three boys and one girl: Beverly, Harriet (the second daughter given this name), Madison, and Eston. Beverly and Harriet left Monticello to go North when they were both around twenty-one years of age, but Madison and Eston were freed by Jefferson's will after he died. Although Jefferson did not legally manumit Beverly and Harriet, he secretly arranged and paid for Harriet's transportation to Philadelphia, using his overseer Edmund Bacon as an intermediary. Although he marked in his Farm Book that both had "run away," Jefferson never made any attempt to re-enslave them. Gordon-Reed noted that this Hemings family was the only one in which all the children were freed, and Harriet the only enslaved woman he freed. She suggests this special treatment was significant and related to their status as his "natural" children.
Largely as a result of revived interest in this case following Gordon-Reed's book, a Y-DNA analysis of Carr, Jefferson and Hemings descendants was conducted in 1998. Y-DNA is passed on virtually unchanged through the direct male line. It showed no match between the Carr male line, proposed for more than 150 years as the father(s), and the one Hemings descendant tested. It did show a match between the Y-DNA haplotype of the Jefferson male line and the Hemings descendant, which is a rare type.
Since 1998 and the DNA study, which affirmed the historical evidence, many historians have accepted that the widower Jefferson had a long, sexual relationship with Hemings, and fathered six children with her, four of whom survived to adulthood. The Thomas Jefferson Foundation (TJF), which runs Monticello, conducted an independent historic review in 2000, as did the National Genealogical Society in 2001; the scholars of both reviews concluded Jefferson was probably the father of all Hemings's children.
There are no living male-line descendants of Madison Hemings. Beverley Hemings' descendants have been lost to history, as he apparently changed his name after moving to Washington, DC and passing into white society. Descendants of Madison Hemings declined to have the remains of his son William Hemings disturbed to extract DNA for testing (he was buried in the Leavenworth National Cemetery, just as Wayles-Jefferson descendants declined to have Thomas Jefferson's remains disturbed.
In 2012, the Smithsonian Institution and the Thomas Jefferson Foundation held a major exhibit at the National Museum of American History: Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello: The Paradox of Liberty. It said that "evidence strongly support[s] the conclusion that Jefferson was the father of Sally Hemings' children."
Descendants
Madison Hemings' youngest daughter Ellen Wayles Hemings married Andrew Jackson Roberts, a graduate of Oberlin College. They moved from Ohio to Los Angeles, California in 1885 with their first son Frederick, age six. The senior Roberts founded the first black-owned mortuary there and became a civic leader in the developing community. Their son, Frederick Madison Roberts, named for his maternal grandfather, was college-educated and became a businessman in partnership with his father. He also became a community leader. In 1918 Roberts was first elected to the California legislature. He was re-elected numerous times, serving for a total of 16 years, and becoming known as "dean of the assembly". He is believed to have been the first person of African-American ancestry elected to political office west of the Mississippi River. Both he and his brother William Giles Roberts graduated from college. The Roberts descendants for generations have had a strong tradition of college education and public service. Their daughter Mary Ann Johnson left the state of Ohio, but the remainder of their children stayed in southern Ohio.
Many of the Hemings' descendants who remained in Ohio were interviewed in the late twentieth century by two Monticello researchers as part of the Thomas Jefferson Foundation's "Getting Word" project. They were collecting oral histories from the descendants of enslaved families at Monticello; material has been added to the Monticello website and was included in the national Slavery at Jefferson's Monticello 2012 exhibit. The researchers found that Hemings' descendants had married within the mixed-race community for generations, choosing light-skinned spouses of an educated class and identifying as people of color within the black community.
In 2010 Shay Banks-Young and Julia Jefferson Westerinen, descendants of Sally Hemings who identify as black and white, respectively, were honored together with David Works, a descendant of Martha Wayles Skelton Jefferson, with the Search for Common Ground award for "their work to bridge the divide within their family and heal the legacy of slavery." They have spoken about race and their historically divided and united family, and have been featured on NPR and in other interviews across the country.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Shannon Lanier and Jane Feldman, Jefferson's Children: The Story of One American Family New York: Random House Books for Young Readers, 2000 (with photos of Jefferson descendants on both sides)
Stanton, Lucia. Free Some Day: The African-American Families of Monticello, Charlottesville: Thomas Jefferson Foundation, 2000.
External links
"Getting Word: African American Family Histories", Monticello Website
François Furstenberg, "Jefferson's Other Family: His concubine was also his wife's half-sister", review of Annette Gordon-Reed, The Hemingses of Monticello, Slate, 23 September 2008
"Sally Hemings Children: Madison Hemings", Photos - Descendants of Madison Hemings, Monticello Website
"Scholars Commission Report", Thomas Jefferson Heritage Society
Bibliography of Hemings – Jefferson Sources, University of Virginia Library
1805 births
1877 deaths
19th-century American slaves
Place of death missing
Children of Thomas Jefferson
Children of Sally Hemings
Hemings family
Jefferson family
19th-century American people
People from Monticello
People who were enslaved by Thomas Jefferson
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life%20Ball
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Life Ball
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The Life Ball in Vienna is the biggest charity event in Europe supporting people with HIV or AIDS. The event is organized by the nonprofit organization AIDS LIFE, which was founded in 1992 by Gery Keszler and Torgom Petrosian.
AIDS LIFE supports aid organizations devoted to helping people who are HIV-positive or have AIDS. The team entrusted with the allocation of funds thoroughly examines each petition. Moreover, it is an explicit goal of AIDS LIFE to raise public awareness.
The event
The Life Ball—one of the biggest annual charity events in the world—has attracted strong international interest and attention. The main priority of the Ball is, however, not only the celebration of the party people live acts, but the fight against AIDS.
To ensure that the meaning of this major event is not forgotten, the opening ceremony on Vienna's city hall square includes moments of silence and speeches by international stars and partners, which focus on raising awareness for AIDS.
Since the establishment of this society highlight, which has become a real tradition, numerous celebrities (designers, actors, musicians, politicians, and models) show their personal commitment to the issue with live performances and send a strong signal of solidarity. They make use of their popularity and position as role models for a good cause.
The number of tickets for the Life Ball is limited to 3,780. To maintain the unique style of the event, different ticket categories are available: a fixed number of tickets called "Style Tickets" are available at half price and are for those who meet the dress code of the Life Ball Style Bible. The costumes should correspond to the theme of the Ball. These are also the only guests—besides the stars—who are allowed to walk down the red carpet, which leads from Ringstrasse Boulevard across city hall square to the main stage in front of Vienna's city hall. In the run-up to the 2008 Ball, Gery Keszler voiced the wish that guests try to be less provocative and more creative. As Chris Lohner put it: "A penis is not yet a costume". Guests can apply for Style Tickets on the Style Bible webpage. Guests in normal evening attire pay the full ticket price. In 2001, a ticket sales system in which interested parties register in a raffle for tickets via text message was introduced. Usually, as many as 60,000 ticket registrations are received within the two-day sales period. The ticket winners in both categories are selected randomly from all applications. A small number of tickets is issued through various campaigns (e.g., Life Ball Warm Up, eBay auctions, types of raffles where the ticket win is hidden in condom packages that are sold in selected bars and restaurants, a.s.o.) International guests can book Life Ball Packages including plane tickets and hotel as well as table bookings, which cost 4- to 5-figure euro amounts. In 2009, early table bookings slowed down due to the new Austrian anti-corruption act that entered into force in 2008.
The opening gala features a wide variety of music, from operetta to pop, national as well as international stars, and the fashion show on the huge Red Ribbon stage. Until 2008, it could be viewed free of charge on city hall square, which could accommodate 45,000 people; in 2009, however, access to the first part of the opening ceremony was limited to those who had tickets to the Ball itself and a viewers' stand was constructed for those who wanted to view the opening ceremony. Guests can dance in the various patios and rooms of the city hall as they enjoy the offerings of the many bars and buffets. Some of the international stars perform on stages on the Ball premises.
The charity event is known far beyond the Austrian borders today. By now, over 60 TV stations and a total of 500 national and international media representatives cover the event each year. In case of repeated accreditation, the organizers check whether the topic of AIDS was also addressed in the coverage to avoid that only stars and celebrities are mentioned. Austrian public broadcaster ORF 1 has been covering the opening show live since 2007 as part of a "theme night" followed by interviews with famous guests after the opening, attracting around 400,000 viewers each year. Since 2007, the opening show has also been broadcast on 3sat with a time delay. In 2008, Austrian channel Puls 4 also had a live broadcast of the Ball after ORF's live broadcast. The new German TV station TIMM covered the event in 2009 in a 4-hour non-stop program, for which the ORF signal was used in part.
History
Organizer and founder Gery Keszler is the "face" and engine of the Life Ball. It is also mainly his achievement that fashion representatives and celebrities of the entertainment industry such as Roseanne Barr, Elton John, Catherine Deneuve, Liza Minnelli, Sharon Stone, Dita von Teese, Anastacia, Heidi Klum, Naomi Campbell and Jenna Jameson attend the opening show. Some play an active role in the event's program, others just enjoy the party and celebrate. Gery Keszler chose the Vienna city hall as venue because he found it had great symbolic value. He felt that it should be part of the Viennese ball tradition, but be more provocative and glamorous. He was given the opportunity to present his project to then mayor Helmut Zilk. Zilk was convinced of the positive effect of such an event and gave it a try. He agreed to let Keszler have the festival hall in the Vienna city hall and supported him despite all opposition. Zilk's stance was remarkable as support for this cause was not something that could be taken for granted at that time. There were also doubts as to whether the event would be a success. For Keszler it was exciting and nerve-racking until the opening, because the first guests arrived rather late.
The first Life Ball took place on May 29, 1993. In addition to the Vienna city administration, the event had only two sponsors. The ATS 1,100,000 (EUR 79,940) raised by the first Ball were donated to the non-profit organization AIDS LIFE, which was founded by Gery Keszler and Torgom Petrosian in 1992, to support other organizations helping people who are HIV-positive or have AIDS. Ever since the first Life Ball, a fashion show, then presented by Thierry Mugler, has become a key feature of the event. In the second year, at the Life Ball on May 28, 1994, the money raised through donations, sponsoring and ticket sales was doubled. The first two Balls were covered by TV stations in Austria and Germany. The third Ball on May 6, 1995, already attracted interest from French and Spanish broadcasters as well as MTV. In the subsequent years, the number of guests attending the opening show and the Ball as well as the number of journalists, radio stations, print media articles and sponsors rose steadily. This also increased the funds raised by the Life Ball to be donated to AIDS projects and research. In 1999, the Vienna city hall was renovated and the Ball took place in the Hofburg palace.
A cornerstone was accomplished at the 8th Life Ball on May 13, 2000: it was the first time the funds raised broke the ATS 10,000,000 (EUR 726,728) barrier. It was also the first Ball at which the opening show took place on the city hall square and was publicly accessible. The next year, for the first time projects in Africa (cf. HIV/AIDS in Africa) were supported through a cooperation with the Elton John Aids Foundation (EJAF) – Elton John was himself a regular guest at the event from 2001 to 2005 and also held the opening speeches. The 13th Life Ball on May 21, 2005, for the first time exceeded the EUR 1 million mark with a total of EUR 1,017,600 generated by ticket sales, catering, auctions, raffle, stamp and record sales and the contributions of various donors and sponsors. Half of the proceeds are donated to international projects. Since 2006, the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR), which was founded by Elizabeth Taylor and whose current president is Sharon Stone, has been a cooperation partner of the Life Ball. The main focus in 2006 was on the fight of HIV and AIDS in babies and toddlers.
Compared to today, the Life Ball started as a small event from the gay community. In contrast to other events attended by Keszler back then, it was never intended to be an event only for the gay scene or jet-setters. It combines Viennese ball tradition with fancy-costume queer balls. Some of the gay community supported the project greatly, especially when it was still in its infancy, e.g., Café Berg (since its opening). However, the Ball has attracted a majority of heterosexual guests for some time now, and also many companies make a contribution. To avoid the potential worst case – that gay people do not get tickets to an event which had its origins in the gay scene—the lesbian and gay community has had a ticket quota for some years. Even though the Life Ball has not been a mere "gay" event for some time, just as much as AIDS is no longer a "gay" epidemic, it still has this reputation. The attribute "gay" has, however, not been detrimental to revenue. When not discussed in the equal rights context, "gays are considered creative and fun—and are said to throw better parties", which is a money-making cliché. Moreover, trend expert Bernhard Heinzlmaier adds that "it is considered hip to move in a gay environment. It indicates an open and modern set of mind." In addition to the charity aspect, the "gay hipness" surrounding the heterosexual guests is therefore another reason for donations. The homosexuals in Austria alone would not be a big enough crowd to get companies to make such generous donations.
At least two celebrity couples met at the event: Austrian professional swimmer Markus Rogan and then Miss Austria Christine Reiler met at the 2007 Ball in which they both participated in the fashion show as models. At the Life Ball 2008, they celebrated their one-year anniversary and graced the runway in a partner-look outfit. The same night, TV presenter Nazan Eckes and Julian Khol, the Düsseldorf-based Austrian model, art student, and son of politician Andreas Khol, also met.
From 2000 to 2007, a wedding chapel for couples of any sexual orientation with famous "show priests" was hosted together with Austrian TV channel ATV to point out the unequal treatment of heterosexual and homosexual couples.
On the occasion of the XVIII International AIDS Conference that is beginning one day after the big event in Vienna, this year's Life Ball will be very special. On the 17th of July Europe's biggest AIDS charity event not only takes place in the Vienna City Hall and on City Hall Square, but also at the Burgtheater (the former imperial court theatre) and the Parliament. The "concept of the three houses" unites three extraordinary events and important organizations; the amfAR gala in the Parliament, the Elton John AIDS Foundation at the Red Ribbon Cotillion in the Burgtheater, and the William J. Clinton Foundation at the traditional Life Ball in the Vienna City Hall. With the support of many different personalities these three events together set a clear signal for tolerance and solidarity.
Access to the Life Ball is extremely limited. Each year, thousands of requests for Life Ball Tickets are received and few are granted to this exclusive experience. Recently, the Life Ball opened their doors to international guests who want to attend. A few international travel representatives have been selected to exclusively represent a region in offering travel packages to the Life Ball.
A notable event at the 2013 Life Ball was Barbara Eden appearing, wearing her Jeannie outfit.
In November 2015, Keszler said that there would be no Life Ball in 2016, and that the next ball would be held in the summer of 2017. However, the Red Ribbon Cotillion will still be held that year.
Campaigns
The event is usually accompanied by a number of campaigns. In 2006, guests from western Austria could for the first time make use of a dedicated "Ö3 Life Ball Express" train with a special party carriage and shuttle buses that brought them to Vienna's city hall, and also the specially modified "Life Ball Party Plane" premiered in 2008, flying in guests and media representatives from New York City to Vienna, already setting the right mood for the Ball. The dance club Volksgarten, located not far from the Ball venue, hosts the Life Ball Party and the after hour in the early hours of the morning for all those who did not get tickets to the Ball itself. The money from these campaigns also goes to the Life Ball. Also, there is a "Diners Club Life Ball" credit card carrying the Red Ribbon design, which automatically transfers 0.5% of each transaction to AIDS LIFE.
Special issue stamps
Limited edition stamps on the occasion of the Life Ball have been issued for a number of years now. The 2005 stamp bore Heidi Klum's picture, followed by Naomi Campbell in 2006. In that year, also a limited edition of stamps featuring Naomi Campbell in comic style was sold on eBay. German supermodel Nadja Auermann was the face of the 2007 Life Ball stamps.
Life Ball Song
The performance of the Life Ball Song marks the official opening of the Ball.
2002: Live for the moment performed by Hot Pants Road Club, Dorretta Carter, Rounder Girls, Eddie Cole, Cedric Lee Bradley, Christian Kolonovits, and the Ambassade Orchester Wien
2003: High Life performed by Gianna, Loud 9, Sandra Pires, and Family Bizz
2004: Immer lauter (louder and louder) performed by Nina Hagen
2005: instead of the traditional song, the Vienna State Opera Ballet, choirs, singers and DJs performed an overture for the opening of the Ball in front of Vienna's city hall.
2006: Everything Can Change performed by Rebekka Bakken
2007: Get a Life – Get Alive, performed by Austrian casting show Starmania contestant Eric Papilaya, was also Austria's contribution to the Eurovision Song Contest.
2008: The Life performed by transgender icon Amanda Lepore, club host, show host and singer Mel Merio and Chicks on Speed
2009: I Bring You Love performed by Cindy Gomez together with composer Dave Stewart
2011: Ask the Universe performed by Cheyenne Jackson
2012: Melody Angel, Judith Hill, Truth Hurts und Natalia Kelly - Blindfold
2013: Love Wins Over Glamour performed by Adam Lambert
2014: Lust for Life performed by Candice Glover
2015: Love Child performed by Trevor Jackson
Since 2006, the Life Ball Fanfare, composed by Bela Fischer, has been played at the beginning of the opening show.
Fashion show
Each year, one or more famous fashion designers are responsible for the event's fashion show. Professional models on the catwalk such as Marcus Schenkenberg, Alek Wek, Nadja Auermann, Heidi Klum, Eva Padberg, Eva Riccobono, and Naomi Campbell appear alongside stars and celebrities such as Udo Kier, Olivia Jones, Til Schweiger, Kylie Minogue, Cyndi Lauper, Dolly Buster, Austrian Health Minister Andrea Kdolsky.
Fashion designers since the inception of the Life Ball:
1993 - Thierry Mugler
1994 - John Galliano
1995 - Jean-Paul Gaultier
1996 - Paco Rabanne
1997 - Vivienne Westwood
1998 - Jean-Charles de Castelbajac
1999 - Christian Lacroix, Philip Treacy, Vivienne Westwood, Jeremy Scott, Paco Rabanne and Julien Macdonald
2000 - Walter Van Beirendonck, Olivier Theyskens, Seredin & Vasiliev, Shirtology and Benoit Méléard
2001 - Roberto Cavalli
2002 - Moschino
2003 - Missoni
2004 - Gianfranco Ferré
2005 - Donatella Versace
2006 - Renzo Rosso (Diesel)
2007 - Heatherette
2008 - Agent Provocateur
2009 - Patricia Field presents The Blonds
2010 - Calvin Klein, Kenneth Cole, Diane von Fürstenberg
2011 - DSquared²
2012 - VOGUE Italia hosts the 20th Anniversary Life Ball Fashion Show presented by MINI
2013 - Roberto Cavalli
2014 - Givenchy, Viktor & Rolf, Lanvin, Jean Paul Gaultier, Vivienne Westwood, Etro and DSquared² – under the direction of Franca Sozzani
Crystal of Hope donated by Swarovski, designed by Darko Mladenovic
The annual award of the "Crystal of Hope donated by Swarovski" during the Ball's opening ceremony has become a fixed item on the program. The EUR 100,000 decoration has been presented by a celebrity or head of an AIDS organization to honor achievements in the field of HIV/AIDS research since 2005.
The Red Ribbon-shaped award is a tribute to extraordinary commitments in the fight against AIDS or outstanding AIDS projects of international partner organizations of AIDS Life.
2005: Treat Asia Project by the American Foundation for AIDS Research (amfAR) – presented by Minnelli
2006: SAMBA project by Médecins Sans Frontières – presented by Catherine Deneuve
2007: Youth2Youth Project Uganda by the German Foundation for World Population – presented by Vivienne Westwood
2008: Yier Nigma (choose life), a Kenyan project for the prevention of mother-to-child transmission of HIV by international humanitarian organization CARE – presented by Kim Cattrall
2009: Trevor Peter, for his year-long efforts for the Clinton Foundation's Access Programs, within which he cooperated with governments in Africa and the Caribbean to introduce HIV tests for diagnosing the population and for checking the effectiveness of medication – presented by Fran Drescher and Bill Clinton
2010: The Ukrainian NGO The Way Home (http://www.wayhome.org.ua/) and its founder Sergey Kostin, for helping street children, many of whom are HIV positive, in Odesa, Ukraine. The award was presented by Nastassja Kinski.
2011: The Andrey Rylkov Foundation for Health and Social Justice (http://rylkov-fond.org/) and its co-founder Anya Sarang for advocating for the protection of human rights of drug users and other vulnerable populations in the Russian Federation. The award was presented by Brooke Shields.
2012: Jackie Branfield, Founder Operation Bobbi Bear - presented by Naomi Campbell and Antonio Banderas
Facts & themes
Press = total number of accredited news and media journalists
Radio = number of radio stations among press
TV = number of TV stations among press, including internet TV programs
Since 1995, when Paris Premiere and a Spanish TV station joined the media crowd, the Life Ball has been broadcast on a pan-European level. In 1999, American TV stations (besides MTV) made the broadcast intercontinental. Internet TV started reporting on the event in 2001. Since 2002, stricter accreditation criteria have been applied and the number of media representatives has been limited to 500 due to capacity restrictions. In 2004, the first South African TV teams reported live from the Ball.
Except for one Sunday in 2002, the Ball has always taken place on a Saturday. And apart from a short stint at Hofburg palace in 1999 due to renovations, the venue of the Ball has always been Vienna's city hall. Since 2000, the opening ceremony and the fashion show have taken place on the square in front of the city hall. The opening speech has been held by international celebrities since 2001.
Amount donated
The Life Ball is the most important source of income for AIDS LIFE. Since its inception, margins from annual proceeds and from the total sum of subsidized projects have been profitably invested to be able to finance national projects for another year, should the Life Ball have to be canceled one year. As proceeds are impossible to forecast, the organization does not finance infrastructure costs of the projects it supports, such as rent, personnel expenses, and operating costs. A failure of AIDS LIFE to produce financial support must not result in the cancellation of a project.
On May 24, 2007, two days before the Life Ball, a formal dinner with Bill Clinton which was also attended by Austrian President Heinz Fischer and then Austrian Chancellor Alfred Gusenbauer was held in the Great Gallery of Schönbrunn Palace. With the support of major Austrian companies, the total amount of donations could be raised even further. After dinner, guests enjoyed the Concert for Europe played by the Vienna Philharmonic in the palace's park and a check worth US$1 million was presented to Clinton for the HIV/AIDS initiative (CHAI) of his William J. Clinton Foundation. The same program was planned for 2008 but had to be canceled because Clinton was busy with the US primaries.
Since 2008, nine full-time employees of the Life Ball have worked on the acquisition of donations in money and kind and coordinated all volunteers and participants over the course of a year. There are almost 1,000 partners and staff for catering alone.[10] A special audit of finances from 1994 to 2008 by auditing firm Hübner & Hübner in 2009 confirmed Life Ball's proper financial conduct. At a press conference, Andreas Röthlin also made it clear that "as opposed to many other charitable organizations, AIDS LIFE is very efficiently managed, also and especially with regard to expenses." At this occasion, AIDS LIFE also received the "Österreichisches Spendengütesiegel" (Reg. Nr. 05685), a quality seal for NPOs awarded by the Austrian auditors' chamber, valid as of August 24, 2009.
Awards
1997: Austrian tourism prize (Austrian Federal Economic Chamber)
1997: Event Award GOLD - category "Event Marketing" (Eventwerkstatt: Austrian Event Award)
1999: ÖKI Fundraising & Social Marketing Prize GOLD
2000: special award by then Austrian Federal Ministry of Economic Affairs and Labour for the commercial spot series of the Austrian State Prize, for the 1999 spot "Life Ball 99"
2003: Gery Keszler: Communicator of the Year 2002 (public relations association Austria)
2003: Flair de Parfum (Austrian Federal Economic Chamber – retail in perfume products)
2004: Event Award GOLD - category "Public Event" (Eventwerkstatt: Austrian Event Award)
2005: Project Management Institute – "Project Excellence & Innovation" for humanitarian commitment
2006: Gery Keszler: Gold Decoration of the City of Vienna
2006: Event Award GOLD - category "Public Event" (Eventwerkstatt: Austrian Event Award)
2008: Gery Keszler: Gold Decoration for Services Rendered to the Republic of Austria
2012: Gery Keszler: Reminders Day Award, Berlin / Germany
2012: Gery Keszler: HOPE Award, Dresden / Germany
Criticism
"Because Gery Keszler's 14th AIDS charity night was indeed great. But: that does not mean anything, as it is an intrinsic characteristic of the Life Ball to be super. In all spheres: the Life Ball is beyond criticism. Reporting about it means cheering, which is, to an extent, justified."
– Der Standard, May 21, 2006
"Some political gay rights activists and "fundamentalists" are skeptical about the way the idea and the ball are turned into a lifestyle and are diluted, but nobody speaks up to voice criticism." Gery Keszler is well aware of the delicate balancing act between the fun factor, which in turn attracts people and companies, creates publicity and, eventually, collects as much in donations as possible, and the message to be conveyed. For instance, only journalists who have reported not only about celebrities but also about HIV and AIDS are accredited again. Sometimes it is criticized+ that by now also certain conservative and/or right-wing politicians show up as guests or announce to attend the Ball. Keszler believes that a ball against discrimination should not discriminate against anyone. If these people manage to secure a ticket and believe they would enjoy the event, they will certainly not be stopped from attending it. And Keszler regards their potential plan of ganging up and making "all well" again as naïve.
Sources
External links
Gregor Auenhammer: Rettet den Life Ball!, derstandard.at, May 12, 2009
Thomas Rottenberg: Ein Szene-Event geht in die Breite, derstandard.at, May 15, 2009
10 Fragen: Life Ball Etikette mit Antworten von Thomas Schäfer-Elmayer und Mutter Daphne von O.S.P.I Berlin („Style-Police")
Life Ball 2006-2009 Stadtmagazin Wien-konkret
Life Ball fashion show 2006 – Backstage
Videos: Life Ball 2009
HIV/AIDS organizations
Balls in Austria
LGBT culture in Vienna
LGBT events in Austria
Medical and health organisations based in Austria
Recurring events established in 1993
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ilka%20Ged%C5%91
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Ilka Gedő
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Ilka Gedő (May 26, 1921June 19, 1985) was a Hungarian painter and graphic artist. Her work survives decades of persecution and repression, first by the semi-fascist regime of the 1930s and 1940s and then, after a brief interval of relative freedom between 1945 and 1949, by the communist regime of the 1950s to 1989. In the first stage of her career, which came to an end in 1949, she created a huge number of drawings that can be divided into various series. From 1964 on, she resumed her artistic activities creating oil paintings. "Ilka Gedő is one of the solitary masters of Hungarian art. She is bound to neither the avant-garde nor traditional trends. Her matchless creative method makes it impossible to compare her with other artists."
Early life and training
Ilka Gedő (1921–1985) was born from the marriage of Simon Gedő and Elza Weiszkopf on 26 May 1921. Her father was a teacher at the Jewish grammar school, her mother worked as a clerk. Some of the leading Hungarian writers and artists of the times were among the family's circle of friends. Ilka Gedő was raised in a family, where she had every opportunity to become an educated and sensitive artist. She went to a secondary school bearing the name Új Iskola (New School). This school offered an innovative curriculum and teaching methods.
Since her early childhood, Ilka Gedő had been continuously drawing, recording her experiences. The series of juvenilias, completely preserved in the artist's estate, can be put into chronological order, and thus one is confronted with a visual diary.
She was seventeen years old when she spent her holidays in the Bakony hills, to the west of Budapest. During her holidays she spent all her time drawing the scenery. In the fields she followed the scythe-men with sketchbook in hand, so as to see again and again the recurring movement from the same angle, capturing the rhythm with considerable fluency and sophistication. The drawings, watercolours, and folders that have been preserved from the years 1937-1938 reveal that she already had a complete technical mastery of drawing, and this in spite of the fact that she had never received regular tuition until then.
From the late 1930s till the early 1940s Ilka Gedő was taught by three artists of Jewish origin who were killed by the Nazis at the end of the war.
In 1939, her final examination year Gedő attended the open school of Tibor Gallé (1896–1944). Gedő's second master was Victor Erdei (1879–1944), a painter and graphic artist of the naturalist-impressionist and Art Nouveau style. Gedő's third teacher was the sculptor István Örkényi Strasser (1911–1944). From Strasser Gedő learnt the firmness of sculpturesque modelling and the representation of mass.
After passing her school-leaving examinations, Ilka Gedő seriously considered starting her artistic studies in Paris, but the war interfered, and due to the Jewish laws she could not go to the Hungarian Academy of Art either. Even had Gedő wished to attend the Academy, it is likely that she would have found her way barred. With the increase in influence of the Hungarian Fascists, the Arrow Cross Party, the open disenfranchisement of the Jews began in 1938 with the First Jewish Laws followed by the Second and Third in 1939 and 1941.
During the war, she made a living by doing ceramics, but she never stopped creating her series of graphics. Ilka Gedő often visited the town of Szentendre. A small provincial town on the Danube, some twenty miles from Budapest, it provided between the wars a shelter for numerous artists. From 1938 to 1947 Ilka Gedő made pastel drawings of the town, taking her forms and colours directly from nature. The colours red, vivid yellow, dark brown, blue and green reach a high intensity of colourfulness.
Up until the early 1940s, together with other young artists, Ilka Gedő also visited the studio of Gyula Pap (1899–1982) who was a former disciple of Johannes Itten and a teacher of Bauhaus.
During these years, up to 1944, Gedő made intimate studies, mainly in pencil of family life. She began a series of self-portraits which were to continue to the end, in 1949, of the first stage of her artistic career.
In 1942 Ilka Gedő participated in the exhibition, organized by the Group of Socialist Artists and titled Freedom and the People that took place at the Centre of the Metal Workers' Union.
Drawings made in the Budapest Ghetto
On March 19, 1944, eight German divisions invaded Hungary. The persecution of Hungarian Jewry began in earnest. At unparalleled speed almost all of Hungary's provincial Jews were deported to concentration camps in Poland, where most of them were killed. (The Hungarian Jewish community lost 564,500 lives during the war including 63,000 before the German occupation.)
Despite protests by church leaders and Miklós Horthy's hesitant attempts to halt the deportations, by the summer of 1944 about 200,000 Jews were herded together in the Budapest ghetto and in specially designated houses. Following the unsuccessful attempt by Horthy to take Hungary out for the war, the Arrow Cross party carried out a military take-over on October 15, 1944. In the ghetto, the worst days of nightmare began. Through sheer luck, Ilka Gedő managed to escape deportation and survived.
In the Budapest Ghetto Ilka Gedő spent most of her time with reading and drawing recording her surroundings, her companions, the old people and children. These drawings are invaluable documents, but they are also allegories of human humiliation and defencelessness. On one of her self-portrait drawings, she presents a frontal view of herself, showing a person who has lost control over her own fate. Accordingly, she has no age, and almost no gender any more.
On the last drawing we see the artist's self-portrait with a drawing-board. The eyes, so it seems, stare into nothingness. The ego looks for support in her own self.
The period between 1945 and 1948
Self-portrait drawings (1945–1949)
On New Year's Eve 1945, Ilka Gedő met Endre Bíró, who studied chemistry at the University of Szeged, and after the war started to work for a research institute headed by the Nobel Prize-winning Hungarian scientist Albert Szent-Györgyi.
Working in a strictly figurative idiom, the artist needed models and, in addition to family and friends, Gedő found the most convenient model in herself.
Ilka Gedő created self-portraits which, through their sheer honesty and self-exploration, claim the viewer's attention. These works are drawn in a way that evokes straightforward physical reality and emotional sensitivity at the same time. However, doubts were creeping into her efforts to give a faithful and accurate representation of reality: the traditional and composed modelling that had been so typical of her was gradually being replaced by an expressive, eruptive and tense style.
The drawings of the Fillér utca self-portrait series affect the viewer due to their cruel honesty and authentic artistic power.
The Ganz Factory drawings (1947–1948)
Constantly in search of new subjects, Gedő found in the Ganz Machine Factory, near to her home in Fillér Street, a rich and visually animated environment to draw. Ilka Gedő was granted permission to visit the Ganz Factory with the recommendation of the Free Trade Union of Artists.
As in her self-portraits of the same period, her drawings and pastels of the Ganz Factory, showing a number of recurring topics are quick sketches of momentary experience that reveal an intense spiritual concentration and expressive power. Nervous wavering lines reflect the artist's impressions of industrial work. Ika Gedő's decision to draw in a factory was not politically motivated, and there is no trace of idealisation in these drawings. Dramatic panoramic views of vast interior spaces alternate with compassionate studies of exhausted workers. Ilka Gedő's drawings of the Ganz Factory are realistic, but, more importantly, expressive and moving. In these works space and large forms are presented as novelty. Among the planes and the blocks man is reduced to a schematic figure. The objects that appear in space seem to devour the figures.
Table series (1949)
The subject of these drawings, a small and always visible table is prosaic, it is always at hand. The lines on these drawings are never the contour of the closing of an area: they always move, thus liberating mysterious energies.
The period of creative silence (1949–1965)
Apart from her family and a few friends, no one saw Gedő's drawings at the time they were made. During this period from 1945 to 1949, as well as pastel she started to use oil, but Gedő in a fit of depression and seeing no way out of the dilemmas she was experiencing, destroyed most of the oil paintings produced during these years.
After a remarkable period of freedom between 1945 and 1948, the onset of Communist dictatorship influenced Ilka Gedő's life adversely, being one of the reasons why she gave up artistic activities for sixteen years.
In 1949, Ilka Gedő stopped painting and drawing. Her voluntary abandonment lasted until 1965. During these years, apart from a few colour sketches, she took no pencil or brush into her hand, refusing to do so even in play with her children. Her decision must be explained since it happens very rarely that an artist, who has considered art the meaning and purpose of life, stops creating without being forced to do so.
There were three reasons for stopping artistic work. The first one was the onset of Communist dictatorship, the second the lack of recognition accorded to Ilka Gedő's art (Gedő's friends had a hostile attitude to everything that was representational or figurative, with non-figuration adopted as a means of political expression) and the third was that Ilka Gedő recognised that she could remain true to her talent only by stopping creating art.
When Ilka Gedő stopped making art, she did not altogether abandon the possibility of resuming. She pursued extensive studies in art history. She read extensively about colour theory. She read and made careful notes of Goethe's Theory of Colours, translating long passages from this work. Without these studies the colour world of the second artistic period would not have been possible.
In the mid-1960s the artist put nearly all the drawings of the preceding period in passepartouts and she also selected them into folders according to topics. This activity lasted for many years. The first solo exhibition of the artist was a studio exhibition opened on 15 May 1965 that showed a selection of drawings that were made between 1945 and 1948.
From the beginning of the 1960s, the Communist Party's grip on society loosened somewhat, but Ilka Gedő's isolation continued. Ilka Gedő's situation was made even worse by the fact that a lot of her friends, in contrast to her, made their compromises with the regime, while the talented artists of the younger generation simply opted out of the official arts-policy system and found recognition in the West. In the last two years of the war and in the four-year period of freedom after 1945, Ilka Gedő created a huge number of drawings whose existence had been forgotten by the time she, finally, had her first public exhibition 1980 at the age of fifty-nine.
Paintings
In the 1960s Ilka Gedő started to paint in oil. She made “two-step” paintings. She first drew a sketch of her composition, prepared a mock-up and wrote the name of the appropriate colours into the various fields. She prepared a collection of colour samples, and she wrote where the colours would go in the places where they were ultimately applied. She never improvised on her paintings; instead she enlarged the original plan. On her paintings the strength of cold and warm colours appears to be equal. She created her paintings slowly, amidst speculations, recording the steps of the creative process in diaries so that the making of all the paintings can be traced.
The diary entries register all the artist's speculations in connection with the making of the painting. When she put a picture aside she put away the relevant diary and continued to work on another picture. Before resuming work on a picture she always read her earlier diary notes.
Her creative method follows the call of the instincts but does not forget the discipline of the intellect. „Art critics have been quick to point out evidence of her nostalgia for Art Nouveau and Jugendstil. However, Gedő’s real nostalgia is for a lost mythology, and in this she is similar to her fin-de-siècle predecessors. She found this mythology, albeit a personal one, in art, which is capable of evoking and cherishing the memories of an endangered world.”
A well-known Hungarian art historian, László Beke in 1980 evaluates her art: “I believe it is utterly pointless to draw any parallels between your art and the «contemporary» trends, because your art could have been born any time between 1860 and 2000. It draws its inspirations not from the «outside», but from the «inside», and its coherence and authenticity are derived from the relationship this art has with its creator—and this cannot possibly escape the attention of any of the viewers of these works.”
Gedő died on 19 June 1985, at the age of 64, a few months before her discovery abroad. The scene of the breakthrough was Glasgow where the Compass Gallery presented her paintings and drawings in 1985.
Chronology
1921: Ilka Gedő was born on 26 May 1921 in Budapest.
1939: Ilka Gedő visits the free school of Tibor Gallé.
1940: She participates in the second exhibition of OMIKE (Hungarian Jewish Educational Association).
1939-42: She receives training from Erdei Viktor.
1942: She takes part in the exhibition of the Group of Socialist Painters.
1942-43: She attends the free school of István Örkényi-Strasser.
1943: Gedő participates in the fifth exhibition of OMIKE.
1944: The Budapest ghetto series is born.
1945: In the autumn of 1945 Ilka Gedő enrols as a full-time student in the Academy of Fine Arts. However, she leaves the academy after six months. She draws at the school of Gyula Pap.
1946: She marries the biochemist Endre Bíró.
1947: Birth of her first son, Dániel.
1949: She stops her artistic activities.
1950: From 1950 on she does not take part in art life. Her interests turn to the philosophy of art, art history and colour theory. She translates extensive passages from Goethe's theory of colour.
1953: Birth of her second son, Dávid.
1962: The Hungarian National Gallery buys three drawings of the artist.
1965: Studio exhibition featuring drawings from the years 1945-1949. She resumes her artistic activities.
1969-1970: Spends a year in Paris. She takes part in a group exhibition of the Galerie Lambert.
1974: She is admitted to the Association of Visual Artists.
1980: Retrospective exhibition in the St. Stephen's Museum of Székesfehérvár, Hungary.
1982: Exhibition at the Dorottya Gallery of Budapest. The National Gallery of Hungary buys two of the artist's paintings.
1985: Gedő dies on 19 June in Budapest. A solo exhibition of the artist is opened in the Gallery of the Szentendre Art Colony. Another solo exhibition of Ilka Gedő is organized in the framework of the Hungarian Season in Glasgow. This event is extensively covered by the British press.
Exhibitions
One-woman exhibitions in Hungary:
Studio Exhibition (1965)
King St. Stephen's Museum, Székesfehérvár, Hungary (1980)
Dorottya Utca Gallery, Budapest (1982)
Artists' Colony Gallery, Szentendre, Hungary (1985)
Palace of Exhibitions, Budapest (1987)
Gallery of Szombathely (1989)
Hungarian Jewish Museum, Budapest, [with György Román] (1995)
Budapest Municipal Picture Gallery, Museum Kiscell (2001)
Raiffeisen Gallery (2003–2004) (chamber exhibition)
Hungarian National Gallery (2004–2005)
Hungarian National Theatre (2013) (chamber exhibition)
Museum of Fine Arts - Hungarian National Gallery (2021)
One-woman exhibitions abroad:
Compass Gallery, Glasgow (1985)
Third Eye Centre, Glasgow (1989)
Janos Gat Gallery, New York (1994 and 1997)
Shepherd Gallery, New York (1995)
Collegium Hungaricum, Berlin (2006)
Group exhibitions (a selection)
1940: Az OMIKE második kiállítása (Second Exhibition of OMIKE, the Hungarian Jewish Educational Association), Jewish Museum, Budapest
1943 Az OMIKE ötödik kiállítása (Fifth Exhibition of OMIKE, the Hungarian Jewish Educational Association), Jewish Museum, Budapest
1942: Szabadság és a nép (Freedom and the People), the Headquarters of the Metalworkers' Trade Union, Budapest
1945: A Szociáldemokrata Párt Képzőművészeinek Társasága és meghívott művészek kiállítása (The Exhibition of the Society of Artists of the Social Democratic Party and of Invited Artists), Ernst Museum, Budapest
1947: A Magyar Képzőművészek Szabad Szervezete II. Szabad Nemzeti Kiállítása (The Second Free National Exhibition of the Free Organization of Hungarian Artists), Municipal Gallery of Budapest
1964: Szabadság és a nép, 1934-1944 (The Group of Socialist Artists, 1934-1944), National Gallery, Budapest, Hungary, Memorial Exhibition)
1995: Culture and Continuity: The Jewish Journey, Jewish Museum, New York
1996: From Mednyánszky to Gedő—A Survey of Hungarian Art, Janos Gat Gallery
1995: Áldozatok és gyilkosok/Gedő Ilka gettó-rajzai és Román György háborús bűnösök népbírósági tárgyalásán készült rajzai (Ilka Gedő's drawings of the ghetto and György Román's drawings at the trials of the People's Court of War Criminals), Hungarian Jewish Museum)
1996: Victims and Perpetrators /Ilka Gedő’s Ghetto Drawings and György Román’s Drawings at the War Criminal Trials, Yad Vashem Art Museum, Jerusalem
1997-1998: Diaszpóra és művészet (Diaspora and Art), Hungarian Jewish Museum, Budapest
1998: A Levendel-gyűjtemény (The Levendel Collection), Municipal Museum of Szentendre
-1999: Voices from Here and There (New Acquisitions in the Departments of Prints and Drawings), Israel Museum, Jerusalem
2000: Directions, Fall Season 2000, Janos Gat Galley, New York<ref>Janos Gat (ed.): Directions - Fall Exhibition 2000", Janos Gat Gallery, 1100 Madison Avenue (82nd Street) New York, 2020</ref>
2002: 20. századi magyar alternatív műhelyiskolák (Alternative Hungarian Workshop Schools of the 20th Century), the joint exhibition of the Lajos Kassák und the Viktor Vasarely Museums
2003: Nineteenth Century European Paintings Drawings and Sculpture, Shepherd Gallery, New York
2003: Das Recht des Bildes: Jüdische Perspektiven in der modernen Kunst (The Right of the Image: Jewish Perspectives in Modern Art), Museum Bochum
2004: Az elfelejtett holocauszt (The Forgotten Holocaust), Palace of Art, Budapest
2005: Der Holocaust in der bildenden Kunst in Ungarn (The Holocaust in Fine Arts in Hungary), Collegium Hungaricum, Berlin
2014: A Dada és szürrealizmus. Magritte, Duchamp, Man Ray, Miró, Dalí. Válogatás a jeruzsálemi Izrael múzeum gyűjteményéből (Dada and Surrealism. Magritte, Duchamp, Man Ray, Miró, Dalí. A Selection from the Collections of the Israel Museum), joint exhibition of the Israel Museum and the National Gallery, Budapest, Hungary, Budapest (Dada and Surrealism. Magritte, Duchamp, Man Ray, Miró, Dalí.
2016: Kunst aus dem Holocaust, Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin
2019: In bester Gesellschaft--Ausgewählte Neuerwerbungen des Berliner Kupferstichkabinetts, 2009-2019: (In the Best Company—Selected New Acquisitions of the Berlin Kupferstichkabinett, 2009-2019), Kupferstichkabinett (Museum of Prints and Drawings), Berlin
2023: Of Mystic Worlds: Works from the Distant Past Through the Present, Drawing Center, New York, March 8–May 14, 2023, Plate 7 & pp. 38-39
Works in public collections
The Hungarian National Gallery, Budapest
The Hungarian Jewish Museum, Budapest
The King St. Stephen's Museum, Székesfehérvár, Hungary
The Yad Vashem Art Museum, Jerusalem
The Israel Museum, Jerusalem
The British Museum, Department of Prints and Drawings
The Museum Kunst Palast, Düsseldorf, Department of Prints and Drawings
The Jewish Museum, New York
The Kupferstichkabinett (Museum of Prints and Drawings), Berlin
The Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, USA
The Museum of Fine Arts, Houston, Texas, USA
The Albertina, Vienna
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Department of Modern and Contemporary Art, New York
The Duke Anton Ulrich Museum, Braunschweig, Germany
The Cleveland Museum of Fine Art
MoMA, Department of Drawings and Prints, New York
Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Literature
Catalogues
Gedő Ilka rajzai és festményei (Drawings and Paintings by Ilka Gedő) exhibition catalogue, Székesfehérvár, King St. Stephen Museum, Székesfehérvár, Hungary, 1980, ed. by: Júlia Szabó
Gedő Ilka, (Ilka Gedő), Budapest, Dorottya Street Exhibition Gallery of the Palace of Arts, 1982, ed. by: Ibolya Ury
Gedő Ilka (1921–1985) festőművész kiállítása, (The Exhibition of the Painter Ilks Gedő /1921-1985/) Szentendre, Gallery of the Szentendre Arts Colony, 1985, ed. by: András Mucsi
Gedő Ilka (1921–1985), Budapest, Palace of Exhibitions, Budapest, 1987, ed. by: Katalin Néray
Gedő Ilka festőművész rajzai a Szombathelyi Képtárban (Ilka Gedő’s Drawings at Szombathely Museum), Szombathely, Szombathelyi Képtár, 1989, ed. by: Zoltán Gálig
Carrel, Christopher (ed.): Contemporary Visual Art in Hungary: Eighteen Artists [edited and designed by Christopher Carrel ; exhibition selection Paul Overy, Christopher Carrell, in association with Márta Kovalovszky], Third Eye Centre in association with the King Stephen Museum, Glasgow, 1985Áldozatok és gyilkosok/ Gedő Ilka gettó-rajzai és Román György háborús bűnösök népbírósági tárgyalásain készült rajzai / Victims and Perpetrators–Ilka Gedő’s Ghetto Drawings and György Román’s Drawings at the Trial of War Criminals), Budapest, Magyar Zsidó Múzeum, 1995 és Jeruzsálem, Yad Vashem Art Museum 1996, ed. by: Anita Semjén
Ilka Gedő (1921–1985) Drawings and Pastels, exhibition catalog, New York, Shepherd Gallery, 21 East 84th Street, 1995, ed. by: Elizabeth KasheyDirections (Works by Julian Beck, Herbert Brown, István Farkas, Ilka Gedő, Lajos Gulácsy, Knox Martin, György Roman), Fall Exhibition 2000, Janos Gat Gallery, 1100 Madison Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10028,
Gedő Ilka festőművész kiállítása, (The Exhibition of Ilka Gedő), Budapest, Hungarian National Gallery, 2004, ed. by: Marianna Kolozsváry„…Half Picture, Half Veil…” Works on Paper by Ilka Gedő (1921-1985), Museum of Fine Arts- Hungarian National Gallery, Budapest, 26 May – 26 September 2021, by Marianna Kolozsváry, András Rényi“…félig kép, félig fátyol…” Gedő Ilka (1921-1985) grafikái, Szépművészeti Múzeum – Magyar Nemzeti Galéria, Budapest, 2021. május 26. – szeptember 26. by Marianna Kolozsváry, András Rényi
Group exhibition catalogues
Reform, alternatív és progresszív rajziskolák (1896-1944), (Reform, Alternative and Progressive Darwing Schools), Budapest, Moholy-Nagy University of Art and Design, 2003
István Hajdu: „The Work of Ilka Gedő”, pp. 85–106 In: The Jewess–Exhibition at the Jewish Museum of Hungary, Budapest, Jewish Museum and Archives of Hungary, 1992
Hans Günter Golinski és Sepp-Hiekisch Pickard (szerk): Das Recht des Bildes, Bochum, 2003, a drawing on page 21 and biographical info
Eliad Moreh-Rosenberg Walter Schmerling (Eds.): Kunst aus dem Holokaust, Köln, Wienand Verlag, 2016; there are three drawings in the volume by Ilka Gedő
Thomas Döring & Jochen Luckhardt: Meisterzeichnungen aus dem Braunschweiger Kupferstichkabinett, Dresden, Sandstein Verlag, 2017; there is a drawing by Ilka Gedő on page 18
In bester Gesellschaft Ausgewählte Erwerbungen des Berliner Kupferstichkabinetts 2009-2019, Herausgeber: Andreas Schalhorn, Staatliche Museen zu Berlin—Preußischer Kulturbesitz, Berlin, 2019. (A drawing by Ilka Gedő on page 52.)
BooksGedő Ilka művészete (1921-1985) György Péter-Pataki Gábor, Szabó Júlia és Mészáros F. István tanulmányai /The Art of Ilka Gedő (1921-1985) Studies by Péter György-Gábor Pataki, Júlia Szabó and F. István Mészáros/ Budapest, Új Művészet Kiadó, 1997
Hajdu István - Bíró Dávid: Gedő Ilka művészete, (1921-1985), Oeuvre katalógus és dokumentumok 1921-1985, http://mek.oszk.hu/18400/18419/
István Hajdu–Dávid Bíró: The Art of Ilka Gedő, (1921-1985), Oeuvre Catalogue and Documents, Gondolat Kiadó, Budapest, 2003, http://mek.oszk.hu/18400/18405/
Bíró Dávid: Gedő Ilka élete és művészete, Budapest, MEK, 2009, https://mek.oszk.hu/07400/07415
Bíró Dávid: Ilka Gedő - The Painter and Her Work A Background Report, Budapest, MEK, 2009;https://mek.oszk.hu/07400/07416
Bíró Dávid: Ilka Gedő: ihr Leben und ihre Kunst, Budapest, MEK, 2009 https://mek.oszk.hu/07400/07417
Journal articles
Henry Clare: "Hungarian Arts in Glasgow" Studio International, 1986, Vol. 199, No. 10123, pp. 56–59
Júlia Szabó: „Ilka Gedő’s Paintings”, The Hungarian Quarterly, 1987, Winter
Péter György– Gábor Pataki: “Two Artists Rediscovered–Ilka Gedő and Béla Fekete Nagy”, The Hungarian Quarterly, 1986, Vol. 27. No. 101
Márta Kovalovszky:„Gedő Ilka festőművész rajzai” (Works on Paper by Ilka Gedő) Vigilia, 1989. október, 795-796. o.
F. István Mászáros : “Hold-maszkok, tündöklő háromszögek–Gedő Ilka (1921-1985)” (Moon Masks and Glittering Triangles) Nappali Ház, 1993, Vol. V. No. 3
István Hajdu: “«Könnye kovászba hull»–Gedő Ilka munkái 1946-1948” (Her Tears Fall into the Dough–Works on Paper by Ilka Gedő, 1946-1948” Balkon, 2002, March
Topor Tünde: „Gedő Ilka művészete” (The Art of Ilka Gedő), Art Magazin, 2003, december
Géza Perneczky: „Színes könyv Gedő Ilkának” (A Colourful Album for Ilka Gedő) Holmi, Vol. XV. December 2003
Géza Perneczky: “The Art of Ilka Gedő (1921-1985)” The Hungarian Quarterly, Vol. 45 Autumn 2004, 23-33. o
Géza Perneczky: "A rajzmappa" (A Folder of Drawings) Holmi, Vol XIX. No. 8. August, 2007, pp. 1042–1043
Gábor György: „A létező világok legpszeudóbbika–Gedő Ilka kiállítása a Raiffeisen Galériában”(The Most Deceptive of All the Worlds—Ilka Gedő’s Exhibition at the Art Gallery of the Raiffeisen Bank), Balkon, November 2003
Nicole Waldner: "'She Drew Obsessively' – Ilka Gedő’s Legacy Restored” Lilith, August 17, 2021
Selected oil paintings
Oil paintings at the Hungarian National Gallery
Oil paintings from the period of 1945 to 1948
Paintings made of the basis of pastels
Rose Garden series
Artificial Flower series
Circus and other auto-mythological scenes
Self-portraits
References
External links
Ilka Gedő on Wikipedia Commons
Artist's website
The Complete Works of Ilka Gedő (1921-1985): Digitised Catalogue Raisonne
Works by Ilka Gedő at the British Museum
Works by Ilka Gedő at the Metropolitan Museum
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Albertina can be viewed by writing the name of the artist into the field
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Herzog Anton Ulrich Museum (HAUM) can be viewed by writing the name of the artist into the field
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Frankfurt Städel Museum
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Museum of Fine Arts, Houston
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Albright-Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo
Works on paper at the MoMA, New York
Oil paintings by Ilka Gedő at the Hungarian National Gallery
Selection of works of Ilka Gedő held by Yad Vashem Art Museum
Dávid Bíró: Ilka Gedő - The Painter and Her Work / A Background Report, Hungarian Electronic Library, Budapest, 2014
Dávid Bíró: Die Kunst von Ilka Gedő im Spiegel ihrer Schriften, Notizen und anderer Dokumente, Ungarische Elektronische Bibliothek, Budapest, 2020
Dávid Bíró: The Art of Ilka Gedő as Reflected in her Writings, Notes and in Other Documents'', Hungarian Electronic Library, Budapest, 2020
Works on paper by Ilka Gedő at the Städel Museum, Frankfurt am Main, Germany &
1921 births
1985 deaths
20th-century Hungarian painters
20th-century Hungarian women artists
Hungarian Jews
Hungarian women painters
Jewish painters
Artists from Budapest
Expressionist painters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C.D.%20Irapuato
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C.D. Irapuato
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Club Deportivo Irapuato is a professional football club, based in Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico. They are currently playing in the Serie A in the Liga Premier.
Irapuato has mostly played in the Promotion League of Mexico (formerly Primera División A or Ascenso MX. From 2000 to 2004, the team briefly rose to prominence in the Liga MX reaching the playoffs. Historically, Irapuato has spent over 26 years in the Primera División, never quite excelling to challenge for the title.
The team was relegated from the Primera División in 2004 but not because of their on-field performance, but because of financial irregularities. In 2013, the team then took a turn for the worse being relegated to Liga Premier, the Third Division of Mexico for a year.
The team briefly returned to Ascenso MX in May 2014 when Ballenas Galeana, decided to move to Irapuato, and also change their name to Club Irapuato, once again giving Irapuato a football team.
But that team was relegated too after a couple of mediocre seasons to Liga Premier, where they play to this day.
History
The club dates back to 1910 in the city of Irapuato where a club was founded under the name Club Mutualista Irapuatense by Pedro Garnu and by Diego Mosqueda who was an important person in the sports development in the city, and would later go on to establish the club's rival Club León in the 1920s. In its first years many clubs were formed in order to create a futbol league in Guanajuato Deportivo Irapuato, Internacional, Club Marte, ISCO and Club León inaugurated the league in 1925.
The first tournament was won by Club Marte because the tournament was not finished due to problems between Irapuato and ISCO. In 1928 the club reached the final and played it against Deportivo Internacional; the club's squad was made up by Kurt Lenk as keeper Antonio Aguilar and José Núñez playing defender Julián Ramírez, Francisco Belman and Salvador Silva in the mid field and Antonio "El Gato" Baltazar, Crisoforo Juárez, Secundino Alvarado, Teofilo and Juan Aguilera playing as forwards. The club came out with a 1–0 victory, winning its first league title. This club wore a white shirt with black shorts and socks.
The club that plays today under the name Club Deportivo Irapuato was founded in 1948 where it had trouble staying in the league. in the late 1940s there were various clubs that represented the city of Irapuato and it was until 1948 when they decide to merge in order to become more competitive and so they did and join the Second division in 1949. The men in charge of the merge were Oscar Bonfiglio and Jesús Vaca Gaona both had participated in the 1928 Olympic games in Amsterdam. The club would once again change its name this time to Club Deportivo Irapuato A.C which many people believe to be the date when the club was established.
México Primera División
The club was one of the first clubs to inaugurate the Segunda División de México in the 1949–50 tournament where after 3 seasons the club won its first promotion. The club made its Primera División debut in the league on 22 August 1954 against Zacatepec who they beat 4–5. In the second round the club played at home in the Estadio Revolución stadium against Puebla FC who they also defeated 4–0. The club also revived its rivalry which had stopped in the late 1930s against Club Leon, that game ended in a 1–1 draw. The club's best tournament was the 1963–64 Mexican Primera División season where the club finished 4th with 32 points; Guadalajara finished with 33 points.
Relegation
In the 1971-72 season the club found itself playing in group 2 with clubs Monterrey, Guadalajara, Puebla, Atlante, Pachuca, Pumas, Toluca and Torreón. At the end of the tournament the club finished last and had to play a relegation series against the other last place teams. The series was played against Torreón, Atlético Español, and Veracruz. the first match was played against Veracruz who defeated them 3–1 the first leg, the second leg ended in a 0–0 draw. The last game was played against Torreón in the Estadio Jalisco where Irapuato lost 1–0 and were relegated for the first time in 18 years to the second division .
Second Division
Back in the Segunda División the club became a top club reaching the final in its first year back against Petroleros de Ciudad Madero. The first game was played in Irapuato which they won 1–0. It seemed the club would clinch its promotion having the second match at home but surprisingly Ciudad Madero came out with a 2–0 victory and so earning its promotion.
In the 1974–75 season, the club had its second opportunity when they once again reached the final this time playing against Tecos. The club would lose that final match 1–0. It took place in the Estadio Azteca in Mexico City.
The club would get a third opportunity to earn a promotion in 1978; this time against Zacatepec. This time a series was played. The first match ended in a 1–0 victory for Zacatepec. The second match ended in a 4–1 victory for Zacatepec and so the club would lose its third promotion series in 6 years.
Second promotion
In the 1980s the club had a streak of qualifying to the quarterfinals but not been able to reach the final. After four years the club finally reached the final in the 1984-85 tournament under the management of Diego Malta Solano against Pachuca . The first match was played in Irapuato where they took a 2–1 advantage. in the return match Irapuato came out with a win and finally earn the promotion after 13 years. Notable players from that club were Anselmo Romero, Rafael Lira, Jesús Montes, Eugenio Constantino and Teodoro Orozco.
Second relegation
In the 1990-91 season Irapuato got relegated to the second division for the second time. in 1994 Irapuato joined the newly formed Primera Division A and got the opportunity to return to the Primera División.
1999–00 Promotion
In the Invierno 99 season Irapuato faced Zacatepec in the Final, they beat them 3–1 in the first leg with goals from Cristián Ariel Morales, and Martín Rodríguez in the second leg things got complicated when Zacatepec tied the game but Morales and Rodriguez scored and they took the championship with an overall score of 5–3.
In the Verano 00 season the champion Irapuato made it to the Final again this time facing Cruz Azul Hidalgo if Irapuato would win they would be promoted to the Primera División, the first leg was played in Hidalgo and the score was 2–2 Martín Rodríguez and Jesús Gutiérrez scored the two goals for Irapuato. The second leg and Promotional Final was played in The Sergio León Chávez on 10 June 2000. The final score was 2–2 Cristián Morales and Martín Rodríguez scored for Irapuato, Alejandro Corona and James Owusu-Ansah scored for Cruz Azul Hidalgo. In extra time no one scored so they went to penalties, Cruz Azul Hidalgo's Pedro Resendiz, Josef Nemec, scored the penalties but Erik Marín, and Mario Ramírez missed. However Irapuato's Martín Rodríguez, Cristián Morales, Víctor Saavedra and Héctor Gómez scored the penalties the final score was 4–2 in penalties. Irapuato would return to the Primera División almost a decade after being relegated in 1991.
First disappearance
Suddenly on 26 December 2001 Grupo Pegaso announces Irapuato was sold to Veracruz for its spot in the Primera División and Irapuato was left without a team for the Verano 2002 season. And in the Invierno 2002 season or Apertura 2002 as it was now called, Querétaro a Second Division team moved to Irapuato under the name Real Irapuato. In their first season they made it to the final versus C.F. La Piedad and eventually win the Apertura 2002 championship in penalties.
First Reappearance
For the Apertura 2002, Querétaro F.C. from the Primera Division A transferred to Irapuato when La Piedad dissolved in the Primera Division.
2002–03 Promotion
In the 2003 season Irapuato makes it to the 2002-03 promotional final against Clausura 2003 champions and arch rivals Club Leon. The first leg was played on 18 June 2003 Irapuato won the Clasico del Bajio and the first game in Leon's home 2–1 with a goal from Ariel González and an own goal from Gorsd, the second leg was played in Irapuato and in the last moments of the game Josias Ferreira scores a goal ending the game 1–0 and returning Irapuato to the Primera División.
Second disappearance
After Clausura 2004, Irapuato with 6 wins, 8 ties and 5 losses with a total of 26 points. They announced the club was relocated to Colima. But the federation reduced the league from 20 to 18 teams, Irapuato join Querétaro to dissolved their teams.
Second reappearance and third relegation
Irapuato was the city without a soccer team for 1 year, but Mérida F.C. from the Segunda Division transferred to Irapuato for the Apertura 2005. After Clausura
2006 was playing for survival to stay in the league, but they relegated to Tercera Division after losing in a playoff against Delfines de Coatzacoalcos.
Return to Liga de Ascenso
Apertura 2008: Promoted from Segunda Division from Pachuca Juniors and renamed "Club Irapuato Por Siempre". They made all the way to the Final but lost to Querétaro on the road after tied 0–0 at their home turf.
Clausura 2009: Bad Torneo, with 20 points (17th overall and 4th in Group 2).
Apertura 2009: Changed format to one full standings from 3 groups from the federation and reduced the teams to 17. Clinched Homefield and 1st round bye with a first-place finish of a total of 32 points. They made all the way to the Final for the 2nd Time in 3 Torneos but lost to Necaxa in extra time at home after losses 1–0 on the road in the first leg.
Bicentenario 2010: They maintain their roster but finished 11th with 20 points.
Apertura 2010: Increased the teams to 18. They brought Cuauhtémoc Blanco to Irapauto for 1.5 seasons. They made all the way to the Final for the 3rd Time in 5 Torneos but lost to Veracruz (the top seed in the playoffs) in full-time on the road after tied 1–1 at their home turf in the first leg with their 26 points and finished in the top 4.
Clausura 2011 Champions
In the Clausura 2011 Season, Irapuato was crowned Champion by defeating Tijuana in the final with a score of 2–1. The First Leg was played in Tijuana and it ended in a 1–1 draw goals were scored by Luis Alberto Valdez at 8' for Irapuato, and Alejandro Molina at 60' for Tijuana. The Second Leg was played in Irapuato and ended in a 1–0 win for Irapuato crowning them as Champions of the 2011 Clausura, the goal was scored by José Cruz Gutiérrez in the 85' minute of the game.
Squad
1 Adrián Martínez
2 Margarito González
8 Jorge Manrique
10 Cuauhtémoc Blanco
11 Ariel González
13 Gandhi Vega
16 Arturo Alvarado
18 Esteban Alberto González
21 José Luis López
27 Gerardo Gomez
44 Juan Carlos Arellano
Substitutes
6 Francisco Razo
7 Alejandro Castillo
45 José Cruz Gutiérrez
23 Javier Saavedra
28 Luis Alberto Valdés
29 José Guadalupe Martínez
58 Efraín Cruz
5 Ezequiel Brítez
2011 Promotional Final
1st leg
After being crowned Champions of the Clausura 2011 season. Irapuato faced Tijuana the Apertura 2010 Champions again, for a spot in the Primera División.
The First leg of the Promotional final was played at Irapuato on Wednesday 18 May 2011 4 days after winning the championship at home. Irapuato Were highly motivated to return to the Primera División after 7 years of absence, Tijuana on the other hand had never had Primera División experience. The 1st leg of the final was tied in a scoreless tie between the two teams.
2nd leg
3 days after the first match in Irapuato, the second leg of the Promotional final was played in Tijuana's Estadio Caliente stadium. Tijuana made several changes to their starting 11 players, replacing defender Miguel Almazán with a forward, and changing their formation from a 5-4-1 formation to a more attacking 4-2-2 formation. Irapuato made drastic changes as well; they changed to a 5-3-2 formation fortifying their defense with 5 players. During the Match Tijuana had various chances for goal and the first goal came from young prospect Joe Corona scoring a header in the first half. 3 minutes later Mauro Gerk scored. 5 minute after the second goal Irapuato scored after Alejandro Molina from Tijuana accidentally pushed the ball into the net from a free kick done by José Cruz Gutiérrez. The game ended in a 2–1 win for Tijuana. Tijuana got promoted to the Primera División while Irapuato remained in the Second Division.
After Promotional Final
Apertura 2011: The league reduced the teams to 16. Cuauhtémoc Blanco didn't play some games due to injury, but they still finished in 5th place. However, they were eliminated in the Quarterfinals by their rivals Leon.
Clausura 2012: The league reduced the teams once again to 15 teams. Cuauhtémoc Blanco was released from the team due to injury issues and a bad season. They earned 14 points and finished in 12th place after they didn't win in their final 5 games.
Apertura 2012: They have their worst season, with 16 points. They finished in 12th place after they didn't win in their last 5 games. When the season was over, the federation was owed 3 million for Cuauhtémoc Blanco. On 15 December, they had a 65% chance of being dissolved. The team was relocated to Morelos and renamed Zacatepec beginning next season.
Third Disappearance and Played in Segunda Division
After Clausura 2013, Irapuato finished in the bottom 5 of the standings and the team was moved to Zacatepec, Morelos and were rebranded to Zacatepec 1948. Union de Curtidores was rumored to be moving into the city of Irapuato to replace the dissolved franchise there, but the owner of Union decided to keep the team in Leon after getting approval to play their home games in Estadio Nou Camp. However, some time after a franchise from Querétaro FC was purchased to the team was revived in Segunda Division de Mexico playing in the Liga Premier for the Apertura 2013.
The franchise came to join the Copa de la Liga Premier de Ascenso Apertura 2013, where they reached the final against Cruz Azul Jasso and lost 1–0 on aggregate, so Irapuato was runner-up. At the end of the tournament the franchise returned to Querétaro, because of the restructuring that occurred in Grupo Delfines, which decided that the team that played in the Apertura 2013 at Estadio Sergio León Chávez as Irapuato, would return to their roots to play either at Estadio Corregidora or La Cañada.
Return to Ascenso MX and Third Reappearance
On 29 May 2014, Enrique Bonilla, Sports CEO of Ascenso MX unveiled the emergence of Irapuato, instead of Ballenas Galeana, who had to relocate because of their economic problems, same which were resolved by guanajuatenses entrepreneurs which in turn called for the team to move to their state. Furthermore, circulated a letter from the President of the Civil Association Club Irapuato, J. Concepcion Director and Enrique Enriquez Bonilla, secretary general of Ascenso MX, where the AC are declared owners of the brand name and badge Irapuato equipment. Ballenas Morelos was sold and moved to Irapuato and named Club Irapuato.
Fourth Disappearance and Returns to Liga Premier
On 7 June 2015, Irapuato was officially relocated from Irapauto to Los Mochis, Sinaloa and renamed to Murcielagos Los Mochis. They are now playing in the Segunda Division de Mexico after playing one season in the Ascenso MX.
From 2015, Irapuato reached three consecutive finals, losing all. Apertura 2016 and Clausura 2017 against Tlaxcala F.C. and Apertura 2017 against Club Tepatitlán.
Atlético Irapuato
On 17 June 2019. The team was renamed as Atlético Irapuato, but maintained the same shield design, colors and identity.
Club Deportivo Irapuato
On 30 July 2020, the club was renamed Club Deportivo Irapuato after Grupo Temachalco took possession of the franchise. At the end of the season, the team won its third Second Division championship after defeating Cruz Azul Hidalgo 1–3 on the aggregate scoreboard.
At first it was reported that Irapuato was promoted after the Liga Premier championship. However, on 3 June 2021, the Mexican Football Federation announced the opening of a selection process to choose the club that would occupy the Liga Premier 3 place, because Irapuato must still meet some requirements to compete in the Liga de Expansión MX, three Liga Premier clubs were chosen for an audit process that would determine the winner of the promotion. On 5 July 2021, it was confirmed that no team undergoing the certification audit approved the procedure, so there will be no club promoted from the Liga Premier, for this reason the promotion of Irapuato was frustrated by administrative issues of the club and regulations of the league.
Therefore, the club announced that it would continue to participate in Serie A and began a process to form a new roster of players, however, at the end of August 2021 Grupo Tecamachalco transferred the franchise to local businessmen to ensure its continuity and avoid promotion problems for the club, this after Fernando San Román, CEO of Tecamachalco, was sanctioned by Femexfut and the company decided to seek the purchase of a football team in Costa Rica.
However, at the end of August 2021, the Irapuato city council denied the use of the Estadio Sergio León Chávez to the club due to breach of the agreement signed between the team and the government, since a clause of the agreement stipulated that the team should be promoted to the Liga de Expansión MX for the 2021–22 season, something that could not be fulfilled. After this fact, the new board sought to establish the team in a city near Irapuato while the city council negotiated with the owners of Alebrijes de Oaxaca for the arrival of a new franchise that would continue the football in the city. Finally, neither the club nor the city council managed to close the negotiations, so on 10 September it was announced that the team went into hiatus, so it does not dispute any competition during the season.
After two years of absence, the team was reestablished in June 2023, keeping the name Club Deportivo Irapuato and returning to play in the Liga Premier – Serie A.
Historic Badges
Stadium
Irapuato FC play their home matches at Estadio Irapuato founded on 23 March 1969 under the name "Estadio Irapuato" renamed Estadio Sergio Leon Chavez in 1990. Irapuato played their first home matches at Estadio Revolucion. On 27 October 1968 the board of Irapuato invited the Spanish Olympic football team that competed at the 1968 Olympics to play a friendly match against Irapuato, the stadium recorded a large entry in that game the Spanish beat Irapuato.
The first goal was scored by the captain of Spain Juan Manuel Asensi and Marco Antonio Sanchez Moya of Irapuato tied the score. 23 March 1969 was the official opening. in 1970 the Mexico National Team played vs Irapuato at that time Mexico was being prepared for the 1970 FIFA World Cup, The Mexico national team came out victorious with a score of 4–1.
The stadium has hosted two international football tournaments, the 1983 FIFA World Youth Championship and the 1986 FIFA World Cup.
Season to season
29 seasons in Primera División
48 seasons in Second Division
18 seasons in Third Division
League Goal scoring Champions
Nickname
The nickname "Trinca Fresera", which means "Strawberry Lashers", originates from the year 1949, when the team got an invitation to Play teams such as La Piedad, Leon, and the Brazilian Team Vasco da Gama. The Games would Take Place in The Estadio de la Ciudad de Los Deportes now known as Estadio Azul in Mexico City.
Vasco da Gama had a very good Offence, in that time it was known as "la trinca infernal" the term trinca, utilized in that time as a reference for 3, trinca infernal referenced Vasco da Gama's Offence which had 3 very agile, quick men.
Don Agustín González Escopeta, Master of the Sport Commentary, Watched the Match between Irapuato and La Piedad, chronically the Leon vs Vasco match was on and He said: "si el Vasco da Gama es una trinca infernal, el Irapuato es la trinca fresera" ¡que bonito juegan!, which meant "If Vasco da Gama are the Infernal Lashers then Irapuato are the Strawberry Lashers ¡boy they play nice!" .
It was then that don Agustín González Escopeta, Baptized Irapuato as la trinca fresera, To this date in any Stadium they enter the fans identify them as la trinca fresera del Irapuato.
Shirt Sponsors and Manufacturers
Championship jerseys*
Managers
Supporters
Irapuato FC Official Supporter group are Los Hijos de la Mermelada which translates to The Children of the Jam in English
Rivalries
El Clásico del Bajio
Irapuato vs. Leon
Irapuato's most fierce rivalry according to the fans is against León, named after both of the teams region "Clásico del Bajio".
El Clásico
Irapuato vs. Celaya
Irapuato Also have other Rivals Such As Celaya and Salamanca both teams in Guanajuato.
Personnel
Coaching staff
Players
First-team squad
Notable players
For all Irapuato players with a Wikipedia article see :Category:Club Irapuato players.
Argentina
Cristián Ariel Morales
Ariel González
Alejandro Sabella
Antonio Mohamed
Carlos Alberto Etcheverry
Jorge Luis Gabrich
Marcelo Espina
Arnaldo Sialle
Ezequiel Brítez
Roberto Nicolás Saucedo
Brazil
Marcelo de Faria
Chile
Juvenal Olmos
Reinaldo Navia
Colombia
Neider Morantes
Costa Rica
Rónald Gómez
Óscar Emilio Rojas
José Luis Soto
Mauricio Solís
Ecuador
Édison Méndez
Honduras
Ninrrol Medina
Jamaica
Peter Isaacs
Japan
Kenji Fukuda
Mexico
Jorge Manrique
Jaime Belmonte
Cuauhtémoc Blanco
Isaac Terrazas
Fernando Arce
Samuel Máñez
Teodoro Orozco
José Luis López
Francisco Rotllán
Adrián Martínez
Mario Méndez
Juan de Dios Ramírez Perales
Rafael Márquez Esqueda
Felipe Zetter
Ligorio López
Paulo Cesar Chávez
José Cruz Gutiérrez
Alfonso Blanco
José Joel González
Felipe Quintero
Paraguay
Aldo Adorno
Denis Caniza
Lorenzo Calonga
Aureliano Torres
Peru
Germán Carty
United States
Yari Allnutt
Uruguay
Martín Rodríguez Alba
Gonzalo Pizzichillo
Álvaro Pintos
Carlos Miloc
Zambia
Kalusha Bwalya
Honours
Professional
Ascenso MX: (4)
Champion : Invierno 1999, Verano 2000, Apertura 2002, Clausura 2011.
Runner-up (2): Apertura 2008, Apertura 2009
Campeón de Ascenso: (2)
Champion : 2000, 2003
Segunda División: (3)
Champion : 1953–54, 1984–85, 2020–21
Copa México: (0)
Runner-up (1): 1955-56
Copa Mexico Segunda División (2)
Champion : 1953, 1954
Amateur
Canpeonato Liga Mayor del Centro (11)
Champion : 1942, 1943, 1944, 1946, 1947, 1948, 1950, 1951, 1952, 1953, 1954
Campeonato Estatal de Futbol (7)
Champion : 1919, 1924, 1925, 1931, 1933, 1936, 1938
Campeonato Federacion Nacional de Futbol (4)
Champion : 1931, 1936, 1938, 1942
Campeonato FMF para Asociaciones Afiliadas (3)
Champion : 1943, 1946, 1959
Liga Amateur de Guanajuato (1)
Champion : 1928
Friendlies
Copa de Oro de Occidente (4)
Champion : 1957, 1959.
References
External links
Club Irapuato Official Twitter
Club Irapuato Official Facebook
Club Irapuato on YouTube
Unofficial Website
Official supporter club site
Football clubs in Guanajuato
Liga Premier de México
1911 establishments in Mexico
Football club
Association football clubs established in 1911
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonberg
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Leonberg
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Leonberg (; ) is a town in the German federal state of Baden-Württemberg about to the west of Stuttgart, the state capital. About 45,000 people live in Leonberg, making it the third-largest borough in the rural district () of Böblingen (after Sindelfingen and Böblingen to the south).
Leonberg is most famous for its picturesque market square, the centuries-old annual horse market, its past role as the seat of one of Württemberg's first parliaments, and the Pomeranzen Garden – Germany's only remaining terraced garden which dates back to the late Renaissance.
Geography
Leonberg lies on the east bank of the Glems River on the lower slopes of a prominent hill known locally as Engelberg (literally: "Angel Hill"). The Glems flows into Leonberg from the southeast before turning northwest until it reaches the district of Eltingen. Here, it turns northeast into the western part of the old town, carving its way along the valley to the district of Höfingen before flowing northeast towards Ditzingen. For administrative purposes, the northern districts of Höfingen and Gebersheim belong to Strohgäu.
Neighbouring towns
Leonberg is surrounded by these communities (clockwise, starting from the north):
Ditzingen and Gerlingen (districts of Ludwigsburg), Stuttgart, and then the Böblingen rural districts of Magstadt, Renningen, and Rutesheim.
Districts
Leonberg merged with the neighbouring town of Eltingen in 1938, which now flows seamlessly into the former old town. Administrative reforms in 1975 also resulted in the districts of Gebersheim, Höfingen, and Warmbronn becoming part of Leonberg. Central Leonberg encompasses Silberberg, Ramtel, Gartenstadt, and the residential neighbourhoods of Eichenhof, Glemseck, Hinter Ehrenberg, Mahdental, and Rappenhof. The district of Höfingen also includes the residential neighbourhoods of Tilgshäusleshof and Wannenhof.
Although incorporated into Leonberg in 1975, Gebersheim, Höfingen, and Warmbronn also count as separate constituencies in local elections.
History
The town of Levinberch was founded by Ulrich I, Count of Württemberg in 1248, where Leonberg still stands today. The position on the brow of the hill was chosen as a defence from enemies to the west, the towns of Markgröningen, Weil der Stadt, and the counts in Tübingen and Calw. At the time, the town was surrounded by stone fortifications with the count's castle in the southwest. A moat stood to the east, leading to two gates complete with towers and a swing bridge. The gates and almost all of the walls were demolished in and after 1814/1815, leaving only the coat of arms, still on display in the Altes Rathaus (old town hall)). The moat was filled in 1786.
The only surviving building from the old town fortifications was the "Stonehouse" near the uppermost tower, probably because it was the only one used for housing and was not destroyed by the great fire of 1498. Today, it has become the Schwarzer Adler guesthouse and is a defining feature of the old town. According to an analysis carried out in 1999, the wooden-timber gabled roof on top of the Schwarzer Adler was built in the 15th century. Three stories high, it is one of the largest and oldest original timber-gable roofs in southern Germany.
A great fire swept through the town in 1498, destroying 46 houses and making around 200 people homeless. Most of the homeless left the town.
During the Holy Roman Empire, Leonberg fell under the jurisdiction of Esslingen before finally becoming part of Württemberg in 1383, when it first gained administrative rights. The population of Leonberg was halved during the Thirty Years' War as a result of the bubonic plague.
On 16 November 1457, the first Württemberg parliament (Württemberg-Urach) convened in Leonberg to administer the custodianship of the underaged Eberhardt V. Although no documentary evidence confirms the fact, many locals claim this parliament met in the "Stonehouse".
During the era of witch hunts, the Leonberg governor Lutherus Einhorn sent 15 women to trial under suspicion of witchcraft. Eight women were condemned to death with the full assent of the Leonberg judiciary and the local community.
One of the most famous Württemberg witch trials in Leonberg took place in 1615 and involved Katharina Kepler, mother of the royal astronomer Johannes Kepler. Kepler's mother was nearly tortured to death in the cellars of the "Stonehouse" before being transferred to Güglingen, where she was subsequently released in October 1620.
In 1846, the Leonberger dog breed was first successfully registered and named after the town.
After the rise of the Nazis in 1933, a number of bloody street battles were fought between stormtrooper (Sturmabteilung) followers, mostly backed by residents from Leonberg who attacked supporters of the German communist party, mainly resident in Eltingen. In 1938, Eltingen – a staunchly proletarian community of small landowners - was finally merged with the more bourgeois Leonberg.
Later the same year, the Engelberg Tunnel - Germany's first motorway tunnel - was completed. During the Second World War, the tunnel was used regularly for producing and storing aeroplane parts made by prisoners held in Leonberg concentration camp, an outlying camp belonging to Natzweiler-Struthof concentration camp in Alsace. The old tunnel was replaced by a new tunnel in the 1990s. Above the tunnel now stands a memorial to the people who died in Leonberg concentration camp.
By 1961, the population of Leonberg passed 20,000. Boundary reforms in 1973 resulted in the rural districts of Leonberg being merged with the rural districts of Böblingen in the south and Enzkreis/Ludwigsburg in the north. Leonberg has existed in its current form since 1975.
In 2004, Leonberg became one of the first communities in Germany to switch its office systems to Linux and start using freeware.
Population development
The population figures are estimates, census results (¹) or official updates of the respective statistical offices (only primary residences).
¹ Census results
Main sights
The old town dates back to the Middle Ages, and includes a historical market square lined by restored half-timbered houses. Standing among them is the old Town Hall (Rathaus) which, with the water tower on Engelberg hill, is considered a defining feature of Leonberg. The birth house of Schelling and the huge Zum Schwarzen Adler guesthouse - the first documented seat of parliament of the County of Württemberg - are also key features of the old town. Further attractions include the Evangelical Church (Stadtkirche) with its Roman and Gothic architecture, and the former Latin school (which was attended by the astronomer and mathematician Johannes Kepler). The old Latin school now houses the town museum and Schelling memorial chapel. The town park contains a variety of modern sculptures. On the eastern outskirts of Leonberg is the Engelberg Tunnel.
Leonberg's Pomeranzen Garden (Pomeranzengarten) is Germany's only remaining terraced garden. Named after the German word for "bitter orange", the garden originally dates back to the height of the Renaissance. It was planted in 1609 next to the palace (Schloss) as a retreat for widows of the Württemberg duchy. In 1742, it was converted to a fruit and vegetable garden until it was restored in 1980 using the original plans of Heinrich Schickhardt.
The Michaelskirche in Eltingen was built in 1487 with a single nave overlooked by rib vaulting and a retracted chancel. The tower is adorned by late Gothic acoustic windows and a polygonal spire.
Other sights include:
The Protestant church in Gebersheim was built in 1588. The nave was removed in 1968 and extended. The tower is still decorated with pre-Reformation frescos.
The Farmhouse Museum (Bauernhausmuseum) was opened in 1995.
The parish church in Höfingen has a Gothic nave. The west tower with its polygonal spire dates back to 18th century.
In Warmbronn, a museum is dedicated to the author Christian Wagner. The evangelical church was built in classical style in 1784.
The lake house (Seehaus) in Glemseck was built by the royal architect Heinrich Schickhardt in 1609 for Sibylla of Anhalt.
Religion
Leonberg once fell into the bishopric of Speyer and was part of an area governed by archdeacon St. Trinitatis. As an early member of Württemberg, in 1535, Duke Ulrich introduced the Reformation. For many centuries, Leonberg was predominantly Protestant. In 1552, the deanery was moved to Leonberg with the Stadtkirche becoming the Dekanatskirche. After the Second World War, the religious community in Leonberg grew quickly as people moved into the area. The Protestant community in the district of Eltingen also dates back to the Reformation, as it does in Gebersheim, Höfingen, and Warmbronn.
After the reformation, Catholicism first reappeared in Leonberg in the late 19th century with the first parish set up in 1946 shortly followed by St. Johannes Baptista church in 1950. Today, the Catholic community belongs to the deanery of Böblingen within the bishopric of Rottenburg-Stuttgart.
Apart from the two main German religions, "free churches" such as the United Methodist Church (Pauluskirche), the Seventh-day Adventist Church, and the Immanuel Community of Leonberg also are present, as is a New Apostolic Church.
Politics
Borough council
Since the latest round of local elections in June 2004, the district council has had 34 seats distributed as: The distribution of the seats among the various parties and groups since the election of June 2009 looks like this, changes over 2004 in brackets:
CDU 20,6% (−7,7) – 7 seats (−3)
FWV 18,4% (−1,8) – 7 seats (±0)
SPD 17,3% (−4,0) – 6 seats (−1)
Greens 16,2% (+1,3) – 6 seats (+1)
FDP 11,7% (+2,3) – 4 seats (+1)
Neue Liste Leonberg 10,5% (+10,5) − 3 seats (+3)
SALZ (abbreviation in German for "Town: work, life, future") 5,0% (−0,5) – 1 seats (−1)
Town mayors
A head of local administration - an executive official called the Schultheiss - was first appointed in Leonberg in 1304. In 1425, this was replaced by a Vogt, a type of reeve. By 1535, responsibility was shared by a senior and junior governor, both of whom were selected by a local judge. After the 15th century, two burgomasters were replaced by a type of senior district magistrate (Oberamtmann) in 1759. A town council has existed in Leonberg since 1312; in 1523, it had eight members.
In 1930, the interim designation of town mayor was replaced by the now common burgomaster whose status was raised to Oberbürgermeister (senior mayor) in 1963. The mayor is elected for eight years through a direct vote, and chairs the borough council.
Communities now merged into Leonberg
Eltingen (1938)
Gebersheim, Höfingen, Warmbronn, and Silberberg (formerly part of Renningen, subsequently amalgamated with the Silberberg area of Leonberg; 1975)
Economy
Local companies include
GEZE, a regional supplier of door closing and security solutions founded in 1863 and employing 1900 people, has its headquarters in Leonberg.
Since the 1990s, Robert Bosch GmbH has employed just under 1000 people at its administration and development centre on a site formerly used by Motometer.
The oldest savings bank in Leonberg, the Leonberger Bausparkasse, was founded in 1924 as the Christian Emergency Confederation for Mutual Support. The bank was taken over in 2001 by the Wüstenrot savings bank.
Software company caatoosee, formerly based in Stuttgart, is headquartered in premises once occupied by Philipp Holzmann in Leonberg.
The traditional piano maker, Pfeiffer, relocated from Stuttgart to Leonberg in 1994. The organ maker, Mühleisen, is also based in Leonberg.
LEWA, an international supplier of processing pumps and metering systems has its headquarters in Leonberg. In 2009 the company employed about 400 people in the town.
Leonberg falls within the wine-growing area of Württemberg called Remstal-Stuttgart. Most of the local vineyards lie to the south of the town in the Feinau area and on the Ehrenberg slopes along the Glems river.
Transport
Leonberg is connected to the German motorway system (Autobahn) by the nearby A8 going from west to east (Karlsruhe to Stuttgart, Ulm, München) and eventually Salzburg in Austria and beyond), as well as the A81 going north to south (Würzburg to Stuttgart and Singen). The two motorways meet at the Leonberg intersection which lies to the south of the town. The nearest motorway junctions are called Leonberg-Ost (Leonberg East) and Leonberg-West (Leonberg West), the latter having been newly constructed and opened in September 2009.
Leonberg is served by the local transport network of Stuttgart and nearby towns, including (since 1978) line S6 of the Stuttgart S-Bahn running from Weil der Stadt via Leonberg to Stuttgart city centre. As well as Leonberg station, there are S-Bahn stops in the districts of Höfingen and Silberberg (stop name: Rutesheim). A number of bus lines belonging to local and Stuttgart networks (VVS) also travel through or terminate in Leonberg.
Leonberg has been a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) since March 2008, following the suit of other German cities. This affects all vehicles entering the borough of Leonberg "Environmental zone" (Umweltzone), including vehicles from abroad.
Education
All types of schools common to Germany are found in Leonberg:
"Gymnasium" (grammar school): Albert-Schweitzer-Gymnasium, Johannes-Kepler-Gymnasium
"Realschule" (restricted-entry, vocationally orientated secondary school): Ostertag-Realschule, Pestalozzischule (sponsored school)
Primary/Hauptschule (unlimited entry senior school): August Lämmle, Schellingschule, Höfingen
Primary school: Mörikeschule, Sophie-Scholl-Schule, Spitalschule plus schools in Gebersheim and Warmbronn.
The district of Böblingen funds a vocational college plus the Karl-Georg-Haldenwang-Schule for the disabled.
Leonberg is also home to an Evangelical College for Care Workers.
Culture
Leonberg horse market
Leonberg's famous horse market takes place every year in February. The traditional fair is staged in the old town centring on the old market square. The first horse market was arranged with the permission of Duke Frederick Charles on 15 February 1684. To mark the occasion, a ceremonial procession marches through the old town on the second Tuesday of the month. The horse market attracts huge crowds and is so important to local tradition that civil servants are granted half a day's leave to attend. Schools in Leonberg are closed for the whole day. In modern times the scope of the fair has been expanded to include sports, seminars on horseriding and breeding, an amusement fair and a flea market.
Theatre
The theatre in the Spitalhof stages musicals, plays, amateur theatre, concerts and children's events with regular visits from touring theatres also performing in the town auditorium (Stadthalle). The Traumpalast cinema hall in Leonberg has the world's largest IMAX screen measuring 38×22m.
Music
Music societies have a strong tradition in Leonberg with the oldest society, 'Lyra Eltingen', dating back to 1897. The Leonberg symphony orchestra was founded in 1970 as a youth orchestra. Today it comprises 70 musicians and is conducted by Alexander Adiarte.
There is a children's music school in Leonberg which provides tuition in partnership with the Lyra Eltingen music association and Höfingen music association. The Villa Musica also offers tuition through the Stadtkapelle and Liederkranz music associations.
Other regular events
The market square festival ("Marktplatzfest")
Eltingen street festival ("Strassenfest")
New Year's Eve celebrations on the market square in Leonberg and Eltingen
Children's festival in the town park
Notable people
Heinrich Paulus (1761–1851), theologian and critic of the Bible.
Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (1775–1854), main proponent of German idealism.
Theodor von Heuglin (1824 in Hirschlanden – 1876), explorer and ornithologist.
Gottlieb Hering (1887–1945), Nazi SS commandant of the Belzec extermination camp
Erwin Schoettle (1899–1976), politician (SPD), Bundestag vice president, resistance fighter against Nazism
Martin Winterkorn (born 1947), former chairman of the Board of Volkswagen AG
Erwin Staudt (born 1948), football manager, President of VfB Stuttgart (2003–2011), former manager at IBM Germany
Bernd Riexinger (born 1955), politician (Die Linke), chairman of the Left Party
Eva Briegel (born 1978), musician
Dennis Hillebrand (born 1979), footballer
Gordon Wild (born 1995), footballer
Associated with the town
After the death of her husband, Duke Friedrich I of Württemberg (1557–1608), his widow Duchess Sybilla (1564–1614), moved to Leonberg in 1609. The architect Heinrich Schickhardt built the Pomeranzengarten at her request as well as the Lake House ("Seehaus").
Katharina Kepler (1546–1622), mother of the astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630), was pardoned after 14 months' captivity following a witch trial thus escaping being burnt at the stake.
Elisabeth Dorothea Schiller (1732–1802), the mother of Friedrich Schiller spent the last years of her life in Leonberg Palace between 1796 and 1801.
Twin towns – sister cities
Leonberg is twinned with:
Neukölln (Berlin), Germany (1970)
Belfort, France (1977)
Rovinj, Croatia (1990)
Bad Lobenstein, Germany (1991)
Sources
Württembergisches Städtebuch; Vol. IV, Sub-Volume on Baden-Württemberg No. 2 in the "Deutsches Städtebuch" published by Erich Keyser, 1961
S. Lorenz, G. Scholz (pub.): Böblingen. Vom Mammutzahn zum Mikrochip. 2003,
Bärbel Häcker: Leise, leise, da liegt wieder einer ... Im Leonberg der Weimarer Republik. 2005,
References
External links
Böblingen (district)
Württemberg
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The Piazza Tales
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The Piazza Tales is a collection of six short stories by American writer Herman Melville, published by Dix & Edwards in the United States in May 1856 and in Britain in June. Except for the newly written title story, "The Piazza," all of the stories had appeared in Putnam's Monthly between 1853 and 1855. The collection includes what have long been regarded as three of Melville's most important achievements in the genre of short fiction, "Bartleby, the Scrivener", "Benito Cereno", and "The Encantadas", his sketches of the Galápagos Islands. (Billy Budd, arguably his greatest piece of short fiction, would remain unpublished in his lifetime.)
Melville had originally intended to entitle the volume Benito Cereno and Other Sketches, but settled on the definitive title after he had written the introductory story. The book received largely favorable reviews, with reviewers especially praising "The Encantadas" but did not sell well enough to get Melville out of his financial straits, probably because short fiction for magazines had little appeal to bookbuyers. From after Melville's rediscovery to the end of the twentieth century, the short works that attracted the most critical attention were "Bartleby," "Benito Cereno" and "The Encantadas," with "The Piazza" a little behind those.
Background and publication history
After reviewers denigrated Moby-Dick in 1851, Harper brothers changed the terms for its successor, Pierre; or, The Ambiguities. Melville's London publisher Richard Bentley would not publish Pierre without alterations after he saw the American proofs in 1852, which Melville could not accept. Pierre found no British publisher and hence Melville received no advance payment in the summer of 1852. The reviews for Pierre were harsh, and this damaged Melville's reputation the more because the reviews followed upon the mixed reception of the whaling novel.
In the spring of 1853 Melville could not get his next work printed, most likely, Sealts thinks, because Harper "simply refused to bring out another work by Herman Melville in the following year to risk the renewed wrath of already hostile reviewers". Under the circumstances, publishing anonymously seemed an attractive strategy, and the firm did ask him to write for Harper's New Monthly Magazine. His contributions to that periodical were not collected in a book during his lifetime.
Putnam's Monthly Magazine
In October of 1852, editor Charles Frederick Briggs sent a circular out to writers, including Melville, announcing the plan "to publish an Original periodical of a character different from any now in existence", inviting him, being among "the best talent of the country", to submit contributions to the new monthly that would only print American contributions. This was Putnam's Monthly Magazine that first appeared in January 1853. With the ambition to be, in Perry Miller's words, "the vehicle of home literature" came the determination to pay authors a handsome sum. For three years the magazine was successful, in Miller's estimation because of the brilliance of both the articles and of the editing--primarily by Briggs, who understood that "'A man buys a Magazine to be amused'".
Melville received the February issue, which carried a summary of Melville's career in the shape of an essay by Fitz-James O'Brien, a young Irish immigrant. According to Parker, this publication was "the first retrospective survey of Melville's career anyone had ever published".
Melville's first contribution, "Bartleby. A Story of Wall-Street", was published in two installments in the magazine's first year of existence, in no. 11 (November), and no. 12 (December). "The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles" appeared in three installments in 1854, in no. 15 (March), no. 16 (April), and no. 17 (May). "The Lightning-Rod Man" appeared in 1854, in no. 20 (August).
In March of 1855, Putnam sold the magazine to Dix and Edwards due to dwindling subscriptions, Briggs left, and George William Curtis became editor.
"The Bell-Tower" appeared in 1855 in no. 32 (August). "Benito Cereno" appeared in three installments in 1855, in no. 34 (October), no. 35 (November), and no. 36 (December).
Melville's submissions for the magazine were well received. Only once was a submission rejected, "The Two Temples", which remained unpublished during Melville's life. Briggs said he rejected it because: "My editorial experience compels me to be very cautious in offending the religious sensibilities of the public, and the moral of the Two Temples would array against us the whole power of the pulpit." Of another story he said: "The only complaint that I have heard about the Encantadas was that it might have been longer."
The Piazza Tales
In addition to the five stories, Melville wrote an introductory story for which the volume was titled. Scholar Douglas Robillard believes that this served the purpose of making the stories to appear "more closely joined than they actually are."
The contract for the book was signed on 17 March 1856. It was advertised on 5 April as "in press" and should have been available by 15 May--though a copy was deposited for copyright on May 20. The volume was printed by Miller & Holman, Printers and Stereotypers, of New York, as a duodecimo volume of 431 pages, excluding seven pages of advertisements for other products by the same publishers. Biographer Parker observes that to reach that number of pages the book was padded out by leaving excessive white space. The front and back covers were ornamented by a border of rules and rosettes, and the spine displayed the title and the names of the author and publishers stamped in gold. It was priced at $1.00 and 2,500 copies were printed, of which only 1,047 were sold by the end of August; this was not enough to cover expenses. In June, the book was advertised together with another as "TWO GOOD SUMMER BOOKS".
In 1922, three years after the centennial of Melville's birth, the first reissue of the collection appeared as part of the Constable collected edition.
"The Lightning-Rod Man" was chosen for inclusion in William Evans Burton's Cyclopediae of Wit and Humor of 1857, with an illustration by Henry Louis Stephens. No other original illustration for one of his works appeared during Melville's lifetime. Resissues of the book, under a variety of titles, appeared until 1898, making "The Lightning-Rod Man" the one Melville tale to be available throughout his lifetime.
Contents
"The Piazza"
"Bartleby, the Scrivener"
"Benito Cereno"
"The Lightning-Rod Man"
"The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles"
"The Bell-Tower"
In "The Piazza", specially written as an introductory story to the volume, the protagonist idealizes a radiant spot on the mountain he looks upon from his piazza. This spot is a house and one day he goes to the cottage, only to find the unhappy girl Marianna, who longs to see the lucky individual who lives in the white house she looks upon from her window. The narrator understands that he himself has been the object of a fantasy not unlike his own, and leaves thinking how all idealism is an illusion. In addition to numerous biblical and mythological references, which Sealts calls "a familiar Melvillean pattern", the story alludes to Emerson's poem "The Problem", Don Quixote, and Paradise Lost, and explicitly namechecks Edmund Spenser. The narrator points to some plays by Shakespeare and, according to Sealts, the girl Marianna should remind the reader of both the Marianna in Shakespeare's Measure for Measure and Alfred Tennyson's "Mariana".
"Bartleby" is set in the Wall Street office of a New York lawyer, who is the narrator of the tale. His new, pale-looking clerk Bartleby refuses to copy documents without giving any other explanation than the repeated mantra: "I would prefer not to." The lawyer cannot bring himself to remove his clerk from his office and finally resorts to moving out himself. Merton Sealts, a leading scholar on Melville's short fiction, notes that in "Bartleby" knowing references to current events occur, and says that the supporting characters of Turkey, Nippers, and the errand boy Ginger Nut "could easily have come from the pen of Dickens, Lamb, or Irving."
The basis for the longest story in the collection, the novella-length "Benito Cereno", is chapter 18 of Amasa Delano's A Narrative of Voyages and Travels. The story is set in 1799 off the coast of Chile, where the Massachusetts captain of merchant ship Bachelor's Delight, Amasa Delano, sees the Spanish slaveship San Dominick in apparent distress. He boards the ship and offers captain Don Benito Cereno his help. Throughout his visit, Cereno is accompanied by the servant Babo, and Delano is witness to the famous shaving scene in the story, in which barber Babo slightly cuts his master. Only at Delano's departure does it become clear that the slaves have seized command of the ship after a revolt and forced the white crew to keep up appearances.
"The Encantadas" consists of ten sketches, "based primarily on recollections of Melville's visit to the Galápagos Islands during his whaling years," elaborated with material from several books, including works by Charles Darwin and Amasa Delano.
The other two stories are shorter pieces. "The Lightning-Rod Man" is based upon an incident occurring in the Berkshires in the fall of 1853, an invasion of salesmen of lightning-rods. Sealts considers "The Bell-Tower" to be "the least characteristic of Melville's stories," somewhat resembling Nathaniel Hawthorne and Edgar Allan Poe's work. It is a dark story about an eccentric Italian artist and architect who designs a bell tower and bell.
Composition
As a magazine writer, Melville was a better judge of popular taste than he recently had been as a novelist, Sealts finds. He read contemporary newspapers and magazines, and paid careful attention to what they were carrying. By studying the contents, Melville "learned to pattern his own pieces accordingly, with respect to both form and content." A number of the pieces contain references to persons, places, and events Melville witnessed himself. People whom Melville knew served as the basis for many characters in the short fiction, as some of the reviewers guessed. Never an excelling inventor of original plots, Melville elaborated on his own experiences with material from his reading. Chief among the influences upon his magazine fiction, as recognized by both contemporary reviewers of The Piazza Tales and Melville scholars of the following century, were tales and sketches by such contemporary authors as Washington Irving, Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, Charles Lamb and Charles Dickens, some of whom he had read as early as 1849. These are influences of a general nature and cannot be identified to single works, or as Sealts puts it, Melville "not infrequently followed the lead of others in terms of plotting, characterization, and technique of narration."
As Sealts demonstrates, all of these elements are present in "Bartleby". Melville's knowledge of the Wall Street location is first-hand because his brother Allan was a Wall Street lawyer, the story contains knowing references to current events, and the supporting characters "could easily have come from the pen of Dickens, Lamb or Irving." The idea for the story was suggested to Melville by an 18 February 1853 advertisement for James A. Maitland's The Lawyer's Story in both the New York Times and Tribune that included the complete first chapter of the forthcoming novel, in which a lawyer's increased business makes him hire an extra copying clerk.
The ten sketches of "The Encantadas" go back to Melville's whaling years, during which he visited the Galapagos Islands, supplemented with material from his reading in at least six books of Pacific voyages, including The Voyage of the Beagle by Charles Darwin. A month after the collection was published, Melville's old friend Richard Tobias Greene, on whom Toby in Typee was based, wrote him a letter expressing how the Encantadas sketches "had called up reminiscences of days gone by".
Assuming that "The Piazza" is Melville's own Pittsfield piazza, critic F. O. Matthiessen suggests that the piece must have been suggested by Hawthorne's manse. Sealts regards both Arrowhead, the Pittsfield farm where Melville then lived, and nearby Mount Greylock as inspiring the setting for the story and, like Matthiessen, suggests that Melville was influenced by Hawthorne's method of preparing the reader for the stories in Mosses from an Old Manse through an account of his old manse at Concord.
Style
For Warner Berthoff, Melville's short works of the mid-1850s show a grasp of his subject matter not previously in his possession, not even in Moby-Dick: "a clarity of exposition and a tonic firmness and finality of implication".
John Bryant points to the experimental use of narrative voice in the stories: in addition to third-person narration, Melville makes his fictionalized narrators "less and less reliable." The lawyer-narrator in "Bartleby" is "not so reliable", Bryant finds, but the third-person narrator of "Benito Cereno" represents a "less conspicuous form of unreliability" and precisely because this third-person position seems objective, while in reality Delano's distorted point of view is adhered to.
Structure
In line with other writers of short stories of the time like Poe, Melville's narrative structures stimulate readers to look beyond their initial readings to understand more. This view of "the stories to have a hidden text" has proven to be persuasieve. Writing in the twenty-first century, Bryant makes essentially the same point when he notes that "carefully modulated ironies" are put to such use that "the brightness of sentiment and geniality would be made to reveal its darker edges: deception, sexuality, alienation, and poverty."
For Robert Milder, in the best of the short stories these different levels of meaning are fused "in a vision of tragedy more poignant than Moby-Dick's or Pierre's because it is more keenly responsive to the lived human condition."
Reception
Contemporary reviews
The collection met with short, cursory reviews only, which Branch attributes to the "general attitude" that the "author of Typee should do something higher and better than Magazine articles," as the New York Times wrote. "The Encantadas" attracted the most attention, probably, Branch suggests, because it reminded reviewers of the author's first two books, listed on the title page.
The first review appeared in the New York Atlas for 25 May, followed by more than thirty others until as late as September. Only two of the thirty-three reviews and notices critic Johannes D. Bergmann read "seem seriously negative." Most of the others were full of praise, especially for "Bartleby," "Benito Cereno," and "The Encantadas." Several reviewers singling out "Bartleby" and "The Bell-Tower" compare the stories to Edgar Allan Poe's work. Sealts saw thirty-seven reviews, five of which were "preponderantly unfavorable," among them the sole British review of the group, which appeared in the London Athenaeum for 26 July. Yet, he said, the reviews showed that the book "manifestly pleased [Melville's] critics as no other work from his pen had done since the appearance of Redburn and White-Jacket in 1849 and 1850."
Most of the contemporary reviews were unsigned, and not all singled out any individual story, but merely described the collection as a whole. On 9 July 1856, the Springfield Republican compared the collection to Hawthorne's best work, "marked by a delicate fancy, a bright and most fruitful imagination, a pure and translucent style and a certain weirdness of conceit." "The legends themselves," wrote the Athenaeum for 26 July, "have a certain wild and ghostly power; but the exaggeration of their teller's manner appears to be on the increase." Also taking the stories together, the United States Democratic Review for September 1856 wrote that "All of them exhibit that peculiar richness of language, descriptive vitality, and splendidly sombre imagination which are the author's characteristics." Praise for Melville's charming style was offered "almost invariably in a tone of affection and respect, without a single known mention of Moby-Dick", Parker observes.
Many reviews echoed that the collection made for excellent summer reading: "Scarcely a pleasanter book for summer reading could be recommended" was a representative phrase, printed in the New York Churchman for 5 June.
Later critical history
In 1926, during the so-called "Melville Revival," "Benito Cereno" became the first of any of his short fiction to appear in a separate edition when the Nonesuch Press published the Piazza Tales text, illustrated by E. McKnight Kauffer. The story is also the first of the short works to which a scholarly publication was devoted: Harold H. Scudder's 1928 study of Melville's use of his major source, Amasa Delano's 1817 A Narrative of Voyages and Travels, in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres: Comprising Three Voyages Round the World; Together with a Voyage of Survey and Discovery, in the Pacific Ocean and Oriental Islands.
After surveying scholarship and criticism on the tales up to the 1980s, Sealts observed that, of the six Piazza Tales, "Benito Cereno" and "The Encantadas" have attracted the most attention from the beginning of Melville studies, while "Bartleby" and "The Piazza" increasingly captured scholarly attention from the 1920s onward. Sealts also found that interpretations of the short stories have, over time, shifted their focus from metaphysical to epistemological concerns and from general ethical considerations to "more immediate political and social implications," such as reading "Benito Cereno" in the context of the heated debate over slavery leading up to the Civil War. Many scholarly studies have looked at how Melville drew inspiration from: his own observation of contemporary life, his knowledge of literature, and his familiarity with more specialized sources, including travelogues of the Pacific and articles in periodicals.
Scholar Robert Milder recognized a new development in Melville's writing: prompted by the compromise that writing stories for magazines inevitably entails, Melville now "mastered the art of covert insinuation, managing his ironic or unreliable narrators with such subtlety that readers still dispute which (if any) of the narrators voice his own opinions and which are objects of satire or detached psychological interest." Milder describes the stories as predominantly comics, depicting failure, compromise, and misery, with metaphysical concerns almost entirely absent.
Biographer Andrew Delbanco cites "The Bell-Tower" as a story that "merited the caution" of Curtis not to accept Melville's submissions for Putnam's too easily.
Notes
References
Bergmann, Johannes D. (1986). "Melville's Tales." A Companion to Melville Studies. Edited by John Bryant. New York, Westport, Connecticut, London: Greenwood Press.
Branch, Watson G. (ed.) (1974). Melville: The Critical Heritage. Edited by Watson G. Branch. The Critical Heritage Series. First paperback edition, 1985, London and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul.
Bryant, John (2001). "Herman Melville: A Writer in Process." Herman Melville, Tales, Poems, and Other Writings. Edited, with an Introduction and Notes, by John Bryant. New York: The Modern Library.
Delbanco, Andrew (2005). Melville: His World and Work. New York: Knopf.
Hayford, Harrison, Alma A. MacDougall, and G. Thomas Tanselle (1987). "Notes on Individual Prose Pieces." In Melville 1987.
Matthiessen, F.O. (1941). American Renaissance: Art and Expression in the Age of Emerson and Whitman. London, Toronto, New York: Oxford University Press.
Melville, Herman (1987). The Piazza Tales and Other Prose Pieces 1839-1860. Edited by Harrison Hayford, Alma A. MacDougall, G. Thomas Tanselle, and others. The Writings of Herman Melville Volume Nine. Evanston and Chicago: Northwestern University Press and The Newberry Library.
Milder, Robert (1988). "Herman Melville." Columbia Literary History of the United States. Emory Elliott, General Editor. New York: Columbia University Press.
Miller, Perry (1956). The Raven and the Whale: The War of Words and Wits in the Era of Poe and Melville. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Company.
Parker, Hershel (2002). Herman Melville: A Biography. Volume 2. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Robertson-Lorant, Laurie (1996). Melville: A Biography. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers.
Robillard, Douglas (2004). "Review [of Bryant (ed.) 2001]. Leviathan: A Journal of Melville Studies, October 2004.
Rollyson, Carl E., and Lisa Olson Paddock (2001). Herman Melville a to Z: The Essential Reference to His Life and Work. Facts on File Library of American Literature. New York: Facts on File. .
Sealts, Merton M., Jr. (1987). "Historical Note." In Melville (1987).
--- (1988). Melville's Reading. Revised and Enlarged Edition. University of South Carolina Press.
External links
The Piazza Tales full text at Project Gutenberg
Full text of the Dix & Edwards edition by Electronic Scholarly Publishing prepared by Robert Robbins
Putnam's Monthly at the Internet Archive
"Bartleby, the Scrivener" part one and two, Volume 2, Nos. 11–2. (1853)
"The Encantadas, or Enchanted Isles" part one, two, and three, Volume 3, Nos. 15–7. (1854)
"The Lightning-Rod Man", Volume 4, No. 20. (1854)
"The Bell-Tower", Volume 6, No. 32. (1855)
"Benito Cereno" part one, two, and three, Volume 6, Nos. 34–6. (1855)
1856 short story collections
Short story collections by Herman Melville
Works originally published in Putnam's Magazine
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional%20wrestling%20in%20Australia
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Professional wrestling in Australia
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Professional wrestling in Australia makes up a small part of Australian culture. Unlike the North American or Japanese products which have large, globally renowned organisations such as WWE, AEW, New Japan Pro-Wrestling or Impact Wrestling with several hundred smaller promotions, Australia only has approximately 30 smaller independent circuit promotions which exist in all Australian states and territories. Tours from the North American product are regularly sold out in capital cities such as Adelaide, Brisbane, Melbourne, Perth and Sydney.
History
Professional wrestling in Australia first gained distinction in the early 1900s, however there were very few shows promoted. Nonetheless, stars such as Clarence Weber, Jack Carkeek, Clarence Whistler and George Hackenschmidt toured the country. As time went on, the sport's popularity began to grow, particularly in the 1930s as people sought to find relief from The Great Depression.
Throughout the 1940s professional wrestling suffered due to World War II but in the 1950s it reached new highs as many stars from overseas were imported and created larger crowds and, in turn, a larger market. Established names such as Lou Thesz, Dr. Jerry Graham and Gorgeous George toured the country during the decade.
Throughout the 1960s and 1970s, Australia established its only major promotion in WCW Australia. WCW had a television deal with the Nine Network, the first in Australia to do so and attracted crowds between 2,000 and 9,000 people on a weekly basis. International stars such as Killer Kowalski, Ray Stevens, Dominic Denucci, Mario Milano, Spiros Arion, Karl Gotch, Bruno Sammartino, Gorilla Monsoon and local stars Ron Miller and Larry O'Dea were all involved with the promotion which grew steadily through the 1960s and was a well known product in the 1970s. However, with the introduction of World Series Cricket, WCW was left with no television deal and was forced to close down in 1978. This sent the Australian market into a large decline. With no access to any product anywhere in the world, the Australian market was almost dead until the World Wrestling Federation became a prominent figure in professional wrestling in the mid-1980s.
Australia has depended on the North American product since 1985. Hosting tours in 1985 and 1986 kept a solid viewing in the sport through programmes such as Superstars of Wrestling and Saturday Night's Main Event. Small local promotions have tried to take advantage of the popularity of professional wrestling in more recent times, but there has been nothing of note since the demise of World Championship Wrestling in 1978.
However the local scene has been the subject of controversy.
In September 2002, a promotion called Professional Championship Wrestling presented a show at the Rowville Community Centre in which two wrestlers faced off in a contest that used thumbs tacks in a ring surrounded by barbed wire. Melbourne talk back radio received phone calls claiming that the audience was "showered with blood". Despite claims by a promotion spokesman that the event was theatrical, the Professional Boxing and Contact Sports Board investigated on the grounds that such a claim was not enough. Police also investigated and the Knox City Council reviewed the promotion's use of the venue after being led to believe the event was a "family event".
Australian wrestlers overseas
Individual wrestlers originating in Australia have struggled for the most part to obtain any international recognition. Perhaps the two biggest names when one mentions Australia are The Fabulous Kangaroos—Roy Heffernan and Al Costello. They are the only Australian wrestlers to make it big in the United States and held the Florida and Texas versions of the NWA World Tag Team titles as well as the north east version of the NWA United States tag team titles in the Capitol Wrestling Corporation (later to become WWE) on three occasions, as well as being inducted into the Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame.
Australian wrestler Peter Stilsbury was brought into the WWF in the mid-1980s under the name Outback Jack in response to the mainstream popularity at the time of the Australian film Crocodile Dundee. He appeared in several vignettes hyping his debut by showing Jack in the wilds of the Australian Outback, drinking beer with cows, and came down to the ring to the theme song by Rolf Harris, "Tie Me Kangaroo Down, Sport". Outback Jack started his career touring in Canada with Stu Hart's Stampede Wrestling.
In more recent times Nathan Jones made two WWE appearances in 2003 at WrestleMania XIX and at Survivor Series later that same year even though he only actually wrestled at the latter event, making him the first Australian wrestler to ever perform on a WWE pay-per-view event. Jones also performed on two World Wrestling All-Stars pay-per-views, losing to Jeff Jarrett at WWA: The Inception and to Scott Steiner at WWA: The Eruption.
In late 2011, WWE signed an Australian female wrestler Tenille Dashwood to its development territory NXT. She was originally from Melbourne. Dashwood debuted as a clumsy dancer Emma, and in early 2014 was elevated to the main roster. On 6 April 2014 she became only the second Australian wrestler to perform on a WWE pay per view and the first ever woman to do so when she was a part of the Diva's Title match at WrestleMania XXX. She later appeared at the 2014 Survivor Series in November. In 2017 she became the first Australian to perform at three WWE pay per view events when she was part of the fatal five way for the Raw Women's Championship at No Mercy. She made it four at TLC in opposition to Asuka.
In early 2013, WWE signed another Australian wrestler Buddy Murphy, known in Australia as Matt Silva to NXT. Murphy made his televised debut on NXT 15 May 2014, teaming with Elias Samson in a losing effort against The Ascension. In August 2014, Murphy began teaming with American Wesley Blake and in January 2015, Blake and Murphy scored an upset victory over The Vaudevillains and the following week defeated the Lucha Dragons to win the NXT Tag Team Championship, making Murphy the first Australian to hold a championship within the WWE. In early 2018 Murphy joined the Cruiserweight division and participated in the Cruiserweight title tournament losing to Mustafa Ali in the quarter finals. He soon become a top contender to the new champion Cedric Alexander, and he managed to defeat Alexander at WWE Super Show-Down in his main roster pay-per-view debut in his home town Melbourne to win the WWE Cruiserweight Championship. On the 23 February 2022 episode of Dynamite, he made his debut for All Elite Wrestling as Buddy Matthews joining the "House of Black" faction with Malakai Black and Brody King.
In April 2015, WWE signed both Billie Kay and Peyton Royce to NXT. The pair later formed the team The IIconics under their original name of The Iconic Duo. They were elevated to the main roster on the SmackDown brand just after WrestleMania 34 and made their main roster pay per view debut at WWE Super Show-Down with a victory over the team of Asuka and Naomi. After appearances at WWE Evolution, the 2019 Royal Rumble and Elimination Chamber, the IIconics won the WWE Women's Tag Team Championship at WrestleMania 35. On 9 October 2021, The IIconics now using the name The IInspiration signed a contract with Impact Wrestling and will make their debut at Bound for Glory (2021).
In 2017, Rhea Ripley joined WWE and participated in the Mae Young Classic. The Adelaide-based wrestler known locally as Demi Bennett would go on to participate in the second Mae Young Classic in 2018, but at TV tapings in Birmingham, England, Ripley became the first Australian woman to win a WWE controlled title when she defeated fellow Australian Toni Storm in a tournament final to be the inaugural winner of the NXT UK Women's Championship. Ripley consequently made her first pay per view appearance at the 2019 Royal Rumble as a participant of the Women's Royal Rumble match. At Wrestlemania 37 Rhea defeated Asuka to win the Raw Women's Championship
In 2018, Toni Storm signed a WWE NXT UK contract and subsequently won the NXT UK Women's Championship. On 23 July 2021, Toni Storm made her WWE SmackDown debut defeating Zelina Vega.
In 2019, WWE signed Bronson Reed and Brendan Vink, both reporting to WWE NXT. Bronson Reed won his first championship, the NXT North American Championship in May 2021, defeating Johnny Gargano. Brendan made his first WWE Raw appearance in 2020 losing a tag team match against the Street Profits.
On 25 June 2021, Robbie Eagles who currently competes for New Japan Pro Wrestling became the first Australian to win a championship in Japan, defeating El Desperado for the IWGP Junior Heavyweight Championship at Wrestle Grand Slam in Tokyo Dome.
Only two other Australian wrestlers have appeared on a worldwide pay-per-view event to date at all. They are Chuck E. Chaos at WWA: The Eruption who lost to Jerry Lynn, and Mark Mercedes at WWA: The Reckoning who lost to Rick Steiner.
Foreign tours
Shows from North American promotions have been held in Australia as early as 1985 when the WWF toured three cities, they did a second tour in 1986 across five cities. That was the last Australia saw of a live North American product until WCW did a Nitro and Thunder taping in Melbourne, a Nitro taping in Brisbane and a Thunder taping and a house show in Sydney in 2000.
In 2000, I-Generation Superstars of Wrestling held a pay-per-view in Sydney headlined "Rodman Down Under" where Dennis Rodman would lose to Curt Hennig with the i-Generation Championship being contested. Australia also hosted shows presented by World Wrestling All-Stars, including two pay per views events, The Inception in 2001 from Sydney and The Eruption in 2002 from Melbourne.
After a 16-year hiatus, WWE (previously known at the WWF) returned to Australia for the 2002 WWE Global Warning Tour taped event from Colonial Stadium in Melbourne. Since then, WWE has returned to tour Australia at least once a year with House shows events. In 2016 WWE's developmental brand WWE NXT toured Australia for the first time including a taping a NXT TV episode which aired on WWE Network about one month later. In 2018 WWE held their first Australian live pay-per-view WWE Super Show-Down from the Melbourne Cricket Ground.
2009 saw the first international tour other than WWE since 2002 when Hulk Hogan and Eric Bischoff held the Hulkamania: Let The Battle Begin tour throughout Australia in Melbourne, Perth, Brisbane, and Sydney. Wrestlers included Hulk Hogan (wrestling in Australia for the first time), Ric Flair (who came out of retirement), Spartan-3000, Heidenreich, Eugene, Brutus "The Barber" Beefcake and Orlando Jordan. Despite having ONE HD television cameras present, this event has never been released on DVD.
In 2016, House of Hardcore presented House of Hardcore 15 in Melbourne, before returning in 2017 for a tour of Melbourne, Sydney, Perth, Adelaide, and Brisbane. They returned in 2018 for a tour of Perth, Melbourne, Sydney, and Sunshine Coast, the 2018 tour also saw the NWA World Heavyweight Champion Nick Aldis made four championship defences against Mark Cometti, Jonah Rock, Robbie Eagles and Jack Bonza.
On 9 January 2018, New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) announced their first Tour of Australia, "New Japan Fallout Down Under" tour in which they would visit Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and Perth. The events took place between "The New Beginning in Osaka" and "Honor Rising: Japan 2018" on the NJPW calendar. Announced for the tour was Kenny Omega, Kazuchika Okada, Minoru Suzuki, Cody, Matt and Nick Jackson, Yuji Nagata, Tomohiro Ishii, Kushida, Evil, Bad Luck Fale, Sanada, Will Ospreay^, Tanga Loa, Juice Robinson, Tama Tonga, Lance Archer, Chase Owens, Rocky Romero, and Toa Henare. Will Ospreay only appeared on the Sydney and Perth legs, while Hiroshi Tanahashi missed the tour due to an injury. All the events were taped and were uploaded to NJPW World on delay without any commentary. In June 2019, NJPW returned to Australia for their Southern Showdown tour in Melbourne and Sydney, with the Melbourne show broadcast live on Pay Per View through Fite TV.
On 26 January 2018 Progress Wrestling announced an Australian tour for April 2018, which would see them partner up with local promotion.
Various Australian wrestling shows like World Series Wrestling have featured overseas talent not signed to a major North American promotion.
In late 2022, NJPW announced NJPW Tamashii, a series of events that would be held in Australia and New Zealand. The Tamashii brand was officially launched in September, with the first Australian show taking place on 13 November in Sydney.
Events list
Television programming
History
Throughout the 1990s, both WCW Monday Nitro and WWE Raw were broadcast pay television networks with WCW Monday Nitro on TNT and WWE Raw on Fox Sports.
In September 2002 negotiations between FOX8 and WWE fell through and SmackDown! was cancelled. This situation (that also affected WWE pay per views) continued until August 2003 when SmackDown! returned on Saturday nights. RAW was moved from Fox Sports to FOX8 and was shown on Friday nights. In order to prevent spoiler hunting on the internet, FOX8 moved WWE programming to timeslots closer to their United States air date. Finally it start airing RAW live on 4 February 2014
In February 2005, WWE Heat, WWE Velocity and The WWE Experience were added to Fox8 and set up a large wrestling program on Saturdays and Sundays. Despite Heat, Velocity and Experience all being cancelled in the United States the shows continued to be shown in Australia to fulfill contractual obligations. When SmackDown! was moved to Friday nights in the United States, in Australia it remained on Friday afternoons. ECW on Sci Fi began broadcasting in Australia from 2 September 2006 in the place of WWE Velocity on Saturdays.
TNA Impact! began airing on 5 April 2008 on Fox8. It had been airing on Saturday nights on Fuel TV at 8.30pm AEST from June 2011, but this ceased in November 2014 when Fuel was absorbed by Fox Sports. For the remainder of 2014 and into 2015 it was shown on Main Event free of the usual charges, until 27 June 2015.
Free to air wrestling programming has been scarce on Australian television in recent times. However, with the conversion to Digital Television, several wrestling programs were purchased. In June 2008, WWE After Burn aired on Channel 9 on Sunday afternoon. However, it later aired at 1am on Tuesday mornings. TNA Xplosion began airing on One HD in prime time at 8:30pm on Thursday but by late 2010 it had been replaced in effect by the WWE Experience.
A cut down, one-hour version of WWE Raw and SmackDown Live aired from 2017 until 2020 on Nine Network's 9Go!. From January 2020, Kayo Sports began airing WWE Smackdown, WWE Raw and WWE NXT.
Pay-per-view
Pay-per-views in Australia are shown on Main Event, the only provider in Australia. WWE's major pay-per-views Royal Rumble, WrestleMania, King of the Ring, SummerSlam and Survivor Series began to be shown on pay-per-view by the late 1990s. Main Event has been broadcasting pay-per-views for both WWE starting from the late 1990s until the present time (including the Fanatic Series from October 2006 for a time) and WCW pay-per-views from around the same time until they were bought out in March 2001.
At the beginning of 2003 WWE pay-per-views were also lost to Main Event in the same deal that cost Australian fans SmackDown. Village Cinemas showed them for a few months until August 2003 when they returned to Main Event, starting with SummerSlam. A special NWA-TNA package replaced it in early 2003 but only lasted a year. NWA-TNA pay-per-views were shown once a month throughout 2003 during a time when they were being presented weekly in the United States.
After just over 3 years, NWA-TNA made its return—now just TNA. Beginning with TNA Sacrifice 2006 on 27 May 2006 on tape delay, this continued for 12 months before events started being broadcast live in May 2007. This ceased after the transmission of Slammiversary on 29 June 2015.
Three World Wrestling All-Stars pay per views also aired live in Australia—WWA The Inception, WWA The Eruption and WWA The Reckoning.
References
External links
PW Downunder - Australia's Online Wrestling Source
Foxtel official site
mainevent.com.au
Media Man
Wrestling-Titles.com: Australia
History of professional wrestling
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1988%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1988 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1988 in the United Kingdom. The year saw the merger in March of the SDP and the Liberals to form the Liberal Democrats. There were also two notable disasters this year: the Piper Alpha oil rig explosion and the bombing of Pan Am Flight 103.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – Margaret Thatcher (Conservative)
Parliament – 50th
Events
January
January – Elizabeth Butler-Sloss becomes the first woman to be appointed a Lord Justice of Appeal.
3 January – Margaret Thatcher becomes the longest-serving UK Prime Minister this century, having been in power for eight years and 244 days.
4 January – Sir Robin Butler replaces Sir Robert Armstrong as Cabinet Secretary, on the same day that Margaret Thatcher makes her first state visit to Africa when she arrives in Kenya.
5 January – Actor Rowan Atkinson launches the new Comic Relief charity appeal.
7 January – Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock calls for a further £1,300,000,000 to be made available for the National Health Service.
8 January – The Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders reveals that new car sales in Britain last year exceeded 2,000,000 for the first time. The Ford Escort was Britain's best-selling car for the sixth year running.
11 January – The government announces that inflammable foam furniture will be banned from March next year.
14 January – Unemployment figures are released for the end of 1987, showing the eighteenth-successive monthly decrease. Just over 2,600,000 people are now unemployed in the United Kingdom – the lowest figure for seven years. More than 500,000 of those unemployed, found jobs in 1987.
22 January
Colin Pitchfork is sentenced to life imprisonment after admitting the rape and murder of two girls in Leicestershire in 1983 and 1986, the first conviction for murder in the UK based on DNA fingerprinting evidence.
Peugeot's British-built 405 saloon, winner of the European Car of the Year award, goes on sale in Britain. A five-door estate model is due later this year.
23 January – David Steel announces that he will not stand for the leadership of the new Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
24 January – Arthur Scargill is re-elected as Leader of the National Union of Mineworkers by a narrow majority.
28 January – The Birmingham Six lose an appeal against their convictions.
February
1 February – Victor Miller, a 33-year-old warehouse worker from Wolverhampton, confesses to the murder of 14-year-old Stuart Gough, who was found dead in Worcestershire last month.
3 February – Nurses throughout the UK strike for higher pay and more funding for the National Health Service.
4 February – Nearly 7,000 ferry workers go on strike in Britain, paralysing the nation's seaports.
5 February – The first BBC Red Nose Day raises £15,000,000 for charity.
7 February – It is reported that more than 50% of men and 80% of women working full-time in London, are earning less than the lowest sum needed to buy the cheapest houses in the capital.
9 February - Helen McCourt, a 22-year-old insurance clerk from Lancashire (now Merseyside) disappeared after getting off a bus less than 500 yards from her home in the village of Billinge. Her body was never found.
13 – 28 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Calgary, Alberta, Canada, but do not win any medals.
15 February – Norman Fowler, Secretary of State for Employment, announces plans for a new training scheme which the government hopes will give jobs to up to 600,000 people who are currently unemployed.
16 February – Thousands of nurses and co-workers form picket lines outside British hospitals as they go on strike in protest against what they see as inadequate NHS funding.
26 February – Multiple rapist and murderer John Duffy is sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommendation that he should never be released.
March
1 March – British Aerospace launches a takeover bid for the government-owned Rover Group, the largest British-owned carmaker.
3 March – The SDP amalgamates with the Liberal Party to form the Social and Liberal Democratic Party. Its interim leaders are David Steel and Robert Maclennan. The merger means that the Liberal Party has ceased to exist after 129 years.
4 March – Halifax Building Society reveals that year-on-year house prices rose by 16.9% last month.
6 March – Operation Flavius: a Special Air Service team of the British Army shoots dead three unarmed members of a Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) Active Service Unit in Gibraltar.
7 March – Margaret Thatcher announces a £3,000,000,000 regeneration scheme to improve a series of inner city areas by the year 2000.
9 March – It is revealed that the average price of a house in Britain reached £60,000 at the end of last year, compared to £47,000 in December 1986.
10 March – The Prince of Wales (now Charles III) narrowly avoids death in an avalanche while on a skiing holiday in Switzerland. Major Hugh Lindsay, former equerry to the Queen, is killed.
11 March – The Bank of England £1 note ceases to be legal tender.
15 March – In the 1988 budget, Chancellor Nigel Lawson announces that the standard rate of income tax will be cut to 25p in the pound, while the maximum rate of income tax will be cut to 40p from 60p in the pound.
16 March – Milltown Cemetery attack: three men are killed and 70 are wounded by loyalist paramilitary Michael Stone at Milltown Cemetery in Belfast during the funerals of the three IRA members killed in Gibraltar.
17 March – The fall in unemployment continues, with just over 2,500,000 people now registered as unemployed in the UK. However, there is a blow for the city of Dundee, when Ford Motor Company scraps plans to build a new electronics plant in the city – a move which ends hopes of 1,000 new jobs being created for this city which has high unemployment.
19 March – Corporals killings in Belfast: British Army corporals Woods and Howes are abducted, beaten and shot dead by Irish republicans after driving into the funeral cortege of an IRA member killed in the Milltown Cemetery attack.
29 March – Plans are unveiled for Europe's tallest skyscraper to be built at Canary Wharf. The office complex will cost around £3,000,000,000 to build, and is set to open in 1992.
April
9 April – The house price boom is reported to have boosted wealth in London and the South-East by £39,000,000,000 over the last four years, compared with an £18,000,000,000 slump in Scotland and the North-West of England.
10 April – Golfer Sandy Lyle becomes the first British winner of the US Masters.
15 April – Comedian and actor Kenneth Williams, 62, dies of an overdose of barbiturates at his flat in London.
21 April – The government announces that nurses will receive a 15% pay rise, at a cost of £794,000,000 which will be funded by the Treasury.
24 April – Luton Town FC beat Arsenal in the Littlewoods Cup final at Wembley 3–2. The match was won in the 92nd minute with a goal by Brian Stein after Luton had come back from being 2–1 down and goalkeeper Andy Dibble saving a penalty in the 79th minute. Luton scorers Brian Stein (2) and Danny Wilson. 96,000 fans were in attendance.
May
May – The first group of sixteen-year-olds sit General Certificate of Secondary Education examinations, replacing both the O-level and CSE. The new qualifications are marked against objective standards rather than relatively.
2 May – Three off-duty British servicemen are killed in the Netherlands by the IRA.
6 May – Graeme Hick makes English cricket history by scoring 405 runs in a county championship match.
7 May – The proposed Poll tax (referred to by the Government as the Community Charge), which is expected to come into force next year, will see the average house rise in value by around 20%, according to a study.
14 May – Wimbledon F.C., who have been Football League members for just eleven seasons and First Division members for two, win the FA Cup with a 1–0 win over league champions Liverpool at Wembley. Lawrie Sanchez scored the winning goal in the first half, while Liverpool's John Aldridge missed a penalty in the second half. In Scotland, Celtic beat Dundee United 2–1 in the Scottish Cup final with two late goals from Frank McAvennie to complete the Scottish double.
19 May
Unemployment is now below 2,500,000 for the first time since early-1981.
House prices in Norwich, one of the key beneficiaries of the current economic boom, have risen by 50% in the last year.
24 May
Local Government Act becomes law. The controversial Section 28 prevents local authorities from "promoting homosexuality". Local authorities are also obliged to outsource more services, and dog licences are abolished (except in Northern Ireland).
Albert Dock in Liverpool reopened by Prince Charles (now Charles III) as a leisure and business centre including the Tate Liverpool art museum.
31 May – The controversial BBC film Tumbledown is broadcast despite Ministry of Defence concern.
June
2 June – U.S. President Ronald Reagan makes a visit to the UK.
11 June – Some 80,000 people attend a concert at Wembley Stadium in honour of Nelson Mandela, the South African anti-apartheid campaigner who has been imprisoned since 1964.
15 June – Six British soldiers are killed by the IRA in Lisburn.
16 June – More than one hundred English football fans are arrested in West Germany in connection with incidents of football hooliganism during the European Championships.
18 June – England's participation in the European Football Champions ended when they finished bottom of their group having lost all three games.
21 June – The Poole explosion of 1988 causes 3,500 people to be evacuated from Poole town centre in the biggest peacetime evacuation in the United Kingdom since World War II.
23 June – Three gay rights activists invade the BBC television studios during the six o'clock bulletin of the BBC News.
July
July – The Freeze art exhibition is held at Surrey Docks in London Docklands. It is organised by Damien Hirst, and is considered significant in the development of the Young British Artists.
5 July – The Church of England announces that it will allow the ordination of female priests from 1992.
6 July
Piper Alpha disaster; the Piper Alpha oil rig in the North Sea explodes and results in the death of 167 workers.
A contractor's relief driver pours twenty tonnes of aluminium sulphate into the wrong tank at a water treatment plant near Camelford in Cornwall, causing extensive pollution to the local water supply.
8 July – The final large stationary steam engine in use in a British factory, is shut down at a tannery in Otley.
18 July – Paul Gascoigne, 21-year-old midfielder, becomes the first £2,000,000 footballer signed by a British club when he leaves Newcastle United and joins Tottenham Hotspur.
28 July – Paddy Ashdown, MP for Yeovil in Somerset, is elected as the first Leader of the Social and Liberal Democratic Party.
29 July – Most provisions of the Education Reform Act come into effect in England, Wales and Northern Ireland. The Act introduces Grant-maintained schools and Local Management of Schools, allowing schools to be taken out of the direct control of local government; a National Curriculum with Key Stages; an element of parental preference in the choice of schools; published league tables of school examination results; controls on the use of the word 'degree' by UK institutions; and abolition of tenure for new academics.
31 July – Economists warn that the house price boom is likely to end next year.
August
1 August – A soldier is killed and Inglis Barracks in London is damaged in a bombing.
2 August – Everton F.C. pay £2,300,000 for West Ham United striker Tony Cottee, 22, breaking the national record set six weeks ago by Paul Gascoigne's transfer.
8 August – The first child (a girl) of TRH The Duke and Duchess of York is born at Portland Hospital in London. She is fifth in line to the throne until the birth of Prince George on 22 July 2013 and later ninth in line.
14 August – Scunthorpe United F.C.'s Glanford Park is opened; the first new stadium to be built by a Football League club since the 1950s. Their last game at their original ground, Old Showground, was on 18 May.
18 August – Ian Rush becomes the most expensive player to join a British club when he returns to Liverpool F.C. for £2,700,000 after a year at Juventus in Italy.
20 August – Ballygawley bus bombing: Six British soldiers are killed by an IRA bomb near Belfast; twenty-eight others are injured.
22 August
New licensing laws allow pubs to stay open all day in England and Wales.
The Duke and Duchess of York's fourteen-day-old daughter is named Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
29 August – Fourteen-year-old Matthew Sadler becomes Britain's youngest international chess master.
31 August – Postal workers walk out on strike over a dispute concerning bonuses paid to recruit new workers in London and the South East.
September
3 September – Economic experts warn that the recent economic upturn for most of the developed world is almost over, and that these countries – including Britain – face a recession in the near future.
9 September – The England cricket team's tour to India is cancelled after Captain Graham Gooch and seven other players are refused visas because of involvement in South African cricket during the apartheid boycott.
10 September – Teenager Lee Boxell disappears in South London whilst out shopping with a friend and is never found.
11 September – Mr. Men Little Miss Children’s author Roger Hargreaves dies from a stroke at age 53, And his son Adam Hargreaves took over his work.
13 September – Royal Mail managers and Union of Communication Workers representatives agree a settlement to end the postal workers strike.
17 September – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul, South Korea, and win 5 gold, 10 silver and 9 bronze medals.
19 September – Actor Roy Kinnear, 54, is seriously injured after falling off his horse during filming in Spain. He dies of his injuries the following day.
20 September – Margaret Thatcher gives her "Bruges speech", opposing moves to transition the European Economic Community into a federal Europe.
24 September – The house price boom is reported to be slowing as a result of increased mortgage rates.
30 September – Operation Flavius: A Gibraltar jury decides that the IRA members killed in March were killed "lawfully".
October
2 October
Great Britain and Northern Ireland finish competing in the Seoul Olympic Games, as the games come to a close.
Car designer Sir Alec Issigonis, who designed the Mini and Morris Minor, dies aged 81 at his home in Edgbaston, Birmingham.
9 October – Labour MP and Shadow Chancellor John Smith, 50, is hospitalised due to a heart attack in Edinburgh.
12 October – As Pope John Paul II addresses the European Parliament, Ian Paisley heckles and denounces him as the Antichrist.
13 October – The House of Lords rules that extracts of the banned book Spycatcher can be published in the media.
14 October – Vauxhall launches the third and final generation of its popular Cavalier hatchback and saloon which will be built by General Motors in European factories including the Luton plant and sold outside the UK as the Opel Vectra. A Cavalier-based coupe will be launched next year.
18 October – Jaguar unveils its new Jaguar XJ220 supercar at the Motor Show. It is set to go into production in 1990, costing £350,000 and being the world's fastest production car with a top speed of 220mph.
19 October – The United Kingdom bans broadcast interviews with IRA members. The BBC gets around this stricture through the use of professional actors.
27 October – Three IRA supporters are found guilty of conspiracy to murder in connection with a plot to kill Secretary of State for Northern Ireland Tom King.
28 October – British Rail announces a 21% increase in the cost of long distance season tickets.
November
2 November – Victor Miller is sentenced to life imprisonment for the murder of 14-year-old Stuart Gough in Worcestershire earlier this year, with a recommendation by the trial judge that he is not considered for parole for at least thirty years.
4 November – Margaret Thatcher presses for freedom for the people of Poland on her visit to Gdańsk.
9 November – The government unveils plans for a new identity card scheme in an attempt to clamp down on football hooliganism.
15 November
The Education Secretary, Kenneth Baker, says that the national testing will place greater emphasis on grammar.
Firearms (Amendment) Act 1988 prohibits civilian ownership of virtually all semi-automatic firearms from January 1989, in response to the Hungerford massacre of 1987.
30 November
A government report reveals that up to 50,000 people in Britain may be HIV positive, and that by the end of 1992, up to 17,000 people may have died from AIDS.
A bronze statue of former Labour Prime Minister Clement Attlee (1883–1967) is unveiled outside Limehouse Library in London by another former Labour Prime Minister, Harold Wilson.
December
3 December – Health Minister Edwina Currie provokes outrage by stating that most of Britain's egg production is infected with the salmonella bacteria, causing an immediate nationwide decrease in egg sales.
6 December – The last shipbuilding facilities on Wearside, once the largest shipbuilding area in the world, are to close with the loss of 2,400 jobs.
10 December – James W. Black wins the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Gertrude B. Elion and George H. Hitchings "for their discoveries of important principles for drug treatment".
12 December – 35 people are killed in the Clapham Junction rail crash.
15 December – Unemployment is now only just over 2,100,000 – the lowest level for almost eight years.
16 December
Edwina Currie resigns as Health Minister.
M25 Three: a series of burglaries take place, and a man is murdered during the early hours around the M25 motorway.
19 December
The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors publishes its house price survey, revealing a deep recession in the housing market.
PC Gavin Carlton, 29, is shot dead in Coventry in a siege by two armed bank robbers. His colleague DC Leonard Jakeman is also shot but survives. One of the gunmen gives himself up to police, while the other shoots himself dead.
20 December – The three-month-old daughter of the Duke and Duchess of York is christened Beatrice Elizabeth Mary.
21 December – Pan Am Flight 103 explodes over the town of Lockerbie, killing a total of 270 people – 11 on the ground and all 259 who were on board.
Undated
Inflation remains low for the seventh year running, now standing at 4.9%.
The Communist Party of Britain is founded by a Marxist–Leninist faction of the Communist Party of Great Britain after the latter's leadership embraces Eurocommunism.
TAT-8, the first transatlantic telephone cable to use optical fibers, is completed, coming ashore in Cornwall.
Diggers of the foundations of the new Art Gallery at the Guildhall in the City of London accidentally discover the remains of a Roman amphitheatre, now on public display.
York City Levy, living-history group is founded.
Publications
17 May – Hello! magazine launched in the UK.
Iain M. Banks' novel The Player of Games.
Bruce Chatwin's novel Utz.
Roald Dahl's children's novel Matilda
Physicist Stephen Hawking's book A Brief History of Time.
David Lodge's novel Nice Work.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Sourcery and Wyrd Sisters.
Births
7 January – Alan Lowing, Scottish footballer
10 January
Michael McIlorum, English rugby league footballer
Rachel Williams, English footballer
12 January – Chris Casement, Northern Irish footballer
14 January
Kacey Clarke, actress
Tom Rosenthal, actor and comedian
18 January – Ironik, British musician, DJ and rapper
19 January – Danny Haynes, English footballer
24 January – Jade Ewen, singer with Sugababes, songwriter and actress
26 January – Mia Rose, singer-songwriter
13 February – Aston Merrygold, English singer in boy band JLS
17 February – Adil Rashid, English cricketer
18 February – The Blossom Twins, English twin professional wrestlers
29 February – Hannah Mills, Welsh sports sailor
2 March – James Arthur, singer-songwriter
4 March – Josh Bowman, English screen actor
23 March – Jason Kenny, English track cyclist
24 March – Finn Jones, English actor
27 March
Holliday Grainger, actress
Jessie J, singer-songwriter
28 March – Lacey Turner, English actress
1 April – Ed Drewett, English pop singer-songwriter
6 April – Fabrice Muamba, Zaire-born English footballer
14 April – Ben Lloyd-Hughes, actor
18 April – Vanessa Kirby, actress
21 April – Sophie Rundle, English actress
23 April – Steph Houghton, English footballer
26 April – S. E. Lister, novelist
5 May – Adele, English recording artist and songwriter
10 May – Adam Lallana, English footballer
15 May – Marcus Collins, English singer
17 May – Freddie Hogan, actor
23 May – Gavin Free, English cinematographer
5 June – Sam Slocombe, English footballer
20 June – Shefali Chowdhury, British actress
24 June – Micah Richards, English football player and pundit.
25 June – Mark Haskins, English professional wrestler
26 June – Samanda (Amanda and Samantha Marchant), British acting duo
2 July – Edward Randell, English musician and actor
4 July – Conor MacNeill, Northern Irish actor
5 July – Joe Lycett, comedian and presenter
7 July – Jack Whitehall, comedian
8 July – Shazad Latif, actor
13 July – Tulisa, English recording artist
15 July – Riki Christodoulou, English racing driver
19 July – Joe Tracini, English actor and presenter
23 July – Paul Anderson, English footballer
27 July – Liam Smith, English boxer
2 August – Chris Quick, Scottish editor and producer
4 August – Tom Parker, English singer (d. 2022)
8 August – Princess Beatrice, daughter of The Duke and Duchess of York
12 August – Tyson Fury, world heavyweight boxing champion
24 August – Rupert Grint, actor (Ron Weasley in the Harry Potter films)
25 August
Alexandra Burke, singer
Ray Quinn, singer and actor
31 August – Tom Hunt, politician
6 September – Max George, singer
15 September
Michael Cooper, rugby league player
Clare Maguire, singer-songwriter
28 September – Lee Collins, footballer (d. 2021)
4 October – Ashley Banjo, choreographer
12 October – Calum Scott, British singer-songwriter
13 October – Stephen Flynn, Scottish politician
25 October – Rylan Clark-Neal, born Ross Clark, television personality
28 October – Edd Gould, flash animator and creator of Eddsworld (d. 2012)
31 October
Ben Bruce, guitarist and vocalist for Asking Alexandria
Lizzy Yarnold, skeleton racer, most successful British Winter Olympian of all time
7 November – Tinie Tempah (Patrick Okogwu), rapper
12 November – Alistair Brammer, actor and singer
15 November
Ricky Norwood, English actor
Billy Twelvetrees, English rugby player
20 November – Mz Bratt (Cleo Humphrey), electro/grime artist
26 November – Tamsin Egerton, English actress and model
28 November – Joe Cole, actor
2 December
Alfred Enoch, actor
Edward Windsor, Lord Downpatrick
7 December – Benjamin Clementine, English-born singer-songwriter
13 December – Paul Johnston, English cricketer
15 December – Emily Head, English actress
16 December – Anna Popplewell, English actress
18 December – Lizzie Armitstead, racing cyclist
27 December – Sarvi Kalhor, singer and recording artist
28 December
Ched Evans, Welsh footballer
Elfyn Evans, Welsh rally driver
Florrie, English pop singer
30 December
Kirsty-Leigh Porter, English actress
Leon Jackson, Scottish singer
Deaths
January
1 January – Margot Bryant, actress (born 1897)
2 January – E. B. Ford, geneticist (born 1901)
3 January – Bill Gibb, fashion designer (born 1944)
6 January – L. P. Davies, novelist (born 1914)
7 January
Trevor Howard, actor (born 1913)
Michael Mills, television producer (born 1919)
13 January – Donald Healey, rally driver, automobile engineer and speed record holder (born 1898)
14 January – John Worrall, RAF vice marshal (born 1911)
16 January
Ballard Berkeley, actor (born 1904)
Bob Keegan, actor (born 1924)
17 January – Harry Jacobs, orchestral conductor (born 1888)
31 January – Thomas Forbes, poet and painter (born 1900)
February
1 February
Gerald Butler, crime fiction writer (born 1907)
Stephen Taylor, Baron Taylor, physician and civil servant (born 1910)
5 February – Emeric Pressburger, scriptwriter and producer (born 1902, Austria-Hungary)
6 February – Marghanita Laski, journalist, novelist and niece of Harold Laski (born 1915)
7 February – Ray Martin, composer and orchestral conductor (born 1918, Austria)
9 February
Marjorie May Bacon, painter and printmaker (born 1902)
Helen McCourt, insurance clerk (born 1965; murdered)
William Sackville, 10th Earl De La Warr, peer (born 1921; suicide)
11 February
Marion Crawford, Scottish nanny of Elizabeth II (born 1909)
Sir Arnold Ashley Miles, microbiologist (born 1904)
13 February – Léon Goossens, oboist (born 1897)
16 February – Madeleine Bingham, author and playwright, wife of John Bingham, 7th Baron Clanmorris (born 1912)
18 February – Michael Howard, actor and comedian (born 1916)
22 February
Barrie Heath, pilot and Battle of Britain veteran (born 1916)
Cecil Beresford Ramage, actor, politician and barrister (born 1895)
25 February – H. E. Todd, writer (born 1908)
27 February – Basil Boothroyd, humorous writer (born 1910)
March
2 March – Ronald Senior, Army brigadier (born 1904)
6 March – Joan Hassall, wood engraver and illustrator (born 1906)
7 March – Gordon Huntley, guitarist (born 1925)
10 March
Andy Gibb, musician (Bee Gees) (born 1958)
Hugh Lindsay, Army major and royal bodyguard (killed in avalanche) (born 1953)
Gerald Wilkinson, art historian (road accident) (born 1926)
William Wordsworth, composer (born 1908)
11 March
Christianna Brand, crime fiction writer (born 1907)
Nicholas Eliot, 9th Earl of St Germans, peer (born 1914)
12 March
Arnold Bell, actor (born 1901)
Martin Smellie, Scottish biochemist (born 1924)
13 March – Henry Johnson, railway executive (born 1906)
18 March – Percy Thrower, gardener and broadcaster (born 1913)
21 March – Patrick Steptoe, obstetrician and gynaecologist (born 1913)
26 March – George Miles, organist (born 1913)
April
4 April
Eric A. Havelock, classical scholar (born 1903)
Sir Archibald Southby, 2nd Baronet, cricketer and Army officer (born 1910)
5 April – Anthony Emery, Roman Catholic prelate (born 1918)
6 April – John Clements, actor (born 1910)
10 April – Francis Jones, physicist (born 1914)
12 April – Harry McShane, socialist (born 1891)
14 April – John Stonehouse, government minister noted for faking his own death (born 1925)
15 April – Kenneth Williams, comic actor (born 1926)
16 April – Bobby Thompson, comedian (born 1911)
17 April – Felicity Lane-Fox, Baroness Lane-Fox, disability rights campaigner (born 1918)
23 April – Michael Ramsey, Anglican prelate, Archbishop of Canterbury (1961–1974) (born 1904)
25 April – Sir Hugh Rankin, 3rd Baronet, soldier and sheep farmer (born 1899)
26 April – William Fox-Pitt, Army major-general (born 1896)
27 April – David Scarboro, actor (born 1968)
28 April – Fenner Brockway, socialist politician and pacifist (born 1888 in British India)
May
2 May – Tom Walshaw, engineer and author (born 1912)
5 May – George Rose, actor (victim of assault) (born 1920)
11 May – Kim Philby, spy (born 1912)
13 May
Sir Watkin Williams-Wynn, 10th Baronet, soldier and landowner (born 1904)
Dame Albertine Winner, physician (born 1907)
16 May
Dan Frankel, Labour politician (born 1900)
Charles Keeping, illustrator (born 1924)
17 May – Harry Shepherd, speedway rider (born 1903)
18 May
Anthony Forwood, actor (born 1915)
Sir Brandon Rhys-Williams, Conservative Party MP (born 1927)
28 May – Sir Norman Skelhorn, barrister (born 1909)
June
5 June – Michael Barrington, actor (born 1924)
8 June – Russell Harty, television presenter (born 1934)
13 June – Thomas McKeown, physician and historian of medicine (born 1912)
15 June – George Ward, 1st Viscount Ward of Witley, politician (born 1907)
17 June – Elizabeth Lane, barrister, first woman High Court judge in England (born 1905)
18 June – Elizabeth Gardner, physicist (born 1957)
24 June – Hugh Lockhart-Mummery, surgeon (born 1918)
July
3 July – George Lloyd, composer (born 1913)
4 July – Elizabeth Cockayne, nurse, first Chief Nursing Officer of the NHS (born 1894)
7 July – Jimmy Edwards, comedy actor (born 1920)
8 July
Antony Fisher, businessman (born 1915)
Freddie West, RAF Air Commodore and VC recipient (born 1896)
9 July – Barbara Woodhouse, dog trainer (born 1910)
11 July
Janet Lacey, philanthropist (born 1903)
Barbara Wootton, Baroness Wootton of Abinger, sociologist and life peer (born 1897)
12 July
Josephine Douglas, actress (born 1926)
Julian Trevelyan, artist and poet (born 1910)
22 July – Patrick Newell, actor (born 1932)
25 July
Bob Currie, motorcyclist and author (born 1918)
Douglas Hickox, film director (born 1929)
July – William Rolls, World War II air ace (born 1914)
August
1 August – Steve Mills, footballer (born 1953)
6 August – John Bingham, 7th Baron Clanmorris, peer, spy and crime fiction writer, husband of Madeleine Bingham (born 1908)
8 August – Alan Napier, actor (born 1903)
9 August – Peggy Cochrane, musician and composer (born 1902)
12 August – R. N. Smith, veterinary surgeon (born 1926)
13 August – Sydney Jacobson, Baron Jacobson, journalist and political commentator (born 1908)
19 August – Frederick Ashton, choreographer (born 1904, Ecuador)
23 August – C. Desmond Greaves, Marxist activist and historian (born 1913)
24 August – Kenneth Leighton, composer (born 1929)
25 August – Henry Joseph Gallagher, Korean War veteran (born 1914)
27 August – William Sargant, psychiatrist (born 1907)
28 August – Paul Grice, philosopher (born 1913)
September
3 September – John Goodison, musician and record producer (born 1943)
11 September – Roger Hargreaves, children's author (born 1935)
12 September – Stephen B. Grimes, production designer and art director (born 1927)
15 September – Sir Frank Francis, librarian and curator of the British Museum (born 1901)
16 September – Dick Pym, footballer (born 1893)
17 September
Nellie Beer, politician, Lord Mayor of Manchester (1966–67) (born 1900)
Robert Hall, Baron Roberthall, economist and government advisor (born 1901, Australia)
18 September – John Elliot, railway manager (born 1898)
20 September – Roy Kinnear, actor (born 1934) (fall from horse in Spain)
21 September – Christine Norden, actress (born 1924)
October
1 October – Sir Sacheverell Sitwell, 6th Baronet, writer (born 1897)
2 October
Sir Peter Hunt, Army general (born 1916)
Sir Alec Issigonis, car designer (born 1906, Ottoman Empire)
4 October – Margaret Lacey, actress (born 1911)
7 October – Christian Herbert, 6th Earl of Powis, peer (born 1904)
8 October – Charles Beauclerk, 13th Duke of St Albans, peer (born 1915)
9 October – Jackie Milburn, footballer (born 1924)
11 October
Roy Herrick, actor (born 1936)
Hugh Percy, 10th Duke of Northumberland, peer (born 1914)
14 October – Graham Hutton, economist and author (born 1904)
15 October – Kaikhosru Shapurji Sorabji, composer, music critic, pianist, and writer (born 1892)
16 October – John Gwilym Jones, Welsh dramatist (born 1904)
18 October – Michael ffolkes, illustrator and cartoonist (born 1925)
19 October – Mildred Ratcliffe, painter (born 1899)
20 October – Sheila Scott, aviator (born 1927)
26 October – Ruth Gervis, illustrator (born 1894)
27 October – Charles Hawtrey, actor (born 1914)
November
2 November – George Scott, broadcaster (born 1925)
4 November – Henry Pelham-Clinton-Hope, 9th Duke of Newcastle, peer (born 1907)
6 November – Donald Wade, Baron Wade, lawyer and politician (born 1904)
9 November – Rosemary Timperley, author (born 1920)
11 November – William Ifor Jones, Welsh composer (born 1900)
13 November – Geddes Hyslop, architect (born 1900)
15 November – Mona Washbourne, actress (born 1903)
16 November – Jennie Lee, Baroness Lee of Asheridge, Labour politician and wife of Aneurin Bevan (born 1904)
23 November – Richard Lonsdale, Army lieutenant-colonel (born 1913)
25 November – Jack Leslie, English footballer (born 1901)
December
1 December – Alun Oldfield-Davies, Welsh broadcaster (born 1905)
6 December – Derek Senior, planning expert (born 1912)
7 December – John Addison, composer (born 1920)
10 December
Johnny Lawrence, cricketer and coach (born 1911)
Dorothy de Rothschild, philanthropist and activist (born 1895)
11 December
Thomas Owen Beachcroft, writer (born 1902)
Frank S. Pepper, writer of comics (born 1910)
13 December
Brian Sinclair, veterinary surgeon (born 1915)
Roy Urquhart, major-general and World War II veteran (born 1901)
21 December
Theodora Llewelyn Davies, barrister and prison reform campaigner (born 1898)
Paul Jeffreys, rock musician, victim of the Lockerbie bombing (born 1952)
24 December – Mary Cavendish, Duchess of Devonshire, courtier (born 1895)
25 December – Edward Pelham-Clinton, 10th Duke of Newcastle, peer (born 1920)
26 December – John Loder, actor (born 1898)
29 December – Sir Ieuan Maddock, nuclear scientist (born 1917)
See also
1988 in British music
1988 in British television
List of British films of 1988
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew%20Van%20de%20Kamp
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Andrew Van de Kamp
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Andrew Van de Kamp is a fictional character in the ABC television series Desperate Housewives played by Shawn Pyfrom, and is the son of one of the title characters, Bree Van de Kamp, and her first husband Rex Van de Kamp.
As one of the few LGBT characters on prime time television secure with his sexuality, Andrew's storylines have been well received by gay groups. However, his early attitude toward his mother and various crimes have also garnered criticism.
Storylines
Past
Andrew Van de Kamp was born in 1988. There were complications at his birth as the umbilical cord wrapped around his neck. A year later, he became brother to Danielle. In 1994, he, his parents and sister moved to 4354 Wisteria Lane in Fairview. He was caught stealing porcelain by his mother from the front yard of 4352 Wisteria Lane and was forced to apologize to the owner, Mary Alice Young, with a slightly shocked Susan Mayer as a witness.
As a teenager, he intended to run for class president. The day before the announcement of the candidacy, he heard from his mother, "Are you sure? You don't have the leader gene." Later, she did not even listen to the speech.
Season 1
Andrew first appears in the "Pilot" of season one. His first speaking role is arguing with his mother, Bree, over her desire for perfection. He is attached to his father, Rex, and is upset when Bree tries to cover up their impending divorce. When he confronts her about her lies after she discovers he lied to her, she says, "Just because I chose not to share my marital problems with you does not give you the right to be rude!": and Andrew replies, "How about driving my father away? Do I get to be rude then?", and shuts the door in her face. Andrew repeatedly breaks the rules during Season 1, infuriating Bree, who eventually humiliates him by turning up at the strip club he is visiting with his friends while grounded. Bree does later apologize to Andrew (who also admits how much he misses his father) for lying to him, but removes the door to his room in punishment for him smoking marijuana.
His parents' acrimonious divorce results in Rex buying Andrew a car. Bree tries to get him to give it back but Andrew refuses. Later that episode, in his most serious crime, he knocked down Juanita "Mama" Solis with his car while drunk. Mama survived this but was in a coma in hospital and died later after waking up from the coma and falling down stairs. His parents help him cover it up but Andrew doesn't feel any remorse for his crime. He continues to misbehave and Bree gets him dropped from the school swim team for smoking marijuana in an attempt to make him regret his actions. Further angered by her refusal to allow Rex to convalesce from heart surgery at home, Andrew threatens, "You wanna see how long I can hold a grudge? Go ahead and abandon my father because I promise you will be sorry." When he finds out about his father's adultery, however, he apologizes to Bree and is angry with Rex.
When Bree tells Andrew that if he gets his friend Lisa pregnant, he will marry her. Andrew merely laughs as he is actually developing a relationship with Justin, who confesses to Gabrielle Solis that he and Andrew have been "fooling around" for some time. Andrew later crashes Zach's pool party with Justin and some friends and creates mayhem. However, after everyone else has gone home, Susan Mayer catches them naked in the swimming pool kissing; Andrew anxiously shouts, "I'm not, I'm not gay!" Susan then walks away, shocked by what she had just seen. After getting expelled from school for drug abuse and vehicular assault on a school parking attendant, as well as continuing his rudeness towards Bree, Andrew is sent to a juvenile delinquent boot camp.
Some time later, Bree and Rex visit Andrew at the camp. Andrew asks to see his father alone; Bree thinks this is because he blames her for sending him to the camp and storms into the meeting room to tell him she did the right thing. There, Rex reveals that Andrew wanted to see him alone because he fears he is gay. Bree is horrified, and despite Rex's misgivings, insists Andrew come home with them immediately, saying "Our son just told us that he might be gay. There are two hundred other boys in this camp. Now, I could explain to you what might happen if we left him here, but I'm a lady and I don't use that kind of language." Rex reminds her that he is still her son and Bree tries to comfort Andrew by telling him "I would love you even if you were a murderer".
Bree then invites Reverend Sykes to dinner, who tries to convince Andrew to enroll in Christian counselling. He refuses, saying "I'm not confused. I know exactly who I am." This deeply upsets Bree, who tells him he has to change or he will not be with her in heaven; Andrew is shocked and agrees to meet the reverend. In his final scene of the season, after swearing the reverend to secrecy, Andrew states that, not only that he does not believe in God and lied to his parents about being gay to get out of the camp. This confuses the reverend, who asks him whether he is heterosexual or not: Andrew replies, "Look, I love vanilla ice cream, okay? But every now and then I’m probably gonna be in the mood for chocolate." He then says he will get revenge on Bree for rejecting him by pretending to be a model son and then doing something so awful it is "going to really destroy her".
Season 2
Set just weeks after Rex's death, Andrew's first opening shot in Season 2 is to claim Bree is incapable of having murdered his father because "it takes guts to kill somebody". He resents George Williams for dating Bree while Rex was still alive, and is very rude to him when he sees him with Bree. Andrew shaved his head after the 1st season. Bree blackmails Andrew with swim club subs into attending dinner with George. In response, Andrew imitates Bree's pleasure moan to provoke George, who tries to send him to his room but will not tell Bree why, and she refuses to punish Andrew without a reason. George decides to get rid of Andrew by kissing his mother during his swim meet, which angers him so much that he jumps out of the pool and attacks George. That evening, Andrew packs his bags for Camp Hennessey a second time.
After George dies, Bree brings Andrew back from the camp, telling him that George killed Rex in order to marry her; Andrew is disgusted that his father is dead because of her. As a result, Andrew invites Justin to sleep over. He confides to him his reasons for hating Bree, saying:
He also confides his wish for his mother to slip up so that he can "take her down". Later, Bree confesses to Andrew that George didn't commit suicide; he overdosed and asked her to call an ambulance, but she sat and watched him die. Andrew now has the "slip up" that he was waiting for.
When Bree sees Andrew kissing Justin outside her window, she forbids him to bring his boyfriend round again. Andrew mocks her and ensures Bree later walks in them in bed together. Bree threatens to call the police and have Justin forcibly removed, but Andrew replies that he will tell them about what happened to George. This backfires, however, when Bree hires Karl Mayer, a lawyer/friend of the family, who not only explains that Bree has not committed a crime but slams Andrew against a wall and orders him to leave her alone.
Along with his sister, Andrew notices Bree's increasing alcohol consumption, and uses it against her. When Bree refuses to let Andrew access his trust fund to buy a car, he calls her a "mean old drunk", and she slaps him. Andrew emotionally blackmails Justin into punching him in the same place Bree slapped him. He then hires a lawyer to file for emancipation from his mother, whom he accuses of hitting him while drunk. Andrew tries to persuade her in "There Is No Other Way" to just let him go, but she refuses saying she hasn't "set him right" yet. Andrew, after consultation with his lawyer, tells Bree in "Could I Leave You?" that he will accuse her of molesting him if he does not get his way.
Bree's father and stepmother arrive, and convince the judge to drop the case. They try to reconcile the two, but Andrew persuades them to let him live with them. Justin is heartbroken when he finds out, and when Bree asks him why, replies:
Bree persuades Justin to supply her with gay magazines and videos, which she plants among Andrew's things for his grandparents to find; they then leave Andrew behind, and revoke his trust fund. In an attempt to make peace, Bree invites Justin to dinner. Andrew, at this point in time, has attempted to cause pain to his mother multiple times for sinister and unjust causes.
Andrew, however, doesn't give up hating his mother or trying to hurt her. He discovers that Peter McMillian, Bree's boyfriend, is a sex addict, and tries to persuade his sister Danielle Van de Kamp to seduce him. After she refuses, he lures Peter into bed himself, where Bree finds them. Bree finally gives up and leaves him with a bag of clothes and some money by an abandoned gas station because she can no longer love him unconditionally. In his final scene for the season, Andrew, realizing he really is about to lose his mom, tells her that the only good thing is that he has won, Bree - who had already been hurt and betrayed by Andrew multiple times - decides not to argue with him and simply slips him a "good for you."
Season 3
Eight months after the end of Season 2, Bree is about to leave for her honeymoon with Orson when she sees a news report on television about homeless teenagers, in which Andrew is interviewed. Horrified at what has happened to him, she cancels her honeymoon and sets out to retrieve Andrew, eventually finding him in a soup kitchen; she asks him to come back but he refuses. When she shouts "I'm your mother, for God's sakes, you're my son!", Andrew replies "No, you dumped your son at a gas station seven months ago. I'm somebody else now", and runs. When Orson sees how guilty Bree feels, he finds Andrew himself and buys him lunch. During their conversation, Andrew admits he worked the streets as a rent boy whenever he was desperate for money, and asks Orson not to tell his mother, before realizing what he's said and correcting himself. Orson does not try to force Andrew to come home but instead points out that the reason he is living on the streets is to punish his mother, and ultimately he will only destroy himself. Andrew does not initially appear to heed this, but returns home the next day at the end of "A Weekend In the Country".
Bree is delighted, but insists on concocting a reason for Andrew's long absence. Returning to normal social activities, he is disconcerted to see one of his former clients at a school science fair. Orson is worried for Andrew, which Bree notices and asks him about later that night. Wanting no secrets, Orson confesses that Andrew sold himself for money, and that the man he had been talking to was a previous client. Bree, shocked, and a friend of the man's wife, confesses all to her. She takes it badly, and tells Bree in return that Danielle is sleeping with her history teacher. Later, Andrew watches the tail end of her argument with Danielle and, concerned, he tries to comfort Bree, explaining that she did instill moral values, "I mean, we know the difference between right and wrong, we just chose wrong", but also that she pushed them so hard they had to rebel. Bree tries to subtly get him to talk about his prostitution, but he gently brushes her off. Andrew has since got a job working at Tom's pizzeria, though he takes a fairly lax attitude to his work.
When Andrew overhears the conversation between Bree and Orson about the death of Monique Polier, he believes that it is Orson's fault when his mother suffers a fall from a rigged ladder. Warning Orson that he has never met "bad Andrew", but he will if he harms Bree further, Andrew then tells the nurse that Orson is dangerous and should not be left alone with Bree. Later, Andrew leaves Bree under the care of Danielle who is upset she cannot go to the Scavo's pizzeria. Danielle then decides to leave Bree with Gloria, who unexpectedly shows up with soup. At the pizzeria, Andrew sees Danielle, and she confesses she left Bree with Gloria and he then rushes home. However, in "The Little Things You Do Together", he is knocked out by Gloria Hodge, who actually harmed Bree and intends to kill her. When Andrew comes round, he discovers that Orson has actually been trying to protect Bree, and their relationship returns to normal.
Andrew had no romance this season, though he reveals to Julie Mayer and Danielle that he has tried to seduce Austin McCann, Edie's nephew by telling them that Austin is not even gay after three beers in "No Fits, No Fights, No Feuds." It is Andrew who convinces Austin to leave Fairview after he impregnates Danielle. In the episode "Liaisons" Andrew reveals he is only working at the Scavo's Pizzeria for $8.50 an hour because he is "doing the beer delivery guy."
Andrew is much more protective of his mother this season, with the two having largely repaired their formerly rocky relationship.
Season 4
Andrew accidentally leads his grandmother to discover that Bree is not really pregnant. He is there when his sister, Danielle, gives birth to her son.
After Andrew hears his mother talking about how she looks forward to this new chance to finally raise a child correctly, he becomes upset. He decides to move out of his mother's house and get his own apartment. Bree feels guilty and brings food to his house. Andrew tells his mother that he is not angry anymore and has forgiven her, he's moved out to try to turn his life around and stand on his own. Bree and Andrew are finally able to reach a full reconciliation. Andrew then makes Bree use a coaster for her drink, providing a humorous moment between the two as she thinks he is becoming more like her. In the season finale, in a scene set five years in the future, Andrew is in business with Bree, who is now a successful author.
Five-year jump
Andrew becomes Bree's personal assistant for her catering company and is engaged to a man named Alex Cominis.
Season 5
This season Shawn Pyfrom is promoted from "also-starring" to "starring".
Five years later, Andrew is now the personal assistant of his mother, Bree, who, with her new cookbook, is a rising public figure similar to Martha Stewart. He has appeared to have matured and is usually seen alongside his mother wearing a suit. He apparently makes a decent living as he owns a sports car.
Orson Hodge's plastic surgeon, Alex Cominis, is Andrew's fiancé. When Bree discovers that Alex was once in gay porn, she tells Andrew and is surprised to learn that Andrew already knew and did not judge Alex for his past mistakes as he himself has a "sordid past" (referring to the feud between himself and his mother following the death of his father, and his work as a rent boy seven years earlier).
Andrew accuses Bree of being too protective by investigating Alex. She admits to this, and Andrew — to her surprise — is glad. It is then insinuated that Bree has come to accept her son's sexuality and plans on handling the wedding. When Andrew's soon-to-be mother in-law comes to town, in order to out-do her, Bree decides to buy Andrew and Alex the former home of Martha Huber and Felicia Tilman, which is only two houses down and on Wisteria Lane.
Season 6
Shawn Pyfrom quit Desperate Housewives and did not return as a series regular. He did, however, continue to make occasional guest appearances.
He first returns in "The God-Why-Don't-You-Love-Me Blues" to visit Julie while she is in the hospital. There he reveals to her mother, Susan Delfino, that she dropped out of Medical School and has been a waitress while figuring out what to do with her life. He also reveals that she has been involved with a married man who turns out to be Angie's husband, Nick.
Andrew appears in a non-speaking cameo, gardening with Bree in "You Gotta Get a Gimmick".
In "The Chase", Bree's new employee Sam Allen (Samuel Page) suggests that Andrew has been sleeping with incompetent employee Tad (Eric Ian Colton). Andrew admits to Sam and his mother that he had a one-time affair with Tad, and defends his actions by stating he had been drinking when Tad came on to him. Bree mentions that Andrew still lives together with Alex, insinuating he is practically committing adultery. Andrew takes this as an opportunity to throw his knowledge of Bree's own affair with Karl Mayer in her face. It becomes clear that Andrew and Sam do not like each other, and that Sam's place with the company will be a source of conflict between Andrew and Bree. Sam soon reveals that he is Rex's son and Bree welcomes him into the family. Andrew isn't happy with his presence and he and Orson are both suspicious of Sam's true intentions and decide to investigate. Bree soon realizes Sam is emotionally unstable and tries to fire him. However, Sam has discovered (via a drunken Danielle) how Andrew killed Carlos' mother and blackmails her into signing over the company to him. Orson, who had been unaware of Andrew's crime, is upset at Bree covering for her son while demanding Orson turn himself in for his hit-and-run of Mike and leaves Bree. Realizing Orson is right, Bree tells Andrew she has to tell Gabrielle the truth.
Season 7
Bree reveals the truth about Mama Solis's death to Gabrielle in "Remember Paul?", and they agree not to tell Carlos for the sake of Andrew's safety and the Solis marriage (Andrew does not appear in this episode). In "You Must Meet My Wife", Bree accidentally hits Juanita Solis with her car, Bree and Andrew go to the hospital to make sure Juanita is fine. There, Andrew thanks Gaby for not telling Carlos, but she yells at both him and Bree for trying to run down her whole family. Later on, she forgives them both.
Andrew next appears in "Down the Block There's a Riot". Lynette knocks on Andrew's door to make sure Andrew has no intention of selling his house to Paul Young. Andrew acts insulted, and asks "do you really think I would do that to my mother?", to which Lynette replies "I don't know, you were pretty nasty as a teenager". Andrew is also seen at the homeowners' meeting, and during the riot.
In "Everything's Different, Nothing's Changed", Bree fears Andrew is showing signs of alcoholism and it is revealed by Alex that Andrew has indeed been drinking every day. Bree later confronts Andrew about his addiction and learns that Alex has left him over it. Bree convinces Andrew to attend AA and allow her to help him, by talking to each other.
In "Moments in the Woods", Andrew is seeking to make amends, and decides to tell Carlos about running over his mother, over Bree's objections. When Carlos invites Andrew on a camping trip, Bree and Gabrielle fear the worst and follow them. Finding Carlos with a bloody towel and a dirty shovel, Bree jumps to conclusions and blurts out what Andrew did, just as her son enters the cabin. Carlos is outraged at Andrew and Bree for hiding this, and tries to force Andrew to drink to Mama Solis's memory. Carlos leaves the cabin and the trio track him down to his mother's grave. When Bree tries to take responsibility for Andrew's condition, he tells her it's time he finally stood up for his own mistakes. He and Carlos talk and Carlos is able to forgive him for a teenage mistake (although he does blame Bree for hiding it all this time).
Season 8
Andrew returns home and surprises Bree by revealing he's engaged to a woman named Mary Beth. When she learns the woman is an heiress, Bree believes Andrew is just marrying her for her money. She arranges an "engagement party" with several of Andrew's gay friends. Mary Beth reveals that she knows Andrew is gay but has been unlucky in love so is willing to be with him. Bree encourages her to find a man to truly love her, however, and she breaks up with Andrew. He's upset as he had lost his job and has massive debt but Bree convinces him to stay with her and let her help him get back on his feet.
Characterization
Andrew is partially based on writer Marc Cherry himself, who copied much of Bree's dialogue from his own mother's reaction when he came out to her. Andrew can be selfish and manipulative, and regularly uses other people to get what he wants, for example, persuading his boyfriend Justin to hit him so he can claim Bree is abusing him. He has also committed a range of crimes, from being expelled from school for smoking marijuana, to running over Mamá Solis while drunk. After Bree hushed up the accident for him, he then refused to feel bad, reasoning "She's an old lady! I have my whole life ahead of me!" Marc Cherry has referred to him as being sociopathic. In Season 3, however, Andrew seems to have matured after spending eight months living on the streets.
While fans have heatedly debated his sexual orientation, Shawn Pyfrom has denied that Andrew is totally homosexual, implying he is bisexual. When asked whether Andrew was specifically gay or bisexual, Pyfrom stated "I really don’t even know at this point. I mean, he did make that statement [that’s he’s bisexual]. I think he’s a little more gay than he is straight, though." In "My Husband, the Pig", he refers to Austin as a "dog" and himself as a "dog-lover". Whatever Andrew is, he is one of a few LGBT teens on television secure with his sexuality. Marc Cherry has commented, "Andrew Van de Kamp is perhaps the most empowered gay teen in the history of television. He's gay and he doesn't care."
From Andrew's hurt reaction to his mother's rejection of him, it appears that he deeply loves his mother, as his determination to hurt her in Season 2 is so he can "stop loving her first". He also loves and respects his father, and only Rex who can get him to stop tormenting Bree in Season 1, albeit briefly. Later on in Season 2, Karl, another strong male figure, has some similar success in forcing Andrew to stop harassing Bree temporarily. In Season 3, it is Orson, and not Bree, who persuades Andrew to return home and whom he continues to respect throughout the season.
Andrew is very protective of his mother, as is shown in Season 2 when he attacks George after George tries to kiss Bree against her will, and then in Season 3 where he threatens Orson under the belief that Orson may hurt Bree. By the fifth season, a more mature Andrew has inherited traits that he once ridiculed his mother for having, such as blunt sarcasm. His relationship with his mother has also changed dramatically for the better.
Critical reception
As Andrew is a minor character in Desperate Housewives, he is rarely mentioned by critics. However, his storylines have occasionally attracted press coverage. In 2005, when Andrew kissed character Justin while engaging in late night foreplay in a pool in the episode "Impossible", gay groups applauded a primetime television show willing to show a romantic gay kiss; only six network television shows had done so in the past twenty years, as opposed to thirty for lesbian kisses. Despite the fact that some Christian groups had protested Desperate Housewives before it had even aired, few prominent leaders said anything about the kiss.
Shawn Pyfrom has stated that he has received many letters from gay teens who have been encouraged by Andrew's ease with his sexuality as one of the few secure and confident LGBT teenage characters on television. Marc Cherry has expressed bemusement at this, saying, "to young people, Andrew is something of a role model which is a little appalling to me because he's something of a sociopath!" However, Pyfrom commented that he saw this as a good thing:
Andrew's relentless torment of his mother and other devious exploits have been negatively received by critics, with one declaring him a "Class-A jerk". The Parent's Television Council named "I Know Things Now" as their "Worst Episode of the Week", in part due to Andrew's seduction of Bree's boyfriend. However, his improved behavior and deep love for his mother in Season 3 has also disappointed some critics, with one saying "if he has any lines at all, he's a little angel...as if he's become something of a Stepford son!"
References
The time given is accurate to within 10 seconds, excluding commercial breaks.
External links
Interview with Shawn Pyfrom about his character.
Desperate Housewives characters
Fictional gay men
Teenage characters in television
Fictional male prostitutes
Television characters introduced in 2004
Fictional LGBT characters in television
Fictional characters in a same-sex marriage
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20NASCAR%20Winston%20Cup%20Series
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1991 NASCAR Winston Cup Series
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The 1991 NASCAR Winston Cup Series was the 43rd of professional stock car racing in the United States and the 20th modern-era Cup Season. It began February 10 and ended November 17. Dale Earnhardt of Richard Childress Racing won his fifth Winston Cup championship at the conclusion of the season. The season was marred by the death of driver and team owner J. D. McDuffie, who was killed in a wreck at Watkins Glen.
A bevy of new Pit rules were introduced at Daytona to start out the 1991 season, in response to the death of a Melling Racing rear tire changer in a pit road accident at Atlanta the previous November. The new rules changed the complexity of the races, and over the course of the season, they would be tweaked and revised. By mid-season, most of the more complicated rules were scrapped, but a few were made permanent. The pit road speed limit (at all times) and use of the "lollipop" style signboard were the significant changes made permanent (and remain to this day).
The 1991 season introduced the past champion's provisional (also known as the "Petty rule"), which allowed a former Cup Series champion to claim the final starting position in a race if he failed to qualify on speed, and if he was too low in the points standings to secure an ordinary provisional spot. If there were two or more former champions that failed to qualify, the Champion's Provisional would be awarded to the most recent champion. This rule was implemented after Richard Petty failed to qualify for four races in 1989, resulting in a drop in ratings that season.
The 1991 season was also the final year for Buick as a full-time manufacturer in the series; Buick cars would run only limited schedules in 1992 and 1993 before leaving the series for good.
The Nashville Network debuted as a cable television partner with the Cup Series in 1991. For 1991, there were five television networks broadcasting the 29-race Winston Cup Series schedule: CBS, ABC, ESPN, TBS, and TNN.
This would be the last season until 2017 without Jeff Gordon.
1991 NASCAR Winston Cup Series drivers
Full-time teams
Part-time teams
Schedule
Races
Busch Clash
The Busch Clash, an invitational event for all Busch Pole winners the previous year, was held February 10 at Daytona International Speedway. The #10 of Derrike Cope started in first (the starting grid was determined by a blind draw).
Top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
6–Mark Martin
9–Bill Elliott
4–Ernie Irvan
2–Rusty Wallace
25–Ken Schrader
42–Kyle Petty
5–Ricky Rudd
11–Geoff Bodine
26–Brett Bodine
After several years of mediocre competition, the race's format was slightly re-tooled. Instead of a single 20-lap sprint, the race was divided into two 10-lap segments. After the first 10-lap half, the caution was displayed (caution laps did not count), freezing the field. The field was inverted for the second 10-lap half. Prize money was awarded for finishing positions in both halves, encouraging drivers to race hard during the first segment, and not hold back or "sandbag" in order to start up front for the second half.
Gatorade 125s
The Gatorade 125s, qualifying races for the Daytona 500 were held February 14 at Daytona International Speedway. Davey Allison and Ernie Irvan won the pole for each race, respectively.
Race one: top ten results
28–Davey Allison
43–Richard Petty
12–Hut Stricklin
1–Rick Mast
5–Ricky Rudd
33–Harry Gant
30–Michael Waltrip
9–Bill Elliott
21–Dale Jarrett
11–Geoff Bodine
Race two: top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
4–Ernie Irvan
42–Kyle Petty
2–Rusty Wallace
17–Darrell Waltrip
22–Sterling Marlin
75–Joe Ruttman
88–Buddy Baker
6–Mark Martin
68–Bobby Hamilton
Daytona 500 by STP
The Daytona 500 by STP was held on February 17 at Daytona International Speedway. Davey Allison won the pole.
Top ten results
4–Ernie Irvan
22–Sterling Marlin
75–Joe Ruttman
1–Rick Mast
3–Dale Earnhardt
21–Dale Jarrett −1
27–Bobby Hillin Jr. −1
7–Alan Kulwicki −1
5–Ricky Rudd −1
68–Bobby Hamilton −1
A bevy of new Pit rules were introduced at Daytona to start out the 1991 season, in response to the death of a Melling Racing rear tire changer in a pit road accident at Atlanta the previous November. The new rules changed the complexity of the race, and would be tweaked and revised over the next several races.
Earnhardt was again a dominating factor, but for the 13th time in his career, he came away empty. After a late-race caution, Irvan led, Earnhardt was second and pole-sitter Davey Allison was third. Earnhardt and Allison battled door-to-door for three laps while Irvan inched out to a slight advantage. Finally, with three laps remaining, Allison and Earnhardt touched, sending both of them into a wild spin. The race finished under caution with Irvan scoring the most significant win of a NASCAR Winston Cup competitor's career. Sterling Marlin, in his first race with Junior Johnson, finished second followed by Joe Ruttman, Rick Mast and Earnhardt. Irvan won the first leg of the Winston Million races and qualified for the $1 million bonus. To collect the Winston bonus, he would have needed to win two of the three remaining "Crown Jewel" races, the Winston 500, Coca-Cola 600 or Southern 500, a feat which he failed to accomplish this year.
Pontiac Excitement 400
The Pontiac Excitement 400 was held February 24 at Richmond International Raceway. The #28 of Davey Allison won the pole.
Top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
5–Ricky Rudd
33–Harry Gant
2–Rusty Wallace
7–Alan Kulwicki
6–Mark Martin
17–Darrell Waltrip
15–Morgan Shepherd −1
22–Sterling Marlin −2
25–Ken Schrader −2
Failed to qualify:
70–J. D. McDuffie
Fueled by his Daytona disappointment, Earnhardt rebounded with a heart-stopping car length victory over Ricky Rudd. Ironically, the door-to-door battle between the two Chevrolet drivers proved to be a prelude to the chase for the $1 million NASCAR Winston Cup points title. Earnhardt left Richmond with a 340–318 point lead over Rudd. The two drivers would remain 1–2 all season long, occasionally trading the point.
Goodwrench 500
The Goodwrench 500 was held March 3 at North Carolina Motor Speedway. Kyle Petty won the pole.
Top ten results
42–Kyle Petty
25–Ken Schrader
33–Harry Gant −1
5–Ricky Rudd −1
9–Bill Elliott −1
4–Ernie Irvan −2
30–Michael Waltrip −2
3–Dale Earnhardt −3
17–Darrell Waltrip −4
15–Morgan Shepherd −4
Failed to qualify:
64–Gary Wright, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 82–Mark Stahl
This was the first live flag to flag Winston Cup Series race televised on TNN. Both races at Rockingham, along with Dover, and the series penultimate race at Phoenix, switched from ESPN to TNN starting in 1991. This was after ESPN moved some races to tape delay at the last minute in 1990. ESPN likewise decided to drop some of the longer, less-prestigious events, in favor of freeing up their schedules in favor of other sports (which they were rapidly gaining rights to at the time). This was not the first race ever on TNN, however. Previous Winston Cup races had been shown tape delayed on American Sports Cavalcade.
Motorcraft 500
The Motorcraft 500 started on March 18 but heavy rain forced the finish of the race to be postponed to March 19, the race was run at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Alan Kulwicki won the pole.
Top ten results
25–Ken Schrader
9–Bill Elliott
3–Dale Earnhardt
15–Morgan Shepherd
30–Michael Waltrip
5–Ricky Rudd
22–Sterling Marlin
7–Alan Kulwicki* −1
17–Darrell Waltrip −1
2–Rusty Wallace −1
Failed to qualify:
49–Stanley Smith, 82–Mark Stahl*
This was the last NASCAR race in this series not to be televised. It has been slated to air on ABC but was a two-day race because of rain early in the race. The majority of the race was not televised on TV (Motor Racing Network was able to cover the entirety of the race on the radio) and results were only available on local news.
It was this race where Alan Kulwicki first gained his iconic Hooters sponsorship. Hooters was initially Mark Stahl's sponsor, but after Stahl failed to qualify for Hooter's home race, Hooters moved their sponsorship to Kulwicki's unsponsored machine.
TranSouth 500
The TranSouth 500 was held April 7 at Darlington Raceway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
5–Ricky Rudd
28–Davey Allison
30–Michael Waltrip
6–Mark Martin −1
2–Rusty Wallace −2
42–Kyle Petty −2
4–Ernie Irvan −2
15–Morgan Shepherd −2
11–Geoff Bodine −2
22–Sterling Marlin −2
Failed to qualify: #82–Mark Stahl
Valleydale Meats 500
The Valleydale Meats 500 was held April 14 at Bristol Motor Speedway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
2–Rusty Wallace
4–Ernie Irvan
28–Davey Allison
6–Mark Martin
5–Ricky Rudd
17–Darrell Waltrip
21–Dale Jarrett
98–Jimmy Spencer
94–Terry Labonte
15–Morgan Shepherd −2
Failed to qualify:
52–Jimmy Means, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 71–Dave Marcis
Sterling Marlin suffered second and third degree burns following a crash late in the race.
After numerous complaints about the pit road procedure where cars could not pit for tires under caution, NASCAR attempted a new procedure for cautions. When the pits opened, the blue flag waved to permit the odd-numbered cars to pit first. The second lap, the even-numbered cars (based on starting position) would then be able to pit. The blue-sticker cars lined up on the inside, the orange-sticker cars on the outside, and lapped cars to the rear on all restarts. Pit road was open for any car on green flag situations.
ESPN moved the finish of the race on tape delay because of a rain delay lasting 1 hour and 12 minutes.
First Union 400
The First Union 400 was held April 21 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. The #26 of Brett Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
17–Darrell Waltrip
3–Dale Earnhardt
98–Jimmy Spencer
15–Morgan Shepherd
25–Ken Schrader
28–Davey Allison
30–Michael Waltrip
9–Bill Elliott
6–Mark Martin
4–Ernie Irvan
Failed to qualify:
19–Chad Little, 41–Larry Pearson, 44–Irv Hoerr, 47–Rich Bickle, 51–Jeff Purvis, 52–Jimmy Means, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 76–Bill Sedgwick
NASCAR tinkered and modified the pit procedure one final time. The odd/even policy was abandoned. On the first lap of a caution flag after the field had lined up behind the pace car, all cars on the lead lap could pit. On the second lap of caution following the opening of pit road, all of the cars that were not on the lead lap could pit. The rule was waived if NASCAR called a "quickie caution". A new pit speed limit was implemented, and for the remainder of the 1991 season, cars would be run through pit road for tachometer readings. The use of a "second" pace car during cautions for the pit road (to control the speed) was abandoned. The pit speed limit was in place for all situations when a car was on pit road, including green flag stops. A violation of the speed limit on entrance was subject to a 15-second holding penalty before the car exited the pit. A violation on exit was subject to a stop-and-go penalty. A violation under caution resulted in being sent to the rear of the field on the ensuing restart.
Waltrip's victory set a modern era NASCAR record with seven different winners in the first seven races of the season (at the time). It was the overall longest such streak since 1964.
Sterling Marlin, still recovering from burns suffered in his accident the previous week, was relieved by Charlie Glotzbach shortly after the start of the race.
Hanes 500
The Hanes 500 was held April 28 at Martinsville Speedway. The #6 of Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
42–Kyle Petty
17–Darrell Waltrip
26–Brett Bodine
33–Harry Gant −1
98–Jimmy Spencer −1
30–Michael Waltrip −1
28–Davey Allison −1
7–Alan Kulwicki −3
12–Hut Stricklin −4
Failed to qualify:
10–Derrike Cope, 52–Jimmy Means, 68–Bobby Hamilton, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 71–Dave Marcis
Dale Earnhardt becomes the 9th driver to win 50+ NASCAR races.
Ernie Irvan required relief from Dick Trickle during the race due to heat exhaustion. Trickle had started the race in the #34 Buick for owner Ken Allen, but finished last (32nd) after overheating problems popped up after only 12 laps.
Winston 500
The Winston 500 was scheduled for Sunday, May 5 but was delayed to Monday, May 6 due to rain at Talladega Superspeedway. Ernie Irvan won the pole.
Top ten results
33–Harry Gant
17–Darrell Waltrip
3–Dale Earnhardt
22–Sterling Marlin
30–Michael Waltrip
11–Geoff Bodine
25–Ken Schrader
9–Bill Elliott
98–Jimmy Spencer
1–Rick Mast −1
Failed to qualify:
59–Mark Gibson, 65–Dave Mader III, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 77–Ken Ragan, 53–Don Paul
Ernie Irvan was also the center of controversy after "The Big One" on lap 71, which took out 20 cars and injured Kyle Petty, who was out until the Southern 500 in September due to a broken leg.
During the Big One on lap 71, Mark Martin's car became airborne, lifting to its nose, but it did not flip over.
Harry Gant won the race on a gas-mileage gamble. He out-lasted Darrell Waltrip and Dale Earnhardt, and reportedly ran out of fuel right after taking the checkered flag.
A mild controversy stirred up after the race, where it appeared Gant was being pushed by his teammate Rick Mast on the final lap (pushing is not allowed on the final lap). Video footage was inconclusive, and the results were unchanged. Gant and Mast insisted they were simply drafting very closely.
Dale Earnhardt would take over the points lead from Ricky Rudd. He would hold on to the lead for the rest of 1991.
Footage of Kyle Petty's rehabilitation from his injury was shown during the starting lineup on the telecast of the 1992 Daytona 500 on CBS.
The Winston
The Winston, an invitational event for all past winners in the Cup series and the top three finishers in The Winston Open, was held May 19 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Davey Allison won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
25–Ken Schrader
17–Darrell Waltrip
9–Bill Elliott
4–Ernie Irvan
30–Michael Waltrip (Winston Open Winner)
2–Rusty Wallace
12–Hut Stricklin (Winston Open 3rd place)
33–Harry Gant
3–Dale Earnhardt
Winston Open
The Winston Open, a qualifying race for drivers who are normally not eligible for The Winston, was held May 19 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. Michael Waltrip won the pole. The top three finishers would be eligible to run in The Winston later that day.
Top ten results
30–Michael Waltrip
22–Sterling Marlin
12–Hut Stricklin
1–Rick Mast
68–Bobby Hamilton
43–Richard Petty
47–Greg Sacks
19–Chad Little
94–Terry Labonte
71–Dave Marcis
Winston Legends Race
During the festivities of The Winston, a special exhibition race of 22 retired NASCAR legends took place on a quarter-mile oval paved in the quad oval segment of the speedway. Elmo Langley battled Cale Yarborough on the final lap, and held him off for the victory by less than a car length. Dick Brooks started on the pole.
Top ten results
64–Elmo Langley
11–Cale Yarborough
99–Paul Goldsmith
06–Neil Castles
28–Fred Lorenzen
14–Coo Coo Marlin
61–Hoss Ellington
90–Dick Brooks
42–Marvin Panch
300–Tim Flock
The race was shortened by 10 laps due to damp conditions.
Coca-Cola 600
The Coca-Cola 600 was held May 26 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #6 of Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
25–Ken Schrader
3–Dale Earnhardt
33–Harry Gant
21–Dale Jarrett
12–Hut Stricklin
4–Ernie Irvan −1
17–Darrell Waltrip −1
5–Ricky Rudd −1
94–Terry Labonte −1
Failed to qualify:
29–Kerry Teague, 44–Bobby Labonte, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 82–Mark Stahl, 99–Brad Teague, 86–Jeff Green
During the previous week's The Winston, the #11 Junior Johnson-owned Ford was thrown out of the track. Johnson, crew chief Tim Brewer, and substitute driver Tommy Ellis were suspended for 12 weeks for the engine being larger than the legal limit of 358 cubic inches. Regular driver Geoff Bodine was injured in a practice crash for The Winston at Charlotte and was out for two races plus The Winston. All three parties appealed; Johnson and Brewer's suspensions were cut to four races, and Ellis, who drove as a late substitute, had his suspension nullified. Here, Ellis finished the race in 16th, 4 laps down. During the ban, Johnson designated his wife Flossie as the car owner and changed the number of the car to 97.
Budweiser 500
The Budweiser 500 was held June 3 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #30 of Michael Waltrip* won the pole.
Top ten results
25–Ken Schrader*
3–Dale Earnhardt
33–Harry Gant
4–Ernie Irvan
6–Mark Martin
12–Hut Stricklin
17–Darrell Waltrip −1
15–Morgan Shepherd −2
2–Rusty Wallace −2
5–Ricky Rudd −3
Failed to qualify:
45-Billy Fulcher, 80-Jimmy Horton, 85-Bobby Gerhart, 47-Rich Bickle
This race marked Ken Schrader's fourth and last victory in the Winston Cup Series. All four of his Cup Series wins came in the #25 car for Hendrick Motorsports.
This was Michael Waltrip's first career pole position in the Winston Cup Series.
Banquet Frozen Foods 300
The Banquet Frozen Foods 300 was held June 9 at Sears Point Raceway. Ricky Rudd won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
5–Ricky Rudd
2–Rusty Wallace
4–Ernie Irvan
25–Ken Schrader
94–Terry Labonte
3–Dale Earnhardt
97–Geoff Bodine*
6–Mark Martin
30–Michael Waltrip
A wild finish ended in controversy. Accomplished Trans-Am champion and NASCAR road course ringer Tommy Kendall (substituting for the injured Kyle Petty) was leading Mark Martin with 4 laps to go, in Felix Sabates' #42 Pontiac. Going into the turn 7 hairpin, Martin slid by on the outside, but the cars made contact, and Martin spun out. Kendall suffered a flat tire, and limped back to the pits. With 2 laps remaining, Davey Allison who had been running third took the lead. Allison led Ricky Rudd into turn 11 as the cars were anticipating seeing the white flag. Rudd's nose got inside, touched Allison's rear bumper, and Allison spun out with the white flag waving. Allison refired, and got back on to the track to hold on to second position. The next time by, Ricky Rudd was displayed the black flag and penalized 5 seconds for "dirty driving." Allison, the second car in line, was given the checkered flag and declared the winner. Rudd officially dropped back to 2nd place, with the black flag being reduced to a 5-second penalty following Allison's time of victory. After the race, Dave Marcis, a lapped car who was right behind the incident and saw it unfold, claimed that Rudd's tap was not dirty, and in his opinion was simply drivers racing hard on the final lap.
Geoff Bodine returned after missing two races and The Winston because of an injury during a practice crash for The Winston.
Champion Spark Plug 500
The Champion Spark Plug 500 was held June 16 at Pocono Raceway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
17–Darrell Waltrip
3–Dale Earnhardt
6–Mark Martin
33–Harry Gant
97–Geoff Bodine
4–Ernie Irvan
25–Ken Schrader
22–Sterling Marlin
15–Morgan Shepherd
10–Derrike Cope
A caution flag was thrown during the race for (oddly enough) a chicken attempting to cross the track.
This race was plagued by rain, even causing a red flag at one point, but it still ran to the full 500 mile distance.
During the race, the wife of ESPN color commentator Benny Parsons, Connie, died of an illness. ESPN announcers Bob Jenkins and Ned Jarrett broke word of her death coming back from a commercial. A video exists of the satellite feed, in which Jenkins and Jarrett were informed of Connie's passing (Benny Parsons was in North Carolina with her), and previewed an obituary slide that was shown after the commercial break.
Bill Elliott, whose day ended early with a valve problem, would leave to return to his hometown of Dawsonville, Georgia, as his grandmother also died later on that same day (when interviewed after his car's problems developed, he mentioned that he had no word of his grandmother's condition at the time of the interview, but that she was still alive before the race began).
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held June 23 at Michigan International Speedway. The #30 of Michael Waltrip won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
12–Hut Stricklin
6–Mark Martin
3–Dale Earnhardt
4–Ernie Irvan
25–Ken Schrader
17–Darrell Waltrip
5–Ricky Rudd
15–Morgan Shepherd –1
33–Harry Gant –1
Failed to qualify: #70–J. D. McDuffie, #53–Don Paul
Geoff Bodine's team reverted to the #11 following owner Junior Johnson's return from his 4-race suspension.
Pepsi 400
The Pepsi 400 was held July 6 at Daytona International Speedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole.
Top ten results
9–Bill Elliott
11–Geoff Bodine
28–Davey Allison
25–Ken Schrader
4–Ernie Irvan
30–Michael Waltrip
3–Dale Earnhardt
22–Sterling Marlin
5–Ricky Rudd
98–Jimmy Spencer
Failed to qualify:
95–Kerry Teague, 70–J. D. McDuffie, 80–Jimmy Horton, 95–Eddie Bierschwale, 0–Delma Cowart
This race is probably best known for a wild crash involving the #17 of Darrell Waltrip and the #75 of Joe Ruttman on lap 119. Sterling Marlin got loose, slid into Alan Kulwicki, and Kulwicki slid into Ruttman. Waltrip and Ruttman hooked together on the backstretch and veered into the grass, jumping over part of the infield road course (both cars got all 4 wheels off the ground when this happened). Waltrip's car landed hard on the left side, dug into the dirt and grass, and barrel rolled while Ruttman's car spun back toward the racing surface.
This was Bill Elliott's last win for Melling Racing; he would drive for Junior Johnson beginning in 1992. It was also Elliott's only win in a car that was not red (it was a blue Ford Thunderbird, sponsored by Coors Light).
This race was the first race Benny Parsons covered for ESPN after the loss of his wife Connie three weeks earlier.
A bizarre sidelight emerged involving Terry Labonte (driving the #94 Sunoco Oldsmobile Cutlass). Labonte would drop out of the race after 8 laps claiming an engine vibration, but when the car was tested in the garage, the engine was working normally. By that time, however, Labonte had already left and with the team unable to find a replacement driver, it was ultimately decided that the car would not attempt to return to the race. However, more info about this came to light in a book called Behind The Wall by Richard Huff where Labonte stated that the wrong car type was brought to the track (Intermediate car instead of Superspeedway car) and Labonte refused to continue due to the car being so slow; it would not keep up in the draft.
Miller Genuine Draft 500
The Miller Genuine Draft 500 was held July 21 at Pocono Raceway. The #7 of Alan Kulwicki won the pole. The race was shortened to 179 laps due to rain.
Top ten results
2–Rusty Wallace*
6–Mark Martin
11–Geoff Bodine
12–Hut Stricklin
22–Sterling Marlin
21–Dale Jarrett
4–Ernie Irvan
26–Brett Bodine
9–Bill Elliott −1
75–Joe Ruttman −1
Failed to qualify:
85–Bobby Gerhart, Walter Surma, Norm Benning
On lap 72, a major crash on the frontstretch happened involving twelve cars. Among those involved were polesitter Irvin, Earnhardt, and Stricklin.
When the red flag was thrown for rain, Rusty Wallace's car was nearly out of gas. The red flag was out for over two hours before the track dried and the cars were started again under a yellow condition. However, after just running 1 lap under yellow the rain started falling again. Rusty Wallace was very close to running out of gas, so he was pushed around by Dale Earnhardt so that he wouldn't run out of gas. Once the field was given the white flag, Earnhardt backed off. Under NASCAR rules, this is legal unless it is the final scheduled lap of the race.
This was the final race J. D. McDuffie actually finished on track in. He finished in 25th, 27 laps down to the winner.
DieHard 500
The DieHard 500 was held July 28 at Talladega Superspeedway. Sterling Marlin won the pole.
Top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
9–Bill Elliott
6–Mark Martin
5–Ricky Rudd
22–Sterling Marlin
2–Rusty Wallace
30–Michael Waltrip
21–Dale Jarrett
28–Davey Allison
75–Joe Ruttman
Failed to qualify:
0–Delma Cowart, 51–Jeff Purvis, Walter Surma
This race featured a blowover crash for the #1 of Rick Mast after he was spun around in the tri-oval by the #20 of Buddy Baker on lap 166.
Budweiser at The Glen
The Budweiser at The Glen was held August 11 at Watkins Glen International. Terry Labonte won the pole.
Top ten results
4–Ernie Irvan
5–Ricky Rudd
6–Mark Martin
2–Rusty Wallace
21–Dale Jarrett
17–Darrell Waltrip
9–Bill Elliott
12–Hut Stricklin
43–Richard Petty
28–Davey Allison
Failed to qualify: 89–Jim Sauter, 65–Jerry O'Neil, 45–Ed Ferree
The race was marred by the death of veteran J. D. McDuffie in a Lap 5 crash in the Loop with the #52 of Jimmy Means. The other drivers were not informed of McDuffie's death until after the race.
The wreck that claimed J. D. McDuffie's life resulted in a nearly 2 hour long red flag to repair the Armco barrier and remove the two wrecked race cars. 23 years later, a similar accident happened again in 2014 at the in Suzuka when Jules Bianchi crashed heavily, sustaining serious head trauma (similar to J. D. McDuffie) and thus Adrian Sutil helped Bianchi to get out of his car. Nine months later, Bianchi died from complications of the head trauma.
McDuffie's crash was just one in a long series of big wrecks in the Loop-Chute area at Watkins Glen in 1991. Before this crash, Tommy Kendall had broken both legs in the IMSA Camel Continental race in June after spinning out at 180 mph and hitting the Armco head on. Multiple drivers in the Winston Cup Series and in IROC crashed in Turn 5 during the August race weekend. A bus stop chicane (Inner Loop) was added before the entrance of Turn 5 for the 1992 season to slow cars before the entrance of what is now the Carousel.
Chip Williams, a media coordinator for NASCAR, made the first announcement of McDuffie's death, which was after the red flag period ended, in an interview with Jerry Punch of ESPN that was simulcast on Motor Racing Network.
Last career top 10 for Richard Petty.
Champion Spark Plug 400
The Champion Spark Plug 400 was held August 18 at Michigan International Speedway. Alan Kulwicki won the pole.
Top ten results
21–Dale Jarrett*
28–Davey Allison
2–Rusty Wallace
6–Mark Martin
9–Bill Elliott
33–Harry Gant
4–Ernie Irvan
7–Alan Kulwicki
30–Michael Waltrip
25–Ken Schrader −1
Failed to qualify: 53–John Paul Jr., 82–Mark Stahl
This was Dale Jarrett's first career Winston Cup victory. Jarrett raced door to door to the finish line with the #28 of Davey Allison. The official margin of victory was 10 inches. The win was special to Dale's father Ned Jarrett who was in the ESPN broadcast booth for the telecast.
Bud 500
The Bud 500 was held August 24 at Bristol International Raceway. The #9 of Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
7–Alan Kulwicki
22–Sterling Marlin
25–Ken Schrader
6–Mark Martin −1
5–Ricky Rudd −1
15–Morgan Shepherd −2
3–Dale Earnhardt −2
17–Darrell Waltrip −2
94–Terry Labonte −7
26–Brett Bodine −7
Failed to qualify:
41–Larry Pearson, 52–Jimmy Means
Jimmy Spencer led the majority of the race and appeared to be on his way to his first victory, but two late pit stop errors cost him the victory and Spencer would eventually fall to mechanical issues. During the race, Rick Wilson needed relief from Bobby Labonte after Wilson was suffering from flu-like symptoms.
Heinz Southern 500
The Heinz Southern 500 was held September 1 at Darlington Raceway. The #28 of Davey Allison won the pole.
Top ten results
33–Harry Gant
4–Ernie Irvan
25–Ken Schrader
10–Derrike Cope −1
94–Terry Labonte −1
22–Sterling Marlin −2
11–Geoff Bodine −2
3–Dale Earnhardt −2
75–Joe Ruttman −2
68–Bobby Hamilton −3
This was Kyle Petty's first race since breaking his leg at Talladega in May.
No driver was eligible for the Winston Million; however, three drivers going into this race (Ernie Irvan, Davey Allison, and Harry Gant) were eligible for a $100,000 bonus from Winston if a driver were to win 2 out of the 4 NASCAR majors. Gant won the bonus by winning the Winston 500 and this race.
Miller Genuine Draft 400
The Miller Genuine Draft 400 was held September 7 at Richmond International Raceway. Rusty Wallace won the pole.
Top ten results
33–Harry Gant
28–Davey Allison
2–Rusty Wallace
4–Ernie Irvan
5–Ricky Rudd
7–Alan Kulwicki
17–Darrell Waltrip
25–Ken Schrader
9–Bill Elliott
22–Sterling Marlin −1
This was the 1st night race for the Winston Cup Series held at Richmond International Raceway.
This was Harry Gant's second consecutive victory.
Richard Petty led his lone lap of 1991; it also was the only lap he ever led on the 3/4 mile configuration of Richmond.
Peak Antifreeze 500
The Peak Antifreeze 500 was held September 15 at Dover Downs International Speedway. The #7 of Alan Kulwicki won the pole.
Top ten results
33–Harry Gant
11–Geoff Bodine −1
15–Morgan Shepherd −1
12–Hut Stricklin −1
30–Michael Waltrip −2
24–Dick Trickle −4
5–Ricky Rudd −7
68–Bobby Hamilton −7
1–Rick Mast −7
71–Dave Marcis −10
Harry Gant's official margin of victory in this race was 1 lap, and an additional 19 seconds.
This was Harry Gant's third consecutive victory.
Dick Trickle's last start of 1991 ended up as his best finish of 1991 (6th).
Goody's 500
The Goody's 500 was held September 22 at Martinsville Speedway. Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
33–Harry Gant*
26–Brett Bodine
3–Dale Earnhardt
4–Ernie Irvan
6–Mark Martin
94–Terry Labonte
2–Rusty Wallace
5–Ricky Rudd
25–Ken Schrader
24–Jimmy Hensley
Failed to qualify:
52–Jimmy Means
This was Harry Gant's 4th consecutive victory, tying the modern-era record for consecutive victories. Gant more or less dominated the race but crashed on lap 377 in Turn 3. The crash damaged the right front of the #33 Skoal Bandit Oldsmobile. This incident led ESPN's race analyst Benny Parsons to discount Gant as a threat to win the race. The team repaired the car the best they could (since this was Martinsville, this consisted of removal of sheet metal that could rub against the right front tire), and sent Gant back out. Gant proceeded to charge up through the field and overtook Brett Bodine for the victory with about 50 laps to go.
Tyson Holly Farms 400
The Tyson Holly Farms 400 was held September 29 at North Wilkesboro Speedway. Harry Gant won the pole.
Top ten results
3–Dale Earnhardt
33–Harry Gant
15–Morgan Shepherd
28–Davey Allison
6–Mark Martin
2–Rusty Wallace
26–Brett Bodine
25–Ken Schrader
21–Dale Jarrett
7–Alan Kulwicki
Dale Earnhardt passed Harry Gant for the victory with 12 laps to go, denying Gant a 5th consecutive victory. Gant had dominated the race when with just a few laps to go an O-Ring failed to give Gant limited braking for the final few laps allowing Earnhardt to pass.
Earnhardt's victory would be the last win for a General Motors brand until his victory in the 1992 Coca-Cola 600.
Brett Bodine's 7th-place finish came despite having to start at the rear of the field due to an emergency pit stop prior to the green flag start when his car began leaking fluid during the pace laps.
Mello Yello 500
The Mello Yello 500 was held October 6 at Charlotte Motor Speedway. The #6 of Mark Martin won the pole.
Top ten results
11–Geoff Bodine
28–Davey Allison
7–Alan Kulwicki −1
33–Harry Gant −1
22–Sterling Marlin −3
94–Terry Labonte −4
30–Michael Waltrip −4
26–Brett Bodine −4
17–Darrell Waltrip −5
19–Chad Little −5
Failed to qualify: 0–Delma Cowart, 41–Larry Pearson, 76–Robbie Faggart, 20–Buddy Baker, 51–Jeff Purvis, 74–Mike Potter, 89–Jim Sauter, 87–Randy Baker, 72–Tracy Leslie
Five days before this race, Richard Petty held a press conference at his Level Cross, North Carolina race shop. Petty said that instead of retiring at the end of 1991, he would race for one more year. The 1992 NASCAR Winston Cup Series, his last as a driver, would be dubbed the "Fan Appreciation Tour". Petty denied it was a farewell tour because he "wasn't going anywhere".
With this race and continuing into the beginning of 1992, the Ford brand would win 13 races in a row (the last four races in 1991 and the first nine races in 1992)
AC Delco 500
The AC Delco 500 was held October 20 at North Carolina Speedway. Kyle Petty won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
33–Harry Gant
6–Mark Martin
11–Geoff Bodine
25–Ken Schrader −1
68–Bobby Hamilton −2
3–Dale Earnhardt −2
22–Sterling Marlin −2
42–Kyle Petty −2
9–Bill Elliott −2
Failed to qualify: 53–Bobby Hillin Jr., 05–Bill Meacham
This was Kyle Petty's 100th top ten finish.
Pyroil 500K
The Pyroil 500K was held November 3 at Phoenix International Raceway. Geoff Bodine won the pole.
Top ten results
28–Davey Allison
17–Darrell Waltrip
22–Sterling Marlin
7–Alan Kulwicki
2–Rusty Wallace
4–Ernie Irvan
98–Jimmy Spencer −1
11–Geoff Bodine −1
3–Dale Earnhardt −1
15–Morgan Shepherd −1
Failed to qualify: 93–Troy Beebe, 44–Jack Sellers, 89–Jim Sauter, 00–Scott Gaylord
The only time that Davey Allison would score back-to-back wins in his career.
Hardee's 500
The Hardee's 500 was held November 17 at Atlanta Motor Speedway. Bill Elliott won the pole.
Top ten results
6–Mark Martin
4–Ernie Irvan
9–Bill Elliott
33–Harry Gant
3–Dale Earnhardt*
15–Morgan Shepherd
22–Sterling Marlin −1
11–Geoff Bodine −1
7–Alan Kulwicki −2
17–Darrell Waltrip −2
Failed to qualify:
0–Delma Cowart, 13–Kerry Teague, 35–Bill Venturini, 36–H. B. Bailey, 59–Mark Gibson, 65–Dave Mader III, 65–Keith van Houten
This was the race in which Dale Earnhardt clinched his fifth Winston Cup championship. ESPN ran a comedic segment on "How to Steal a Championship" were two crew members from Davey Allison and Ricky Rudd's teams, which were second and third in points respectively, attempted to steal Earnhardt's driving uniform and helmet so Earnhardt could not start the race. Those efforts were thwarted by longtime Earnhardt crewman Chocolate Myers and Earnhardt won by merely starting the race and completing the first lap.
Full Drivers' Championship
(key) Bold – Pole position awarded by time. Italics – Pole position set by owner's points. * – Most laps led.
Rookie of the Year
Bobby Hamilton, driving for Tri-Star Motorsports, narrowly defeated Ted Musgrave for Rookie of the Year honors in 1991. Stanley Smith, Wally Dallenbach Jr., and Sammy Swindell also declared for the award, but did not complete enough races to challenge Hamilton or Musgrave.
See also
1991 NASCAR Busch Series
References
External links
Winston Cup standings and statistics for 1991
NASCAR Cup Series seasons
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tom%20Scavo
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Tom Scavo
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Thomas Scavo is a fictional character on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives, played by actor Doug Savant.
Tom was initially credited as a recurring role throughout Season 1 but became credited as a series regular in Season 2. Early storylines often revolved around Tom's position at an advertising firm, causing him to travel frequently, usually leaving Lynette alone to run the family. Starting in Season 3, Tom's storyline focused on trying to find what was next for him due to being tired of working in advertising. When he finally decides, he opens Scavo's Pizzeria, much to Lynette's dismay. After the five-year jump, it becomes apparent that Tom is experiencing a mid-life crisis, as he purchased and restored an early model convertible. After Lynette gives birth to Paige, it is discovered that Tom is experiencing Male Post-Partum Depression (to which Lynette laughs off, thinking of it as a ridiculous notion.) Tom separates from Lynette at the end of Season 7 and dates Jane for the more significant part of Season 8; however, Tom and Lynette reunite at the end.
Storylines
Past
Thomas "Tom" Scavo was born in 1968. He is the eldest of three children (Tom, Theresa and Peter) born to Allison and Rodney Scavo. He had three relationships in his life: first was one-night-stand Nora Huntington in 1994, Annabel Foster in 1997, but he told her he is not a husband material when they worked together in Advertising and one-night-stand with Renee Perry, during the short time when breaking up of engagement with Lynette.
Lynette Lindquist and Tom met in the same company while working together in advertising. They got married in 1997 and one year later, they moved to Fairview, 4355 Wisteria Lane.
Lynette had a very successful career but gave up all that to become a stay-at-home mother. Tom was a working dad, always away from home, supporting financially his family.
Lynette met Mary Alice Young, Bree Van de Kamp, and Susan Mayer, shortly after discovering she is pregnant with twins. They thought it is better to have Lynette as a friend than an enemy. She became a mother to four children with Tom: twins Preston and Porter born in 1998, Parker in 1998 and Penny in 2004. She met Gabrielle Solis in 2003 and after a difficult short period of accommodation, she also becomes her best friend.
Season 1
Tom is frequently out of town and seems oblivious to Lynette's problems. Tom has been keeping a secret from his wife that only his father, Rodney Scavo, knows about - his one-night stand with Renee. Tom decides to become a house-husband after losing his promotion to Tim Douggan and subsequently quits his job. He seems to truly love Lynette, being prepared to discuss family matters with her if she feels they need to.
Season 2
Midway through the second season, Tom returns to the workplace, sharing an employer with his wife for the second time. When Lynette's boss, Ed Ferrera (Currie Graham), asks Lynette to send instant messages to his wife to help him heat his sex life, his wife finds out and threatens to leave him unless he fires the person who sent the IMs. Feeling he cannot fire Lynette, Ed tells his wife it was Tom, deciding to fire him instead, but Lynette warns him he will need a reasonable cause. Much to Lynette's horror, Ed finds one when he discovers that Tom has been falsifying expense reports. When Ed confronts him, the conversation ends with Tom punching Ed. As grounds for dismissal have been met, double grounds in fact, Tom is fired. Tom is found out to be meeting another woman after Lynette follows him to Atlantic City and sees them embracing. Lynette later finds out that this woman is the mother of his daughter - which he did not known he has - born long before he married Lynette.
Season 3
It is later revealed that the woman is Nora Huntington (Kiersten Warren). They had a one-night stand years before he met Lynette. She claims she conceived his child, a daughter named Kayla (Rachel G. Fox), but never told him.
Tom later confesses to Lynette that he wants to open up a pizzeria. Nora, however, consistently undermines him behind his back and tries to get Lynette to tell him to drop the idea while planning to tell him that she'd support him. She wants him back, determined to make a proper family for Kayla, but Tom rejects her and tells Lynette, who warns Nora to keep her distance in the future. Tom and Lynette plan to fight Nora for custody of Kayla. Still, before they get to court, Nora confronts Lynette in the supermarket, moments before Carolyn Bigsby takes the supermarket hostage. When Lynette tells Carolyn that Nora made a move on Tom, Carolyn shoots and kills Nora. Lynette promises Nora she'll take care of Kayla, just before she dies.
Tom opens his pizzeria and, with Lynette's help, prepares it for the grand opening, overcoming a few hitches. He then tries organizing a surprise for their ninth wedding anniversary, but it goes wrong, leaving Lynette out in the woods at night, and he rushes to meet her. A little while later, Tom throws out his back while working, leaving him confined to bed rest. Lynette hires a new chef, Rick Coletti (Jason Gedrick), as well as Mrs. McCluskey to look after Tom and the children when she's at work. One night, Tom and the kids come to the pizzeria to surprise her, where Kayla sees chemistry between Lynette and Rick and tells Tom. So Tom suggests that he returns to work, and they fire Rick, but Lynette is not keen. After Lynette and Rick are locked in the freezer during an armed robbery, they cuddle to keep warm, but Tom sees the CCTV tape of them eating dinner before the theft. He confronts Rick, telling him that although his marriage to Lynette is shaky, it is rock solid, and Rick would never break it up. Tom asks Rick to quit but he refuses, claiming Lynette "doesn't want him gone". Rick later tells Lynette about his lunch with Tom and his feelings for her, and tries to get her to admit her feelings for him, but Lynette refuses and fires him.
After finding out Tom was returning to work, Lynette sobs in her bathroom, obviously distraught. Lynette and Tom's marriage continues to decline and they don't speak for days. Trying to rebuild their marriage, Tom gets his old college friend/marriage counselor to talk to them without Lynette knowing. Still, she realizes and becomes even angrier about his 'ambush therapy'. With Tom's doctor informing him on his back recovery, Tom suggests to Lynette they either talk or have sex. Lynette agrees to sex, which quickly turns violent and Lynette falls off the bed, banging her head on the bedside table. She goes to the hospital to be treated, and Tom finds out Lynette fell for Rick and misses him. The doctor performs a CAT scan on Lynette, finds swollen lymph nodes, and suggests they do a biopsy as it could be a sign of lymphoma (a form of cancer).
Season 4
In the third episode "The Game", Tom attends Susan's small games party. However, Lynette remains at home because she is sick, Lynette's mother Stella secretly gets marijuana from Andrew and bakes it in some brownies she makes for Lynette so that it would ease Lynette's pain. It works and Lynette attends Susan's party high, and she brings the drugged brownies with her for everyone else to have. Stella arrives over and tells Tom why no one can have a brownie. Tom hastily takes them off everyone's plate before they can eat them and ends up accidentally pushing Gabrielle into new resident Adam Mayfair, spilling wine on him and sparking a feud between Gabrielle and Adam's wife Katherine Mayfair. Tom later appears at the end of the episode when Lynette discovers the truth from him about what Stella did.
When a tornado hits Wisteria Lane,the Scavos take shelter in Mrs. McCluskey's basement with Ida Greenbberg. Tom and the children are left in the basement while Lynette and Mrs. McCluskey go out looking for Ida's cat. When Lynette and Mrs. McCluskey hid from the tornado in a bathtub, Tom gets knocked out with asthma from the cat. While the Scavos and Mrs. McCluskey survive the tornado, Ida is killed saving Tom and Lynette's kids.
Rick returns, announcing that he is opening a new restaurant near the Scavos' pizzeria. Tom lies to the police when they investigate vandalism happening at Rick's restaurant, but later admits to Lynette that he did vandalize Rick's restaurant out of jealousy. He comes under investigation again when a fire breaks out in Rick's restaurant. He's confronted by Lynette, to whom he swears he left the founders ball to listen to the game on the car radio, and again by Rick after he finds a matchbook from Scavo's. The incident breaks out into a fight, and the police bring in Tom and later released after Lynette lies to them to provide him an alibi.
Eventually, it is revealed that Porter and Preston are responsible for starting the fire at Rick's restaurant. Tom and Lynette are at a crossroads about how to handle the situation, with Tom thinking they should go to therapy; Lynette discovers the boys got the idea from Kayla, and she takes Kayla to therapy behind Tom's back. Tom's denial about the problems Kayla causes for Lynette leads to her lying to the therapist and getting Lynette arrested for child abuse. Eventually, Tom is forced to send Kayla away to live with her maternal grandparents after he finds out what she did and she threatens to continue causing problems if Lynette comes back.
In the season finale, Tom and Lynette help with catering Bob and Lee's wedding. Tom's advise to Lee about standing up for himself (for wanting the ice sculpture be castle rather than a cherub) escalated to Bob and Lee arguing then canceling the wedding. Lynette and Tom get the two in the same room and Tom tells them that if they cannot decide over small decisions that they might as well not marry at all; that they should ask themselves whether they love each other enough that no problem can possibly tear them apart. His speech gets Bob and Lee to reconcile and to reaffirm to Lynette that their marriage is stronger than she thought.
Season 5
In the first episode of season 5, Tom is going through a midlife crisis and he buys a Ford Mustang. He has difficulty disciplining his teenage sons as they treat him far more cool than Tom was used to when he was their age. Lynette uses that against him by tricking Tom into letting the twins borrow his Mustang for a dance. When they come back a half-hour late, Tom angrily grounds them. When they claim he's more worried about the car than them, he kicks a mirror off it but confesses to Lynette that it was already broken and he had ordered a replacement, impressing her.
In "Mirror, Mirror," flashbacks show that Tom was electrocuted in an accident and nearly died, which pushed him to enjoy life as much as he could. In the present, he tells Lynette his plan to sell the pizzeria, buy an RV and spend a year traveling the country with his family. Lynette is not happy about this, leading to tensions between them. When Tom contacts one of Porter's friends' mothers, realtor Anne Schilling, she finds him a rehearsal space for the garage band he and some of the other Wisteria Lane men have started. He spends a lot of time there, and Lynnette confronts him about him allegedly having an affair with Anne, who has 'dropped by' with some items for the rehearsal space, among them a futon. Tom denies it—then steps on a condom wrapper on the floor. He deduces that Porter is sleeping with some girl there—but when Lynette sees Anne leaving from the rehearsal space when Tom is there, she is led to believe Tom is cheating on her...until one episode later when they discover that it is actually Port who is sleeping with Anne. After much deliberation, Lynette decides to pay Anne off, but this backfires when Porter disappears, claiming that he wants to be with her. In the last episode, it is revealed that the Scavos' pizzeria has lost its business to low sales, and Tom is forced to throw a Going Out of Business sale to raise the money to repay his loans and pay Bree her money.
Tom sinks into some depression being out of work, with Lynette getting a new job working for Carlos Solis. In the fifth-season finale, he decides to go back to college as a Chinese language major. Thinking this is part of his middle-age syndrome, Lynette attempts to sabotage Tom by getting him drunk the night before his entrance exam. It's only afterward that Tom says he was taking Chinese in hopes of getting a new job in that market. Despite the hangover, Tom scored in the top five on the exam. However, his college plans are jarred when Lynette reveals she is 3.5 months pregnant with twins.
Season 6
Tom is excited about becoming a dad again but Lynette is not sure if she loves her unborn children. Tom reassures her that when she will hold them in her arms, she will love them with all her heart. These twins are Tom's sixth and seventh children, but Lynette loses one of them to a miscarriage when she pushes Celia Solis out of the way of a plane crash-landing on Wisteria Line. It is also revealed that Tom has been cheating on some of his college courses out of fear of failing them. He is eventually forced to drop out of college and take over Lynette's job working for Carlos while she is on maternity leave.
Season 7
Tom is diagnosed with postpartum depression. He is then prescribed marijuana as a cure for this which stuns Lynette. In the episode "Let Me Entertain You", Tom decides to hire his own mother as a nanny for the new baby.
After a big argument, Lynette fires her mother-in-law, but Tom overrules her. After Lynette and Allison's talk, Tom's mother shows symptoms of dementia to Penny, unknown to Lynette and Tom. Tom and Lynette finally discover Allison's dementia on Halloween, after she collapses outside the Solises' house after going out to buy more candy, despite Penny telling her they had plenty. Allison is later admitted to a nursing home and Tom and Lynette agree to visit her there. Tom is deeply upset by his mother's illness. In episode 9 Susan walks in on Tom and Lynette having sex on the nursery floor and is in awe at Tom's huge penis; she then confronts Lynette about why she has never mentioned it before.
A drunken Renee Perry eventually reveals to Susan she once slept with Tom, putting Susan in an uncomfortable situation. When Susan is injured in a riot, a guilty Renee tells Tom she should reveal the truth, but Tom insists she keep it quiet. Renee finally confesses to Lynette, revealing that the affair occurred when she and Tom were engaged but had one of their regular "break-ups." Lynette is naturally upset, but keeps it quiet and begins a series of pranks against Tom as payback. When Renee find out what Lynette is doing, she tells Tom about it. Tom confronts Lynette and tells that he wanted to tell her about Renee, but there was never a good time for that because he did not want to ruin the wonderful life they have together. Lynette then forgives Tom.
Tom finds himself getting a major promotion at a new company and enjoys the work. Lynette is concerned about his over-working but Tom tells her he feels more alive than ever. When Tom attends a conference, Lynette is upset that she's kept from the business talks and forced to attend spas and other projects with the other wives. She goes so far as to steal an ID from a woman only to find out she's the keynote speaker for a lecture. Back home, Tom snaps at Lynette that after so many years supporting her, it hurts that she can't do the same for him. Renee tells Lynette that she has to choose between her own wants or being a good wife. Tom then hires the duo to decorate his office like a Donald Trump-style boss but Lynette thinks that it is not right for him and goes a different way. Renee overrules her to give Tom the office he wants and Lynette yells at Tom over how he's changing but he retorts that he has to be this way in order to succeed and Lynette needs to stop thinking of him the way he's been at home the last several years.
When Tom decides to book a luxurious holiday for the family and announces it, Lynette is annoyed at Tom for not consulting her first. The two then pitch to the kids what they think is the best holiday which leads to yet another fight between them; this time however they insult each other, leaving them to decide that it is only them who need to spend a holiday together. The holiday turns out badly and the relationship deteriorates and becomes extremely awkward. When they return home Tom leads Lynette to believe he will spend some time in an apartment near the office. Before Lynette attends a street dinner party, Penny reveals to her that Tom had left her a note. Lynette is surprised and finds that Tom's unpacked suitcase from the holiday is not in the bedroom, convincing her that Tom had left her. After revealing to Susan her suspicions, Lynette walks into her house, finding Tom chopping up salad ingredients. He tells Lynette that he had only gone to the store. Lynette questions him why it had taken him two hours, leading Tom to reveal that he had left but came back when he considered that Lynette would have to lie about where Tom was to her friends at the dinner party. The two talk for a while and Lynette confesses that when she thought Tom had left, she felt relieved, leading the pair to decide to separate finally.
Season 8
By the beginning of season 8, Tom has moved off Wisteria Lane. He and Lynette agree to work on their marriage by attending couples counseling, however when Tom begins dating a woman from his new building, Jane, Lynette seems to think there is no point anymore in continuing counseling if Tom doesn't still have faith in their marriage. Later on he and Jane plan to go on a trip to Paris, although Lynette stops him at the airport and confesses to him that she is involved in the murder of Gabrielle's stepfather. He then agrees to stay with her to help her cope, and Jane is left to go to Paris without him. In "With So Little to Be Sure Of", Lynette and Tom sign their divorce papers, but the document do not make it to court. Tom later breaks up with Jane due to his feelings for Lynette. The married couple reconcile in the final episode, and Tom and Lynette move to New York City so Lynette can pursue her new career for Katherine Mayfair. The couple later buys a penthouse looking over Central Park, and took care of their six grandchildren in Central Park.
Notes
References
Desperate Housewives characters
Fictional businesspeople
Television characters introduced in 2004
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5219137
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Super%20Columbine%20Massacre%20RPG%21
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Super Columbine Massacre RPG!
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Super Columbine Massacre RPG! is a role-playing video game created by Danny Ledonne and released in April 2005. The game recreates the 1999 Columbine High School shootings in Columbine, Colorado. Players assume the roles of gunmen Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold and act out the massacre, with flashbacks relating parts of Harris and Klebold's past experiences. The game begins on the day of the shootings and follows Harris and Klebold after their suicides to fictional adventures in perdition.
Ledonne had spent many years conceptualizing games, but never created one due to his lack of game design and programming knowledge. He was inspired to create a video game about Columbine by his own experience being bullied and the effect the shooting had on his life. The game represents a critique of how traditional media sensationalized the shooting, as well as parodying video games themselves. Super Columbine Massacre was created with ASCII's game development program RPG Maker 2000 and took approximately six months to complete. Ledonne initially published the game anonymously, releasing an artist's statement about the work after his identity was revealed. Super Columbine Massacre was released for free online and attracted little attention until 2006, when widespread media coverage fueled hundreds of thousands of downloads.
Reaction to Super Columbine Massacre was negative; the title was criticized as trivializing the actions of Harris and Klebold and the lives of the innocent. The game's cartoon presentation and the side-plot into hell were considered by critics as obscuring the game's message, but it received minor note as a game that transcended the stereotypical associations of the medium as entertainment for children. Super Columbine Massacres themes and content led to it being included in discussions as to whether video games cause violence; the title was later listed as one of the possible motivating factors of the shooter after the 2006 Dawson College shooting. The game has been described as an art game, and Ledonne has become a spokesperson for video games as an art form, producing a documentary in 2008 called Playing Columbine about his game and its impact.
Gameplay
Super Columbine Massacre RPG! is a role-playing video game. Players control the actions of teenagers Eric Harris and Dylan Klebold; the pair entered Colorado's Columbine High School on April 20, 1999 and killed 13 people before turning their guns on themselves in a library. Much of the game takes place in a third-person view, with players controlling Harris and Klebold from an overhead perspective. The graphics and characters are deliberately reminiscent of a 16-bit-era video game; while the content is violent, the violence is not graphically rendered.
When players engage in battle, the screen changes to a first-person view of the enemy; enemies are named by stereotypes or occupations, such as "Preppy girl", "Janitor", "Math teacher" and "Jock Type". Combat has two options: "auto play", where the game chooses the weapon to use, or "manual play", in which the player decides to use a hand-to-hand weapon, explosive, gun, or defensive maneuver against foes. Once a battle starts, it is impossible to avoid or escape; the player must kill the enemy or die themselves. Text narrates battle events and actions such as finding a bag or gaining a weapon.
As the game proceeds, flashbacks occur showing events in Harris and Klebold's who lives which may have caused them to commit murder; real life events are compressed into the game's timeframe for narrative purposes. Much of the plot is constructed around the events as they are believed to have occurred; lines of the gunmen's dialogue are often lifted verbatim from their writings or from their own home videos of each other. In contrast to the 16-bit graphics are digitized photographs from the shooting or full voice samples from news reports; photos of the school are used as backdrops during battle scenes.
Plot
The game begins as Eric Harris' mother wakes him on April 20, 1999. Harris phones Dylan Klebold, and the pair meet in Harris' basement to plot a series of bombings that will precede their planned shooting. The two reminisce about the bullying they experienced at Columbine High and express rage at those they perceive to be their tormentors. Harris and Klebold make a video, apologizing to their parents, collect their weapons, and leave home.
At school, the pair plant timed propane bombs without being detected by security cameras or hall monitors. After the explosives are set, the two stop for a moment on a hill outside the school, discussing their alienation and hostility. After the bombs fail to explode as planned, Harris and Klebold decide to enter the school and murder as many people as they can; the final number killed is up to the player. After roaming around the school shooting innocents, Harris and Klebold commit suicide. A montage of clips showing Harris and Klebold's corpses, students comforting each other, and childhood photos of the gunmen plays.
The game's second half finds Klebold alone in Hell. After combating demons and monsters from the video game Doom, Klebold reunites with Harris, and they profess their enthusiasm for the opportunity to live out their favorite video game. The pair find themselves at the "Isle of Lost Souls", where they meet fictional characters such as Pikachu, Bart Simpson, Mega Man, Mario and personalities including J. Robert Oppenheimer, JonBenét Ramsey, Malcolm X, Ronald Reagan, and John Lennon. Next, they deliver a copy of Ecce Homo to Friedrich Nietzsche before fighting the South Park design of Satan. Upon their victory, Satan congratulates them for their deeds.
The game returns to Columbine High School, where a press conference addresses the murders. Some of the dialogue appears precisely as it was spoken after the actual event, while other lines caricature the political forces at work in the aftermath of the murders. The conference references gun control advocacy, religious fundamentalism, and the media's implication of Marilyn Manson and the video games they played as culpable in the shooting.
Development
Super Columbine Massacre was created by Danny Ledonne of Alamosa, Colorado, then a student and independent filmmaker. As a high school student, the Columbine shootings resonated with Ledonne, who said that he himself had once been "a loner", "a misfit" and "a bullied kid" in high school like the shooters. "I was an easy target to be picked on, and that started in kindergarten", he said. "It was the kind of bullying that most kids who were bullied experienced [...] When you get pushed every day, and when you are ostracized not once, not twice, but years in and out, your perception of reality is distorted [...] These things really do warp your understanding and your perception of humanity in some almost irrevocable way", he said.
In 1999, director Stanley Kubrick's death and the Columbine High School massacre occurred within months of each other; Ledonne credited the two events with changing his life. After seeing A Clockwork Orange, Ledonne discovered that film could comment on culture; after the Columbine shootings, he realized he was headed down the same path as the shooters. "It was a bit scary, once I learned more about these boys, because it was like I was looking in the mirror and I didn't want the same fate for myself", Ledonne said. He began taking martial arts, studying film, and saw a therapist. By the time he graduated from Alamosa High School, Ledonne had a 4.0 grade point average and was voted "most likely to succeed" by his peers. He studied film at Emerson College and moved back to Colorado to form his own production company, Emberwild Productions, which mostly edits wedding videos.
In November 2004, Ledonne discovered a program called RPG Maker, which allows a developer to add images, text, story and objectives to design a game; RPG Maker creates the necessary programming automatically. Ledonne had always conceptualized video games throughout his childhood but never produced one due to his lack of technical knowledge; with RPG Maker he was able to fulfill his ambition. Ledonne decided to make a game that would explore why the Columbine shootings occurred, as well as refuting pervasive myths about the shooters and the alleged role video games played in the massacre.
The researching, planning, design and programming of the game took about six months and between 200 and 300 hours of work. All the footage and pictures in the game were taken from the internet. Final Fantasy VI influenced the sprite-based design. Many of the songs in the game are MIDI versions of 1990s grunge and alternative bands such as Radiohead, Nirvana and the Smashing Pumpkins. Ledonne paid meticulous attention to detail, including giving players access to the exact inventory the gunmen used on their rampage. He watched videos, read newspaper articles and pored over 11,000 pages of documents released by the county government regarding the massacre and the killers.
Ledonne added elements to the game to criticize subjects varying from public reaction to the disaster, to stereotypical role-playing game conventions. Every victory in battle displays the message "another victory for the Trenchcoat Mafia", in reference to the gang that Harris and Klebold were mistakenly affiliated with by the media. Ledonne added the hell segment and populated it with characters from the video game Doom, explaining that "[having the shooters] battle these monsters in an eternal recreation of their favorite videogame was a statement in and of itself." Super Columbine Massacre is the only video game Ledonne has created, and he has no future plans to create another.
Release
The game was made available for download on April 20, 2005, the sixth anniversary of the Columbine massacre. Ledonne sought to remain anonymous at the game's debut to avoid any possible controversy, which he would later regret as it created the impression he had something to hide. Under the alias "Columbin", Ledonne regularly engaged gamers and critics alike on a message board he established to discuss the game's depiction of the shooting and the broader implications of the shooting. Ledonne's identity was revealed by Roger Kovacs, a friend of Rachel Scott, one of the Columbine victims. Kovacs learned of Ledonne's identity by donating to his website via PayPal; after his name and address were posted online, Ledonne stepped forward and was greeted with requests for interviews. "That's when I decided that I had to grow a backbone and stand up for my creation", Ledonne said.
The game is distributed as freeware, with donations in the amount of $1 requested to defray bandwidth costs. Initially, the game attracted little attention, and was downloaded 10,000 times in its first year. In April 2006 Patrick Dugan of web site Gamasutra wrote about the game after meeting its host at Game Developers Conference. Impressed, Dugan sent an email to Georgia Institute of Technology professor Ian Bogost, who blogged about the game. Brian Crecente of gaming news site Kotaku and the Rocky Mountain News subsequently interviewed Bogost, and the Associated Press and mainstream media picked up the story. The increased visibility resulted in increased coverage, controversy, and downloads; in the first half of May 2006 the game was downloaded more than 30,000 times. Ledonne announced in September 2006 that the game was no longer available for download directly through its website (instead providing download links), as the title's popularity cost too much to sustain; in a single day in September, he reported 8,000 downloads. By March 2007, the game had been downloaded more than 400,000 times.
Reception
Reception of Super Columbine Massacre has been negative amongst the mainstream media and those personally affected by the shootings. Upon revealing Columbine's identity as Ledonne, Kovacs said "One of the girls who died [in the shootings] was a friend of mine, Rachel. We were in the same church group. Anyone playing this game can kill Rachel over and over again." The father of one victim remarked to the press that the game "disgusts me. You trivialize the actions of two murderers and the lives of the innocent." One victim of the shooting played the game and voiced reserved support, remarking that "It probably sounds a bit odd for someone like me to say, but I appreciate the fact at least to some degree that something like this was made." While he took issue with what he saw as glamorization of the shooters, he also believed it would help open a dialogue about the shooting.
Super Columbine Massacre was largely condemned by the press. Betty Nguyen of CNN labeled the game as an example of a subculture that worships terrorists. Newspapers called the game "exploitive" and a "monstrosity". PC World declared the game #2 on its list of "The 10 Worst Games of All Time." Even critics who were supportive of Ledonne's intent found the game hard to play; Ben Kuchera of Ars Technica said that he left the game "shaken", but that as an easily misunderstood game "the people who are most likely to gain anything from it will never play it." Crecente felt that the message of the game was obscured by the cartoon graphics of the medium. Ledonne has refused to alter the game as it represents his thoughts on the subject at a particular point in time, but has encouraged others to rework the game themselves.
The most positive reviews of Super Columbine Massacre came from critics who accepted Ledonne's intended message. Wired magazine writer Clive Thompson appreciated the game's attention to narrative detail, writing that "the upshot [of the game] is that Ledonne has done a surprisingly good job of painting the emotional landscape of [the gunmen]—whipsawing from self-pity to pompous grandiosity and blinding rage, then back again." Thompson called the game subtle, including jabs at the participants and gaming culture by using the language of games as a way to think about the killings. Writing for The Courier Mail, Paul Syvret's advice to those who found the game controversial and in bad taste was to "lighten up". Bogost summed up his review of the game by writing "this game is not fun, it is challenging, and difficult to play—not technically difficult, but conceptually difficult. We need more of that." David Kociemba, a professor at Emerson College, agreed with Bogost and commented that "the controversy should be that there aren't more games like Super Columbine Massacre RPG! that are as demanding and as artistically innovative." Dugan responded to common criticisms of the game, including that the game was made in bad taste, by writing a rebuttal on his blog:
I think everyone who disses the Columbine RPG is gutless. Most haven't played the game, or have played it with such preconceptions that they're blinded to the genuis [sic], the honesty, the beauty of its social commentary. Super Columbine Massacre RPG is riddled with design flaws and has mediocre graphics by 1995, the maker of the game admits this, but it regardless is a work of art. It puts you in the mindset of the killers and provides a very clear suggestion of why they did what they did; they were enacting an ideological demonstration through a terrorist act, and the game shines light on this as an indictment of the American dream and way of life painfully close to the main nerve.
After the Dawson College shooting in September 2006, when gunman Kimveer Gill killed one student and injured 19 others, the Toronto Sun wrote that Gill had self-reported playing Columbine Massacre on a web site. The story was picked up by media and reported widely. Upon hearing media reports of a link to the game one of the shooting victims at Dawson College contacted Ledonne and told him that "I just suffered multiple gunshot wounds and I think you should take this game down." Ledonne expressed his reaction to the shooting and renewed media attention towards his game in an interview a week later:
If one is interested in making something for the public to view—be it a painting, a book, an album, a film, or a video game, should the POSSIBLE harm that may come out of this work be grounds for its suppression from society? This is, in a sense, pre-crime. If you believe in what you're doing and you want to express yourself, the expression should be primary and any interpretations that come after must always remain of secondary importance to the creation of the work itself. On another level, the entire correlation between the Dawson College shooting and my game is unfounded. [...] What else did Kimveer like? Black clothes? Goth music? Pizza? [...] If anything, the Dawson College shooting is proof positive that games like [Super Columbine Massacre] should be made; until video games are no longer among the "usual suspects" for homicidal rampages, the public needs to more carefully consider why interactive electronic media is somehow the manufacturer of Manchurian Candidates.
Developer Ryan Lambourn created a flash game called V-Tech Rampage in 2007, which allows players to control the actions of gunman Seung-Hui Cho in the Virginia Tech massacre. Lambourn professed empathy for Cho, and said that he was a target of bullying in high school. "No one listens to you unless you've got something sensational to do. And that's why I feel sympathy for Cho Seung-Hui [sic]. He had to go that far", Lambourn stated. On the V-Tech Rampage site, Lambourn posted a statement that he would take the game off of Newgrounds if donations reached $1000; at $2000 in donations he would take the game down from the main site and for another $1000 he would apologize for creating it. Ledonne posted a comment on Lambourn's website after V-Tech Rampage drew comparisons to Super Columbine Massacre, calling Lambourn's statement tantamount to a "hostage note", and asking bloggers to consider "not whether a game about the Virginia Tech shooting SHOULD be made but how we might go about making a game that accomplishes more than V-Tech Rampage does with the subject matter." Ledonne stated that he emailed Lambourn sympathetically, but that the creator responded to his emails with profanity; he reiterated that the two games had different motivations and were not easily comparable in content.
Slamgate and legacy
In October 2006, Sam Roberts, the Guerilla Gamemaker Competition director of the Slamdance festival, emailed Ledonne encouraging him to submit the game to the contest. Ledonne looked at the selection of the game as one of the competition's finalists in December as evidence that "all forms of art can be valid tools for societal exploration (even painful topics like school shootings)". The event's organizer, Peter Baxter, announced the removal of the game from the festival's "Guerrilla Gamemaker Competition" after its selection as a finalist. Several reasons for the change of mind were given, including threatened sponsor withdrawal, possible lawsuits, and "moral grounds"; Baxter denied that sponsor pressure caused the drop, instead affirming that "the shootings are still a very touchy subject, and rightly so. We have to be sensitive to [victims and their families'] feelings." An additional consideration reported was that unnamed parties might sue for copyright violations in the game itself. The announcement marked the first time the festival had pulled jury-selected content from the contest; the incident was dubbed "Slamgate" by the gaming press.
Following the announcement, USC Interactive Media Division withdrew its sponsorship of the festival. Seven of the fourteen finalist games were removed from the contest by their developers in protest: Braid, flOw, Once Upon A Time, Toblo, Everyday Shooter, Book and Volume and Castle Crashers (Toblo was later reinstated by the DigiPen Institute of Technology, who owns the rights to the game). Developer Jonathan Blow of Braid stated: "[Super Columbine Massacre] lacks compassion, and I find the Artist's Statement disingenuous. But despite this, the game does have redeeming value. It does provoke important thoughts, and it does push the boundaries of what games are about. It is composed with more of an eye toward art than most games. Clearly, it belongs at the festival." Blow and the other developers sent an open letter to the festival, encouraging the reinstatement of the game as keeping with the festival's "trailblazing" efforts. Despite protests, Baxter refused to change his mind, citing consideration for the shooting's victims and their families. Ledonne told the other finalists that he planned to go to the festival anyway and distribute copies of the game. Acknowledging that the withdrawal of six finalists compromised the competition, Roberts let the attendees vote on whether any prizes would be awarded; they decided not to.
Brian Flemming, director of The God Who Wasn't There, saw Ledonne's demo of Super Columbine Massacre outside the festival, and convinced two fellow Slamdance film jurors to award the game a "Special Jury Prize" for Best Documentary, an unofficial award not endorsed by Slamdance itself. The jurors intended to present the special prize alongside the award for best documentary. Shortly before the ceremony, Baxter informed Flemming that he could not present the award due to "music clearance issues", and refused to allow it despite Flemming's protests. According to Ledonne, Flemming tried to hold his ground, but eventually gave in to Baxter's request.
Ledonne produced a documentary film based on his experiences after the release of Super Columbine Massacre. Titled Playing Columbine, the documentary uses the controversy surrounding the game to investigate the large issues facing video games as a medium for artistic expression. The film premiered at AFI Fest in Los Angeles, California on November 7, 2008.
As a result of the controversy of his game, Ledonne became an unwitting spokesman for the games industry, facing the medium's opponents in debates and forums. The furor resulting from Slamgate was called out by Ledonne and others in the media as a sign that video games had not yet outgrown the traditional stereotype of children's games. Keith Stuart of The Guardian wrote that despite being confused and tawdry, Super Columbine Massacre "symbolizes a growing understanding that videogames have more to say than 'shoot the enemies and pick up health.'" Authors Andreas Jahn-Sudmann and Ralf Stockmann consider controversial video games such as Super Columbine Massacre and the "Hot Coffee" mod of Grand Theft Auto: San Andreas evidence of sociopolitical tensions present between gamers and older generations. The game and others like it continue to be at the center of the video games as art debate, and Gamasutra credited Super Columbine Massacre and Slamgate as having two highly positive and far-reaching effects; first, forcing print game journalism to focus on the issue; and second, the "evangelization of the notion that games can be as meaningful and important as other media, even if the example is offensive to the sensibilities of most Americans [...] To win is to lose, but to play is to experience an enrichment that cannot be scored."
See also
School Shooter: North American Tour 2012
V-Tech Rampage
References
External links
Super Columbine Massacre RPG! official website
Playing Columbine documentary official website
2005 video games
Art games
Cultural depictions of Confucius
Cultural depictions of Friedrich Nietzsche
Cultural depictions of J. Robert Oppenheimer
Cultural depictions of John Lennon
Cultural depictions of Malcolm X
Cultural depictions of Richard Nixon
Cultural depictions of Ronald Reagan
Freeware games
RPG Maker games
Indie games
High school-themed video games
Obscenity controversies in video games
Parody video games
Role-playing video games
Single-player video games
Censored video games
Video game controversies
Video games about mental health
Video games about revenge
Video games about terrorism
Video games about school shootings
Video games developed in the United States
Video games set in 1999
Video games set in Colorado
Video games set in hell
Windows games
Windows-only games
Works about the Columbine High School massacre
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapeltoun
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Chapeltoun
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Chapeltoun is an estate on the banks of the Annick Water in East Ayrshire, a rural area of Scotland famous for its milk and cheese production and the Ayrshire or Dunlop breed of cattle.
Templeton and the Knights Templar
The feudal allocation of tenements to the vassals of the overlord, such as Hugh de Morville, was carried out very carefully, with the boundaries being walked and carefully recorded. The term 'ton' at this time was added to the site of the dwelling house, not necessarily a grand stone-built structure, which was bounded by a wall or fence. The tenements were held in a military tenure, the land being in exchange for military assistance to the overlord. In later years the military assistance could be exchanged for financial payment.
The name Templeton may have arisen due to lands here being given by the overlord to a vassal. The site of the original dwelling is unknown, Laigh Chapelton being the oldest known site of a habitation, probably dating from at least 1775.
The name Chapelton is relatively recent as Pont's Map of 1604 does not show such a place name; however, he does show a Templeton in approximately the right place between the Annick Water and the Glazert Water. Other Knights Templar temple-lands were to be found at the Templehouse and Fortalice in the old village of Darlington near Stewarton, Templehouse near Dunlop, at Templetounburn on the outskirts of Crookedholm and at several other places in the area, such as Temple-Ryburn and Temple-Hapland.
In 1312 the Knights Templar order, whose Scottish headquarters had been at Torphichen, was disbanded and its lands given to the Knights of St. John who today run the St John Ambulance amongst other activities. Lord Torphichen as preceptor obtained the temple-land tenements and the lands passed through the hands of Montgomerie of Hessilhead to Wallace of Cairnhill (now Carnell) in 1720, before passing out of the hands of the aristocracy. A tenement is a grant of land which has a building on it and is held in tenure by the tenant
The farms in the area used the Chapelton name in 1829 (Aitken) and Armstrong's 1775 map shows and names a Chapel. The name change from Templetoun to Chapelton may have resulted from the end of the official existence of the temple-lands sometime after 1720 or as a result of the breaking up of the ownership of these lands at around this date or possibly slightly earlier. Thus the name Templeton was in use in 1604 in 1654, but not by 1775 The will of Katherine Muir / Mure, dated 1665, relict of William Hepburn of Chapeltoun in the Parish of Stewarton, implies a change of name at an earlier date. This Chapeltoun may be the modern day Chapeltoun Mains.
Paterson (1866) states that on the lands of Langshaw (now Lainshaw) there was a chapel, dedicated to the Virgin Mary and that it had an appropriate endowment. After the Reformation the endowment was appropriated by the patron and the chapel allowed to fall into ruins. Temple-lands did not pay teins to maintain the local church and they were therefore a highly prized and lucrative asset.
In 1616 the patronage of the chapel and the lands of Peacock Bank (sic) were held by Sir Neil Montgomerie of Lainshaw as granted 'clare constat' by the Earl of Eglinton, but by 1661 the patronage was once again held directly by the Earl of Eglinton as indicated below. The site of the chapel was called Chapelton in the 17th century and Chapel by 1874. The same information is given by Paterson in 1866, Groome in 1885 and Barclay.
Dobie in 1876 records that Hugh, Earl of Eglinton inherited in May 1661 the 10 merkland of Langshaw with the patronage of the Chapel of the Blessed Virgin within these lands. A reference is made to a James Wyllie, whose family held these lands for several generations. This statement is made as part of a reference to the 5 merk lands of Gallaberry which were part of a larger area of land, most of which belonged to the estate of Dunlop. The name Gallaberry is thought to be derived from the Saxon word burgh and the Celtic word Gauls, the term meaning therefore the burgh, mansion or strength of the Gauls. Sanderson mentions a rural chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mother Mary located on the Lainshaw lands.
It is relevant here to note that Dobie lists three families with the name Tempiltoun in the Kilmaurs valuation role of 1640 while no other Cunninghame parishes have this name listed. One of the oldest graves in Kilmaurs-Glencairn churchyard, dating from the 17th century, is that of a Tempiltoun. The family Bible of the Templetons is held (2008) by the Forrests of Byres Farm, who are direct descendants.
The Chapel and the Chapel Hill / Burial Mound / Moot Hill
Dobie states that two chapels existed, one at Lainshaw and one at Chapeltoun, however he may have confused the term 'attached' which can mean that it was on the land of or had been endowed by the owner or the Lord of the Barony, rather than necessarily being in close proximity to the castle/house of Lainshaw. If Patersons statement implying that only one chapel existed and that it was at Chapelton is correct, and he was brought up locally, then our knowledge of the history of the Chapel of St. Mary is greatly increased.
The Topographical Dictionary of Scotland in 1846 states that "About a mile from the town (Stewarton), on the farm of Chapelton (now Chapeltoun Mains), were recently dug up the foundations of an ancient chapel, of which however, no authentic records have been preserved."
In January 1678 Robert Cunynghame, druggist / apothecary / surgeon in Edinburgh, is stated to be the heir to Anne, daughter of Sir Robert Cunynghame of Auchenharvie. She was his cousin-german and part of the inheritance was 10 merk land of Fairlie-Crivoch, with the chapel lands and glebe of Fairlie-Crivoch. No other chapel is in the locality, so this most probably refers to the Chapel at Chapelton. He also owned much of the lands of Lambroughton. Crivoch was a barony and the lands had been split into Lindsay-Crevoch and Montgomerie-Crevoch. Fairlie Crevoch is probably the property close to the old Crivoch Mill at Kennox.
The chapel can never have been very large and was abandoned at the time of the Protestant reformation in Scotland led by the ex-Roman Catholic priest John Knox (1514 to 1572). It is not marked as a ruin on the 1775 Armstrong map, but as a small mansion house, implying that a Chapel House existed somewhere in the vicinity, in addition to the 1775 Laigh (possibly later named Chapelton). It has been stated that this site was just called 'chapel' at this time and this is the name given on Armstrong's map.
No evidence for the site of the priest's dwelling exists, however the site of the old Templeton/Chapelton House suggest itself. If the Laigh marked on the 1775 map refers to Laigh Chapelton then the antiquity of the site is further enhanced as it is the only other named site in the vicinity of the chapel.
The history of the monastic settlement and the chapel of Saint Mary at the Chapel Crags beside the Thugart stane/T'Ogra Stane/Thurgatstane/Thorgatstane/Field Spirit Stane/Ogrestane near Dunlop is a parallel example to the Chapel on the Chapel Hill. The pagan stone is still in existence, long, broad and high, but no evidence of the Christian sites is visible, apart from the inconspicuous Holy Well in the field bordered by the burn. Bayne states that the stone may have been a rocking or 'logan stone' at one time and it is recorded that the farmer was not permitted to plough within a set distance of the stone, presumably because of a tradition of pagan burials around this monument, which is a 'glacial erratic' in origin. It was still worshiped up until "the times of popery" according to McIntosh.
The topography of the area is typical of the sort of site chosen for early ecclesiastical establishments and the building of chapels or churches on pagan sites is a classic example of the way that Christianity supplanted pagan beliefs and practices. Both these religious sites are also in sheltered valleys, with ample running water and they are hidden from view.
As stated the 1775 Armstrong map of Ayrshire clearly shows a 'Chapel' marked, so it was known to exist at this time, however the remains would have been mined/removed over the years by local farmers and used for building work, etc. The remains of the chapel would have been hard to locate by the early 18th century. Arrowsmith's 1807 map shows Chapel marked near Linshaw (Lainshaw) and no Laigh mentioned, while Ainslie's 1821 map shows a Chapel and a Laigh. It is likely that the term Chapel on most maps could be referring to a dwelling or farm and not the Chapel on the mound.
The 1856 'Name Book' of the OS states that part of the house of Chapelton (NS 395 441) is believed to have been a chapel dedicated to the Virgin Mary. Though parts of the building are of great age, it is not certain that this was the chapel; it may have been the residence of the chaplain, while the chapel stood near Chapel Hill. This Chapel Hill is a circular artificial hill. About 1850, Mr. J McAlister raised it to its present height by taking the earth etc. that had slid from its sides, and putting it on the top. While doing this, a quantity of human bones was found near the base on the S and E sides, and also some stones which from their appearance Mr. McAlister thought had been exposed to fire, suggesting that the old chapel was destroyed by fire. Mr. R Miller, a former proprietor, stated that when the present road past Chapel Hill was being made, a quantity of bones was found, giving the idea that there had been a burial ground here.
Smith, the well known antiquarian, in 1895 describes the mound as being 22 paces in diameter, high on the low side and high on the high side. He states that it is well cared for and that a flight of steps, not clearly visible today, ran up from its base to the top. However significantly he makes no reference to any remains of the chapel itself. The 1897 25" to the mile OS shows a path at the Chapelhill House side of the mound and a possibly a curving path or steps up. Smith also states that the mound was repaired some fifty years before, which fits in with the approximate dates for the likely construction of the Chapelton (old) house, by or for James McAlister who is given as the owner of Chapelton at around this time, and it is stated in 1874 that the chapel ruins were found some 40 years before, i.e. around 1834. The 1846 record states that they had been found recently however (Topo Dict Scot).
In 1842 it is recorded that "Near the farm house of Low Chapelton, above a mile below Stewarton, on the right bank of the Annock, there appears to have once been a chapel, the ruins of which were lately dug up, when the proprietor was engaged in planting trees. There are now no records remaining of the place of worship."
Fullarton records that ".. it derived its name from an ancient chapel which stood here, and some fragments of the walls of which still remain connected with this chaste and elegant cottage residence. The site is peculiarly monastic, in a finely sheltered depression close by the brink of the stream."
The Ardossan & Saltcoats Herald on 28.11.1863 ran an article that stated that: "The Chaplehill, an artificial mound, not unlike the one at Castleton, as large, (some people think larger) and of an equally perfect shape. A portion of one side had been thrown down in the last century, to form part of a private road; but when James McAllisiter, Esq., succeeded to the place, in 1847, he found the road had long been disused, and with good taste restored the hill to what had been its original form. In doing so, we believe, he found a good many bones, but not in coffins; and from their position had been evidently disturbed. A large quantity had been found on a former occasion. No very remote date is assigned to these remains. The place probably had been used as a Catholic Burying ground. There was also found a small portion of what seems to have been a clay urn; also, two very ancient copper coins, so ancient indeed, that it is impossible to make anything of them; one or two of those circular pieces of a sort of thick slate, with a hole perforated through the centre, and believed to be the currency of the early ages; and a stone ball, about the size of an ordinary ball. It is therefore presumable that the Roman Catholic Chapel and Burying ground occupied the site of the more ancient faith."
The Scotsman for Wednesday, 26 September 1866 records the sale of the 176 acre estate and states that the dwelling house was built around the ancient chapel of St Mary, being repaired and improved.
In the 1980s a group of 'Wicca' chose the Chapel Hill top to hold a 'Halloween' festival with a large bonfire, etc., much to the surprise of the locals.
The Moot of Chapelton
A Moot Hill of Chapelton is recorded in the Register of the Great Seal of Scotland as being specifically excluded by King James from a grant of lands including Lainshaw, Robertland and Gallowberry to Alexander Hume in the 15th century. This could be a secondary use of a burial mound, although a number of the 'Moot' or 'Justice' Hills seem to have been constructed for the purpose. It may imply that the chapel itself was not on the hill, given that the 15th-century date is pre-reformation and the chapel would therefore be still in use.
Alternative names for the Chapel Hill
Alternative local names for the burial mound are the 'Jockey's cap' and the 'Monk's Graveyard', the 1897 OS map states that human bones were found in the hill. The Forrest family of Byres Farm are direct descendants of the Templetons and they use the term 'Monk's Graveyard' for the Chapel Hill. The validity of oral tradition in this case is exceptionally strong and may indicate that the chapel was not on the mound but on the site of the old Chapelton House. John Dobie in his additional notes to his father's work calls the site 'the Chapeltons'. The mound itself is one of the finest preserved Bronze Age burial mounds in Ayrshire. A previous owner of the Chapel Hill mound allowed an unofficial excavation to take place in around 2001. It is not known if any finds were made.
A visit by the OS in August 1982 stated that "It is difficult to make any accurate assessment of this feature. It has obviously been altered and landscaped beyond any recognition of its original form, and in its present state has an ornamental appearance. Situated on the edge of a natural N–S scarp line at approximately 60 m, it is possible that this was at one time just a slightly raised promontory, but as such, it is almost certainly not a motte and would be more typical of a homestead position in this region."
The name 'Jockey's Cap' originates from the days when the annual 'Stewarton Bonnet Guild Festival' included horse racing – like the 'Irvine Marymass' Celebrations still do. The mound was the perfect site for viewing the 'racecourse' set out on the field below 'Chapeltoun Mains'. The shape of the mound is reminiscent of a jockey's cap.
Chapelton and the Kennox connection
Sir Neil Montgomery of Lainshaw married Elizabeth Cunninghame of Aiket and one of their sons, John of Cockilbie, had a son named John of Crivoch in the mid-17th century. He may have lived at Crivoch before it was purchased by the Somervilles and passed by marriage to the MacAlisters. The letters of Sir David Cunningham of Auchenharvie to his cousin the laird of Robertland preserved in the National Archives of Scotland detail his efforts to purchase some of these lands (NAS GD237/25/1-4) He sold some of them in turn to James Douglas of Chesters in 1642 (RGS, ix, (1634–1651), no.1189) In around 1700 John Somerville of the Kennox Estate in Lanarkshire purchased the Bollingshaw (now Bonshaw) Barony, including Chapeltoun, and built Kennox (also Kenox in 1832 and Kennoch in 1792) House on the lands of Montgomerie – Crevoch.
Hugh Montfode of that Ilk's sister Jean was married to John Miller of Laigh Chapelton who died in 1622; they had a son Hugh Miller. Jean Montfode nominated John Miller to be her executor. The American genealogist Steve Miller has revealed that in 1828 the deceased John Miller, was through his son James who was then living at Montfode House, being sued by Col Charles S. McAlister of Kennox.
Charles S. McAlister and Janet had four children. They bequeathed the part of the Barony of Bollingshaw named Chapelton (the glebes and chapel lands of the Register of Sasines) to their younger son James, who never married and died in 1857.
No date is given for when James Somerville obtained Chapelton, however we know from Dobie that James McAlister, nephew of the aforementioned James, was the owner in 1874. This James McAlister, the nephew of James Somerville, also never married. Chapelton had been re-acquired into the Bollingshaw Barony for him by his father, Charles McAlister.
Templeton becomes Chapelton and develops into an Estate
The Armstrong map of 1775 show a 'Laigh' in fairly close proximity to the 'Chapel'. This is in all probability Laigh Chapelton, suggesting that a dwelling existed at this date and adding strength to the supposition that Laigh Chapelton was a building, or the site of a building, of some considerable antiquity. A legal document, 'Defences for James Wilson of High Chapelton sued by John Miller of Laigh Chapelton' in 1820 gives us the names of the tenants of both of these properties at this time The rental valuie circa 1820 was £180.
The formal name change from Templeton to Chapelton did not occur as a result of the rediscovery of the St. Mary's Chapel ruins by the new landowner, James McAlister, for it had clearly never been truly lost as such. However the discovery may help provide an approximate date for the reconstruction / extension of the house at Laigh Chapelton. Paterson says in 1866 that the chapel discovery was some years before, evidence from Dobie gives us the date of 1836 and Smith's evidence gives the date of 1845. Aitken shows only a Laigh Chapelton Farm in 1829 and all this suggests that the 'old' Chapelton House and estate were developed in around 1830 to 1850. The early to mid-19th century is a time during which many country houses were built, modernised or extended and OS maps show the increasing importance of the Laigh Chapelton estate around this time, with the development of formal gardens (from the 1858 OS), new driveways, etc.
Chapeltoun Mains
Chapeltoun (Chapleton, Chappleton, Chapeltown, etc.) Mains farm changes its name from simple Chapelton, which Laigh Chapelton now adopts as the site of the new mansion house, sometime between 1829 and 1858. This suggests that at this time Chapelton Mains was the home farm prior to the building of what is now Chapelhill House in around 1911, as judged from the OS maps. A small building appears near the site of Chapelburn Cottage from 1858. The area around the front of the farm is referred to as 'Black Sawneys Park'; 'Sawney' being a Scots term for 'Alexander'. At one time it effectively meant a 'Scotsman', as with the use of the name 'Jock'. Another explanation is that the field had black sandy soil due to the river flooding onto the holm and creating rich fertile soil.
Wattshode
A small property set in of the 5 Merk lands of Chapelton, named Wattshode or Wattshod is mentioned as far back as 1723 in the Chapeltoun Mains legal papers. Armstrong records a 'Wetshode' in 1775. In 1598 the word 'Wattshode' was some sort of fabric, frequently described as blue. It could include the local surname name 'Watt'. The Scotsman for Wednesday 26 September 1866 advertises the sale of Chapeltoun, Wattshode and Mosshead.
A shelter belt beside the track up to Bogflat and signs of nettle growth restricted to the possible site of a building suggests that Wattshode stood in this field behind Cankerton (previously Cantkertonhole). General Roy's map of 1747 – 55 marks only Watshode and Chapeltoun by name. 'Red Wat-shod' is a Scots expression used by Robert Burns meaning blood-spattered boots.
Chapelton Moss Head, Bottoms point Crivoch, and Bogside
A farm originally called Chapelton Moss Head by Thomson in 1828 or Mosshead of Chapelton, is later called just Mosshead and was situated in the fields of Bottoms Farm with its entrance just after the bridge over the Chapel Burn. All traces of it above ground have vanished, while Bogside cottage is still represented by building debris at the edge of the field near the entrance to the Bogflat Farm. Bogside had a rental value of £10 in 1820 and the proprietor was Robert Stevenson. Bottoms point Crevoch farm still exists close to Kennox (2009). The Scotsman newspaper in 1866 records the sale of the lands of Chapeltoun, Wattshode and Mosshead.
Bogflat
Bogflat Farm has been lovingly rebuilt circa 2004 by Stuart Kerr and his wife Stephanie. Stewarton Old Parish Records show Hugh Parker and his spouse Susanna Wardrop living at Bogflat in 1809 when their daughter Annabella was born. The Parkers were still in residence at the time of the 1841 census. Neighbours Susanna Wardrop Parker of Bogflat Farm and Agnes Wardrop Watt in Parkside Farm were sisters. John Earl and Isobel his spouse were residing at Bogside in 1827.
In 1881 an Alexander Muir, aged 38, a general merchant lived at Bogflat with his wife Margaret and sons David and John. A building named Bog is marked on Armstrong's 1775 map and this was most likely Bogflat for we know from a Marriage stone from Bogflat, now in the Stewarton Museum, that a dwelling was there in 1711 with a 'JR' recorded and other initials, unfortunately now cut off.
In 1919 Robert Bryce, Import and Export Merchant of Melbourne, Australia owned Chapelton and Bogflat.
In May 1941 a bomb was dropped on the nearby Anderson's Mount and a pipe was laid from the resultamt crater to the well at Bogflat as the crater had filled with water and was kept full by the springs here (see video).
Parkside (Windwaird) and Cankerton Hollow
Windwaird is the name given by Aitken in 1829 to a house on the Torranyard to Stewarton road, not far from the fairly recently created entrance for pedestrians to Lainshaw House that runs through the Anderson Plantation (a name marked on the maps but not used by the local farmers). This building is called Parkside on the OS maps, first shown on the 1832 map, it is marked on the 1960, but not the 1974 OS. Stewarton Old Parish Records show Alexander Watt and his wife Agnes (Wardrop) in Parkside when their daughter Mary was born in May 1809. In 1809, neighbours Susanna Wardrop Parker in Bogflat Farm and Agnes Wardrop Watt in Parkside Farm were sisters. The last family to live here were the Muir's, relatives of the Muir's of Gillmill (also Gillmiln) Farm. A 'park' refers to an area of enclosed land in the days when most land was not enclosed with hedges or fencing.
In 1616 the "lands of the Waird, etc." were conveyed to David Cunninghame of Robertland by William, Lord Kilmaurs (McNaught 1912), but any connection with this site is unproven. A waird is a feudal land tenure right conferred through military service obligations of tenants (see Definitions and Scot's words). Wardpark near Lochridge is spelt Wairdpark in Pont's map of 1604.
Cankerton or Cankerton Hollow is rarely indicated by name; it was the home of James Orr, farmer who died on 6 April 1859 aged 43 (born 31 May 1845). His wife Mary King Brown had died on 12 July 1845 aged just 25 (born 20 September 1820). Another John Orr farmed here with his spouse Janet Wilson. He died on 21 January 1847, aged 68, and she died on 16 October 1889, aged 79, having moved into High Chapeltoun to live with her brothers. Husband & spouse were buried at the Laigh Kirk, Stewarton. Cankerton, originally Cankerton was also found locally as a surname, but the etymology is unclear, a 'canker' usually meaning a 'blight, a fungal disease' of trees or cereals. A Cankerton Estate is listed under a survey of coal deposits.
High Chapeltoun
High Chapelton is first marked on the 1829 and the 1858 maps, together with a limekiln and a ford over the Annick. An old track is seen running from the farm to the field containing the 'grain barn' near Laigh Castleton; ploughing in this field has not turned up any stones, building or otherwise therefore suggesting a building constructed from wood. James Wilson and his spouse Mary Steven farmed at High Chapeltoun in 1760, when she died, aged 56. They were buried at the Laigh Kirk in Stewarton. Mary Reid of High Chapelton and Stacklawhill was born here on 20 January 1827, daughter of Thomas Reid of Stacklawhill. His wife was Mary Wilson of High Chapelton. The memorial stone is in the Stewarton cemetery. The rental value in around 1820 was £137.
Chapelton (old) house and gardens
The 1858 OS shows two buildings on the site, very close to each other but not physically connected. One building probably being the old Laigh Chapelton Farm and the other, on the right, being the residence built for James McAlister. The photograph (Davis 1991) seems to be of the side of the house facing onto the road and the Chapel Hill. The 1851 OS shows formal gardens with a boundary wall, paths and a central feature, possibly a pond. The 1897 OS shows one large building with wings and extensions which appear to be porches and possibly a conservatory. By this date the formal gardens are absent, as in the 1911 OS. The ha-ha is not shown in the large scale map of 1897 OS, but appears to be present in the 1858 and the 1911 editions. No footbridge can be made out, however the OS maps have a number of errors and omissions, especially the exact outlines of buildings which are often only 'approximations'. Between 1858 and 1897 a main driveway has been constructed into the grounds from nearly opposite the Chapel Hill and a formal path with steps leads from the position of today's main entrance down to Chapelton House.
Construction of the New Chapeltoun House and Estate
The Chapelton (old) House was demolished in around 1908, possibly following a fire as this is the strong local tradition for the demise of the house. A Miss Mary McAllister may have been the last occupant of the house. Some of the dressed stonework may have been used in the building of the new house, garden and drive walls, the sides of the Chapel burn and elsewhere. The walling around the field side of the Chapel Hill mound is not entirely built with stones from Chapelton (old) House as some old building rubble was brought in from elsewhere at a much later date by the owner of Chapeltoun Mains, Mr. A. Robinson.
The gate to the field below the mound has three sandstone gateposts laid horizontally, two of them are exceptionally large and could be the ornamented gateposts from the old entrance and driveway to Chapelton (old) House. The actual drive is now represented by the curling pond behind the walled up entrance and the OS maps show an entrance here until at least 1911. Chapeltoun Mains has only one gatepost and both High Chapeltoun and Chapelhill house have none. These changes probably reflect the requirement to have access for large modern farm machinery. The gateposts are machine cut sandstone and the same design is found elsewhere, such as at the Kennox lodge, Cankerton and opposite Peacockbank Farm (previously Pearce Bank) near Stewarton, near the original entrance road to Lochridge. In 1775 Armstrong's map shows the road going no further than Lochridge (formerly Lochrig). A wind-pump is shown situated above Chapeltoun House on the 1923 OS map.
During demolition it was noted that the stonework in the lower story of Chapelton (old) House was noticeably older than the upper story as would be expected if Laigh Chapelton had developed into Chapelton when it acquired an owner with greater financial means, Mr. James McAlister (or MacAlester), who added first a new 'mansion house', later an upper story to the old farm, developed the ornamental gardens and probably built the bridge over the river with the associated 'ha-ha' (see the section on the estate gardens and landscape).
Michael Davis records that Hugh Neilson, the owner of 'Summerlee Iron Company' had the present mansion house designed in 1908 by Alexander Cullen, an architect from Hamilton. Harling is used extensively on the walls and this was originally left in an unpainted, artistic, grey state. The family moved into the house in 1910, however The gate-lodge was not built until around 1918, having been designed by Cullen, Lochhead and Brown. R.W.Schultz had proposed a terraced garden in 1911, but it is not known to what extent the existing terraces reflect this design. The pillars at the base of the main flight of steps incorporate old ornamental worked sandstone, presumably from the Chapelton (old) House. A separate conservatory building existed in front of the house at one time according to the Kilmarnock Glenfiled Ramblers. The name 'Chapeltoun', with the extra letter 'u' was presumably adopted for the new mansion house.
A small iron cannon dated 1840 once stood in front of the house having been built by Mr Neilson at his Oak Bank Foundry.
Hugh Neilson was a keen player of the bagpipes and the music could be heard at many of the surrounding farms, drifting up from the estate gardens. He was also very fond of curling and as soon as the weather was cold enough he would invite all the locals down for a match and a dram at his curling pond (Hastings 1995). It is believed to have been restored when the house was a hotel, using concrete and tarmac.
The Chapeltoun Estate was never very large, incorporating Chapeltoun Mains, High Chapeltoun, the home farm (now Chapelhill House), Chapelburn Cottage, Mosshead of Chapelton Farm, Bogside cottage and Bogflat. Cankerton (Cankertonhole) and Bloomridge (Bloomrig) were part of the Kennox Estate. Between 1924 and 1960 the Neilsons owned Linn House in Dalry.
Bogside cottage was lived in by Mr. Troop and his family and later on by a Mr. McGaw who worked at Chapeltoun Mains. He was the Chapeltoun House gardener. Mr. Thow (pronounced Thor) a forester, lived with his family at the Bogflat Farmhouse. A chauffeur, a Mr. McLean lived at Chapelburn cottage and Firbank existed as a small copse with a possible (unrecorded) standing stone, the bungalow was built in the 1970s.
An incident remembered by Mrs. Wilson is that of Mr. Neilson challenging a young man from Kilmaurs to a fist fight because he had found that the man was courting one of his housemaids.
The 'mansion' house of 1910 has had a number of changes of use after it was a private house, being the headquarters of an insurance company and a hotel under several different owners, before becoming a family home again around 2004. The Lobnitz family of Chapeltoun House moved to High Clunch. The Third Statistical Account of 1953 still records Chapeltoun as being one of the six main estates in the parish of Stewarton.
Gardens and landscape
A finial from Chapelton House or possibly a 'wheat sheaf' from the old Monks' Well is used as a feature in the gardens. Apart from pure ornamentation the finial can also function as a lightning rod, and was once believed to act as a deterrent to witches on broomsticks attempting to land on one's roof. On making her final landing approach to a roof, the witch, spotting the obstructing finial, was forced to sheer off and land elsewhere. An old lintel from a door is recorded in 1939 as being built into a wall in the garden with the inscription 'S.M. 1740', possibly standing for one of the 'Miller' family'.
The Monks' well
In the woodland policies of Chapeltoun House is the Monks' Well (OS 1974), fountain or spring as indicated on the OS maps going back as far as 1858. Its present appearance is probably as a Victorian or Edwardian 'whimsy' or 'folly' with a large, thick sandstone 'tombstone appearance' with a slightly damaged cross carved in relief upon it and a spout through which the spring water once passed into a cast iron 'bowl'. The Kilmarnock Glenfield Rambler's visited Chapeltoun in 1939 and recorded that a gargoyle had once been present as a spout and that the 'cross' was actually a 'wheat sheaf' that had stood on top of the stone.
It seems unlikely from the workmanship that the well's stone and 'cross' have anything to do with the old chapel, but one possibility is that it came from over the entrance door to Laigh Chapelton as the custom was for a Templar property to have the 'cross' symbol of the order displayed in such a fashion. On the other hand it could have been made for the Chapelton (old) House to associate the building with the Christian history of the site. The stone is unusually thick and has been clearly reworked to pass a spout through it.
The OS record that in the 1970s a Mr. H.Gollan of Chapeltown stated that the 'Monk's Well', was believed to have been associated with the chapel. In July 1956 the OS state that the 'Monk's Well' is a spring emerging through a stone pipe, situated in a stone-faced cutting in the hill slope. Above the spring is a stone slab with a cross in relief.
The Curling pond
A well is marked near the Chapelton (old) House which became a pump later and may now be represented by a surviving stone lined well with steps leading down to it. The water from this well was used to fill the Curling Pond which was built by the Neilsen's on the site of the original driveway into the old house/farm. It is said that the curling pond was constructed on the site of the old stables.
At the top edge of riverside meadow are to be found a couple of sizeable glacial erratics, which were dug out during the construction of the sewerage treatment plant. The remains of the abutments of a footbridge across the river are visible where the garden boundary hedge meets the Annick and Florence Miller remembers the bridge as still standing in the late 1920s. This presumably Victorian or Edwardian feature would take people across to the area delineated by a small ha-ha, now thick with rhododendrons (R.ponticum), typically planted by estate owners.
The ha-ha
On the Lambroughton side of the river is a substantial wall with a wide ditch in front, built with considerable labour and of no drainage function. This structure was probably a ha-ha (sometimes spelt har har) or sunken fence which is a type of boundary to a garden, pleasure-ground, or park so designed as not to interrupt the view and to not be seen until closely approached. The ha-ha consists of a trench, the inner side of which is perpendicular and faced with stone, with the outer slope face sloped and turfed – making it in effect a sunken fence. The ha-ha is a feature in many landscape gardens laid and was an essential component of the "swept" views of Lancelot Capability Brown. "The contiguous ground of the park without the sunk fence was to be harmonized with the land within; and the garden in its turn was to be set free from its prim regularity, that it might assort with the wilder country without". Most typically they are found in the grounds of grand country houses and estates and acted as a means of keeping the cattle and sheep out of the formal gardens, without the need for obtrusive fencing. They vary in depth from about 5 feet (Chapeltoun House) to 9 feet (Petworth).
The old driveway to Lainshaw House off the Stewarton to Torranyard road also has a ha-ha on the side facing the home farm before it reaches the woods. The name ha-ha may be derived from the response of ordinary folk on encountering them and that they were, "...then deemed so astonishing, that the common people called them Ha! Ha's! to express their surprise at finding a sudden and unperceived check to their walk." An alternative theory is that it describes the laughter of those who see a walker fall down the unexpected hole. A seat may have been situated by the ha-ha and the woodland view would have been, and indeed still is, very attractive as this area is clearly an ancient woodland remnant. The stone boundary wall stops in line with the ha-ha.
Chapeltoun Bridge
The Chapeltoun Bridge over the Annick and is a carefully designed sandstone structure complementing the scene. 'Stepping stones' are marked on the 1897 OS map as being located just downstream from here. The name Annick, previously Annock, Annoch (1791) or Annack Water, possibly derives from the Gaelic abhuin, meaning water and oc or aig meaning little or small. The valley which this river runs through was once called Strathannock. Immense labour has been expended building walls on either side of the river and even the Chapel Burn bed is 'cobbled'.
'Fossilised' linear bands of stone deposition in gardens which were part of this 'boundary' field suggest that the old Rig and furrow system was used hereabouts, however extensive modern ploughing has hidden the 'tell tale' signs. The amount of stone clearance in the 'Lambroughton Woods' bearing plough scoring, illustrates the extent of the ploughing. Other fields in the area still show these unmistakable signs of cultivation and place names such as Lochrig (now Lochridge) and Righead Smithy preserve the history of the practice.
Natural history
The area of 'wild-wood' beyond the ha-ha, with its 'sheets of bluebells', the wood rushes, wood sorrel, dog's mercury, snowdrops, celandine, broad buckler, lady and male-shield ferns, helleborine orchids and other species typical of long established woodlands, abruptly ends at the 'march' (estate boundary) indicated by a large earth bund and a coppiced boundary beech. The 1858 OS shows the wood as confined to the area of the ha-ha, however by 1897 the OS shows woodland as far up as the march. The Lambroughton woods beyond (until recently the property of the Montgomery / Southannan Estate) are not shown on the older maps including the 1911 OS, they are shown in the 1960 OS map as a pine plantations amongst what was scrub or partial woodland cover containing elder, gean, ash, etc. Before this time the area above the river was not even fenced off at the top where it becomes 'level' with the field.
Although giant hogweed is taking hold along the Annick (2006), however the riparian (water side) flora is still indicative of long established and undisturbed habitats. The rare crosswort, (a relative of the goosegrass or cleavers) is found nearby. The river contains, amongst others, brown trout, sea trout, salmon, eels, minnows, and stickleback. The water quality is much improved since the Stewarton cloth mills closed and the river no longer carries their dyes and other pollutants as shown by the presence of freshwater limpets and shrimps, together with leeches, caddis fly larvae and water snail species.
Kingfishers have been seen just downstream and the estate's woodland policies and river contain, amongst others, tawny and barn owls, herons, mallard, ravens, rooks, treecreepers, buzzards, peewits or lapwings, roe deer, mink, moles, shrews, grey squirrels, hares, hedgehogs, foxes, badgers, pipistrelle bats and probably otters. Migrating Canada and greylag geese frequent the nearby fields on their way up from the Caerlaverock or coming down from Spitzbergen in the winter. Duncan McNaught in 1895 records that he found a kingfisher's nest at an arms length inside an earthen burrow at Chapelton on the Annick.
The estate woodlands contains typical species, such as copper beech, horse-chestnut, yew, bay-laurel, oaks, ornamental pines, and a fine walnut. Several very large beeches and sycamores are also present. The Glenfield Ramblers recorded two especially rare species in the area of the Lainshaw Estate, the lesser wintergreen and the bird's nest orchid. Unfortunately no precise details of the site were recorded.
The hedgerow trees accepted today as part of the familiar landscape were not planted by farmers for visual effect, they were crops and the wood was used for building and fencing and the millers needed beech or hornbeam wood for mill machinery, in particular for the sacrificial cogs on the main drive gears. It is not generally appreciated how much the Ayrshire landscape has changed its character, for even in 1760–70 the Statistical Account it is stated that "there was no such thing to be seen as trees or hedges in the parish; all was naked and open".
The Glazert burn, previously Glazart or Glassert has otters and the rare freshwater mussel (source of freshwater pearls). The name may come from the celtic, glas in Gaelic meaning grey or green and dur meaning water. It is recorded by Dobie in 1876 as being a favourite resort of fishermen and this is still very much the case today (2006). Another River Glazert, runs through a considerable part of the parish of Campsie, emptying itself into the Kelvin, opposite the town of Kirkintilloch.
A number of small woodlands are marked as 'fox coverts', such as below Chapeltoun Mains and near Anderson's Plantation, left for foxes to breed and shelter in safety. The local Eglinton hunt used to meet at Chapeltoun House.
The Toll Road and Milestones
Wheeled vehicles were unknown to farmers in the area until the end of the 17th century and prior to this sledges were used to haul loads as wheeled vehicles were useless. Roads were mere tracks and such bridges as there were could only take pedestrians, men on horseback or pack-animals. The first wheeled vehicles to be used in Ayrshire were carts offered gratis to labourers working on Riccarton Bridge in 1726. In 1763 it was still said that no roads existed between Glasgow and Kilmarnock or Kilmarnock and Ayr and the whole traffic was by twelve pack horses, the first of which had a bell around its neck. A mill-wand was the rounded piece of wood acting as an axle with which several people would role a millstone form the quarry to the mill and to permit this the width of some early roads was set at a 'mill-wand breadth'.
The Stewarton to Torranyard (Torrenzairds in 1613) road was a turnpike as witnessed by the farm name Crossgates (Stewarton 3 and Irvine 5 miles), Gateside (near Stacklawhill Farm) and the check bars that are shown on the 1858 OS at Crossgates and at the Bickethall (previously Bihetland) road end to prevent vehicles, horse riders, etc. turning off the turnpike and avoiding the toll charges. A small toll house is shown at Crossgates, now demolished, on the left when facing Torranyard. In Scots a 'bicket' is a 'pocket', an appropriate description of the area the farm lies in. A modern cottage nearby is called 'Robelle' after the farmers Robert and Isabelle from Bickethall.
The name 'Turnpike' originated from the original 'gate' used being just a simple wooden bar attached at one end to a hinge on the supporting post. The hinge allowed it to 'open' or 'turn' This bar looked like the 'pike' used as a weapon in the army at that time and therefore we get 'turnpike'. The term was also used by the military for barriers set up on roads specifically to prevent the passage of horses. Other than providing better roads, the turnpikes settled the confusion of the different lengths given to miles, which had varied from 4,854 to nearly . Long miles, short miles, Scotch or Scot's miles (5,928 ft), Irish miles (6,720 ft), etc. all existed. Another point is that when the toll roads were constructed the Turnpike trusts went to considerable trouble to improve the route of the new roads and these changes could be quite considerable. The tolls on roads were abolished in 1878 to be replaced by a road assessment, which was taken over by the County Council in 1889.
Colonel McAlester was a member of the Turnpike Trust and no doubt exerted considerable influence over the route of the turnpike and other matters. John Loudon McAdam was very actively involved with Scottish Turnpikes, living at Sauchrie near Ayr until he moved to Bristol to become Surveyor to the local Turnpike Trust in 1826.
None of the toll road milestones are visible because they were buried during the Second World War to prevent them from being used by invading troops, agents, etc. This seems to have happened all over Scotland, however Fife was more fortunate than Ayrshire, for the stones were taken into storage and put back in place after the war had finished. The milestone near Bloomridge Farm and Kirkmuir Farm are likewise missing, presumed buried.
Kirkmuir, Kirkhill, Gillmill, Righead and the Freezeland Plantation
Close to Kirkmuir (previously Laigh Kirkmuir), a farm occupied by William Mure in 1692, is the Freezeland plantation (previously Fold Park) on the turnpike as marked on the 1858 OS. Nowadays it is a smallholding without a dwelling house. The origin of the name is unclear, although 'furz' or furs' is old Scots for gorse or whin, however the existence of this small patch of fenced off land may be linked to the reference in Thomson's 1832 map to a fold, either for sheep or cattle. In 1799 the surrounding field is known as Fold Park. It could have been a pen for strayed stock or be connected with the tolls on the turnpike in some way or a 'stell', the Scot's word for a partial enclosure made by a wall or trees, to serve as a shelter for sheep or cattle. A building may have existed here. Kirkmuir was farmed by John Brown (died 21 August 1880, aged 54) and his wife Catherine Anderson (died 27 August 1895, aged 72). James Walker (died 11 December 1926, aged 86) and his wife Mary Woodburn (died 27 April 1899, aged 57) also farmed Kirkmuir. They were all buried in the Laigh Kirk graveyard.
The field between Kirkmuir & Righead was known as Lady Moss Meadow. Righead was a tollhouse at a later stage, however it was built as a 'butt and ben'. Skirmshaw is the name of some fields nearby in 1797, although no building appears to be present at that time. Picken's (formerly Padzean) Park was across the road from Righead, behind the estate tree boundary. Picken (Padzean) is a fairly common local name (see Kirkhill). Millstone Flat Park is the field above the chalybeate spring on its side of the Ha Ha.through Lady Moss Meadow Kirkmuir was originally a farm on the Longridge Plantation near Highcross Farm (Thomson 1832), later becoming Little Kirkmuir and being marked but not named by 1895, before ceasing to be recorded at all on the OS maps by 1921.
A 'Kirkhill' dwelling is last marked on the 1858 and 1895 0S, below Kirkhill and near to South Kilbride. Andrew Picken was the farmer here in 1867, when his spouse, Ann Blair died, aged 59; she was buried at the Laigh Kirk in Stewarton. It was close to a small burn running from Water Plantation, above Stewarton, in a sheltered glen, typical of early religious settlements and the Kirkhill itself, which was wooded in 1858, is an excellent viewpoint. A track led up to it from Gillmill Farm and it had an entrance near that of South Kilbride. Robert Stevenson farmed at Gillmill and died on 27 May 1810, aged 48. In the 1850s, Mr Picking was the tenant, and he was able to identify a site identified by dark soil that had a rectangular & square which had the correct compass points for a church and the ground was very stony. The farm was surrounded by Lainshaw Estate lands.
The plethora of religious names in this area – the Kirkmuirs, Kirkhill, Lady Moss, High Cross, Canaan and the Kilbrides, suggest that at some point in the distant past a pre-Christian and Christian site was located here. No documentary evidence appears to survive and the earliest record is for Kirkry in 1654, now Kilbride. Bride, Brigit or St. Brigid was originally a Celtic Goddess linked with the festival of Imbolc, the eve of the first of February. She was the goddess of spring and was associated with healing and sacred wells. The Carlin Stone at Commoncrags in Dunlop is associated with the 'old winter hag', the antithesis of the goddess Bride. The name Canaan at Kirkmuir was in use as early as 1779. In 1922 James Martin and Mary Gilmour purchased Gillmill and Canaan from the Cunninghames of Lainshaw.
High Cross was occupied by the Harvies in 1951, who had purchased the farm from the Nairnshaw Estate in 1921. According to Strawhorn they had reconditioned the old thatched farmhouse in 1915 and added a gravitation water supply, bathroom, telephone and electricity. The farm buildings are now (2006) abandoned and the site awaits a new use.
Mineral wells and the source of the Chapel Burn
Paterson (1866) states that there is a mineral spring near Stewarton, called the Bloak Well. Robinson gives the Scot's word 'blout' as meaning the 'eruption of fluid' or a place that is soft or wet. Both meanings would fit in this context. Blout and Bloak are very similar words, with a Bloak Moss not very far away at Auchentiber.
A well recorded as Bloak Well was first discovered in 1800, around 1826 (Paterson 1866) or 1810 or 1800, by the fact that pigeons from Lainshaw House and the neighbouring parishes were found to flock here to drink. Mr. Cunningham of Lainshaw built a handsome house over the well in 1833 and appointed a keeper to take care of it as the mineral water was of some value owing to healing properties attributed to it. The well was located in the middle of the kitchen.
The Chapel Burn rises near the Anderson Plantation in the fields below Lainshaw Mains and it is marked as a chalybeate or mineral spring on the 1911 6" OS map. Bore holes nearby suggest that the water was put to a more formal use at one time, supplying cattle troughs or possibly even for a stand pipe as mineral water was popular for its supposed curative properties. According to the opinion of the day, it could cure 'the colic, the melancholy, and the vapours; it made the lean fat, the fat lean; it killed flat worms in the belly, loosened the clammy humours of the body, and dried the over-moist brain. The main spring here has been covered over and the water piped out to the burn.
The chalybeate spring (otherwise known as Siderite, a mineral consisting of iron(II) carbonate, FeCO3 – 48 percent iron) described here is not the only well / spring in the area which is identified as being a mineral spring, for there is still a cottage named Saltwell in what was the hamlet of Bloak. This information is stated by the Topographical Dictionary of Scotland, however Mrs. Florence Miller of Saltwell recollects that this well was never known specifically as the Bloak Well. The present building was purchased from the Cunninghames of Lainshaw in the 1920s, having been built between 1800 and 1850. It is thought that the salt well now lies beneath the floor of the building and various physical features of the building suggest that it is the structure built by the Cunninghames. The well was first discovered by the fact that migrating birds, especially swifts and swallows, flocked to it. It is of unknown composition and is not listed as chalybeate. The cottage was a 'but and ben' and it is a 'handsome' building as described by Paterson. A Redwells Farm is located nearby at Auchentiber, the etymology of tiber itself refers to a well.
In 1930 the Kilmarnock Glenfield Ramblers' Society record a Ramble during which they walked past the well known local spring, its waters rich in iron, on their way to the Kennox Estate, having already visited the Lainshaw Estate. This must be the source of the Chapel Burn.
The March Dyke and a dispute between neighbours
The Chapeltoun march is a significant historic survival in an Ayrshire context and in addition we have some information about its construction. Defence for James Wilson Sued by John Miller 7th. August 1820. Manuscript and personal communications. We are told in 1820 that "the march dyke was built some many years ago when such boundaries were quite a new thing and thought by some to be rather an incovenience". Ditchers were employed to build it and thorns and trees were purchased to plant on it. The word fence is used as well as dyke in regards of the construction method. Part of the march dyke is still clearly indicated by a large coppiced beech and we know that this coppicing or pollarding was done because such 'marker' trees will live considerably longer than trees which have been left untouched.
James Wilson of High Chapelton and John Miller of Laigh Chapelton went to court over the matter of the march dyke built between their lands by the father of James. The document makes it clear that such inclosures were unusual at the time and although John's father very reluctantly agreed to the march dyke being built with a straightening of the old boundary, he did not pay anything towards its construction or for its maintenance, despite the march being of a level of construction which required skilled ditchers to be employed for the task.
The ill-feeling seems to have spread into the next generation for James records that John has cut 'march' trees down in the past and has thrown thorns and brambles from the march into the High Chapeltoun's hayfields. The irony is that John of Laigh Chapelton is suing James for cutting down trees from the march dyke and requires money to plant new trees and to compensate for the inconvenience he has been put through. We do not know the outcome, however the action is described as "trifling and frivolous". The clue to the ill-feeling may be in the term 'straightening' which may imply that John's father agreed to a new march which may have resulted in some small loss of his lands.
The rental value of High Chapelton was £137 in 1820 and Laigh Chapelton was £180. The memorial stone to the Miller family of Chapelton (Chapelton is the spelling on the tombstone) is very well preserved at the Laigh Kirk, Stewarton. John Miller died on 3 December 1734, aged 30, and his spouse, Jean Gilmour died on 24 November 1747, aged 42. Their son James died on 1 November 1793, aged 60, and his spouse, Margaret Gilmour, died on 1 April 1802, aged 61. Their son John is the one involved in the dispute; he died on 25 December 1825, aged 59. His spouse was Grizel Gray, who died on 7 January 1855.
The march dyke is clearly marked on the 1885 OS map, following the course of the bank above the water meadow from the riverside and then running up as a 'v' shape towards High Chapeltoun before coming back down to join the lane near the Chapel mound. It doesn't follow the line of the natural ridge above the waterside meadow.
Aiton in 1811 mentions "a curious notion that has long prevailed in the County of Ayr, and elsewhere, that the wool of sheep was pernicious to the growth of thorns" (hawthorn or whitethorn and blackthorn or sloe).
Other sites of interest in the area
Crivoch Mill
Crivoch or Crevoch (also Crevock in 1821) mill, part of which was recently (2005) rebuilt as Angel Cottage, a family home, was the site of a Mill and associated miller's dwelling, byre, etc. as far back as 1678. 'Cruive' is Scots for a pen for livestock.
The old cornmill was part of the Barony of Crevoch and lay in the portion which was called Crivoch-Lindsay. In 1608 Archibald Lindsay was heir to Andrew Lindsay the owner, however by 1617 the lands were in the hands of James Dunlop, whose father was James Dunlop of that Ilk.
In January 1678 Robert Cunynghame, apothecary / druggist in Edinburgh, is stated to be the heir to Anne, daughter of Sir Robert Cunynghame of Auchenharvie. She was his cousin-german and part of the inheritance was the 5 merk land of Fairlie-Crivoch and the mill. He also owned some of the lands of Lambroughton and Auchenharvie near Cunninghamhead / Perceton. A Robert and Jonet Galt are recorded as living at Crivoch in around 1668. In 1742 William Millar, Baillie, was 'Milner in Crivoch Miln'.
The mother of the late Mrs. Minnie Hastings of West Lambroughton Farm had been one of the last occupants of the house at the Crevoch Mill site. The family name was Kerr. A track led from Crivoch up to Bottoms farm and this gave access through to Chapeltoun. The full name of Bottoms farm is Bottoms at Point Crivoch. The dusky cranesbill, a rare garden escape, was recorded by the Glenfield Ramblers' at Crivoch mill in the 1850s and was still growing at the site in 2004.
In 1735 John Cummin, a schoolmaster, is recorded as living at Crivoch.
The Gallowayford Cists and Farm
At Gallowayford near Kennox is the site of the discovery in 1850 of stone-lined graves about square, in a group of tumuli, in which were found two urns containing flint arrowheads and some 'Druid's glass' beads. Charles McAlister Esq. of Kennox House, the laird, had ordered these graves to be opened and examined. The flints and the eleven beads (probably made of amber) have been lost after having been taken into the keeping of the laird. They had at least been photographed and sketched by a visitor in the 1920s. The urns were also feared lost; however, it was found that they had been recorded under Loup and not Kennox (as the owner was Laird of both places) in the record of the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland. In 1949 they had been purchased from the estate. This find is one of the very few where two urns were found in the same cist, and the assemblage of grave goods is unusual. Gallowayford Farm is no longer in existence; however, the remains of the dam or weir in the Glazert nearby can be clearly seen. Robertson (1820) regards this as being a valuable property, the proprietor being James Millar, with a valued rent of £21.
Close to the cists site is the Mound Wood on Kennox Moss, an oval shaped artificial structure made of piled turf and surrounded by a well constructed drystone wall. It has not been investigated archaeologically. An access track ran up to it at one time and Roy's map of 1747 indicates that a dwelling known as Water House existed in this vicinity at that time.
The Gallowayford Farmhouse is now (2006) just a jumble of stones, however John Shields and his spouse Jean Guthrie farmed here in the mid-19th century, Jean dying on 4 October 1887 and John on 22 September 1908; they lost a daughter, Isabella at the age of 4 in 1862. James Miller farmed here previously, dying on 3 April 1813. They are all buried at the Laigh Kirk in Stewarton. General Roy's map of 1747–55 clearly shows Gallowayford and Irvinhill.
Bonshaw
Bonshaw (formerly Bollingshaw or Bonstonshaw) was a small estate and barony of the Boyd's, a cadet of the Boyds, Lords of Kilmarnock.
Stacklawhill
Near Stacklawhill is the site of the discovery of celts (axe heads) and earthenware in 1875. John Craufurd Taylor is recorded as living at Stackly hill in 1735. Mr Muir of Bonnyton farm was the great-grandson of Mr Thomas Reid of Stacklawhill farm who had owned the Bonnyton estate in 1827. The properties of Mossend Huist and Bogue were incorporated within Stacklawhill.
Bankend or Sandilands Farm
Bankend Farm near the Annick is marked on the 1775 Armstrong's map, however it shown as a ruin as far back as 1858. Its name was transferred to the farm of Sandilands sometime after 1923 and the name Sandielands (1820), Sandilands or Sandylands dropped, 'apart' from the cottage nearby which uses the name Sandbank. Nothing of old Bankend remains on the site, the rubble now being located on the riverbank. A Hugh Watt lived here in the 18th century. The Sandilands family, with the title Lord Torphichen, held the temple-lands and this would have included "the chapel lands and glebe of Fairlie-Crivoch." The soil in these parts is not sandy and the land ownership may very well be the explanation for the origin of the placename given the connection between the Sandylands or Sandilands family and the former Knights Templar estates. The Lainshaw Estate plan of 1779–91 by William Crawford for William Cunningham Esq. names the area as Sandylands and marks a steading called Sandiriggs. The farms of Bankend and Sandylands became combined as the property of Sandilands.
A ford crossed the river at this point, the road then running up the hill to West Lambroughton. This was an important crossing as no bridge, road or ford existed at Chapeltoun until possibly the time of the building of Chapelton House in the 1850s.
Clonbeith Castle
Given as 'Klonbyith' by Pont in the 1690s Clonbeith was then the property of William Cuninghame, Scion of this cadet branch of the Glencairn Cuninghames through those of Aiket Castle. John Cuninghame shot and killed the Earl of Eglinton in 1586 and was caught and 'cut to pieces' in Hamilton, possibly at Hamilton palace.
The Cowlinn burn runs down to join the Lugton Water at the site of Montgreenan castle or the Bishop's Palace. A dwelling called Cowlinn is marked on the Thomson's 1820 map and a Clonbeith Mill was nearby.
Stewarton area local and social history
Limekilns are a common feature of the area and limestone was quarried in a number of places, such as at Stacklawhill. Limekilns seem to have come into regular use about the 18th century and were located at Stacklawhill, Haysmuir, Bonshaw, High Chapeltoun, Bloomridge (Blinridge in 1828), Gillmill, Sandylands (now Bank End) and Crossgates. Large limestone blocks were used for building but the smaller pieces were burnt, using coal dug in the parish to produce lime which was a useful commodity in various ways: it could be spread on the fields to reduce acidity, for lime-mortar in buildings or for lime-washing on farm buildings. It was regarded as cleansing agent. A number of small whinstone, sand and sandstone quarries were also present in the area and brick clay was excavated near Kirkmuir.
Aiton in 1811 comments on the growing of carrots by William Cunningham of Lainshaw as an 'excellent article of food for the human species'. This was one of the first estates to grow them in quantity.
In 1820 only six people were qualified to vote as freeholders in Stewarton Parish, being proprietors of Robertland (Hunter Blair), Kirkhill (Col. J. S. Barns), Kennox (McAlester), Lainshaw (Cunninghame), Lochridge (Stewart) and Corsehill (Montgomery Cunninghame).
The Gallery of Modern Art (GOMA) is a neo-classical building in Royal Exchange Square in the Glasgow city centre, which was built in 1778 as the townhouse of William Cunninghame of Lainshaw, a wealthy tobacco lord. The building has undergone a series of different uses; It was used by the Royal Bank of Scotland; it then became the Royal Exchange. Reconstruction for this use resulted in many additions to the building, namely the Corinthian pillars to the Queen Street facade, the cupola above and the large hall to the rear of the old house.
Shoes were only used for Sunday best and for many of the younger folk going bare foot was the order of the day. The family at High Chapeltoun were one of the last to do this on a day to day basis.
The Royal Mail re-organised its postal districts in the 1930s and at that point many hamlets and localities ceased to exist officially, such as Chapeltoun, Lambroughton and other areas in Stewarton district.
James Boswell of Auchinleck House, the famous biographer and friend of Dr. Samuel Johnson was married to his cousin Margaret Montgomerie in Lainshaw Castle. He had gone to Ireland with Margaret, with the intention of courting another wealthy cousin, however he fell in love with the penniless Margaret and married her instead. The room they were married in was one floor above the room in which the Earl of Eglinton was laid after he was murdered by Cunninghame at the old brig or ford on the Annick Water near the entrance to the castle on the Stewarton road. David Montgomery of Lainshaw married a daughter of Lord Auchinleck.
John Kerr of Stewarton built the first practical beehive in the World in 1819, octagonal in shape with a bee-space and a queen separator introduced by 1849. The shape was thought to be closest to the natural tree-trunk shape which bees were thought to favour. L. L. Langstroth is often credited with these developments, however an examination of the records shows that John Kerr, a cabinet maker, was the first to use these features in a working hive. Beeboles and straw skeps were used previous to these developments and here the bees had to be killed to obtain the honey.
Running from Anderson's Plantation across the hill and back down to the old driveway near to the walled garden is a wall or dyke replacing a tree lined hedge shown in 1858. The wall or dyke is very unusual in that it is made from roughly equal sized rounded whinstones and it is held together by cement. A great deal of expense and effort would have been needed to build this long section of dyke, which seems to have been in place by 1911.
The estate wall running from near Freezeland to near the Law Mount was built by unemployed labourers in the early 19th century.
Rudolf Hess's Messerschmitt Bf 110 was spotted by locals as he flew on his mission from Nazi Germany to meet with the Duke of Hamilton in 1941. He crashed in Eaglesham on Floors Farm.
See also
Cunninghamhead
Lambroughton
Corsehill
A Researcher's Guide to Local History terminology
Cunninghamhead, Perceton and Annick Lodge
Stewarton
References
Bibliography
Aitken, John (1829). A Survey of the Parishes of Cunningham. Pub. Beith. p. 276.
Aiton, William (1811). General View of the Agriculture of Ayr. Pub. Glasgow.
Adamson, Archibald R. (1875). Rambles Round Kilmarnock. Pub. T.Stevenson, pp. 168–170.
Bayne, John F. (1935). Dunlop Parish – A History of Church, Parish, and Nobility. Pub. T.& A. Constable, pp. 10–16.
Davis, Michael C. (1991). The Castles and Mansions of Ayrshire. Pub. Spindrift Press, Ardrishaig, Pps. 206 & 207.
Edinburgh Gazette. No.3655. Friday, 13 April. 1828.
Fullarton, John (1858). Topographical Account of the District of Cunningham, Ayrshire compiled about the year 1600. by Mr. Timothy Pont. Glasgow : Maitland Club.
Groome, Francis H. (1885). Ordnance Gazetteer of Scotland: A Survey of Scottish Topography. V.6. p. 381.
MacIntosh, John (1894). Ayrshire Nights Entertainments: A Descriptive Guide to the History, traditions, Antiquities, etc. of the County of Ayr. Pub. Kilmarnock. p. 195.
Name Book of the Ordnance Survey (1856). No.58, pp. 58–9,
Pont, Timothy (1604). Cuninghamia. Pub. J.Blaeu in 1654.
Robertson, George (1823). A Genealogical Account of the Principal Families in Ayrshire, more particularly in Cunninghame. Vol.1. Pub. Irvine.
Sanderson, Margaret H.B. (1997). Ayrshire and the reformation 1490–1600. .
Strawhorn, John and Boyd, William (1951). The Third Statistical Account of Scotland. Ayrshire. Pub. Edinburgh.
External links
Video of the Lainshaw Woods WW2 bomb crater
Video and commentary on the Chapel Hill
Video footage of the Chapeltoun ha-ha
Video and commentary on 'Water Meetings' and Bankend Ford
YouTube video of East Lambroughton and Lambroughtonend
Lambroughton Woods and breeding buzzards
General Roy's maps.
http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/building_full.php?id=202307
Archaeological sites in East Ayrshire
Buildings and structures in East Ayrshire
History of Scotland by location
Knights Templar
Christian holy places
Former country houses in Scotland
Gardens in East Ayrshire
Curling in East Ayrshire
Knights Hospitaller
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20exonyms
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Italian exonyms
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Below is list of Italian language exonyms for places in non-Italian-speaking areas of the world
Albania
Algeria
Argentina
Australia
Austria
Bangladesh
Belgium
Brazil
Bulgaria
Burkina Faso
Canada
Chile
China
Comoros
Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast)
Croatia
For Italian language exonyms in Istria, see : Italian exonyms (Istria)
For Italian language exonyms in Dalmatia, see : Italian exonyms (Dalmatia)
These Italian names are not full exonyms, since they are used by the autochthonous Italian population.
Cuba
Cyprus
Czech Republic
Denmark
Djibouti
Egypt
Eritrea
Ethiopia
France
The island of Corsica is french since 1768, after the domination under the Republic of Genoa and the Corsican Republic. Italian was the official language of the County of Nice and Savoy until 1860. Otherwise, La Brigue (Briga Marittima) and Tende (Tenda) were italian communes until 1947.
Bapaume Bapalma
Bar Bar, Bario
Bar-le-Duc Bario il Duca, Baro del Duca, Bar Ducato
Bar-sur-Aube Baro sul'Alba, Baro d'Alba
Bar-sur-Seine Baro di Senna
Barcelonnette Barcellonetta / Barciloneta (old)
Barege Baregio
Barjols Bargiolio
Bassigny Bassigni
Baugé Balge
Bayeux Baioca, Bajoce (old)
Bayonne Baiona
Bazas Basate, Basato
Bazoches Basoce
Béarn Bearne, Bearnia, Bearno
Beaucaire Belcaro (old)
Beauce Belsia
Beaufort Belforte
Beaugency Belgensi
Beaujeu Belgiuoco
Beaujolais Belloiese
Beaumont Belmonte
Beaumont-le-Vicomte Belmonvisconte
Beaune Beona / Belna (old)
Beauvais Bovesia, Bellovaco (old)
Belgodère Belgodere (the Italian form being the original)
Bellac Bellaco
Bellegarde Bellaguardia
Bellegarde-sur-Valserine Bellaguardia
Bellême Belema
Belleville Bellavilla
Belley Bellei
Bergerac Bergherago
Bernay Bernai
Berry Berri, Beri, Bituria
Besançon Besanzone, Bisanzone
Béthune Betuna
Béziers Besiera
Bigorre Bigorra
Bouches de Bonifacio Bocche di Bonifacio (the Italian form being the original)
Blaye Blaia, Blavia
Blois Blesa
Bonne Bona
Bonneville Bonavilla
Bordeaux Bordò / Bordea, Bordeo, Bordella (old)
Boulogne-sur-Mer Bologna di mare, Bologna a mare, Bulogna
Bourbon-l'Archambault Borbone l'Arcambaldo
Bourbonne-les-Bains Borbone de'Bagni
Bourbonnais Borbonese, Burbonese (old)
Bourg Borgo
Bourges Borge / Borghi (old)
Bourg-en-Bresse Borgo in Bressia / Borgonbrescia (very old)
Bourgneuf Borgonuovo
Bourguignon Borghignone, Borgognone
Bouzonville Bozonvilla
Bresse Bressia / (Brescia)- [hist. – rare]
Brest Bresta, Bresto (old)
Briare Briara
Bruguières Brughiera
Bourgogne Borgogna
Briançon Brianzone, Briganzone (old)
Brissac Brissacco
Bretagne Bretagna, Brettagna
Brie Brigia, Bregia
Brignoles Brignolle
Brioude Brioda (old)
Brive-la-Gaillarde Briva-La Gagliarda (old)
Caen Cadomo (old)
Cahors Caorsa / Cadurco (old)
Calais Calesia, Calesse, Caleto / Calei
Calvisson Calvissone
Cambrai Cameraco / Camaraco (old)
Campan Campano
Cannes Canna
Cap Corse Capo Corso (the Italian form being the original)
Carcassonne Carcassona (old), Carcassone, Carcasciona, Carcassonne (Italian pronunciation)
Carentan-les-Marais Carentano
Cargèse Cargese (the Italian form being the original)
Carpentras Carpentrasso or Carpentorato
Cassel Castello, Castello
Casteljaloux Castello Geloso, Castel Geloso, Castelgeloso
Castellane Castellana
Castelnaudary Castelnodari
Castelsarrasin Castel Sarassino, Castel Saracino, Castelsaraceno
Castillon Castiglione
Castres Castro
Caudebec (Caudebec-en-Caux) Caldabecca
Caur Calete
Cavaillon Cavaglione
Cessenon-sur-Orb Cessenone
Cévennes Cevenne
Chablais Chiablese, Ciablese / Sciablese
Chalon-sur-Saône Cialone sulla Saona / Scialone / Celona in Borgogna / [Cabilone] (old)
Châlons-en-Champagne Cialone sulla Marna / Scialona, Scialone / Cialona / [Catalauno] (old)
Chambéry Sciamberì or Ciamberì (hist.)
Chambord Sciambordo
Champagne Sciampagna (old)
Charente Caranta / Sciarenta (old)
Charlieu Carloco
Charnay Sciarnai
Charolais Carolese
Charolles Sciarolla
Chârost Sciarosto
Charroux Carrosi
Chartres Sciartre, Ciartre / Sciartra, Carnuto (old)
Chartreuse Certosa
Châteaubriant Castel Briante
Châteaudun Castelduno / Castelloduno (old)
Châtellerault Castellaraldo, Castell' Araldo
Chaumont Calcemonte
Cherbourg Cerburgo, Scierborgo, Caroborgo (old)
Chinon Chinone, Scinon
Cholet Coleto / Cauleto (old)
Clamecy Clamessi, Clamiaco
Clermont-Ferrand Chiermonte, Clermonte, Chiaromonte or Chiaramonte -Ferrante / [Chiarmonferrando] (old)
Cligny Cligni
Cognac Cognacco (old)
Colmar Colmaria, Columbaria (old)
Combeaufontaine Combofontana (old)
Comminges Comminge
Compiègne Compigno / Compendio (old)
Comtat Venaissin Contado Venassino
Condom Condomio, Condonio / Condomo (old)
Corbière Corbare
Cornouailles Cornovaglia
Corsica (French Corse) Corsica
Côte-d'Azur Costa Azzurra
Côte-d'Or Costa d'Oro
Coulommiers Colombiera / La Colombaria (old)
Coutances Cutanza
Craon Craone, Craonio
Crech Cresci
Creil Credolio
Dauphiné Delfinato
Dax Acque / Dacia / Acquense (old)
Die Dia
Dieppe Dieppa
Digne-les-Bains Digno delle Terme / Digna
Dijon Digione
Dinan Dinante
Dole Dola
Dombes Dombe
Donzère Donzera
Dordogne Dordogna
Douai Doaggio
Draguignan Draghignano
Dreux Droge, Droco / Durocassio (hist.)
Drôme Droma
Dunquerque Duncherche, Duncherque
Durance Duranza, Druenza
Elbeuf Elbovio (old)
Embrun Ambrone / Ambruno / Ebroduno, Embruno (old)
Épernay Sparnaco (old)
Épinal Spinale
Escaut Schelda
Essonne Esonna
Étampes Stampa (old)
Eure Eura, Ebura
Évreux Ebroica (old)
Falaise Falesia, Falesa (old)
Fargeau Fargeoli
Faucigny Fossigni
Fayence Favenza, Faianza (old)
Fismes Fima
Foix Fois, Foro, Fusso (old)
Fontainebleau Fontaneblo, Fontenblo, Fontanablò (old)
Forcalquier Forcalcario, Forcalchieri
Forez Forese
Fougères Fogera (old)
Franche-Comté Franca Contea
Fréjus Frejo, Frejulo, Foro di Giulio [rare] / Fregiù (old)
Frontignan Frontignano
Galéria Galeria
Gap Gape, Gapo
Gard Gardo, Vardo
Garonne Garonna
Gascony Guascogna
Gâtinais Gatinese, Guastinese
Gers Gerso
Gévaudan Gevodano, Gabalitano (old)
Gex Gesio
Gironde Gironda
Gisors Gisorzio
Glandeves Glandeva
Graisivaudan Gresivodano
Grasse Grassa
Grenoble Granopoli, / Grazianopoli (old)
Guadeloupe Guadalupa
Guerche Guerscia
Golfe du Lion Golfo del Leone
Guyenne Guienna, Ghienna
Hennebon Hennebono
Houlme Holmia
Hyères Iera
Île-de-France Isola di Francia
Ille-et-Vilaine Ille e Villena
Isère Isera, Issara
Issoudun Issolduno
Joinville Gienvilla
Labourd Laburdo
La Brigue Briga Marittima, Briga
La Chambre la Camera
La Charité la Carità
Landes Lande
Landun Lauduno
Langeac Langiaco
Langres Langra, Lingone (old)
Languedoc-Roussillon Linguadoca-Rossiglione
Laon Laone
La Rochelle La Roccella, La Roccelle
Laval Lavalle
Lavaur Lavauro
Le Buis il Bosso
Le Cateau-Cambresis Castel Cambresi, Castelcambrese
Lectoure Lettora (old)
Le Havre Avro di Grazia (old)
Le Mans Mansa, Cenomano, Mano [rare]
Lens Lenza (old)
Le Puy Podio / Poi / Poggio (old)
Libourne Liborno / Liburno / Linborno (old)
Lille Lilla
Limagne Limagna
Limoges Limoge
Limousin Limosino
L'Île-Rousse Isolarossa (the Italian form being the original)
Lisieux Lisobia, Lesovio (old)
Lodève Lodeva
Loire Loira, Lora
Longwy Lungovico / Longovico (old)
Lons-le-Saunier Ledone Salinario / Ledone Salinaro (old)
Lorraine Lorena
Loudun Luduno
Lozère Lozera
Luberon Leberone
Lude Ludo
Lure Ludera / Lura / Ludra (old)
Luxeuil Lussovio (old)
Lyon Lione
Lyonnais Lionese
Mâcon Macone, Mascone / Maconne / Matiscona (old)
Mâconnais Maconese, Masconese
Maine Mania, Maiese, Maini
Maine-et-Loire [dep.] Maina e Loira
Manche Manica
Manosque Manosca, Manesco or Manosco
Mantes Manta or Mante
Marche Marca
Marmande Marmanda
Marne Marna
Marseille Marsiglia
Martinique Martinica
Marvejols Marvegio
Massif Central Massiccio Centrale
Maubeuge Mauboge
Mauriac Mauriaca
Maurienne Moriana (hist.)
Mayenne Maienna
Meaux Meldi (old)
Médoc Medoco, Medocche, Medolico
Melun Meluno (old)
Mende Menda
Metz Meta, Mes
Millau Amilliavo (very old)
Mirande Miranda or Meranda
Mirebeau Mirabella
Mirecourt Miracorte
Mirepoix Mirapinca (old)
Moïta Moita (the Italian form being the original)
Montargis Montargì (old)
Montauban Montalbano / Montealbano / Montelbano
Montbard Monte Bardo (old)
Montbéliard Monbeliardo, Monte Belicardo (old)
Mont-de-Marsan Monte Marsano
Montélimar Montelimare / Montiglio a mare (old)
Montereau Monasteriolo (old)
Montluçon Monte Lussone / Monlussone
Montmirail Montemiraglio
Montpellier Monpellieri, Monpeglieri / Monpolieri, Monpegliere / Mompeglieri (old)
Mont Ventoux Monte Ventoso
Morbihan Morbiano
Morlaix Morlasso (old)
Morvan Morvando
Moselle Mosella
Nancy Nanci, Nansi / Nancea (old)
Nantes Nante / Nanta / Nannete (old)
Narbonne Narbona
Navarrenx Navarrino
Nemours Nemosio
Nevers NivernoNice Nizza, Nizza Marittima (the Italian form being the original )
Niçois Nizzardo
Nievre Niva
Nîmes Nimme, Nisma / Nimissi / Nimese / Nemauso (old)
Niort Niorto, Noviorito (old)
Nivernais Nivernese
Normandie Normandia
Noyon Noione
Nunts Nuzio
Nyons Nione (old)
Oise Oisa
Oloron-Sainte-Marie Olerone
Orange Orangia, Arausione / Aurenga (old)
Orchies Orchesio
Orléans Orleano / Aureliano (old)
Orléanais Orleanese
Orthez Ortesio
Palois Palomese
Pamiers Pamiero / Apamea (old)
Paris Parigi
Parisien Parigino
Pau Palo
Pays-de-Caux Calchese
Peaux-Rouges Pelli Rossi
Perche Percese, Pertica
Périgord Perigordia, Petrocoria
Périgueux Petrogorio
Peronne Perona
Perpignan Perpignano
Picardie Piccardia
Poitevin Pittovano
Poissy Poassi
Poitiers Potieri, Pittieri / Pottieri (old)
Poitou Poatù, / Poitù, Pittavia
Pons Ponte
Pont-de-l'Arche Ponte dell'Arca
Ponthieu Pontivia
Pontoise Pontosa, Pontisara (old)
Privas Privato
Provence Provenza
Provins Provino, Pruvino (old)
Pujoles Puggiolo
Pyrenees Pirenei
Quercy Querci, Cadurcia
Quesnoy Querceto
Quimper Quimpero
Rambouillet Rambuglietto (old)
Reims Remi / Remisi (old)
Remiremont Romarimonte, Monte Romarico (old)
Remois Remese
Rennais Rennese
Rennes Renna, Renne / Redona (old)
Rhodez Rodesia
Rhône Rodano
Ribemont Ribemonte
Rieux Rivi (old)
Roanne Roana, Rodone (old)
Romans Romano
Romorantin-Lanthenay Castel Romorantino (old)
Roquebrune Roccabruna (the Italian form being the original)
Roubaix Rubaci
Rouen Roano
Rouergue Roverga, Rutenico [hist.]
Roussillon Rossiglione, Catalogna del Nord
Saint-Brieuc San Brioco (old)
Saint-Denys San Dionisio
Saint-Dizier San Desiderio
Saint-Étienne Santo Stefano
Saint-Florent San Fiorenzo (the Italian form being the original)
Saint-Flour San Floro
Saint-Ligier San Lizerio
Saint-Lô San Lo, Santo Lo
Saint-Malo San Malo
Saint-Nazaire San Nazaro, San Nazario
Saint-Omer Sant'Omero
Saint-Quentin San Quintino (historical)
Saint-Tropez San Torpe
Saintes Santes / Santi (old)
Saintonge Santongia, Santonia / Santonico (old)
Sarlat-la-Canéda Sarlato
Sartène Sartena (the Italian form being the original)
Seine Senna
Saône Saona
Saulieu Salvoloco, Salvoluogo / Sedeloco (old)
Saumur Salmuro / Salmure, Salmore (old)
Savoie Savoia
Senlis Silvanetto (old)
Sens Senone, Seno
Sisteron Sisterone
Soissons Soassone, Suassone / Soissone (old)
Sologne Sologna
Sombernon Sombernone
Strasbourg Strasburgo / Argentina (old)
Tarascon Tarascona
Tarentaise Tarantasia, [Tarentasia]
Tarbes Tarba, Tarbe, Turba / Turbia (old)
Tende, Tenda
Territoire de Belfort Territorio di Belforte
Therouanne Teruana, Tarvenna (old)
Thierache Tiraccia
Thouars Toarcio / Toarco (old)
Tonnerre Tonnero / Tornodero [rare]
Toul Tulo
Toulon Tolone
Toulouse Tolosa
Touraine Turenna
Tournon Tornone (old)
Tours Turse, Turone / Torso
Tox Tocchisi (old)
Troyes Tresetto (old)
Tulle Tulla / Tutela (old)
Vaison-la-Romaine Vaisone
Valence Valenza nel Delfinato
Valenciennes Valenziana, Valenzino / Valenziano (old)
Valenciennois Valenzianese
Valentinois Valentinese
Valois Valese
Vannes Vanna / Venne (old)
Varennes Varenne
Vaucluse Valchiusa
Velay Velesia
Vence Venza
Vendée Vendea or Vandea
Vendôme Vendoma or Vandomino, Vendomo, Vendosmo (old) / Vindocino (rare)
Mont Ventoux Monte Ventoso
Verdèse Verdese (the Italian form being the original)
Verdun Verduno or Veroduno / Verdunno (old)
Vermandois Vermandua
Vernon Vernone
Versailles Versaglia (old)
Vervins Verbino / Vervino (old)
Vesoul Vesula, Vesulo / Vesolo (old)
Vienne Vienna del Delfinato (old)
Vire Vira
Vivarais Vivarese
Viviers Vivierse
Wissant Guizzante (old)
Yonne Jonna
Yssingeaux Issengio (old)
Nice
All these names were officially used until 1860, because the County of Nice was part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, an Italian State. In 1860 the County passed to France.
Ascros Ascroso, Scroso
Aspremont Aspromonte di Nizza
Auvare Auvara
Bairols Bairolo
Beaulieu-sur-Mer Belluogo
Beausoleil Belsole
Belvédère Belvedere
Bendejun Bendigiuno, Bendegiuno
Berre-les-Alpes Berra, Berre dell'Alpi, Bera
Beuil Boglio, Boglio Montano
Blausasc Bleusasco, Blausasco
Bonson Bonsone, Bausone
Breil-sur-Roya Breglio, Breglio sul Roia
Cantaron Cantarone
Cap-d'Ail Capodaglio, Capo d'Aglio, Capo d'Aggio
Castagniers Castagnera, Castagneto
Castellar Castellaro, Castellaro di Mentone
Castillon Castiglione, Castiglione di Mentone
Châteauneuf-d'Entraunes Castelnuovo d'Entraune, Castelnuovo d'Entrone
Châteauneuf-Villevieille Castelnuovo-Villavecchia
Clans Clanzo, Clanso, Clanzio
Coaraze Coarazza, Coarasa
Colomars Colombar del Varo, Colomarte, Colombare
Contes Conte, Conti
Cuébris Cuebri, Cuebris, Quebris
Daluis Dàlui, Daluigi
Drap Drappo, Drapo
Duranus Durano*, Duranuzzo, Duranusso
Entraunes Entraune, Entrone
Èze Eza, Esa
Falicon Falicone
Fontan Fontano
Gilette Giletta
Gorbio Gorbio
Guillaumes Guglielmi
Ilonse Ilonza, Illonza
Isola Isola nel Mercantore, Isola delle Cascate
La Bollène-Vésubie Bollena, Bolena
La Croix-sur-Roudoule La Croce sul Rodola
La Roquette-sur-Var Rocchetta del Varo
L'Escarène Scarena
Lantosque Lantosca
La Penne La Penna
La Trinité Trinità, Trinità Vittoria, Trinità Vittorio
La Tour La Torre
La Turbie Turbia, La Turbia
Levens Levenzo, Levenso
Lieuche Lieucia, Liuchia, Leuca
Lucéram Lucerame, Luceramo, Lucera Nizzarda
Malaussène Malaussena, Magliassene
Marie Maria
Massoins Massoino, Maissone, Massoine
Menton Mentone (the Italian form being the original )
Moulinet Molinetto
Nice Nizza, Nizza Marittima (the Italian form being the original )
Peille Peglia, Peglio di Nizza
Peillon Peglione
Péone Peona
Pierlas Pierlasso, Pietralasso, Pietralassa, (Pierlazzo)
Pierrefeu Pietrafuoco, Pietrafoco
Puget-Rostang Poggetto Rostagno, Poggetto Rostagni
Puget-Théniers Poggetto Tenieri, Poggetto sul Varo
Revest-les-Roches Revesto
Rigaud Rigaudo, Rigaldo
Rimplas Rimplasso, Reimplasso, Rimpiazzo d'Ilonza
Roquebillière Roccabigliera
Roquebrune-Cap-Martin Roccabruna sul Capo Martino
Roquesteron Roccasterone
Roubion Robione, Robbione
Roure Rorà
Saint-André-de-la-Roche Sant'Andrea di Nizza
Saint-Antonin Sant'Antonino
Saint-Blaise San Biagio di Nizza
Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage San Dalmazzo il Selvatico, San Dalmazzo Selvaggio
Sainte-Agnès Sant'Agnese
Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée Santo Stefano di Tinea
Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat San Giovanni Capoferrato
Saint-Léger San Laugerio, San Leggero
Saint-Martin-d'Entraunes San Martino d'Entraune, San Martino d'Entrone
Saint-Martin-du-Var San Martino del Varo
Saint-Martin-Vésubie San Martino Lantosca, San Martino Vesubia
Saint-Sauveur-sur-Tinée San Salvatore di Tinea
Sauze Salice, Sause, Salici
Saorge Saorgio
Sigale Cigalla, Cigala, Sigalla
Sospel Sospello
Thiéry Tieri
Toudon Todone
Touët-de-l'Escarène Toetto-Scarena
Touët-sur-Var Toetto di Boglio, Toetto sul Varo
Tourette-du-Château La Torretta
Tourrette-Levens Torretta Levenzo, Torrette Chiabaudi
Tournefort Tornaforte
Utelle Utello, Utelle, Utella, Uteglia
Valdeblore Valdiblora
Venanson Venanzone, Venansone
Villefranche-sur-Mer Villafranca, Villafranca Marittima, Villafranca sul mare
Villeneuve-d'Entraunes Villanova d'Entraune, Villanuova d'Entrone
Villars-sur-Var Villar del Varo, Villare del Varo
Grasse
Aiglun Aigluno
Amirat Ammirato
Andon Andone
Antibes Antibo or Antipoli
Auribeau-sur-Siagne Auribello
Bézaudun-les-Alpes Besalduno
Biot Biotto
Bouyon Boione
Briançonnet Brianzonetto
Cabris Cabri
Cagnes-sur-Mer Cagna, Cagno Ligure
Caille Caglia
Cannes Canna, Canne
Carros Carrosio
Caussols Caussole
Châteauneuf-Grasse Castelnuovo di Grassa
Cipières Cippiera
Collongues Coalunga, Cologna
Conségudes Consecuta
Courmes Corma, Cormi
Coursegoules Corsegola
Escragnolles Scragnola
Gars Garzo
Gattières Gattiera
Gourdon Gordone
Grasse Grassa
Gréolières Greoliera*, Agrioleri, Grisolia
La Colle-sur-Loup Colla, La Colla
La Gaude La Gauda
La Roque-en-Provence Rocca
La Roquette-sur-Siagne Rocchetta sulla Ciagna
Le Bar-sur-Loup Albarno
Le Broc Brocco or Brocca
Le Cannet Canneto or il Caneto
Le Mas Masio
Le Rouret Roreto or Rovereto
Le Tignet Tignetto
Les Ferres Ferre, Ferri
Les Mujouls Moggioli
Mandelieu-la-Napoule Mandaloco-la Napola
Mouans-Sartoux Moano Sartole*, Murziani-Sarti
Mougins Mogino*, Mugini
Opio Oppia
Pégomas Pegomasso
Peymeinade Peimenada*, Poggio Mainata
Roquefort-les-Pins Roccaforte dei Pini
Saint-Auban Sant'Albano sull'Esterone
Saint-Cézaire-sur-Siagne San Cesario
Saint-Jeannet San Giannetto
Saint-Laurent-du-Var San Lorenzo sul Varo
Saint-Paul-de-Vence San Paolo di Venza
Saint-Vallier-de-Thiey San Valerio
Sallagriffon Salagrifone, Sallagriffone
Séranon Seranone
Spéracèdes Speiraceta
Théoule-sur-Mer Teola, Teula, Tegola
Tourrettes-sur-Loup Torretta di Venza
Valbonne Valbona
Valderoure Val di Rora, Valdirora
Vallauris Vallauria, Valloria
Vence Venza
Villeneuve-Loubet Villanova Lobetto*, Villanuova Lopetto
Historical parts
Annot Annotta, Annoto
Aurent Aurenco
Braux Brauso
Castellet-les-Sausses Castelletto Salza
Castellet-Saint-Cassien Castelletto San Cassiano
Entrevaux Entrovalli, Entrevàuso
la Rochette Rocchetta
le Fugeret Felceto
Méailles Meaglia
Peyresq Peiresco
Saint-Benoît San Benedetto
Sausses Salza
Ubraye Ubraia or Ubraja
Val-de-Chalvagne Val di Chiavagna
Villevieille Cittavecchia di Entrevàuso, Villavecchia
Georgia
Germany
Ghana
Greece
Guatemala
Hungary
India
Indonesia
Iraq
Ireland
Israel
Latvia
Italy
Aosta Valley
fr. Vallée d'Aoste – it. Valle d'Aosta:
[French names to 1861] - 1939–1947
Under Mussolini, a forced program of Italianization that included the translation of all toponyms into Italian occurred. As the region gained special autonomous status after the end of World War Two, the province of Aosta ceased to exist in 1945 and all the original French toponyms were reestablished as all the Italian ones were abolished, except from Aosta (co-official with the French Aoste).
Allein [Allain] - Alleno
Antey-Saint-André - Antei Sant'Andrea
Aoste – Aosta
Arvier - Arviè
Ayas - Aias
Bard - Bard
Bionaz - Biona
Brusson - Brussone
Challand-Saint-Anselme [Challant] - Villa Sant'Anselmo
Chambave - Ciambave
Chamois - Camosio
Champorcher - Campo Laris
Châtillon - Castiglione Dora
Cogne - Cogne
Courmayeur - Cormaiore
Donnas [Donnaz] - Donas
Doues - Dovia d'Aosta
Étroubles - Etroble
Gressoney - Gressonei
Issime - Issime
Issogne - Issogno
La Magdeleine - La Maddalena d'Aosta
La Salle - Sala Dora
La Thuile - Porta Littoria
Lillianes - Lilliana
Montjovet - Mongiove
Morgex - Valdigna d'Aosta
Nus - Nus
Ollomont - Ollomonte
Oyace - Oiasse
Pont-Saint-Martin - Ponte San Martino
Pontboset [Pont-Bozet], Pianboseto
Pré-Saint-Didier [Pré-Saint-Didier-les-bains] - San Desiderio Terme
Quart - Quarto Pretoria
Rhêmes - Val di Rema
Saint-Oyen - Sant'Eugendo
Saint-Rhémy-en-Bosses [Saint-Rhémy], - San Remigio
Saint-Vincent - San Vincenzo della Fonte
Torgnon - Torgnone
Valgrisenche [Valgrisanche] - Valgrisenza
Valpelline - Valpellina
Valsavarenche [Valsavaranche] - Valsavara
Valtournenche [Valtournanche] - Valtornenza
Verrès - Castel Verres
Villeneuve - Villanova Baltea
Lebanon
Libya
Lithuania
Luxemburg
Malta
Italian was Malta's official language until 1934.
Mexico
Montenegro
All these names were used by the Italian autochthonous population and by Venetian Republic
Morocco
Netherlands
New Zealand
North Macedonia
Oman
Palestine
Poland
Portugal
Romania
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Slovakia
Slovenia
Somalia
South Africa
South Korea
Spain
Sweden
Switzerland
Italian is one of the four official languages in Switzerland.
Canton of the Grisons
Historical Italian Names of the Municipalities in the Canton Grisons (ital. Cantone dei Grigioni)
-[This material is taken from the book: ,,I Principali toponimi della Rezia curiense,,_Aurelio Garobbio_(autor)_/1941/- these names are marked with_*]-
Almens Lumine*, Almenno
Alvaneu Alvagnè*, Alvignino or Alvegnino
Alvaneubad Bagni d'Alvagnè*, Bagno d'Alvignino or Bagno d'Alvegnino
Alvaschein Alvascino*, Alvesagno
Andeer Andero*, Andera
Andest Andeste*, Andesto
Ardez Ardezzo, Ardez*
Arosa Arosa
Avers Àvero*, Avra
Beiva Bivio
Bergün Borgogno*, Bergogno
Bevers Bevero
Bonaduz Panadosso or Beneduzzo, Bonaduz*
Brienz Brienzola*
Breil/Brigels Brigeglio, Brigello*
Buchen im Prättigau Fàggio*, Faggeto in Prettigovia
Calfreisen Cafràssino
Camuns Ca'dei Monti*, Camonzo
Casti-Wergenstein Castello_(Casti Sessame*)-Vergasteno*
Castiel Castello, Castel Scanavica*
Castrisch Càstrice*
Cazis Cassi or Cassis, Càzas*
Celerina Cellerina or Celerina
Champfer Campofare
Chur Coira
Churwalden Corvànzia*, Corvalda
Clugin Clugino*, Chiugino
Conters im Oberhalbstein Contra, Cuntèr di Sursette*
Conters im Prättigau Contra in Prettigovia, Cuntèr di Partenzo*
Cumbel Combello*
Dalin Dalino
Davos Tavate
Davos Platz Tavate Piazza*
Disentis/Mustér Desertina* or Tisitis
Domat/Ems Damede or Damet, Dòmat*
Donath Anede or Donato, Donat*
Duvin Dovino or Duvin*
Fanas Fanasio, Fànas*
Feldis Felda*, Foldaone or Velda
Falera Falera*, Fallera
Felsberg Favogno* or Villa Fagonio
Ferrera = Ferrera:
Ausserferrera Ferrera di Fuori, Ferrera d'Àvero*
Innerferrera Ferrera di Dentro, Calangìl*
Fideris Fidrisio
Filisur Villasura*, Felisorre
Fläsch Flasce*, Fiasca
Flerden Flerda
Flims Flemo, Fleme*
Flond Flondo*
Ftan Fetanno or Fettano
Fuldera Fuldera
Furna Furna*
Fürstenau Maiòria*, Firstinao
Grüsch Croce in Prettigovia, Croce di Partenzo* or Crusca
Guarda Guarda*
Haldenstein Lanze di Sotto*
Hinterrhein Valdireno or San Pietro Valreno*
Igels Egene, _Dègen*
Igis Egino, _Èigias*
Ilanz Ilonte or Iante*, Ilanza
Jenaz Gianazzo*, Giovanaccio or Giovannaccio
Jenins Gianino, Genine*
Kästris Castrisio
Klosters-Serneus Claustra* or Chiostro / C.-Cernèus*
Küblis Cupelina*, Cubliaso or Convalle
Laax Laghi, Lages*
Ladir Ladiro
Landquart Langaro*
Langwies Pralongo* or Pralungo
Lantsch Lanze di Sopra*, Lanzo
Lavin Lavino, Lavina*
Lenzerheide Planèira*
Lohn Laone or Lon*
Lü Luio or Lü
Lüen Leune*
Lumbrein Lamarene* or Lumarene
Luven Loveno or Luvene*
Luzein Luciano*, Luceina or Lucigno
Madulein Maduleno*, Madulene
Maienfeld Maiavilla or Maggiavilla
Maladers Maladro, Maladre*
Malans Malanza or Malànzia*
Malix Umbligo or Umbelico, Umblies*
Maloja Maloggia
Marmorera Marmorera
Martina Pommartina, Ponte Martina*
Masans Mezzane
Masein Masene*, Medezeno or Masagno
Mastrils Monasteriolo*
Mathon Matone or Màton*
Medels im Oberland Medèl in Surselva*
Medels im Rheinwald Medèl in Valreno*
Meierhof Corte Maiòria*, Cortemaggiore
Molinis Molina di Scanavica*, Molini
Mons Monno or Mons*
Morissen Muricia*, Morissa
Mulegns Molini di Sursette*
Müstair Monastero di Tubre*
Mutten Monte or Motta*, Mutta
Nufenen Novena
Obersaxen Sursasso* or Soprasasso
Pagig Pagigo*, Puigo
Panix Pignono, Pignìu*
Parpan Parpano*, Parpanno
Paspels Pasquale*
Patzen-Fardün Pàzeno-Faldone/Fardeno*
Peiden San Pietro di Lunganezza*, Peida
Peist Peste, Paiste*
Pignia Pignia*, Pignigo
Pitasch Pitàccio*
Pontresina Pontresina*
Portein Porteno*, Purtino
Praden Prada*, Prata or Prati
Pratval Pratavalle*, Prato del Valle
Parsonz Prasanzo*, Presanzo
Präz Prezio or Parezzo*
La Punt Chamues-ch Ponte Campovasto
Ramosch Ramoggia, Ramoscio*
Reischen Reseno*
Riom Riamio*
Reichenau Ponte or la Punt*
Rhäzüns Razeno, Razene* or Ronzone
Riein Renio*
Rodels Roteno, Rotene*
Rona Rona or Rovena, Rovina*
Rongellen Roncaglia, Roncàlia*
Rothenbrunnen Fontana Rossa, Juvalta*
Ruis Ruane*, Roano or Rovano
Ruschein Rusene*
Saas im Prättigau Sàlice di Partenzo*, Sausa
Safien-Platz Piazza Stossavia
Safiental Stossavia or Val Stossavia
Sagogn Sagogno or Sagagno
Salouf Salucco, Salugo*
Samaden Samedano or Samada
Samnaun Samignone
Sankt Antönien-Ascharina Acerina di Sant'Antonio*
Sankt Antönien-Castels Castel Sant'Antonio*
Sankt Antönien-Rüti Ronco di Sant'Antonio*
Sankt Martin_(Lugnez) San Martino di Lunganezza*
Sankt Moritz San Maurizio d'Engadina
Sankt Peter San Pietro di Scanavica*
Santa Maria Val Müstair Santa Maria in Val Monastero
Sarn Sarno*
Savognin Savognino
Says Sèio*
S-chanf Scanevo or Scanfio, Scanfo*
Scharans Cerrone*, Gironzio
Scheid Scèdio*
Schiers Àcera*, Acereto
Schlans Selauno, Selane*
Schluein Slovegno, Sluenio*
Schnaus Sinaus*
Schuders Scudero
Schmitten Ferrera d'Albula*
Sculms Scolmo
Scuol Scolio
Sedruns Sedrone
Sevgein Sevigene* or Savienno, Sevino*
Seewis im Prättigau Sievia, Sevisio in Prettigovia or Sequìgia*
Sent Sento
Seth Sette*
S-charl Scarlo or Scarli
Sils im Domleschg Siglio in Domigliasca or Segli in Domigliasca*
Sils im Engadin Siglio in Engadina or Sèglio d'Engadina*
Silvaplana Selvapiana or Silvapiana
Somvix Sommovico* or Sonvico
Splügen Spluga
Stierva Stirvia or Stierva*
Sufers Suverio, Sur in Valreno*
Sur Sora or Sur d'Albula*
Surava Sorava
Surcasti Surcastello* or Sur Castello*
Surcuolm Surcolma*
Susch Susio, Susa*
Tamins Tumegno or Tamino*
Tarasp Taraspo or Taraspa*
Tartar Tartaro*
Tenna Tenna*
Tersnaus Terzinasso*
Thusis Tosanna or Tosana
Tiefencastel Castino or Imocastello / (Castelfondo)*
Tinizong Tinizzone, Tinezone* , Tinizugno
Tomils Tomiglio, Domìglio*
Trans Trano or Tràunes*
Trimmis Trèmine*, Trimmo
Trin Turunnio or Turunio, Trino
Trun Tronte*
Tschappina Ciappina*, Ceppina
Tschiertschen Circello*, Cerceno or Cercene
Tschierv Cervo*, Cervi
Tschlin Cellino or Celino, Celine*
Tujetsch Tovieggio, Tavèccio*
Untervaz Vazze di Sotto*
Uors Biforco*, Furze
Urmein Urmeno*, Urmino
Valchava Valcava
Valendas Valendano*
Vals Valle San Pietro, San Pietro in Valle*
Valzeina Valsèina*
Vaz/Obervaz Vazze di Sopra*
Vazerol Visarolo
Vella Villa*
Versam Versomma or Fersamio, Versomi*
Vignogn Vigogno, Vignone*
Vnà Manà*
Vrin Varino or Vrino, Aurino, Vrin*
Waltensburg Vurze*, Vuorze, Vurce* or Vorce*
Weinberg Ovella*
Wiesen Tèin* or Tegno
Zernez Cernezzo
Zillis Zirano or Cirano, Cirane*, Cerano
Zizers Zìzure*, Zizero or Cicero
Zuoz Zozzio
Syria
Tunisia
Turkey
Ukraine
United Kingdom
United States
Vietnam
Unsorted
Carpathian Mountains Monti Carpazi
Ceraunian Mountains Monti Acrocerauni (Albania)
Danube Danubio
Elbe Elba (Czech Republic, Germany, Poland)
Euskadi: Paesi Baschi (France)
English Channel: La Manica (England, France)
Frisian Islands Isole Frisone (Denmark, Germany, Netherlands)
Krkonoše Monti dei Giganti (Czech Republic, Poland)
Lapland Lapponia (Sweden)
Lausitz/Łužyca/Łużyce/Lužice Lusazia (Czech Republic, Germany, Poland)
Meuse/Maas: Mosa (Belgium, France, Netherlands)
Ore Mountains Monti Metalliferi (Czech Republic, Germany)
Pyrenees: Pirenei (France, Spain)
Rhine Reno (Netherlands, Switzerland)
Saint George's Channel Canale San Giorgio (Ireland, United Kingdom)
Scheldt Schelda (Belgium, France, Netherlands)
Tauern Monti Tauri (Austria)
See also
List of European exonyms
References
Exonym
Lists of exonyms
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5219699
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Genome%20Project
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Human Genome Project
|
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was an international scientific research project with the goal of determining the base pairs that make up human DNA, and of identifying, mapping and sequencing all of the genes of the human genome from both a physical and a functional standpoint. It started in 1990 and was completed in 2003. It remains the world's largest collaborative biological project. Planning for the project started after it was adopted in 1984 by the US government, and it officially launched in 1990. It was declared complete on April 14, 2003, and included about 92% of the genome. Level "complete genome" was achieved in May 2021, with a remaining only 0.3% bases covered by potential issues. The final gapless assembly was finished in January 2022.
Funding came from the United States government through the National Institutes of Health (NIH) as well as numerous other groups from around the world. A parallel project was conducted outside the government by the Celera Corporation, or Celera Genomics, which was formally launched in 1998. Most of the government-sponsored sequencing was performed in twenty universities and research centres in the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan, France, Germany, and China, working in the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC).
The Human Genome Project originally aimed to map the complete set of nucleotides contained in a human haploid reference genome, of which there are more than three billion. The "genome" of any given individual is unique; mapping the "human genome" involved sequencing samples collected from a small number of individuals and then assembling the sequenced fragments to get a complete sequence for each of 24 human chromosomes (22 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes). Therefore, the finished human genome is a mosaic, not representing any one individual. Much of the project's utility comes from the fact that the vast majority of the human genome is the same in all humans.
History
The Human Genome Project was a 15 year-long publicly funded project initiated in 1990 with the objective of determining the DNA sequence of the entire euchromatic human genome within 13 years.
In May 1985, Robert Sinsheimer organized a workshop at the University of California, Santa Cruz, to discuss the feasibility of building a systematic reference genome using gene sequencing technologies. In March 1986, the Santa Fe Workshop was organized by Charles DeLisi and David Smith of the Department of Energy's Office of Health and Environmental Research (OHER). At the same time Renato Dulbecco, President of the Salk Institute for Biological Studies, first proposed the concept of whole genome sequencing in an essay in Science. The published work, titled "A Turning Point in Cancer Research: Sequencing the Human Genome", was shortened from the original proposal of using the sequence to understand the genetic basis of breast cancer. James Watson, one of the discoverers of the double helix shape of DNA in the 1950s, followed two months later with a workshop held at the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. Thus the idea for obtaining a reference sequence had three independent origins: Sinsheimer, Dulbecco and DeLisi. Ultimately it was the actions by DeLisi that launched the project.
The fact that the Santa Fe Workshop was motivated and supported by a federal agency opened a path, albeit a difficult and tortuous one, for converting the idea into public policy in the United States. In a memo to the Assistant Secretary for Energy Research Alvin Trivelpiece, then-Director of the OHER Charles DeLisi outlined a broad plan for the project. This started a long and complex chain of events which led to approved reprogramming of funds that enabled the OHER to launch the project in 1986, and to recommend the first line item for the HGP, which was in President Reagan's 1988 budget submission, and ultimately approved by Congress. Of particular importance in congressional approval was the advocacy of New Mexico Senator Pete Domenici, whom DeLisi had befriended. Domenici chaired the Senate Committee on Energy and Natural Resources, as well as the Budget Committee, both of which were key in the DOE budget process. Congress added a comparable amount to the NIH budget, thereby beginning official funding by both agencies.
Trivelpiece sought and obtained the approval of DeLisi's proposal by Deputy Secretary William Flynn Martin. This chart was used by Trivelpiece in the spring of 1986 to brief Martin and Under Secretary Joseph Salgado regarding his intention to reprogram $4 million to initiate the project with the approval of John S. Herrington. This reprogramming was followed by a line item budget of $13 million in the Reagan administration's 1987 budget submission to Congress. It subsequently passed both Houses. The project was planned to be completed within 15 years.
In 1990, the two major funding agencies, DOE and the National Institutes of Health, developed a memorandum of understanding in order to coordinate plans and set the clock for the initiation of the Project to 1990. At that time, David J. Galas was Director of the renamed "Office of Biological and Environmental Research" in the U.S. Department of Energy's Office of Science and James Watson headed the NIH Genome Program. In 1993, Aristides Patrinos succeeded Galas and Francis Collins succeeded Watson, assuming the role of overall Project Head as Director of the NIH National Center for Human Genome Research (which would later become the National Human Genome Research Institute). A working draft of the genome was announced in 2000 and the papers describing it were published in February 2001. A more complete draft was published in 2003, and genome "finishing" work continued for more than a decade after that.
The $3 billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the US Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in the United Kingdom, France, Australia, China, and myriad other spontaneous relationships. The project ended up costing less than expected, at about $2.7 billion (equivalent to about $5 billion in 2021).
Two technologies enabled the project: gene mapping and DNA sequencing. The gene mapping technique of restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) arose from the search for the location of the breast cancer gene by Dr. Mark Skolnick of the University of Utah, which began in 1974. Seeing a linkage marker for the gene, collaboration with David Botstein, Ray White and Ron Davies conceived of a way to construct a genetic linkage map of the human genome. This enabled scientists to launch the larger human genome effort.
Because of widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as parallel advances in computing technology, a 'rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by U.S. President Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). This first available rough draft assembly of the genome was completed by the Genome Bioinformatics Group at the University of California, Santa Cruz, primarily led by then-graduate student Jim Kent and his advisor David Haussler. Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome on April 14, 2003, two years earlier than planned. In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project when the sequence of the very last chromosome was published in Nature.
The various institutions, companies, and laboratories which participated in the Human Genome Project are listed below, according to the NIH:
State of completion
Notably, the project was not able to sequence all of the DNA found in human cells; rather, the aim was to sequence only euchromatic regions of the nuclear genome, which make up 92.1% of the human genome. The remaining 7.9% exists in scattered heterochromatic regions such as those found in centromeres and telomeres. These regions by their nature are generally more difficult to sequence and so were not included as part of the project's original plans.
The Human Genome Project (HGP) was declared complete in April 2003. An initial rough draft of the human genome was available in June 2000 and by February 2001 a working draft had been completed and published followed by the final sequencing mapping of the human genome on April 14, 2003. Although this was reported to cover 99% of the euchromatic human genome with 99.99% accuracy, a major quality assessment of the human genome sequence was published on May 27, 2004, indicating over 92% of sampling exceeded 99.99% accuracy which was within the intended goal.
In March 2009, the Genome Reference Consortium (GRC) released a more accurate version of the human genome, but that still left more than 300 gaps, while 160 such gaps remained in 2015.
Though in May 2020, the GRC reported 79 "unresolved" gaps, accounting for as much as 5% of the human genome, months later, the application of new long-range sequencing techniques and a hydatidiform mole-derived cell line in which both copies of each chromosome are identical led to the first telomere-to-telomere, truly complete sequence of a human chromosome, the X chromosome. Similarly, an end-to-end complete sequence of human autosomal chromosome 8 followed several months later.
In 2021, it was reported that the Telomere-to-Telomere (T2T) consortium had filled in all of the gaps except five in repetitive regions of ribosomal DNA. Months later, those gaps had also been closed. The full sequence did not contain the Y chromosome, which causes the embryo to become male, being absent in the cell line that served as the source for the DNA analyzed. About 0.3% of the full sequence proved difficult to check for quality, and thus might have contained errors, which were being targeted for confirmation. In April 2022, the complete non-Y chromosome sequence was formally published, providing a view of much of the 8% of the genome left out by the HGP. In December, 2022, a preprint article claimed that the sequencing of the remaining missing regions of Y chromosome had been performed, thus completing the sequencing of all 24 human chromosomes. In August 2023 this preprint was finally published.
Applications and proposed benefits
The sequencing of the human genome holds benefits for many fields, from molecular medicine to human evolution. The Human Genome Project, through its sequencing of the DNA, can help researchers understand diseases including: genotyping of specific viruses to direct appropriate treatment; identification of mutations linked to different forms of cancer; the design of medication and more accurate prediction of their effects; advancement in forensic applied sciences; biofuels and other energy applications; agriculture, animal husbandry, bioprocessing; risk assessment; bioarcheology, anthropology and evolution. Another proposed benefit is the commercial development of genomics research related to DNA-based products, a multibillion-dollar industry.
The sequence of the DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U.S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as GenBank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins. Other organizations, such as the UCSC Genome Browser at the University of California, Santa Cruz, and Ensembl present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analyze the data because the data itself is difficult to interpret without such programs. Generally speaking, advances in genome sequencing technology have followed Moore's Law, a concept from computer science which states that integrated circuits can increase in complexity at an exponential rate. This means that the speeds at which whole genomes can be sequenced can increase at a similar rate, as was seen during the development of the Human Genome Project.
Techniques and analysis
The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in a raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is in the domain of bioinformatics. While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. Beginning in 2008, a new technology known as RNA-seq was introduced that allowed scientists to directly sequence the messenger RNA in cells. This replaced previous methods of annotation, which relied on the inherent properties of the DNA sequence, with direct measurement, which was much more accurate. Today, annotation of the human genome and other genomes relies primarily on deep sequencing of the transcripts in every human tissue using RNA-seq. These experiments have revealed that over 90% of genes contain at least one and usually several alternative splice variants, in which the exons are combined in different ways to produce 2 or more gene products from the same locus.
Subsequent projects sequenced the genomes of multiple distinct ethnic groups, though as of 2019 there is still only one "reference genome".
Findings
Key findings of the draft (2001) and complete (2004) genome sequences include:
There are approximately 22,300 protein-coding genes in human beings, the same range as in other mammals.
The human genome has significantly more segmental duplications (nearly identical, repeated sections of DNA) than had been previously suspected.
At the time when the draft sequence was published, fewer than 7% of protein families appeared to be vertebrate specific.
Accomplishments
The human genome has approximately 3.1 billion base pairs. The Human Genome Project was started in 1990 with the goal of sequencing and identifying all base pairs in the human genetic instruction set, finding the genetic roots of disease and then developing treatments. It is considered a megaproject.
The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces were then ligated into a type of vector known as "bacterial artificial chromosomes", or BACs, which are derived from bacterial chromosomes which have been genetically engineered. The vectors containing the genes can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery. Each of these pieces was then sequenced separately as a small "shotgun" project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the "hierarchical shotgun" approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing.
Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and a UK charity organization, the Wellcome Trust, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The funding supported a number of large sequencing centers including those at Whitehead Institute, the Wellcome Sanger Institute (then called The Sanger Centre) based at the Wellcome Genome Campus, Washington University in St. Louis, and Baylor College of Medicine.
The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) served as an important channel for the involvement of developing countries in the Human Genome Project.
Public vis-à-vis private approaches
In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter, and his firm Celera Genomics. Venter was a scientist at the NIH during the early 1990s when the project was initiated. The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. While the Celera project focused its efforts on production sequencing and assembly of the human genome, the public HGP also funded mapping and sequencing of the worm, fly, and yeast genomes, funding of databases, development of new technologies, supporting bioinformatics and ethics programs, as well as polishing and assessment of the genome assembly. Both the Celera and public approaches spent roughly $250 million on the production sequencing effort. For sequence assembly, Celera made use of publicly available maps at GenBank, which Celera was capable of generating, but the availability of which was "beneficial" to the privately-funded project.
Celera used a technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, employing pairwise end sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three billion base pair human genome.
Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on "only 200–300" genes, but later amended this to seeking "intellectual property protection" on "fully-characterized important structures" amounting to 100–300 targets. The firm eventually filed preliminary ("place-holder") patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes.
Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 "Bermuda Statement", by releasing new data annually (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or scientific use of the data. The publicly funded competitors were compelled to release the first draft of the human genome before Celera for this reason. On July 7, 2000, the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group released a first working draft on the web. The scientific community downloaded about 500 GB of information from the UCSC genome server in the first 24 hours of free and unrestricted access.
In March 2000, President Clinton, along with Prime Minister Tony Blair in a dual statement, urged that all researchers who wished to research the sequence should have "unencumbered access" to the genome sequence. The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology-heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days.
Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until February 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly funded project's scientific paper) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence. These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to approximately 92% of the sequence currently.
Genome donors
In the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) public-sector HGP, researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones taken from many different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Dr. Pieter J. de Jong. Much of the sequence (>70%) of the reference genome produced by the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York, (code name RP11; the "RP" refers to Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center).
HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of two male and two female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) – each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, because of quality considerations. One minor technical issue is that male samples contain just over half as much DNA from the sex chromosomes (one X chromosome and one Y chromosome) compared to female samples (which contain two X chromosomes). The other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes) are the same for both sexes.
Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continued in the International HapMap Project, whose goal was to identify patterns of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or "haps"). The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals; Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d'Etude du Polymorphisme Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe.
In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal Science) that his DNA was one of 21 samples in the pool, five of which were selected for use.
Developments
With the sequence in hand, the next step was to identify the genetic variants that increase the risk for common diseases like cancer and diabetes.
It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished. For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics, started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, hemostasis disorders, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer's disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management.
There are also many tangible benefits for biologists. For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down their search to a particular gene. By visiting the human genome database on the World Wide Web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its functions, its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice, yeast, or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, and diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes. Further, a deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them.
The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organisms is also opening new avenues in the study of evolution. In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and their closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data in this project.
The project inspired and paved the way for genomic work in other fields, such as agriculture. For example, by studying the genetic composition of Tritium aestivum, the world's most commonly used bread wheat, great insight has been gained into the ways that domestication has impacted the evolution of the plant. It is being investigated which loci are most susceptible to manipulation, and how this plays out in evolutionary terms. Genetic sequencing has allowed these questions to be addressed for the first time, as specific loci can be compared in wild and domesticated strains of the plant. This will allow for advances in the genetic modification in the future which could yield healthier and disease-resistant wheat crops, among other things.
Ethical, legal, and social issues
At the onset of the Human Genome Project, several ethical, legal, and social concerns were raised in regard to how increased knowledge of the human genome could be used to discriminate against people. One of the main concerns of most individuals was the fear that both employers and health insurance companies would refuse to hire individuals or refuse to provide insurance to people because of a health concern indicated by someone's genes. In 1996, the United States passed the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), which protects against the unauthorized and non-consensual release of individually identifiable health information to any entity not actively engaged in the provision of healthcare services to a patient.
Along with identifying all of the approximately 20,000–25,000 genes in the human genome (estimated at between 80,000 and 140,000 at the start of the project), the Human Genome Project also sought to address the ethical, legal, and social issues that were created by the onset of the project. For that, the Ethical, Legal, and Social Implications (ELSI) program was founded in 1990. Five percent of the annual budget was allocated to address the ELSI arising from the project. This budget started at approximately $1.57 million in the year 1990, but increased to approximately $18 million in the year 2014.
Whilst the project may offer significant benefits to medicine and scientific research, some authors have emphasized the need to address the potential social consequences of mapping the human genome. Historian of science Hans-Jörg Rheinberger wrote that "the prospect of 'molecularizing' diseases and their possible cure will have a profound impact on what patients expect from medical help, and on a new generation of doctors' perception of illness."
See also
References
Further reading
361 pages. Examines the intellectual origins, history, and motivations of the project to map the human genome; draws on interviews with key figures.
External links
National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI). NHGRI led the National Institutes of Health's contribution to the International Human Genome Project. This project, which had as its primary goal the sequencing of the three billion base pairs that make up the human genome, was successfully completed in April 2003.
Human Genome News. Published from 1989 to 2002 by the US Department of Energy, this newsletter was a major communications method for coordination of the Human Genome Project. Complete online archives are available.
The HGP information pages Department of Energy's portal to the international Human Genome Project, Microbial Genome Program, and Genomics:GTL systems biology for energy and environment
yourgenome.org: The Sanger Institute public information pages has general and detailed primers on DNA, genes, and genomes, the Human Genome Project and science spotlights.
Ensembl project, an automated annotation system and browser for the human genome
UCSC genome browser, This site contains the reference sequence and working draft assemblies for a large collection of genomes. It also provides a portal to the ENCODE project.
Nature magazine's human genome gateway, including the HGP's paper on the draft genome sequence
Wellcome Trust Human Genome website A free resource allowing you to explore the human genome, your health and your future.
Learning about the Human Genome. Part 1: Challenge to Science Educators. ERIC Digest.
Learning about the Human Genome. Part 2: Resources for Science Educators. ERIC Digest.
Patenting Life by Merrill Goozner
Prepared Statement of Craig Venter of Celera Venter discusses Celera's progress in deciphering the human genome sequence and its relationship to healthcare and to the federally funded Human Genome Project.
Cracking the Code of Life Companion website to 2-hour NOVA program documenting the race to decode the genome, including the entire program hosted in 16 parts in either QuickTime or RealPlayer format.
Bioethics Research Library Numerous original documents at Georgetown University.
David J. Galas
Works by archive
Project Gutenberg hosts e-texts for Human Genome Project, titled Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number # (# denotes 01–22, X and Y). This information is the raw sequence, released in November 2002; access to entry pages with download links is available through Human Genome Project, Chromosome Number 01 for Chromosome 1 sequentially to Human Genome Project, Y Chromosome for the Y Chromosome. Note that this sequence might not be considered definitive because of ongoing revisions and refinements. In addition to the chromosome files, there is a supplementary information file dated March 2004 which contains additional sequence information.
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Projects established in 1990
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brabham%20BT49
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Brabham BT49
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The Brabham BT49 is a Formula One racing car designed by South African Gordon Murray for the British Brabham team. The BT49 competed in the to Formula One World Championships and was used by Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet to win his first World Championship in .
The car was initially designed in 1979 as a short notice replacement for the team's Alfa Romeo-engined BT48, after Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone decided to end his relationship with the Italian engine manufacturer. The BT49 was created in only six weeks using elements of the BT48 chassis together with the widely used Cosworth DFV engine. The monocoque chassis is made from aluminium alloy and carbon fibre composites. The car was fitted with controversial hydropneumatic suspension and water-cooled brakes at different points in its life.
The BT49 was updated over four seasons taking a total of seven wins, six poles and 135 points. Seventeen were eventually built, most of which survive today. Some are used successfully in historic motorsport; Christian Glaesel won the 2005 FIA Historic Formula One Championship driving a BT49D.
Concept
The BT49 was created by South African designer Gordon Murray for the Brabham team during the 1979 season of the Formula One motor racing World Championship. The Brabham team had been competing in partnership with engine supplier Alfa Romeo since 1976 and won races in the 1978 season. However, the team's 1979 car, the BT48, was not a great success. Alfa Romeo entered their own Type 177 and Type 179 cars in Formula One Grands Prix that summer, helping to convince the Brabham team owner Bernie Ecclestone that the partnership was over. Motorsport author Alan Henry writes that Ecclestone did not want his team to take second place to an Alfa Romeo works team, and that the team designing Alfa Romeo's cars was drawing on Brabham knowledge.
Alfa's engines were powerful, but had proved troublesome and according to Henry, "the days during which pure power was the main criterion had temporarily vanished by the start of 1979". Instead aerodynamic ground effect, as brought to Formula One by the Lotus 78 two years earlier, was the most important factor. To allow them to focus on this, the Brabham team reverted to a known quantity, the reliable and widely used Ford Cosworth DFV engine that it had last used in 1975. Three BT49s were designed and built in only six weeks for the Canadian Grand Prix on 30 September 1979; two of them were converted BT48 chassis and one was newly built.
Chassis and suspension
Like all of its Formula One contemporaries, the BT49 chassis is a monocoque structure. It is built from sheet aluminium alloy with reinforcement from carbon fibre composite panels and is one of the first Formula One chassis to incorporate this material structurally. The chassis is slightly longer than that of the BT48, and is new from the cockpit back with revised sidepods and a structural fuel tank reduced from capacity to match the reduced fuel consumption requirements of the DFV compared to the Alfa Romeo. This allowed a reduction in dry weight over the BT48 of and of when fully fuelled.
The underside of the BT49 is shaped to create downforce through ground effect: air is accelerated under the car, reducing the air pressure beneath it and pushing the tyres down harder onto the track. This provides more grip and thus higher cornering speeds, but compared to conventional wings creates less of the drag that slows the car in a straight line. In its original form, the reduced pressure area under the car was sealed off with sliding skirts which rose and fell with the movement of the car to ensure no air could leak under it. According to Murray, the aerodynamics were the car's great strength: "It had more [downforce] than any other car and it all came from the ground effect. We ran the car with no front wing at all and scarcely any at the back."
The suspension, which controls the relative motion of the chassis and the wheels, is similar to that of the BT48: it features double wishbones front and rear, with the springs and dampers mounted on the chassis out of the airflow and activated by pullrods. Anti-roll bars are fitted front and rear. The BT49's disc brakes are mounted outboard, within the wheel hubs, and are activated by a single four piston brake caliper for each wheel. For most of the BT49's career, it used conventional steel brakes. Lighter reinforced carbon-carbon discs and pads, a technology that Brabham had introduced to Formula One in 1976, were used in 1981 and 1982; The wheels are of diameter, although occasionally wheels were used at the front. The car initially raced on Goodyear tyres, but the team had to adapt the BT49 to Michelin's new radial tyres for part of the 1981 season when Goodyear temporarily withdrew from Formula One. Slick tyres were used in dry conditions and treaded tyres in the wet.
Three chassis, included the two modified BT48 units, were built for the end of the 1979 season. Two of these were re-used during the 1980 Formula One season, alongside seven new chassis.
Engine and transmission
The Ford Cosworth DFV was produced by Cosworth in Northampton and had been used in Formula One since 1967. It is a 2,993 cc (183 cu in) normally aspirated four-stroke engine with two banks of four cylinders at 90 degrees to each other in a 'V8' configuration. It has an aluminium alloy engine block with cylinder liners. Each of its crossflow cylinder heads has a single spark plug and four valves, activated by gear-driven double overhead camshafts. This, combined with the flat-plane crankshaft, provides a relatively simple exhaust layout, in which the exhaust pipes exit on the outer side of the block. The engine is water-cooled, with water and oil radiators mounted in the left and right sidepods respectively. In 1980, a revised version of the DFV was introduced in which ancillaries such as the water and oil pumps were reduced in size and grouped further forwards on the flanks of the engine to provide more clearance for ground effect tunnels under the cars.
Like its contemporaries, the BT49 uses the engine as a fully stressed structural component, carrying all loads between the front and rear of the car: the front of the engine bolts directly to the integral fuel tank and the back of the engine attaches to the car's rear suspension and gearbox. The Ford Cosworth engine integrated into the car much more easily than Alfa Romeo's large, heavy and inconsistently sized units: Murray described returning to the DFV as being "like having a holiday".
By the time the DFV was used in the BT49, it weighed roughly and produced around at about 11,000 revolutions per minute (rpm). Peak torque was at 9,000 rpm. After his first test session with the car, Brazilian driver Nelson Piquet commented that he had always believed "that the DFV was quite a rough, coarse engine, but it felt quite the opposite to me. After those Alfa V12s it felt smooth and willing to rev." In 1979, when the BT49 first raced, all but three teams – Ferrari, Alfa Romeo and Renault – used the DFV, and the most powerful alternative (Alfa Romeo's V12) produced . By 1982, most teams still used the DFV, but BMW, Ferrari and Hart had joined Renault in employing turbocharged engines: Ferrari's 1982 turbocharged V6 engine produced around , while the DFV's output had remained at around 500 bhp.
Realising just how competitive the BT49 was on its debut at the Canadian Grand Prix in 1979, Cosworth would supply Brabham, along with Williams special "evolution" DFV engines which had a slightly shorter stroke and higher revving capacity than a standard DFV, producing around 500 to 510 BHP at over 11,000 RPM for the 1980 season. Throughout 1980 the BT49 was regularly one of the quickest naturally aspirated cars timed on the speed-traps (meaning only the turbocharged Renaults were usually faster in a straight-line), a combination of the low drag aerodynamically slippery bodywork and the development Cosworth engine. With Williams taking the decision from the 1980 French Grand Prix to effectively sub-contract "in house" to John Judd to modify the DFVs used by Alan Jones and Carlos Reutemann, Brabham effectively become the favoured runner in 1980 of development Cosworth engines, a situation which would continue throughout the rest of the 1980 season and the entire 1981 season, which effectively promoted Nelson Piquet to the status as the favoured "works" driver for Cosworth, a relationship that ultimately concluded in triumph with the 1981 Drivers World Championship.
The BT49 was initially fitted with the same gearbox the team had been using since 1977: a six-speed unit designed by Brabham using internal components from Hewland and a casing cast by Alfa Romeo.
Variants
BT49B
A BT49B specification appeared early in the 1980 season; it was conceived around a new transverse gearbox designed by American gearbox specialist Pete Weismann. The new unit could be fitted with five or six gears and was tall and narrow, allowing a clearer airflow from under the car to the rear, with the intent of improving the ground effect. An alternative rear suspension layout was designed to go with this gearbox. It replaced the standard pullrods with rocker arms that activated vertical coil springs mounted behind the gearbox. The Weismann unit proved difficult to make reliable and was used alongside the original gearbox, mainly on a spare chassis, until the , after which it was put to one side.
BT49T
A modified BT49, dubbed BT49T, was used to test the earliest versions of BMW's turbocharged Formula One engine between the 1980 and 1981 Formula One seasons. This was a 1,499 cc (92 cu in) inline four-cylinder engine, with a single KKK turbocharger mounted in the left hand sidepod of the car. The first version of the engine was said to produce .
BT49C
For the 1981 season, a BT49C specification was produced with a chassis lightened through increased use of carbon composite materials. Five of this variant were built and two of the previous year's cars converted to this specification. That year a minimum ride height of was introduced and sliding skirts were banned, with the intention of limiting ground effect and slowing the cars. The BT49C regained its front wings to compensate in part for the downforce lost. More significantly, Murray devised a hydropneumatic suspension system for the BT49C in which soft air springs supported the car at the regulation height for checks while stationary. At speed, where the ride height could not be measured, downforce compressed the air and the car settled to a much lower height, creating more downforce. Because the skirts now had to be fixed, the suspension had to be very stiff to allow them to consistently seal around the sides of the car: by the end of the 1981 season, total suspension movement was only , half of which came from the compression of the tyres. A lightweight qualifying chassis was produced, featuring a small fuel tank and lighter reinforced carbon-carbon brake discs and pads.
BT49D
Three new BT49D chassis were built for the 1982 season, featuring a still lighter chassis and one-piece bodywork. By this stage, the cars had to be ballasted to bring them up to the minimum weight limit of specified in the rules. The BT49D used the carbon-carbon brakes as standard and was one of several DFV-powered cars to be fitted with large water tanks, ostensibly for "water-cooled brakes". In practice, the water was dumped early in the race, allowing the cars to race as much as under the weight limit; the regulations stated coolant could be topped up at the end of the race before the weight was checked. In the view of the DFV teams, this practice met the letter of the regulations and equalised their performance with that of the more powerful turbocharged cars. The 60 mm ground clearance rule was removed for the 1982 season, but the fixed skirts and very stiff suspension remained.
Racing history
The BT49's racing career got off to an unsettled start when Brabham's lead driver, Niki Lauda, abruptly quit the sport after 10 laps of the first practice session at the penultimate race of the 1979 season, the Canadian Grand Prix. The car soon showed promise: Piquet ran third in the race on the high speed Circuit Île Notre-Dame before retiring with a broken gearbox. Lauda's replacement, Argentine novice Ricardo Zunino, was seventh of the nine who completed the race. At the season finale in wet conditions at the Watkins Glen International circuit, Zunino spun off although Piquet set the fastest lap before a driveshaft failed, putting his car out of the race.
Early in the 1980 season, Piquet's car scored points finishes at the Argentine and South African Grands Prix, behind Alan Jones' Williams FW07-DFV and the turbocharged Renault RE20 of René Arnoux. At the fourth race of the season, the United States Grand Prix West, Piquet qualified on pole by over a second in a BT49 featuring some updates to the sidepods, bodywork and suspension, before leading the race, held on the streets of Long Beach, California, from start to finish. BT49s in Piquet's hands scored in seven of the ten remaining rounds of the championship. Towards the end of the season, the suspension was reworked for the Dutch Grand Prix on the high speed Circuit Park Zandvoort, lengthening the wheelbase by three inches and allowing the car to run in a lower drag configuration. Piquet won after Jones destroyed his FW07's skirts on kerbs. Piquet also won the next race, the to give himself a one-point lead over Williams driver Jones. By the end of the season the BT49 was "arguably the fastest Cosworth-powered car", but Piquet lost the title to Jones at the penultimate race of the year, the , when a development engine failed while he was leading the race. The BT49s driven by the team's second drivers—Zunino and then from mid-season Mexican Héctor Rebaque—either retired or finished outside the points, with the exception of Rebaque's sixth place at the Canadian race. The team finished third in the constructors' championship behind Williams and Ligier, unable to compete with only one car scoring points.
In December 1980, Indycar driver Rick Mears tested the BT49 at Circuit Paul Ricard and was half a second behind Piquet but was faster than him at Riverside International Raceway in southern California, Mears was offered a contract to drive for Brabham in 1981 but he declined the offer and stayed with Team Penske in IndyCar.
Disagreement between the teams and the sport's administrators over the technical regulations for the 1981 Formula One season contributed to Goodyear's temporary withdrawal from Formula One and meant that the 1981 South African Grand Prix was run by the teams to 1980 regulations using cars with sliding skirts. Piquet finished second in a BT49B, but the race did not count towards the championship. The season proper opened with the United States Grand Prix West, at which the BT49C was introduced. To the team's surprise, it was the only car to exploit the "obvious" loophole in the new ground clearance regulation by lowering itself, but the BT49Cs raced with conventional suspension after the hydropneumatic system repeatedly jammed. The team revised the system continuously over the next three races and used it to set pole position at the Brazilian and Argentine Grands Prix and win the Argentine and San Marino races while continuing to suffer from the system not rising or lowering correctly.
Frank Williams led an abortive protest against the car at the Argentine Grand Prix, objecting to the flexibility of the fixed skirts used to seal the underside of the car, which allowed them to replicate the effect of a sliding skirt. At the following race, the scrutineers rejected the flexible skirts. Brabham replaced them with stiffer material from one of the other teams for the race, which Piquet won. As the season progressed, other teams developed their own lowering systems—a front spring and cylinder were stolen from the Brabham garage in Argentina— but after a rule clarification from FISA many cars were lowered by the driver pressing a switch, a development that Murray found frustrating in light of Brabham's efforts to develop a system that he considered legal. The cars ran on Goodyear tyres again from the sixth round of the championship; motorsport author Doug Nye believes this cost the BT49s good results at several races while the American company adapted to the latest Formula One developments. Despite the virtually solid suspension now required to maintain a consistent ride height, which put components under greater strain, Piquet built a championship challenge on the back of consistent reliability: by the end of the season, his BT49Cs had finished 10 of 15 races, with only one mechanical failure. Piquet finished fifth at the final race of the season—the —to take the title from Carlos Reutemann in a Williams FW07 by one point.
Brabham had been working with the German engine manufacturer BMW since 1980 on the development of a turbocharged engine for Formula One. The BMW-powered BT50 made its debut at the start of the 1982 season, taking advantage of the high-altitude Kyalami circuit in South Africa, which favoured turbocharged cars. However, the as yet unreliable BMW-powered cars were dropped for the next two races. Piquet finished first at the in a BT49D, but was disqualified after a protest from Renault and Ferrari on the grounds that the car had raced underweight due to its water-cooled brakes. FISA ruled that in future all cars must be weighed before coolants were topped up, resulting in a boycott of the fourth race of the season by most of the DFV-powered teams, including Brabham. Under threat from BMW, Brabham did not use its Ford-powered BT49s again until the sixth race of the season, the , where one was entered for Riccardo Patrese alongside Piquet in a BT50. Patrese won the race after a chaotic final lap on which several other cars stopped. Patrese used the BT49 for the next two races, taking a second place behind Piquet's BMW-powered car in the BT49's final Formula One race, the 1982 Canadian Grand Prix.
Historic racing
Since 1995, BT49s have competed regularly in the FIA Historic Formula One Championship. The championship is open to cars that competed in Formula One in the DFV era, between 1967 and 1985, in several classes to allow for equal competition. The BT49 competes in class C, for post 1971 ground effects cars. In 1999, Motor Sport magazine tested a BT49D from the series featuring from its developed DFV at 11,200 rpm, but the championship has since introduced rules to restrict engines to 10,500 rpm to keep costs down. While the cars' original skirts can be kept, they must be set up such that there is clearance beneath the car, a rule that removes most of the advantage of ground effect. The hydropneumatic suspension employed during 1981 is not permitted. The carbon-carbon brakes originally used in 1981 and 1982 are also banned and the cars must run with conventional brake pads and steel brakes. The cars use Avon slick tyres. Christian Glaesel won the 2005 FIA Historic Formula One Championship driving a BT49D and Joaquin Folch won the 2012 championship in a BT49C.
Complete Formula One World Championship results
(key) (Results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap)
Placings in the constructors' championship are for chassis-engine combinations. Brabham used both Alfa Romeo and Ford-powered cars during this season: the BT49-Fords scored no points and Brabham-Ford was not classified.
Brabham used both Ford and BMW-powered cars during this season: Brabham-Ford was classified 9th.
See also
Williams FW07
Lotus 88
Notes
References
Books
Magazines
External links
Brabham BT49 in spherical 360° image
Brabham Formula One cars
1979 Formula One season cars
1981 Formula One season cars
Formula One championship-winning cars
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prize%20%28law%29
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Prize (law)
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In admiralty law prizes are equipment, vehicles, vessels, and cargo captured during armed conflict. The most common use of prize in this sense is the capture of an enemy ship and her cargo as a prize of war. In the past, the capturing force would commonly be allotted a share of the worth of the captured prize. Nations often granted letters of marque that would entitle private parties to capture enemy property, usually ships. Once the ship was secured on friendly territory, she would be made the subject of a prize case: an in rem proceeding in which the court determined the status of the condemned property and the manner in which the property was to be disposed of.
History and sources of prize law
In his book The Prize Game, Donald Petrie writes, "at the outset, prize taking was all smash and grab, like breaking a jeweler's window, but by the fifteenth century a body of guiding rules, the maritime law of nations, had begun to evolve and achieve international recognition." Grotius's seminal treatise on international law called De Iure Praedae Commentarius (Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty), published in 1604—of which Chapter 12, "Mare Liberum" inter alia founded the doctrine of freedom of the seas—was an advocate's brief justifying Dutch seizures of Spanish and Portuguese shipping. Grotius defends the practice of taking prizes as not merely traditional or customary, but just. His Commentary claims that the etymology of the name of the Greek war god Ares was the verb "to seize", and that the law of nations had deemed looting enemy property legal since the beginning of Western recorded history in Homeric times.
Prize law fully developed between the Seven Years' War of 1756–1763 and the American Civil War of 1861–1865. This period largely coincides with the last century of fighting sail and includes the Napoleonic Wars, the American and French Revolutions, and America's Quasi-War with France of the late 1790s. Much of Anglo-American prize law derives from 18th Century British precedents – in particular, a compilation called the 1753 Report of the Law Officers, authored by William Murray, 1st Earl of Mansfield (1705–1793). It was said to be the most important exposition of prize law published in English, along with the subsequent High Court of Admiralty decisions of William Scott, Lord Stowell (1743–1836).
American Justice Joseph Story, the leading United States judicial authority on prize law, drew heavily on the 1753 report and Lord Stowell's decisions, as did Francis Upton, who wrote the last major American treatise on prize law, his Maritime Warfare and Prize.
While the Anglo-American common law case precedents are the most accessible description of prize law, in prize cases, courts construe and apply international customs and usages, the Law of Nations, and not the laws or precedents of any one country.
Fortunes in prize money were to be made at sea as vividly depicted in the novels of C. S. Forester and Patrick O'Brian. During the American Revolution the combined American naval and privateering prizes totaled nearly $24 million; in the War of 1812, $45 million. Such huge revenues were earned when $200 were a generous year's wages for a sailor; his share of a single prize could fetch ten or twenty times his yearly pay, and taking five or six prizes in one voyage was common.
With so much at stake, prize law attracted some of the greatest legal talent of the age, including John Adams, Joseph Story, Daniel Webster, and Richard Henry Dana Jr. author of Two Years Before the Mast. Prize cases were among the most complex of the time, as the disposition of vast sums turned on the fluid Law of Nations, and difficult questions of jurisdiction and precedent.
One of the earliest U.S. cases for instance, that of the Active, took fully 30 years to resolve jurisdictional disputes between state and federal authorities. A captured American privateer captain, 20-year-old Gideon Olmsted, shipped aboard the British sloop Active in Jamaica as an ordinary hand in an effort to get home. Olmsted organized a mutiny and commandeered the sloop. But as Olmsted's mutineers sailed their prize to America, a Pennsylvania privateer took the Active. Olmsted and the privateer disputed ownership of the prize, and in November 1778 a Philadelphia prize court jury came to a split verdict awarding each a share. Olmsted, with the assistance of then American General Benedict Arnold, appealed to the Continental Congress Prize Committee, which reversed the Philadelphia jury verdict and awarded the whole prize to Olmsted. But Pennsylvania authorities refused to enforce the decision, asserting the Continental Congress could not intrude on a state prize court jury verdict. Olmsted doggedly pursued the case for decades until he won, in a U.S. Supreme Court case in 1809 which Justice Stanley Matthews later called "the first case in which the supremacy of the Constitution was enforced by judicial tribunals against the assertion of state authority".
Commission
Although Letters of Marque and Reprisal were sometimes issued before a formal declaration of war, as happened during the American Revolution when the rebelling colonies of Massachusetts, Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania all granted Letters of Marque months before the Continental Congress's official Declaration of Independence of July 1776, by the turn of the 19th century it was generally accepted that a sovereign government first had to declare war. The "existence of war between nations terminates all legal commercial intercourse between their citizens or subjects," wrote Francis Upton in Maritime Warfare and Prize, since "[t]rade and commerce presuppose the existence of civil contracts … and recourse to judicial tribunals; and this is necessarily incompatible with a state of war." Indeed, each citizen of a nation "is at war with every citizen of the enemy," which imposes a "duty, on every citizen, to attack the enemy and seize his property, though by established custom, this right is restricted to such only, as are the commissioned instruments of the government."
The formal commission bestowed upon a naval vessel, and the Letter of Marque and Reprisal granted to private merchant vessels converting them into naval auxiliaries, qualified them to take enemy property as the armed hands of their sovereign, and to share in the proceeds.
Capturing a prize
When a privateer or naval vessel spotted a tempting vessel—whatever flag she flew or often enough flying none at all—they gave chase. Sailing under false colors was a common ruse, both for predator and prey. The convention was that a vessel must hoist her true colors before firing the first shot. Firing under a false flag could cost dearly in prize court proceedings, possibly even resulting in restitution to the captured vessel's owner.
Often a single cannon shot across the bow was enough to persuade the prey to heave-to, but sometimes brutal hours and even days of cannonading ensued, along with boarding and hand-to-hand fighting with cutlasses, pistols, and boarding pikes. No matter how furious and bloody the battle, once it was over the victors had to collect themselves, put aside anger and exercise forbearance, treating captives with courtesy and civility to the degree prudence allowed. Officers restrained the crew to prevent pillaging defeated adversaries, or pilfering the cargo, known as breaking bulk. Francis Upton's treatise on Maritime Warfare cautioned:
Embezzlements of the cargo seized, or acts personally violent, or injuries perpetrated upon the captured crew, or improperly separating them from the prize-vessel, or not producing them for examination before the prize-court, or other torts injurious to the rights and health of the prisoners, may render the arrest of the vessel or cargo, as prize, defeasible, and also subject the tort feasor for damages therefore.
Taking the prize before a prize court might be impractical for any number of reasons, such as bad weather, shortage of prize crew, dwindling water and provisions, or the proximity of an overpowering enemy force—in which case a vessel might be ransomed. That is, instead of destroying her on the spot as was their prerogative, the privateer or naval officer would accept a scrip in form of an IOU for an agreed sum as ransom from the ship's master. On land this would be extortion and the promise to pay unenforceable in court, but at sea it was accepted practice and the IOUs negotiable instruments.
On occasion a seized vessel would be released to ferry home prisoners, a practice which Lord Stowell said "in the consideration of humanity and policy" Admiralty Courts must protect with the utmost attention. While on her mission as a cartel ship she was immune to recapture so long as she proceeded directly on her errand, promptly returned, and did not engage in trading in the meantime.
Usually, however, the captor put aboard a prize crew to sail a captured vessel to the nearest port of their own or an allied country, where a prize court could adjudicate the prize. If while sailing en route a friendly vessel re-captured the prize, called a rescue, the right of postliminium declared title to the rescued prize restored to its prior owners. That is, the ship did not become a prize of the recapturing vessel. However, the rescuers were entitled to compensation for salvage, just as if they had rescued a crippled vessel from sinking at sea.
Admiralty court process
The prize that made it back to the capturing vessel's country or that of an ally which had authorized prize proceedings would be sued in admiralty court in rem—meaning "against the thing", against the vessel itself. For this reason. decisions in prize cases bear the name of the vessel, such as The Rapid (a U.S. Supreme Court case holding goods bought before hostilities commenced nonetheless become contraband after war is declared) or The Elsebe (Lord Stowell holding that prize courts enforce rights under the Law of Nations rather than merely the law of their home country). A proper prize court condemnation was absolutely requisite to convey clear title to a vessel and its cargo to the new owners and settle the matter. According to Upton's treatise, "Even after four years' possession, and the performance of several voyages, the title to the property is not changed without sentence of condemnation".
The agent of the privateer or naval officer brought a libel, accusing the captured vessel of belonging to the enemy, or carrying enemy cargo, or running a blockade. Prize commissioners took custody of the vessel and its cargo, and gathered the ship's papers, charts, and other documents. They had a special duty to notify the prize court of perishable property, to be sold promptly to prevent spoilage and the proceeds held for whoever prevailed in the prize proceeding.
The commissioners took testimony from witnesses on standard form written interrogatories. Admiralty courts rarely heard live testimony. The commissioners' interrogatories sought to establish the relative size, speed, and force of the vessels, what signals were exchanged and what fighting ensued, the location of the capture, the state of the weather and "the degree of light or darkness," and what other vessels were in sight. That was because naval prize law gave assisting vessels, defined as those that were "in signal distance" at the time, a share of the proceeds. The written interrogatories and ship's papers established the nationality of the prize and her crew, and the origin and destination of the cargo: the vessel was said to be "confiscated out of her own mouth."
One considerable difference between prize law and ordinary Anglo-American criminal law is the reversal of the normal onus probandi or burden of proof. While in criminal courts a defendant is innocent until proven guilty, in prize court a vessel is guilty unless proven innocent. Prize captors need show only "reasonable suspicion" that the property is subject to condemnation; the owner bears the burden of proving the contrary.
A prize court normally ordered the vessel and its cargo condemned and sold at auction. But the court's decision became vastly more complicated in the case of neutral vessels, or a neutral nation's cargo carried on an enemy vessel. Different countries treated these situations differently. By the close of the 18th century, Russia, Scandinavia, France, and the United States had taken the position that "free ships make free goods": that is, cargo on a neutral ship could not be condemned as a prize. But Britain asserted the opposite, that an enemy's goods on a neutral vessel, or neutral goods on an enemy vessel, may be taken, a position which prevailed in 19th century practice. The ingenuity of belligerents in evading the law through pretended neutrality, false papers, quick title transfers, and a myriad of other devices, make up the principal business of the prize courts during the last century of fighting sail.
Neutral vessels could be subject to capture if they ran a blockade. The blockade had to be effective to be cognizable in a prize court, that is, not merely declared but actually enforced. Neutrals had to be warned of it. If so then any ships running the blockade of whatever flag were subject to capture and condemnation. However passengers and crew aboard the blockade runners were not to be treated as prisoners of war, as Upton's Maritime Warfare and Prize enjoins: "the penalty, and the sole penalty ... is the forfeiture of the property employed in [blockade running]." Persons aboard blockade runners could only be temporarily detained as witnesses, and after testifying, immediately released.
The legitimacy of an adjudication depended on regular and just proceedings. Departures from internationally accepted standards of fairness risked ongoing litigation by disgruntled shipowners and their insurers, often protracted for decades.
For example, during America's Quasi-War with France in the 1790s, corrupt French Caribbean prize courts (often sharing in the proceeds) resorted to pretexts and subterfuges to justify condemning neutral American vessels. They condemned one for carrying alleged English contraband because the compass in the binnacle showed an English brand; another because the pots and pans in the galley were of English manufacture. Outraged U.S. shipowners, their descendants, and descendants of their descendants (often serving as fronts for insurers) challenged these decisions in litigation collectively called the French Spoliation Cases. The spoliation cases last over a century, from the 1790s until 1915. Together with Indian tribal claims for treaty breaches, the French Spoliation Cases enjoy the dubious distinction of figuring among the longest-litigated claims in U.S. history.
Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law (1856)
Most privateering came to an end in the late-19th century, when the plenipotentiaries who agreed on the Treaty of Paris in March 1856 that did put an end to the Crimean War, also did agree on the Paris Declaration Respecting Maritime Law renouncing granting letters of marque. Proposal to the Declaration came from the French Foreign Minister and president of the Congress Count Walewski.
In the plain wordings of the Declaration:
Privateering is and remains abolished;
The neutral flag covers enemy's goods, with the exception of contraband of war;
Neutral goods, with the exception of contraband of war, are not liable to capture under enemy's flag;
Blockades, in order to be binding, must be effective-that is to say, maintained by a force sufficient really to prevent access to the coast of the enemy.
The Declaration did contain a juridical novelty, making it possible for the first time in history that nations not represented at the establishment and/or the signing of a multilateral treaty, could access as a party afterwards. Again in the plain wordings of the treaty:
"The present Declaration is not and shall not be binding, except between those Powers who have acceded, or shall accede, to it."
The declaration has been written in French, translated in English and the two versions have been sent to nations worldwide with the invitation to access, leading to the acceding of altogether 55 nations, a big step towards the globalisation of international law. This broad acceptance wouldn't otherwise have been possible in such a short period.
The United States however, were not a signatory and had reasons not to accede the treaty afterwards. After having received the invitation to accede, the US Secretary of State, William L. Marcy a lawyer and judge, wrote a letter dated 14 July 1856 to other nations, among which The Netherlands:
"The United States have learned with sincere regret that in one or two instances, the four propositions, with all the conditions annexed, have been promptly, and this Government cannot but think, unadvisedly accepted without restriction or qualification." The US didn't want to restrict privateering and did strive for protection of all private property on neutral of enemy ships. Marcy did warn countries with large commercial maritime interests and a small navy, like The Netherlands, to be aware that the end of privateering meant they would be totally dependent on nations with a strong navy. Marcy did end the letter hoping:
“(…) that it may be induced to hesitate in acceding to a proposition which is here conceived to be fraught with injurious consequences to all but those Powers which already have or are willing to furnish themselves with powerful navies.” The US did accept the other points of the Declaration, being a codification of custom law.
End of privateering and the decline of naval prizes
During the American Civil War, Confederate privateers cruised against Union merchant shipping. Likewise, the Union (though refusing to recognize the legitimacy of Confederate letters of marque) allowed its navy to take Confederate vessels as prizes. Under US Constitution Article 1 Section 8, it is still theoretically possible for Congress to authorize letters of marque, but in the last 150 years it has not done so.
An International Prize Court was to be set up by treaty XII of the Hague Convention of 1907, but this treaty never came into force as only Nicaragua ratified it.
Commerce raiding by private vessels ended with the American Civil War, but Navy officers remained eligible for prize money a little while longer. The United States continued paying prizes to naval officers in the Spanish–American War, and only abjured the practice by statute during World War I. The U.S. prize courts adjudicated no cases resulting from its own takings in either World War I or World War II (although the Supreme Court did rule on a German prize—SS Appam in the case The Steamship Appam—that was brought to and held at Hampton Roads). Likewise Russia, Portugal, Germany, Japan, China, Romania, and France followed the United States in World War I, declaring they would no longer pay prize money to naval officers. On November 9, 1914, the British and French governments signed an agreement establishing government jurisdiction over prizes captured by either of them. The Russian government acceded to this agreement on March 5, 1915, and the Italian government followed suit on January 15, 1917.
Shortly before World War II France passed a law which allowed for taking prizes, as did the Netherlands and Norway, though the German invasion and subsequent capitulation of all three of those countries quickly put this to an end. Britain formally ended the eligibility of naval officers to share in prize money in 1948.
Under contemporary international law and treaties, nations may still bring enemy vessels before their prize courts, to be condemned and sold. But no nation now offers a share to the officers or crew who risked their lives in the capture:
Self-interest was the driving force that compelled men of the sea to accept the international law of prize ... [including merchants] because it brought a valuable element of certainty to their dealings. If the rules were clear and universal, they could ship their goods abroad in wartime, after first buying insurance against known risks. ... On the other side of the table, those purchasing vessels and cargoes from prize courts had the comfort of knowing that what they bought was really theirs. The doctrine and practice of maritime prize was widely adhered to for four centuries, among a multitude of sovereign nations, because adhering to it was in the material interest of their navies, their privateersmen, their merchants and bankers, and their sovereigns. Diplomats and international lawyers who struggle in this world to achieve a universal rule of law may well ponder on this lesson.
See also
Alabama Claims
Commerce raiding
Confederate privateer
Court of Appeals in Cases of Capture
Blockade runners of the American Civil War
Letter of marque
War trophy
Prize of war
Altmark incident
Notes
References
James Scott Brown (ed.), Prize Cases Decided in the United States Supreme Court (Oxford: Clarendon Press 1923)
Colombos, A Treatise on the Law of Prize (London: Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd. 1949)
Gawalt & Kreidler, eds., The Journal of Gideon Olmsted (Washington DC: Library of Congress 1978)
Grotius, De Iure Praedae Commentarius (Commentary on the Law of Prize and Booty)(Oxford: Clarendon Press 1950)
Edgar Stanton Maclay, A History of American Privateers (London: S. Low, Marston & Co. 1900)
Donald Petrie, The Prize Game: lawful looting on the high seas in the days of fighting sail (Annapolis, Md.: Naval Institute Press, 1999)
Theodore Richard, Reconsidering the Letter of Marque: Utilizing Private Security Providers Against Piracy (April 1, 2010). Public Contract Law Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3, pp. 411–464 at 429 n.121, Spring 2010. Available at SSRN: http://ssrn.com/abstract=1591039
William Morrison Robinson Jr., The Confederate Privateers (Columbia, S.C.: University of South Carolina Press, 1928)
Lord Russell of Liverpool, The French Corsairs (London: Robert Hale, 2001)
Carl E. Swanson, Predators and Prizes: American Privateering and Imperial Warfare, 1739–1748 (Columbia, SC: U. South Carolina Press, 1991)
Francis Upton, Upton's Maritime Warfare and Prize (New York: John Voorhies Law Bookseller and Publisher, 1863)
External links
summary of US Prize laws 1868
Law of the sea
Prize warfare
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike%20Delfino
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Mike Delfino
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Michael Delfino is a fictional character on the ABC television series Desperate Housewives. The character is portrayed by James Denton from the show's inception, until the eighth and final season of the show.
Storylines
Backstory
Michael "Mike" Delfino was born in 1967 as the second child of Adele and Nick Delfino. He was engaged to Deirdre Taylor. He was very popular in high school until his father was arrested and sent to prison for murdering a coworker. Afterwards, his maternal grandfather raised him and Adele. During this time, Mike fell into drug addiction and killed a police officer in self-defense while protecting a woman. In 1987, he was sentenced to 66 months in a Kansas prison. In September 1988, his girlfriend Deirdre visited him in prison and they had a conjugal visit, during which she became pregnant with a son, Dana. Deirdre later lied to him that she carried out the abortion and then disappeared from his life. In 1992, he moved to Los Angeles and got married. The woman died in 2003. They had no children but left him a dog named Bongo. He came to Fairview because there were nightmares. He was hired by Deirdre's father as a private investigator to find out what happened with Deirdre.
Season 1
Mike moves into 4356 Wisteria Lane, renting the Simms' house, and poses as the friendly neighborhood plumber. He is quietly searching for his missing ex-girlfriend (Deirdre Taylor), and during this time, begins a relationship with Susan Mayer. Her father, Noah, wants to know what had happened to her before he died. Deirdre's remains are inside Zach’s toy chest, and are buried under the family pool. After Mary Alice commits suicide, Paul Young excavates the toy chest out of the pool, wraps it, and tapes it up, and drives away with it to throw it in a body of water, though it is eventually recovered by the police. The police are able to trace it to Paul as the maker kept a list of all clients he had done work for. Zach steps in and falsely claims the chest was damaged by him and thrown away when he was a child. Zach later believes Paul has lied to him about his memories of the chest and the private investigator who tried to take Zach away when he was a young child but Paul convinces him he didn't.
In the interim, Paul also murders Martha Huber in a fit of rage after finding out that she was responsible for blackmailing Mary Alice, and tries to pin the murder on Mike. Susan temporarily breaks up with Mike when she finds out about his prison time, but reconciles with him after meeting with Kendra and Noah, and learning the truth from them.
Mike eventually determines Paul's connection to Deirdre's murder. He takes Paul hostage, and contemplates killing him, reconsidering when Paul reveals the whole truth about what happened, and realizes that Zach is his biological son. Meanwhile, Zach has taken Susan hostage because he has just found out about the kidnapping.
Season 2
Mike returns to Fairview and rescues Susan from Zach. Susan is stunned to discover that Zach is Mike's son, and although understanding, she is also wary of Zach because of his behavior towards her daughter Julie, particularly when she asks him not to see Julie as much. She encourages Zach to go to Utah, looking for Paul and gives him money. Mike is furious with Susan when he finds out what she did, and breaks up with her.
Upon Zach's return, Mike tries getting to properly know him, and Zach is initially interested. Paul, however, takes issue with Zach's obsession with two people who hadn't loved him enough to keep him. For all of Mike's efforts, After that, Zach makes it clear that he views Paul as his father.
After Edie Britt burns down Susan's house, Mike helps Susan get recording equipment so she can get Edie to confess on tape to what happened. By the season finale, Mike decides he wants to marry Susan. However, en route to meet her, he is run over by Orson Hodge and hospitalized.
Season 3
Mike spends the next six months in a coma. When he wakes up, he is diagnosed with retrograde amnesia, with no recollection of the last two years. Edie takes advantage of this to make a move on Mike, lying to him and claiming that Susan had treated him like dirt. Mike enters a relationship with Edie, which ends when she breaks up with him after he is arrested for Monique Polier's murder. Hearing of the arrest, Susan persuades her current boyfriend Ian Hainsworth to help hire a defense attorney for Mike. Paul approaches Mike in jail, and engineers an attempt on his life that he "rescues" him from, as a way of getting a favor from Mike. Paul wants Mike to get Zach to visit him and help him find Felicia Tilman (Martha Huber's sister), who has gotten Paul locked up by faking her death and planting evidence to suggest he murdered her.
Upon Mike's release from prison, he seeks out the help of a hypnotherapist to recover his lost memories. Initially, these efforts are focused on helping him recover his memory of the night Monique died, which help Mike realize that Orson (who has since married Bree Van De Kamp in the six months since the accident) was involved in her death. Mike confronts him on the hospital roof, and accidentally knocks Orson over the side. Mike is eventually cleared when Alma dies, and Orson plants a bag containing Monique's teeth in her hands along with a suicide note that Alma had written as part of a gambit by her and Orson to lure him over to her house so she could rape him.
Mike is saddened when he finds that Susan has become engaged to Ian, knowing that Mike had intended to propose the night of his accident. Mike challenges Ian at poker game and they make a deal: if Mike wins, he can tell Susan but if Ian wins, he can't. Ian wins the bet, and although Mike keeps his distance, Ian is forced to thank Mike when he rescues him and Susan after she crashes their car into a lake trying to avoid a deer. Following an argument with Ian, Mike consoles Susan and shares a kiss with her, renewing his hope that they would reconcile. Despite his deal with Ian, he tells Susan what happened at the poker game. Susan is furious, refusing to see either of them but eventually deciding to marry Ian. With broken Heart, Mike leaves her a goodbye message and leaves town, unaware that Ian has ended things with Susan. Susan follows him to a national park where he's gone camping, but gets offended by her guide's suggestion that she invites in drama, and gets lost trying to find Mike on her own. When she is reported missing, Mike recognizes her from her description, and tracks her down. To mark the one year anniversary of the day Mike originally intended to propose to Susan, they hold an approximation of that night in her driveway, even bringing the trailer that Susan and Julie were living out of at that time. This time, Mike is able to properly propose to Susan.
While Susan initially considers going for a big and lavish wedding comparable to Gaby's upcoming wedding to Victor Lang, she eventually decides otherwise, and she and Mike marry in a small private late night ceremony, with just Julie as their sole witness.
Season 4
Shortly after marrying, Susan finds out that she is pregnant. Mike couldn't be happier, but problems arise when they have a brief disagreement over whether or not to let Julie attend a party at a house where Mike has seem some rather sketchy behavior. Although Mike respects Susan's decisions about how to raise Julie, he expects her to consult him on how they raised their child.
Due to Susan's age, their doctor suggests that they get genetic counseling. In the process, Mike is forced to admit to Susan to the fact that his father is alive and doing life in prison for murder. When they visit Nick in prison, Susan is shocked by how cold-hearted he is. Wanting to know whether Nick felt remorse for his crimes, decides to visit him alone a day later. To Susan's dismay, Nick does not show any remorse for his crimes, only for how his actions affected Mike's popularity.
During this time, the strain of lingering back pain from his accident plus working overtime to support the baby leads Mike to turn to painkillers, eventually developing an addicition. Bree discovers this when Mike drops a pill in her house. She informs Susan about this, and she confronts Mike after finding that he has a secret stash of pills in his flashlight. Mike throws the pills down the sink, insisting that he's not an addict, but later retrieves them. As his drug dealer is harassing him for money, Mike turns to blackmailing Adam and Orson into prescribing him more. At one point, Mike's drug dealer comes over to the Delfino house and Susan tries to set him up for a date with Julie before Mike recognizes him and kicks him out. Caught in a lie, Mike reluctantly admits to having bought the drugs so he could keep working, as he's worried about the cost of raising a child. Susan thinks that Mike has stopped taking them, only to find pills in the car that he had been getting from Adam and Orson. Susan confronts Mike, and in the midst of a heated argument, he accidentally pushes her down the stairs. Fearing that something might have happened to the baby, Susan is rushed to the hospital. Unfortunately, with a tornado bearing down on Wisteria Lane, the hospital is in crisis mode and the Delfinos have to wait. Mike becomes impatient and punches a hospital worker, and has to be handcuffed to a seat. Fortunately, Susan and her baby are fine and she merely has a sprained ankle. She is prescribed painkillers, but when Mike asks for one, she demands that he go to rehab under the threat of leaving him. Reluctantly, Mike agrees.
Mike misses Susan's first Lamaze class as he is getting his 30 day chip, but is there for the second. While Mike is in rehab, Bree and Orson temporarily move in with Susan and Julie, and Orson's guilt over running Mike over and prescribing him pills leads him to take up sleepwalking. When Julie catches him confessing to the hit and run in one of these episodes, she relays this information to Mike, who in turn tells Susan about this. Susan is furious at Orson, demanding that he stay away from her family, although she comes to forgive Orson with some persuasion from Mike. When Mike's mother comes to town to visit them, Mike scolds her for her attitude towards Susan — asking personal questions and unable to believe that Susan couldn't cook. She apologizes just before Susan gave birth to their baby boy. Mike wants to name him Maynard after his maternal grandfather (who was a father figure for him), but Susan prefers to call him Connor. They eventually settle on naming their son Maynard James Delfino (M.J. for short), honoring both of Mike's grandfathers.
5-year leap
As the plot fast forwards 5 years in the future, Susan is seen coming home to a man who is not Mike.
Season 5
The reason for Mike and Susan's split is because one night, three years into the time skip, they got into a collision with another car. Although Mike and Susan survived, the occupants of the other car--Lila Dash and her daughter Paige--were killed. Mike claimed to the police that he was driving as Susan didn't have her license on her. Despite being found not responsible, as they had the right of way and the Dashs' car pulled out in front of them, Susan blamed herself and Mike, and the trauma took its toll on their marriage.
In the present day, Susan is now in a casual relationship with her house painter, Jackson Braddock. Mike is now dating Katherine Mayfair, Susan's older friend. Mike and Katherine bond over bad dates and realize they are attracted to each other. When Susan finds out that they are dating and that Bree was aware, it is clear that she still has feelings for Mike. This bad feeling spills over into M.J., when he attacks Katherine by throwing chewed chewing gum at her head. It emerges that this is a result of what Susan told M.J. when she and Mike first split up; that they would get back together eventually.
Worried about her and Mike's relationship, Katherine tells him that her daughter Dylan wants her to move to Maryland, but isn't sure if she should go. Mike is non-committal, but realizes thanks to Dave Williams that he is falling in love with Katherine, and leaves her a basket of roses with a note saying "Don't go". When Katherine finds them, she is thrilled. What neither Mike nor Katherine know is that Dave is actually David Dash, the widow of Lila Dash, and he has come to seek revenge for hers and Paige's deaths. Thinking Mike is responsible, he plans to take Mike and Katherine camping, then gun Katherine down with a sniper rifle and blame it on poachers. Fortunately for Katherine, Edie (who Dave married in order to have a reason to move onto Wisteria Lane) texts him right as he's about to take the shot, having found out the truth about him through investigating. Edie attempts to call Mike to warn him when Dave nearly strangles her. Shaken, Edie rushes out, but crashes her car into a utility pole while trying to avoid Orson and is electrocuted to death. Dave later learns that he nearly killed the wrong person when Susan confesses to him that she was the driver on the night of the accident. As a result, Dave changes his plans and decides that he will murder M.J. to get revenge by proxy.
Mike later struggles with his feelings for Susan and Katherine, and proposes to Katherine, who gladly accepts. In the finale, Dave gives Mike a videotape which he says is rehearsal footage of their band; however, he mistakenly gives Mike one containing a video confession that he wanted Mike to see after M.J. was killed. Needing a videotape to use at the wedding, Katherine puts it in her camera. While waiting at the airport for their flight, Katherine takes her wallet to buy cappuccinos and inadvertently hits the camera, causing Mike to see the confession tape. Realizing M.J. is in grave danger, he abandons Katherine at the airport, and calls Susan (who Dave is taking with M.J. to the place where he intends to kill the latter) to warn her. He speaks to Dave, offering himself in Susan and M.J.'s place. Dave agrees and tells Mike to meet them at the site of the accident. Unknown to Mike, Dave plans to have Mike crash into his car and kill M.J., just as Susan did when she killed Lila and Paige. Susan manages to escape and tries to warn Mike, but he crashes his truck into Dave's car anyway. Fortunately, M.J. survives, as Susan's pleading leads Dave to imagine seeing his dead daughter where M.J. is and prompt him to leave the car. Susan, Mike, and M.J. share a hug, and Mike kisses Susan.
At the end of the finale, Mike is seen marrying someone whose face is not shown.
Season 6
Mike breaks up with Katherine and decides to re-marry Susan. She accepts and they plan their wedding. Julie returns to Wisteria Lane to help them out. Though Susan is happy and in love with Mike, Katherine is devastated and jealous, and their friendship is deeply scarred by this. During the wedding, Katherine approaches Susan and explains how she feels and asks for her to make a public apology during the ceremony under the threat of humiliating her. Susan then locks Katherine in a closet for the duration of the ceremony. Despite this, Katherine breaks out and confronts Mike and Susan after they've tied the knot. Although Susan reluctantly makes a public apology to Katherine, Katherine decides to declare war on her. Although Mike tries to help Susan through this feud, he hits his breaking point when Katherine lies to M.J. that Susan stole Mike away from her. Enraged, Mike verbally blasts her, saying he never loved Katherine and was thinking of Susan the whole time they were together. When a hurt Katherine suggests it'd be less painful for Mike to stab her with a knife, he retorts that he doesn't care enough about Katherine to kill her. After he leaves, Katherine stabs herself with a knife that Mike had touched, and calls the police to implicate Mike. While Mike is in jail, Susan calls up Dylan, and it turns out that Katherine has been lying to her and claiming that she (and not Susan) has been married to Mike. When Dylan confronts her mother, Katherine has a full breakdown and is committed, and Mike is exonerated.
Mike soon runs into financial problems and massive debts, which culminate in his truck getting repossessed. While he refuses any help coming from Susan, he takes a loan from Carlos Solis. Susan eventually learns of their financial ruin and, after going over their finances she and Mike realize they need to cut back significantly. This includes them moving to an apartment across town, and renting out their home. Though Mike knows it will help them get back on their feet, Susan becomes very angry with him as she is forced to leave the house where she raised her children. Though they make up and leave Wisteria Lane, they quickly find a renter for their house. Unbeknownst to them, the renter in question is Paul Young.
Season 7
When Susan tells Mike about her lingerie job on the Internet and Paul Young's plan to buy their house, Mike decides to take an oil rig job in Alaska in order to earn more money. He has also been communicating with Felicia Tilman. When Susan develops kidney problems after being trampled during a riot on Wisteria Lane, Mike surprises her at the hospital. They both fear the prospect of Susan succumbing to her disease and so they decide to have an early anniversary which turns into a sham. After everything backfires Mike admits he's not ready to lose Susan and tells her that she'll find a kidney donor. After Paul recovers from a shooting, he asks for Mike's help in finding Zach. Mike rejects but later changes his mind when he realizes that Zach is on drugs. Both Mike and Paul visit Zach and ask him to go to rehab. When Susan gets a kidney, courtesy of Paul's new wife Beth committing suicide, they both cannot wait for their sex drought to end with Susan dreaming of having sex but cannot recall her male counterpart.
Season 8
Making the fatal mistake of crossing Donny, an unruly and vengeful loan shark/extortionist who harasses Renee, Mike is killed in a drive-by shooting by Donny himself in front of his home on Wisteria Lane, just seconds after expressing his love toward Susan. He pushes Susan down to the ground in order to save her while he is shot in the chest. He is then remembered by the housewives at his funeral. The fate of Mike's killer is never shown afterwards, but Bree is later told that an arrest had been made. When Susan is cleaning out Mike's closet, she finds papers indicating that Mike was writing checks to a woman. Susan visits the address she finds in Mike's possessions and discovers that Mike had a sister, Laura, whom he only learned about eight years before as Adele did not want to be "inconvenienced" by their special needs child. In the final moments of the series, as Susan leaves Wisteria Lane, Mike is among the spirits watching her go.
Characterization and casting
Marc Cherry observed that the mystery surrounding Mike made him alluring and initially wanted to cast an Italian actor to portray him. Cherry settled with James Denton because he found him wholesome: "We think he's a good guy, and we want him to be a good guy, but he's not acting like a good guy."
Mike is introduced as the new neighbor on Wisteria Lane with a mysterious past. Denton explains, "He's on a very personal mission. He's not a cop or a private eye. Mike is there because somebody in his past has done him wrong."
In 2005, Denton stated that he knew his importance to the series was tied to Teri Hatcher and that there was no guarantee he would kept onboard. Denton furthered, “In a perfect world. I’ll get four more years out of Desperate Housewives, and then nobody will ever see me again." Denton admitted to not being a fan of the time-skip between seasons four and five before eventually coming around: "I thought it was gimmicky, and even Marc admitted he sort of stole it. But I realized they were right. So that’s why I’m not a writer."
In August 2011, ABC president Paul Lee confirmed the eighth season of Desperate Housewives would be the show's last. Denton believed Cherry "had a pretty good feel for when the show was going to end based on the first couple of episodes that felt so much like season one in terms of dealing with the same kind of note from the pilot" and that he personally had a feeling the show was ending before it was officially announced. Denton observed that by the eighth season, "Mike and Susan are pretty secure and If they broke up it would really surprise me. I think it’s much more interesting for the writers, now that they’ve got them together after all these years, to watch them deal with these crazy situations in a realistic way that couples all across the country have to face all the time."
Reception
Screen Rant ranked Mike's death as the most emotional of the series, and added that the "fact that Mike's ghost is looking on as Susan says goodbye to Wisteria Lane makes this even more tragic and beautiful."
When they ranked the seasons of the series, Screen Rant cited "the pointless decision to kill off Mike Delfino so close to the show’s end" as the reason the eighth season lost major points.
Christina Tran wrote that she was still in denial about Mike's death even after knowing it would happen due to her fondness for the character: "Aside from the core four, Mike was the last person I wanted to see go."
References
Desperate Housewives characters
Fictional plumbers
Television characters introduced in 2004
Fictional drug addicts
Fictional characters who awoke from a coma
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