Datasets:

devrim
/

wiki-long-subset

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (2)

train · 147k rows

id stringlengths 2 8	url stringlengths 31 206	title stringlengths 1 130	text stringlengths 16.4k 435k
5168695	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kronshtadt-class%20battlecruiser	Kronshtadt-class battlecruiser	The Kronshtadt-class battlecruisers, with the Soviet designation as Project 69 heavy cruisers, (), were ordered for the Soviet Navy in the late 1930s. Two ships were started but none were completed due to World War II. These ships had a complex and prolonged design process which was hampered by constantly changing requirements and the Great Purge in 1937. They were laid down in 1939, with an estimated completion date in 1944, but Stalin's naval construction program was more ambitious than the shipbuilding and armaments industries could handle. Prototypes of the armament and machinery had not even been completed by 22 June 1941, almost two years after the start of construction. This is why the Soviets bought twelve surplus SK C/34 guns, and their twin turrets, similar to those used in the s, from Germany in 1940. The ships were partially redesigned to accommodate them, after construction had already begun, but no turrets were actually delivered before Germany invaded the following year. Only Kronshtadts hull survived the war reasonably intact being 10% complete in 1945, although she was considered to be obsolete. The Soviets considered converting her into an aircraft carrier, but the idea was rejected and both hulls were scrapped in 1947. Design The Kronshtadt-class battlecruisers had their origin in a mid-1930s requirement for a large cruiser () capable of destroying cruisers built to the limits imposed by the Washington Naval Treaty, of which the Soviets were not a signatory. Several designs were submitted by the end of 1935, but the Navy was not satisfied and rejected all of them. It asked for another design, displacing and armed with guns, in early 1936, eventually designated Project 22, but this design was cancelled after the Soviets began negotiations in mid-1936 with the British that ultimately resulted in the Anglo-Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty which limited battleships to a displacement of . The Soviets had been working on a small battleship design (Battleship 'B') for service in the Baltic and Black Seas and had to shrink it as a result of these discussions to a size close to that of the Project 22 large cruiser so that the latter was cancelled. Battleship 'B' was redesignated as Project 25 and given the task of destroying Treaty cruisers and German pocket battleships. The Project 25 design was accepted in mid-1937 after major revisions in the armor scheme and the machinery layout and four were ordered with construction to begin in late 1937 and early 1938. However, this decision occurred right before the Great Purge began to hit the Navy in August 1937 and two of the ship's designers were arrested and executed within a year. The Project 25 design was then rejected on the grounds that it was too weak compared to foreign ships and the whole program was cancelled in early 1938 after an attempt to modify the design with larger guns had been made. However the Soviet Navy still felt a need for a fast ship that could deal with enemy cruisers and the original concept was revived as Project 69. They wanted a ship not to exceed 23,000 metric tons with a speed of and an armament of nine 254 mm guns, but the requirement proved to be too ambitious for the specified size and it increased to in the design submitted in June 1938. By this time, however, details were becoming available for the s and the ship was deemed inferior to the German ships. The State Defense Committee revised the requirements and specified a size about , an armament of nine guns, an armor belt thick and a speed about . A revised design was finished by October which was wargamed against the Japanese s, the French s as well as the Scharnhorst class. It was deemed superior to the Kongos at medium range and inferior to the Dunkerques at the same range, but generally superior to the Scharnhorsts, although it is doubtful that the Soviets were fully aware of the true specifications of the Kongōs as rebuilt or of the Scharnhorsts as the displacement of the latter had been given as , more than short of their true displacement. The Navy's Shipbuilding Administration thought that the original secondary armament of guns was too small and that the armor on the turrets, conning tower and the forward transverse bulkhead was too thin. A revised, 35,000-ton design with guns and extra armor was submitted to the State Defense Council in January 1939. This was approved and the detailed design work began with the basic concept that the ship should be superior to the Scharnhorst-class ships and able to outrun the Bismarck-class battleships. At this time the horizontal protection was revised after full-scale trials revealed that a bomb would penetrate both a upper deck and a middle deck to burst on the main armor deck. So the middle deck was thickened to with the lower deck intended to catch any splinters penetrating the armor deck. This meant that the main belt had to be extended upwards to meet the main armor deck at a significant penalty in weight. The Defense Committee approved the sketch design on 13 July 1939, but the detailed design was not approved until 12 April 1940, after construction had already begun on the first two ships. It was already apparent that the 305 mm guns and turrets were well behind schedule when Joseph Stalin asked the German representatives in Moscow on 8 February 1940 to negotiate a trade agreement if it would be possible to use the triple turrets in lieu of the triple 305 mm turrets of the Project 69 ships. They replied that the turrets were out of production, but new ones could be built. He then asked if twin turrets could be used instead. The Germans said that they would have to check back for the technical details. Krupp had six incomplete turrets on hand that had originally been ordered before the war to rearm the Scharnhorst-class battleships, but they were cancelled after the start of World War II when the Germans decided that they could not afford to have the ships out of service during the war. A preliminary purchase agreement was made to buy twelve guns and six turrets later that month, well before any studies were even made to see if the substitution was even possible. The Shipbuilding Commissariat reported on 17 April that it was possible so the agreement was finalized in November 1940 with the deliveries scheduled from October 1941 to 28 March 1943. The order also included rangefinders and searchlights. The Soviets never did get the detailed data required to redesign the ship's barbettes and magazines, but they did know that the 380-mm barbettes were bigger in diameter than that of the 305 mm turret as well as being taller than the Russian turrets. So the barbette of turret number two had to be raised to clear turret number one and the height of the conning tower had to be raised to clear turret number two. Similarly the anti-aircraft guns behind turret number three had to be raised as well. The new turrets required more electrical power which meant that the output of the turbo generators had to be increased to 1,300 kilowatts. All of these changes added over to the ships' displacement and the sketch design was completed by 16 October 1940, as Project 69-I (Importnyi—Imported), even though they still lacked data for the turrets and their barbettes. This was presented to the State Defense Committee on 11 February 1941, but the design was not approved until 10 April when it ordered that the first two ships be completed with German guns while the others would continue to use the 305 mm guns. The detailed design was supposed to be completed by 15 October 1941, but it was rendered pointless when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June. General characteristics The Project 69-class ships were long overall and had a waterline length of . They had a beam of and at full load a draft of . As designed they displaced at standard and at full load. The displacement of the two Project 69-I-class ships increased to at standard load and at full load which increased the draft to at full load while the waterline length grew to simply because the extra draft submerged more of the sharply raked stem and spoon-shaped stern. The speed remained the same as the deeper draft was offset by a more efficient propeller form. The hull form was very full with a block coefficient of 0.61 which compared badly to the 0.54 of the Dunkerque, the 0.52 of the German or the 0.5266 of the American . This meant that a lot of horsepower was necessary to achieve even modest speeds. Stalin's decision that the Project 69 ships would use three shafts increased the shaft loading and reduced propulsive efficiency, although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement. The riveted hull was subdivided by 24 transverse bulkheads and used longitudinal framing in the citadel, but transverse framing for the structure fore and aft of the citadel. The metacentric height was for the 305 mm gunned ships, but dropped to in the 380 mm gunned ships. The tactical diameter was estimated at about . The Kronshtadt-class ships were provided with two KOR-2 flying boats which would be launched by the catapult mounted between the funnels. Propulsion The power plant was laid out on a unit system. The forward boiler room contained eight boilers and was followed by an engine room for the two wing propeller shafts. The second boiler room contained four boilers and was followed by a turbine room for the central shaft. The single-reduction, impulse-reduction geared steam turbines were an imported Brown Boveri design shared with the , but the factory in Kharkiv that was to build them never finished a single turbine before the Germans invaded. They produced a total of . Twelve 7u-bis water-tube boilers worked at a pressure of and temperature of . There were two other small boilers for harbor service and to power the auxiliary machinery. The electrical plant originally consisted of four 1200 kW turbo generators and four 650 kW diesel generators, but these were upgraded for the Project 69-I ships. Maximum speed was estimated at , using the revised propeller design, although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot. The normal fuel oil capacity was , which provided an estimated endurance of at full speed. Maximum fuel capacity was which gave a range of at and at . Armament The main armament was initially going to consist of three electrically powered triple-gun turrets, each with three 54-caliber 305 mm B-50 guns. The turrets were based on the MK-2 turrets planned for the Project 25 large cruiser. The guns could be depressed to −3° and elevated to 45°. They had a fixed loading angle of 6° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to relay the gun. It ranged from 2.36 to 3.24 rounds per minute depending on the elevation. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 10 degrees per second and traverse at 5.1 degrees per second. 100 rounds per gun were carried. The gun fired armor-piercing projectiles at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of . The secondary armament consisted of eight 57-caliber B-38 152 mm guns mounted in four twin-gun turrets concentrated at the forward end of the superstructure. The forward turrets were inboard and above the outer turrets which provided both turrets with good arcs of fire. Their elevation limits were -5° to +45° with a fixed loading angle of 8°. Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7.5 to 4.8 rounds per minute. The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second. They had a maximum range of with a shell at a muzzle velocity of . Heavy anti-aircraft (AA) fire was provided by eight 56-caliber 100 mm B-34 dual-purpose guns in four twin turrets mounted at the aft end of the superstructure with the aft turrets mounted inboard of the forward turrets. They could elevate to a maximum of 85° and depress to -8°. They could traverse at a rate of 12° per second and elevate at 10° per second. They fired high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of ; this provided a maximum range of against surface targets, but their maximum ceiling against aerial targets was . Light AA defense was handled by six quadruple, water-cooled mounts fitted with 70-K guns. Two mounts were abreast the forward funnel, two just abaft the rear funnel and the last two on the centerline of the aft superstructure superfiring over the rear main-gun turret. Initially seven mounts were planned, but the one above the conning tower was exchanged for a director for the 100 mm guns in early 1940 when the Navy realized that the other directors were blocked by the superstructure. The guns fired shells at a muzzle velocity of . Their maximum range was . The Germans sold the Soviets twelve 52-caliber SKC/34 guns and their associated Drh LC/34 turrets as part of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact. Their elevation range was -5.5° to +30° with a fixed loading angle of 2.5°. Their rate of fire was 2.3 rounds per minute. The guns had a maximum range of with an shell at a muzzle velocity of . Fire control Two KDP-8-III fire-control directors were used to control the main armament. These had two stereoscopic rangefinders, one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship's own shell splashes. Two of these were protected by of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower-mast. Two KDP-4t-II directors, with two rangefinders each, controlled the secondary armament. The dual-purpose guns were controlled by two, later three, stabilized directors, each with a rangefinder. Protection The ships had relatively light armor. The main belt was thick, with a taper to the lower edge, and inclined outwards six degrees. It was high of which was intended to be submerged as originally designed. The belt was long and covered 76.8 percent of the waterline; forward of this was a 20 mm belt that extended all the way to the bow. The forward transverse bulkhead was 330 mm thick while the rear bulkhead was thick. The upper deck was only thick and was intended to initiate shell and bomb fuzes. The main armor deck, which was even with the top of the waterline belt, was thick and a splinter deck was underneath it, although it tapered to in thickness over the torpedo protection system. The underwater protection was an American-style design with a bulge and four longitudinal bulkheads intended to withstand a warhead of TNT. It covered 61.5% of the ship's length and had a total depth of , that reduced to forward and aft where the hull lines became finer. The main turrets had 305 mm faces and backs and sides and roofs. Their barbettes were protected with 330 mm of armor. The secondary turrets had 100 mm faces with sides and roofs and barbettes. The dual-purpose mountings had 50 mm armor with barbettes. The conning tower had 330 mm sides and a 125 mm roof with a 230 mm communications tube running down to the armor deck. The admiral's bridge was protected with 50 mm armor. Each of the directors had 14 mm of armor as did the 37 mm gun mounts. The funnels had 20 mm armor for their entire height above the deck and a 50 mm box protected the smoke generators. Construction The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of the four Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships as well as the two Kronshtadt-class battlecruisers at the same time. The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the s and even they had suffered from a number of production problems, but the Soviet leadership preferred to ignore the industrial difficulties when making their plans. The shipyards in Leningrad and Nikolayev had less than half the workers intended. Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1939–1940 and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications. An attempt to import of steel and armor plate from the United States in 1939 failed, probably as a result of the Soviet invasion of Poland on 17 September 1939. Armor plate production was even more problematic as only were delivered in 1940 of the anticipated and 30–40% of that was rejected. Furthermore, the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm and inferior face-hardened plates had to be substituted for all thicknesses over . Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943–44. The Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941. Another problem were the 305 mm guns and turrets as the armament factories were focused on the higher-priority guns for the Sovetsky Soyuz-class battleships. Prototypes of neither had been completed by the time the Germans invaded. The situation was not much better for the smaller guns as mountings for both the 152 mm and 100 mm guns were still incomplete on 22 June 1941 and all of these programs were terminated quickly afterwards. Ships The ships were originally intended to be laid down 1 September 1939, but they were delayed until November to allow improvements to the shipyards to be completed. A total of sixteen ships were planned in the August 1939 building program, but this was scaled back to four in July 1940 and two in October 1940 when it became clear just how unprepared the Soviets were for any large-scale naval construction program. Work on these ships ceased shortly after the German invasion. Kronshtadt Kronshtadt () was built by the Shipyard No. 194, Marti in Leningrad. She was laid down 30 November 1939 and judged 10.6% complete when the Germans invaded. Her building slip was too short for her entire length so her stern was built separately. Some of her material was used during the siege of Leningrad to repair other ships and in defensive works, but she could have been finished after the end of the war. Proposals were made to complete her as an aircraft carrier and as a base ship for a whaling flotilla, but both ideas were rejected and she was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947. Her dismantling began shortly afterwards and was completed the following year. Sevastopol Sevastopol () was built by Shipyard No. 200, 61 Communards in Nikolayev. She was laid down on 5 November 1939 and estimated as 11.6% complete on 22 June 1941. She was captured by the Germans when they occupied Nikolayev in late 1941, but the Germans did little with her other than to use some of her material for defensive positions and some was apparently shipped to Germany. Before the Germans evacuated the city they damaged her building slip and hull with explosives and made her a constructive total loss. She was ordered scrapped on 24 March 1947 and her dismantling began shortly afterwards. It was completed in 1948. See also List of ships of the Soviet Navy List of ships of Russia by project number References Bibliography External links Short article Battlecruiser classes Abandoned military projects of the Soviet Union
5168803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sturm%20und%20Drang	Sturm und Drang	Sturm und Drang (, ; usually translated as "storm and stress") was a proto-Romantic movement in German literature and music that occurred between the late 1760s and early 1780s. Within the movement, individual subjectivity and, in particular, extremes of emotion were given free expression in reaction to the perceived constraints of rationalism imposed by the Enlightenment and associated aesthetic movements. The period is named after Friedrich Maximilian Klinger's play of the same name, which was first performed by Abel Seyler's famed theatrical company in 1777. The philosopher Johann Georg Hamann is associated with Sturm und Drang; other significant figures were Johann Anton Leisewitz, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, H. L. Wagner, and Friedrich Maximilian Klinger. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Friedrich Schiller were notable proponents of the movement early in their lives, although they ended their period of association with it by initiating what would become Weimar Classicism. History Counter-Enlightenment French neoclassicism (including French neoclassical theatre), a movement beginning in the early Baroque, with its emphasis on the rational, was the principal target of rebellion for adherents of the Sturm und Drang movement. For them, sentimentality and an objective view of life gave way to emotional turbulence and individuality, and enlightenment ideals such as rationalism, empiricism, and universalism no longer captured the human condition; emotional extremes and subjectivity became the vogue during the late 18th century. Etymology The term Sturm und Drang first appeared as the title of a play by Friedrich Maximilian Klinger, written for Abel Seyler's Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft and published in 1776. The setting of the play is the unfolding American Revolution, in which the author gives violent expression to difficult emotions and extols individuality and subjectivity over the prevailing order of rationalism. Though it is argued that literature and music associated with Sturm und Drang predate this seminal work, it was from this point that German artists became distinctly self-conscious of a new aesthetic. This seemingly spontaneous movement became associated with a wide array of German authors and composers of the mid-to-late Classical period. Sturm und Drang came to be associated with literature or music aimed at shocking the audience or imbuing them with extremes of emotion. The movement soon gave way to Weimar Classicism and early Romanticism, whereupon a socio-political concern for greater human freedom from despotism was incorporated along with a religious treatment of all things natural. There is much debate regarding whose work should or should not be included in the canon of Sturm und Drang. One point of view would limit the movement to Goethe, Johann Gottfried Herder, Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz, and their direct German associates writing works of fiction and/or philosophy between 1770 and the early 1780s. The alternative perspective is that of a literary movement inextricably linked to simultaneous developments in prose, poetry, and drama, extending its direct influence throughout the German-speaking lands until the end of the 18th century. Nevertheless, the originators of the movement came to view it as a time of premature exuberance that was then abandoned in favor of often conflicting artistic pursuits. Related aesthetic and philosophical movements As a precursor to Sturm und Drang, the literary topos of the Kraftmensch existed among dramatists beginning with F.M. Klinger. Its expression is seen in the radical degree to which individuality need appeal to no outside authority save the self nor be tempered by rationalism. These ideals are identical to those of Sturm und Drang, and it can be argued that the later name exists to catalog a number of parallel, co-influential movements in German literature rather than express anything substantially different from what German dramatists were achieving in the violent plays attributed to the Kraftmensch movement. Major philosophical/theoretical influences on the literary Sturm und Drang movement were Johann Georg Hamann (especially the 1762 text Aesthetica in nuce. Eine Rhapsodie in kabbalistischer Prose) and Johann Gottfried Herder, both from Königsberg, and both formerly in contact with Immanuel Kant. Significant theoretical statements of Sturm und Drang aesthetics by the movement's central dramatists themselves include Lenz' Anmerkungen übers Theater and Goethe's Von deutscher Baukunst and Zum Schäkespears Tag (sic). The most important contemporary document was the 1773 volume Von deutscher Art und Kunst. Einige fliegende Blätter, a collection of essays that included commentaries by Herder on Ossian and Shakespeare, along with contributions by Goethe, Paolo Frisi (in translation from the Italian), and Justus Möser. In literature Characteristics The protagonist in a typical Sturm und Drang stage work, poem, or novel is driven to action—often violent action—not by pursuit of noble means nor by true motives, but by revenge and greed. Goethe's unfinished Prometheus exemplifies this along with the common ambiguity provided by juxtaposing humanistic platitudes with outbursts of irrationality. The literature of Sturm und Drang features an anti-aristocratic slant while seeking to elevate all things humble, natural, or intensely real (especially whatever is painful, tormenting, or frightening). The story of hopeless love and eventual suicide presented in Goethe's sentimental novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774) is an example of the author's tempered introspection regarding his love and torment. Friedrich Schiller's drama, Die Räuber (1781), provided the groundwork for melodrama to become a recognized dramatic form. The plot portrays a conflict between two aristocratic brothers, Franz and Karl Moor. Franz is cast as a villain attempting to cheat Karl out of his inheritance, though the motives for his action are complex and initiate a thorough investigation of good and evil. Both of these works are seminal examples of Sturm und Drang in German literature. The absence or exclusion of women writers from accounts of Sturm und Drang can be taken as a consequence of the movement's and the period's masculinist ethos or as a failure of more recent literary criticism to engage with literary works by women--such as Marianne Ehrmann--that might merit inclusion. Notable literary works Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832): Zum Shakespears Tag (1771) Sesenheimer Lieder (1770–1771) Prometheus (1772–1774) Götz von Berlichingen (1773) Clavigo (1774) Die Leiden des jungen Werthers (1774) Mahomets Gesang (1774) Adler und Taube (1774) An Schwager Kronos (1774) Gedichte der Straßburger und Frankfurter Zeit (1775) Stella. Ein Schauspiel für Liebende (1776) Die Geschwister (1776) Friedrich Schiller (1759–1805): Die Räuber (1781) Die Verschwörung des Fiesko zu Genua (1783) Kabale und Liebe (1784) An die Freude (1785) Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz (1751–1792) Anmerkung über das Theater nebst angehängtem übersetzten Stück Shakespeares (1774) Der Hofmeister oder Vorteile der Privaterziehung (1774) Lustspiele nach dem Plautus fürs deutsche Theater (1774) Die Soldaten (1776) Friedrich Maximilian Klinger (1752–1831): Das leidende Weib (1775) Sturm und Drang (1776) Die Zwillinge (1776) Simsone Grisaldo (1776) Gottfried August Bürger (1747–1794): Lenore (1773) Gedichte (1778) Wunderbare Reisen zu Wasser und zu Lande, Feldzüge und lustige Abenteuer des Freiherren von Münchhausen (1786) Heinrich Wilhelm von Gerstenberg (1737–1823): Gedichte eines Skalden (1766) Briefe über Merkwürdigkeiten der Literatur (1766–67) Ugolino (1768) Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788): Sokratische Denkwürdigkeiten für die lange Weile des Publikums zusammengetragen von einem Liebhaber der langen Weile (1759) Kreuzzüge des Philologen (1762) Johann Jakob Wilhelm Heinse (1746–1803): Ardinghello und die glückseligen Inseln (1787) Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803): Fragmente über die neuere deutsche Literatur (1767–1768) Kritische Wälder oder Betrachtungen, die Wissenschaft und Kunst des Schönen betreffend, nach Maßgabe neuerer Schriften (1769) Journal meiner Reise im Jahre (1769) Abhandlung über den Ursprung der Sprache (1770) Von deutscher Art und Kunst, einige fliegende Blätter (1773) Volkslieder (1778–79) Vom Geist der Hebräischen Poesie (1782–1783) Ideen zur Philosophie der Geschichte der Menschheit (1784–1791) In music The Classical period music (1750–1800) associated with Sturm und Drang is predominantly written in a minor key to convey difficult or depressing sentiments. The principal themes tend to be angular, with large leaps and unpredictable melodic contours. Tempos and dynamics change rapidly and unpredictably in order to reflect strong changes of emotion. Pulsing rhythms and syncopation are common, as are racing lines in the soprano or alto registers. Writing for string instruments features tremolo and sudden, dramatic dynamic changes and accents. History Musical theater became the meeting place of the literary and musical strands of Sturm und Drang, with the aim of increasing emotional expression in opera. The obligato recitative is a prime example. Here, orchestral accompaniment provides an intense underlay of vivid tone-painting to the solo recitative. Christoph Willibald Gluck's 1761 ballet, Don Juan, heralded the emergence of Sturm und Drang in music; the program notes explicitly indicated that the D minor finale was to evoke fear in the listener. Jean Jacques Rousseau's 1762 play, Pygmalion (first performed in 1770) is a similarly important bridge in its use of underlying instrumental music to convey the mood of the spoken drama. The first example of melodrama, Pygmalion influenced Goethe and other important German literary figures. Nevertheless, relative to the influence of Sturm und Drang on literature, the influence on musical composition was limited, and many efforts to label music as conforming to this trend are tenuous at best. Vienna, the center of German/Austrian music, was a cosmopolitan city with an international culture; therefore, melodically innovative and expressive works in minor keys by Haydn or Mozart from this period should generally be considered first in the broader context of musical developments taking place throughout Europe. The clearest musical connections to the self-styled Sturm und Drang movement can be found in opera and the early predecessors of program music, such as Haydn's Farewell Symphony. Beethoven, Weber, and even Schubert have elements of Sturm und Drang. Haydn A Sturm und Drang period is often attributed to the works of the Austrian composer Joseph Haydn from the late 1760s to early 1770s. Works during this period often feature a newly impassioned or agitated element; however, Haydn never mentions Sturm und Drang as a motivation for his new compositional style, and there remains an overarching adherence to classical form and motivic unity. Though Haydn may not have been consciously affirming the anti-rational ideals of Sturm und Drang, one can certainly perceive the influence of contemporary trends in musical theatre on his instrumental works during this period. Mozart Mozart's Symphony No. 25 (the "Little" G-minor symphony, 1773) is one of only two minor-key symphonies by the composer. Beyond the atypical key, the symphony features rhythmic syncopation along with the jagged themes associated with Sturm und Drang. More interesting is the emancipation of the wind instruments in this piece, with the violins yielding to colorful bursts from the oboe and flute. However, it is likely the influence of numerous minor-key works by the Czech composer Johann Baptist Wanhal (a Viennese contemporary and acquaintance of Mozart), rather than a self-conscious adherence to a German literary movement, which is responsible for the harmonic and melodic experiments in the Symphony no. 25. Notable composers and works Carl Philipp Emanuel Bach Symphonies, keyboard concertos and sonatas including Symphony in E minor Wq. 178 (1757–62) Johann Christian Bach Symphony in G minor Op. 6 No. 6 Johann Christoph Friedrich Bach Oratorio Die Auferweckung des Lazarus Cantata Cassandra Wilhelm Friedemann Bach Adagio und Fuge in D minor Falk 65 Joseph Haydn Symphony No. 39 in G minor (1767) Symphony No. 49 in F minor La Passione (1768) Symphony No. 26 in D minor Lamentatione (1769) Symphony No. 52 in C minor (1771) Symphony No. 44 in E minor Trauer (Mourning) (1772) Symphony No. 45 in F sharp minor Farewell (1772) String Quartet No. 11 in D minor, Op. 9 No. 4 (1769) String Quartet No. 19 in C minor, Op. 17 No. 4 (1771) String Quartet No. 23 in F minor, Op. 20 No. 5 (1772) String Quartet No. 26 in G minor, Op. 20 No. 3 (1772) Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/47 in E minor (1765-67) Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/20 in C minor (1771) Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/44 in G minor (1771-73) Piano Sonata Hob. XVI/32 in B minor (1774-76) Joseph Martin Kraus Symphony in C minor Symphonie funebre Symphony in C-sharp minor Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Symphony No. 25 in G minor, K. 183 (1773) String Quartet No. 13 in D minor, K. 173 (1773) Violin Sonata No. 21 in E minor, K. 304 (1778) Piano Sonata No. 8 in A minor, K. 310 (1778) Johann Gottfried Müthel Works for keyboard Johann Baptist Wanhal Symphony in D minor (Bryan d1) Symphony in G minor (Bryan g1) Symphony in A minor (Bryan a2) Symphony in E minor (Bryan e1) Ernst Wilhelm Wolf Works for keyboard In visual art The parallel movement in the visual arts can be witnessed in paintings of storms and shipwrecks showing the terror and irrational destruction wrought by nature. These pre-romantic works were fashionable in Germany from the 1760s on through the 1780s, illustrating a public audience for emotionally provocative artwork. Additionally, disturbing visions and portrayals of nightmares were gaining an audience in Germany as evidenced by Goethe's possession and admiration of paintings by Fuseli capable of "giving the viewer a good fright." Notable artists included Joseph Vernet, Caspar Wolf, Philip James de Loutherbourg, and Henry Fuseli. In theatre The Sturm und Drang movement did not last long; according to Betty Waterhouse it began in 1771 and ended in 1778 (Waterhouse v). The rise of the middle class in the 18th century led to a change in the way society and social standings were looked at. Dramatists and writers saw the stage as a venue for critique and discussion of societal issues. French writer Louis-Sébastien Mercier suggested that drama be used to promote political ideas, a concept that would develop many years later. After the Seven Years' War, which ended in 1763, German spirit was extremely high and Germans felt a sense of importance on a grander stage. The aristocracy gained power as the ruling class, furthering the divide and increasing tensions between the classes (Liedner viii). With these new ideals came the sense that a new form of art capable of dethroning the extremely popular French neoclassicism was needed. Johann Georg Hamann, a noted German philosopher and a major promoter of the Sturm und Drang movement, “defended the native culture of the Volk and maintained that language, the root of all our experience, was richer in images and more powerful prior to the ‘abstract’ eighteenth century” (Liedner viii). Germany did not have a common state entity; instead, the nation was broken into hundreds of small states. The Sturm und Drang movement was a reaction to this lack of political unity for the German people and often dealt with the idea of living life on a smaller scale and the desire to become a part of something bigger. The Sturm und Drang movement also paid a lot of attention to the language of a piece of literature. It is no wonder that Shakespeare, with his brilliant use of language, originality with complex plot lines and subplots, and multifaceted characters from all social classes, was seen as a model for German writers (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Many writers of the Sturm und Drang movement considered themselves to be challengers of the Enlightenment. However, the movement is actually a continuation of the Enlightenment. Many Sturm und Drang plays showed interest in how society affects the individual, a common theme in many Enlightenment plays as well. However, Sturm und Drang “makes its own distinctive contribution to 18th-century culture, bringing attention to the power of the environment as well as to the contradictory and self-defeating attitudes present in every segment of society” (Liedner ix). Far before its time, the divergent style of Sturm und Drang shrewdly explored depression and violence with an open plot structure (Liedner ix). The Sturm und Drang movement rebelled against all the rules of neoclassicism and the enlightenment, first recognized Shakespeare as a “genius” of dramaturgy, and provided the foundation for 19th-century romanticism. Writers such as Heinrich Leopold Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller used episodic structure, violence, and mixed genres to comment on societal rules and morals, while doubting that anything would change. The Sturm und Drang movement was brief, but it set a fire that still burns intensely today. Six main playwrights initiated and popularized the Sturm und Drang movement: Leisewitz, Wagner, Goethe, Lenz, Klinger, and Schiller. The theatre director Abel Seyler, the owner of the Seylersche Schauspiel-Gesellschaft, had an important role in promoting the Sturm und Drang poets. Johann Anton Leisewitz Johann Anton Leisewitz was born in Hanover in 1752 and studied law. He is remembered for his single complete play, Julius of Taranto (1776), which is considered the forerunner of Schiller's work The Robbers (1781). He was married to Sophie Seyler, the daughter of theatre director Abel Seyler. Wagner Heinrich Leopold Wagner was born in Strasbourg on February 19, 1747. He studied law and was a member of the literary group surrounding Johann Daniel Salzmann. He was a dramatist, producer, translator, and lawyer for the traveling Abel Seyler theatre company. Wagner was best known for his two plays, Die Reue nach der Tat (“The Remorse After the Deed”) in 1775 and Die Kindermorderin (“The Childmurderess”) in 1776. Child murder was a very popular topic in the 18th century and all of the major Sturm und Drang writers used it as a subject in their writings (Waterhouse 97). Die Kindermorderin was one of the most traditional plays of the Sturm und Drang. Although sharing aspects of neoclassical plays, such as a fairly simple plot and very few changes in the setting, it breaks away from the neoclassical idea that the protagonist must be of noble descent. Instead, this play shows how the aristocracy disrupts the lives of middle class characters (Liedner xii). This play also uses a vast array of colorful language to demonstrate the variety of characters and their social statuses. Another common theme seen in Die Kindermorderin is the idea of society hindering change. Groningseck, a lieutenant, seems to be willing to look past social norms and break down walls between the classes, but a fellow officer, Hasenpoth, betrays him (Liedner xii). Goethe Johann Wolfgang von Goethe was born in August 1749, in Frankfurt. He wrote his first important play, Götz von Berlichingen in 1773, in Shakespearean style, a defining characteristic of the Sturm und Drang movement (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Shakespeare was considered a genius among German playwrights, and was idolized for his “shattering of the dramatic unities of time, place and action; and his sharply individualized, emotionally complex characters” (Waterhouse v). Goethe was well known for his staging as well as his long dramatic poem Faust (Goethe's Faust) (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). Goethe was the director of theatre at the Weimar Theatre where he eventually ran the entire company. He went to Italy for two years to collect himself and while there discovered the beauty of the Greek and Roman ruins. After this trip he returned with interest in classical ideas and writing, and a new form of writing emerged called Weimar Classicism. Lenz Jakob Michael Reinhold Lenz was born in Sesswegen, now Latvia, on the January 23, 1751. He studied theology and philosophy at the University of Konigsberg. His first poem, Die Landplagen (“Torments of the Land”), emerged in 1769. He went on to write “Notes on the Theatre”, The New Menoza and Der Hofmeister (“The Tutor”) in 1774, Pandemonium Germanicum in 1775, and Die Soldaten (“The Soldiers”) in 1776 (Liedner xi). Lenz took Aristotle’s popular idea of plot being more important than character and reversed it, as well as reclassified the distinctions between comedy and tragedy. In Lenz’s works, tragedies feature characters that make decisions that cause events, and in comedies a resolute milieu pushes and pulls the character through events (Liedner xi). The Soldiers is most likely Lenz’s most distinct example of Sturm und Drang literature. It centers on an idea of degradation of civilians by soldiers, but more specifically the seduction and abuse of young women by soldiers. Illustrating an undesirable, conflicted character with no power over her situation who does whatever she can to get through her current state, The Soldiers displays a “well-observed world where one’s identity is fluid – and hopelessly entangled in the social and linguistic environment” (Liedner xi). This idea of feeling unable to change one's situation is typical of many Sturm und Drang plays. Lenz's use of reserved dialogue, open form, violence, and a combination of comedy and tragedy precursors the works of contemporary authors such as Friedrich Dürrenmatt and Bertolt Brecht (Waterhouse v). Klinger Friedrich Maximilian Klinger was born in Frankfurt on February 17, 1752. He was born into a humble family and struggled financially after the death of his father. He studied law at Giessen with the financial help of Goethe’s family. He also worked with the Abel Seyler troupe for a year and a half (Pascal 132). Although famous for his Sturm und Drang style plays, many of his earlier plays were very classical in style. Some of Klinger’s works include Die Zwillinge (1776), Die neue Arria (1776), Simsone Grisaldo (1776), and Stilpo und seine Kinder (1780). Klinger’s most famous play, Sturm und Drang (1776), is the seminal piece of literature associated with the Sturm und Drang epoch. Strangely, the play is set in revolutionary America, not Germany. We see allusions to Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet through the feuds of the households, as well as All's Well That Ends Well in some of the character’s names (Liedner xiii). Klinger utilized a defining characteristic of Sturm und Drang when he mixed aspects of comedy and tragedy throughout the play, stating “ the deepest tragic emotion continually alternates with laughter and joviality" (Liedner xiii). Schiller Friedrich Schiller was born in Marbach on November 10, 1759. He studied medicine at Karlsschule Stuttgart, a prestigious military academy founded by the Duke of Württemberg. He developed a strong relationship with Goethe, one of the most influential writers of the time (Wilson and Goldfarb 287). They were particularly interested in questions concerning aesthetics. This relationship led to an epoch known as Weimar Classicism, a style that integrates classical, romantic and enlightenment ideals (Leidner xiv). Following Schiller's plays Die Räuber ("The Robbers") and Kabale und Liebe ("Intrigue and Love"), he went on to become a major poet as well as to write famous essays and Weimar Classical drama (Leidner xiv). Die Räuber tells the story of two brothers, the younger of which is infuriated by how society favors the first-born child and he acts on his feelings without any regard to societal rules or social standing. In act five, his views on God “represent the most blasphemous attack on religion in German literature up to that time… [and] is a masterful work of social dynamics that takes deep German patterns of sensibility into account” (Leidner xiv). See also Antihero/antiheroine Jena Romanticism Gotthold Ephraim Lessing — his opinions influenced the theatre practitioners who began the movement of Sturm und Drang Notes References Baldick, Chris. (1990) The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Literary Terms. Oxford: Oxford University. Brown, A. Peter. (Spring, 1992). The Journal of Musicology, Vol. 10, No. 2. pp. 192–230. Buschmeier, Matthias; Kauffmann, Kai (2010) Einführung in die Literatur des Sturm und Drang und der Weimarer Klassik. Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. Heartz, Daniel and Bruce Alan Brown. (Accessed 21 March 2007). Sturm und Drang, Grove Music Online, "http://www.grovemusic.com/shared/views/article.html?section=music.27035" Heckscher, William S. (1966–1967) Simiolus: Netherlands Quarterly for the History of Art, Vol. 1, No. 2. pp. 94–105. Leidner, Alan. (March 1989). C. PMLA, Vol. 104, No. 2, pp. 178–189. Leidner, Alan C. Sturm Und Drang: The German Library. 14. New York: The Continuum Publishing Company, 1992. Print. Pascal, Roy. (April 1952). The Modern Language Review, Vol. 47, No. 2. pp. 129–151. Preminger, Alex; Brogan, T. V. F. (eds.). (1993) The New Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry and Poetics. Princeton: Princeton University. Waterhouse, Betty. Five Plays of the Sturm und Drang. London: University Press of America, Inc, 1986. v. Print. Wilson, Edwin, and Alvin Goldfarb, comp. Living Theatre: History of Theatre. 6th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2012. Print. Wright, Craig and Bryan Simms. (2006). Music in Western Civilization. Belmont: Thomson Schirmer. External links BBC audio file. Radio 4 discussion programme In our time. Sturm und Drang. The Columbia Encyclopedia Sturm und Drang. Literary Encyclopedia German philosophy Early Modern history of Germany Romanticism Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 18th-century theatre 18th-century German literature German words and phrases Quotations from literature 1770s neologisms Criticism of rationalism
5168923	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Render%20unto%20Caesar	Render unto Caesar	"Render unto Caesar" is the beginning of a phrase attributed to Jesus in the synoptic gospels, which reads in full, "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's" (). This phrase has become a widely quoted summary of the relationship between Christianity, secular government, and society. The original message, coming in response to a question of whether it was lawful for Jews to pay taxes to Caesar, gives rise to multiple possible interpretations about the circumstances under which it is desirable for Christians to submit to earthly authority. Narrative All three synoptic gospels state that hostile questioners tried to trap Jesus into taking an explicit and dangerous stand on whether Jews should or should not pay taxes to the Roman authorities. The accounts in and say that the questioners were Pharisees and Herodians, while says only that they were "spies" sent by "teachers of the law and the chief priests". They anticipated that Jesus would oppose the tax, as their purpose was "to hand him over to the power and authority of the governor". The governor was Pilate, and he was the man responsible for the collecting of taxes in Roman Judea. Initially the questioners flattered Jesus by praising his integrity, impartiality, and devotion to truth. Then they asked him whether or not it is right for Jews to pay the taxes demanded by Caesar. In the Gospel of Mark the additional, provocative question is asked, "Should we pay or shouldn't we?" Jesus first called them hypocrites, and then asked one of them to produce a Roman coin that would be suitable for paying Caesar's tax. One of them showed him a Roman coin, and he asked them whose head and inscription were on it. They answered, "Caesar's," and he responded: "Render therefore unto Caesar the things which are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". The questioners were impressed. states that they "marvelled" (); unable to trap him any further, and being satisfied with the answer, they went away. A similar episode occurs in the apocryphal Gospel of Thomas (verse 100), but there the coin in question is gold. Importantly, in this non-canon gospel, Jesus adds, "and give me what is mine." The same episode occurs in a fragment of the also apocryphal Egerton Gospel: Jesus is asked whether it is right to pay taxes to the rulers (i.e. the Romans), to which he becomes indignant and criticizes the questioners by quoting the Book of Isaiah; the fragment is interrupted immediately after that. Historical context The coin The text identifies the coin as a , and it is usually thought that the coin was a Roman denarius with the head of Tiberius. The coin is also called the "tribute penny." The inscription reads "Ti[berivs] Caesar Divi Avg[vsti] F[ilivs] Avgvstvs" ("Caesar Augustus Tiberius, son of the Divine Augustus"). The reverse shows a seated female, usually identified as Livia depicted as Pax. However, it has been suggested that denarii were not in common circulation in Judaea during Jesus' lifetime and that the coin may have instead been an Antiochan tetradrachm bearing the head of Tiberius, with Augustus on the reverse. Another suggestion often made is the denarius of Augustus with Caius and Lucius on the reverse, while coins of Julius Caesar, Mark Antony, and Germanicus are all considered possibilities. Tax resistance in Judaea The taxes imposed on Judaea by Rome had led to riots. New Testament scholar Willard Swartley writes: The tax denoted in the text was a specific tax… It was a poll tax, a tax instituted in A.D. 6. A census taken at that time (cf. Lk. 2:2) to determine the resources of the Jews provoked the wrath of the country. Judas of Galilee led a revolt (Acts 5:37), which was suppressed only with some difficulty. Many scholars date the origin of the Zealot party and movement to this incident. The Jewish Encyclopedia says of the Zealots: When, in the year 5, Judas of Gamala in Galilee started his organized opposition to Rome, he was joined by one of the leaders of the Pharisees, R. Zadok, a disciple of Shammai and one of the fiery patriots and popular heroes who lived to witness the tragic end of Jerusalem… The taking of the census by Quirinus, the Roman procurator, for the purpose of taxation was regarded as a sign of Roman enslavement; and the Zealots' call for stubborn resistance to the oppressor was responded to enthusiastically. At his trial before Pontius Pilate, Jesus was accused of promoting resistance to Caesar's tax. Then the whole company of them arose and brought him before Pilate. And they began to accuse him, saying, "We found this man misleading our nation and forbidding us to give tribute to Caesar, and saying that he himself is Christ, a king." () Interpretations The passage has been much discussed in the modern context of Christianity and politics, especially on the questions of separation of church and state and tax resistance. Foreshadowing When Jesus later was crucified, he was in a sense rendering unto Caesar the body that belonged to Caesar's (human, earthly) realm, while devoting his soul to God. Augustine of Hippo suggested this interpretation in his Confessions, where he writes He himself, the only-begotten, was created to be wisdom and justice and holiness for us, and he was counted among us, and he paid the reckoning, the tribute to Caesar. Separation of church and state Jesus responds to Pontius Pilate about the nature of his kingdom: "My kingdom is not of this world. If my kingdom were of this world, my servants would have been fighting, that I might not be delivered over to the Jews. But now (or 'as it is') my kingdom is not from the world" (); i.e., his religious teachings were separate from earthly political activity. This reflects a traditional division in Christian thought by which state and church have separate spheres of influence. This can be interpreted either a Catholic, or Thomist, way (Gelasian doctrine) or a Protestant, or Lockean, way (separation of church and state). Tertullian, in De Idololatria, interprets Jesus as saying to render "the image of Caesar, which is on the coin, to Caesar, and the image of God, which is on man, to God; so as to render to Caesar indeed money, to God yourself. Otherwise, what will be God's, if all things are Caesar's?" Theonomic answer H.B. Clark writes, "It is a doctrine of both Mosaic and Christian law that governments are divinely ordained and derive their powers from God. In the Old Testament it is asserted that 'power belongeth unto God,' () that God 'removeth kings and setteth up kings,' () and that 'the Most High ruleth in the kingdom of men, and giveth it to whomever He will' (). Similarly, in the New Testament, it is stated that '...there is no power but of God, the powers that be are ordained of God' ()." R. J. Rushdoony expands, "In early America, there was no question, whatever the form of civil government, that all legitimate authority is derived from God... Under a biblical doctrine of authority, because 'the powers that be are ordained of God (), all authority, whether in the home, school, state, church, or any other sphere, is subordinate authority and is under God and subject to His word.' This means, first, that all obedience is subject to the prior obedience to God and his Word, for 'We ought to obey God rather than men' (; ). Although civil obedience is commanded, it is equally apparent that the prior requirement of obedience to God must prevail." Justification for following laws Some read the phrase "Render unto Caesar that which is Caesar's" as unambiguous at least to the extent that it commands people to respect state authority and to pay the taxes it demands of them. Paul the Apostle also states in that Christians are obliged to obey all earthly authorities, stating that as they were introduced by God, disobedience to them equates to disobedience to God. In this interpretation, Jesus asked his interrogators to produce a coin in order to demonstrate to them that by using his coinage they had already admitted the de facto rule of the emperor, and that therefore they should submit to that rule. Respecting obligations when enjoying advantages Some see the parable as being Jesus' message to people that if they enjoy the advantages of a state such as Caesar's, as distinct from God's authority (for instance, by using its legal tender), they can't subsequently choose to ignore the laws of such a state. Henry David Thoreau writes in Civil Disobedience: Christ answered the Herodians according to their condition. "Show me the tribute-money," said he; – and one took a penny out of his pocket; – If you use money which has the image of Caesar on it, and which he has made current and valuable, that is, if you are men of the State, and gladly enjoy the advantages of Caesar's government, then pay him back some of his own when he demands it; "Render therefore to Caesar that which is Caesar's and to God those things which are God's" – leaving them no wiser than before as to which was which; for they did not wish to know. Mennonite Dale Glass-Hess wrote: It is inconceivable to me that Jesus would teach that some spheres of human activity lie outside the authority of God. Are we to heed Caesar when he says to go to war or support war-making when Jesus says in other places that we shall not kill? No! My perception of this incident is that Jesus does not answer the question about the morality of paying taxes to Caesar, but that he throws it back on the people to decide. When the Jews produce a denarius at Jesus' request, they demonstrate that they are already doing business with Caesar on Caesar's terms. I read Jesus' statement, "Give to Caesar…" as meaning "Have you incurred a debt in regard to Caesar! Then you better pay it off." The Jews had already compromised themselves. Likewise for us: we may refuse to serve Caesar as soldiers and even try to resist paying for Caesar's army. But the fact is that by our lifestyles we've run up a debt with Caesar, who has felt constrained to defend the interests that support our lifestyles. Now he wants paid back, and it's a little late to say that we don't owe anything. We've already compromised ourselves. If we're going to play Caesar's games, then we should expect to have to pay for the pleasure of their enjoyment. But if we are determined to avoid those games, then we should be able to avoid paying for them. Mohandas K. Gandhi shared this perspective. He wrote: Jesus evaded the direct question put to him because it was a trap. He was in no way bound to answer it. He therefore asked to see the coin for taxes. And then said with withering scorn, "How can you who traffic in Caesar's coins and thus receive what to you are benefits of Caesar's rule refuse to pay taxes?" Jesus' whole preaching and practice point unmistakably to noncooperation, which necessarily includes nonpayment of taxes. Roman Catholic The German theologian Justus Knecht gives the typical pro-government, Roman Catholic, interpretation: Obedience to temporal authority. We are not only allowed, but commanded to obey the authority of the state, and to pay such taxes &c. as are a due; for the authority of the state is ordained by God to protect the lives and property of subjects. If there were no temporal authority, disorder, robbery, murder &c. would be rampant; and, therefore, as the authority of the state exists for the good of subjects, it is the duty of these last to pay those taxes &c. without which it cannot be kept up. Tax resistance Mennonite pastor John K. Stoner spoke for those who interpret the parable as permitting or even encouraging tax resistance: "We are war tax resisters because we have discovered some doubt as to what belongs to Caesar and what belongs to God, and have decided to give the benefit of the doubt to God." American Quaker war tax resistance As American Quaker war tax resistance developed during the 17th through 19th centuries, the resisters had to find a way to reconcile their tax resistance with the "Render unto Caesar" verse and other verses from the New Testament that encourage submission to the government. Here are a few examples: Around 1715, a pseudonymous author, "Philalethes," published a pamphlet entitled Tribute to Cæsar, How paid by the Best Christians... in which he argued that while Christians must pay "general" taxes, a tax that is explicitly for war purposes is the equivalent to an offering on an altar to a pagan god, and this is forbidden. In 1761, Joshua Evans put it this way: Others would term it stubbornness in me, or contrary to the doctrine of Christ, concerning rendering to Caesar his due. But as I endeavored to keep my mind in a state of humble quietude, I was favored to see through such groundless arguments; there being nothing on the subject of war, or favorable to it, to be found in that text. Although I have been willing to pay my money for the use of civil government, when legally called for; yet have I felt restrained by a conscientious motive, from paying towards the expense of killing men, women and children, or laying towns and countries waste. In 1780, Samuel Allinson circulated a letter on the subject of tax resistance, in which he insisted that what was due to Caesar was only what Caesar would not use for antichristian purposes: …the question put to our Savior on the point was with evil intention to ensnare and render him culpable to one of the great parties or sects then existing, who differed about the payment of taxes, his answer, though conclusive, was so wisely framed that it left them still in doubt, what things belonged to Cæsar and what to God, thus he avoided giving either of them offence which he must inevitably have done by a determination that tribute indefinitely was due to Cæsar. Our first and principle obedience is due to the Almighty, even in contradiction to man, "We ought to obey God rather than men" (Acts 5:29). Hence, if tribute is demanded for a use that is antichristian, it seems right for every Christian to deny it, for Cæsar can have no title to that which opposes the Lord's command. In 1862, Joshua Maule wrote that he felt that the "Render unto Caesar" instruction was compatible with war tax resistance, as there was no reason to believe for certain that the tax referred to in that episode had any connection to war: The words of Christ, "Render to Cæsar the things that are Cæsar's, and to God the things that are God's," have often been brought forward as evidence that He approved of paying all taxes; it being said, in connection, that Cæsar was then engaged in war. The distinction, however, is sufficiently clear: the things that were Cæsar's were, doubtless, those which appertain to the civil government; the things which belong to God are, surely, a clear and full obedience to His commands and to His laws. We know that all the precepts and commands of Christ which can be applied in reference to this subject are of one tendency, enjoining "peace on earth and good-will to men." We do not know, after all, however, what was the exact nature and use of the tribute collected in those days, nor what were the situation and circumstances in which Christians or others were then placed in regard to such things. Christian anarchist Christian anarchists do not interpret Matthew 22:21 as advocating support for taxes but as further advice to free oneself from material attachment. Jacques Ellul believes the passage shows that Caesar may have rights over the money that he produces, but not things that are made by God, as he explains: Ammon Hennacy interpreted Matthew 22:21 slightly differently. He was on trial for civil disobedience and was asked by the judge to reconcile his tax resistance with Jesus' instructions. "I told him Caesar was getting too much around here and some one had to stand up for God." Elsewhere, he interpreted the story in this way: Versions The extracanonical Gospel of Thomas also has a version, which reads in the Stephen Patterson and Marvin Meyer Version 100: They showed Jesus a gold coin and said to him, "The Roman emperor's people demand taxes from us." He said to them, "Give the emperor what belongs to the emperor, give God what belongs to God, and give me what is mine." The fragmentary Egerton Gospel in the Scholar's Version translation (found in The Complete Gospels) 3:1–6 reads: They come to him and interrogate him as a way of putting him to the test. They ask, "Teacher, Jesus, we know that you are [from God], since the things you do put you above all the prophets. Tell us, then, is it permissible to pay to rulers what is due them? Should we pay them or not?" Jesus knew what they were up to, and became indignant. Then he said to them, "Why do you pay me lip service as a teacher, but not [do] what I say? How accurately Isaiah prophesied about you when he said, 'This people honors me with their lips, but their heart stays far away from me; their worship of me is empty, [because they insist on teachings that are human] commandments […]' Modern references In the United States Supreme Court case of Tyler v. Hennepin County (2023), chief justice John Roberts referenced the phrase in the court's opinion regarding the Takings Clause and state property taxes. The chief justice explained the court's holding by stating that "[t]he taxpayer must render unto Caesar what is Caesar’s, but no more." See also Caesaropapism Christianity and politics Coin in the fish's mouth Doctrine of the two kingdoms Fiscus Judaicus Parables of Jesus King Canute and the tide Romans 13, another Biblical discussion of how Christians should interact with secular authorities References External links How Politicians and Messiahs Avoid Giving Straight Answers – A tax resister's point-of-view Render to All What Is Due Them: What Every Christian Needs to Know about Honoring Civil Authority and Paying Taxes, Part 2 by David G. Hagopian – advancing the argument that Jesus commanded people to pay taxes to their de facto rulers – A comprehensive analysis of everything Jesus said or did relative to taxes and tax collectors as recorded in the canon and non-canon gospels. Render Unto Caesar by R.J. Rushdoony – Christian Reconstructionist perspective. Sayings of Jesus Christian theology and politics Separation of church and state New Testament words and phrases Gospel of Matthew Christian terminology Biblical phrases Tiberius
5169001	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empress%20Dowager%20Feng	Empress Dowager Feng	Empress (Dowager) Feng (馮皇(太)后) (442 – 17 October 490), formally Empress (Dowager) Wenming (文明皇后, literally "the civil and understanding empress") was an empress of the Xianbei-led Northern Wei dynasty of China. Her husband was Emperor Wencheng. After her husband's death in 465, she overthrew the autocratic regent Yifu Hun in 466 and became regent over her stepson Emperor Xianwen and remained as such until his adulthood in 467. She subsequently had a falling-out with Emperor Xianwen (who had then become retired emperor) over his execution of her lover Li Yi (李奕), and she assassinated him and resumed regency over his son Emperor Xiaowen in 476. While Emperor Xiaowen assumed imperial powers upon adulthood, he remained very deferential to her, and she was highly influential until her death in October 490. An enduring legacy of her regency was a series of reforms that led to political recentralization for Northern Wei and future imperial dynasties. As empress The later Empress Feng was born in 442, one of the granddaughters of Feng Hong (d. 438) the last emperor of Northern Yan. Her father, the 10th son of Feng Hong, was Feng Lang (馮朗) Duke of Xicheng and a provincial governor. Her mother was Lady Wang—it is unclear whether Lady Wang was Feng Lang's wife or concubine. Feng Lang, along with his brothers Feng Chong (馮崇) and Feng Miao (馮邈), had surrendered to Northern Wei in 433, after believing that they were in danger of being killed by their stepmother, Feng Hong's wife Princess Murong. Later, Feng Lang was executed after being accused of crimes during his governorship. As Feng Lang's daughter, the later empress was seized to serve in the palace, but she was raised by her aunt, Consort Feng, a concubine of Emperor Taiwu of Northern Wei (408–452). After Taiwu's assassination, his son Emperor Wencheng became emperor in 452, she became his concubine in 455, carrying the rank of Guiren (貴人). In 456, she was created empress; this was probably after she completed, as according to Northern Wei tradition, forging a golden statue, but there was no conclusive statement that she did so. In 465, Emperor Wencheng died. He was succeeded by his 11-year-old son Tuoba Hong (454–476) the Crown Prince, as Emperor Xianweng, and Empress Feng was honored as empress dowager. Two days later, as according to Northern Wei custom, Emperor Wencheng's personal possessions were burned—and while the ceremony was conducted, Empress Feng, in sadness, jumped into the fire. She was saved by the guards. Meanwhile, political power soon fell into the hands of the official Yifu Hun, who proceeded to execute many other key officials and effectively assumed regency. As regent for Emperor Xianwen In spring 466, however, Empress Dowager Feng staged a coup, probably in association with Tuoba Pi (拓拔丕) and Jia Xiu (賈秀), and Yifu Hun was arrested and executed. She assumed regency over the young Emperor Xianwen's regime, and she engaged Jia, Gao Yun, and Gao Lü (高閭) as her assistants in the regency. Later, she also incorporated her brother Feng Xi (馮熙) into the decision-making circle. Empress Dowager Feng was soon presented with a major opportunity to expand Northern Wei territory, as also in 466, rival Liu Song had a major dynastic succession struggle after Emperor Qianfei of Liu Song was assassinated in 465. Emperor Qianfei's uncle Emperor Ming of Liu Song was declared emperor in the capital Jiankang, while his brother Liu Zixun the Prince of Jin'an was declared emperor in early 466 in Xunyang (尋陽, in modern Jiujiang, Jiangxi). After Emperor Ming's forces defeated Liu Zixun's and captured and executed Liu Zixun in fall 466, the Liu Song general Xue Andu (薛安都), the governor of Xu Province (徐州, modern northern Jiangsu and northern Anhui), who had initially declared for Liu Zixun, was apprehensive that he would be punished by Emperor Ming, and so decided to surrender to Northern Wei, and soon, he was joined by Bi Zhongjing (畢眾敬) the governor of Yan Province (兗州, modern western Shandong) and Chang Zhenqi (常珍奇) the governor of Ru'nan Commandery (汝南, roughly modern Zhumadian, Henan). Empress Dowager Feng sent the general Yuchi Yuan (尉遲元) to accept the surrenders of these Liu Song generals and to secure the region just north of the Huai River, and Yuchi subsequently defeated two attempts by Emperor Ming to recapture those provinces. She also sent the general Murong Baiyao (慕容白曜) to attack and try to capture Liu Song's Qing (青州, modern central and eastern Shandong) and Ji (冀州, modern northwestern Shandong) Provinces, which were cut off from the rest of Liu Song after Xue's defection, and by 469, both provinces fell into Northern Wei hands, and all of the regions north of the Huai River was by now Northern Wei territory. In 467, Emperor Xianwen's concubine Consort Li bore his oldest child Tuoba Hong, and Empress Dowager Feng personally raised the young prince. She soon terminated her regency and returned imperial powers to Emperor Xianwen, who was 13 years old at this point. Between regencies While Empress Dowager Feng was no longer regent, she appeared to remain fairly influential during the reign of her stepson Emperor Xianwen. However, in 470, an event occurred that would damage their relationship. Empress Dowager Feng had taken the official Li Yi (李奕) as her lover. In 470, the official Li Xin (李訢), who was a close friend of Li Yi's brother Li Fu (李敷), was accused of corruption, and Emperor Xianwen became aware of the accusations even though Li Fu tried to suppress the reports. He had known about his stepmother's relationship with Li Yi and, while he had not taken any actions against it at that point, disapproved of it. He sentenced Li Xin to death, but then informed Li Xin that if he could report on crimes that Li Fu and Li Yi had committed, he would be spared. After initial reluctance, Li Xin did so, and another man named Fan Biao (范標) also did so. Emperor Xianwen then executed Li Fu and Li Yi. Empress Dowager Feng became resentful of Emperor Xianwen after that point. In 471, Emperor Xianwen yielded the imperial title to his four-year-old son Tuoba Hong (who took the throne as Emperor Xiaowen), and he himself took the title of Taishang Huang (retired emperor). However, he continued to have actual power in the imperial government. In 476, still resentful of Emperor Xianwen, Empress Dowager Feng killed him. (Most historians, including Sima Guang, believed that she poisoned him, but another version indicated that Empress Dowager Feng readied assassins who, when Emperor Xianwen came to her palace to greet her, seized and smothered him.) Empress Dowager Feng took on the title of grand empress dowager and re-assumed regency, over the nine-year-old Emperor Xiaowen. As regent for Emperor Xiaowen Under the regent of Empress Dowager Feng, Emperor Xiaowen enacted a new land-tenure system named the equal-field system in 485, which was aimed at boosting agricultural production and tax receipts. The implementation of the equal-field system was largely due to the court's desire to break the economic power of local magnates who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages. Under this system, all land was owned by the state, and then equally distributed to taxpaying farmers. This system successfully created a stable fiscal infrastructure and a basis for universal military conscription for the Northern Wei, and continued well into the Tang dynasty. The equal-field program was coupled with another initiative, the "Three Elders" system, aimed at compiling accurate population registers so that land could be distributed accordingly. After Grand Empress Dowager Feng re-assumed regency, she was said to be more dictatorial than she was before, but intelligent in her decisions and frugal in her living. Not only was she highly literate, but she also was capable in mathematics. However, she trusted several eunuchs and permitted them to interfere in governmental matters. Further, she greatly promoted her lovers Wang Rui (王叡) and Li Chong (李沖) - both of whom were apparently talented officials, but whose promotions were beyond what their talents and contributions called for. She balanced her reputation by also promoting some honored officials who were not her lovers. Because she was concerned that she would be criticized for what was seen as immoral conduct, she punished those whom she perceived to be criticizing her or parodying her behavior with severe punishment, including death. One of her victims was Li Xin, who had contributed to her prior lover Li Yi's death, as she had Li Xin put to death in 477. Fearful that Emperor Xiaowen's mother's clan would try to take power, she falsely accused his grandfather Li Hui (李惠) the Prince of Nan Commandery of treason in 478 and had him and his clan slaughtered. She apparently accelerated the policy of Sinicization, which included social stratification, as she issued an edict in 478 requiring people to marry in their social classes. In 479, after rival Liu Song's throne was usurped by the general Xiao Daocheng, who established Southern Qi as its Emperor Gao, Northern Wei commissioned Liu Chang (劉昶) the Prince of Danyang, a Liu Song prince who had fled to Northern Wei in 465, with an army and promising him support to rebuild Liu Song. However, Liu Chang's abilities were not up to task, and he was never able to gain much following in the border regions to mount a major drive to reestablish Liu Song. By 481, the campaign had fizzled. Also in 481, the Buddhist monk Faxiu (法秀) tried to start a popular uprising at the capital Pingcheng (平城, in modern Datong, Shanxi), but was discovered, captured, and executed. Some officials advocating the execution of all Buddhist monks, but Grand Empress Dowager Feng refused. Also that year, she started the building of her future tomb at Fang Mountain (方山), near Pingcheng, leaving instructions that after she died that it would be unnecessary for her to be buried with her husband Emperor Wengcheng (who was buried near the old Northern Wei capital Shengle (盛樂, in modern Hohhot, Inner Mongolia). Later that year, a new criminal code that she commissioned Gao Lü to write was completed—with 832 sections, 16 of them prescribing clan-slaughter as penalty, 235 of them prescribing personal death penalty, and 377 prescribing other forms of punishment. As the years went by, as Emperor Xiaowen grew in age, he appeared to gradually assume more and more power. Sometime during the process, Grand Empress Dowager Feng apparently became apprehensive of his abilities and therefore had him detained and considered deposing him in favor of his brother Tuoba Xi (拓拔禧), but after her attendants persuaded her otherwise, she did not carry out such actions. While Grand Empress Dowager Feng never formally returned imperial powers to him, by about 483 he appeared to be fairly in control of the government, although Grand Empress Dowager Feng continued to retain substantial powers. Indeed, it was by her order that that year, after Emperor Xiaowen's concubine Consort Lin bore his oldest son, Tuoba Xun, Consort Lin was forced to commit suicide pursuant to Northern Wei customs. She raised Tuoba Xun herself. In 485, after Emperor Xiaowen created his younger brothers princes, Grand Empress Dowager Feng established an imperial school for these princes. In 486, perhaps as both a sign of Sinicization and demonstration of Emperor Xiaowen's authority, he began to assume traditional Chinese imperial clothing, including a robe with dragon patterns and a tasseled hat. The power-sharing arrangement between step-grandmother and step-grandson could perhaps be illustrated by an incident in 489, when Emperor Wencheng's younger brothers Tuoba Tianci (拓拔天賜) the Prince of Ruyin and Tuoba Zhen (拓拔楨) the Prince of Nan'an were accused of corruption, a death offense. Grand Empress Dowager Feng and Emperor Xiaowen jointly convened an imperial council to discuss their punishment. Grand Empress Dowager Feng opened by asking the officials, "Do you believe that we should care about familial relations and destroy law, or to disregard familial relations and follow the law?" The officials largely pleaded for the princes' lives. After Grand Empress Dowager Feng fell silent, Emperor Xiaowen stated: "What the two princes committed is unpardonable, but the Grand Empress Dowager takes after the brotherly love that Gaozong [Emperor Wencheng's temple name] had. Further, the Prince of Nan'an is filially pious toward his mother. Therefore, the two will be spared the death penalty, but their offices and titles will be stripped from them, and they will be reduced to commoner status with no political rights." In 490, Grand Empress Dowager Feng died, and she was buried with magnificent honors, in the Yonggu Mausoleum. Emperor Xiaowen was so distraught that he was unable to take in food or water for five days, and subsequently observed a three-year mourning period for her, notwithstanding officials' pleas for him to shorten the mourning period in accordance with rules that Emperor Wen of Han had set. The 485–486 Reform Together with Emperor Xiaowen, the Empress Dowager introduced two far-reaching policies. They were the "equal-field landholding system" and the "three-elder system". In the "equal-filed system" (juntian-zhi) implemented in 485, the state redistributed uncultivated land to commoners attached with obligations of tax duty in the forms of grain, cloth, and labor service. Under this policy, each household was entitled to lands proportional to its labor power. Specifically, two types of land with tenure were granted to a household: the first was open land for crop cultivation (40 mu) for each adult male in the household, and half those amounts for females which was returnable after the recipient reached a specific advanced age or died. The second was the land to support textile production (10 or 20 mu), with the same gender distribution principle as open land in one of two forms, namely, "mulberry lands" in silk-producing areas, and "hemp lands" in regions where sericulture was impractical. Mulberry land was inheritable because of the long-term investment and care mulberry orchards required. Households possessing slaves and plow oxen were entitled to larger allocations. The open land allocations would be doubled or tripled in areas where the land was less fertile or the population sparse. Sale of these land grants was forbidden, although subleasing was possible under some circumstances. Land allocations would be adjusted annually to account for changes in household wealth. Another policy was the establishment of the three-elders system (sanzhang-zhi) in 486. This policy was introduced to compile accurate population registers and enhance state control of the village population. Under this system, five households were to make up one neighborhood (li), headed by one neighborhood elder (linzhang) while five neighborhoods were grouped into a village and headed by one village elder (lizhang). Finally, over five villages, there was one ward elder (dangzhang). The three elders, appointed by the government, were responsible for detecting and re-registering population that fell otherwise outside of state accounts, requisitioning corvee labor, military conscripts, and taxes, and taking care of the poor and orphaned under their jurisdiction. This policy significantly bolstered the dynasty's control over the common people. Empress Dowager Feng's reforms substantially increased agricultural production and tax receipts in the long run. They also weakened the economic power of local aristocrats who sheltered residents under their control living in fortified villages that scattered across the rural landscape of the northern China from taxation. Since the reforms, the Northern Wei dynasty had doubled the registered population to more than 5 million households. These institutional infrastructures built by the Empress Dowager and Emperor Xiaowen survived the fall of the dynasty and laid the foundation for China's eventual unification in 589 AD under the Sui dynasty. In popular culture Portrayed by Jacklyn Wu in the 2006 Chinese TV series Empress Feng of the Northern Wei Dynasty Portrayed by Ning Jing in the 2010 Chinese TV series Hujia Hanyue Portrayed by Tiffany Tang in the 2016 Chinese TV series The Princess Weiyoung Portrayed by Wu Jinyan in the 2018 Chinese TV series Untouchable Lovers References Book of Wei, vol. 13. History of Northern Dynasties, vol. 13. Zizhi Tongjian, vols. 128, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137. Northern Wei empresses Northern Wei regents 442 births 490 deaths 5th-century women regents Chinese grand empresses dowager 5th-century empresses consort
5169185	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius%20Caesar%27s%20invasions%20of%20Britain	Julius Caesar's invasions of Britain	In the course of his Gallic Wars, Julius Caesar invaded Britain twice: in 55 and 54 BC. On the first occasion Caesar took with him only two legions, and achieved little beyond a landing on the coast of Kent. The second invasion consisted of 800 ships, five legions and 2,000 cavalry. The force was so imposing that the Britons did not dare contest Caesar's landing, waiting instead until he began to move inland. Caesar eventually penetrated into Middlesex and crossed the Thames, forcing the British warlord Cassivellaunus to surrender as a tributary to Rome and setting up Mandubracius of the Trinovantes as client king. Caesar included accounts of both invasions in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico, with the earliest surviving significant eye-witness descriptions of the people, culture and geography of the island. This is effectively the start of the written history, or at least the protohistory, of Great Britain. Britain before Caesar Britain had long been known to the classical world as a source of tin. The coastline had been explored by the Greek geographer Pytheas in the 4th century BC, and may have been explored even earlier, in the 5th century, by the Carthaginian sailor Himilco. But to many Romans, the island, lying as it did beyond the Ocean at what was to them the edge of the known world, was a land of great mystery. Some Roman writers even insisted that it did not exist, and dismissed reports of Pytheas's voyage as a hoax. Britain during the reign of Julius Caesar had an Iron Age culture, with an estimated population of between one and four million. Archaeological research shows that its economy was broadly divided into lowland and highland zones. In the lowland southeast, large areas of fertile soil made possible extensive arable farming, and communication developed along trackways, such as the Icknield Way, the Pilgrims' Way and the Jurassic Way, and navigable rivers such as the Thames. In the highlands, north of the line between Gloucester and Lincoln, arable land was available only in isolated pockets, so pastoralism, supported by garden cultivation, was more common than settled farming, and communication was more difficult. Settlements were generally built on high ground and fortified, but in the southeast, oppida had begun to be established on lower ground, often at river crossings, suggesting that trade was becoming more important. Commercial contact between Britain and the continent had increased since the Roman conquest of Transalpine Gaul in 124 BC, and Italian wine was being imported via the Armorican peninsula, much of it arriving at Hengistbury Head in Dorset. Caesar's written account of Britain says that the Belgae of northeastern Gaul had previously conducted raids on Britain, establishing settlements in some of its coastal areas, and that within living memory Diviciacus, king of the Suessiones, had held power in Britain as well as in Gaul. British coinage from this period shows a complicated pattern of intrusion. The earliest Gallo-Belgic coins that have been found in Britain date to before 100 BC, perhaps as early as 150 BC, were struck in Gaul, and have been found mainly in Kent. Later coins of a similar type were struck in Britain and are found all along the south coast as far west as Dorset. It appears that Belgic power was concentrated on the southeastern coast, although their influence spread further west and inland, perhaps through chieftains establishing political control over the native population. Motivation Caesar had been conquering Gaul since 58 BC and in 56 BC he took most of northwest Gaul after defeating the Veneti in a naval battle. Caesar's pretext for the invasion was that "in almost all the wars with the Gauls succours had been furnished to our enemy from that country" with fugitives from among the Gallic Belgae fleeing to Belgic settlements in Britain, and the Veneti of Armorica, who controlled seaborne trade to the island, calling in aid from their British allies to fight for them against Caesar in 56 BC. Strabo says that the Venetic rebellion in 56 BC had been intended to prevent Caesar from travelling to Britain and disrupting their commercial activity, suggesting that the possibility of a British expedition had already been considered by then. It may also have been a cover for investigating Britain's mineral resources and economic potential: afterwards, Cicero refers to the disappointing discovery that there was no gold or silver in the island; and Suetonius reports that Caesar was said to have gone to Britain in search of pearls. However, it may have been an excuse to gain stature in the eyes of the Roman people, due to Pompey and Crassus' consulship. On the one hand, they were Caesar's political allies, and Crassus's son had fought under him the year before. But they were also his rivals, and had formidable reputations (Pompey was a great general, and Crassus was fabulously wealthy). Since the consuls could easily sway and buy public opinion, Caesar needed to stay in the public eye. His solution was to cross two water bodies no Roman army had attempted before: the Rhine and the English Channel. First invasion (55 BC) Planning and reconnaissance Caesar summoned merchants who traded with the island, but they were unable or unwilling to give him any useful information about the inhabitants and their military tactics, or about harbours he could use, presumably not wanting to lose their monopoly on cross-channel trade. He sent a tribune, Gaius Volusenus, to scout the coast in a single warship. He probably examined the Kent coast between Hythe and Sandwich, but was unable to land, since he "did not dare leave his ship and entrust himself to the barbarians", and after five days returned to give Caesar what intelligence he had managed to gather. By then, ambassadors from some of the British states, warned by merchants of the impending invasion, had arrived promising their submission. Caesar sent them back, along with his ally Commius, king of the Belgae Atrebates, to use their influence to win over as many other states as possible. He gathered a fleet consisting of eighty transport ships, sufficient to carry two legions (Legio VII and Legio X), and an unknown number of warships under a quaestor, at an unnamed port in the territory of the Morini, almost certainly Portus Itius (Saint-Omer). Another eighteen transports of cavalry were to sail from a different port, probably Ambleteuse. These ships may have been triremes or biremes, or may have been adapted from Venetic designs Caesar had seen previously, or may even have been requisitioned from the Veneti and other coastal tribes. In late summer 55 BC, even though it was late in the campaigning season, Caesar decided to embark for Britain. Landing Clearly in a hurry, Caesar himself left a garrison at the port and set out "at the third watch" (well after midnight) on 23 August with the legions so that they would arrive at dawn, leaving the cavalry to march to their ships, embark, and join him as soon as possible. In light of later events, leaving without the cavalry was either a tactical mistake or (along with the fact that the legions came over without baggage or heavy siege gear) confirms the invasion was not intended for complete conquest. Caesar initially tried to land but when he came in sight of shore, the massed forces of the Britons gathered on the overlooking hills dissuaded him from landing there. After waiting there at anchor "until the ninth hour" (about 3pm) waiting for his supply ships from the second port to come up and meanwhile convening a council of war, he ordered the fleet to sail north-east along the coast to an open beach probably at Ebbsfleet. The Britons had kept pace and fielded an impressive force, including cavalry and chariots, and the legions were hesitant to go ashore. To make matters worse, the loaded Roman ships were too low in the water to go close inshore and the troops had to disembark in deep water, all the while attacked by the enemy from the shallows. Eventually, the legion's standard bearer jumped into the sea and waded to shore. To have the legion's standard fall in combat was the greatest humiliation, and the men disembarked to protect the standard bearer. After some delay, a battle line was finally formed, and the Britons withdrew. The cavalry auxiliaries were unable to make the crossing despite several attempts and so Caesar could not chase down the Britons. Beach-head Recent archaeology by the University of Leicester indicates that the likely landing beach was at Ebbsfleet in Pegwell Bay where artefacts and massive earthworks dating from this period have been exposed. If Caesar had as large a fleet with him as has been suggested, then it is possible that the beaching of ships would have been spread out over a number of miles stretching from Walmer towards Pegwell Bay. The site at Ebbsfleet is a defensive enclosure today about 1 km from the sea due to siltation of the former Wantsum Channel but in ancient times was on peninsula projecting into the channel. The defensive ditch enclosed an area of over 20 ha on the shore. Skirmishes The Romans established a camp and received ambassadors and had Commius, who had been arrested as soon as he had arrived in Britain, returned to them. Caesar claims he was negotiating from a position of strength and that the British leaders, blaming their attacks on him on the common people, were in only four days awed into giving hostages, some immediately, some as soon as they could be brought from inland, and disbanding their army. However, after his cavalry had come within sight of the beachhead but then been scattered and turned back to Gaul by storms, and with food running short, Caesar was taken by surprise by high British tides and a storm. His beached warships filled with water, and his transports, riding at anchor, were driven against each other. Some ships were wrecked, and many others were rendered unseaworthy by the loss of rigging or other vital equipment, threatening the return journey. Realising this and hoping to keep Caesar in Britain over the winter and thus starve him into submission, the Britons renewed the attack, ambushing one of the legions as it foraged near the Roman camp. The foraging party was relieved by the remainder of the Roman force and the Britons were again driven off, only to regroup after several days of storms with a larger force to attack the Roman camp. This attack was driven off fully, in a bloody rout, with improvised cavalry that Commius had gathered from pro-Roman Britons and a Roman scorched earth policy. The campaigning season was now nearly over, and the legions were in no condition to winter on the coast of Kent. Caesar withdrew back across the Channel with as many of the ships as could be repaired with flotsam from the wrecked ships. Conclusion Caesar once again narrowly escaped disaster. Taking an understrength army with few provisions to a far-off land was a poor tactical decision, which easily could have led to Caesar's defeat, yet he survived. While he had achieved no significant gains in Britain, he had accomplished a monumental feat simply by landing there. It was a fabulous propaganda victory as well, which was chronicled in Caesar's ongoing Commentarii de Bello Gallico. The writings in the Commentarii fed Rome a steady update of Caesar's exploits (with his own personal spin on events). Caesar's goal of prestige and publicity succeeded enormously: upon his return to Rome, he was hailed as a hero and given an unprecedented 20-day thanksgiving. Second invasion (54 BC) Preparation Caesar's approach in the winter of 55–54 BC towards the invasion in 54 BC was far more comprehensive and successful than his initial expedition. New ships had been built over the winter, using experience of Venetic shipbuilding technology being broader and lower for easier beaching, and Caesar now took 800 ships, five legions (instead of two) and 2,000 cavalry. He left the rest of his army in Gaul to keep order. Caesar took with him a good number of Gallic chiefs whom he considered untrustworthy so he could keep an eye on them. This time he named Portus Itius as the departure point. Crossing and landing Titus Labienus was left at Portus Itius to oversee regular food transports from there to the British beachhead. The military ships were joined by a flotilla of trading ships captained by Romans and provincials from across the empire, and local Gauls, hoping to cash in on the trading opportunities. It seems more likely that the figure Caesar quotes for the fleet (800 ships) include these traders and the troop-transports, rather than the troop-transports alone. The Roman fleet sailed from France in the evening so that the army could land in daylight. They hoped to use the wind to help cross the Channel but midnight the wind dropped and the channel tide carried them too far northeast and at sunrise they saw Britain in the distance on their left. They managed to row and use the reversing tide to arrive at the place identified as the best landing-place the previous year. The Britons had gathered to oppose the landing but as Caesar states, intimidated by the size of the fleet, withdrew 'and concealed themselves on the high ground' perhaps to give them time to gather their forces. Caesar landed and immediately went to find the Britons army. Kent campaign Upon landing, Caesar left Quintus Atrius in charge of the beach-head with an equivalent of a legion to build and defend the base. He then made an immediate night march inland, where he encountered the British forces at a river crossing, probably somewhere on the River Stour. The Britons attacked but were repulsed, and attempted to regroup at a fortified place in the forests, possibly the hillfort at Bigbury Wood, Kent, but were again defeated and scattered. As it was late in the day and Caesar was unsure of the territory, he called off the pursuit and made camp. However, the next morning, as he prepared to advance further, Caesar received word from Atrius that, once again, his ships at anchor had been dashed against each other in a storm and suffered considerable damage. About forty, he says, were lost. The Romans were unused to Atlantic and Channel tides and storms, but nevertheless, considering the damage he had sustained the previous year, this was poor planning on Caesar's part. However, Caesar may have exaggerated the number of ships wrecked to magnify his own achievement in rescuing the situation. He returned to the coast, recalling the legions that had gone ahead, and immediately set about repairing his fleet. His men worked day and night for approximately ten days, beaching and repairing the ships, and building a fortified camp around them. Word was sent to Labienus to send more ships. Caesar was on the coast on 1 September, from where he wrote a letter to Cicero. News must have reached Caesar at this point of the death of his daughter Julia, as Cicero refrained from replying "on account of his mourning". March inland Caesar then returned to the Stour crossing and found the Britons had massed their forces there. Cassivellaunus, a warlord from north of the Thames, had previously been at war with most of the British tribes. He had recently overthrown the king of the powerful Trinovantes and forced his son, Mandubracius, into exile. But now, facing invasion, the Britons had appointed Cassivellaunus to lead their combined forces. After several indecisive skirmishes, during which a Roman tribune, Quintus Laberius Durus, was killed, the Britons attacked a foraging party of three legions under Gaius Trebonius, but were repulsed and routed by the pursuing Roman cavalry. Cassivellaunus realised he could not defeat Caesar in a pitched battle. Disbanding the majority of his force and relying on the mobility of his 4,000 chariots and superior knowledge of the terrain, he used guerrilla tactics to slow the Roman advance. By the time Caesar reached the Thames, the one fordable place available to him had been fortified with sharpened stakes, both on the shore and under the water, and the far bank was defended. Second Century sources state that Caesar used a large war elephant, which was equipped with armour and carried archers and slingers in its tower, to put the defenders to flight. When this unknown creature entered the river, the Britons and their horses fled and the Roman army crossed over and entered Cassivellaunus' territory. (However, this may be a confusion with Claudius's use of elephants during his conquest of Britain in AD 43.) The Trinovantes, whom Caesar describes as the most powerful tribe in the region, and who had recently suffered at Cassivellaunus' hands, sent ambassadors, promising him aid and provisions. Mandubracius, who had accompanied Caesar, was restored as their king, and the Trinovantes provided grain and hostages. Five further tribes, the Cenimagni, Segontiaci, Ancalites, Bibroci and Cassi, surrendered to Caesar, and revealed to him the location of Cassivellaunus' stronghold, possibly the hill fort at Wheathampstead, which he proceeded to put under siege. Cassivellaunus sent word to his allies in Kent, Cingetorix, Carvilius, Taximagulus and Segovax, described as the "four kings of Cantium", to stage a diversionary attack on the Roman beach-head to draw Caesar off, but this attack failed, and Cassivellaunus sent ambassadors to negotiate a surrender. Caesar was eager to return to Gaul for the winter due to growing unrest there, and an agreement was mediated by Commius. Cassivellaunus gave hostages, agreed an annual tribute, and undertook not to make war against Mandubracius or the Trinovantes. Caesar wrote to Cicero on 26 September, confirming the result of the campaign, with hostages but no booty taken, and that his army was about to return to Gaul. He then left, leaving not a single Roman soldier in Britain to enforce his settlement. Whether the tribute was ever paid is unknown. Caesar extracted payment of grain, slaves, and an annual tribute to Rome. However, Britain was not particularly rich at the time; Marcus Cicero summed up Roman sentiment by saying, "It's also been established that there isn't a scrap of silver in the island and no hope of booty except for slaves and I don't suppose you're expecting them to know much about literature or music!" Regardless, this second trip to Britain was a true invasion, and Caesar achieved his goals. He had beaten the Britons and extracted tribute; they were now effectively Roman subjects. Caesar was lenient towards the tribes as he needed to leave before the stormy season set in, which would make crossing the channel impossible. Aftermath Commius later switched sides, fighting in Vercingetorix's rebellion. After a number of unsuccessful engagements with Caesar's forces, he cut his losses and fled to Britain. Sextus Julius Frontinus, in his Strategemata, describes how Commius and his followers, with Caesar in pursuit, boarded their ships. Although the tide was out and the ships still beached, Commius ordered the sails raised. Caesar, still some distance away, assumed the ships were afloat and called off the pursuit. John Creighton believes that this anecdote was a legend, and that Commius was sent to Britain as a friendly king as part of his truce with Mark Antony. Commius established a dynasty in the Hampshire area, known from coins of Gallo-Belgic type. Verica, the king whose exile prompted Claudius's conquest of AD 43, styled himself a son of Commius. Discoveries about Britain As well as noting elements of British warfare, particularly the use of chariots, which were unfamiliar to his Roman audience, Caesar also aimed to impress them by making further geographical, meteorological and ethnographic investigations of Britain. He probably gained these by enquiry and hearsay rather than direct experience, as he did not penetrate that far into the interior, and most historians would be wary of applying them beyond the tribes with whom he came into direct contact. Geographical and meteorological Caesar's first-hand discoveries were limited to east Kent and the Thames Valley, but he was able to provide a description of the island's geography and meteorology. Though his measurements are not wholly accurate, and may owe something to Pytheas, his general conclusions even now seem valid: The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the colds being less severe. The island is triangular in its form, and one of its sides is opposite to Gaul. One angle of this side, which is in Kent, whither almost all ships from Gaul are directed, [looks] to the east; the lower looks to the south. This side extends about 500 miles. Another side lies toward Hispania and the west, on which part is Ireland, less, as is reckoned, than Britain, by one half: but the passage from it into Britain is of equal distance with that from Gaul. In the middle of this voyage, is an island, which is called Mona: many smaller islands besides are supposed to lie there, of which islands some have written that at the time of the winter solstice it is night there for thirty consecutive days. We, in our inquiries about that matter, ascertained nothing, except that, by accurate measurements with water, we perceived the nights to be shorter there than on the continent. The length of this side, as their account states, is 700 miles. The third side is toward the north, to which portion of the island no land is opposite; but an angle of that side looks principally toward Germany. This side is considered to be 800 miles in length. Thus the whole island is about 2,000 miles in circumference. No information about harbours or other landing-places was available to the Romans before Caesar's expeditions, so Caesar was able to make discoveries of benefit to Roman military and trading interests. Volusenus's reconnaissance voyage before the first expedition apparently identified the natural harbour at Dubris (Dover), although Caesar was prevented from landing there and forced to land on an open beach, as he did again the following year, perhaps because Dover was too small for his much larger forces. The great natural harbours further up the coast at Rutupiae (Richborough), which were used by Claudius for his invasion 100 years later, were not used on either occasion. Caesar may have been unaware of them, may have chosen not to use them, or they may not have existed in a form suitable for sheltering and landing such a large force at that time. Present knowledge of the period geomorphology of the Wantsum Channel that created that haven is limited. By Claudius's time Roman knowledge of the island would have been considerably increased by a century of trade and diplomacy, and four abortive invasion attempts. However, it is likely that the intelligence gathered in 55 and 54 BC would have been retained in the now-lost state records in Rome, and been used by Claudius in the planning of his landings. Ethnography The Britons are defined as typical barbarians, with polygamy and other exotic social habits, similar in many ways to the Gauls, yet as brave adversaries whose crushing can bring glory to a Roman: The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those of whom they say that it is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the country of the Belgae for the purpose of plunder and making war; almost all of whom are called by the names of those states from which being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there and began to cultivate the lands. The number of the people is countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like those of the Gauls... They do not regard it lawful to eat the hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The most civilised of all these nations are they who inhabit Kent, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not sow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad with skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children; but if there be any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin. Military In addition to infantry and cavalry, the Britons employed chariots in warfare, a novelty to the Romans, who used them for transport and racing. Caesar describes their use as follows: Their mode of fighting with their chariots is this: firstly, they drive about in all directions and throw their weapons and generally break the ranks of the enemy with the very dread of their horses and the noise of their wheels; and when they have worked themselves in between the troops of horse, leap from their chariots and engage on foot. The charioteers in the meantime withdraw some little distance from the battle, and so place themselves with the chariots that, if their masters are overpowered by the number of the enemy, they may have a ready retreat to their own troops. Thus they display in battle the speed of horse, [together with] the firmness of infantry; and by daily practice and exercise attain to such expertness that they are accustomed, even on a declining and steep place, to check their horses at full speed, and manage and turn them in an instant and run along the pole, and stand on the yoke, and thence betake themselves with the greatest celerity to their chariots again. Technology During the civil war, Caesar made use of a kind of boat he had seen used in Britain, similar to the Irish currach or Welsh coracle. He describes them thus: [T]he keels and ribs were made of light timber, then, the rest of the hull of the ships was wrought with wicker work, and covered over with hides. Religion "The institution [of Druidism] is thought to have originated in Britain, and to have been thence introduced into Gaul; and even now those who wish to become more accurately acquainted with it, generally repair thither, for the sake of learning it." Economic resources Caesar not only investigates this for the sake of it, but also to justify Britain as a rich source of tribute and trade: [T]he number of cattle is great. They use either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight, as their money. Tin is produced in the midland regions; in the maritime, iron; but the quantity of it is small: they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and fir. This reference to the 'midland' is inaccurate as tin production and trade occurred in the southwest of England, in Cornwall and Devon, and was what drew Pytheas and other traders. However, Caesar only penetrated to Essex and so, receiving reports of the trade whilst there, it would have been easy to perceive the trade as coming from the interior. Outcome Caesar made no conquests in Britain, but his enthroning of Mandubracius marked the beginnings of a system of client kingdoms there, thus bringing the island into Rome's sphere of political influence. Diplomatic and trading links developed further over the next century, opening up the possibility of permanent conquest, which was finally begun by Claudius in AD 43. In the words of Tacitus: It was, in fact, the deified Julius who first of all Romans entered Britain with an army: he overawed the natives by a successful battle and made himself master of the coast; but it may be said that he revealed, rather than bequeathed, Britain to Rome. Lucan's Pharsalia (II,572) makes the jibe that Caesar had: ...run away in terror from the Britons whom he had come to attack! In later literature and culture Classical works Valerius Maximus's Memorable Words and Deeds (1st century AD) praises the bravery of Marcus Caesius Scaeva, a centurion under Caesar, who, having been deserted by his comrades, held his position alone against a horde of Britons on a small island, before finally swimming to safety. Polyaenus's 2nd-century Strategemata relates that, when Cassivellaunus was defending a river crossing against him, Caesar gained passage by the use of an armoured elephant, which terrified the Britons into fleeing. This may be a confusion with Claudius's use of elephants during his conquest of Britain in AD 43. Orosius's 5th-century History Against the Pagans contains a brief account of Caesar's invasions, which makes an influential mistake: Quintus Laberius Durus, the tribune who died in Britain, is misnamed "Labienus", an error which is followed by all medieval British accounts. Medieval works Bede's History of the English Church and People includes an account of Caesar's invasions. This account is taken almost word for word from Orosius, which suggests Bede read a copy of this work from the library at Monkwearmouth-Jarrow Priory which Benedict Biscop had brought from Rome itself. The 9th-century Historia Britonum attributed to Nennius gives a garbled account, in which Caesar invades three times, landing at the Thames Estuary rather than on a beach in Kent. His chief opponent is Dolobellus, proconsul of the British king Belinus, son of Minocannus. Caesar finally defeats the Britons at a place called Trinovantum. Henry of Huntingdon's 12th-century Historia Anglorum gives an account based on Bede and the Historia Britonum, and gives Caesar an inspirational speech to his troops. Geoffrey of Monmouth, in his History of the Kings of Britain, has Caesar invading Britain, and has Cassibelanus (i.e. Cassivellaunus) as Caesar's primary opponent, but otherwise differs from the historical record. As in the Historia Britonum, Caesar invades three times, not twice, landing at the Thames Estuary. His story is also largely based on Bede and the Historia Britonum, but is greatly expanded. Historical elements are modified – the stakes placed in the Thames by the Britons become anti-ship rather than anti-infantry and anti-cavalry devices – and other elements, such as Cassibelanus's brother Nennius engaging in hand-to-hand combat with Caesar and stealing his sword, called Crocea Mors, are not known from any earlier source. Adaptations such as Wace's Roman de Brut, Layamon's Brut and the Welsh Bruts largely follow Geoffrey's story. The medieval Welsh Triads also refer to Caesar's invasions. Some of these references appear directly related to Geoffrey's account, but others allude to independent traditions: Caswallawn (Cassivellaunus) is said to have gone to Rome in search of his lover, Fflur, to have allowed Caesar to land in Britain in return for a horse called Meinlas, and pursued Caesar in a great fleet after he returned to Gaul. The 18th-century collection of Triads compiled by Iolo Morganwg contains expanded versions of these traditions. The 13th-century French work Li Fet des Romains contains an account of Caesar's invasions based partly on Caesar and partly on Geoffrey. It adds an explanation of how Caesar's soldiers overcame the stakes in the Thames – they tied wooden splints filled with sulphur around them, and burned them using Greek fire. It also identifies the standard-bearer of the 10th legion as Valerius Maximus's Scaeva. In the 14th-century French romance Perceforest Caesar, a precocious 21-year-old warrior, invades Britain because one of his knights, Luces, is in love with the wife of the king of England. Afterwards, a Briton called Orsus Bouchesuave takes a lance which Caesar used to kill his uncle, makes twelve iron styluses from the head, and, alongside Brutus, Cassius and other senators, uses them to stab Caesar to death. 20th century popular culture E. Nesbit's 1906 children's novel The Story of the Amulet depicts Caesar on the shores of Gaul, contemplating an invasion. In Robert Graves's 1934 and 1935 novels I, Claudius and Claudius the God, Claudius refers to Caesar's invasions when discussing his own invasion. In the 1976 TV adaptation of the two books they are mentioned in a scene during Augustus's reign where young members of the imperial family are playing a board game (not unlike Risk) in which areas of the empire must be conquered and arguing about how many legions it theoretically needs to capture and hold Britain, and again in the speech in which Claudius announces his own invasion ("100 years since the divine Julius left it, Britain is once again a province of Rome"). The 1957 Goon Show episode The Histories of Pliny the Elder, a pastiche of epic films, involves Caesar invading Britain, defeating the Britons who think the battle is a football match and so only send 10 men against the Romans, and occupying Britain for 10 years or more. The 1964 film Carry On Cleo features Caesar and Mark Antony (not present during either invasion) invading Britain and enslaving cavemen there. In Goscinny and Uderzo's 1965 comic Asterix in Britain, Caesar has successfully conquered Britain because the Britons stop fighting every afternoon for a cup of hot water with milk, tea not yet having been brought to Europe as well as on weekends. This behaviour prompted the Romans to only attack at 5 O'clock during the week and only on weekends. See also Devil's Dyke, Hertfordshire References Sources First invasion Caesar, De Bello Gallico, 4.20 – .37 Dio Cassius, 39.50 – .53 Second invasion Caesar, De Bello Gallico, 5.2 – .24 Cassius Dio, 40.1 – .4 Letters of Cicero – Letters to friends 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.10, 7.17 Letters to his brother Quintus 2.13, 2.15, 3.1, Letters to Atticus 4.15, 4.17, 4.18 General Tacitus, Agricola 13 Suetonius, Lives of the Twelve Caesars, Julius 25, 47 Plutarch, Caesar 16.5, 23.2; Velleius Paterculus, Roman History 2.46–47 Appian, Epitome of Gallic History 5 Civil Wars 2.150 Eutropius, Abridgement of Roman History 6.17 Livy Perochiae 105.5 Florus, Epitome of Livy 1.45; Orosius, Histories Against the Pagans 6.9. Modern 1st century BC in Great Britain 1st century BC in the Roman Republic 50s BC conflicts Amphibious operations European expeditions
5169533	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald%20Wuerl	Donald Wuerl	Donald William Wuerl (born November 12, 1940) is an American prelate, a cardinal, of the Catholic Church. He served as Archbishop of Washington, D.C., from 2006 to 2018. He was elevated by Pope John Paul II to serve as auxiliary bishop of Seattle (1986–1987), and bishop of Pittsburgh (1988–2006). He was named archbishop of Washington by Pope Benedict XVI and made a cardinal by him in 2010. Wuerl is widely viewed as a theological moderate, and is well known in the church for his ability to forge consensus between different factions. Questions arose in 2018 of whether Wuerl had adequately dealt with allegations of sexual abuse under his jurisdiction. A 2018 Pennsylvania grand jury report criticized how he handled sexual abuse cases during his time in Pittsburgh. Wuerl has denied mishandling the cases. There were additional accusations that Wuerl, despite initially denying it, was aware of sexual abuse accusations against former Cardinal Theodore McCarrick, his predecessor in Washington. On October 12, 2018, Pope Francis accepted Wuerl's resignation as archbishop of Washington. Wuerl remained in charge of the archdiocese as its apostolic administrator until Pope Francis appointed his successor, Archbishop Wilton Gregory, in 2019. Early life and education Donald Wuerl was born on November 12, 1940, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He was the second of four children of Francis and Mary Anna (née Schiffauer) Wuerl. He has two brothers, Wayne and Dennis, and a sister, Carol. Wuerl's father worked nights weighing freight cars for the Pennsylvania Railroad, and served in the US Navy during World War II. His mother died in 1944 and his father married Kathryn Cavanaugh in 1946. Donald Wuerl expressed an interest in becoming a priest early in life. He even held pretend masses for his brothers and sisters at home. Wuerl received his early education at the parochial school of St. Mary of the Mount Parish in the Mount Washington neighborhood of Pittsburgh, graduating in 1958. He attended St. Gregory Seminary in Cincinnati, Ohio for his freshman and sophomore years of college from September 1958 thru May 1960. He then attended the Catholic University of America in Washington, D.C., where he was a Basselin Scholar at the Theological College, earning a Bachelor of Philosophy degree (1962) and a Master of Philosophy degree (1963) in philosophy. Wuerl continued his studies at the Pontifical North American College in Rome. He earned a Master of Theology degree from the Pontifical Gregorian University in 1967. After ordination, Wuerl was sent to Rome for further theological study. He is an alumnus of the Pontifical University of St. Thomas Aquinas Angelicum where he obtained a Doctor of Sacred Theology degree in 1974. While a student in Rome, Wuerl had the chance to observe the proceedings of the Second Vatican Council. Early career Wuerl was ordained a priest for the Diocese of Pittsburgh on December 17, 1966 by Bishop Francis Reh. After his ordination, Wuerl was assigned as assistant pastor at St. Rosalia Parish in Pittsburgh's Greenfield neighborhood and as priest-secretary to Bishop John Wright. After Wright was elevated to cardinal in 1969, Wuerl became his full-time priest-secretary in Vatican City from 1969 until Wright's death in 1979. Because Wright was recovering from surgery and confined to a wheelchair, Wuerl, as Wright's priest-secretary, was one of three non-cardinals permitted inside the conclave that selected Karol Wojtyla as Pope John Paul II in 1978. (Wright had missed the first of the two 1978 conclaves.) In 1976, Wuerl co-wrote with Thomas Comerford Lawler and Ronald David Lawler a catechism for adults, The Teaching of Christ. It has been reprinted several times and has been widely translated. Wuerl served as rector at Saint Paul Seminary in Pittsburgh from 1981 to 1985. In 1982, he was appointed executive secretary to Bishop John Marshall of Burlington, Vermont, who was leading a Vatican-mandated study of US seminaries. Episcopal career Auxiliary Bishop of Seattle On December 3, 1985, Wuerl was appointed titular bishop of Rosemarkie and as an auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Seattle by Pope John Paul II. Wuerl was consecrated bishop on January 6, 1986, at St. Peter's Basilica in Rome by the pope. Wuerl and Seattle Archbishop Raymond Hunthausen worked in adjoining offices without conflict for several months until, in May 1986, they found themselves with opposing positions on proposed state legislation to prohibit discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation in employment. At that point, Hunthausen learned for the first time that Wuerl had been charged with responsibility—"complete and final decision-making power"—for several key areas normally within the Archbishop's control: worship and liturgy; the archdiocesan tribunal that considers requests for marriage annulment; seminarians, priestly formation and laicized priests; moral issues; and issues of health care and ministry to homosexuals. The division of authority only became public when Hunthausen announced it in September 1986. While some chancery officials expressed support for Wuerl, some questioned his role and saw little impact on the archdiocese a year after his appointment. In November, Hunthausen won support for his objections to the Vatican's restrictions on his authority from the US Conference of Catholic Bishops. In February 1987, the Vatican announced that a commission of US bishops would investigate the situation between Wuerl and Hunthausen in Seattle. Wuerl met privately with Pope John Paul II, but declined to comment, saying "I'm just going to wait and see what the commission does". In May 1987, following a review by the commission headed by Cardinal Joseph Bernardin, Pope John Paul II restored Hunthausen's full authority as bishop, and appointed then Bishop Thomas Murphy as coadjutor bishop to assist and succeed Hunthausen. Wuerl resigned as auxiliary bishop of the Archdiocese of Seattle on May 26, 1987. He later said the arrangement had been "unworkable". Following the restoration of Hunthausen's authority, Wuerl moved to a Pittsburgh suburb to await his next posting. Wuerl and Hunthausen eventually became friends. Wuerl said that Hunthausen taught him a great deal about the work of being a bishop. Bishop of Pittsburgh Wuerl was appointed as the eleventh bishop of the Diocese of Pittsburgh on February 12, 1988 by Pope John Paul II. He was installed on March 25, 1988. One of the biggest problems facing the diocese was financial in nature and came from its school system. Many of the parishes were built when Catholic immigrants were swelling the population of Pittsburgh to work in the steel mills. During this era, parishes were established along ethnic lines so that parishioners could attend services in their native tongues and maintain their national traditions. This resulted in having as many as six-to-eight parishes within blocks of each other. After World War II, there was a major effort to build a school for every parish. These schools were usually staffed by nuns who were given nominal compensation. This system began to break down in the 1970s. First, the Baby Boom subsided, resulting in a reduction in student population. Second, Catholics became less likely to send their children to Catholic schools. Third, during this period there was a massive culture shift among nuns, partially in response to Vatican II, that resulted in many sisters choosing missions unrelated to education. They had to be replaced as teachers with lay staff paid market salaries. Wuerl asked his committee of lay advisors to address the debt and deficit spending associated with Catholic education in Pittsburgh. In 1988, that committee determined that 48 of the then 333 parishes owed a total of $5.6 million. A rescue plan was made public in February 1989, Wuerl announcing that $1.1 million owed to the diocese for insurance and the Parish Share Program would be forgiven. Indebted parishes would be given low-interest loans to refinance their other obligations. Despite the financial condition of the diocese, Wuerl decided to expand health services. He worked with hospitals and community groups to create a group home for people with AIDS. In 2003, Wuerl conducted a $2.5 million fundraising campaign to create the Catholic Charities Free Health Care Center. The clinic primarily serves the uninsured working poor. In 1989, Wuerl merged Sacred Heart and St. Paul Cathedral High Schools to establish Oakland Catholic High School (all three female-only schools) in the Oakland neighborhood of Pittsburgh, using the buildings of St. Paul Cathedral High School. Wuerl launched and hosted a television program, The Teaching of Christ, in 1990. He taught at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh as a distinguished service professor. Wuerl has served as a chaplain since 1999 for the Order of Malta, Federal Association USA, attached to the Sovereign Military Order of Malta. Wuerl has also written regular columns in Columbia, the major publication of the Knights of Columbus in the United States. Under Wuerl, the diocese had to reorganize itself in response to demographic changes, the decline of the steel industry, and the Church's weakened financial position. That process was officially completed in March 1994. Wuerl closed 73 church buildings, which included 37 churches, and reduced 331 parishes by 117 through merging. The diocese of Pittsburgh was operating 214 parishes when Wuerl left in June 2006 to become archbishop of Washington. Wuerl's plan, The Parish Reorganization and Revitalization Project, is now used as a model for other dioceses seeking parish suppression. Under Wuerl, the diocese began to emphasize placing women into positions of responsibility and authority. Rosemarie Cibik, a former superintendent of public instruction, became the first lay superintendent of Catholic schools in Pittsburgh. Rita Joyce, a canon and civil lawyer, became the first lay member of the diocesan marriage tribunal. Sister Margaret Hannan was appointed to the position of associate general secretary of the diocese. Later she rose to the position of chancellor, the highest canonical post that can be occupied by one who is not ordained. Archbishop of Washington Pope Benedict XVI appointed Wuerl as Archbishop of the Archdiocese of Washington on May 16, 2006. He was installed on June 22 at the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception and received the pallium from Pope Benedict XVI on June 29, 2006.In April 2008, Wuerl hosted the apostolic visit of Pope Benedict XVI to the District of Columbia. Wuerl served as chairman of the board of directors of the National Catholic Educational Association from December 12, 2005, and was also chancellor of The Catholic University of America. In September 2010, the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith named Wuerl its delegate in the United States for facilitating the implementation of the apostolic constitution Anglicanorum coetibus. It was issued by Pope Benedict XVI in November 2009 for Anglicans who wished to convert to Catholicism. He also heads the US Conference of Catholic Bishops (USCCB) ad hoc committee to support that implementation. Commitment to priestly formation From 1994 until 2003, as Bishop of Pittsburgh, Wuerl served as a member of the board of governors of the Pontifical North American College in Rome (Chairman, 1998–1999), representing the Pennsylvania-New Jersey Region (Region III) of the USCCB. In 2008, as archbishop of Washington he was again elected to the college's board of governors, this time representing the Washington DC-Delaware-Maryland-Virginia-West Virginia region of the conference (Region IV). Cardinal On November 20, 2010, Pope Benedict XVI elevated Wuerl to the College of Cardinals in a public consistory held at Saint Peter's Basilica in Vatican City. He was created Cardinal-Priest of S. Pietro in Vincoli. Pope Benedict XVI appointed Wuerl to the following posts: Member of the Congregation for the Clergy and the Pontifical Council for Promoting Christian Unity (December 2010); Relator-general (recording secretary) of the 2012 World Synod of Bishops meeting on the New Evangelization (October 24, 2011); Member of the Pontifical Council for Culture for a five-year renewable term (December 10, 2011); Member of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (April 21, 2012); Pope Francis appointed Wuerl to the Congregation for Bishops (December 16, 2013). In 2011, Wuerl faced widespread criticism for his role in the U.S. bishops' criticism of Elizabeth Johnson, called one of the "most prominent and respected theologians" in the U.S. In a July 2011 letter to theologian John Thiel, then president of the Catholic Theological Society of America, Cardinal Timothy Dolan then USCCB president, said that the bishops' administrative committee had unanimously approved of the doctrine committee's statement regarding Johnson's book. Wuerl stated that he had offered to meet Johnson but she did not respond to his invitations. Wuerl was one of the cardinal electors who participated in the 2013 papal conclave that elected Pope Francis. United States Conference of Catholic Bishops Wuerl is said to have worked as a consensus builder on ideological conflicts over issues such as liturgical translation and communion for politicians favoring abortion rights in the 1990s and 2000s. Wuerl was as supporter of the Charter for the Protection of Children and Young People by the USCCB. The charter required that any clergyman who sexually abuses a child never again serve in ministry. Public positions Thomas Reese, a Jesuit priest and journalist, said in 2006 that "[Wuerl is] quite orthodox theologically, but he doesn't like to play cop; he's not an authoritarian person." In 2018, Reese described him as an ideological moderate with regard to Catholic theological disputes, stating, "He's not an old leftie, he's not a right-wing culture warrior. ... He was totally enthusiastic about John Paul II, and then Pope Benedict, and now he's totally enthusiastic about Pope Francis. There are not many people in the church who are totally enthusiastic about all three of them." Journalist John Allen, Jr. said that Wuerl "was able to forge behind-the-scenes consensus because he was trusted by virtually all parties as someone who wouldn't embarrass them in public, and because he was seen as at least somewhat sympathetic to their points of view." Religion and politics In cases where politicians and officeholders take policy positions that are at odds with church doctrine, Wuerl said the decision to offer communion should be made case-by-case: "Our primary job is to teach and try to convince people. The tradition in our country has not been in the direction of refusing Communion, and I think it's served us well."In 2009, the Council of the District of Columbia passed a same-sex marriage bill. In November 2009, Wuerl signed an ecumenical statement, known as the Manhattan Declaration, calling on evangelicals, Catholics, and Eastern Orthodox Christians not to comply with rules and laws permitting abortion, same-sex marriage, and other practices that go against their religious consciences. In the debate on the D.C. same-sex marriage bill, the archdiocese of Washington advocated for so-called religious liberty provisions that it said would protect the church's ability to provide social services (e.g. adoption) in accordance with Catholic teaching on marriage. After The Washington Post characterized the archdiocese as giving an "ultimatum" to the city and The New York Times called it a "threat", Wuerl wrote a letter to the Post stating there was "no threat or ultimatum to end services, just a simple recognition that the new requirements by the city for religious organizations to recognize same-sex marriages in their policies could restrict our ability to provide the same level of services as we do now." In December 2009, on the day of the bill's passage, Joe Solmonese, president of the Human Rights Campaign, a same-sex marriage advocacy organization, wrote that Wuerl had "refused to alter his official position" to reduce social services in the archdiocese. On the same day the archdiocese, though expressing its view that the bill did not adequately protect religious liberty, nonetheless affirmed its commitment to serving the needs of the poor and its hope for "working in partnership with the District of Columbia consistent with the mission of the Catholic Church." In February 2010 shortly before the law took effect, Catholic Charities of the Archdiocese of Washington ended its foster care and public adoption programs rather than comply with the law's requirement that it license same-sex couples for the program. The agency also modified its employee health care benefits to avoid having to extend coverage to same-sex couples. Response to Dominus Iesus In 2000, the Vatican issued a document entitled Dominus Iesus which stated that Jesus Christ is the only way of salvation. Wuerl said it was aimed at some theologians in Asia who are addressing Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism, and it defends the Catholic view of the necessity of proclaiming the Christian faith to them. The document acknowledges that there are elements in non-Christian scriptures "by which countless people throughout the centuries have been and still are able today to nourish and maintain their life-relationship with God." Response to Summorum pontificum After Pope Benedict XVI issued the motu proprio Summorum Pontificum (2007) authorizing Latin Church priests to celebrate Mass using either the Roman Missal as revised in 1969 or the 1962 edition, Wuerl said that Pope Benedict was "trying to reach out pastorally to those who feel an attraction to this form of the liturgy, and he is asking the pastors to be aware of and support their interest". He added that about 500 people a week were attending celebrations of the Tridentine Mass at three places in his archdiocese. He sent a circular to his priests about a special committee that he would establish "to assist pastors in evaluating and responding to requests for the regular and public celebration" of the 1962 form of Mass. As of 2017, the Tridentine Mass was reported on the archdiocesan website as celebrated weekly in three parishes, the same ones as in 2007. Record on handling sex abuse cases Wuerl was originally widely considered to be a bishop who was proactive in confronting sexual abuse. Wuerl won plaudits and criticism for his efforts to remove sexually abusive clergy years before other church leaders made similar efforts. However, after the release of a grand jury investigation report in August 2018, he received a great deal of criticism for how he had handled some abuse cases. 1988 to 2018 In September 1988, when Wuerl was the bishop of Pittsburgh, he accepted a dinner invitation from a family suing the diocese for sexual abuse by a priest. Although the diocese's lawyers had discouraged Wuerl from attending the dinner, Wuerl became convinced that sexual abuse was a problem in his diocese. Wuerl settled the lawsuit with the family, and the priest involved was laicized and eventually ended up in prison. Wuerl told his staff that in cases of alleged sexual abuse, the first concern should be for the victim, the second concern should be for the victim's family, and only third should clergy consider the reputation of the Church. In the years that followed, Wuerl investigated every priest in his diocese accused of sexual misconduct and removed several. On one occasion, Wuerl laicized a priest whom the Vatican initially had protected, Anthony Cipolla. Cipolla was ordained in 1972. In 1978, he was charged with sexual abuse of a 9-year-old boy; these charges were dropped by the mother, who said she was pressured to do so by Bishop Vincent Leonard. In 1988 new charges were brought by another man, who said that Cipolla abused him from around 1981 to 1986; this case was settled in 1993, over Cipolla's objections. Cipolla consistently said that he never abused anyone. In 1988, Wuerl banned Cipolla from ministry and from identifying himself as a priest; Cipolla appealed to the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura, the Vatican's highest court, which ordered Wuerl to return him to ministry. Wuerl asked the court to reconsider the case on the grounds that its decision showed a lack of awareness of crucial facts such as a civil lawsuit and Cipolla's 1978 arrest for sexually abusing another boy. The court reversed its ruling in 1995 and upheld Cipolla's ban. Cipolla nonetheless continued to minister to the public forcing the diocese to make several public statements that Cipolla was not in good standing. In 2002, Cipolla was laicized by the pope. According to a Pittsburgh Post-Gazette article written in 2003, Wuerl had "a national reputation for zero tolerance of priests who molest minors" at the time. In 2010, Wuerl argued that the church had made progress in confronting abusers. He told Fox News Sunday that "we have succeeded in guaranteeing that if a priest is accused, and there is a credible allegation, he is simply removed from the ministry. That is reported to the authorities, and we begin to try to heal whatever was damaged in that abuse." 2018 grand jury report On August 14, 2018, a grand jury report released by Pennsylvania Attorney General Josh Shapiro alleged that the Catholic Church covered up sexual abuse cases. The report criticized how Wuerl had handled some cases during his tenure in Pittsburgh. Wuerl disputed the allegations, stating: "While I understand this report may be critical of some of my actions, I believe the report confirms that I acted with diligence, with concern for the victims and to prevent future acts of abuse." Shapiro disagreed with Wuerl's conclusions, saying, "Cardinal Wuerl is not telling the truth. Many of his statements in response to the Grand Jury Report are directly contradicted by the Church's own documents and records from their Secret Archives. Offering misleading statements now only furthers the cover up."The report said Wuerl made contributions to fighting sex abuse. This includes his successful effort, against resistance within the Vatican, between 1988 and 1995 to remove Anthony Cipolla for sexual abuse. However, Wuerl also allowed, based on the advice of multiple doctors, William O'Malley to return to active ministry in 1998, despite past allegations of abuse. O'Malley had admitted that he was sexually interested in adolescents. The report also stated that Wuerl had allowed Ernest Paone to be transferred to another diocese, despite a history of accusations of child abuse dating back to the early 1960s. George Zirwas had a long history of involvement in child sexual abuse, sometimes including sadism. He had also manufactured child pornography. Zirwas' actions were known in the Diocese of Pittsburgh as early as 1987, but he continued in ministry when Wuerl became bishop of Pittsburgh in 1988. In 1989, Wuerl authorized a $900,000 settlement, with confidentiality clauses, with two of Zirwas' victims, but Zirwas remained in ministry despite further complaints. After another complaint was made, Wuerl removed Zirwas in 1996. Eventually Zirwas moved to Cuba, where he was murdered in 2001. Another case cited in the report involves Father Ernest Paone. The report alleges that Paone had a history of sexual abuse allegations against him and was frequently moved to different parishes across the United States, and that in 1991 Wuerl approved of him transferring to the Diocese of Reno-Las Vegas despite the diocese being aware of the reports surrounding his behavior. A new complaint arose against Paone in 1994. According to the report:"Wuerl responded by dispatching letters notifying the relevant California and Nevada Dioceses of the 1994 complaint. However, Wuerl did not report the more detailed information contained within Diocesan records. The Diocese did not recall Paone; nor did it suspend his faculties as a priest. To the contrary, Paone continued to have the support of the Diocese." Reactions to report After the Pennsylvania grand jury report was released, Wuerl launched a website, "The Wuerl Record," containing a defense of his record during that era. Wuerl insisted that in responding to sexual abuse claims, he had "acted with diligence, with concern for the victims and to prevent future acts of abuse." Wuerl further faced "intense scrutiny" regarding his handling of sex abuse cases in the Diocese of Pittsburgh. A spokesman for the Archdiocese of Washington said Wuerl "has no intention of resigning." On August 20, 2018, Ave Maria Press announced that the release of a book written by Wuerl titled What Do You Want to Know? A Pastor's Response to the Most Challenging Questions About the Catholic Faith had been "indefinitely postponed." It had been scheduled for release in October 2018. On August 22, Pittsburgh Bishop David Zubik approved decisions by the boards of Cardinal Wuerl North Catholic High School and Catholic High Schools of the Diocese of Pittsburgh to grant Wuerl's request to remove his name from Cardinal Wuerl North Catholic High School. The school was to revert to its previous name, North Catholic High School. The decision was made after thousands petitioned for the change. In response to the allegations against Wuerl, political commentator Hugh Hewitt demanded that Wuerl be dismissed as archbishop of Washington and resign from the College of Cardinals. In a few days time over 60,000 people signed a petition to Pope Francis to remove Wuerl. In what CNN called a "growing Catholic insurgency," Wuerl faced more calls for his resignation, including from a priest in his archdiocese and many laymen across ideological lines. At the end of August, Wuerl flew to Rome, where he met with Pope Francis. The pope instructed Wuerl to confer with the priests of the archdiocese regarding his next steps. On September 3, Wuerl met with more than a hundred priests of the archdiocese. He told them he knew nothing about the allegations against McCarrick until they became public. Many priests offered their views; some encouraged Wuerl to resign while others encouraged him to "stay and be part of the church's healing process." On September 8, Deacon James Garcia, the master of ceremonies at St. Matthew's Cathedral in Washington, informed Wuerl that he was refusing to serve Wuerl at Mass anymore, due to Wuerl's handling of sexual abuse cases, and asked him to resign. Garcia also denied that this refusal to serve with Wuerl violated his vow of obedience to Wuerl as his bishop. Columnist Michael Sean Winters defended Wuerl's actions while bishop but said Wuerl's response to the report could hardly have been worse. Winters described the report as "spotty and inconsistent." Winters criticized the media response to the report and that it was weaponized by far-right groups such as Church Militant and LifeSiteNews in order to take down Wuerl and attack Pope Francis. Former New York Times reporter Peter Steinfels called the report "Grossly misleading, irresponsible, inaccurate, and unjust" noting that a third or more of the accusations were made known after the Dallas Charter and that such "inaccurate and incomplete" reports were used to push Wuerl out of office. Steinfels accused Shapiro of engineering the report in order to discredit church opposition. Alleged sexual abuse by Theodore McCarrick On August 25, 2018, Archbishop Carlo Maria Viganò, former papal nuncio to the United States, released an 11-page letter describing a series of warnings to the Vatican on sexual misconduct by Theodore McCarrick, Wuerl's predecessor as Archbishop of Washington, and subsequent alleged coverup by the Vatican and senior Church officials. Viganò stated that he had discussed McCarrick's conduct and the penalties surrounding it with Wuerl and accused him of putting seminarians at risk by allowing McCarrick to reside at the Redemptoris Mater Archdiocesan Seminary after his retirement despite knowing that he was accused of abusing seminarians. Through a spokesman, Wuerl denied that he was aware of McCarrick's misconduct prior to his removal from ministry, which took place on June 20, 2018. He also denied Viganò's claim that he knew of restrictions imposed on McCarrick by the Holy See. However, on January 10, 2019, The Washington Post published a story stating that Wuerl, despite his past denials, was aware of allegations against McCarrick in 2004 and reported them to the Vatican. Robert Ciolek, a former priest who reached a settlement in 2005 after accusing several Church officials including McCarrick of sexual misconduct, told the Post that he recently learned that the Diocese of Pittsburgh has a file that shows that Wuerl, who was Bishop of Pittsburgh at the time, was aware of his allegations against McCarrick and shared the information with then-Vatican ambassador Gabriel Montalvo Higuera. Both the Diocese of Pittsburgh and the Archdiocese of Washington subsequently acknowledged that Wuerl knew about and had reported Ciolek's allegation to the Vatican. The Archdiocese of Washington said that Wuerl did not intend to be "imprecise" in his earlier denials, and that they referred only to claims of abuse against minors, not adults. Days later, Wuerl himself apologized, stating that his earlier denials were the result of a "lapse of memory." Ciolek refused to believe that Wuerl forgot and did not accept his apology. On May 28, 2019, correspondence from McCarrick written in 2008 was published by Crux. In it, McCarrick refers to travel restrictions which were placed on him by Benedict XVI that same year after allegations of sexual misconduct. However, McCarrick gradually began to resume travelling. In a 2008 letter to Pietro Sambi, apostolic nuncio to the U.S., McCarrick wrote he had shared a Vatican letter explaining the restrictions with Wuerl, saying that his "help and understanding is, as always, a great help and fraternal support to me." However, a spokesperson for Wuerl denied that he had any knowledge of the sanctions. Pittsburgh-area Lawsuits On August 7, 2020, it was revealed that Wuerl was named as a defendant in a new sex abuse lawsuit which was filed in Allegheny County Common Pleas Court. The lawsuit claims that despite Wuerl's promise in 1994 that Rev. Leo Burchianti- who was accused of sexually abusing at least eight boys- would not receive a new church assignment, Wuerl and then-Father David Zubik gave him a voluntary work assignment at St. John Vianney Manor, a home for retired priests. Burchianti remained there from 1995 to 2012 and died in 2013. Wuerl has also been named as a defendant in other sex abuse lawsuits involving the Diocese of Pittsburgh as well. Retirement as Archbishop of Washington Wuerl submitted a letter of resignation in 2015, as is standard practice for any bishop who turns 75. On October 12, 2018, Pope Francis accepted Wuerl's resignation. Wuerl planned to resign in September and meet with Pope Francis before doing so. This did not happen and the Pope accepted his resignation via a letter. The letter said that Wuerl had sent a new letter to the Pope requesting that he accept his resignation on September 21. Francis appointed him to serve as apostolic administrator of the Archdiocese of Washington, D.C., until his successor was appointed. Wuerl departed as apostolic administrator when Wilton Gregory was installed as Archbishop on May 21, 2019. Though he stepped down, Wuerl has continued to receive financial compensation from the Archdiocese of Washington. In 2020, over $2 million was designated for "continuing ministry activities for [the] Archbishop Emeritus." Pope Francis praised Wuerl as a "model bishop" and his reply to the resignation offered this comment: "You have sufficient elements to justify your actions and distinguish between what it means to cover up crimes or not to deal with problems, and to commit some mistakes." A New York Times editorial criticized Pope Francis for the way he characterized Wuerl's resignation and handling of abuse cases. Pennsylvania Attorney General Josh Shapiro criticized the Pope's decision to allow Wuerl to resign without facing stronger consequences. On October 12, Wuerl wrote to members of the archdiocese and said, "I am sorry and ask for healing for all of those who were so deeply wounded at the hands of the Church's ministers. I also beg forgiveness on behalf of Church leadership from the victims who were again wounded when they saw these priests and bishops both moved and promoted." Selected writings The Forty Martyrs: New Saints of England and Wales (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 1971) Fathers of the Church (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 1975) The Catholic Priesthood Today (Chicago: Franciscan Herald Press, 1976) The Teaching of Christ: A Catholic Catechism for Adults (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 1976), co-author A Visit to the Vatican: For Young People (Boston: St. Paul Editions, 1981) The Gift of Faith: A Question and Answer Version of The Teaching of Christ (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 2001) The Catholic Way: Faith for Living Today (New York: Doubleday, 2001) The Sacraments: A Continuing Encounter with Christ (Our Sunday Visitor, 2010) The Mass: The Glory, The Mystery, The Tradition (New York: Doubleday, 2011) The Gift of Blessed John Paul II (Frederick, MD: The Word Among Us Press, 2011) Seek First the Kingdom: Challenging the Culture by Living Our Faith (Huntington: Our Sunday Visitor, 2011) Faith That Transforms Us: Reflections on the Creed (Frederick, MD: The Word Among Us Press, 2013) New Evangelization: Passing on the Catholic Faith Today (Our Sunday Visitor, 2013) The Church: Unlocking the Secrets to the Places Catholics Call Home (Image, 2013) The Light is On For You: The Life-Changing Power of Confession (Frederick, MD: The Word Among Us Press, 2014) The Feasts: How the Church Year Forms Us as Catholics (Image: 2014) Open to the Holy Spirit: Living the Gospel with Wisdom (Our Sunday Visitor, 2014) The Marriage God Wants For You (Frederick, MD: The Word Among Us Press, 2015) To the Martyrs: A Reflection on the Supreme Christian Witness (Emmaus Road Publishing, 2015) Ways to Pray: Growing Closer to God (Our Sunday Visitor, 2015) Pastoral letters as Archbishop of Washington "Being Catholic Today: Catholic Identity in an Age of Challenge" (So Católico Hoy: Identidad católica en una época de desafíos ), May 24, 2015 "Manifesting the Kingdom: A Pastoral Letter on the First Synod of the Archdiocese of Washington" (La Manifestación del Reino ), June 8, 2014 The Church, Our Spiritual Home (La Iglesia, Nuestro Hogar Espiritual ), September 14, 2012 "Disciples of the Lord: Sharing the Vision" , August 23, 2010 "God's Mercy and Loving Presence" (La Misericordia y la Amorosa Presencia de Dios ), January 3, 2010 "Belonging to God's Family" (Pertenciendo a la Familia de Dios ), January 25, 2009 "Catholic Education: Looking to the Future with Confidence" , September 14, 2008 "Reflections on God's Mercy And Our Forgiveness" (Reflexiones sobre la Misericordia de Dios y el Perdón ), January 1, 2008 "God's Mercy and the Sacrament of Penance" (La Misericordia de Dios y el Sacramento de la Penitencia ), January 8, 2007 See also Catholic Church hierarchy Catholic Church in the United States Historical list of the Catholic bishops of the United States List of Catholic bishops of the United States Lists of patriarchs, archbishops, and bishops References Further reading External links Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Washington Official Site Roman Catholic Diocese of Pittsburgh History of Bishops webpage 1940 births Living people Catholic University of America alumni Roman Catholic archbishops of Washington Roman Catholic bishops of Pittsburgh 20th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the United States 21st-century American cardinals American people of German descent Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas alumni Cardinals created by Pope Benedict XVI Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Seattle Pontifical North American College alumni Pontifical Gregorian University alumni Members of the Pontifical Council for Culture Members of the Congregation for the Clergy Members of the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith Members of the Congregation for Bishops Religious leaders from Washington (state) Members of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre American expatriates in Italy 21st-century Roman Catholic archbishops in the United States
5169750	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20literacy	Digital literacy	Digital literacy is an individual's ability to find, evaluate, and communicate information by utilizing typing or digital media platforms. It is a combination of both technical and cognitive abilities in using information and communication technologies to create, evaluate, and share information. While digital literacy initially focused on digital skills and stand-alone computers, the advent of the internet and the use of social media has resulted in a shift in some of its focus to mobile devices. Similar to other evolving definitions of literacy that recognize the cultural and historical ways of making meaning, digital literacy does not replace traditional methods of interpreting information, but rather extends the foundational skills of these traditional literacies. Digital literacy should be considered a part of the path towards acquiring knowledge. History Research into digital literacies has fallen along tracks of information literacy. This draws from traditions of information literacy and research into media literacy which rely on socio-cognitive traditions as well as research into multimodal composition which rely on anthropological methodologies. Digital literacy is built on the expanding role of social science research in the field of literacy as well as on concepts of visual literacy, computer literacy, and information literacy. The concept has evolved throughout the 20th and into the 21st century from a technical definition of skills and competencies to a broader comprehension of interacting with digital technologies. Digital literacy is often discussed in the context of its precursor, media literacy. Media literacy education began in the United Kingdom and the United States as a result of war propaganda in the 1930s and the rise of advertising in the 1960s, respectively. Manipulative messaging and the increase in various forms of media further concerned educators. Educators began to promote media literacy education to teach individuals how to judge and assess the media messages they were receiving. The ability to critique digital and media content allows individuals to identify biases and evaluate messages independently. Historically, digital literacy focused on source evaluation. Digital and media literacy include the ability to examine and comprehend the meaning of messages, judge credibility, and assess the quality of a digital work. With the rise of file sharing on services such as Napster an ethics element began to get included in definitions of digital literacy. Frameworks for digital literacy began to include goals and objectives such as becoming a socially responsible member of their community by spreading awareness and helping others find digital solutions at home, work, or on a national platform. Digital Literacy also began to include the production of multimodal texts This definition refermore to reading and writing on a digital device but includes the use of any modes across multiple mediums that stress Semiotic meaning beyond graphemes. It also involves knowledge of producing other forces of media, like recording and uploading video. Overall, digital literacy shares many defining principles with other fields that use modifiers in front of literacy to define ways of being and domain-specific knowledge or competence. The term has grown in popularity in education and higher education settings and is used in both international and national standards. Academic and pedagogical concepts The pedagogy of digital literacy has begun to move across disciplines. In academia, digital literacy is a part of the computing subject area alongside computer science and information technology. while some literacy scholars have argued for expanding the framing beyond Information Communication Technologies and into literacy education overall. Given the many varied implications that digital literacy has on students and educators, pedagogy has responded by emphasizing four specific models of engaging with digital mediums. Those four models are text-participating, code-breaking, text-analyzing, and text-using. These methods present students (and other learners) with the ability to fully engage with the media, but also enhance the way the individual can relate to the digital text to their lived experiences. 21st-century skills Digital literacy requires certain skill sets that are interdisciplinary in nature. Warschauer and Matuchniak (2010) list three skill sets, or 21st century skills, that individuals need to master in order to be digitally literate: information, media, and technology; learning and innovation skills; and life and career skills.. Aviram et al. assert that order to be competent in Life and Career Skills, it is also necessary to be able to exercise flexibility and adaptability, initiative and self-direction, social and cross-cultural skills, productivity and accountability, leadership and responsibility. Digital literacy is composed of different literacies, because of this fact, there is no need to search for similarities and differences. Some of these literacies are media literacy and information literacy. Aviram & Eshet-Alkalai contend that five types of literacies are encompassed in the umbrella term that is digital literacy. Reproduction literacy: the ability to use digital technology to create a new piece of work or combine existing pieces of work to make it your own. Photo-visual literacy: the ability to read and deduce information from visuals. Branching literacy: the ability to successfully navigate in the non-linear medium of digital space. Information literacy: the ability to search, locate, assess and critically evaluate information found on the web and on-shelf in libraries. Socio-emotional literacy: the social and emotional aspects of being present online, whether it may be through socializing, and collaborating, or simply consuming content. Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Digital Literacy Digital literacy skills continue to develop with the rapid advancements of artificial intelligence (AI) technologies in the 21st century. AI technologies are designed to simulate human intelligence through the use of complex systems such as machine learning algorithms, natural language processing, and robotics. As the field advances and transforms aspects of everyday life such as education, workplaces, and public services, individuals must develop the skills to appropriately understand and use these tools. As these technologies emerge, so have different attempts at defining AI literacy - the ability to understand the basic techniques and concepts behind AI in different products and services and how to use them effectively []. Many framings leverage existing digital literacy frameworks and apply an AI lens to the skills and competencies. Common elements of these frameworks include: Know and understand: know the basic functions of AI and how to use AI applications Use and apply: applying AI knowledge, concepts and applications in different scenarios Evaluate and create: higher-order thinking skills (e.g., evaluate, appraise, predict, design) Ethical issues: considering fairness, accountability, transparency, and safety with AI As AI continues to advance and become more integrated into daily life, being AI literate will be critical for individuals and organizations to effectively engage with AI technologies and to take advantage of their potential benefits while mitigating their potential risks and challenges. In society Digital literacy is necessary for the correct use of various digital platforms. Literacy in social network services and Web 2.0 sites help people stay in contact with others, pass timely information, and even buy and sell goods and services. Digital literacy can also prevent people from being taken advantage of online, as photo manipulation, E-mail frauds and phishing often can fool the digitally illiterate, costing victims money and making them vulnerable to identity theft. However, those using technology and the internet to commit these manipulations and fraudulent acts possess the digital literacy abilities to fool victims by understanding the technical trends and consistencies; it becomes important to be digitally literate to always think one step ahead when utilizing the digital world. The emergence of social media has paved the way for people to communicate and connect with one another in new and different ways. Websites like Facebook and Twitter, as well as personal websites and blogs, have enabled a new type of journalism that is subjective, personal, and "represents a global conversation that is connected through its community of readers." These online communities foster group interactivity among the digitally literate. Social media also help users establish a digital identity or a "symbolic digital representation of identity attributes." Without digital literacy or the assistance of someone who is digitally literate, one cannot possess a personal digital identity (this is closely allied to web literacy). Research has demonstrated that the differences in the level of digital literacy depend mainly on age and education level, while the influence of gender is decreasing. Among young people, digital literacy is high in its operational dimension. Young people rapidly move through hypertext and have a familiarity with different kinds of online resources. However, the skills to critically evaluate the content found online show a deficit. With the rise of digital connectivity amongst young people, concerns of digital safety are higher than ever. A study conducted in Poland, commissioned by the Ministry of National Knowledge measured the digital literacy of parents in regards to digital and online safety. It concluded that parents often overestimate their level of knowledge, but clearly had an influence on their children's attitude and behavior towards the digital world. It suggests that with proper training programs parents should have the knowledge in teaching their children about the safety precautions necessary to navigate the digital space. Digital divide Digital divide refers to the disparities among people - such as those living in developed and developing world - concerning access to and the use of information and communication technologies (ICT), particularly computer hardware, software, and the Internet. Individuals within societies that lack economic resources to build ICT infrastructure do not have adequate digital literacy, which means that their digital skills are limited. The divide can be explained by Max Weber's social stratification theory, which focuses on access to production rather ownership of the capital. The former becomes access to ICT so that an individual can accomplish interaction and produce information or create a product and that, without it, he or she cannot participate in the learning, collaboration, and production processes. Digital literacy and digital access have become increasingly important competitive differentiators for individuals using the internet meaningfully. In an article by Jen Schradie called, The Great Class Wedge and the Internet's Hidden Costs, she discusses how social class can affect digital literacy. This creates a digital divide. Research published in 2012 found that the digital divide, as defined by access to information technology, does not exist amongst youth in the United States. Young people report being connected to the internet at rates of 94-98%. There remains, however, a civic opportunity gap, where youth from poorer families and those attending lower socioeconomic status schools are less likely to have opportunities to apply their digital literacy. The digital divide is also defined as emphasizing the distinction between the “haves” and “have-nots,” and presented all data separately for rural, urban, and central-city categories. Also, existing research on the digital divide reveals the existence of personal categorical inequalities between young and old people. An additional interpretation identified the gap between technology accessed by youth outside and inside the classroom. Participation gap Media theorist Henry Jenkins coined the term participation gap and distinguished the participation gap from the digital divide. According to Jenkins, in countries like the United States, where nearly everyone has access to the internet, the concept of the digital divide does not provide enough insight. As such, Jenkins uses the term participation gap to develop a more nuanced view of access to the internet. Instead of referring to the "have's" vs "have-nots" when referring to digital technologies, Jenkins proposes the participation gap refers to people who have sustained access to and competency with digital technologies due to media convergence. Jenkins states that students learn different sets of technology skills if they only have access to the internet in a library or school. In particular, Jenkins observes that students who have access to the internet at home have more opportunities to develop their skills and have fewer limitations, such as computer time limits and website filters commonly used in libraries. The participation gap is geared toward millennials. As of 2008, when this study was created they were the oldest generation to be born in the age of technology. As of 2008 more technology has been integrated into the classroom. The issue with digital literacy is that students have access to the internet at home which is equivalent to what they interact with in class. Some students only have access while at school and in a library. They aren't getting enough or the same quality of the digital experience. This creates the participation gap, along with an inability to understand digital literacy. Digital rights Digital rights are an individual's rights that allow them freedom of expression and opinion in an online setting, with roots centered on human theoretical and practical rights. It encompasses the individual's privacy rights when using the Internet, and is essentially responsible for how an individual uses different technologies and how content is distributed and mediated. Government officials and policymakers use digital rights as a springboard for enacting and developing policies and laws in order to obtain rights online the same way we obtain rights in real life. Private organizations who possess their own online infrastructures also develop rights specific to their property. In today's world, most, if not all materials have shifted into an online setting and public policy has had a major influence in supporting this movement. Going beyond traditional academics, ethical rights such as copyright, citizenship and conversation can be attributed to digital literacy because tools and materials nowadays can be easily copied, borrowed, stolen, and repurposed, as literacy is collaborative and interactive, especially in a networked world. Digital citizenship Digital citizenship refers to the "right to participate in society online". It is connected to the notion of state-based citizenship which is determined by the country or region in which one was born as well as the idea of being a 'dutiful citizen who participates in the electoral process and online through mass media. A literate digital citizen possesses the skills to read, write and interact with online communities via screens and has an orientation for social justice. This is best described in the article Digital Citizenship during a Global Pandemic: Moving beyond Digital Literacy, "Critical digital civic literacy, as is the case of democratic citizenship more generally, requires moving from learning about citizenship to participating and engaging in democratic communities face‐to‐face, online, and in all the spaces in between." Through the various digital skills and literacy one gains, one is able to effectively solve social problems which might arise through social platforms. Additionally, digital citizenship has three online dimensions: higher wages, democratic participation, and better communication opportunities which arise from the digital skills acquired. Digital citizenship also refers to online awareness and the ability to be safe and responsible online. This idea came from the rise of social media in the past decade which has enhanced global connectivity and faster interaction. The idea of a good 'digital citizen' directly correlates with knowledge of how react to instances of predatory online behaviors, such as cyberbullying. Digital natives and digital immigrants Marc Prensky invented and popularized the terms digital natives and digital immigrants to describe respectively an individual born into the digital age and one adopting the appropriate skills later in life. A digital immigrant refers to an individual who adopts technology later in life. These two groups of people have had different interactions with technology since birth, a generational gap. This directly links to their individual unique relationship with digital literacy. Digital natives brought upon the creation of ubiquitous information systems (UIS). These systems include mobile phones, laptop computers and personal digital assistants. They have also expanded to cars and buildings (smart cars and smart homes), creating a new unique technological experience. Carr claims that digital immigrants, although they adapt to the same technology as natives, possess a sort of accent which restricts them from communicating the way natives do. Research shows that, due to the brain's malleable nature, technology has changed the way today's students read, perceive, and process information. Marc Prensky believes this is a problem because today's students have a vocabulary and skill set educators (who at the time of his writing would be digital immigrants) may not fully understand. Statistics and popular representations of the elderly portray them as digital immigrants. For example, Canada 2010 found that 29% of its citizens were 75 years of age and older, and 60% of its citizens between the ages of 65-74 had browsed the internet in the past month. Conversely, internet activity reached almost 100% among its 15 through 24-year-old citizens. However, the concept of a digital native has been contested. According to two studies, it was found that students over the age of 30 were more likely to possess characteristics of a digital native when compared to their younger peers. 58% of the students that participated in the study were over 30 years old. One study conducted by Margaryan, Littlejohn, and Vojt (2011) found that while college students born after 1984 are frequently using the internet and other digital technology, they show restricted use of technologies for educational and socializing purposes. In another study conduced at Hong Kong University, it was found that young students are using technology as a means of consuming entertainment and readily made content, rather than creating or engaging with academic content. Applications of digital literacy In education Society is trending towards a technology-dependent world. It is now necessary to implement digital technology in education; this often includes computers in the classroom, the use of educational software to teach curricula, and course materials being made available to students online. Students are often taught literacy skills such as how to verify credible sources online, cite websites, and prevent plagiarism. Google and Wikipedia are frequently used by students "for everyday life research," and are just two common tools that facilitate modern education. Digital technology has impacted the way materials are taught in the classroom. With the use of technology rising this century, educators are altering traditional forms of teaching to include course material on concepts related to digital literacy. Educators have also turned to social media platforms to communicate and share ideas with one another. Social media and social networks have become a crucial part of the information landscape. Social media allows educators to communicate and collaborate with one another without having to use traditional educational tools. Restrictions such as time and location can be overcome with the use of social media-based education. New models of learning are being developed with digital literacy in mind. Several countries have based their models on the emphasis of finding new digital didactics to implement as they find more opportunities and trends through surveys conducted with educators and college instructors. Additionally, these new models of learning in the classroom have aided in promoting global connectivity and have enabled students to become globally-minded citizens. According to one study by Stacy Delacruz, Virtual Field Trips (VFT), a new form of multimedia presentation, have gained popularity over the years in that they offer the "opportunity for students to visit other places, talk to experts and participate in interactive learning activities without leaving the classroom". They have been used as a vessel for supporting cross-cultural collaboration amongst schools which includes: "improved language skills, greater classroom engagement, deeper understandings of issues from multiple perspectives, and an increased sensitivity to multicultural differences". They also allow students to be the creators of their own digital content, a core standard from The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE). The COVID-19 pandemic pushed education into a more digital and online experience where teachers had to adapt to new levels of digital competencies in software to continue the education system. As academic institutions discontinued all in-person activity, different online meeting platforms were utilized for communication. An estimated 84% of the global student body was affected by this sudden closure due to the pandemic. Because of this sudden transition, there had been a clear disparity in student and school preparedness for digital education due in large part to a divide in digital skills and literacy that both the students and educators experience. For example, countries like Croatia had begun work on digitalizing its schools through countrywide digitalization efforts. In a pilot initiative, 920 instructors and over 6,000 pupils from 151 schools received computers, tablets, and presentation equipment, as well as improved connection and teacher training. When the pandemic struck, pilot schools were ready to begin offering online programs within two days. The switch to online learning has also brought about some concerns regarding learning effectiveness, exposure to cyber risks, and lack of socialization. These prompted the need to implement changes to how students are able to learn much-needed digital skills and develop digital literacy. As a response, the DQ (Digital Intelligence) Institute, designed a common framework for enhancing digital literacy, digital skills, and digital readiness. Attention and focus was also brought on the development of digital literacy on higher education. A study in Spain measured the digital knowledge of 4883 teachers of all education levels over the last school years and found that their digital skills required further training to advance new learning models for the digital age. Training programs have been proposed favoring the joint framework of INTEF (Spanish acronym for National Institute of Educational Technologies and Teacher Training) as reference. In Europe, the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu) developed a framework to address and promote the development of digital literacy. It is divided into six branches (professional engagement, digital sources resources, teaching and learning, assessment, empowering learners & facilitating learners’ digital competence). The European Commission also developed the Digital Education Action Plan which focuses on using the COVID-19 pandemic experience as a learning point where technology is being used at a large scale for education, and being able to adapt the systems used for leaning and training towards the digital age. The framework is divided into two main strategic priorities: fostering the development of a high-performing digital education ecosystem and enhancing digital skills and competencies for digital transformation. Digital competences In 2013 the Open Universiteit Nederland released an article defining twelve digital competence areas. These areas are based on the knowledge and skills people have to acquire to be a literate person. A. General knowledge and functional skills. Knowing the basics of digital devices and using them for elementary purposes. B. Use in everyday life. Being able to integrate digital technologies into the activities in everyday life. C. Specialized and advanced competence in work and creative expression. Being able to use ICT (Information and Communication Technologies) to express your creativity and improve your professional performance. D. Technology-mediated communication and collaboration. Being able to connect, share, communicate, and collaborate with others effectively in a digital environment. E. Information processing and management. Using technology to improve your ability to gather, analyze, and judge the relevance and purpose of digital information. F. Privacy and security. Being able to protect your privacy and take appropriate security measures. G. Legal and ethical aspects. Behaving appropriately and in a socially responsible way in the digital environment and being aware of the legal and ethical aspects of the use of ICT. H. Balanced attitude towards technology. Demonstrating an informed, open-minded, and balanced attitude towards information society and the use of digital technologies. I. Understanding and awareness of the role of ICT in society. Understanding the broader context of use and development of ICT. J. Learning about and with digital technologies. Exploring emerging technologies and integrating them. K. Informed decisions on appropriate digital technologies. Being aware of the most relevant or common technologies. L. Seamless use demonstrating self-efficacy. Confidently and creatively applying digital technologies to increase personal and professional effectiveness and efficiency. The competencies mentioned are based on each other. Competencies A, B, and C are the basic knowledge and skills a person has to have to be a fully digitally literate person. When these three competencies are acquired you can build upon this knowledge and those skills to build the other competencies. Digital writing University of Southern Mississippi professor, Dr. Suzanne Mckee-Waddell conceptualized the idea of digital composition as the ability to integrate multiple forms of communication technologies and research to create a better understanding of a topic. Digital writing is a pedagogy being taught increasingly in universities. It is focused on the impact technology has had on various writing environments; it is not simply the process of using a computer to write. Educators in favor of digital writing argue that it is necessary because "technology fundamentally changes how writing is produced, delivered, and received." The goal of teaching digital writing is that students will increase their ability to produce a relevant, high-quality product, instead of just a standard academic paper. One aspect of digital writing is the use of hypertext or LaTeX. As opposed to printed text, hypertext invites readers to explore information in a non-linear fashion. Hypertext consists of traditional text and hyperlinks that send readers to other texts. These links may refer to related terms or concepts (such is the case on Wikipedia), or they may enable readers to choose the order in which they read. The process of digital writing requires the composer to make unique "decisions regarding linking and omission." These decisions "give rise to questions about the author's responsibilities to the [text] and objectivity." In the workforce The 2014 Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) defines digital literacy skills as a workforce preparation activity. In the modern world employees are expected to be digitally literate, having full digital competence. Those who are digitally literate are more likely to be economically secure, as many jobs require a working knowledge of computers and the Internet to perform basic tasks. Additionally, digital technologies such as mobile devices, production suites and collaboration platforms are ubiquitous in most office workplaces and are often crucial in daily tasks as many White collar jobs today are performed primarily using said devices and technology. Many of these jobs require proof of digital literacy to be hired or promoted. Sometimes companies will administer their tests to employees, or official certification will be required. A study on the role of digital literacy in the EU labour market found that individuals are more likely to be employed the more digitally literate they are. As technology has become cheaper and more readily available, more blue-collar jobs have required digital literacy as well. Manufacturers and retailers, for example, are expected to collect and analyze data about productivity and market trends to stay competitive. Construction workers often use computers to increase employee safety. In entrepreneurship The acquisition of digital literacy is also important when it comes to starting and growing new ventures. The emergence of World Wide Web and digital platforms has led to a plethora of new digital products or services that can be bought and sold. Entrepreneurs are at the forefront of this development, using digital tools or infrastructure to deliver physical products, digital artifacts, or Internet-enabled service innovations. Research has shown that digital literacy for entrepreneurs consists of four levels (basic usage, application, development, and transformation) and three dimensions (cognitive, social, and technical). At the lowest level, entrepreneurs need to be able to use access devices as well as basic communication technologies to balance safety and information needs. As they move to higher levels of digital literacy, entrepreneurs will be able to master and manipulate more complex digital technologies and tools, enhancing the absorptive capacity and innovative capability of their venture. In a similar vein, if Small to Medium Enterprises(SME's) possess the ability to adapt to dynamic shifts in technology, then they can take advantage of trends, marketing campaigns as well as communication to consumers in order to generate more demand for their goods and services. Moreover, if entrepreneurs are digitally literate, then online platforms like social media can further help businesses receive feedback and generate community engagement that could potentially boost their business's performance as well as their brand image. A research paper published in The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics and Business provides critical insight that suggests digital literacy has the greatest influence on the performance of SME entrepreneurs. The authors suggest their findings can help craft performance development strategies for said SME entrepreneurs and argue their research shows the essential contribution of digital literacy in developing business and marketing networks. Additionally, the study found digitally literate entrepreneurs are able to communicate and reach wider markets than non-digitally literate entrepreneurs because of the use web-management and e-commerce platforms supported by data analysis and coding. That said, constraints do exist for SME's to use e-commerce. Some of these constraints include lack of technical understanding of information technologies, high cost of internet access (especially for those in rural/underdeveloped areas), and other constraints. Global impact The United Nations included digital literacy in its 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, under thematic indicator 4.4.2, which encourages the development of digital literacy proficiency in teens and adults to facilitate educational and professional opportunities and growth. International initiatives like the Global Digital Literacy Council (GDLC) and the Coalition for Digital Intelligence (CDI) have also highlighted the need for, and strategies to address, digital literacy on a global scale. The CDI, under the umbrella of the DQ Institute, created a Common Framework for Digital Literacy, Skills, and Readiness in 2019 that conceptualizes eight areas of digital life (identity, use, safety, security, emotional intelligence, communication, literacy, and rights), three levels of maturity (citizenship, creativity, and competitiveness), and three components of competency (knowledge, attitudes and values, and skills; or, what, why, and how). The UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS) also works to create, gather, map, and assess common frameworks on digital literacy across multiple member states around the world. In an attempt to narrow the Digital Divide, on September 26, 2018, the United States Senate Foreign Relations Committee passed legislation to help provide access to the internet in developing countries via the H.R.600 Digital Global Access Policy Act. The legislation itself was based on Senator Ed Markey's Digital Age Act, which was first introduced to the senate in 2016. In addition, Senator Markey provided a statement after the act was passed through the Senate: “American ingenuity created the internet and American leadership should help bring its power to the developing world,” said Senator Markey. “Bridging the global digital divide can help promote prosperity, strengthen democracy, expand educational opportunity and lift some of the world’s poorest and most vulnerable out of poverty. The Digital GAP Act is a passport to the 21st-century digital economy, linking the people of the developing world to the most successful communications and commerce tool in history. I look forward to working with my colleagues to get this legislation signed into law and to harness the power of the internet to help the developing world." The Philippines' Education Secretary Jesli Lapus has emphasized the importance of digital literacy in Filipino education. He claims a resistance to change is the main obstacle to improving the nation's education in the globalized world. In 2008, Lapus was inducted into Certiport's "Champions of Digital Literacy" Hall of Fame for his work emphasizing digital literacy. A study done in 2011 by the Southern African Linguistics & Applied Language Studies program observed some South African university students regarding digital literacy. It was found that while their courses did require some sort of digital literacy, very few students actually had access to a computer. Many had to pay others to type any work, as their digital literacy was almost nonexistent. Findings show that class, ignorance, and inexperience still affect any access to learning South African university students may need. See also Computer literacy Cyber self-defense Data literacy Information literacies Web literacy Media literacy Digital intelligence Digital rhetoric Digital rights Digital citizen References Bibliography Vuorikari, R., Punie, Y., Gomez, S. C., & Van Den Brande, G. (2016). DigComp 2.0: The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens. Update Phase 1: The Conceptual Reference Model (No. JRC101254). Institute for Prospective Technological Studies, Joint Research Centre. https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/digcomp and https://ec.europa.eu/jrc/en/publication/eur-scientific-and-technical-research-reports/digcomp-20-digital-competence-framework-citizens-update-phase-1-conceptual-reference-model External links digitalliteracy.gov An initiative of the Obama administration to serve as a valuable resource to practitioners who are delivering digital literacy training and services in their communities. digitalliteracy.org A Clearinghouse of Digital Literacy and Digital Inclusion best practices from around the world. DigitalLiteracy.us A reference guide for public educators on the topic of digital literacy. Digital divide Literacy
5170095	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Grey%27s%20Anatomy%20characters	List of Grey's Anatomy characters	Grey's Anatomy is an American television medical drama series created by Shonda Rhimes and broadcast by ABC. The show features an ensemble cast of lead characters, along with multiple supporting cast members. During its first season, the show featured nine lead characters. Throughout subsequent seasons, many characters have been written out, either due to actors electing to depart the show or due to screenwriters altering character arcs. The following is a list of characters by role type who have appeared over the various seasons since the drama's premiere. Main characters Chiefs of surgery Department chiefs Attending physicians Although he only appeared in the first five episodes of the fourteenth season, Martin Henderson was still billed as a primary cast member in those five episodes. Surgical fellows Resident physicians Surgical interns Supporting characters Hospital surgeons The following listings reflect each character's status at the time of their first appearance on staff at Seattle Grace/Seattle Grace Mercy West/Grey Sloan Memorial. Attending physicians Resident Physicians Surgical interns Hospital nurses Other hospital physicians Non-staff physicians Family members Meredith Grey's family Ellis Grey (Kate Burton, Sarah Paulson–1982 flashback, Sally Pressman-1983 flashbacks): Meredith's mother and Maggie's biological mother, a highly respected surgeon who trained at Seattle Grace with Richard Webber. During their residency, she and Richard had an affair. She left her husband Thatcher for Richard, but he could not bring himself to leave his wife. After her residency, she left Seattle to take a position at Mass General. She also worked at the Mayo Clinic. She has won the Harper Avery award twice, and she invented the laparoscopic Grey method. She developed early-onset Alzheimer's shortly before Meredith started medical school and, at the start of the show, she has been placed in Roseridge Home for Extended Care, a nursing home. She dies of cardiac arrest during Season 3. In the episode "Drowning on Dry Land," she appears to her daughter Meredith, encouraging her to go back and live her life. She also appears in an alternate-reality episode from Season 8, called "If/then." In the Season 11 episode, "She's Leaving Home," Meredith gives birth to a daughter, whom she named after her mother. In the Season 14 episode, "Who Lives, Who Dies, Who Tells Your Story," she appears in an OR gallery as an image applauding Meredith as she wins her first Harper Avery award. Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry): Father of Meredith, Lexie, and Molly Grey. He was married to Ellis Grey, Meredith's mother, for about seven years. They divorced after she had an affair with Richard Webber. Thatcher blames Ellis for his estrangement from Meredith, saying Ellis is "cold" and won't let him get to know his daughter. After his first family's disintegration, Thatcher remained in Seattle and married his second wife, Susan. They had two daughters, Lexie and Molly. After Meredith moves to Seattle for her residency, Susan encourages Thatcher and Meredith to develop a relationship. However, Susan's sudden death devastates Thatcher, and he blames her death on Meredith. He becomes an alcoholic, and Lexie has to give up a residency at Massachusetts General Hospital to move to Seattle to care for her father. He eventually enters rehab and apologizes to his daughters. However, his alcoholism has destroyed his liver, and Meredith has to give him a portion of hers to save his life. In season 15, he has not spoken to Meredith since Lexie died and suffers from acute myeloid leukemia. Before he dies, he makes amends with Meredith. Susan Grey (Mare Winningham): Meredith's stepmother, who was aware of Meredith though she had not met her until Molly becomes a patient at Seattle Grace. She reaches out to Meredith and encourages her to develop a relationship with Thatcher. At first, Meredith resists Susan's attempts to mother her but eventually thinks of Susan as a surrogate mother. She dies following a rare complication from a routine procedure to treat her acid reflux and hiccups. Molly Grey-Thompson (Mandy Siegfried): Daughter of Thatcher and Susan Grey, Lexie's younger full sister and Meredith's half-sister. She proposes to her husband, Eric, before being shipped out by the military to be stationed in Iraq. Originally a patient at Mercy West, Molly transfers to Seattle Grace when she is 32 weeks pregnant, and Addison operates to repair a congenital diaphragmatic hernia in Molly's baby. She later gives birth to a daughter, whom she names Laura. Laura Thompson: Daughter of Molly Grey and Eric Thompson and Lexie's niece and Meredith's half-niece. She is born prematurely and kept at Seattle Grace Hospital several weeks after her birth, prompting her grandfather, Thatcher Grey, to hang around. Alexandra "Lexie" Grey (Chyler Leigh): Meredith Grey's half-sister. Daughter of Thatcher and Susan Grey. She and Meredith have a rocky relationship at the start but become close as the show progresses. She and Mark Sloan are in a long-term relationship before they are killed in a plane crash. Margaret "Maggie" Pierce (Kelly McCreary): Daughter of Ellis Grey and Richard Webber. Meredith's half-sister. Born in Boston, after Ellis and Meredith moved there, leaving Thatcher in Seattle, she was given up for adoption. She becomes a skilled heart surgeon and eventually moves to Seattle, becoming Chief of Cardio at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital after Cristina Yang leaves. Derek Shepherd (Patrick Dempsey): Meredith's husband since Season 5, legally since Season 7. He was originally married to Addison Montgomery; they divorced in the third season. Derek is the father of Zola Grey Shepherd, Derek Bailey Shepherd, and Ellis Shepherd. In season 11, episode 21, "How To Save A Life," his car is T-boned by a semi; he dies of a head injury. Zola Grey Shepherd: Daughter of Meredith and Derek who is brought over with the children from Africa under the direction of Karev in Season 7. She has a spinal disease, is treated by Derek with a shunt, and he and Meredith adopted her. Derek Bailey Shepherd: Son of Meredith and Derek, delivered via C-section due to a face presentation. The obstetrician who operates on Meredith is called away, and an intern completes the stitching. She begins bleeding from everywhere. Meredith diagnoses herself as in DIC. Miranda performs a spleen removal, which saves Meredith's life. Derek and Meredith name their baby after Miranda Bailey. Ellis Shepherd: Second daughter of Meredith and Derek. She was born during the time jump after Derek's funeral in "She's Leaving Home." Lexie Grey's family Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo): The daughter of Thatcher Grey and Ellis Grey. Meredith is Lexie's older half-sister, whom Lexie meets at the beginning of the fourth season. Although Meredith isn't initially fond of Lexie and does not wish to know her, Meredith eventually warms up to Lexie, and the two become extremely close until Lexie's death. Susan Grey (Mare Winningham): The second wife of Thatcher Grey, and mother of Lexie Grey and Molly Grey-Thompson. Susan was always aware of Thatcher's first wife and daughter, but she doesn't meet Meredith until Molly is a patient at Seattle Grace. She reaches out to Meredith and encourages her to develop a relationship with Thatcher. At first, Meredith resists Susan's attempts to mother her but eventually thinks of Susan as a surrogate mother. Susan dies suddenly, following a rare complication from a routine procedure to treat her acid reflux and hiccups. Thatcher is devastated by her death and became an alcoholic. Thatcher Grey (Jeff Perry): Father of Meredith, Lexie, and Molly Grey. He was married to Ellis Grey, Meredith's mother, for about seven years. They divorced after she had an affair with Richard Webber. Thatcher blames Ellis for his estrangement from Meredith, saying Ellis is "cold" and won't let him get to know his daughter. After his first family's disintegration, Thatcher remained in Seattle and married his second wife, Susan. They had two daughters, Lexie and Molly. After Meredith moves to Seattle for her residency, Susan encourages Thatcher and Meredith to develop a relationship. However, Susan's sudden death devastates Thatcher, and he blames her death on Meredith. He becomes an alcoholic, and Lexie has to give up a residency at Massachusetts General Hospital to move to Seattle to care for her father. He eventually enters rehab and apologizes to his daughters. However, his alcoholism has destroyed his liver, and Meredith has to give him a portion of hers to save his life. Molly Grey-Thompson (Mandy Siegfried): Daughter of Thatcher and Susan Grey, Lexie's younger sister and Meredith's half-sister. She proposes to her husband, Eric, before being shipped out by the military to be stationed in Iraq. Originally a patient at Mercy West, Molly transfers to Seattle Grace when she is 32 weeks pregnant, and Addison operates to repair a congenital diaphragmatic hernia in Molly's baby. She later gives birth to a daughter, whom she names Laura. Laura Thompson: Daughter of Molly Grey and Eric Thompson and Lexie's niece and Meredith's half-niece. She is born premature and kept at Seattle Grace Hospital several weeks after her birth, prompting her grandfather Thatcher Grey to hang around. Niece of Alexandra (Lexie) Grey. Zola Grey Shepherd (Jela K. Moore, Heaven White): Daughter of Meredith and Derek and half-nieces of Lexie, who is brought over with the children from Africa under the direction of Karev in Season 7. She has a spinal disease but is treated by Derek with a shunt. They later adopt her. She is the half-niece of Alexandra (Lexie) Grey. Derek Bailey Shepherd: Son of Meredith and Derek, delivered via C-section because he is not in the correct position. While stitching Meredith up, the obstetrician who operates on Meredith is called away to another patient, and an intern completes the stitching. When she begins bleeding from everywhere, Meredith diagnoses herself as in DIC. Miranda performs a spleen removal, which saves Meredith's life. Derek and Meredith name their baby after Miranda Bailey. He is the half-nephew of Alexandra (Lexie) Grey, although never met by Lexie as she dies before Bailey is born. Ellis Shepherd: Second daughter of Meredith and Derek and Lexie's half-niece. She was born during the time jump after Derek's funeral in "She's Leaving Home." She is the half-niece of Alexandra (Lexie) Grey, although Lexie never meets Ellis as she dies before the baby is born. Derek Shepherd's family Meredith Grey (Ellen Pompeo): Derek's second wife until season 11 episode 21, "How To Save A Life," when he dies of a head injury after a semi t-bones his car. She is the mother of Zola, Bailey, and Ellis. Addison Montgomery (Kate Walsh): Derek's first wife who cheated on him with Mark. She comes to Seattle at Richard's request, and the two attempt to reconcile. She ultimately moves to Los Angeles. Amelia Shepherd (Caterina Scorsone): Derek's sister and the youngest Shepherd child. She and Derek witnessed their father being murdered. She became addicted to prescription medication before crashing Derek's car while under the influence. Amelia worked with Addison in Los Angeles and is her son's godmother. She has slept with Mark (as have Nancy and Addison before her). She is currently Chief of Neuro at Grey Sloan. Zola Grey Shepherd (Jela K. Moore, Heaven White): Daughter of Meredith and Derek, who is brought over with the children from Africa under the direction of Karev in Season 7. She has a spinal disease but is treated by Derek with a shunt. They later adopt her. Derek Bailey Shepherd: Son of Meredith Grey and Derek Shepherd, delivered via C-section because he is not in the correct position. While stitching Meredith up, the obstetrician who operates on Meredith is called away to another patient, and an intern completes the stitching. When she begins bleeding from everywhere, Meredith diagnoses herself as in DIC. Miranda performs a spleen removal, which saves Meredith's life. Derek and Meredith name their baby after Miranda Bailey. Ellis Shepherd: Second daughter of Meredith and Derek, born nine months after Derek's death. Carolyn Maloney-Shepherd (Tyne Daly): Derek's mother, who cared for Derek and his sisters after her husband was murdered. She disapproved of Addison and felt that Derek was much more suited to being with Meredith. Because she thought that Amelia's personality resembled her father, Carolyn distanced herself from her youngest daughter out of grief, which strained their relationship as she let Derek regretfully take responsibility for watching out for Amelia. Kathleen "Kate" Shepherd (Amy Acker): One of Derek's sisters, initially only mentioned in passing before appearing in "Good Shepherd", apparently is married to a diplomat and has children. Derek mentions she is a therapist, though Amelia later indicates she is a psychiatrist. She and Nancy have a poor relationship with Amelia. Liz Shepherd (Neve Campbell): One of Derek's sisters, also married with children. After the nerves in Derek's hand are damaged in a plane crash, she donates a nerve in her leg to repair his hand. Like her siblings, she is a doctor though her specialty is unknown and though it is unlikely that she is a psychiatrist or a neurosurgeon. She tries to encourage Meredith to reach out to the Shepherds more because they are family. Nancy Shepherd (Embeth Davidtz): One of Derek's sisters. She slept with Mark (as revealed in the episode "Let The Angels Commit"). She tells her brother, "Come on, Derek. Everyone sleeps with Mark." She dislikes Meredith and admires Addison, possibly due to their being OB/GYN doctors. Alexandra "Lexie" Caroline Grey (Chyler Leigh): Becomes Derek's half sister-in-law when he and Meredith Grey marry. Lexie later dies in the plane crash in the season 8 finale titled 'Flight.' Margaret "Maggie" Pierce (Kelly McCreary): Becomes Derek's half-sister-in-law when he and Meredith marry. Scout Derek Shepherd-Lincoln: Son of Amelia and Link, therefore Derek's nephew. He was born in the Season 16 finale, and he was named in the Season 17 premiere. Cristina Yang's family Helen Yang Rubenstein (Tsai Chin): Cristina's mother. Helen and Cristina's father divorced (Cristina watched her father die as they were both in a car accident), and she remarried Dr. Saul Rubenstein, an oral surgeon when Cristina was three. She thinks Cristina should focus more on getting married and less on her career. Izzie Stevens's family Alex Karev (Justin Chambers): Izzie's ex-husband and current lover. The two of them divorced in season 6 but reconciled in season 16 after Alex visits her in Kansas and learns that she is raising their two children. Hannah Klein (Liv Hutchings): The adoptive daughter of Caroline and Dustin Klein, and the biological child of Izzie Stevens (born 1996). In the third season, an 11-year-old Hannah is admitted to Seattle Grace Hospital with leukemia, and Izzie donates bone marrow to her. However, Hannah's parents believed she was too exhausted from treatment to meet her mother. Robbie Stevens (Sharon Lawrence): Izzie's mother, who now works as a waitress. Denny Duquette Jr. (Jeffrey Dean Morgan): Izzie's 36-year-old fiancé for a short time before he died of a stroke after receiving a heart transplant. In his will, he leaves Izzie $8,700,000, with which she opens the "Denny Duquette Memorial Clinic" that provides free health checkups to patients. Eli Stevens and Alexis Stevens (Mark Nunez and Kennedy Bryan): Fraternal twin son and daughter of Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev (born 2014). Izzie decided to freeze her eggs during the fifth season episode "Elevator Love Letter" when she was diagnosed with cancer, as they would not survive the cancer treatment. But, to give them a better chance at being viable, Alex fertilized them as embryos had a stronger chance for survival. When Alex called Izzie for help during Meredith's medical license trial, he discovers he is a father—something his second wife theorized was a possibility in the twelfth season episode "I Choose You". Richard Webber's family Camille Travis (Tessa Thompson / Camille Winbush): Adele's niece, daughter of Adele's sister Arlene. She was diagnosed with ovarian cancer when she was 14, and the cancer returns when she is a senior in high school. Dr. Bailey orders the interns to plan a prom in the hospital for her. Arlene Travis (Shelley Robertson): Adele's sister and Camille's mother. Adele Webber (Loretta Devine): Dr. Webber's first wife. Frequently frustrated by his devotion to the hospital, she eventually leaves him. She becomes pregnant with his child but has a miscarriage. They later reconciled. She was diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease. She dies of a heart attack in the Season 9 winter premiere. Catherine Fox (Debbie Allen): Richard's second wife, whom he marries in season 11. Margaret "Maggie" Pierce (Kelly McCreary): Richard's biological daughter with Ellis Grey. George O'Malley's family Harold O'Malley (George Dzundza): Father of George, he was a truck driver with a passion for vintage cars. He was married for 40 years to his wife, Louise, and they had three sons: Jerry, Ronny, and George. He is very proud of all of his sons, but he often has trouble relating to George. He is admitted to Seattle Grace with esophageal cancer that has spread to his stomach, as well as a leaking aortic valve. He undergoes surgery to replace the valve successfully and later has a second surgery to determine the extent of the cancer. Before the second surgery, he asks Dr. Webber and Dr. Bailey to remove the tumor regardless of the risk to give him a chance to fight the cancer. The surgery proves too much for his body and, after several days, he goes into multi-system organ failure, which prompts the family to remove him from life support. Jerry O'Malley (Greg Pitts): George's brother, who works at a dry cleaner. Louise O'Malley (Debra Monk): George's mother, who works as a teacher. George seems to find her a little overbearing and is often embarrassed by her good-natured gestures, such as setting out breakfast for the interns during rounds and offering to iron his scrubs. She is a devout Catholic, and she is very upset when George and Callie get divorced. Ronny O'Malley (Tim Griffin): George's brother, who works at the post office. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez): George's ex-wife. They get married in Las Vegas in Season 3 and later divorce in Season 4 because George is in love with Izzie. Alex Karev's family Izzie Stevens (Katherine Heigl): Alex's first wife and current lover, a former Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital surgical resident and later surgical oncologist whom he divorces in season 6 but reconciles with in season 16. Jo Karev (Camilla Luddington): Alex's second wife, a surgical innovation fellow who works at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital and who he later divorces in season 16 to go live with ex-wife Izzie Stevens. Jimmy Evans (James Remar): Alex's father, a heroin addict, who was often gone during his childhood. He used to beat Alex and Aaron, while Amber was too young during that time to recall Jimmy's behavior to her brothers. It's still unexplained how he disappeared from Alex's life, but since Alex, Aaron, and Amber spent most of their childhood in and out of foster care, it's assumed he just left. Because of how Jimmy beat up Alex's mother, Alex became a wrestler to defend his mother. In season ten, he returns unknowingly into Alex's life due to being brought to Grey Sloan Hospital for treatment. By then, it has been revealed that he was living as a struggling musician. After arriving in an ambulance, he asks Alex for something, which causes Alex to realize the patient might be his father. Though Alex does not want to know the result of a DNA-match suggested by Jo, she reveals the results anyway, which confirms that Jimmy is Alex's father. Alex begins secretly visiting the bar where his father starts playing after recovering, and during one visit, Jimmy and Alex talk of childhood and regrets. Because Jimmy had taught Alex how to play guitar as a child, Alex assumes the discussion is about him and is goaded into playing a tune that brings memories back to Jimmy. When Alex learns that Jimmy is talking about Nicky, his son, by another woman, Alex angrily beats his father. Jimmy fails to understand Alex's anger when the latter tells Jimmy never to return to Nicky and his mother until after Alex leaves and Jimmy realizes that Alex is his son. During Jimmy's attempts to go clean, he winds up in the hospital from through withdrawal. Jo has to take care of him, which causes strain in her and Alex's relationship. Aaron Karev (Jake McLaughlin): Alex's younger brother, who works as a mover. He is very nice and polite, so Cristina names him "Angel Spawn," while she calls Alex "Evil Spawn." He comes to Seattle Grace with a hernia, which Dr. Bailey successfully repairs. He's very chatty and tells the doctors about his and Alex's troubled childhood. He is later diagnosed with schizophrenia after he has a psychotic break and tries to kill his younger sister, Amber. As a result, he has been committed to a psychiatric ward. Amber Karev: Alex's younger sister, a high school student. Aaron is trying to convince her to go to college, but she doesn't see the point. Nicky Evans: Alex's younger paternal half-brother. It's assumed he still lives with his mother in South Florida. Helen Karev (Lindsay Wagner): Alex's mother. Helen was diagnosed with a mental disorder but has recovered enough to resume her job at her local library. Alex and Jo visit her in Iowa in season 14 episode "Fight For Your Mind." Eli Stevens and Alexis Stevens (Mark Nunez and Kennedy Bryan): Son and daughter of Izzie Stevens and Alex Karev. Izzie decided to freeze her eggs during Grey's fifth season when she was diagnosed with cancer, as they would not survive the cancer treatment. But, to give them a better chance at being viable, Alex fertilized them. Izzie asked Alex to give her his sperm to freeze her embryos to have children one day. Izzie left Seattle Grace and started anew on a farm in Kansas. Izzie later divorced Alex and kept the fertilized embryos, which she used to have the twins. Later in Season 16, Meredith was going through legal trouble, and Alex called Izzie to write a letter to the medical counsel on why Meredith should keep her medical license. Izzie and Alex caught up, and he found out that he was the father of her twins. In Season 16, he leaves Grey Sloan and Jo and goes to Kansas to meet his kids and meet Izzie. He later wrote letters to Jo, Meredith, Richard, and Bailey, explaining what had happened and why he left. Miranda Bailey's family Tucker Jones (Cress Williams): Miranda's ex-husband who divorces her because she spends more time working than at home with him and Tuck. Tucker is operated on by Derek when he is involved in a car accident on his way to the hospital for their son's birth. William George "Tuck" Bailey Jones: Miranda's son with her ex-husband Tucker. Ben Warren (Jason George): Miranda's current husband, whom she marries in Season 9. Joey Phillips (Noah Alexander Gerry): Miranda and Ben's adoptive son, who currently lives with them. Pruitt Arike Miller (Janai Kaylani): Dean Miller and JJ Lau's daughter, who was adopted by Miranda and Ben after the death of Dean. Mark Sloan's family Unnamed grandson: Mark's grandson through Sloan, who gave him up for adoption. Sloan Riley (Leven Rambin): Mark's biological daughter. As an 18-year-old, she gives birth to Mark's grandson and puts him up for adoption. Sofia Robbins Sloan Torres: Mark's daughter with Callie Torres and Arizona Robbins. Conceived after Mark and Callie begin several trysts after Callie is left in the airport by Arizona, she is born prematurely on March 31, 2011, in "Song Beneath the Song." Teddy Altman's family Henry Burton (Scott Foley): Husband of Dr. Teddy Altman. She meets and marries him in Season 7 to use her health insurance to cover the ongoing costs of his treatment for Von Hippel–Lindau disease. They eventually fall in love. He dies in season 8 while undergoing surgery. Owen Hunt (Kevin McKidd): Current husband of Dr. Teddy Altman. She was in the army with him, eventually got married after a long day of interruptions in Season 18. Allison Hunt: Daughter with Owen, born in season 15. Leo Hunt: Adopted kid with Owen. Callie Torres's family Uncle Berto: Callie's uncle, whom she assumes might be gay, saying "he hasn't been single for 60 years for no reason." George O'Malley (T. R. Knight): Callie's ex-husband. They got married in Las Vegas in season 3 and later divorced in season 4 because George is in love with Izzie. George dies in season 5 after being diagnosed brain dead after getting hit by a bus to save a woman's life. Arizona Robbins (Jessica Capshaw): Callie's ex-wife. A pediatric surgery attending, Arizona comes from a military family. Aria Torres: Callie's sister, only mentioned on the show. Carlos Torres (Héctor Elizondo): Father to Dr. Callie Torres. He originally is against his daughter's bisexuality and relationship with Dr. Arizona Robbins. Lucia Torres (Gina Gallego): Mother to Dr. Callie Torres. She has problems with accepting her daughter's bisexuality and refuses to attend her wedding to Arizona. Sofia Robbin Sloan Torres: Callie's daughter, born prematurely on March 31, 2011, in "Song Beneath the Song." She is conceived after Mark and Callie begin several trysts when Callie is left in the airport by Arizona. Arizona Robbins's family Barbara Robbins (Judith Ivey): Arizona's mother. Colonel Daniel Robbins, United States Marine Corps (Denis Arndt): Arizona's father. Timothy Robbins: Arizona's brother, who died in the Iraq war. Callie Torres (Sara Ramirez): Arizona's ex-wife and attending orthopedic surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. They reconcile after Robbins's departure. Sofia Robbin Sloan Torres: Arizona's daughter, born prematurely on March 31, 2011, in the "Song Beneath the Song" episode. She is conceived after Mark and Callie begin several trysts when Callie is left in the airport by Arizona. Arizona now has sole custody of Sofia due to a family court ruling in season 12. Jackson Avery's family Dr. April Kepner: Avery's ex-wife, current lover, and former Trauma surgeon at Grey Sloan Memorial Hospital. After Jackson confesses his feelings for April at the altar during her wedding to paramedic Matthew Taylor, April and Jackson elope. They have had an on and off again relationship and built-in sexual tension since Jackson took April's virginity before their board exam. April failed and blamed Jackson for Jesus punishing her for premarital sex. The two of them reconciled in season 18. Samuel Norbert Avery: Avery and Kepner's late son born at 24 weeks due to type II osteogenesis imperfecta. He was baptized before dying soon after in his parents' arms. Harriet Kepner-Avery: Avery and Kepner's daughter. She was conceived during a moment of passion between April and Jackson amid their fighting. Things aren't patched up after their one-night affair, and they decided to divorce. Before signing the divorce papers, April discovered she was pregnant. Overjoyed that she could still conceive, she decided to keep the pregnancy secret out of fear that something is wrong, like her last pregnancy. After a while, Arizona Robbins discovers that April is pregnant and urges her to tell Jackson, and when April doesn't do it, Arizona does it herself. Jackson is at first angry but comes to understand it, and they agree to raise her as co-parents. Harriet was born during a cesarean section with April under no anesthesia because April was in Meredith's kitchen, and there was no way to go to the hospital. Soon, Catherine comes to accept April as a mother, and since Jackson and April decided to give Harriet both of their last surnames, Catherine is finally happy to see the Avery name kept alive. She was named after the famous Harriet Tubman. Dr. Catherine Fox (formerly Avery) (Debbie Allen): Avery's mother and a brilliant urological surgeon. She appears at Seattle Grace Mercy West to perform the "first" penis transplant in the U.S. She proctors the boards in San Francisco, where she also has a one-night affair with Dr. Webber. She and Dr. Webber eventually began a relationship and are now married. Dr. Richard Webber: Avery's stepfather, following his marriage to Catherine Fox. Dr. Harper Avery: Grandfather of Jackson Avery and a world-renowned surgeon. Robert Avery (Eric Roberts): Avery's father and Catherine Fox's ex-husband, appears in "Who Is He (And What Is He to You)?". He considered himself unsuited to being an Avery and living up his father's medical legacy, Dr. Harper Avery, and left his family behind and has not since thought of his son. Jackson meets him in Bozeman, Montana, where Robert is satisfied with owning a local diner. While Jackson is glad to have met him, he informs Robert that he does not consider him his father. Guest stars Marla Sokoloff as Glenda Castillo (2015) Neve Campbell as Lizzie Shepherd (2012) Summer Glau as Emily Kovach (2012) James Avery as Sam (2012) Nia Vardalos as Karen (2012) Demi Lovato as Hayley May (2010) Paola Andino as Lily Price (2010) Mandy Moore as Mary Portman (2010) Vanessa Martínez as Gretchen Price (2010) Ryan Devlin as Bill Portman (2010) Jennifer Westfeldt as Jen Harmon (2009) Faye Dunaway as Dr. Margaret Campbell (2009) Bernadette Peters as Sarabeth Breyers (2008) Seth Green as Nick Hanscom (2007) Maggie Siff as Ruthie Sales (2007) Bellamy Young as Kathy (2007) John Cho as Dr. Marshall Stone (2006) Laurie Metcalf as Beatrice Carter (2006) Christina Ricci as Hannah Davies (2006) Millie Bobby Brown as Ruby (2014) Other characters Joe the Bartender (Steven W. Bailey): The owner of the Emerald City Bar, located across from the hospital, where the doctors often go for a drink. Joe collapses due to an aneurysm in the episode "Raindrops Keep Falling on my Head," and Derek and Burke perform a stand-still surgery to repair it. Joe and his boyfriend Walter attend the Thanksgiving dinner Izzie hosts at Meredith's house, and they go on a camping trip with Dr. Shepherd, Preston, Richard, Alex, and George. During the trip, Joe reveals during a discussion with the Chief that, although he and Walter have been "on-and-off" for about ten years, they are now committed and considering the possibility of children. They are one of two couples being considered as adoptive parents for a young mother's twins. Walter (Jack Yang): Joe's boyfriend. Bonnie Crasnoff (Monica Keena): A patient admitted to Seattle Grace Hospital after being involved in a train crash, she and another passenger, Tom, are connected by a large metal pole passing through their bodies. Since moving the pole would kill them, the doctors decide to move one of the patients off the pole and then operate around the pole to repair the other patient's damage. Since her injuries are more severe, they decide to move her, and she dies almost immediately. Bonnie reappears in Season 3 as part of Meredith's dream after drowning. Dennison "Denny" Duquette, Jr. (Jeffrey Dean Morgan): A patient waiting for a heart transplant, he develops a close relationship with Izzie and eventually proposes to her. Izzie risks her career to save him by cutting his LVAD wire, ensuring that he will become so ill that he will get a new heart. He dies from a blood clot shortly after the transplant but reappears in Season 3 as part of Meredith's dream after she nearly drowns, and again in Season 5. Izzie begins to see Denny everywhere, which is eventually revealed to be a symptom of her brain tumor. He first appears in the Season 2 episode "Begin the Begin" and makes his last appearance in the Season 5 episode "Here's to Future Days." Dylan Young (Kyle Chandler): As the commanding officer of the Seattle Police Department bomb squad, he responds to the bomb scare and helps to keep Meredith calm as she holds the bomb located inside a patient's body. She removes the bomb safely from the patient, but it explodes while Dylan carries it out of the OR. He reappears in Season 3 as part of Meredith's dream after her near-drowning. Amanda (Shannon Lucio): A young woman saved from being hit by a bus by George, who was himself subsequently dragged several yards by the bus and dies. Amanda is extremely concerned about him, and she stays with him in the ICU, referring to him as "her prince." She attends George's funeral and cries harder than his mother. Amanda keeps a daily vigil outside the hospital until Izzie confronts her, pointing out that she is still alive thanks to George and that she should honor him by living her life. Rebecca Pope or "Ava" (Elizabeth Reaser): A patient with amnesia after being badly injured in the ferry crash, she is discovered by Dr. Alex Karev, and they develop a very close relationship. While at Seattle Grace, she delivers a baby girl and undergoes extensive facial reconstruction surgery, performed by Dr. Mark Sloan. She eventually regains her memory and returns home with her husband, Jeff. However, before leaving, she pleads with Alex to "give [her] a reason to stay." She returns six weeks later, claiming to be pregnant with Alex's child. Although initially upset, Alex eventually becomes excited about having a baby with her. However, she is found to have a false pregnancy. When she attempts suicide, Izzie intervenes and has her admitted to the psychiatric ward. Elizabeth Reaser was nominated for the Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series at the 59th Primetime Emmy Awards, for her role on the show. Gary Clark (Michael O'Neill): Husband of a patient at Seattle Grace, his wife is treated by Dr. Lexie Grey and Dr. Webber. After surgery, his wife goes into a coma and, since she has earlier signed a DNR, she is removed from life support. Clark files a lawsuit against Dr. Shepherd for wrongful death, but loses. In the Season 6 finale, he returns to the hospital intending to kill Dr. Shepherd, Dr. Lexie Grey, and Dr. Webber. He shoots several people, including Derek Shepherd, Owen Hunt, Reed Adamson, Charles Percy, and Alex Karev. After a tense standoff with Dr. Webber, he uses his last bullet to commit suicide instead of killing Dr. Webber. Mary Portman (Mandy Moore): Miranda Bailey's patient during the Seattle Grace shooting, she is the wife of Bill Portman. She helps Miranda attempt to save Charles Percy's life, and, despite their efforts, he dies. She returns to the hospital six months later to have the colostomy reversal she was supposed to have had the day of the shooting. Although the surgery is successful, Mary never wakes up. She is removed from life support one month later and dies. Bill Portman (Ryan Devlin): Husband of Mary Portman. Dr. Penny Blake (Samantha Sloyan): Derek Shepherd's doctor when he was brought into Dillard Medical Center after a semi T-bones him. He consequently dies after failing to get a head CT. She later begins dating Callie Torres and transfers to Grey-Sloan as a surgical resident, where Meredith works. Meredith makes life difficult for Penny to work, but they eventually overcome their differences and work together because Meredith sees her potential as a general surgeon. She wins a grant and moves to New York, sparking a custody battle between Callie and Arizona when Callie wants to take Sofia with her. References External links Official blog of Joe the bartender Official blog of nurse Debbie Grey's Anatomy
5170782	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cation%E2%80%93%CF%80%20interaction	Cation–π interaction	Cation–π interaction is a noncovalent molecular interaction between the face of an electron-rich π system (e.g. benzene, ethylene, acetylene) and an adjacent cation (e.g. Li+, Na+). This interaction is an example of noncovalent bonding between a monopole (cation) and a quadrupole (π system). Bonding energies are significant, with solution-phase values falling within the same order of magnitude as hydrogen bonds and salt bridges. Similar to these other non-covalent bonds, cation–π interactions play an important role in nature, particularly in protein structure, molecular recognition and enzyme catalysis. The effect has also been observed and put to use in synthetic systems. Origin of the effect Benzene, the model π system, has no permanent dipole moment, as the contributions of the weakly polar carbon–hydrogen bonds cancel due to molecular symmetry. However, the electron-rich π system above and below the benzene ring hosts a partial negative charge. A counterbalancing positive charge is associated with the plane of the benzene atoms, resulting in an electric quadrupole (a pair of dipoles, aligned like a parallelogram so there is no net molecular dipole moment). The negatively charged region of the quadrupole can then interact favorably with positively charged species; a particularly strong effect is observed with cations of high charge density. Nature of the cation–π interaction The most studied cation–π interactions involve binding between an aromatic π system and an alkali metal or nitrogenous cation. The optimal interaction geometry places the cation in van der Waals contact with the aromatic ring, centered on top of the π face along the 6-fold axis. Studies have shown that electrostatics dominate interactions in simple systems, and relative binding energies correlate well with electrostatic potential energy. The Electrostatic Model developed by Dougherty and coworkers describes trends in binding energy based on differences in electrostatic attraction. It was found that interaction energies of cation–π pairs correlate well with electrostatic potential above the π face of arenes: for eleven Na+-aromatic adducts, the variation in binding energy between the different adducts could be completely rationalized by electrostatic differences. Practically, this allows trends to be predicted qualitatively based on visual representations of electrostatic potential maps for a series of arenes. Electrostatic attraction is not the only component of cation–π bonding. For example, 1,3,5-trifluorobenzene interacts with cations despite having a negligible quadrupole moment. While non-electrostatic forces are present, these components remain similar over a wide variety of arenes, making the electrostatic model a useful tool in predicting relative binding energies. The other "effects" contributing to binding are not well understood. Polarization, donor-acceptor and charge-transfer interactions have been implicated; however, energetic trends do not track well with the ability of arenes and cations to take advantage of these effects. For example, if induced dipole was a controlling effect, aliphatic compounds such as cyclohexane should be good cation–π partners (but are not). The cation–π interaction is noncovalent and is therefore fundamentally different than bonding between transition metals and π systems. Transition metals have the ability to share electron density with π-systems through d-orbitals, creating bonds that are highly covalent in character and cannot be modeled as a cation–π interaction. Factors influencing the cation–π bond strength Several criteria influence the strength of the bonding: the nature of the cation, solvation effects, the nature of the π system, and the geometry of the interaction. Nature of the cation From electrostatics (Coulomb's law), smaller and more positively charged cations lead to larger electrostatic attraction. Since cation–π interactions are predicted by electrostatics, it follows that cations with larger charge density interact more strongly with π systems. The following table shows a series of Gibbs free energy of binding between benzene and several cations in the gas phase. For a singly charged species, the gas-phase interaction energy correlates with the ionic radius, (non-spherical ionic radii are approximate). This trend supports the idea that coulombic forces play a central role in interaction strength, since for other types of bonding one would expect the larger and more polarizable ions to have greater binding energies. Solvation effects The nature of the solvent also determines the absolute and relative strength of the bonding. Most data on cation–π interaction is acquired in the gas phase, as the attraction is most pronounced in that case. Any intermediating solvent molecule will attenuate the effect, because the energy gained by the cation–π interaction is partially offset by the loss of solvation energy. For a given cation–π adduct, the interaction energy decreases with increasing solvent polarity. This can be seen by the following calculated interaction energies of methylammonium and benzene in a variety of solvents. Additionally, the trade-off between solvation and the cation–π effect results in a rearrangement of the order of interaction strength for a series of cations. While in the gas phase the most densely charged cations have the strongest cation–π interaction, these ions also have a high desolvation penalty. This is demonstrated by the relative cation–π bond strengths in water for alkali metals: K+ > Rb+ \gg Na+, Li+ Nature of the π system Quadrupole moment Comparing the quadrupole moment of different arenes is a useful qualitative tool to predict trends in cation–π binding, since it roughly correlates with interaction strength. Arenes with larger quadrupole moments are generally better at binding cations. However, a quadrupole-ion model system cannot be used to quantitatively model cation–π interactions. Such models assume point charges, and are therefore not valid given the short cation–π bond distance. In order to use electrostatics to predict energies, the full electrostatic potential surface must be considered, rather than just the quadrupole moment as a point charge. Substituents on the aromatic ring The electronic properties of the substituents also influence the strength of the attraction. Electron withdrawing groups (for example, cyano −CN) weaken the interaction, while electron donating substituents (for example, amino −NH2) strengthen the cation–π binding. This relationship is illustrated quantitatively in the margin for several substituents. The electronic trends in cation–π binding energy are not quite analogous to trends in aryl reactivity. Indeed, the effect of resonance participation by a substituent does not contribute substantively to cation–π binding, despite being very important in many chemical reactions with arenes. This was shown by the observation that cation–π interaction strength for a variety of substituted arenes correlates with the Hammett parameter. This parameter is meant to illustrate the inductive effects of functional groups on an aryl ring. The origin of substituent effects in cation–π interactions has often been attributed to polarization from electron donation or withdrawal into or out of the π system. This explanation makes intuitive sense, but subsequent studies have indicated that it is flawed. Recent computational work by Wheeler and Houk strongly indicate that the effect is primarily due to direct through-space interaction between the cation and the substituent dipole. In this study, calculations that modeled unsubstituted benzene plus interaction with a molecule of "H-X" situated where a substituent would be (corrected for extra hydrogen atoms) accounted for almost all of the cation–π binding trend. For very strong pi donors or acceptors, this model was not quite able account for the whole interaction; in these cases polarization may be a more significant factor. Binding with heteroaromatic systems Heterocycles are often activated towards cation–π binding when the lone pair on the heteroatom is in incorporated into the aromatic system (e.g. indole, pyrrole). Conversely, when the lone pair does not contribute to aromaticity (e.g. pyridine), the electronegativity of the heteroatom wins out and weakens the cation–π binding ability. Since several classically "electron rich" heterocycles are poor donors when it comes to cation–π binding, one cannot predict cation–π trends based on heterocycle reactivity trends. Fortunately, the aforementioned subtleties are manifested in the electrostatic potential surfaces of relevant heterocycles. cation–heterocycle interaction is not always a cation–π interaction; in some cases it is more favorable for the ion to be bound directly to a lone pair. For example, this is thought to be the case in pyridine-Na+ complexes. Geometry cation–π interactions have an approximate distance dependence of 1/rn where n<2. The interaction is less sensitive to distance than a simple ion-quadrupole interaction which has 1/r3 dependence. A study by Sherrill and coworkers probed the geometry of the interaction further, confirming that cation–π interactions are strongest when the cation is situated perpendicular to the plane of atoms (θ = 0 degrees in the image below). Variations from this geometry still exhibit a significant interaction which weakens as θ angle approaches 90 degrees. For off-axis interactions the preferred ϕ places the cation between two H atoms. Equilibrium bond distances also increase with off-axis angle. Energies where the cation is coplanar with the carbon ring are saddle points on the potential energy surface, which is consistent with the idea that interaction between a cation and the positive region of the quadrupole is not ideal. Relative interaction strength In aqueous media, the cation–π interaction is comparable to (and potentially stronger than) ammonium-carboxylate salt bridges. Computed values below show that as solvent polarity increases, the strength of the cation–π complex decreases less dramatically. This trend can be rationalized by desolvation effects: salt bridge formation has a high desolvation penalty for both charged species whereas the cation–π complex would only pay a significant penalty for the cation. In nature Nature's building blocks contain aromatic moieties in high abundance. Recently, it has become clear that many structural features that were once thought to be purely hydrophobic in nature are in fact engaging in cation–π interactions. The amino acid side chains of phenylalanine, tryptophan, tyrosine, histidine, are capable of binding to cationic species such as charged amino acid side chains, metal ions, small-molecule neurotransmitters and pharmaceutical agents. In fact, macromolecular binding sites that were hypothesized to include anionic groups (based on affinity for cations) have been found to consist of aromatic residues instead in multiple cases. Cation–π interactions can tune the pKa of nitrogenous side-chains, increasing the abundance of the protonated form; this has implications for protein structure and function. While less studied in this context, the DNA bases are also able to participate in cation–π interactions. Role in protein structure Early evidence that cation–π interactions played a role in protein structure was the observation that in crystallographic data, aromatic side chains appear in close contact with nitrogen-containing side chains (which can exist as protonated, cationic species) with disproportionate frequency. A study published in 1986 by Burley and Petsko looked at a diverse set of proteins and found that ~ 50% of aromatic residues Phe, Tyr, and Trp were within 6Å of amino groups. Furthermore, approximately 25% of nitrogen containing side chains Lys, Asn, Gln, and His were within van der Waals contact with aromatics and 50% of Arg in contact with multiple aromatic residues (2 on average). Studies on larger data sets found similar trends, including some dramatic arrays of alternating stacks of cationic and aromatic side chains. In some cases the N-H hydrogens were aligned toward aromatic residues, and in others the cationic moiety was stacked above the π system. A particularly strong trend was found for close contacts between Arg and Trp. The guanidinium moiety of Arg in particular has a high propensity to be stacked on top of aromatic residues while also hydrogen-bonding with nearby oxygen atoms. Molecular recognition and signaling An example of cation–π interactions in molecular recognition is seen in the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) which binds its endogenous ligand, acetylcholine (a positively charged molecule), via a cation–π interaction to the quaternary ammonium. The nAChR neuroreceptor is a well-studied ligand-gated ion channel that opens upon acetylcholine binding. Acetylcholine receptors are therapeutic targets for a large host of neurological disorders, including Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, schizophrenia, depression and autism. Studies by Dougherty and coworkers confirmed that cation–π interactions are important for binding and activating nAChR by making specific structural variations to a key tryptophan residue and correlating activity results with cation–π binding ability. The nAChR is especially important in binding nicotine in the brain, and plays a key role in nicotine addiction. Nicotine has a similar pharmacophore to acetylcholine, especially when protonated. Strong evidence supports cation–π interactions being central to the ability of nicotine to selectively activate brain receptors without affecting muscle activity. A further example is seen in the plant UV-B sensing protein UVR8. Several tryptophan residues interact via cation–π interactions with arginine residues which in turn form salt bridges with acidic residues on a second copy of the protein. It has been proposed that absorption of a photon by the tryptophan residues disrupts this interaction and leads to dissociation of the protein dimer. Cation–π binding is also thought to be important in cell-surface recognition Enzyme catalysis Cation–π interactions can catalyze chemical reactions by stabilizing buildup of positive charge in transition states. This kind of effect is observed in enzymatic systems. For example, acetylcholine esterase contains important aromatic groups that bind quaternary ammonium in its active site. Polycyclization enzymes also rely on cation–π interactions. Since proton-triggered polycyclizations of squalene proceed through a (potentially concerted) cationic cascade, cation–π interactions are ideal for stabilizing this dispersed positive charge. The crystal structure of squalene-hopene cyclase shows that the active site is lined with aromatic residues. In synthetic systems Solid state structures Cation–π interactions have been observed in the crystals of synthetic molecules as well. For example, Aoki and coworkers compared the solid state structures of Indole-3-acetic acid choline ester and an uncharged analogue. In the charged species, an intramolecular cation–π interaction with the indole is observed, as well as an interaction with the indole moiety of the neighboring molecule in the lattice. In the crystal of the isosteric neutral compound the same folding is not observed and there are no interactions between the tert-butyl group and neighboring indoles. Supramolecular receptors Some of the first studies on the cation–π interaction involved looking at the interactions of charged, nitrogenous molecules in cyclophane host–guest chemistry. It was found that even when anionic solubilizing groups were appended to aromatic host capsules, cationic guests preferred to associate with the π-system in many cases. The type of host shown to the right was also able to catalyze N-alkylation reactions to form cationic products. More recently, cation–π centered substrate binding and catalysis has been implicated in supramolecular metal-ligand cluster catalyst systems developed by Raymond and Bergman. Use of π-π, CH-π, and π-cation interactions in supramolecular assembly π-systems are important building blocks in supramolecular assembly because of their versatile noncovalent interactions with various functional groups. Particularly, π-π, CH-π, and π-cation interactions are widely used in supramolecular assembly and recognition. π-π interaction concerns the direct interactions between two &pi-systems; and cation–π interaction arises from the electrostatic interaction of a cation with the face of the π-system. Unlike these two interactions, the CH-π interaction arises mainly from charge transfer between the C-H orbital and the π-system. A notable example of applying π-π interactions in supramolecular assembly is the synthesis of catenane. The major challenge for the synthesis of catenane is to interlock molecules in a controlled fashion. Stoddart and co-workers developed a series of systems utilizing the strong π-π interactions between electron-rich benzene derivatives and electron-poor pyridinium rings. [2]Catanene was synthesized by reacting bis(pyridinium) (A), bisparaphenylene-34-crown-10 (B), and 1, 4-bis(bromomethyl)benzene C (Fig. 2). The π-π interaction between A and B directed the formation of an interlocked template intermediate that was further cyclized by substitution reaction with compound C to generate the [2]catenane product. Organic synthesis and catalysis Cation–π interactions have likely been important, though unnoticed, in a multitude of organic reactions historically. Recently, however, attention has been drawn to potential applications in catalyst design. In particular, noncovalent organocatalysts have been found to sometimes exhibit reactivity and selectivity trends that correlate with cation–π binding properties. A polycyclization developed by Jacobsen and coworkers shows a particularly strong cation–π effect using the catalyst shown below. Anion–π interaction In many respects, anion–π interaction is the opposite of cation–π interaction, although the underlying principles are identical. Significantly fewer examples are known to date. In order to attract a negative charge, the charge distribution of the π system has to be reversed. This is achieved by placing several strong electron withdrawing substituents along the π system (e. g. hexafluorobenzene). The anion–π effect is advantageously exploited in chemical sensors for specific anions. See also Stacking (chemistry) Salt bridge (protein) References Sources . Chemical bonding
5170842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20punishment%20in%20Iran	Capital punishment in Iran	Capital punishment is a legal punishment in Iran. Crimes punishable by death include murder; rape; child molestation; homosexuality; pedophilia; drug trafficking; armed robbery; kidnapping; terrorism; burglary; incestuous relationships; fornication; prohibited sexual relations; sodomy; sexual misconduct; prostitution; plotting to overthrow the Islamic regime; political dissidence; sabotage; arson; rebellion; apostasy; adultery; blasphemy; extortion; counterfeiting; smuggling; speculating; disrupting production; recidivist consumption of alcohol; producing or preparing food, drink, cosmetics, or sanitary items that lead to death when consumed or used; producing and publishing pornography; using pornographic materials to solicit sex; recidivist false accusation of capital sexual offenses causing execution of an innocent person; recidivist theft; certain military offenses (e. g., cowardice, assisting the enemy); "waging war against God"; "spreading corruption on Earth"; espionage; and treason. Iran carried out at least 977 executions in 2015, at least 567 executions in 2016, and at least 507 executions in 2017. In 2018 there were at least 249 executions, at least 273 in 2019, at least 246 in 2020, at least 290 in 2021, at least 553 in 2022, and at least 309 so far in 2023. In January 2023, Iran executed a British-Iranian national Alireza Akbari who once served as Iran's deputy defense minister, despite calls from London for his release. The execution was condemned by the UK as politically motivated and a "callous and cowardly act" carried out by a "barbaric regime." Prime minister Rishi Sunak referred to it as such. State-sanctioned executions have witnessed a rapid spike in numbers during 2023. In May 2023 alone, Iran executed at least 142 individuals, its highest monthly rate since 2015. At least 30 of those killed were from the predominantly Sunni Baluch ethnic minority. Iran is believed to execute the most people per capita. Iran insists that the execution numbers human rights groups allege are "exaggerated," and that executions are only carried out "after a lengthy judicial process." Iranian officials cite that they are "fighting a large-scale drug war along its eastern borders, and the increase of drug lords and dealers causes a rise in executions." According to the BBC, Iran "carries out more executions than any other country, except China". Capital crimes Death sentences in Iran are, in theory, legal for a variety of crimes, such as armed robbery, treason, espionage, murder, certain military offenses, drug trafficking, rape, pedophilia, homosexuality, sodomy, sexual misconduct, incestuous relations, fornication, prostitution, plotting to overthrow the Islamic regime, political dissidence, sabotage, apostasy, blasphemy, adultery, producing and publishing pornography, burglary, recidivist consumption of alcohol, recidivist theft, rebellion, some economic crimes, kidnapping, terrorism and few others. There are four classes of crimes in Iranian law: qesas crimes, hadd crimes, tazir crimes, and deterrent crimes. Court system In Iran, laws are created by the Islamic Consultative Assembly, also known as the Parliament of Iran (Majlis). They must be verified by the Guardian Council and signed by the president of Iran. The laws must be consistent with Sharia, although many laws are derived from pre-revolution civil law, rather than Sharia. For example, while almost 80% of Iranian executions are for drug traffickers, drug trafficking laws are part of Iranian civil law, not Sharia law. There are three types of criminal courts. Criminal courts of first instance try serious crimes, hadd crimes, and qesas crimes, such as murder, rape, and theft. These courts can issue death sentences. Criminal courts of second instance try misdemeanors and contraventions. The Islamic Revolutionary Courts try offenses aimed against the state and its associated institutions. Crimes include smuggling (e. g., of drugs or weapons), terrorism, counterfeiting, and treason. The revolutionary courts can also issue death sentences. In most cases (about 90%), executions are carried out in a provincial prison in the province where the crime took place. In serious cases, the criminal is publicly executed at the spot the crime was committed. Many serious criminals or drug-related criminals are sent to larger, more centralized prisons, such as Evin and Gohardasht Prisons in Tehran and Vakilabad Prison in Mashhad. A death sentence can be appealed to the Supreme Court of Cassation of Iran, which can affirm or deny the sentence. If the Supreme Court of Cassation finds irregularities, it can send the case to a lower court for a re-trial. There is no limit on the number of times that a defendant may appeal, but if guilt is established, the Court will affirm the sentence. In murder and rape cases, the perpetrator can ask for forgiveness from the victim's family; in other cases, the perpetrator can ask for clemency from the "Amnesty and Pardons Commission" of Iran to reduce their sentences. In 2011, an amendment to the Dangerous Drugs Act ended the official right of appeal for repeat drug offenders. Instead, they can directly appeal to the Prosecutor General of Iran. This change was made because the regular appeals courts were overloaded and could not carry out their work quickly due to a heavy volume of drug cases. Often execution is delayed until the person completes a prison sentence. Some murder and rape cases are delayed for five years in order to maximize the possibility of forgiveness and reaching a settlement. In Iran (as in other Muslim countries), there are two types of sentences resulting in death. The first is a "qesas-e-nafs" (retribution) sentence, when a murder victim's family refuses to forgive a murderer (see "Qesas crimes" below). The other type is a regular death sentence, "hokm-e-edam", for crimes such as rape and drug trafficking. These sentences are completely separate in Iranian law, and this has created some confusion in news sources when authorities say that a murder will not result in "execution", but in "qesas". In 2015, Amnesty International argued that executions in Iran were after sentences by courts that were almost always "completely lacking in independence and impartiality", and that "Trials in Iran are deeply flawed, detainees are often denied access to lawyers, and there are inadequate procedures for appeal, pardon, and commutation". Qesas crimes (murder) In Sharia law, a qesas crime is a class of crime that can be punished by retribution. The Sharia crime of intentional murder (ghatl-e-amd) is one crime punished by qesas, which in this case is a life for a life. Diyyeh is a private settlement claim between the victim's family and the perpetrator. The victim's family has the option to forgive the criminal by accepting diyya (a financial settlement to compensate for the family's loss) rather than allowing the perpetrator to be executed. Because murder is considered a private matter between the perpetrator and the victim's family, the state may not commute a qesas-e-nafs sentence. The conviction, but not the sentence, can be appealed. Judges may only recommend the course of action the family takes, and in many cases ask the family to forgive the murderer. In many cases, judges try to persuade the family to forgive the murderer, even at times pressuring them to do so. Often, a murder execution is delayed for five years after the murder was committed in order to persuade the family to exercise forgiveness, and allow time for the murderer to pay diyya. If pardoned, the perpetrator still faces criminal penalties through the tazir code. Anybody who commits intentional murder must face a minimum of 2–3 years in prison, which is usually about the same time it takes to pay the diyya. Usually, longer sentences are given, and if other crimes were committed along with the murder, the person will serve a longer prison sentence, possibly even up to life imprisonment. The perpetrator may be convicted for murder in the case of a confession, if there are two witnesses to the crime, if there are 50 sworn testimonies, and/or if one or more people testifies 50 times against the defendant. However, in practice, judges also allow circumstantial evidence. Qesas cannot be applied in cases of self-defense or manslaughter, where the proof requirements above are not met, to minors (age 15 for boys, 9 for girls prior to 2008; after 2008, age 18 in most cases), to those declared insane, in a case where the victim is the perpetrator's spouse or spouse's lover and the perpetrator caught the spouse committing adultery, or in the case of a father murdering his children. In these cases, the perpetrator is punished through a tazir discretionary sentence, ranging from 2 years to life in prison. Sometimes the death penalty can be used regardless if the person has been found guilty of moharebeh ("spreading corruption on the earth"). Crimes of passion may not always be recognized as a legitimate defense, with the exception of a spouse caught committing adultery (punishable by imprisonment). People who murder in self-defense can usually be released after paying blood money to the victim's family, and the courts would usually help to facilitate that. In the case of manslaughter or insufficient proof, the perpetrator is not required to pay diyya. If a murderer was working under someone else's orders, and can prove it, they may receive a tazir punishment such as imprisonment, fines, and/or whipping, but sometimes even death. In these cases, the person(s) who ordered the killing are subject to qesas or diyyeh. If a woman is killed carrying an unborn child after the first trimester, it is considered the murder of two people. If the family demands retribution, they cannot receive diyya, although they may receive some minor civil restitution. Most cases (2/3) are resolved through diyya. Qesas executions are a minority of executions in Iran, consisting of 20–30% (although those executed for other crimes may have committed murder previously). Diyya tables are set every year by the Iranian government. Diyya is equivalent to the price of 100 camels, and must be paid in cash. Diyya is doubled if the intentional murder is committed during the holy months Ramadan and Muharram. However, in practice, diyya is negotiated between the parties and they generally settle for more or less diyyeh than the official amount. If the person cannot pay diyya, he would be held in prison until the amount is paid, even if his regular discretionary prison sentence ends. Usually his/her family/friends are expected to help raise the amount, or in some cases the state can pay for it. According to the official tables, the family of a female victim receives half the amount of diyya due to the family of a man (though the amount is equal in accidental death cases); however, in practice, diyyeh is negotiated, and usually the amount is equal, especially in recent years. Before 2004, non-Muslims would receive half the diyya of a Muslim, but the law was changed to give Muslims and non-Muslims equal diyya. Tazir/deterrent crimes In Islamic criminal jurisprudence, a tazir crime is a crime that is punished according to a judge's discretion. A "deterrent crime" is a crime with a fixed sentence. Tazir punishments should generally be less severe. There are no strict proof requirements as there are for hadd. Tazir and deterrent crimes are often comparable to a misdemeanor, though not in cases where the crime is deemed to be equal to a moharebeh/mofsed-fel-arz crime (see above). Arms smuggling is punishable by death or life in prison if the offense is deemed to be at the level of "moharebeh". Possession, sale, and/or use of illegal military weapons may be punishable by death or life in prison. Human trafficking is punishable by death or life in prison if the trafficked person was under 18 years of age or if rape, murder, or financial exploitation occurred. Operation of prostitution rings is also punishable by death, as well as "making large-scale pornographic websites". A person operating a blog, website, or any type of internet application that is deemed to spread "corruption", "insulting of Islam", "terrorism/violence", or "treason" may be punishable by death. In most cases, lesser penalties are given. Large scale fraud or counterfeiting if enough to disrupt the "financial stability of the Islamic Republic", or "intentionally aimed at undermining the government" is punishable by death or life in prison if at the level of "mofsed-fel-arz". In addition, people who act against the Islamic Republic or are convicted of terrorism can be sentenced to death for moharebeh/mofsed-fel-arz. According to Iran's Anti-Narcotics Law, possession of narcotics is a felony punishable by death or life imprisonment if: The person is found in possession of over of heroin, morphine, cocaine, LSD, methamphetamine, or similar drugs. The death sentence is not applied for first offenses where the sale was not completed or the amount was less than , or for repeat offenses where collective amount was 30–100 grams. The person is found in possession of over 5000 grams/5 kilograms (11.02 lbs) of opium, hashish, or cannabis. The death sentence is not applied for first offenses where the sale was not completed and the amount was less than 20 kilograms. The death sentence is also applied on the third conviction for possession of 5–20 kg of such drugs. The person is found in possession of more than five kilograms of prescription or industrial drugs for illegal use, or is a repeat offender possessing 5-20 kilograms of such drugs. The person is a repeat offender convicted with growing opium poppies for drug use, or cannabis. The person is convicted of armed smuggling of any illegal narcotics, committing an armed crime while in possession of drugs, or being a member or head of a narcotics trafficking gang. In drug cases, a record of the amount of drugs a person is caught with is kept, so that the information is available in the event of a later arrest. Once a certain cumulative amount above is reached, the person is sentenced to the death penalty or life imprisonment. The offense should be deemed tantamount to "mofsede-fel-arz" in order for the perpetrator to be executed. Drug crimes, smuggling, and crimes against the stability of the country are tried in the Revolutionary Court system, a special court that handles such cases relating to national security. In 2011, the right of appeal was revoked for certain drug crimes, and instead, the case must be appealed to the Prosecutor-General of Iran. Mitigating factors allow the judge to give a lesser penalty of life imprisonment (which can be decreased upon appeal). In practice, the majority of dealers get a prison sentence on first offense, but on the second or third offense, they are executed or sentenced to life imprisonment. In armed drug smuggling cases, the prisoner often must serve a prison sentence prior to execution (typically 5–10 years). Most executed drug dealers have been implicated in other crimes at some point (including theft, robbery, rape, and murder). Iran is currently fighting a major drug war on its provinces in the east, primarily Sistan and Baluchistan province and parts of Khorasan province. Since Iran borders Afghanistan and Pakistan, the two largest opium-producing countries in the world, Iran is a major trafficking route to Europe and the west. Since 2000, up to 2,000 Iranian soldiers have died fighting armed drug cartels and smugglers. Most of Iran's executions are related to drug trafficking—a recent announcement by the judiciary said that 74% of executions in Iran were drug-related. In 2015, according to Iran's vice-president for women and family affairs, Shahindokht Molaverdi, in an unnamed village in Sistan and Baluchistan every adult male was executed on drugs charges. In 2016 lawmakers proposed a bill to end capital punishment for drug offences. A justice minister also supported the proposal. Hudud crimes Hudud crimes are a class of crime laid down in the Quran and considered to be comparable to felonies. Some of these laws are part of Iran's penal code, while others are not. Their punishments are laid down in the Quran and Hadith. Hadud crimes must be proven by confession, two witnesses (four witnesses in the case of adultery), or in rare cases, by "judge's knowledge" (where, based on available evidence, the defendant's guilt is extremely obvious). If the prosecution cannot provide the proof for a hadud crime, it is tried as a lesser tazir crime. The application of hudud crimes differ significantly in Iran from what is prescribed by classical Sharia. Conviction for these require a high proof rate, and cannot be given when there is any reasonable doubt. All hudud crimes also have a tazir penalty, and in most cases the perpetrator is sentenced to the tazir penalty. If a perpetrator is repentant, the hudud punishment could be pardoned. In the majority of cases, people who commit a hudud offensive would be given tazir punishments such as imprisonment or fines, but in some serious cases, the hudud punishment could be given in addition to it. Moharebeh (waging war against God or people) is a crime where a weapon is used with violence to "create fear or disruption against national security and citizens", such as armed robbery, kidnapping, and treason. It is punishable by death or imprisonment, usually for life. In cases of armed robbery/kidnapping (or even rape), the death penalty is usually applied if a person died as a result of the perpetrator's actions, or public order was compromised. Similarly, a court could find that if a person's crimes (of any type) were heinous enough, and the person is a continued threat to society, they are guilty of "Mofsede-Fel-Arz" (spreading corruption on the earth), which is a related crime and punishable by death/imprisonment. However, moharebeh and mofsede-fel-arz are famous for being political charges disguised as religious crimes. These are often levied against those involved in espionage, treason, activism, opposition to the government, or terrorism. In 2008, "operation of prostitution rings" and "running pornographic websites/businesses" were added to the list. Large scale economic crimes that disrupt the economy are also punishable by death if the perpetrator is found guilty of mofsede-fel-arz. Belonging to an armed anti-regime opposition group or being part of "riotous disturbances"/ "armed acts" against the state are punishable by death or imprisonment if the perpetrator is found guilty of moharebeh. Adultery/sex crimes (zina) Adultery Adultery (zina-e-mohsen) is punishable by 100 lashes for unmarried people and by death on the fourth offense. It is punishable by death by stoning (under moratorium since 2002, officially replaced in 2012, by an unspecified punishment) for married people and in all cases of incest. If an unmarried non-Muslim male has sexual relations with a Muslim female, the non-Muslim male will be put to death. Four witnesses (rather than two witnesses) are required to prove adultery, the person must confess four times, or they must be convicted by judge's knowledge (through definite circumstantial evidence). If the person confesses twice and is "repentant" or the victim's family forgives the adulterer, the judge can give a tazir sentence of 99 lashes instead, or imprisonment. Convictions and executions for this crime are extremely rare, usually only carried out in the case of death and rare even then. Between 1979 and 2002, 40–76 adultery/incest executions (by stoning) were recorded for both men and women. Even if the actual numbers are higher, the punishment is nonetheless rare in proportion to confirmed cases of adultery. The punishment is given mostly in aggravated circumstances when the four witnesses or a confession is available and the spouse died. Most adulterers go unpunished, or receive a lighter sentence. Divorce is usually the most common method in dealing with adultery. Rape Rape (zina-be-onf) is related to adultery, has the same proof requirements, and is punishable by death by hanging. In Iran, for most part, convictions are made either by confession or "judge's knowledge", rather than witnesses. 10–15% of executions in Iran are for rape. In many cases the rape victim settles the case by accepting compensation (jirah) in exchange for withdrawing the charges or forgiving the rapist. This is similar to diyyeh, but equal to a woman's dowry. A woman can also receive diyya for injuries sustained. Normally, the rapist still faces tazir penalties, such as 100 lashes and jail time for immoral acts, and often faces further penalties for other crimes committed alongside the rape, such as kidnapping, assault, and disruption of public order. Sodomy Sodomy (lavat) is punishable by death. The judge can determine the type of death, but in practice, it is always hanging. The proof requirements are the same as for adultery, and such sentences are very rare. If one of the consenting participants was under 18, the punishment is 100 lashes for the minor. If the guilty is repentant, they generally receive a reduced sentence of 99 lashes. All people convicted of sodomy spend one year in prison in addition, and can be sentenced to more prison time at the judge's discretion. Few people are sentenced to death for sodomy, but prior to 2012, both partners could receive the death penalty. Sodomy rape (lavat-be-onf) is punishable by death for the rapist. Proof requirements and procedure are the same as regular rape. Most sodomy executions are for rape alleged by the Iranian Government, not consensual sodomy. Other zina crimes Apostasy (murrtaad) is not codified in the penal code, but is nevertheless subject to prosecution by Iranian courts, due to the primary role of Sharia in the legal system. Some two hundred members of the Baha'i religion, an indigenous faith, but proscribed as a form of apostasy, have been hanged, while many have been and are imprisoned. A range of serious and petty sanctions are routinely placed on the Baha'i community, including a ban on young adherents attending university. The death sentence could be given for a male, though the last such execution was in 1990. A case is Youcef Nadarkhani, an Iranian Christian Pastor sentenced to death for apostasy 21–22 September 2010 in the province of Gilan, but the sentence has not been carried out. For women, the maximum sentence is life in prison. Blasphemy (sabb-al-nabi) of the Prophet Muhammad, his daughter, or his family is a crime in Iran, and a blasphemer would be found guilty of apostasy as well by default. Blasphemy is punishable by death or imprisonment. For all other hudud crimes, the fourth offense would be a capital offense, unless the person repents. Other hudud crimes include incest, theft (serghat-e-haddi), lesbianism (mosahegheh), false accusation of sex crimes (ghazf), pimping (ghavvadi), and drunkenness (shurb-e-khamr). However, for all but the most serious cases, the crime is punished through the tazir code, and the judge gives a discretionary sentence. Consumption of alcohol (one glass) is punished by 80 lashes, but repeated offences may lead to death penalty, although rarely exercised. In 2012, two men were sentenced to death after a third offense in Khorasan. The sentence was confirmed by the Supreme Court, but it may be commuted to flogging if the convicted repent. It is uncertain if it also applies to drug crimes. Most drinking cases are settled through tazir punishments (e. g., imprisonment and/or fines), rather than whipping. Offenders under age 18 The execution of minors in Iran has been a major issue for human rights groups and the Western media. As of May 2009, there were at least 137 known juvenile offenders awaiting execution in Iran, but the total number could be much higher, as many death penalty cases in Iran are believed to go unreported. Of the 43 child offenders recorded as having been executed since 1990, 11 were still under the age of 18 at the time of their execution, while the others were either kept on death row until they had reached 18, or were convicted and sentenced after reaching that age. In 2006, a teenage girl of the age of 16, Atefah Sahaaleh, was sentenced to death, and executed two weeks later by hanging in a public square for the charges of adultery and "crimes against chastity". Death row prisoners sentenced while underage include at least one at 13-year-old (executed at 21) and a 14-year-old (executed at 18). Despite signing the convention on the Rights of the Child, Iran, according to human rights groups, is the world's largest executioner of juvenile offenders. This has been ascribed to the difference in definition of a "minor" between non-Muslim and (some) Muslim countries. Article 49 of the Islamic Penal Code in Iran defines a child as "someone who has not reached the age of puberty (bulugh) as stipulated by Islamic law and as specified in the 1991 Civil Code as 15 lunar years for boys and nine lunar years for girls. Since 1995, Iran's Supreme Court has commuted non-murder death sentences to 2–8 years in prison. In February 2012, Iran adopted a new penal code, which officially banned the death penalty for minors under the age of 18 in favor of "social penalties" and "educational programs". Minors who commit murder when aged 15–18 can still receive the death penalty in rare cases if the judge is confident that the perpetrator had reached full adult mental development at the time of the crime and that it was committed intentionally with a well thought-out plan. For minors by default and for young adults (older than 18) with low mental development, execution is not used and the perpetrator is prosecuted in a juvenile court. Iran uses the lunar Islamic calendar to determine the age of criminal responsibility, which is shorter than the standard solar calendar, so as a result some people sentenced to death at the age of 18 would be 17 years old in solar calendar years. Criticism Iran has garnered Western media attention and criticism for carrying out executions of minors, despite having signed the Convention on the Rights of the Child, which forbids executing child offenders for crimes committed under the age of 18. Iran justifies its actions by claiming dispensation in cases where the convention is deemed "incompatible with Islamic jurisprudence". Iran has also been criticized for using stoning as capital punishment, though in 2005, an Iranian judiciary spokesman strongly denied the accusations of stoning and executing minors, describing them as "propaganda against the Iranian state". At Berlin International Film Festival, on 29 February 2020 Iranian film about executions (There Is No Evil) won top prize. Methods Hanging Hanging is the only common method of execution in 21st-century Iran, usually carried out in prison. Compared to other countries that use hanging (such as Japan or Malaysia) with a complex gallows designed to drop the condemned and break the neck, Iran's gallows are very simple and inexpensive. They consist only of a frame and a stool, with some stools able to hold up to seven people at a time and having wheels. Public executions are usually carried out by a mobile crane. Sometimes, the victim is suspended from the crane, but more often, the crane is used as a gallows, and the person is pulled off a stool (see Upright jerker). The victim is usually blindfolded. Iranian nooses are thick, with 7–10 knotted coils, and are often made of blue plastic rope with little to no drop. Death is caused by strangulation and carotid reflex (where blood vessels to the head are cut off), taking 10–20 minutes, causing visible pain and distress to the condemned. Famous hangings in Iran include Sheikh Fazlollah Nouri in 1908, and serial killer Mohammed Bijeh, the "Desert Vampire", who raped and murdered 17 boys, in 2005. At dawn, on 27 July 2007, 29 men were hanged in Evin Prison on various charges of murder and drug trafficking. In 2010, Shahla Jahed was hanged in Tehran for the 2002 murder of the wife of Iran footballer Nasser Mohammadkhani. In 2006, a teenage girl of the age of 16, Atefah Sahaaleh, was sentenced to death, and executed two weeks later by hanging in a public square for the charges of adultery and "crimes against chastity". In 2009, a public execution of two men in Sirjan for armed robbery was broken up when relatives stormed the gallows and cut the men down while still alive; they were later re-captured and hanged until dead. A video of the incident was posted on the Internet. Firing squad The firing squad is legal, but seldom used in Iran today. Historically, it was used for military and political crimes. In 1974, under the Shah's regime, Marxist activists Khosrow Golesorkhi and Keramat Daneshian were executed by firing squad on charges of conspiring to kidnap Reza Pahlavi, the Crown Prince of Iran. They were shot after a televised trial in Tehran. This case was one of the big events that turned public opinion against the Shah. During the 38 years in which the Shah reigned, 1,000 or more people were sentenced to death for crimes against the government, mostly by firing squad after conviction by a special SAVAK military tribunal. After the 1953 coup, scores of Communists were executed. Common criminals were executed mostly by hanging in this period. In the years after the Islamic Revolution of 1979, thousands of people were sentenced to be shot for political offenses, drug trafficking, and crimes against the Islamic Republic by the newly established Revolutionary Courts. These included many of the Shah's former ministers, such as former prime minister Amir Abbas Hoveida, and the head of SAVAK General Nematollah Nassiri. By 1980, one year after the Shah had been overthrown, over 700 people had been shot by the new Islamic Republic. Many of the members of the former regime are suspected to have been unjustly executed in biased trials. A campaign against drug trafficking resulted in the executions of many for drug possession, including addicts, often based on minimal evidence. Some of these people were also alleged opponents of the regime. Many executions also took place after the Kurdistan revolt of 1979–1980. While the number of executions had dropped by 1980, after the start of the Iran-Iraq War a crackdown on dissidents, political opponents, and common criminals was responsible for another increase in executions. From 1981 to 1984, after Mujahedeen-e-Khalq bombings killing many government officials, a crackdown against opponents and terrorist groups such as the Mujahedeen-e-Khalq organization resulted in the execution of hundreds or possibly thousands of people. Many others were hanged or shot for other crimes such as adultery, robbery, murder, and drug trafficking. In 1982, a purge of the communists in Iran (such as the Tudeh Party) resulted in executions of the party's leaders and some members on charges of spying for the Soviet Union. Political executions continued on a lesser scale. When the Islamic Penal Code of Iran was adopted in 1982, ordinary crimes began to be punished by hanging once again by regular, non-Revolutionary courts. Political opponents continued to be shot by Revolutionary Courts, but on a lesser scale. In 1988, after an invasion by the Mujahideen-e-Khalq organization (see Operation Mersad), the government secretly executed 2,000–4,000 political prisoners, many former members or sympathizers of the Mujahedeen group, former communists, and other dissidents. Those executed had all renounced their former ties to their old opposition organizations and many were about to finish their prison sentences when they were suddenly and secretly executed. The charges were "moharebeh" or apostasy, seen by critics as a gross example of using a religious charge for political reasons. They were executed by hanging for most part, but a few were executed by firing squad. Since 1988, political executions have been less common, although extrajudicial killing of high-profile regime opponents continued until 1998, such as the Chain murders. Since the late 1980s, virtually all executions have been carried out by hanging, both political or criminal. Critics of the Revolutionary Courts complained about the process, stating that the trials lacked defense attorneys, were too short (often lasting hours, even minutes), and could not be appealed and that there was a lack of evidence and convictions were often based on strong rumors, with political opponents being unjustly prosecuted and sentences. Critics also complained that the judges were biased, unfair, too rigid, used the death sentence much too often, and applied the death penalty to undeserving people. There were also criticisms of confessions obtained through torture. When asked what if a person was wrongfully executed, one of the judges said that an innocent person "would receive a reward by God in heaven"; so, little care was taken to see if the accused were actually guilty. Ayatollah Khomeini himself was sentenced to death by firing squad for treason against the Shah in 1964, by a military court, but his sentence was commuted to exile in Iraq (General Hassan Pakravan, another head of SAVAK who helped commute Khomeini's sentence, was one of the first shot upon Khomeini's return). One of the most famous "hanging" judges in Iran was a cleric, Sadegh Khalkhali, the first head of the Revolutionary Court, who sentenced drug traffickers and former members of the Shah's government alike to be shot. He personally sentenced 800–2,000 people to death. In 1980, Jahangir Razmi won the Pulitzer Prize for his famous photo "Firing Squad in Iran", which showed seven Kurds and two Shah's policemen being executed minutes after being convicted for "terrorism and crimes against God" by Khalkhali in the airport in Sanandaj, during a revolt by Kurdish armed groups. Their trial lasted 30 minutes. After many years of not being used, the firing squad was last used in 2008, to execute a man convicted of raping 17 children, according to the Fars News Agency. Stoning Individuals sentenced to stoning are placed in a stoning pit, buried to the neck (women) or waist (men), and others hurl stones at them until they escape the stoning pit, are incapacitated, or are dead, but because men (unlike women) are only buried to the waist, men occasionally do escape the stoning pit, which terminates the penalty. Mohammad-Javad Larijani, chief of Iran's Human Rights Council (in 2010), rejected international condemnations of stoning, saying that, "in the eyes of some people, stoning is a lesser punishment than execution because there is a chance you should survive." (However, there are at least two newspaper reports of women managing to pull themselves out of their hole while being stoned, but being killed nonetheless after being forced back into the hole.) Iranian law mandates that stones used must be small enough to not kill instantly. According to Shaparak Khorsandi, in stoning executions in Iran, most victims are dead within two hours of the first stone throw. While "Iran does not publish how many people are stoned or sentenced to stoning each year", and it is "very difficult to provide systematic reporting and empirical data on stoning of women inside Iran", information has been gleaned by human rights groups from newspaper reports. Reports from Amnesty International and International Committee Against Executions (ICAE) tally a total of 150 people executed by stoning in Iran from 1980 to 2009. Stoning was temporarily blocked as legal punishment by Supreme Leader Ruhollah Khomeini's order in 1981. Following vociferous domestic and international controversy over stoning in the early years of the Islamic Republic, the government placed a moratorium on stoning in 2002. In January 2005, the Iranian judiciary spokesman Jamal Karimirad was quoted as saying, "Stoning has been dropped from the penal code for a long time, and in the Islamic republic, we do not see such punishments being carried out", further adding that if stoning sentences were passed by lower courts, they were overruled by higher courts, and "no such verdicts have been carried out". Contradicting this, in 2008 "the Iranian Judiciary confirmed that a man was stoned to death for adultery in Qazvin Province on 5 July", and according to the International Campaign for Human Rights in Iran, "six people were stoned to death between 2006 and 2008 and an additional 13 people await their sentence from Iranian prisons". In 2012, stoning was officially removed from the code and replaced by an unspecified death penalty. In theory, it could still be used as a punishment because the penal code allows judges to impose sentencing according to "valid Islamic sources" and Sharia punishments. There were reports by the opposition Melli-Mazhabi Web site of a stoning sentence being carried out in 2012. The Tehran Forensic Medicine Department rejected those claims without providing explanations for the causes of death. As of 19 November 2019, the International Federation for Human Rights issued a statement that "stoning for adultery" was still "stipulated in law" in Iran; that "several persons are still on death-row" with a sentence of stoning, and that "in 2018, two women were sentenced to stoning". Falling from heights Iran is accused of using this form of execution for homosexuality. According to Amnesty International in 2008, Tayyeb Karimi and Yazdan were convicted of abduction, rape and theft and sentenced to death by a judge in Shiraz, Fars province, southern Iran, in May 2007. They were to be thrown off a cliff or from a great height. The judge ordered that they be executed in the way described. Four other men have been sentenced to 100 lashes each for their involvement in the same crimes. Typical execution In prison Although, by law, all executions must take place in "public", the place is not specified. In most cases, executions take place in the main prison of the county or province where the crime took place, in front of witnesses (family, prosecutors, other prisoners). Criminals from Tehran are hanged in Evin Prison (and according to some reports in Ghezel Hesar Prison in some cases). In the Karaj area, Gohardasht Prison carries out executions. Tehran's Qasr Prison also conducted executions until it closed in 2005. In Mashhad, executions are carried out in Vakilabad Prison. The gallows are typically located in a large indoor shed, or in a remote courtyard. 1–2 days prior to the execution, the prisoner is informed of their execution date and moved to solitary confinement. In murder cases (and often rape cases), both the victim's and prisoner's family are required to be there by law, in order to keep the possibility of a forgiveness settlement open. In non-murder executions, sometimes, the prisoner's family is informed after the fact. Usually the condemned may see relatives prior to the execution. The prisoner's attorney may also attend the execution. Executions are carried out at 4 am local time, just before the call for morning salat (prayer). When the platform is moved away, the condemned dies of strangulation and loss of blood to the brain. Usually they fall unconscious within seconds. If the condemned struggles after being released, the prison guards will typically pull down on the rope to speed up the death. In the case of a murder, the victim's next of kin is allowed to pull the stool out from under the condemned. There have been occasions where the victim's family pardoned the murderer right at the foot of the gallows. A few times, the person was pardoned and cut down from the gallows after surviving the hanging process. In public Public executions in Iran are less common, sometimes applied to those found guilty of crimes such as gang rape, child murder, murder during an armed robbery, or massive drug trafficking. Public executions were restricted between the 1920s and 1950s for the most part, but became common after the Islamic Revolution, usually carried out from mobile cranes. In 2008, Iran banned public execution; however, the moratorium has not gone into effect as of 2011, according to Amnesty International. They take place when the prosecutor requests and the judge accepts that since the criminal's crimes were so terrible they "caused public outrage", the criminal must die at the spot where the crime was committed. The Supreme Court must also approve the sentence. It is estimated that about 5–10% of executions are carried out in public, usually around 6 am local time. In 2002, the "Black Vultures", the nickname of a group of five men who assaulted and gang raped dozens of women in northern Tehran, were hanged in public from cranes, two in the main bus terminal and three in the main square of Lavizan district. On 2 August 2007, Maijid and Hossein Kavousifar were hanged in downtown Tehran for murdering a judge, as well as shooting and killing two innocent bystanders during an earlier bank robbery. On 5 January 2011, a man only identified by Iranian media as "Yaghub" was hanged in the main square of the Sa'adat Abad district in Tehran, where he had in October 2010 murdered a man by repeatedly stabbing him and then stood over the victim while he bled to death threatening to kill anyone who intervened. The murder was recorded on a mobile phone. Further examples Asghar the Murderer was executed for raping and killing 33 young adults. Mohammed Bijeh was executed for raping and killing 16 young boys and 2 adults. Amirhossein Pourjafar was executed for rape, murder and body mutilation of a 7-year-old girl. Saeed Hanaei was executed for killing 16 female prostitutes and drug addicts. Controversies In July 2005, the Iranian Student News Agency covered the execution of Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni in Mashhad who, as initially reported by Iranian sources, were executed for committing homosexual acts; however, when disturbing photos of the hanging were widely distributed around the Internet, and drew international attention and condemnation, it resulted in subsequent allegations by the Iranian regime that they were executed for the rape of a 13-year-old boy. The executions of the two teenagers divided the human rights community over whether it was a gay issue, but all human rights groups condemned the hangings, as they were for crimes allegedly committed when the boys were minors. The initial report from the Iranian Student News Agency, a government press agency, had stated that they were hanged for sodomizing and raping a 13-year-old boy (his father was interviewed about the case in the local Mashad newspaper). Online gay advocacy groups such as OutRage! asserted that they were hanged for being homosexuals; other groups, in light of evidence that the teenagers were convicted of rape, emphasized that the executions were a violation of the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Iran is a signatory to both), which prohibit the execution of minors. After the international outcry, the Iranian government repeated once again that the hangings were for raping the boy. Human Rights Watch, while not agreeing with the brutality of the hangings, stated it was "deeply disturbed about the apparent indifference of many people to the alleged rape of a 13-year-old". However, others still allege that they were hanged for being gay. Later that year, another two young men, referred to in the media by their first names, Mokhtar and Ali, were hanged in the northern city of Gorgan for lavat (sodomy). In 2010, Arash Rahmanipour and Mohammad-Reza Ali Zamani were hanged in Tehran for moharebeh, alleged terrorism, and being a member of the banned Kingdom Assembly of Iran. When they were executed, their execution was falsely reported as being connected to the 2009 election protests, possibly in order to intimidate the opposition, despite their arrest months before the election. Abdolreza Ghanbari's moharebeh death sentence for protesting in the 2009 Ashura protests was upheld in March 2012, meaning that his execution could be carried out at any time. In 2012, 5 Ahwazi Arabs were hanged in retaliation for the alleged death of a policeman during riots a year before. In 2011, when the riots originally took place, 9 men were hanged in retaliation for alleged "deaths and rapes" during the riots, three of them in public. One of them was 16 years old when hanged. In 2011, two policemen were hanged in Tehran for beating to death three protesters in the Kahrizak Detention Center during the 2009 election protests. In 2014, Reyhaneh Jabbari was hanged for killing a man she alleged was trying to sexually abuse her, despite an international campaign that sought to avoid her execution. On 3 May 2016, Reza Hosseini, 34, was executed in Ghezel Hesar prison on alleged drug charges after a revolutionary court trial that lasted a couple of minutes. His wife insists Hosseini was innocent. She says Hosseini was arrested because he got into an altercation with the authorities, and the drugs were actually discovered by authorities in another place. Hosseini never pleaded guilty. At that, Judge Tayerani replied: "If you are innocent, then you will go to heaven after you are hanged." On 20 December 2018, Human Rights Watch urged the regime in Iran to investigate and find an explanation for the death of Vahid Sayadi Nasiri, who had been jailed for insulting the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei. According to his family, Nasiri had been on hunger strike, but he was denied medical attention before he died. On 12 September 2020, Navid Afkari was executed for murder. The U.S. State Department believed he had been tortured into giving a false confession. On 12 December 2020, the journalist Ruhollah Zam was executed for "spreading corruption on Earth." On 5 September 2022, Iran's official IRNA news agency reported that the two women, LGBT rights activists Zahra Seddiqi Hamedani and Elham Choubdar, had been sentenced to death on charges of "corruption on earth" and human trafficking. The European Union condemned the death sentences on 13 September 2022. On 8 December 2022, Mohsen Shekari, aged 23, was executed by hanging. A Revolutionary Court had found him guilty of enmity against God and of wounding a member of a paramilitary force with a machete. He had been taking part in the Mahsa Amini protests. On 12 December 2022, Majidreza Rahnavard, aged 23 was publicly hanged in Mashhad for Moharebeh in connection to killing two members of the Basij Resistance Force, Danial Rezazadeh, and Hossein Zeinalzadeh, during the Mahsa Amini protests. His execution resulted in international condemnation. The execution was carried out only 23 days after his arrest. Human rights organizations such as the United Nations have expressed distress and concern that protesters are being sentenced to death following sham trials with no due process. Rahnavard's mother was only informed of his execution after his death and was later given the cemetery's name and plot number. Upon arrival at the cemetery, Rahnavard's family were welcomed by the sight of security Guards burying his body. A vote was cast in November by the UN Human Rights Council to initiate an investigation into Iran's handling of the demonstrations. Still, Tehran refused to cooperate because the mission was "political." On Wednesday, December 14, 2022, Iran's expulsion from the UN Commission on the Status of Women will be put to a vote, which the UN Watch predicts will pass overwhelmingly despite Tehran's objections. Australia and New Zealand have recently joined the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, and Canada in blacklisting a handful of Iranian officials and entities in response to the ongoing protests, which Tehran has condemned. Rahnavard's execution on Monday, similar to Shekari's, showed how quickly the Iranian judiciary is handling cases involving the protests. He was executed less than a month after his arrest. On November 17, the judiciary claimed Rahnavard committed a "terrorist" act, and two days later, he was reportedly arrested for “Moharebeh,” the Farsi definition for "waging war against God." Majidreza Rahnavard's trial took place in Mashhad, Khorasan-e Razavi Province, over the course of just one session before a "Revolutionary Court." November 29 where he was convicted of “enmity against God” (Moharebeh). Rahnavard was denied access to a lawyer of his own choice. He was assigned a lawyer, but he didn't present a defense, just like Mohsen Shekari, who, according to Iran human rights, was denied access to his lawyer during his interrogation and legal proceedings. Furthermore, the acceleration of this specific use of the death penalty proves it to be a dictatorship that is the most uncompromising and extreme element, all under the leadership of supreme leader Ali Khamenei. Ali Khamenei is an Iranian cleric and politician who previously served as president of Iran from 1981 to 1989. This shows the level of power in his voice and actions. Originally, the protests sparked opposition to force the veiling of women in general to the death in custody of 22- year-old Mahsa Amini. Khamenei holds power as he can sway over pragmatic voices. It saddens the world as more individuals are being executed for having a voice and fighting injustice. A dozen others have been suspected and sentenced to this death penalty, and other activists are being warned to be careful. Certain situations, such as closed-door hearings, are an aspect of this as well. Another young male of the age of 23-years-old Mahan Sedarat faces execution after the judiciary confirmed his sentence. Through social media, others were raising awareness and attempting to revote his sentence and save his life. The young man was transferred to Rajaei Shahr prison in the city of Karaj, which is in the west of the capital of Tehran, which ended up being the place where his tragic execution occurred for being a human rights activist. It is known that at least 488 people have officially been killed during the protest in Iran for standing up for what they believe in. From a bigger perspective, another 18,200 have likely been detained by officials in Iran. See also Crime in Iran References Iran Murder in Iran Law of Iran Human rights abuses in Iran
5171053	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Christian%20Slavic%20writing	Pre-Christian Slavic writing	Pre-Christian Slavic writing is a hypothesized writing system that may have been used by the Slavs prior to Christianization and the introduction of the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets. No extant evidence of pre-Christian Slavic writing exists, but early Slavic forms of writing or proto-writing may have been mentioned in several early medieval sources. Evidence from early historiography The 9th-century Bulgarian writer Chernorizets Hrabar, in his work An Account of Letters (, O pismenĭhŭ), briefly mentions that, before becoming Christian, Slavs used a system he had dubbed "strokes and incisions" or "tallies and sketches" in some translations (Old Church Slavonic: , črŭty i rězy). He also provided information critical to Slavonic palaeography with his book. Another contemporaneous source, Thietmar of Merseburg, describing a Rethra temple remarked that the idols there had their names carved out on them ("singulis nominibus insculptis", Chronicon 6:23). Chapter III of Vita Cyrilli describes Cyril finding two Christian books written with "Rus characters" during his tript to Korsun (modern-day Kherson). This trip precedes Cyril's mission in Moravia described in Chapter IV of Vita Cyrilli. Evidence from archaeology In 1897, Russian archeologist Vasily Gorodtsov unearthed a small clay pot 15 cm high located in a Slavic burial site in the village of Alekanovo, Ryazan Oblast, Russia. The pot had a group undeciphered characters that were dated by Gorodtsov to 10th–11th century AD. A year later Gorodtsov discovered similar characters on shards, also in Alekanovo. Full entry – Alekanovo inscription. In 1949, a Kerch amphora was found in Gnezdovo in Smolensk Oblast, Russia, containing what may be the earliest inscription in Old East Slavic. The amphora was found in the grave of a Scandinavian merchant who traded with the Orient. The excavator read the one-word inscription as Cyrillic "гороухща" (goruhšča), inferring that it designated mustard that was kept there. This explanation has not been universally accepted and the inscription seems to be open to different interpretations. Other scholars have read the apparent "хщ" letter combination as an "N", resulting in a transcription as "гороуна" which could be either Cyrillic or Greek and which might represent an Arabic name Hārūn with possessive suffix (Härün's amphora). The inscription is dated to the early 10th century, which suggests a hitherto unsuspected popularity of the Cyrillic script in pre-Christian Rus. Different sources prove that the Slavic and Norse population of Russia had trade connections to the Muslim and Asian worlds. In 2021 new archaeological evidence of an early instance of writing among a Slavic population was published. In 2017 a cattle bone, dated 585–640 AD, with runes of the Germanic Elder Futhark was discovered in a Prague culture settlement near Břeclav in the Czech Republic. The inscription contains no recognizable words in either Slavic or any other language but seems to represent an attempt at an abecedary. It may have been incised by people of Germanic origin that remained in the region after the departure of the Lombards, or the runes may have been engraved by a Slav. In either case, the find attests to a direct interaction between the Slavic and Germanic ethnolinguistic groups. If runic knowledge was transferred from Germanic peoples to Slavs, it must have happened in Central Europe as judged by the rune shapes or it may have persisted in the region as a result of population continuity between Lombards and Slavs. Evidence against In the Vita Cyrilli, Rastislav, the duke of Moravia, sent an embassy to Constantinople asking Emperor Michael III to send learned men to the Slavs of Great Moravia, who being already baptised, wished to have the liturgy in their own language, and not Latin and Greek. Emperor called for Constantine and asked him if he would do this task, even though being in poor health. Constantine replied that he would gladly travel to Great Moravia and teach them, as long as the Slavs had their own alphabet to write their own language in, to which the Emperor replied that not even his grandfather and father and let alone he could find any evidence of such an alphabet. Constantine was distraught, and was worried that if he invents an alphabet for them he'll be labelled a heretic. According to Alexey Karpov, this text is a later insertion in the chronicle, and its authenticity is questioned. Pseudoscientific ideas The theme of "ancient Slavic writing", including "Slavic runes", is popular in pseudo-history (folk history) and pseudo-linguistic writings. Many inscriptions, both traditionally considered in the series of Slavic pre-Cyrillic writing and other cultures (Etruscan texts or the Phaistos Disc), were repeatedly amateurishly "deciphered" as Russian and Slavic without relying on scientific data. Such readings were offered by Gennady Grinevich, Valery Chudinov, and others. The Russian Empress Catherine the Great was interested in ancient Slavic history and considered the toponymy of Spain, France, Scotland, India, and America as "Slavic". In her opinion, the early kings of France and Spain were Slavs by origin, and Etruscan and runic monuments are associated with "ancient Slavic writing". She then came up with the idea that the Slavs conquered Europe three times from the Don to Sweden and England. The idea of the connections of the Slavs with the Etruscans was supported by Sebastiano Ciampi, Tadeusz Wolański, and Alexander Chertkov. The Russian teacher Yegor Klassen (1795-1862) saw the Slavs in many regions and eras, starting from antiquity and including the Etruscans, and identified Sanskrit with the Slavic language. He argued that already four thousand years ago, the Veneti were literate, and all runic writings were Slavic. The idea of ancient Slavic writing in its pseudo-historical interpretation is also connected with the Aryan myth. Guido von List, a follower of the German nationalist völkisch movement and the founder of Armanism, argued that the Germanic peoples, or "Aryans", had a written language long before Christianity. In his opinion, the runes contain an encrypted secret meaning that was revealed only to the initiates. The Nazi theorist Herman Wirth, comparing prehistoric drawings and ornaments, saw in them traces of primitive writing. This, in his opinion, proved the existence of an ancient "Atlanto-Nordic culture" created by the "Atlanto-Nordic race" and spreading in waves from the Arctic. In the 1920s, occult ideas became widespread in Germany. Rudolf Johan Gorsleben, who promoted "Aryan" mysticism and the idea of the superiority of the "Aryans" over other races, was an adherent of the magic of runes and considered them "conductors of subtle energies". One of his assistants was the future Nazi racial theorist Hans F. K. Günther. The Aryan myth also spread in Slavic neopaganism (rodnovery), in many directions of which the Slavs are considered the closest descendants of the "Aryans" or are identified with them. These "Slavic-Aryans", according to neopagans, were the creators of the oldest or one of the most ancient civilizations, which transferred their knowledge and achievements, including writing, to other peoples. Such writing can be understood as allegedly existing "Slavic runes" or "bukvitsa" (historically, the word "bukvitsa" has a different meaning—a synonym for an initial). The idea is widespread that the Cyrillic alphabet was not created based on the Greek alphabet but came from some primordially Slavic alphabet. The absence of pre-Christian literature is explained by the destruction of all this property by Jews or Christians. Among the Russian émigrés, the idea spread that the most ancient "Aryan" people are the "Rus". Emigrant Yury Mirolyubov wrote about the existence of the Rus in the Paleolithic when they suffered greatly from the invasion of the Neanderthals. In the 1950s, he published the Book of Veles, allegedly written in the pre-Christian alphabet. Mirolyubov argued that Slavic writing formed the basis of Latin and Greek, as well as Scandinavian runes. One of the founders of modern Russian neopaganism, Valery Yemelyanov, in his book Dezionization (1979), wrote about the great Russian ancient civilization of the "Aryans-Veneti", which had a rich written language and culture and became the founder of all civilizations. Popular in Soviet times, the novel Primordial Rus'''' (1961) by Valentin Ivanov, adapted into a film in 1985, mentions "tablets and birth records", that is, an indication of the pre-Christian writing of the Slavs. In the late 1970s, esoteric teacher A.F. Shubin-Abramov, an "academician" of the self-proclaimed "Russian Academy of Sciences, Arts and Culture" in 1992, wrote about the ancient Slavic alphabet and, in his words, "the bearer of tribal memory" and "Keeper of the secret knowledge of the initiates", a representative of a kind of guardians of the "true Russian letter". This "ancient Russian All-Linguistic Letter" consists of 147 characters and is 7500 years old. According to the author, the letters in the works of the classics and ancient texts are not "flat" but spatially defined. In the past, humanity allegedly knew how to read spatial writing, but then people degraded. The "All-Linguistic Letter" contained colossal "Vedic knowledge" and was given to people by the Creator, or "Teachers". Shubin-Abramov and his followers consider each character of this letter as having a vast "ideological meaning" ("multidimensional materializing object"), any Russian word - as an abbreviation, a carrier of complex encrypted information, the "disclosure" of which gives phrases endowed with "the deepest meaning". Shubin-Abramov gave the word "Rus" a comprehensive meaning: "the unifying and substantiating beginning of all types of Matters ascending into the Cosmoses, which become Universes." In such a perspective, the Earth is considered to be "a speck of All-Linguistic Rus'", its creation, "Kievan Rus" - "the name of the Planet after its original capital". Shubin-Abramov called the "human system of life" "Aryan". He argued that people possessed unthinkable knowledge and abilities when they appeared on Earth, but over time they lost them, including most of their letters. This degradation - "circumcision" - occurred at the behest of "evil forces" - "occupiers-Hebrews". He believed that to "revive the Fatherland", it was necessary to return to the original alphabet and rebel against the "Hebrews". The neopagan concept of "All-Linguistic Literacy" is popularized in the writings of several authors. Some Russian neopagans use the calendar compiled by Shubin-Abramov, in which many terms are explained based on the principles of All-Linguistic Literacy, and an idea of the teaching itself is given. In the early 1980s, the Moscow geologist Gennady Grinevich claimed to have read various inscriptions found on the territory of Rus', which do not have a generally accepted reading or are not always considered as inscriptions proper. Grinevich accepted the assumption of the syllabic nature of the hypothetical pre-Christian Slavic writing ("writing of strokes and cuts") as a working hypothesis. Then, he tried deciphering inscriptions from other writing systems using the same methods. This led him to the idea of a script "of the Slavs, which they used long before the creation of the Slavic alphabet by Cyril and Methodius." Grinevich attributed the oldest Cretan writing (Linear A) to the Proto-Slavs. Then he allegedly was able to read the inscription on the Phaistos Disc of the 18th century BC, found in Crete. There, in his opinion, complaints of refugees from the "Rusich tribe" were recorded, who were forced to leave their native "Rusiuniya" and move to Crete. With the support of the Indologist Natalya Guseva, Grinevich published his "discoveries" in the Sovetskaya Rossiya newspaper. The Slavs, according to Grinevich, had written language from the 5th millennium BC (he refers to the Tărtăria tablets of the 4th millennium BC with pictographic signs found in Romania). Slavic culture allegedly became the basis of many other ancient cultures, and Slavic writing became the basis of all other writing systems. Grinevich has several followers who "read" various texts as Old Slavonic. Grinevich's ideas were taken up by the Krasnodar writer Alexey Trekhlebov (Vedagor), who was close to Ynglism. Trekhlebov called Grinevich a "linguist" and "decoder" and argued that the "discovery" of "the oldest Slavic writing" allegedly received support in science, and scientists called this writing "Slavic runic". In the late 1980s, the former geologist and sailor A. S. Ivanchenko wrote that the Slavs, or "Russians", invented phonetic writing. The "Russian" culture allegedly surpassed ancient Mesopotamia. All other nations received the alphabet from them, starting with the Etruscans and Trojans. According to Ivanchenko, the words of the Russian language are abbreviations and have the deepest meaning. In the 1990s, Omsk esoteric Alexander Khinevich created Ynglism, a neopagan doctrine that combines esotericism, neo-Nazism, and radical Rodnoverie. Ynglists claim that different human races, including the "white race", come from different constellations. Ynglists created several alphabets, which, according to them, "Slavs and Aryans" used for thousands of years. Each sign has not only a phonetic but also a semantic meaning (image). The Ynglists interpret many words of the Russian language as abbreviations: for example, fasting (, post) is understood as "complete cleansing of the creator's own bodies" (, polnoye ochishcheniye sobstvennykh teles sotvoryasha). The teachings of the Ynglists are outlined in the Slavic-Aryan Vedas, a falsification presented as a translation of the ancient "Slavic-Aryan" scripture, the oldest part of which was allegedly created 40,000 years ago. The Slavic-Aryan Vedas were written by Khinevich himself. V. Pike, a Ukrainian-Canadian, argued for the unconditional autochthonousness of Ukrainians, their widespread settlement in Asia Minor and Europe in ancient times, and the priority of the Ukrainian language, writing, and religion over other Indo-European and many non-Indo-European traditions. The idea of ancient pagan writings, allegedly preserved by the "schismatic Old Believers", was introduced into fiction by Sergei Alexeyev and Yury Sergeyev. The Slavs, according to Alexeyev, are the heirs of the "Aryans" who came out of Hyperborea. According to Alexeyev, Slavic manuscripts were destroyed by Christian priests. The writer Yuri Nikitin, in his works, represented the Russians as the basis on which all other peoples were formed. He considered the Phoenicians as "the purest Rus", who created the oldest written language in the world. The writer Vladimir Shcherbakov published a book for high school students through the Prosveshcheniye publishing house, in which he developed ideas about the relationship of Russians with the Etruscans and Thracians and the Slavs-Veneti, who once lived from India to Western Europe and gave the local peoples writing and statehood. The Ukrainian literary critic Boris Yatsenko shared the idea of the existence and autochthonous nature of the ancient "Ukrainian alphabet", primary in comparison with the West Semitic (Canaanite) alphabet from the Levant and Greek and Latin scripts. In his opinion, in the early Iron Age, if not earlier, "one Slavic people - the Ukrainians" lived in Central Europe. In 1997-2001, folk history author Valery Dyomin, an author in the genre of folk history, organized the "Hyperborea" amateur expedition on the Kola Peninsula. Members of the expedition reported finding traces of the ancient "Aryan" civilization, including "ancient signs similar to the letter of the Druids", or "runes", about the most ancient "Ogham writing". However, Dyomin and his followers published no documentary evidence of these discoveries. Single photographs of the expedition members demonstrate various natural geological formations. The "notches" on the rocks, interpreted as "alphabetic signs" of the most ancient Paleolithic writing, were cuts left by geologists. The neopagan writer Alexander Asov, a popularizer of the Book of Veles, considers it a storehouse of memory, covering the events of the last 20 thousand years. He created his version of the origin and pre-Christian history of the Slavs, whom he identifies with the "white race" and with the "Aryans", immigrants from Hyperborea. In many of his editions of the Book of Veles, Asov supplemented its text with several other works, such as the Slavic-Russian Vedas'' - Asov's "reconstructed" Songs of the Gamayun Bird and The Book of Kolyada and pseudo-pagan texts published by the forger Alexander Sulakadzev at the beginning 19th century, such as "Yarilin's Book" and "Trizna Boyanova". Contrary to the opinion of scientists that has been established since the time of Sulakadzev, Asov considers them not fake but genuine compositions, offering his reading and translation. The "Songs of the Bird Gamayun" is "a kind of author's stylization, which is based on a pseudo-reconstruction of the hypothetical "knot writing" of the ancient Slavs, identified by the compilers of the collection [Russian Vedas] with the legendary "strokes and cuts"." From the 1990s to the early 2020s, the philosopher Valery Chudniov developed the idea of the supernatural nature of the "Old Slavic bukvitsa", allegedly discovered by him. Chudinov was a follower of Gennady Grinevich, who, in 2005, headed the Institute of Old Slavonic Literature and Old Eurasian Civilization in the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (RANS). Chudinov "discovered" the system of syllabic writing, which he called "runitsa" or "Makosh's runes". In addition to the "Old Russian inscriptions", of which Chudinov found a large number, he found "inscriptions" on many other objects, including Paleolithic monuments, connecting the appearance of the "runitsa" with the beginning of the Middle Paleolithic. Another type of writing, singled out by Chudinov, he calls "Rod's runes". This alphabetic script allegedly came from the "runitsa" in the middle of the Middle Paleolithic and is very close to the modern Russian alphabet. Chudinov found "Rod's runes" and "Makosh's runes" on a mass of images, from photographs of Paleolithic caves and modern drawings to photographs of the surface of the Sun and other space objects. Almost all of these "inscriptions" are, according to Chudinov's terminology, "implicit". The "methods" for identifying and reading "implicit inscriptions" used by Chudinov include examining not the objects themselves but their photographs or sketches from books while increasing the size of the image, enhancing its contrast, and inverting colors to find in small strokes and shadows similarities to "bukvitsa". In Chudinov's opinion, only he knew how to use this method. Chudinov explained his finding inscriptions on photographs of the Earth's surface and other celestial bodies by the presence of large artificial formations - so-called geoglyphs (as well as "selenoglyphs", "areoglyphs" and "helioglyphs"). The author explained the inscriptions on the background of the photographs as a manifestation of the "subtle world". Chudinov claimed that the first civilization in history was the "Slavic Vedic civilization", and many peoples, including the Etruscans, were, in fact, Russians. The idea of the origin of the Slavs from the "Aryans" ("ancient Aryans") was popularized by the satirist Mikhail Zadornov. He shared ideas about the Slavic language of the Etruscan script and the "Cretan disc". Not distinguishing between Etruscan inscriptions and the Book of Veles, Zadornov claimed that the Etruscans wrote "on tablets." Having visited the excavations of the Trypillia settlements in Ukraine, he connected the Trypillia culture with the Slavs. According to him, he found "strokes and cuts" there, indicating that "we had writing" six thousand years ago. He also claimed the existence of Slavic "runic signs" of the Mesolithic era near Murmansk. A common constructed "Slavic" alphabet is "bukvitsa", allegedly underlying the Russian language and representing an alphabet of 49 letters in the form of a 7x7 table (7 is a sacred number). It is argued that each letter of this alphabet and syllables of two letters contain a certain image, a hidden meaning. All words were created from these image-letters in the Russian language; knowing the images, one can reveal the true meaning of any word. The meanings of these images are as blurred as possible, meaning that any word can be summed up under them. Bukvitsa is a modified Cyrillic alphabet with the addition of several characters from other alphabets and arbitrary names and interpretations of letters. Its supporters do not provide any evidence of the authenticity of this alphabet. The idea of bukvitsa, like other similar alphabets, suggests that people had to invent a "language of letters" before they made words out of them - that is, to create a script built on images that they are not yet able to speak. Bukvitsa is depicted on the monument to Cyril and Methodius in front of Surgut University: the monument depicts the saints pointing at a scroll with bukvitsa. Believing to have found a pre-Christian Slavic inscription, the author Galina Kotova attempted to decipher an inverted epitaph from a Jewish tombstone written in Hebrew in 1920. Kotova wrote a detailed article about the "decoding" of this "Slavic" inscription. In several "documentary" programs by Igor Prokopenko and Oleg Shishkin on the Russian federal TV channel REN TV (2013, 2014, 2016, 2017, etc.), pseudo-historical neopagan ideas are popularized, including the origin of the Slavs from the "Aryans", ancient pre-Christian Slavic "runic books" (the Book of Veles, Boyanov Hymn, and the Book of Kolyada), and the concealment of all this by "official science". Footnotes See also Proto-writing Christianization of the Slavs References Sources Slavic culture Palaeography Slavonic inscriptions Proto-writing
5171128	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gay	Gay	Gay is a term that primarily refers to a homosexual person or the trait of being homosexual. The term originally meant 'carefree', 'cheerful', or 'bright and showy'. While scant usage referring to male homosexuality dates to the late 19th century, that meaning became increasingly common by the mid-20th century. In modern English, gay has come to be used as an adjective, and as a noun, referring to the community, practices and cultures associated with homosexuality. In the 1960s, gay became the word favored by homosexual men to describe their sexual orientation. By the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century, the word gay was recommended by major LGBT groups and style guides to describe people attracted to members of the same sex, although it is more commonly used to refer specifically to men. At about the same time, a new, pejorative use became prevalent in some parts of the world. Among younger speakers, the word has a meaning ranging from derision (e.g., equivalent to 'rubbish' or 'stupid') to a light-hearted mockery or ridicule (e.g., equivalent to 'weak', 'unmanly', or 'lame'). The extent to which these usages still retain connotations of homosexuality has been debated and harshly criticized. History Overview The word gay arrived in English during the 12th century from Old French gai, most likely deriving ultimately from a Germanic source. In English, the word's primary meaning was "joyful", "carefree", "bright and showy", and the word was very commonly used with this meaning in speech and literature. For example, the optimistic 1890s are still often referred to as the Gay Nineties. The title of the 1938 French ballet Gaîté Parisienne ("Parisian Gaiety"), which became the 1941 Warner Brothers movie, The Gay Parisian, also illustrates this connotation. It was apparently not until the 20th century that the word began to be used to mean specifically "homosexual", although it had earlier acquired sexual connotations. The derived abstract noun gaiety remains largely free of sexual connotations and has, in the past, been used in the names of places of entertainment, such as the Gaiety Theatre in Dublin. Sexualization The word may have started to acquire associations of immorality as early as the 14th century, but had certainly acquired them by the 17th. By the late 17th century, it had acquired the specific meaning of "addicted to pleasures and dissipations", an extension of its primary meaning of "carefree" implying "uninhibited by moral constraints". A gay woman was a prostitute, a gay man a womanizer, and a gay house a brothel. An example is a letter read to a London court in 1885 during the prosecution of brothel madam and procuress Mary Jeffries that had been written by a girl while enslaved inside of a French brothel: The use of gay to mean "homosexual" was often an extension of its application to prostitution: a gay boy was a young man or boy serving male clients. Similarly, a gay cat was a young male apprenticed to an older hobo and commonly exchanging sex and other services for protection and tutelage. The application to homosexuality was also an extension of the word's sexualized connotation of "carefree and uninhibited", which implied a willingness to disregard conventional or respectable sexual mores. Such usage, documented as early as the 1920s, was likely present before the 20th century, although it was initially more commonly used to imply heterosexually unconstrained lifestyles, as in the once-common phrase "gay Lothario", or in the title of the book and film The Gay Falcon (1941), which concerns a womanizing detective whose first name is "Gay". Similarly, Fred Gilbert and G. H. MacDermott's music hall song of the 1880s, "Charlie Dilke Upset the Milk" – "Master Dilke upset the milk, when taking it home to Chelsea; the papers say that Charlie's gay, rather a wilful wag!" – referred to Sir Charles Dilke's alleged heterosexual impropriety. Giving testimony in court in 1889, the prostitute John Saul stated: "I occasionally do odd-jobs for different gay people." Well into the mid 20th century a middle-aged bachelor could be described as "gay", indicating that he was unattached and therefore free, without any implication of homosexuality. This usage could apply to women too. The British comic strip Jane, first published in the 1930s, described the adventures of Jane Gay. Far from implying homosexuality, it referred to her free-wheeling lifestyle with plenty of boyfriends (while also punning on Lady Jane Grey). A passage from Gertrude Stein's Miss Furr & Miss Skeene (1922) is possibly the first traceable published use of the word to refer to a homosexual relationship. According to Linda Wagner-Martin (Favored Strangers: Gertrude Stein and her Family, 1995) the portrait "featured the sly repetition of the word gay, used with sexual intent for one of the first times in linguistic history", and Edmund Wilson (1951, quoted by James Mellow in Charmed Circle, 1974) agreed. For example: The word continued to be used with the dominant meaning of "carefree", as evidenced by the title of The Gay Divorcee (1934), a musical film about a heterosexual couple. Bringing Up Baby (1938) was the first film to use the word gay in an apparent reference to homosexuality. In a scene in which Cary Grant's character's clothes have been sent to the cleaners, he is forced to wear a woman's feather-trimmed robe. When another character asks about his robe, he responds, "Because I just went gay all of a sudden!" Since this was a mainstream film at a time, when the use of the word to refer to cross-dressing (and, by extension, homosexuality) would still be unfamiliar to most film-goers, the line can also be interpreted to mean, "I just decided to do something frivolous." In 1950, the earliest reference found to date for the word gay as a self-described name for homosexuals came from Alfred A. Gross, executive secretary for the George W. Henry Foundation, who said in the June 1950 issue of SIR magazine: "I have yet to meet a happy homosexual. They have a way of describing themselves as gay but the term is a misnomer. Those who are habitues of the bars frequented by others of the kind, are about the saddest people I've ever seen." Shift to specifically homosexual By the mid-20th century, gay was well established in reference to hedonistic and uninhibited lifestyles and its antonym straight, which had long had connotations of seriousness, respectability, and conventionality, had now acquired specific connotations of heterosexuality. In the case of gay, other connotations of frivolousness and showiness in dress ("gay apparel") led to association with camp and effeminacy. This association no doubt helped the gradual narrowing in scope of the term towards its current dominant meaning, which was at first confined to subcultures. Gay was the preferred term since other terms, such as queer, were felt to be derogatory. Homosexual is perceived as excessively clinical, since the sexual orientation now commonly referred to as "homosexuality" was at that time a mental illness diagnosis in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM). In mid-20th century Britain, where male homosexuality was illegal until the Sexual Offences Act 1967, to openly identify someone as homosexual was considered very offensive and an accusation of serious criminal activity. Additionally, none of the words describing any aspect of homosexuality were considered suitable for polite society. Consequently, a number of euphemisms were used to hint at suspected homosexuality. Examples include "sporty" girls and "artistic" boys, all with the stress deliberately on the otherwise completely innocent adjective. The 1960s marked the transition in the predominant meaning of the word gay from that of "carefree" to the current "homosexual". In the British comedy-drama film Light Up the Sky! (1960), directed by Lewis Gilbert, about the antics of a British Army searchlight squad during World War II, there is a scene in the mess hut where the character played by Benny Hill proposes an after-dinner toast. He begins, "I'd like to propose..." at which point a fellow diner interjects "Who to?", implying a proposal of marriage. The Benny Hill character responds, "Not to you for start, you ain't my type". He then adds in mock doubt, "Oh, I don't know, you're rather gay on the quiet." By 1963, a new sense of the word gay was known well enough to be used by Albert Ellis in his book The Intelligent Woman's Guide to Man-Hunting. Similarly, Hubert Selby Jr. in his 1964 novel Last Exit to Brooklyn, could write that a character "took pride in being a homosexual by feeling intellectually and esthetically superior to those (especially women) who weren't gay...." Later examples of the original meaning of the word being used in popular culture include the theme song to the 1960–1966 animated TV series The Flintstones, wherein viewers are assured that they will "have a gay old time." Similarly, the 1966 Herman's Hermits song "No Milk Today", which became a Top 10 hit in the UK and a Top 40 hit in the U.S., included the lyric "No milk today, it was not always so; The company was gay, we'd turn night into day." In June 1967, the headline of the review of the Beatles' Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band album in the British daily newspaper The Times stated, "The Beatles revive hopes of progress in pop music with their gay new LP". The same year, The Kinks recorded "David Watts", which is about a schoolmate of Ray Davies, but is named after a homosexual concert promoter they knew, with the ambiguous line "he is so gay and fancy-free" attesting to the word's double meaning at that time. As late as 1970, the first episode of The Mary Tyler Moore Show has the demonstrably straight Mary Richards' neighbor Phyllis breezily declaiming that Mary is still "young and gay", but in an episode about two years later, Phyllis is told that her brother is "gay", which is immediately understood to mean that he is homosexual. Homosexuality Sexual orientation, identity, behavior The American Psychological Association defines sexual orientation as "an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and/or sexual attractions to men, women, or both sexes," ranging "along a continuum, from exclusive attraction to the other sex to exclusive attraction to the same sex." Sexual orientation can also be "discussed in terms of three categories: heterosexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of the other sex), gay/lesbian (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to members of one's own sex), and bisexual (having emotional, romantic, or sexual attractions to both men and women)." According to Rosario, Schrimshaw, Hunter, Braun (2006), "the development of a lesbian, gay, or bisexual (LGB) sexual identity is a complex and often difficult process. Unlike members of other minority groups (e.g., ethnic and racial minorities), most LGB individuals are not raised in a community of similar others from whom they learn about their identity and who reinforce and support that identity. Rather, LGB individuals are often raised in communities that are either ignorant of or openly hostile toward homosexuality." The British gay rights activist Peter Tatchell has argued that the term gay is merely a cultural expression which reflects the current status of homosexuality within a given society, and claiming that "Queer, gay, homosexual ... in the long view, they are all just temporary identities. One day, we will not need them at all." If a person engages in sexual activity with a partner of the same sex but does not self-identify as gay, terms such as 'closeted', 'discreet', or 'bi-curious' may apply. Conversely, a person may identify as gay without having had sex with a same-sex partner. Possible choices include identifying as gay socially, while choosing to be celibate, or while anticipating a first homosexual experience. Further, a bisexual person might also identify as "gay" but others may consider gay and bisexual to be mutually exclusive. There are some who are drawn to the same sex but neither engage in sexual activity nor identify as gay; these could have the term asexual applied, even though asexual generally can mean no attraction, or involve heterosexual attraction but no sexual activity. Terminology Some reject the term homosexual as an identity-label because they find it too clinical-sounding; they believe it is too focused on physical acts rather than romance or attraction, or too reminiscent of the era when homosexuality was considered a mental illness. Conversely, some reject the term gay as an identity-label because they perceive the cultural connotations to be undesirable or because of the negative connotations of the slang usage of the word. Style guides, like the following from the Associated Press, call for gay over homosexual: There are those who reject the gay label for reasons other than shame or negative connotations. Writer Alan Bennett and fashion icon André Leon Talley are out and open gay men who reject being labeled gay, believing the gay label confines them. Gay community vs. LGBT community Starting in the mid-1980s in the United States, a conscious effort was underway within what was then commonly called the gay community, to add the term lesbian to the name of organizations that involved both male and female homosexuals, and to use the terminology of gay and lesbian, lesbian/gay, or a similar phrase when referring to that community. Accordingly, organizations such as the National Gay Task Force became the National Gay and Lesbian Task Force. For many feminist lesbians, it was also important that lesbian be named first, to avoid the implication that women were secondary to men, or an afterthought. In the 1990s, this was followed by a similar effort to include terminology specifically including bisexual, transgender, intersex, and other people, reflecting the intra-community debate about the inclusion of these other sexual minorities as part of the same movement. Consequently, the portmanteau les/bi/gay has sometimes been used, and initialisms such as LGBT, LGBTQ, LGBTQI, and others have come into common use by such organizations, and most news organizations have formally adopted some such variation. Descriptor The term gay can also be used as an adjective to describe things related to homosexual men, or things which are part of the said culture. For example, the term "gay bar" describes the bar which either caters primarily to a homosexual male clientele or is otherwise part of homosexual male culture. Using it to describe an object, such as an item of clothing, suggests that it is particularly flamboyant, often on the verge of being gaudy and garish. This usage predates the association of the term with homosexuality but has acquired different connotations since the modern usage developed. Use as a noun The label gay was originally used purely as an adjective ("he is a gay man" or "he is gay"). The term has also been in use as a noun with the meaning "homosexual man" since the 1970s, most commonly in the plural for an unspecified group, as in "gays are opposed to that policy." This usage is somewhat common in the names of organizations such as Parents, Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays (PFLAG) and Children of Lesbians And Gays Everywhere (COLAGE). It is sometimes used to refer to individuals, as in "he is a gay" or "two gays were there too," although this may be perceived as derogatory. It was also used for comedic effect by the Little Britain character Dafydd Thomas. Generalized pejorative use When used with a derisive attitude (e.g., "that was so gay"), the word gay is pejorative. Though retaining other meanings, its use among young people as a term of disparagement is common; 97 percent of American LGBTQ middle and high school students reported hearing its negative use as of 2021. This pejorative usage has its origins in the late 1970s, with the word gaining a pejorative sense by association with the previous meaning: homosexuality was seen as inferior or undesirable. Beginning in the 1980s, and especially in the late 1990s, the usage as a generic insult became common among young people. Use of "gay" in some circumstances continues to be considered a pejorative in present day. As recently as 2023, the American Psychological Association described language like "that's so gay" as heterosexist and heteronormative. The pejorative usage of the word "gay" has been criticized as homophobic. A 2006 BBC ruling by the Board of Governors over the negative use of the word by Chris Moyles advises that "caution on its use"; however, it acknowledges its common use among young people to mean "rubbish" or "lame". The BBC's ruling was heavily criticized by the Minister for Children, Kevin Brennan, who stated in response that "the casual use of homophobic language by mainstream radio DJs" is: Shortly after the Moyles incident, a campaign against homophobia was launched in Britain under the slogan "homophobia is gay", playing on the double meaning of the word "gay" in youth culture, as well as the popular perception that vocal homophobia is common among closeted homosexuals. The United States had its own popular campaign against the pejorative use of "gay" called Think B4 You Speak. It was created in 2008 in partnership with the Advertising Council, GLSEN, and Arnold NYC. This initiative created television, radio, print and web PSAs with goals "to motivate teens to become allies in the efforts to raise awareness, stop using anti-LGBT language and safely intervene when they are present and anti-LGBT harassment and behavior occurs." Research has looked into the use and effect of the pejorative. In a 2013 article published in the Journal of Interpersonal Violence, University of Michigan researchers Michael Woodford, Alex Kulick and Perry Silverschanz, alongside Appalachian State University professor Michael L. Howell, argued that the pejorative use of the word "gay" was a microaggression. They found that college-age men were more likely to repeat the word pejoratively if their friends said it, while they were less likely to say it if they had lesbian, gay or bisexual peers. A 2019 study used data collected in a 2013 survey of cisgender LGBQ college students to evaluate the effects of microaggressions like "that's so gay" and "no homo." It found that increased exposure to the phrase "that's so gay" was significantly associated with greater developmental challenge (a measure of academic stressors). Research published in the Journal of Youth and Adolescence in 2021 finds that use of anti-gay banter among Midwestern middle and high school students such as "that's so gay" is perceived less negatively and more humorously if the person saying it is a friend. Parallels in other languages and cultures The concept of a "gay identity" and the use of the term gay may not be used or understood the same way in non-Westernised cultures, since modes of sexuality may differ from those prevalent in the West. For example, Two-spirit is a term used by some Indigenous people in the United States and Canada to describe Indigenous people in their communities who do not conform to Western expressions of gender and sexuality. It functions as a modern, pan-Indian umbrella term much like the use of queer or LGBTQ is used by non-Natives. Some Indigenous people identify as both two-spirit and gay. For some traditional Native Americans, who usually use terms in their own languages for these individuals rather than the English neologism, two-spirit is not interchangeable with the "LGBT Native American" or "gay Indian" sexual and gender identity labels because it is a sacred, spiritual, and ceremonial role that is recognized and confirmed only by tribal elders of the two-spirit person's ceremonial community. The German equivalent for "gay", "schwul", which is etymologically derived from "schwül" (hot, humid), also acquired the pejorative meaning within youth culture. See also Anti-LGBT slogans Deviance (sociology) Gay bashing Gay gene (Xq28) Gay men Gay sexual practices Gender identity Hate speech Heteronormativity Heterosexism Human female sexuality Human male sexuality Human Rights Campaign Labeling theory Lesbian sexual practices LGBT rights opposition LGBT themes in mythology List of gay, lesbian or bisexual people List of LGBT events National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Religion and sexuality Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures Social stigma Tu'er Shen Men who have sex with men References Further reading External links 1920s neologisms LGBT terminology Homosexuality LGBT-related slurs English words
5171136	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian%20colonization%20of%20Libya	Italian colonization of Libya	The Italian colonization of Libya began in 1911 and it lasted until 1943. The country, which was previously an Ottoman possession, was occupied by Italy in 1911 after the Italo-Turkish War, which resulted in the establishment of two colonies: Italian Tripolitania and Italian Cyrenaica. In 1934, the two colonies were merged into one colony which was named the colony of Italian Libya. In 1937, this colony was divided into four provinces, and in 1939, the coastal provinces became a part of metropolitan Italy. The colonization lasted until Libya's occupation by Allied forces in 1943, but it was not until the 1947 Paris Peace Treaty that Italy officially renounced all of its claims to Libya's territory. Italian Tripolitania and Cyrenaica (1911–1934) First years On 3 October 1911, Italy attacked Tripoli, claiming to be liberating the Ottoman wilayats from Istanbul's rule. Despite a major revolt by the Arabs, the Ottoman sultan ceded Libya to the Italians by signing the 1912 Treaty of Lausanne (not to be confused with a more famous treaty of the same name of 1923). The Italians made extensive use of the Savari, colonial cavalry troops raised in December 1912. These units were recruited from the Arab-Berber population of Libya following the initial Italian occupation in 1911–12. The Savari, like the Spahi, or mounted Libyan police, formed part of the (Royal Corps of Libyan Colonial Troops). Tripoli was largely under Italian control by 1914, but both Cyrenaica and the Fezzan were home to rebellions led by the nomadic Senussi. Sheikh Sidi Idris al-Mahdi as-Senussi (later King Idris I), of the Senussi, led Libyan resistance in various forms through the outbreak of the Second World War. After the Italian army invaded Cyrenaica in 1913 as part of their wider invasion of Libya, the Senussi Order fought back against them. When the Order's leader, Ahmed Sharif as-Senussi, abdicated his position, he was replaced by Idris, who was his cousin. Pressured to do so by the Ottoman Empire, Ahmed had pursued armed attacks against British military forces stationed in neighbouring Egypt. On taking power, Idris put a stop to these attacks. Instead he established a tacit alliance with the British, which would last for half a century and accord his order de facto diplomatic status. Using the British as intermediaries, Idris led the Order into negotiations with the Italians in July 1916. These resulted in two agreements, at al-Zuwaytina in April 1916 and at Akrama in April 1917. The latter of these treaties left most of inland Cyrenaica under the control of the Senussi Order Relations between the Senussi Order and the newly established Tripolitanian Republic were acrimonious. The Senussi attempted to militarily extend their power into eastern Tripolitania, resulting in a pitched battle at Bani Walid in which the Senussi were forced to withdraw back into Cyrenaica. At the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire signed an armistice agreement in which they ceded their claims over Libya to Italy. Italy however was facing serious economic, social, and political problems domestically, and was not prepared to re-launch its military activities in Libya. It issued statutes known as the Legge Fondamentale with both the Tripolitanian Republic in June 1919 and Cyrenaica in October 1919. These brought about a compromise by which all Libyans were accorded the right to a joint Libyan-Italian citizenship while each province was to have its own parliament and governing council. The Senussi were largely happy with this arrangement and Idris visited Rome as part of the celebrations to mark the promulgation of the settlement. In October 1920, further negotiations between Italy and Cyrenaica resulted in the Accord of al-Rajma, in which Idris was given the title of the Emir of Cyrenaica and permitted to autonomously administer the oases around Kufra, Jalu, Jaghbub, Awjila, and Ajdabiya. As part of the Accord, he was given a monthly stipend by the Italian government, which agreed to take responsibility for policing and administration of areas under Senussi control. The Accord also stipulated that Idris must fulfill the requirements of the Legge Fondamentale by disbanding the Cyrenaican military units, however, he did not comply with this. By the end of 1921, relations between the Senussi Order and the Italian government had again deteriorated. Following the death of Tripolitanian leader Ramadan Asswehly in August 1920, the Republic descended into civil war. Many tribal leaders in the region recognized that this discord was weakening the region's chances of attaining full autonomy from Italy, and in November 1920 they met in Gharyan to bring an end to the violence. In January 1922 they agreed to request that Idris extend the Sanui Emirate of Cyrenaica into Tripolitania in order to bring stability; they presented a formal document with this request on 28 July 1922. Idris' advisers were divided on whether he should accept the offer or not. Doing so would contravene the al-Rajma Agreement and would damage relations with the Italian government, which opposed the political unification of Cyrenaica and Tripolitania as being against their interests. Nevertheless, in November 1922 Idris agreed to the proposal. Following the agreement, Idris feared that Italy — under its new Fascist leader Benito Mussolini—would militarily retaliate against the Senussi Order, and so he went into exile in Egypt in December 1922. The Second Italo-Senussi War After the accession to power of the dictator Benito Mussolini in Italy, the fighting intensified. Due to the Libyan people's effective resistance against Italy's so-called "pacification campaign", the Italian colonization of the Ottoman provinces of Tripolitania and Cyrenaica was initially unsuccessful and it was not until the early 1930s that the Kingdom of Italy took full control of the area. This conflict, known as the Second Italo-Senussi War, ultimately claimed the lives of around 56,000 Libyans. Several reorganizations of the colonial authority had been made necessary because of armed Arab opposition, mainly in Cyrenaica. Between 1919 (17 May) to 1929 (24 January), the Italian government maintained the two traditional provinces, with separate colonial administrations. A system of controlled local assemblies with limited local authority was set up but was revoked on 9 March 1927. In 1929, Tripoli and Cyrenaica were united as one colonial province. From 1931 to 1932, Italian forces under General Badoglio waged a punitive pacification campaign. Badoglio's successor in the field, General Rodolfo Graziani, accepted the commission from Mussolini on the condition that he was allowed to crush Libyan resistance unencumbered by the restraints of either Italian or international law. Mussolini reportedly agreed immediately and Graziani intensified the oppression. Some Libyans continued to defend themselves, with the strongest voices of dissent coming from the Cyrenaica. Beginning in the first days of Italian colonization, Omar Mukhtar, a Senussi sheik, organized and, for nearly twenty years, led Libyan resistance efforts. His example continued to inspire resistance even after his capture and execution on 16 September 1931. His face is currently printed on the Libyan ten dinar note in memory and recognition of his patriotism. After a much-disputed truce, the Italian policy in Libya reached the level of full-scale war in 1932. A barbed wire fence was built from the Mediterranean to the oasis of Jaghbub to sever lines critical to the resistance. Soon afterward, the colonial administration began wholesale deportation of the people of the Jebel Akhdar to deny the resistance to the support of the local population. The forced migration of more than 100,000 people ended in concentration camps in Suluq and El Agheila, where thousands died in squalid conditions. It is estimated that the number of Libyans who died, killed in the fighting or through starvation and disease is at least , up to one third of the Cyrenaican population. Both sides committed war crimes: the first were the Senussi forces who did not take prisoners of war since 1911 (like in the Shar Shatt massacre) and used to mutilate nearly all the Italian colonial troops (mainly the Christian Eritreans) when they surrendered. Italian war crimes included the use of illegal chemical weapons, episodes of refusing to take prisoners of war and instead of executing surrendering combatants, and mass executions of civilians. Italian authorities committed ethnic cleansing by forcibly expelling 100,000 local Cyrenaicans, almost half the population of Cyrenaica, from their settlements, slated to be given to Italian settlers. According to Knud Holmboe, tribal villages were being bombed with mustard gas by the spring of 1930, and suspects were hanged or shot in the back, with estimated thirty executions tooking place daily. Angelo Del Boca estimated between 40,000 and 70,000 total Libyan deads due to forced deportations, starvation and disease inside the concentration camps, and hanging and executions. The Italian occupation also reduced the number of livestock by killing, confiscating, or driving the animals from their pastoral land to inhospitable land near the concentration camps. The number of sheep fell from 810,000 in 1926 to 98,000 in 1933, goats from 70,000 to 25,000, and camels from 75,000 to 2,000. From 1930 to 1931, 12,000 Cyrenaicans died and all the nomadic peoples of northern Cyrenaica were forcefully removed from the region and relocated to huge concentration camps in the Cyrenaican lowlands. Propaganda by the Fascist regime declared the camps to be oases of modern civilization that were hygienic and efficiently run –– however, in reality, the camps had poor sanitary conditions as the camps had an average of about 20,000 inmates, together with their camels and other animals, crowded into an area of one square kilometer. The camps held only rudimentary medical services. The Soluch and Sisi Ahmed el Magrun concentration camps, with an estimated 33,000 internees, had only one doctor between them. Typhus and other diseases spread rapidly in the camps, as the people were physically weakened by forced labor and meager food rations. By the time the camps closed in September 1933, 40,000 of the 100,000 total internees had died in the camps. Italian Libya (1934–1943) By 1934, Libyan indigenous resistance was effectively crushed. The new Italian governor, Italo Balbo, created the political entity called Italian Libya in the summer of that year. The classical name "Libya" was revived as the official name of the unified colony. Then in 1937 the colony was split administratively into four provinces: Tripoli, Misrata, Benghazi, and Derna. The Fezzan area was called Territorio Sahara Libico and administered militarily. In March 1937 Mussolini made a state visit to Libya, where he opened a new military highway running the entire length of the colony (the Via Balbia). For propaganda reasons he had himself declared Protector of Islam and was presented with a symbolic sword. Mussolini's publicized encouragement of the Arab nationalist movement suited his wider policies of confronting Britain and France. He also sought to fully colonize Libya, introducing 30,000 more Italian colonists, which brought their numbers to more than 100,000. These colonists were shipped primarily to Sahel al-Jefara in Tripolitania and the Jebel Akhdar in Cyrenaica, and given land from which the indigenous inhabitants had been partially removed during the colonial war in the 1920s. At the time of the 1939 census, the Italian population in Libya numbered 108,419 (12.37% of the total population), concentrated on the coast around the city of Tripoli (37% of the city's population) and Benghazi (31%). The 22,000 Libyan Jews were allowed to integrate in the society of the "Fourth Shore", but after summer 1941, with the arrival of the German Afrika Korps, they began to be moved to internment camps under Nazi SS control. On January 9, 1939, the colony was incorporated into metropolitan Italy and thereafter considered by Italy to be an integral part of their state. By 1939, the Italians had built 400 km of new railroads and 4,000 km of new roads. During World War II a new road was still being built, the Via della Vittoria, and a new Tripoli-Benghazi railway. On 13 September 1940, Mussolini's highway was used for the invasion of Egypt by Italian forces stationed in Libya. In 1939, laws were passed that allowed Muslims to be permitted to join the National Fascist Party and in particular the Muslim Association of the Lictor (Associazione Musulmana del Littorio). These reforms allowed the creation of Libyan military units within the Italian army (with 30,000 native Muslim soldiers). Two divisions of Libyan colonial troops were created (1st Libyan Division, 2nd Libyan Division), and in the summer of 1940 both participated in the Italian offensive against the British army in Egypt). A battalion of Libyan paratroopers was even raised shortly before World War II, the first force of this kind to be created in all of Africa. Other Libyan troops had been fighting for the Kingdom of Italy since the 1920s: the Savari (cavalry regiments) and the Spahi (mounted police). Mussolini sought to assimilate the Arabs of Libya (whom he called "Muslim Italians") and so in 1939 ten villages were created for Arabs and Berbers: "El Fager" (It. Alba, En. Dawn), "Nahima" (It. Deliziosa, En. Delicious), "Azizia" (It. Profumata, En. Perfumed), "Nahiba" (It. Risorta, En. Risen), "Mansura" (It. Vittoriosa, En. Victorious), "Chadra" (It. Verde, En. Green), "Zahara" (It. Fiorita, En. Blossomed), "Gedina" (It. Nuova, En. New), *"Mamhura" (It. Fiorente, En. Flourished), "El Beida" (It. La Bianca, En. White). All these new villages had their mosque, school, social centre (with sport grounds and cinema) and small hospital. This was purportedly a reward for the military performance of the Libyan colonial troops: in 1936 Savaris and other Libyan units took part in the Italian invasion of Ethiopia and received a "Gold Medal of Honour" for their distinguished performance in battle. Decolonization From 1943 to 1951, Libya was under Allied occupation. The British military administered the two former Italian Libyan provinces of Tripolitana and Cyrenaïca, while the French administered the province of Fezzan. Under the terms of the 1947 peace treaty with the Allies, Italy, which hoped to maintain the colony of Tripolitania, (and France, which wanted the Fezzan), relinquished all claims to Libya. Libya remained united as it experienced the process of decolonization that characterized colonies of Europe in the mid-Twentieth Century. Omar al-Mukhtar's final years were depicted in the movie Lion of the Desert (1981), starring Anthony Quinn, Oliver Reed, and Irene Papas. The Italian authorities had banned the film in 1982 because, in the words of Giulio Andreotti, it was "damaging to the honor of the army". In July 1998, the Italian government offered a formal apology to Libya. In August 2008 the two nations signed a treaty of friendship in which US$5 billion in goods and services, including the construction of the Libyan portion of the Cairo-Tunis highway, would be given to Libya to end any remaining animosity. In exchange, Libya would take measures to combat illegal immigration coming from its shores and boost investments in Italian companies. The treaty was ratified by Italy on 6 February 2009, and by Libya on 2 March, during a visit to Tripoli by Silvio Berlusconi, who recognized historic atrocities and repression committed by the state of Italy against the Libyan people during colonial rule, stating: "In this historic document, Italy apologizes for its killing, destruction and repression of the Libyan people during the period of colonial rule." and went on to say that this was a "complete and moral acknowledgement of the damage inflicted on Libya by Italy during the colonial era". Cooperation ended in February 2011 as a result of the Libyan Civil War which overthrew Gaddafi. On 26 September 2011, Italian energy company Eni announced it had restarted oil production in Libya for the first time since the start of the 2011 Libyan civil war. The quick return of Eni to Libyan oilfields reflected the positive relations between Rome and Tripoli. The Italian embassy in Tripoli is one of the few Western embassies still active in Libya during the Post-civil war violence in Libya, because Italy is the most important trade partner for Libya. See also List of colonial heads of Libya Italian Libya, 1934–1943 Fourth Shore Italo Balbo Italy–Libya relations Savari Spahi Ascari del Cielo Italian Libyan Colonial Division Tripoli Grand Prix Italian Empire Via Balbia Via della Vittoria Italian Libya Railways Aouzou Strip Notes Bibliography Chapin Metz, Helen, ed., Libya: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1987. Foerster, Robert. The Italian Emigration of Our Times. Ayer Publishing. Manchester (New Hampshire), 1969. Smeaton Munro, Ion. Through Fascism to World Power: A History of the Revolution in Italy. Ayer Publishing. Manchester (New Hampshire), 1971. Tuccimei, Ercole. La Banca d'Italia in Africa, Foreword by Arnaldo Mauri, Editori Laterza, Bari, 1999. . External links Lion of the desert Photos of Libyan Italians and their villages in Libya The Italians in Libya after World War II Pictures of the Italian conquest of Libya (arab) Italian colonial railways built in Libya Lion of the desert History
5171141	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Libya%20under%20Muammar%20Gaddafi	History of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi	Muammar Gaddafi became the de facto leader of Libya on 1 September 1969 after leading a group of young Libyan Army officers against King Idris I in a bloodless coup d'état. After the king had fled the country, the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) headed by Gaddafi abolished the monarchy and the old constitution and established the Libyan Arab Republic, with the motto "freedom, socialism and unity". The name of Libya was changed several times during Gaddafi's tenure as leader. From 1969 to 1977, the name was the Libyan Arab Republic. In 1977, the name was changed to Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Jamahiriya was a term coined by Gaddafi, usually translated as "state of the masses". The country was renamed again in 1986 as the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, after the United States bombing that year. After coming to power, the RCC government initiated a process of directing funds toward providing education, health care and housing for all. Public education in the country became free and primary education compulsory for both sexes. Medical care became available to the public at no cost, but providing housing for all was a task the RCC government was unable to complete. Under Gaddafi, per capita income in the country rose to more than US$11,000, the 5th highest in Africa. The increase in prosperity was accompanied by a controversial foreign policy, and increased domestic political repression. During the 1980s and 1990s, Gaddafi, in alliance with the Eastern Bloc and Fidel Castro's Cuba, openly supported rebel movements like Nelson Mandela's African National Congress, Yasser Arafat's Palestine Liberation Organization, the Provisional Irish Republican Army and the Polisario Front. Gaddafi's government was either known to be or suspected of participating in or aiding attacks by these and other proxy forces. Additionally, Gaddafi undertook several invasions of neighboring states in Africa, notably Chad in the 1970s and 1980s. All of his actions led to a deterioration of Libya's foreign relations with several countries, mostly Western states, and culminated in the 1986 United States bombing of Libya. Gaddafi defended his government's actions by citing the need to support anti-imperialist and anti-colonial movements around the world. Notably, Gaddafi supported anti-Zionist, pan-Arab, pan-Africanist, Arab and black civil rights movements. Gaddafi's behavior, often erratic, led some outsiders to conclude that he was not mentally sound, a claim disputed by the Libyan authorities and other observers close to Gaddafi. Despite receiving extensive aid and technical assistance from the Soviet Union and its allies, Gaddafi retained close ties to pro-American governments in Western Europe, largely by courting Western oil companies with promises of access to the lucrative Libyan energy sector. After the 9/11 attacks, strained relations between Libya and NATO countries were mostly normalised, and sanctions against the country relaxed, in exchange for nuclear disarmament. In early 2011, a civil war broke out in the context of the wider Arab Spring. The rebel anti-Gaddafi forces formed a committee named the National Transitional Council in February 2011, to act as an interim authority in the rebel-controlled areas. After killings by government forces in addition to those by the rebel forces, a multinational coalition led by NATO forces intervened in March in support of the rebels. The International Criminal Court issued an arrest warrant against Gaddafi and his entourage in June 2011. Gaddafi's government was overthrown in the wake of the fall of Tripoli to the rebel forces in August, although pockets of resistance held by forces in support of Gaddafi's government held out for another two months, especially in Gaddafi's hometown of Sirte, which he declared the new capital of Libya in September. The fall of the last remaining sites in Sirte under pro-Gaddafi control on 20 October 2011, followed by the subsequent killing of Gaddafi, marked the end of the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. Coup d'état of 1969 The discovery of significant oil reserves in 1959 and the subsequent income from petroleum sales enabled the Kingdom of Libya to transition from one of the world's poorest nations to a wealthy state. Although oil drastically improved the Libyan government's finances, resentment began to build over the increased concentration of the nation's wealth in the hands of King Idris. This discontent mounted with the rise of Nasserism and Arab nationalism/socialism throughout North Africa and the Middle East. On 1 September 1969, a group of about 70 young army officers known as the Free Officers Movement and enlisted men mostly assigned to the Signal Corps, seized control of the government and in a stroke abolished the Libyan monarchy. The coup was launched at Benghazi, and within two hours the takeover was completed. Army units quickly rallied in support of the coup, and within a few days firmly established military control in Tripoli and throughout the country. Popular reception of the coup, especially by younger people in the urban areas, was enthusiastic. Fears of resistance in Cyrenaica and Fezzan proved unfounded. No deaths or violent incidents related to the coup were reported. The Free Officers Movement, which claimed credit for carrying out the coup, was headed by a twelve-member directorate that designated itself the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC). This body constituted the Libyan government after the coup. In its initial proclamation on 1 September, the RCC declared the country to be a free and sovereign state called the Libyan Arab Republic, which would proceed "in the path of freedom, unity, and social justice, guaranteeing the right of equality to its citizens, and opening before them the doors of honorable work." The rule of the Turks and Italians and the "reactionary" government just overthrown were characterized as belonging to "dark ages", from which the Libyan people were called to move forward as "free brothers" to a new age of prosperity, equality, and honor. The RCC advised diplomatic representatives in Libya that the revolutionary changes had not been directed from outside the country, that existing treaties and agreements would remain in effect, and that foreign lives and property would be protected. Diplomatic recognition of the new government came quickly from countries throughout the world. United States recognition was officially extended on 6 September. Post-coup In view of the lack of internal resistance, it appeared that the chief danger to the new government lay in the possibility of a reaction inspired by the absent King Idris or his designated heir, Crown Prince Hasan, who had been taken into custody at the time of the coup along with other senior civil and military officials of the royal government. Within days of the coup, however, Hasan publicly renounced all rights to the throne, stated his support for the new government, and called on the people to accept it without violence. Idris, in an exchange of messages with the RCC through Egypt's President Nasser, dissociated himself from reported attempts to secure British intervention and disclaimed any intention of coming back to Libya. In return, he was assured by the RCC of the safety of his family still in the country. At his own request and with Nasser's approval, Idris took up residence once again in Egypt, where he had spent his first exile and where he remained until his death in 1983. On 7 September 1969, the RCC announced that it had appointed a cabinet to conduct the government of the new republic. An American-educated technician, Mahmud Suleiman Maghribi, who had been imprisoned since 1967 for his political activities, was designated prime minister. He presided over the eight-member Council of Ministers, of whom six, like Maghribi, were civilians and two – Adam Said Hawwaz and Musa Ahmad – were military officers. Neither of the officers was a member of the RCC. The Council of Ministers was instructed to "implement the state's general policy as drawn up by the RCC", leaving no doubt where ultimate authority rested. The next day the RCC decided to promote Captain Gaddafi to colonel and to appoint him commander in chief of the Libyan Armed Forces. Although RCC spokesmen declined until January 1970 to reveal any other names of RCC members, it was apparent from that date onward that the head of the RCC and new de facto head of state was Gaddafi. Analysts were quick to point out the striking similarities between the Libyan military coup of 1969 and that in Egypt under Nasser in 1952, and it became clear that the Egyptian experience and the charismatic figure of Nasser had formed the model for the Free Officers Movement. As the RCC in the last months of 1969 moved vigorously to institute domestic reforms, it proclaimed neutrality in the confrontation between the superpowers and opposition to all forms of colonialism and imperialism. It also made clear Libya's dedication to Arab unity and to the support of the Palestinian cause against Israel. The RCC reaffirmed the country's identity as part of the "Arab nation" and its state religion as Islam. It abolished parliamentary institutions, all legislative functions being assumed by the RCC, and continued the prohibition against political parties, in effect since 1952. The new government categorically rejected communism – in large part because it was atheist – and officially espoused an Arab interpretation of socialism that integrated Islamic principles with social, economic, and political reform. Libya had shifted, virtually overnight, from the camp of conservative Arab traditionalist states to that of the radical nationalist states. Libyan Arab Republic (1969–1977) Attempted counter-coups Following the formation of the Libyan Arab Republic, Gaddafi and his associates insisted that their government would not rest on individual leadership, but rather on collegial decision making. The first major cabinet change occurred soon after the first challenge to the government. In December 1969, Adam Said Hawwaz, the minister of defense, and Musa Ahmad, the minister of interior, were arrested and accused of planning a coup. In the new cabinet formed after the crisis, Gaddafi, retaining his post as chairman of the RCC, also became prime minister and defense minister. Major Abdel Salam Jallud, generally regarded as second only to Gaddafi in the RCC, became deputy prime minister and minister of interior. This cabinet totaled thirteen members, of whom five were RCC officers. The government was challenged a second time in July 1970 when Abdullah Abid Sanusi and Ahmed al-Senussi, distant cousins of former King Idris, and members of the Sayf an Nasr clan of Fezzan were accused of plotting to seize power for themselves. After the plot was foiled, a substantial cabinet change occurred, RCC officers for the first time forming a majority among new ministers. Assertion of Gaddafi's control From the start, RCC spokesmen had indicated a serious intent to bring the "defunct regime" to account. In 1971 and 1972, more than 200 former government officials (including seven prime ministers and numerous cabinet ministers), as well as former King Idris and members of the royal family, were brought to the Libyan People's Court to be tried on charges of treason and corruption. Many, who lived in exile (including Idris), were tried in absentia. Although a large percentage of those charged were acquitted, sentences of up to fifteen years in prison and heavy fines were imposed on others. Five death sentences, all but one of them in absentia, were pronounced; among them, one against Idris. Former Queen Fatima and former Crown Prince Hasan were sentenced to five and three years in prison, respectively. Meanwhile, Gaddafi and the RCC had disbanded the Senussi order and officially downgraded its historical role in achieving Libya's independence. He also declared regional and tribal issues to be "obstructions" in the path of social advancement and Arab unity, dismissing traditional leaders and drawing administrative boundaries across tribal groupings. The Free Officers Movement was renamed "Arab Socialist Union" (ASU) in 1971 (modeled after Egypt's Arab Socialist Union), while also becoming the sole legal party in Gaddafi's Libya. It acted as a "vehicle of national expression", purporting to "raise the political consciousness of Libyans" and to "aid the RCC in formulating public policy through debate in open forums". Trade unions were incorporated into the ASU and strikes outlawed. The press, already subject to censorship, was officially conscripted in 1972 as an agent of the revolution. Italians (and what remained of the Jewish community) were expelled from the country, their property confiscated in October 1970. In 1972, Libya joined the Federation of Arab Republics with Egypt and Syria; the previously-intended union of pan-Arabic states, never coming to fruition, went effectively dormant after 1973. As months passed, Gaddafi, caught up in his apocalyptic visions of revolutionary Pan-Arabism and Islam (both locked in mortal struggle with what he termed the "encircling, demonic forces of reaction, imperialism, and Zionism"), increasingly devoted attention to international rather than internal affairs. As a result, routine administrative tasks fell to Major Jallud, who became prime minister in place of Gaddafi, in 1972. Two years later, Jallud assumed Gaddafi's remaining administrative and protocol duties to allow Gaddafi to devote his time to revolutionary theorizing. Gaddafi remained commander-in-chief of the armed forces and effective head of state. The foreign press speculated about an eclipse of his authority and personality within the RCC, but Gaddafi soon dispelled such theories by his measures to restructure Libyan society. Alignment with the Soviet bloc After the September coup, U.S. forces proceeded deliberately with the planned withdrawal from Wheelus Air Base under the agreement made with the previous government. The foreign minister, Salah Busir, played an important role in negotiating the British and American military withdrawal from the new republic. The last of the American contingent turned the facility over to the Libyans on 11 June 1970, a date thereafter celebrated in Libya as a national holiday. On 27 March 1970, the British air base in El Adem and the naval base in Tobruk were abandoned. As relations with the U.S. steadily deteriorated, Gaddafi forged close links with the Soviet Union and other Eastern Bloc countries, all the while maintaining Libya's stance as a nonaligned country and opposing the spread of communism in the Arab world. Libya's army—sharply increased from the 6,000-man pre-revolutionary force that had been trained and equipped by the British—was armed with Soviet-built armor and missiles. Petroleum politics The economic base for Libya's revolution has been its oil revenues. However, Libya's petroleum reserves were small compared with those of other major Arab petroleum-producing states. As a consequence, Libya was more ready to ration output in order to conserve its natural wealth and less responsive to moderating its price-rise demands than the other countries. Petroleum was seen both as a means of financing the economic and social development of a woefully underdeveloped country and as a political weapon to brandish in the Arab struggle against Israel. The increase in production that followed the 1969 revolution was accompanied by Libyan demands for higher petroleum prices, a greater share of revenues, and more control over the development of the country's petroleum industry. Foreign petroleum companies agreed to a price hike of more than three times the going rate (from US$0.90 to US$3.45 per barrel) early in 1971. In December, the Libyan government suddenly nationalized the holdings of British Petroleum in Libya and withdrew funds amounting to approximately US$550 million invested in British banks as a result of a foreign policy dispute. British Petroleum rejected as inadequate a Libyan offer of compensation, and the British treasury banned Libya from participation in the Sterling Area. In 1973, the Libyan government announced the nationalization of a controlling interest in all other petroleum companies operating in the country. This step gave Libya control of about 60 percent of its domestic oil production by early 1974, a figure that subsequently rose to 70 percent. Total nationalization was out of the question, given the need for foreign expertise and funds in oil exploration, production, and distribution. 1973 oil crisis Insisting on the continued use of petroleum as leverage against Israel and its supporters in the West, Libya strongly urged the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) to take action in 1973, and Libyan militancy was partially responsible for OPEC measures to raise oil prices, impose embargoes, and gain control of production. On 19 October 1973, Libya was the first Arab nation to issue an oil embargo against the United States after US President Richard Nixon announced the US would provide Israel with a $2.2 billion military aid program during the Yom Kippur War. Saudi Arabia and other Arab oil producing nations in OPEC would follow suit the next day. While the other Arab nations lifted their oil embargoes on 18 March 1974, the Gaddafi regime refused to do so. As a consequence of such policies, Libya's oil production declined by half between 1970 and 1974, while revenues from oil exports more than quadrupled. Production continued to fall, bottoming out at an eleven-year low in 1975 at a time when the government was preparing to invest large amounts of petroleum revenues in other sectors of the economy. Thereafter, output stabilized at about two million barrels per day. Production and hence income declined yet again in the early 1980s because of the high price of Libyan crude and because recession in the industrialized world reduced demand for oil from all sources. Libya's Five-Year Economic and Social Transformation Plan (1976–80), announced in 1975, was programmed to pump US$20 billion into the development of a broad range of economic activities that would continue to provide income after Libya's petroleum reserves had been exhausted. Agriculture was slated to receive the largest share of aid in an effort to make Libya self-sufficient in food and to help keep the rural population on the land. Industry, of which there was little before the revolution, also received a significant amount of funding in the first development plan as well as in the second, launched in 1981. Transition to the Jamahiriya (1973–1977) The "remaking of Libyan society" contained in Gaddafi's ideological visions began to be put into practice formally in 1973, with a cultural revolution. This revolution was designed to create bureaucratic efficiency, public interest and participation in the subnational governmental system, and national political coordination. In an attempt to instill revolutionary fervor into his compatriots and to involve large numbers of them in political affairs, Gaddafi urged them to challenge traditional authority and to take over and run government organs themselves. The instrument for doing this was the people's committee. Within a few months, such committees were found all across Libya. They were functionally and geographically based, and eventually became responsible for local and regional administration. People's committees were established in such widely divergent organizations as universities, private business firms, government bureaucracies, and the broadcast media. Geographically based committees were formed at the governorate, municipal, and zone (lowest) levels. Seats on the people's committees at the zone level were filled by direct popular election; members so elected could then be selected for service at higher levels. By mid-1973 estimates of the number of people's committees ranged above 2,000. In the scope of their administrative and regulatory tasks and the method of their members' selection, the people's committees purportedly embodied the concept of direct democracy that Gaddafi propounded in the first volume of The Green Book, which appeared in 1976. The same concept lay behind proposals to create a new political structure composed of "people's congresses". The centerpiece of the new system was the General People's Congress (GPC), a national representative body intended to replace the RCC. 7 April 1976 protests During this transition, on 7 April 1976, students of universities in Tripoli and Benghazi protested against human rights violations and the military's control over "all aspects of life in Libya"; the students called for free and fair elections to take place and for power to be transferred to a civilian government. Violent counter-demonstrations took place, with many students imprisoned. On 7 April 1977, the anniversary of the event, students (including Omar Dabob and Muhammed Ben Saoud) were publicly executed in Benghazi, with anti-Gaddafi military officers executed later in the week. Friends of the executees were forced to participate in or observe the executions. Annual public executions would go on to continue each year, on 7 April, until the late 1980s. Egyptian–Libyan War On 21 July 1977, there were first gun battles between troops on the border, followed by land and air strikes. Relations between the Libyan and Egyptian governments had been deteriorating ever since the end of the Yom Kippur War from October 1973, due to Libyan opposition to President Anwar Sadat's peace policy as well as the breakdown of unification talks between the two governments. There is some proof that the Egyptian government was considering a war against Libya as early as 1974. On 28 February 1974, during Henry Kissinger's visit to Egypt, President Sadat told him about such intentions and requested that pressure be put on the Israeli government not to launch an attack on Egypt in the event of its forces being occupied in war with Libya. In addition, the Egyptian government had broken its military ties with Moscow, while the Libyan government kept that cooperation going. The Egyptian government also gave assistance to former RCC members Major Abd al Munim al Huni and Omar Muhayshi, who unsuccessfully tried to overthrow Gaddafi in 1975, and allowed them to reside in Egypt. During 1976 relations were ebbing, as the Egyptian government claimed to have discovered a Libyan plot to overthrow the government in Cairo. On 26 January 1976, Egyptian Vice President Hosni Mubarak indicated in a talk with the US Ambassador Hermann Eilts that the Egyptian government intended to exploit internal problems in Libya to promote actions against Libya, but did not elaborate. On 22 July 1976, the Libyan government made a public threat to break diplomatic relations with Cairo if Egyptian subversive actions continued. On 8 August 1976, an explosion occurred in the bathroom of a government office in Tahrir Square in Cairo, injuring 14, and the Egyptian government and media claimed this was done by Libyan agents. The Egyptian government also claimed to have arrested two Egyptian citizens trained by Libyan intelligence to perform sabotage within Egypt. On 23 August, an Egyptian passenger plane was hijacked by persons who reportedly worked with Libyan intelligence. They were captured by Egyptian authorities in an operation that ended without any casualties. In retaliation for accusations by the Egyptian government of Libyan complicity in the hijacking, the Libyan government ordered the closure of the Egyptian Consulate in Benghazi. On 24 July, the combatants agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the President of Algeria Houari Boumediène and the Palestine Liberation Organization Chairman Yasser Arafat. Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya (1977–2011) On 2 March 1977, the General People's Congress (GPC), at Gaddafi's behest, adopted the "Declaration of the Establishment of the People's Authority" and proclaimed the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya ( ). In the official political philosophy of Gaddafi's state, the "Jamahiriya" system was unique to the country, although it was presented as the materialization of the Third International Theory, proposed by Gaddafi to be applied to the entire Third World. The GPC also created the General Secretariat of the GPC, comprising the remaining members of the defunct Revolutionary Command Council, with Gaddafi as general secretary, and also appointed the General People's Committee, which replaced the Council of Ministers, its members now called secretaries rather than ministers. The Libyan government claimed that the Jamahiriya was a direct democracy without any political parties, governed by its populace through local popular councils and communes (named Basic People's Congresses). Official rhetoric disdained the idea of a nation state, tribal bonds remaining primary, even within the ranks of the national army. Etymology Jamahiriya ( ) is an Arabic term generally translated as "state of the masses"; Lisa Anderson has suggested "peopledom" or "state of the masses" as a reasonable approximations of the meaning of the term as intended by Gaddafi. The term does not occur in this sense in Muammar Gaddafi's Green Book of 1975. The nisba-adjective ("mass-, "of the masses") occurs only in the third part, published in 1981, in the phrase (), translated in the English edition as "Historic movements are mass movements". The word was derived from , which is the usual Arabic translation of "republic". It was coined by changing the component —"public"—to its plural form, —"the masses". Thus, it is similar to the term People's Republic. It is often left untranslated in English, with the long-form name thus rendered as Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya. However, in Hebrew, for instance, is translated as "קהילייה" (), a word also used to translate the term "Commonwealth" when referring to the designation of a country. After weathering the 1986 U.S. bombing by the Reagan administration, Gaddafi added the specifier "Great" ( ) to the official name of the country. Reforms (1977–1980) Gaddafi as permanent "Brotherly Leader and Guide of the Revolution" The changes in Libyan leadership since 1976 culminated in March 1979, when the General People's Congress declared that the "vesting of power in the masses" and the "separation of the state from the revolution" were complete. The government was divided into two parts, the "Jamahiriya sector" and the "revolutionary sector". The "Jamahiriya sector" was composed of the General People's Congress, the General People's Committee, and the local Basic People's Congresses. Gaddafi relinquished his position as general secretary of the General People's Congress, as which he was succeeded by Abdul Ati al-Obeidi, who had been prime minister since 1977. The "Jamahiriya sector" was overseen by the "revolutionary sector", headed by Gaddafi as "Leader of the Revolution" () and the surviving members of the Revolutionary Command Council. The leaders of the revolutionary sector were not subject to election, as they owed office to their role in the 1969 coup. They oversaw the "revolutionary committees", which were nominally grass-roots organizations that helped keep the people engaged. As a result, although Gaddafi held no formal government office after 1979, he retained control of the government and the country. Gaddafi also remained supreme commander of the armed forces. Administrative reforms All legislative and executive authority was vested in the GPC. This body, however, delegated most of its important authority to its general secretary and General Secretariat and to the General People's Committee. Gaddafi, as general secretary of the GPC, remained the primary decision maker, just as he had been when chairman of the RCC. In turn, all adults had the right and duty to participate in the deliberation of their local Basic People's Congress (BPC), whose decisions were passed up to the GPC for consideration and implementation as national policy. The BPCs were in theory the repository of ultimate political authority and decision making, embodying what Gaddafi termed direct "people's power". The 1977 declaration and its accompanying resolutions amounted to a fundamental revision of the 1969 constitutional proclamation, especially with respect to the structure and organization of the government at both national and subnational levels. Continuing to revamp Libya's political and administrative structure, Gaddafi introduced yet another element into the body politic. Beginning in 1977, "revolutionary committees" were organized and assigned the task of "absolute revolutionary supervision of people's power"; that is, they were to guide the people's committees, "raise the general level of political consciousness and devotion to revolutionary ideals". In reality, the revolutionary committees were used to survey the population and repress any political opposition to Gaddafi's autocratic rule. Reportedly 10% to 20% of Libyans worked in surveillance for these committees, a proportion of informants on par with Ba'athist Iraq and Juche Korea. Filled with politically astute zealots, the ubiquitous revolutionary committees in 1979 assumed control of BPC elections. Although they were not official government organs, the revolutionary committees became another mainstay of the domestic political scene. As with the people's committees and other administrative innovations since the revolution, the revolutionary committees fit the pattern of imposing a new element on the existing subnational system of government rather than eliminating or consolidating already existing structures. By the late 1970s, the result was an unnecessarily complex system of overlapping jurisdictions in which cooperation and coordination among different elements were compromised by ill-defined authority and responsibility. The ambiguity may have helped serve Gaddafi's aim to remain the prime mover behind Libyan governance, while minimizing his visibility at a time when internal opposition to political repression was rising. The RCC was formally dissolved and the government was again reorganized into people's committees. A new General People's Committee (cabinet) was selected, each of its "secretaries" becoming head of a specialized people's committee; the exceptions were the "secretariats" of petroleum, foreign affairs, and heavy industry, where there were no people's committees. A proposal was also made to establish a "people's army" by substituting a national militia, being formed in the late 1970s, for the national army. Although the idea surfaced again in early 1982, it did not appear to be close to implementation. Gaddafi also wanted to combat the strict social restrictions that had been imposed on women by the previous regime, establishing the Revolutionary Women's Formation to encourage reform. In 1970, a law was introduced affirming equality of the sexes and insisting on wage parity. In 1971, Gaddafi sponsored the creation of a Libyan General Women's Federation. In 1972, a law was passed criminalizing the marriage of any females under the age of sixteen and ensuring that a woman's consent was a necessary prerequisite for a marriage. Economic reforms Remaking of the economy was parallel with the attempt to remold political and social institutions. Until the late 1970s, Libya's economy was mixed, with a large role for private enterprise except in the fields of oil production and distribution, banking, and insurance. But according to volume two of Gaddafi's Green Book, which appeared in 1978, private retail trade, rent, and wages were forms of exploitation that should be abolished. Instead, workers' self-management committees and profit participation partnerships were to function in public and private enterprises. A property law was passed that forbade ownership of more than one private dwelling, and Libyan workers took control of a large number of companies, turning them into state-run enterprises. Retail and wholesale trading operations were replaced by state-owned "people's supermarkets", where Libyans in theory could purchase whatever they needed at low prices. By 1981 the state had also restricted access to individual bank accounts to draw upon privately held funds for government projects. The measures created resentment and opposition among the newly dispossessed. The latter joined those already alienated, some of whom had begun to leave the country. By 1982, perhaps 50,000 to 100,000 Libyans had gone abroad; because many of the emigrants were among the enterprising and better educated Libyans, they represented a significant loss of managerial and technical expertise. The government also built a trans-Sahara water pipeline from major aquifers to both a network of reservoirs and the towns of Tripoli, Sirte and Benghazi in 2006–2007. It is part of the Great Manmade River project, started in 1984. It is pumping large resources of water from the Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System to both urban populations and new irrigation projects around the country. Libya continued to be plagued with a shortage of skilled labor, which had to be imported along with a broad range of consumer goods, both paid for with petroleum income. The country consistently ranked as the African nation with the highest HDI, standing at 0.755 in 2010, which was 0.041 higher than the next highest African HDI that same year. Gender equality was a major achievement under Gaddafi's rule. According to Lisa Anderson, president of the American University in Cairo and an expert on Libya, said that under Gaddafi more women attended university and had "dramatically" more employment opportunities than most Arab nations. Military Wars against Chad and Egypt As early as 1969, Gaddafi waged a campaign against Chad. Scholar Gerard Prunier claims part of his hostility was apparently because Chadian President François Tombalbaye was Christian. Libya was also involved in a sometimes violent territorial dispute with neighbouring Chad over the Aouzou Strip, which Libya occupied in 1973. This dispute eventually led to the Libyan invasion of Chad. The prolonged foray of Libyan troops into the Aozou Strip in northern Chad, was finally repulsed in 1987, when extensive US and French help to Chadian rebel forces and the government headed by former Defence Minister Hissein Habré finally led to a Chadian victory in the so-called Toyota War. The conflict ended in a ceasefire in 1987. After a judgement of the International Court of Justice on 13 February 1994, Libya withdrew troops from Chad the same year and the dispute was settled. In 1977, Gaddafi dispatched his military across the border to Egypt, but Egyptian forces fought back in the Egyptian–Libyan War. Both nations agreed to a ceasefire under the mediation of the President of Algeria Houari Boumediène. Islamic Legion In 1972, Gaddafi created the Islamic Legion as a tool to unify and Arabize the region. The priority of the Legion was first Chad, and then Sudan. In Darfur, a western province of Sudan, Gaddafi supported the creation of Tajammu al-Arabi, which according to Gérard Prunier was "a militantly racist and pan-Arabist organization which stressed the 'Arab' character of the province." The two organizations shared members and a source of support, and the distinction between them is often ambiguous. This Islamic Legion was mostly composed of immigrants from poorer Sahelian countries, but also, according to a source, thousands of Pakistanis who had been recruited in 1981 with the false promise of civilian jobs once in Libya. Generally speaking, the Legion's members were immigrants who had gone to Libya with no thought of fighting wars, and had been provided with inadequate military training and had sparse commitment. A French journalist, speaking of the Legion's forces in Chad, observed that they were "foreigners, Arabs or Africans, mercenaries in spite of themselves, wretches who had come to Libya hoping for a civilian job, but found themselves signed up more or less by force to go and fight in an unknown desert." At the beginning of the 1987 Libyan offensive in Chad, it maintained a force of 2,000 in Darfur. The nearly continuous cross-border raids that resulted greatly contributed to a separate ethnic conflict within Darfur that killed about 9,000 people between 1985 and 1988. Janjaweed, a group accused by the US of carrying out a genocide in Darfur in the 2000s, emerged in 1988 and some of its leaders are former legionnaires. Attempts at nuclear and chemical weapons In 1972, Gaddafi tried to buy a nuclear bomb from the People's Republic of China. He then tried to get a bomb from Pakistan, but Pakistan severed its ties before it succeeded in building a bomb. In 1978, Gaddafi turned to Pakistan's rival, India, for help building its own nuclear bomb. In July 1978, Libya and India signed a memorandum of understanding to cooperate in peaceful applications of nuclear energy as part of India's Atom of Peace policy. In 1991, then Prime Minister Navaz Sharif paid a state visit to Libya to hold talks on the promotion of a Free Trade Agreement between Pakistan and Libya. However, Gaddafi focused on demanding Pakistan's Prime Minister sell him a nuclear weapon, which surprised many of the Prime Minister's delegation members and journalists. When Prime minister Sharif refused Gaddafi's demand, Gaddafi disrespected him, calling him a "corrupt politician", a term which insulted and surprised Sharif. The prime minister cancelled the talks, returned to Pakistan and expelled the Libyan ambassador to Pakistan. Thailand reported its citizens had helped build storage facilities for nerve gas. Germany sentenced a businessman, Jurgen Hippenstiel-Imhausen, to five years in prison for involvement in Libyan chemical weapons. Inspectors from the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) verified in 2004 that Libya owned a stockpile of 23 metric tons of mustard gas and more than 1,300 metric tons of precursor chemicals. Gulf of Sidra incidents and US air strikes When Libya was under pressure from international disputes, on 19 August 1981, a naval dogfight occurred over the Gulf of Sirte in the Mediterranean Sea. US F-14 Tomcat jets fired anti-aircraft missiles against a formation of Libyan fighter jets in this dogfight and shot down two Libyan Su-22 Fitter attack aircraft. This naval action was a result of claiming the territory and losses from the previous incident. A second dogfight occurred on 4 January 1989; US carrier-based jets also shot down two Libyan MiG-23 Flogger-Es in the same place. A similar action occurred on 23 March 1986; while patrolling the Gulf, US naval forces attacked a sizable naval force and various SAM sites defending Libyan territory. US fighter jets and fighter-bombers destroyed SAM launching facilities and sank various naval vessels, killing 35 seamen. This was a reprisal for terrorist hijackings between June and December 1985. On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents bombed "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin, killing three and injuring 229. Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by several national intelligence agencies and more detailed information was retrieved four years later from Stasi archives. The Libyan agents who had carried out the operation, from the Libyan embassy in East Germany, were prosecuted by the reunited Germany in the 1990s. In response to the discotheque bombing, joint US Air Force, Navy and Marine Corps air-strikes took place against Libya on 15 April 1986 and code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon and known as the 1986 bombing of Libya. Air defenses, three army bases, and two airfields in Tripoli and Benghazi were bombed. The surgical strikes failed to kill Gaddafi but he lost a few dozen military officers. Gaddafi spread propaganda how it had killed his "adopted daughter" and how victims had been all "civilians". Despite the variations of the stories, the campaign was successful, and a large proportion of the Western press reported the government's stories as facts. Following the 1986 bombing of Libya, Gaddafi intensified his support for anti-American government organizations. He financed Jeff Fort's Al-Rukn faction of the Chicago Black P. Stones gang, in their emergence as an indigenous anti-American armed revolutionary movement. Al-Rukn members were arrested in 1986 for preparing strikes on behalf of Libya, including blowing up US government buildings and bringing down an airplane; the Al-Rukn defendants were convicted in 1987 of "offering to commit bombings and assassinations on US soil for Libyan payment." In 1986, Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests. He began financing the IRA again in 1986, to retaliate against the British for harboring American fighter planes. Gaddafi announced that he had won a spectacular military victory over the US and the country was officially renamed the "Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah". However, his speech appeared devoid of passion and even the "victory" celebrations appeared unusual. Criticism of Gaddafi by ordinary Libyan citizens became more bold, such as defacing of Gaddafi posters. The raids against Libyan military had brought the government to its weakest point in 17 years. International relations Africa Gaddafi was a close supporter of Ugandan President Idi Amin. Gaddafi sent thousands of troops to fight against Tanzania on behalf of Idi Amin. About 600 Libyan soldiers lost their lives attempting to defend the collapsing regime of Amin. After the fall of Kampala, Amin was eventually exiled from Uganda to Libya before settling in Saudi Arabia. Gaddafi also aided Jean-Bédel Bokassa, the Emperor of the Central African Empire. He also intervened militarily in the restored Central African Republic during the 2001 coup attempt, to protect his ally Ange-Félix Patassé. Patassé signed a deal giving Libya a 99-year lease to exploit all of that country's natural resources, including uranium, copper, diamonds, and oil. Gaddafi supported Soviet protégé Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia. He also supported the Somali rebel groups, SNM and SSDF in their fight to overthrow the dictatorship of Siad Barre. Gaddafi was a strong opponent of apartheid in South Africa and forged a friendship with Nelson Mandela. One of Mandela's grandsons is named Gaddafi, an indication of the latter's support in South Africa. Gaddafi funded Mandela's 1994 election campaign, and after taking office as the country's first democratically elected president in 1994, Mandela rejected entreaties from U.S. President Bill Clinton and others to cut ties with Gaddafi. Mandela later played a key role in helping Gaddafi gain mainstream acceptance in the Western world later in the 1990s. Over the years, Gaddafi came to be seen as a hero in much of Africa due to his revolutionary image. Gaddafi was a strong supporter of Zimbabwean President Robert Mugabe. Gaddafi's World Revolutionary Center (WRC) near Benghazi became a training center for groups backed by Gaddafi. Graduates in power as of 2011 include Blaise Compaoré of Burkina Faso and Idriss Déby of Chad. Gaddafi trained and supported Liberian warlord-president Charles Taylor, who was indicted by the Special Court for Sierra Leone for war crimes and crimes against humanity committed during the conflict in Sierra Leone. Foday Sankoh, the founder of Revolutionary United Front, was also Gaddafi's graduate. According to Douglas Farah, "The amputation of the arms and legs of men, women, and children as part of a scorched-earth campaign was designed to take over the region's rich diamond fields and was backed by Gaddafi, who routinely reviewed their progress and supplied weapons". Gaddafi's strong military support and finances gained him allies across the continent. He had himself crowned with the title "King of Kings of Africa" in 2008, in the presence of over 200 African traditional rulers and kings, although his views on African political and military unification received a lukewarm response from their governments. His 2009 forum for African kings was canceled by the Ugandan hosts, who believed that traditional rulers discussing politics would lead to instability. On 1 February 2009, a 'coronation ceremony' in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, was held to coincide with the 53rd African Union Summit, at which he was elected head of the African Union for the year. Gaddafi told the assembled African leaders: "I shall continue to insist that our sovereign countries work to achieve the United States of Africa." Gaddafi and international militant resistance movements In 1971 Gaddafi warned that if France opposes Libyan military occupation of Chad, he will use all weapons in the war against France including the "revolutionary weapon". On 11 June 1972, Gaddafi announced that any Arab wishing to volunteer for Palestinian militant groups "can register his name at any Libyan embassy will be given adequate training for combat". He also promised financial support for attacks. On 7 October 1972, Gaddafi praised the Lod Airport massacre, executed by the communist Japanese Red Army, and demanded Palestinian terrorist groups to carry out similar attacks. Reportedly, Gaddafi was a major financier of the "Black September Movement" which perpetrated the Munich massacre at the 1972 Summer Olympics. In 1973 the Irish Naval Service intercepted the vessel Claudia in Irish territorial waters, which carried Soviet arms from Libya to the Provisional IRA. In 1976 after a series of terror activities by the Provisional IRA during the Troubles, Gaddafi announced that "the bombs which are convulsing Britain and breaking its spirit are the bombs of Libyan people. We have sent them to the Irish revolutionaries so that the British will pay the price for their past deeds". In the Philippines, Libya backed the Moro Islamic Liberation Front, which continues to carry out acts of violence in an effort to establish a separatist Islamic state in the southern Philippines. Libya has also supported the New People's Army and Libyan agents were seen meeting with the Communist Party of the Philippines. Islamist terrorist group Abu Sayyaf has also been suspected of receiving Libyan funding. Gaddafi also became a strong supporter of the Palestine Liberation Organization, which support ultimately harmed Libya's relations with Egypt, when in 1979 Egypt pursued a peace agreement with Israel. As Libya's relations with Egypt worsened, Gaddafi sought closer relations with the Soviet Union. Libya became the first country outside the Soviet bloc to receive the supersonic MiG-25 combat fighters, but Soviet-Libyan relations remained relatively distant. Gaddafi also sought to increase Libyan influence, especially in states with an Islamic population, by calling for the creation of a Saharan Islamic state and supporting anti-government forces in sub-Saharan Africa. In the 1970s and the 1980s, this support was sometimes so freely given that even the most unsympathetic groups could obtain Libyan support; often the groups represented ideologies far removed from Gaddafi's own. Gaddafi's approach often tended to confuse international opinion. In October 1981 Egypt's President Anwar Sadat was assassinated. Gaddafi applauded the murder and remarked that it was a "punishment". In December 1981, the US State Department invalidated US passports for travel to Libya, and in March 1982, the U.S. declared a ban on the import of Libyan oil. Gaddafi reportedly spent hundreds of millions of the government's money on training and arming Sandinistas in Nicaragua. Daniel Ortega, the President of Nicaragua, was his ally. In April 1984, Libyan refugees in London protested against execution of two dissidents. Communications intercepted by MI5 show that Tripoli ordered its diplomats to direct violence against the demonstrators. Libyan diplomats shot at 11 people and killed British policewoman Yvonne Fletcher. The incident led to the breaking off of diplomatic relations between the United Kingdom and Libya for over a decade. After December 1985 Rome and Vienna airport attacks, which killed 19 and wounded around 140, Gaddafi indicated that he would continue to support the Red Army Faction, the Red Brigades, and the Irish Republican Army as long as European countries support anti-Gaddafi Libyans. The Foreign Minister of Libya also called the massacres "heroic acts". In 1986, Libyan state television announced that Libya was training suicide squads to attack American and European interests. On 5 April 1986, Libyan agents were alleged with bombing the "La Belle" nightclub in West Berlin, killing three people and injuring 229 people who were spending evening there. Gaddafi's plan was intercepted by Western intelligence. More-detailed information was retrieved years later when Stasi archives were investigated by the reunited Germany. Libyan agents who had carried out the operation from the Libyan embassy in East Germany were prosecuted by reunited Germany in the 1990s. In May 1987, Australia broke off relations with Libya because of its role in fueling violence in Oceania. Under Gaddafi, Libya had a long history of supporting the Irish Republican Army during the Troubles. In late 1987 French authorities stopped a merchant vessel, the MV Eksund, which was delivering a 150-ton Libyan arms shipment to the IRA. Throughout the conflict, Gaddafi gave the Provisional IRA with over $12.5 million in cash (the equivalent of roughly $40 million in 2021) and six huge arms shipment. In Britain, Gaddafi's best-known political subsidiary is the Workers Revolutionary Party. Gaddafi fuelled a number of Islamist and communist groups in the Philippines, including the New People's Army of the Communist Party of the Philippines and the Moro Islamic Liberation Front. In Indonesia, the Free Aceh Movement was a Libyan-backed militant group. Vanuatu's ruling party enjoyed Libyan support. In New Zealand, Libya attempted to radicalize Māoris. In Australia, there were several cases of attempted radicalisation of Australian Aborigines, with individuals receiving paramilitary training in Libya. Libya put several left-wing unions on the Libyan payroll, such as the Food Preservers Union (FPU) and the Federated Confectioners Association of Australia (FCA). Labour Party politician Bill Hartley, the secretary of Libya-Australia friendship society, was long-term supporter of Gaddafi and Saddam Hussein. In the 1980s, the Libyan government purchased advertisements in Arabic-language newspapers in Australia asking for Australian Arabs to join the military units of his worldwide struggle against imperialism. In part, because of this, Australia banned recruitment of foreign mercenaries in Australia. Gaddafi developed a relationship with the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia, becoming acquainted with its leaders in meetings of revolutionary groups regularly hosted in Libya. Some publications were financed by Gaddafi. The Socialist Labour League's Workers News was one such publication: "in among the routine denunciations of uranium mining and calls for greater trade union militancy would be a couple of pages extolling Gaddafi's fatuous and incoherent green book and the Libyan revolution." Gaddafi was a lifelong supporter of Kurdish independence. In 2011, Jawad Mella, the president of the Kurdistan National Congress referred to Gaddafi as the "only world leader who truly supports the Kurds". International sanctions after the Lockerbie bombing (1992–2003) Libya was accused in the 1988 bombing of Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie, Scotland; UN sanctions were imposed in 1992. UN Security Council resolutions (UNSCRs) passed in 1992 and 1993 obliged Libya to fulfill requirements related to the Pan Am 103 bombing before sanctions could be lifted, leading to Libya's political and economic isolation for most of the 1990s. The UN sanctions cut airline connections with the outer world, reduced diplomatic representation and prohibited the sale of military equipment. Oil-related sanctions were assessed by some as equally significant for their exceptions: thus sanctions froze Libya's foreign assets (but excluded revenue from oil and natural gas and agricultural commodities) and banned the sale to Libya of refinery or pipeline equipment (but excluded oil production equipment). Under the sanctions Libya's refining capacity eroded. Libya's role on the international stage grew less provocative after UN sanctions were imposed. In 1999, Libya fulfilled one of the UNSCR requirements by surrendering two Libyans suspected in connection with the bombing for trial before a Scottish court in the Netherlands. One of these suspects, Abdel Basset al-Megrahi, was found guilty; the other was acquitted. UN sanctions against Libya were subsequently suspended. The full lifting of the sanctions, contingent on Libya's compliance with the remaining UNSCRs, including acceptance of responsibility for the actions of its officials and payment of appropriate compensation, was passed 12 September 2003, explicitly linked to the release of up to $2.7 billion in Libyan funds to the families of the 1988 attack's 270 victims. In 2002, Gaddafi paid a ransom reportedly worth tens of millions of dollars to Abu Sayyaf, a Filipino Islamist militancy, to release a number of kidnapped tourists. He presented it as an act of goodwill to Western countries; nevertheless the money helped the group to expand its operation. Normalization of international relations (2003–2010) In December 2003, Libya announced that it had agreed to reveal and end its programs to develop weapons of mass destruction and to renounce terrorism, and Gaddafi made significant strides in normalizing relations with western nations. He received various Western European leaders as well as many working-level and commercial delegations, and made his first trip to Western Europe in 15 years when he traveled to Brussels in April 2004. Libya responded in good faith to legal cases brought against it in U.S. courts for terrorist acts that predate its renunciation of violence. Claims for compensation in the Lockerbie bombing, LaBelle disco bombing, and UTA 772 bombing cases are ongoing. The U.S. rescinded Libya's designation as a state sponsor of terrorism in June 2006. In late 2007, Libya was elected by the General Assembly to a nonpermanent seat on the United Nations Security Council for the 2008–2009 term. In the intercession between normalization and the Libyan Civil War in 2011, Operation Enduring Freedom – Trans Sahara was fought in Libya's portion of the Sahara Desert. This involved usage of American military assets, such as C-130s in combination with Libyan military infrastructure, namely the Al-Watiya Air Base. Purification laws In 1994, the General People's Congress approved the introduction of "purification laws" to be put into effect, punishing theft by the amputation of limbs, and fornication and adultery by flogging. Under the Libyan constitution, homosexual relations are punishable by up to five years in jail. Opposition, coups and revolts Throughout his long rule, Gaddafi had to defend his position against opposition and coup attempts, emerging both from the military and from the general population. He reacted to these threats on one hand by maintaining a careful balance of power between the forces in the country, and by brutal repression on the other. Gaddafi successfully balanced the various tribes of Libya one against the other by distributing his favours. To forestall a military coup, he deliberately weakened the Libyan Armed Forces by regularly rotating officers, relying instead on loyal elite troops such as his Revolutionary Guard Corps, the special-forces Khamis Brigade and his personal Amazonian Guard, even though emphasis on political loyalty tended, over the long run, to weaken the professionalism of his personal forces. This trend made the country vulnerable to dissension at a time of crisis, as happened during early 2011. Political repression and "Green Terror" The term "Green Terror" is used to describe campaigns of violence and intimidation against opponents of Gaddafi, particularly in reference to wave of oppression during Libya's cultural revolution, or to the wave of highly publicized hangings of regime opponents that began with the Execution of Al-Sadek Hamed Al-Shuwehdy. Dissent was illegal under Law 75 of 1973. Reportedly 10 to 20 percent of Libyans worked in surveillance for Gaddafi's Revolutionary Committees, a proportion of informants on par with Saddam Hussein's Iraq or Kim Jong Il's North Korea. The surveillance took place in government, in factories, and in the education sector. Following an abortive attempt to replace English foreign language education with Russian, in recent years English has been taught in Libyan schools from a primary level, and students have access to English-language media. However, one protester in 2011 described the situation as: "None of us can speak English or French. He kept us ignorant and blindfolded". According to the 2009 Freedom of the Press Index, Libya was the most censored country in the Middle East and North Africa. Prisons were run with little or no documentation of inmate population, and often neglected even such basic data as a prisoner's crime and sentence. Opposition to the Jamahiriya reforms During the late 1970s, some exiled Libyans formed active opposition groups. In early 1979, Gaddafi warned opposition leaders to return home immediately or face "liquidation". When caught, they could face being sentenced and hanged in public. Gaddafi employed his network of diplomats and recruits to assassinate dozens of his critics around the world. Amnesty International listed at least twenty-five assassinations between 1980 and 1987. Gaddafi's agents were active in the UK, where many Libyans had sought asylum. After Libyan diplomats shot at 15 anti-Gaddafi protesters from inside the Libyan embassy's first floor and killed a British policewoman, the UK broke off relations with Gaddafi's government as a result of the incident. Even the U.S. could not protect dissidents from Libya. In 1980, a Libyan agent attempted to assassinate dissident Faisal Zagallai, a doctoral student at the University of Colorado at Boulder. The bullets left Zagallai partially blinded. A defector was kidnapped and executed in 1990 just before he was about to receive U.S. citizenship. Gaddafi asserted in June 1984 that killings could be carried out even when the dissidents were on pilgrimage in the holy city of Mecca. In August 1984, one Libyan plot was thwarted in Mecca. As of 2004, Libya still provided bounties for heads of critics, including 1 million dollars for Ashur Shamis, a Libyan-British journalist. There is indication that between the years of 2002 and 2007, Libya's Gaddafi-era intelligence service had a partnership with western spy organizations including MI6 and the CIA, who voluntarily provided information on Libyan dissidents in the United States and Canada in exchange for using Libya as a base for extraordinary renditions. This was done despite Libya's history of murdering dissidents abroad, and with full knowledge of Libya's brutal mistreatment of detainees. Political unrest during the 1990s In the 1990s, Gaddafi's rule was threatened by militant Islamism. In October 1993, there was an unsuccessful assassination attempt on Gaddafi by elements of the Libyan army. In response, Gaddafi used repressive measures, using his personal Revolutionary Guard Corps to crush riots and Islamist activism during the 1990s. Nevertheless, Cyrenaica between 1995 and 1998 was politically unstable, due to the tribal allegiances of the local troops. 2011 civil war and collapse of Gaddafi's government A renewed serious threat to the Libyan Arab Jamahiriya came in February 2011, with the Libyan civil war. Inspiration for the unrest is attributed to the uprisings in Tunisia and Egypt, connecting it with the wider Arab Spring. In the east, the National Transitional Council was established in Benghazi. The novelist Idris Al-Mesmari was arrested hours after giving an interview with Al Jazeera about the police reaction to protests in Benghazi on 15 February. Some Libyan officials had sided with the protesters and requested help from the international community to bring an end to the massacres of civilians. The government in Tripoli had lost control of half of Libya by the end of February, but as of mid-September Gaddafi remained in control of several parts of Fezzan. On 21 September, the forces of NTC captured Sabha, the largest city of Fezzan, reducing the control of Gaddafi to limited and isolated areas. Many nations condemned Gaddafi's government over its use of force against civilians. Several other nations allied with Gaddafi called the uprising and intervention a "plot" by Western powers to loot Libya's resources. The United Nations Security Council passed a resolution to enforce a no-fly zone over Libyan airspace on 17 March 2011. The UN resolution authorised air-strikes against Libyan ground troops and warships that appeared to threaten civilians. On 19 March, the no-fly zone enforcement began, with French aircraft undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the British Royal Navy. Eventually, the aircraft carriers and Charles de Gaulle arrived off the coast and provided the enforcers with a rapid-response capability. U.S. forces named their part of the enforcement action Operation Odyssey Dawn, meant to "deny the Libyan regime from using force against its own people" according to U.S. Vice Admiral William E. Gortney. More than 110 "Tomahawk" cruise missiles were fired in an initial assault by U.S. warships and a British submarine against Libyan air defences. The last government holdouts in Sirte finally fell to anti-Gaddafi fighters on 20 October 2011, and, following the controversial death of Muammar Gaddafi, Libya was officially declared "liberated" on 23 October 2011, ending 42 years of Gaddafi's leadership in Libya. Political scientist Riadh Sidaoui suggested in October 2011 that Gaddafi "has created a great void for his exercise of power: there is no institution, no army, no electoral tradition in the country", and as a result, the period of transition would be difficult in Libya. Contemporary flags, symbols and insignia See also Day of Revenge Politics of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi Foreign relations of Libya under Muammar Gaddafi Human rights in Libya The Green Book (Gaddafi) Gaddafi loyalism Notes 1. Gadaffi's full title was "Brotherly Leader and Guide to the First of September Great Revolution of the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya". References External links http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/4380360.stm Qaddafi, Libya, and the United States from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives The Road to people's authority: a collection of historical speeches and documents – Includes the initial RCC communique and the "Declaration of Peoples Authority". 1969 establishments in Libya 1970s in Libya 1980s in Libya 1990s in Libya 2000s in Libya 2011 disestablishments in Libya 20th century in Libya 21st century in Libya Articles containing video clips Libya Islamism in Libya Socialism in Libya
5171193	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaukhandi%20tombs	Chaukhandi tombs	The Chaukhandi (; ) tombs form an early Islamic cemetery situated east of Karachi, Sindh province of Pakistan. The tombs are notable for their elaborate sandstone carvings. The tombs are similar in style to the elaborate tombs at the Makli Necropolis near Thatta, and are built in the funerary architectural style typical of lower Sindh. History Generally, the tombs are attributed to the Jokhio (also spelt Jokhiya) and known as the family graveyard of the Jokhio tribe, although other, mainly Baloch, tribes have also been buried here. They were mainly built during Mughal rule sometime in the 15th and 18th centuries when Islam became dominant. Architecture This type of graveyard in Sindh and Baluchistan is remarkable because of its main north–south orientation. The more elaborate graves are constructed with a buff-colored sandstone, which has often kept remarkably well over time in the arid local climate. Tombs were constructed either as single graves or as groups of up to eight graves, raised on a common platform. A typical sarcophagus consists of six vertical slabs, with two long slabs on each side of the grave indicating the length of the body and the remaining two vertical slabs on the head and foot side. These six slabs are covered by a second sarcophagus consisting of six more similar vertical slabs but smaller in size, giving the grave a pyramid shape. The upper box is further covered with four or five horizontal slabs and the topmost construction is set vertically with its northern end often carved into a knob known as a crown or a turban. The tombs are embellished with geometrical designs and motifs, including figural representations such as mounted horsemen, hunting scenes, arms, and jewelry. Discovery and Research The earliest -passing- reference of the Chaukhandi tombs (a.k.a. Jokundee) is in a letter of J. Macleod, addressed to H. B. E. Frere in 1851 . The tombs, however, were given more serious attention for the first time by H. D. Baskerville, the Assistant Collector of Thatta in Karachi district in 1917. The tombs near Landhi were included in the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904 in 1922. Dr. Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath summarizes earlier research on these and similar tombs in Sindh as follows: A cemetery of this type was discovered at the turn of the 20th century in Hinidan by Major M. A. Tighe, Political Agent in southern Balochistan. J. P. Vogel was the first to investigate this and other cemeteries – including Karpasan (a plateau south of Hinidan), Gundar (a village near Dinga, south of Hinidan), and Manghopir – and he drew attention to another cemetery discovered by Captain Showers, Political Agent in Kalat, lying between the Hub River and Sonmiani. Vogel recognized that the tombs were Islamic, as indicated by the use of the Arabic script and the alignment of the monuments. According to Islamic custom, the dead are laid to rest in such a way that they are facing Mecca, resting on their right shoulder. Mecca lies approximately to the west of Sindh; the longitudinal axis of the tombs accordingly lies more or less in a north-south direction, with the head always lying in the north. In (...) 1910, Sir Thomas Holdich described a similar cemetery near Malir and also referred to several other cemeteries. He stated that local tradition ascribed these to the 'Kalmati' Balochis, and he linked this name to the town of Kalmat on the Makran Coast. In 1917, H. D. Baskerville discovered a similar cemetery in the vicinity of the village of Chaukhandi, near Karachi. Baskerville's published report raised the question of a possible above-ground burial – but he dismissed this after a careful investigation of one of the stone chambers in the cemetery, which did not contain any remains. A number of tomb inscriptions were found at the Chaukhandi cemetery, consisting of names and/or sayings from the Quran. Some of the named dead were said to belong to the Jokhiya tribe, still resident in the vicinity. Only one of the tombs was dated – the date of death being inscribed on it with the numbers in reverse order – as AH 1169 (AD 1756). Jokhio, Jokhia or Jokhiya (Urdu:جوکھيو) are said to be descendants of the Samma (tribe) of Sindh. In 1925, Henry Cousens devoted a chapter of his book on the antiquities of Sindh to 'Baloch tombs'. He studied the tombs in Jarak (now spelt Jerruck), Sonda and Kharkharo, which were of the same type as Chaukhandi. Referring to the studies by G. E. L. Carter, he noted that more than twenty such cemeteries had been identified, and rejected the theory regarding above-ground burials, pointing to the frequent occurrence of arcade-like perforations in the lower casket. Cousens was the first to draw comparisons with other architectural monuments in Sindh, and he refers to similarities between the decoration of a tomb in Sonda and the tombs of Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro (Shah Wardi Khan) (d. 1772) in Hyderabad as well as the tomb of the Samma king, Jam Nizamuddin II (reigned 1461–1509), an impressive square structure built of sandstone and decorated with floral and geometric medallions. Comparable is also the mausoleum of Isa Khan Tarkhan the Younger (d. 1644) in the necropolis of Makli Hill. Regarding the covering of the tombs with chattris (cupola's or pavilions), he points to similar tombs in the same Makli necropolis and to the tomb of Mir Masum in Sukkur. He considered the tombs to be of approximately the same date as the tombs of Mian Ghulam Shah Kalhoro - i.e. the second half of the 18th century. Cousens pointed out that depictions of riders, as seen on some of the tombs, are also found on sati (shrine) stones in Kathiawar and Kutch. Information about a single tomb of this type in the vicinity of the village of Baghwana, south-west of the Las Bela (princely state), was published in 1931 by Sir Aurel Stein. According to local tradition the tomb was that of Mai Masura, a saintly beggar women; legend had it that the stone slabs had miraculously flown through the air from Kandahar. Stein considered it to date from the end of the 15th century. In 1934, in a publication concerning monuments of Sindh, Nani Gopala Majumdar described a funerary enclosure on Tharro Hill near Gujjo. He believed that that cemetery enclosure dated from the 14th century, being therefore older than the monuments on Makli Hill; he also found some additional tombs of lesser significance in the vicinity of the nearby mausoleum of Sheikh Turabi. After the Second World War the Chaukhandi tombs did not receive any attention from the Pakistan authorities until Dr. I. H. Qureshi, a renowned historian and the then education minister (later Chancellor of Karachi University), drew the attention of the Department of Archeology and Museums to them, having received a letter on the subject from Zahid Hussain, Governor of State Bank of Pakistan. The then Director General of the Department of Archeology and Museums, Shaikh Khurshid Hasan, confessed that at first his department did not even realize that the tombs were protected under the Ancient Monuments Preservation Act, 1904. Soon the department realized its mistake and started taking some measures for the protection of the necropolis. In the post-independence era a first serious study was undertaken by Mumtaz Hassan; he described Chaukhandi tombs as Baloch tombs. Subsequently, many articles appeared in the national newspapers but the mystery as to their origin could not be solved. Ms. E-J.W. Bunting, along with Dr. F. A. Khan, Justice Feroz Nana and S. A. Naqvi started preparing rubbings of stone carvings and provided further publicity by exhibitions abroad of these rubbings. The exhibition in the US in particular aroused great interest amongst the scholars in the studies of various aspects of the Chaukhandi tombs. In his first paper based on epigraphical-cum-historical studies, Shaikh Khurshid Hasan observed that the Chaukhandi graveyard near Landhi was predominantly a graveyard of the Jokhio tribe, although some tombs of the Burfat and Sheikh tribes could also be found. In a 1984 article on the Chaukhandi tombs Shaikh Khurshid Hasan mainly dealt with the decorative elements of the stone carving. In the following years he continued to publish on the gravestones and inscriptions. For further reading see also Shaikh Khurshid Hasan's comprehensive study. Zajadacz-Hastenrath study In 1978 Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath published a book in which she mainly dealt with the stylistic evolution of Chaukhandi tombs. Comparing Chaukhandi tombs (tombs of particular types and forms thereof) among each other, a typological framework was established and consequently a relative chronology. By comparing this framework with dated structures, mainly of Makli Hill but also of other sites, the study arrived at dates for the various stages of evolution of the Chaukhandi tombs. Beside the Chaukhandi tombs strictly speaking, the study also dealt with specific aspects such as the 'Form of the tombstones', 'Riders, weapons, and other depictions on men's graves', 'Jewellery depictions on women's graves', articles which all show the richness of the Chaukhandi funerary art. The documentary part of the book included a list of dated stonemasonry patterns on Chaukhandi tombs. Her study was mainly based on photographs taken of a total of 50 cemeteries and tombs; the book includes a representative selection of 112 photographs. A catalogue of the cemeteries visited provides details on their locations, and the number, types and conditions of individual tombs. It covered an area reaching from the Hub River in the west up to the region of Tando Muhammad Khan and of Shah Kapur in the east. Zajadacz-Hastenrath concluded that the Chaukhandi tombs had developed far beyond a kind of folkloristic specialty; they evolved from traditional forms of tombs widely spread in the Lower Sindh ( e.g. on Makli Hill, but there with richer forms, Kathiawar and Gujarat) to graves with a monumental quality, achieved by their unusual height, coupled with strong sculptural decorations. The apex of this development was reached during the first half of the 17th century of which fine examples were shown in figures 34, 35 and 36 of the study (the author called these 'Tombs with projecting surfaces'). Unique in the Islamic architectural tradition, the author considered the Chaukhandi tombs a most original and independent contribution to Islamic sepulchral architecture and ornamental sculpture. The notable character of her study was underlined in the Encyclopedia of Islam. While dealing with the various types of sepulchral structures on the South Asia and referring to the study of Zajadacz-Hastenrath, the author of that article stressed that it was only in the case of the Chaukhandi tombs that such a systematic research had been done. In 2003 (i.e. after the author's decease in 1998), an English translation of the book was published in Pakistan. Latest Research Pakistani professor Mirza Mahad Baig visited Sindh at the end of the 20th century and examined some of the tombs. He pointed out to Rajput influences in the Chaukhandi necropolis. He mentioned that it is well known that many Munda warrior groups have family ties with the so-called Rajput tribes of Rajasthan and Gujarat. Some Rajput tribes, namely the Jokhio, the satlari, emigrated from Kutch (Gujarat) and Rajputana towards the Sindh and Makran regions during the Samma Dynasty. These tribes had close relations among each other, including matrimonial ties, both within their own group as well as with the Baloch tribe of the Kalmatis. His hypothesis suggested a tribal Rajput origin in the utilization not only of the monolithic slabs and pedestals in the step-shaped graves, but also in the naive decoration of some tombs, resembling a house facade, or a human face as if drawn by a child. The decoration of the tombs (mostly with geometric motifs) seems derived from wood sculpture. With a few exceptions human figures are avoided, in accordance with Islamic beliefs. Further articles on the structural development of stone-carved graves were written by Kaleem Lashari Later, Lashari highlighted the Bhawani Serai and the Tutai Chaukhandi graveyards, and called for urgent conservation. Meaning of Chaukhandi There are various opinions as to the meaning of the word Chaukhandi. Shaikh Khurshid Hasan writes: Some scholars believed that Chaukhandi is the name of a place. Others take it to be an architectural term. On the necropolis of 'Chaukhandi' stands the tomb of one Jam Murid bin Haji, which contains the word Chaukhandi, along with the name of the deceased. Shaikh Khurshid Hasan therefore considered Chaukhandi to be the name of the place. More so, when Banerji visited the Chaukhandi graveyard in 1920, he referred [to] it as "the little village Chaukhandi". According to Mumtaz Hassan, Chaw in Sindhi language means four and Khundi corner or pillar. Chaukhandi would refer to the four pillars supporting the umbrella shaped dome over the tomb and would apply to all tombs having the same construction. However, this argument has flaws because all the tombs covered with umbrella shaped domes or with a rectangular pavilion at Chaukhandi have more than four pillars or columns. Even at Mangophir, a canopy over similar graves has more than four pillars. As regards to the suggestion that Chaukhandi is the name of a place, Mumtaz Hassan feels that such a view derives from the fact that the name Chaukhandi had come to be associated with the tombs near Landhi. As mentioned above, on one tomb the word Chaukhandi is engraved. That might signify the location rather than the structural style of the monument. It is therefore possible that the word Chaukhandi, originally referring to the style of construction, became associated with one particular site. [Ali Ahmad] Brohi's view on the other hand is that Chaukhandi is used for a domed roof, a kind of chhattri (umbrella/pavilion) which is supported by four to eight pillars, whiereby the sides are left open. According to Kaleem Lashari, the word Chaukhandi as inscribed on the grave of Jam Murid bin Haji is a compound word with Sahib and is to be read as such Sahib-e-Chaukhandi and not on its own. He compares it to the [Sahib-e-Jaidad (Owner of a land)]. It clarifies that Jam Murid is the owner of the Chaukhandi or that the Chaukhandi is erected over his grave. In support of his theory he refers to a similar inscription on a grave at Got Raj Malik and, therefore, does not agree that Chaukhandi is the name of a place. Dr. Baloch has further tried to explain the meaning of the word Chaukhandi. Literally, it suggests a four walled enclosure open from above. In the cultural tradition of Sindh, such a walled enclosure is called a Chaukhandi, which is constructed out of respect around the grave of a revered person. Chaukhandi as such is therefore not a grave or tomb in itself, but the four walled enclosure in which the person(s) has been buried. Referring to the burial place, it would be called Chaukhandi Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath is of the opinion that the original age and history of Chaukhandi tombs are still entirely unclear. She writes The tombs are often referred to as 'Baloch Tombs' – a name based on local traditions linking the tombs to various tribal groups, namely the Burfat, Kalamati, Jakhara and Jokhiya. The fact that the cemeteries lie in an area in which the Balochis are either the only ethnic group or live alongside other tribes provides support for this description. However, the area across which the cemeteries are spread is by no means identical with that of the Balochis, but includes only a tiny fraction of it. For this reason, the term 'Baloch tombs' does not appear very accurate. It suggests the conclusion that this type of tomb is a peculiarity of the Balochis and might be explained in some way through the common culture and history of the tribe as a whole – although there is no evidence of this. It would seem to make better sense to assign to the tombs the name of the subgroup of the tribe to which they can genuinely be traced – assuming that this could be identified with any precision. Similar difficulties arise when one attempts to attribute the tombs to any tribe other than the Balochis. Salome Zajadacz-Hastenrath also comments on Mumtaz Hassan's theory and says In her book she says the generic term Chaukhandi tombs is used in the sense of tombs resembling those found at the cemetery in Chaukhandi. See also List of mausolea Necropolis Sindhology References External links INCPak: The Historical Cemetery INCPak: Images of Chukhandi Cemetery By Farhan Imaan F.Abro Chaukhandi Art.com Ayaz.com: Photos of Chaukhandi graves Dukandar.com: Chaukhandi Tombs Cemeteries in Karachi Mausoleums in Karachi Archaeological sites in Sindh Ancient culture of Pakistan Architecture in Sindh History of Sindh Monuments and memorials in Sindh Sandstone buildings Landhi Town Indo-Islamic architecture
5171505	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soccer%20Aid	Soccer Aid	Soccer Aid is a British annual charity event that has raised over £38 million in aid of UNICEF UK, through ticket sales and donations from the public. The televised event is a exhibition-style football match between two teams, England and the Soccer Aid World XI (formerly Rest of the World (ROW) until 2018), composed of celebrities and former professional players representing their countries. It is the only mixed-sex match officially sanctioned by The Football Association. Soccer Aid was initiated in 2006 by Robbie Williams and Jonathan Wilkes. It initially took place every two years, but since the 2018 edition it is now held annually. The television broadcast is produced by Initial and distributed by Endemol Shine Sport, a Dutch company that distributes Dutch Eredivisie coverage. Television coverage began on ITV on 22 May 2006 in a show presented by Ant & Dec. Dermot O'Leary took over as main presenter in 2010. Event details The ROW/World XI team is currently winning the head-to-head, with 7 wins to the England team's 5. On 16 June 2019, the fixture was the first to include female players as part of the squads. In 2020, the match was played behind closed doors due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Soccer Aid 2006 ITV, 22–27 May 2006 Event schedule 22 May 2006 – Start of the television coverage, presented by Ant and Dec. Rest of the World defeats England in a penalty shoot-out 23 May 2006 – Practice match: England 1–0 England Legends (Craven Cottage, London) 24 May 2006 – Practice match: Rest of the World 3–7 Scotland Legends (Craven Cottage, London) 25 May 2006 – Rest of the World defeats England in a Football Quiz 26 May 2006 – Coaches name starting line-ups for the match 27 May 2006 – Soccer Aid Match: England 2–1 Rest of the World (Old Trafford, Manchester), attendance 71,960 The practice matches were played over 60 minutes, with the Soccer Aid match played over 90 minutes. The competition was organised on behalf of UNICEF UK with profits from the matches, along with donations and sponsorship, donated to UNICEF programs in Africa, Asia and the Americas. England beat the Rest Of The World 2–1. Goals from Les Ferdinand and Jonathan Wilkes put England into a two-goal lead but a handball inside the area from David Gray resulted in a penalty, converted by Diego Maradona. Wilkes won the Man of the Match award. England squad The England squad was managed by former England national football team manager Terry Venables, assisted by David Geddis and Ted Buxton. The original squad comprised 16 players, with Bryan Robson added later. A handful of the players, notably Angus Deayton, had previous celebrity international experience from the previous month's England v Germany: The Legends match in Reading, which Germany won 4–2. The England squad went into the match with no major injury worries. Their victory over a squad of ex-England internationals from the 1960s to 1990s on Tuesday morning was tempered with defeats to the Rest of the World in a penalty shootout and football quiz. Celebrities Robbie Williams (captain) David Gray Jamie Theakston Bradley Walsh Jonathan Wilkes Ben Shephard Ronnie O'Sullivan Damian Lewis Angus Deayton Dean Lennox Kelly Legends David Seaman Tony Adams Paul Gascoigne Jamie Redknapp Les Ferdinand John Barnes Bryan Robson Graeme Le Saux Rest of the World squad The Rest of the World squad was managed by Ruud Gullit, with Gus Poyet as his assistant. Captain Gordon Ramsay injured his leg in the early training sessions and was considered doubtful for the match. The original squad of 16 players, which later saw 2 changes, was supplemented by the addition of Diego Maradona during the build-up to the competition. Lothar Matthäus had appeared in the England v Germany: The Legends match the previous month. The Rest of the World squad was wracked by injuries and withdrawals, and suffered from a lack of players. Desailly, Matthäus, Schmeichel and Ginola all arrived with only 2 or 3 days to spare before the match; Ginola arrived during half time of their warm-up defeat to the Scotland Legends on Wednesday afternoon, and Diego Maradona only joined the squad on the day before the match. Also, Craig Doyle and Brian McFadden went into the match carrying knocks, which led to management members Ruud Gullit and Gus Poyet coming on as substitutes on Wednesday and in the match itself. Celebrities Gordon Ramsay (captain) David Campese Patrick Kielty Eddie Irvine (withdrew and was replaced by Gareth Thomas) Gareth Thomas (replacement for Eddie Irvine) Ben Johnson Sergei Fedorov Brian McFadden Alastair Campbell Craig Doyle Alessandro Nivola Michael Greco Legends Gianfranco Zola Marcel Desailly David Ginola Dunga Lothar Matthäus Peter Schmeichel Diego Maradona Ruud Gullit (Player/Manager) Gus Poyet (Player/Assistant Manager) Other notable participants The match was refereed by Pierluigi Collina, the Italian referee considered by many fans as the best referee of all time. The match Soccer Aid 2008 Event schedule Soccer Aid 2008 was played on 7 September 2008. It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on ITV and presented by Ant & Dec. Before kick-off Jonathan Ansell sang the footballing anthem "Nessun Dorma", whilst the players were introduced to Sir Geoff Hurst. England squad The England squad was coached by Harry Redknapp, with Bryan Robson as his assistant manager. Celebrities Ben Shephard Jamie Theakston Kyran Bracken Jonathan Wilkes Gareth Gates Tom Felton Danny Jones Craig David Chris Fountain Angus Deayton Hugo Speer Legends Alan Shearer Jamie Redknapp Teddy Sheringham David Seaman Graeme Le Saux Des Walker Rest of the World squad The Rest Of The World squad was coached by Kenny Dalglish, with Ian Rush as player-assistant manager. Celebrities Gordon Ramsay Brian Lara Nicky Byrne Kenny Logan Patrick Kielty Alastair Campbell Gethin Jones Rodrigo Santoro Santiago Cabrera Gilles Marini Brian McFadden Jesse Metcalfe (withdrawn) Legends Franco Baresi Jaap Stam Paolo Di Canio Romário Luís Figo Cláudio Taffarel (replacement for Peter Schmeichel) Ian Rush Peter Schmeichel (withdrew and was replaced by Cláudio Taffarel) Other notable participants The referee at the start of the match was Pierluigi Collina, who also refereed the previous match in 2006 and is regarded as the best referee of all time. However, after Collina was injured in the first half he was replaced by Scottish referee Hugh Dallas. The process of two professional referees overseeing one half of the match each has since been maintained in subsequent series. The match Soccer Aid 2010 Soccer Aid 2010 was played on 6 June 2010. It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on ITV and presented by Dermot O'Leary. England squad Celebrities Robbie Williams (captain) Paddy McGuinness Bradley Walsh Jamie Theakston Ricky Hatton Damian Lewis Olly Murs Jonathan Wilkes Dominic Cooper Ralf Little Rupert Penry-Jones (injured) Danny Cipriani (injured) Ben Shephard Legends David Seaman Alan Shearer Teddy Sheringham Jamie Redknapp Martin Keown Nicky Butt Manager: Harry Redknapp Assistant manager: James Corden Coach: Bryan Robson Rest of the World squad Celebrities Michael Sheen (captain) James Kyson Gordon Ramsay Brian Lara Patrick Kielty Shane Filan Nicky Byrne Mike Myers Joe Calzaghe Gethin Jones Woody Harrelson Ronan Keating (withdrawn) Simon Baker Legends Jens Lehmann Henrik Larsson Zinedine Zidane Ryan Giggs Luís Figo Sami Hyypiä (replacement for Paolo Maldini) Paolo Maldini (withdrew and was replaced by Sami Hyypiä) Manager: Kenny Dalglish Coaches: Ian Rush and Eric Harrison Referee: Pierluigi Collina (replaced at half time by Mark Clattenburg) The match Soccer Aid 2012 Soccer Aid 2012 was played on 27 May 2012, as something of a precursor to UEFA Euro 2012 and the 2012 Summer Olympics. It was broadcast in the United Kingdom on ITV and presented by Dermot O'Leary. Cat Deeley presented the backstage build up show before the main event. England squad Celebrities Robbie Williams Paddy McGuinness Marvin Humes Jamie Theakston Aston Merrygold John Bishop Olly Murs Jonathan Wilkes (Captain) Jason Isaacs Mark Owen Legends David Seaman Des Walker Teddy Sheringham Kevin Phillips* Martin Keown Graeme Le Saux Coaching Staff Manager: Sam Allardyce Assistant manager: Peter Reid Coach: Bradley Walsh Rest of the World squad Celebrities Michael Sheen (captain) Will Ferrell Gordon Ramsay Gerard Butler Patrick Kielty James McAvoy Serge Pizzorno Mike Myers Joe Calzaghe Edward Norton Woody Harrelson Legends Edwin van der Sar Jaap Stam Clarence Seedorf Roy Keane Hernán Crespo Freddie Ljungberg Ruud van Nistelrooy (withdrawn) Coaching Staff Manager: Kenny Dalglish Assistant manager: Ian Rush Coach: Eric Harrison The match Soccer Aid 2014 The 2014 match was played at Old Trafford on 8 June 2014. The main match was hosted by Dermot O'Leary with Kirsty Gallacher, and Cat Deeley presented the backstage build-up show before the main event. Caroline Flack presented from the BT Tower in London. Match commentators were Sam Matterface and Graham Taylor, and Sol Campbell was a studio guest. By full-time, the total raised for UNICEF was £4,233,019. England squad Celebrities Danny Jones Stephen Moyer Jack Whitehall Mark Owen Olly Murs Paddy McGuinness Jonathan Wilkes (captain) Jamie Theakston Ben Shephard John Bishop Marvin Humes Dominic Cooper Matt Smith (withdrawn injured) Legends Jamie Redknapp Jamie Carragher Paul Ince (withdrawn) Des Walker David Seaman Teddy Sheringham (withdrawn injured) Matt Le Tissier Kevin Phillips (replacement for Sheringham) Coaching Staff Manager: Sam Allardyce Assistant manager: Robbie Williams (injured) Coach: Peter Reid Coach: Bradley Walsh Rest of the World squad Celebrities Michael Sheen (captain) James McAvoy Gordon Ramsay Kevin Bridges Nicky Byrne Patrick Kielty Adam Richman Jeremy Renner Santiago Cabrera Sam Worthington Mark Salling Martin Compston Legends Edwin van der Sar Jaap Stam Edgar Davids Alessandro Del Piero Clarence Seedorf Andriy Shevchenko Coaching Staff Manager: José Mourinho Assistant manager: Rui Faria Coach: José Morais Coach: Vic Bettinelli The match Soccer Aid 2016 The 2016 match was played at Old Trafford on Sunday, 5 June. The main match was hosted by Dermot O'Leary and Kirsty Gallacher, with commentary from Clive Tyldesley and Chris Kamara. England squad Celebrities Louis Tomlinson Olly Murs Paddy McGuinness Damian Lewis Ben Shephard Jonathan Wilkes (Captain) Jack Whitehall Jamie Theakston (Goalkeeper) John Bishop Mark Wright Marvin Humes Danny Jones (Withdrawn due to injury) Legends Jamie Carragher Robbie Fowler Phil Neville Sol Campbell Jermain Defoe Danny Murphy Kieron Dyer David Seaman (Goalkeeper) Coaching Staff Manager: Sam Allardyce and José Mourinho Assistant manager: Robbie Williams (Player-assistant manager) Coach: Bradley Walsh Rest of the World squad Celebrities Gordon Ramsay (Withdrawn due to injury) Nicky Byrne Niall Horan Serge Pizzorno AP McCoy Michael Sheen (Captain) Matthew Morrison Shayne Ward Iwan Rheon Sean Fletcher Thom Evans Rickie Haywood Williams Patrick Kielty (Goalkeeper) Gareth Thomas (Replacement for Gordon Ramsay) Legends Ronaldinho Cafu Jaap Stam Samuel Eto'o (withdrawn due to injury) Fabio Cannavaro Dimitar Berbatov Edgar Davids Dida (Goalkeeper) Coaching Staff Manager: Claudio Ranieri Assistant Manager: Niall Horan (Player-assistant manager) The match Soccer Aid 2018 The 2018 match was played at Old Trafford on Sunday 10 June. The main match was hosted by Dermot O'Leary and Kirsty Gallacher, with commentary from Clive Tyldesley and Robbie Savage. England squad Celebrities Olly Murs (Captain) Mo Farah Joe Wicks Mark Wright Paddy McGuinness Damian Lewis Myles Stephenson David Harewood Andrew Flintoff Lee Mack Blake Harrison Jack O'Connell Jeremy Lynch Robbie Williams (withdrawn due to injury) Billy Wingrove (withdrawn due to injury) Ben Shephard (withdrawn due to injury) Legends David Seaman Wes Brown Phil Neville Jamie Redknapp Danny Murphy Michael Owen Darren Bent Darius Vassell Robbie Fowler (withdrawn due to injury) Coaching Staff Manager: Sam Allardyce Assistant Manager: Bradley Walsh Coach: Robbie Williams Coach: John Bishop Coach: Ben Shephard Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Usain Bolt (Captain) Gordon Ramsay Brendan Cole Kevin Pietersen Dan Carter Ashley Fongho Martin Compston Ioan Gruffudd Nicky Byrne Danny O'Carroll Hayden Christensen Legends Edwin van der Sar Jaap Stam Clarence Seedorf Yaya Touré Robert Pires Juan Sebastián Verón Claude Makélélé Patrick Kluivert Eric Cantona Robbie Keane Coaching Staff Manager: Harry Redknapp and Eric Cantona Coach: Michael Sheen The match Soccer Aid 2019 The 2019 match was played at Stamford Bridge. The main match is hosted by Dermot O'Leary and Kirsty Gallacher, with commentary from Clive Tyldesley and Graeme Le Saux. The game was opened by poet Hussain Manawer with his poem Game of Hearts. The 2019 edition was the first to feature female players. As in 2018, the referee was Mark Clattenburg. At half-time British singer and actress Rita Ora performed new song "Ritual" with British DJ Jonas Blue and Dutch DJ Tiësto, the first time a musician has performed at Soccer Aid. American actor and filmmaker Tom Hanks kicked-off this year's Soccer Aid. England squad Celebrities Mo Farah (Captain) Jeremy Lynch Mark Wright Joe Wicks Ben Shephard David Harewood Marvin Humes Danny Jones Ant Middleton Lee Mack Sam Claflin Alan Sexton (competition winner) Legends David Seaman Jamie Carragher Glen Johnson John Terry Jamie Redknapp Joe Cole Katie Chapman Michael Owen Rachel Yankey Casey Stoney (withdrawn due to injury) Coaching Staff Manager: Sam Allardyce Assistant Manager: Susanna Reid Coach: Bradley Walsh Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Usain Bolt (Captain) Billy Wingrove Kem Cetinay Niall Horan Martin Compston Danny O'Carroll Jack Savoretti Roman Kemp Locksmith Nicky Byrne James McAvoy Legends Júlio César Ricardo Carvalho Roberto Carlos Michael Essien Robert Pires Rosana Francielle Didier Drogba Robbie Keane Eric Cantona Coaching Staff Manager: Harry Redknapp Assistant Manager: Piers Morgan The match Soccer Aid 2020 The 2020 match was scheduled to be played at Old Trafford on 6 June 2020. With the outbreak of COVID-19, the match was postponed with a rescheduled date of 6 September 2020. This Soccer Aid 2020 match was played behind closed doors. England squad Celebrities Olly Murs (captain) Joe Wicks Joel Dommett Marvin Humes Russell Howard (withdrawn) Danny Jones Mark Wright Lee Mack Tom Davis James Bay John Bishop Alfie Allen Yung Filly Chunkz Paddy McGuinness Liv Cooke (Withdrew due to injury) Legends David James Wes Brown Ashley Cole John Terry Katie Chapman Joe Cole Gareth Barry Kelly Smith Andy Cole Casey Stoney (Withdrew due to injury) Michael Owen (Withdrew due to injury) Emile Heskey Coaching Staff Manager: Wayne Rooney, Sam Allardyce and Bradley Walsh Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Mo Gilligan (captain) Kem Cetinay Jason Manford Dave Chelcee Grimes Iain Stirling Jeremy Lynch Dermot Kennedy Roman Kemp Ore Oduba Locksmith Serge Pizzorno Billy Wingrove (Withdrew due to injury) Legends Shay Given Patrice Evra Mikael Silvestre Jaap Stam (withdrew) Yaya Touré (removed from squad) Darren Fletcher Claude Makélélé Michael Essien Robbie Keane Lianne Sanderson Julie Fleeting Roberto Carlos (withdrew) Coaching Staff Manager: Harry Redknapp, Bryan Robson and Vic Bettinelli Note: Yaya Touré was dropped from the event after sending inappropriate messages in a squad WhatsApp group. The match Soccer Aid 2021 The 2021 match was held at the City of Manchester Stadium on 4 September 2021. Lee Mack switched teams to the Rest of the World squad, due to his Irish heritage. England squad Celebrities Olly Murs (captain) Liv Cooke (withdrew due to illness) James Arthur Paddy McGuinness (withdrew due to an injury) Chunkz Mark Wright Joel Dommett Mo Farah Aitch Max Whitlock James Bay Harriet Pavlou Stephen Mulhern Legends David James Gary Neville Jamie Carragher Paul Scholes Jamie Redknapp Fara Williams Shaun Wright-Phillips Joe Cole Wayne Rooney Kelly Smith Coaching Staff Manager: Sven-Göran Eriksson Coaches: David Seaman, Micah Richards and Robbie Williams Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Usain Bolt (captain) Kem Cetinay Roman Kemp (withdrew due to illness) Ore Oduba Tom Grennan Martin Compston Dermot Kennedy Yungblud Chelcee Grimes Big Zuu Lee Mack Legends Shay Given Roberto Carlos Patrice Evra Pablo Zabaleta Ingrid Moe Wold Wes Morgan Nigel de Jong Clarence Seedorf Darren Fletcher Robbie Keane (replacement for Rivaldo) Rivaldo (withdrawn) Julie Fleeting Coaching Staff Manager: Harry Redknapp Player-Assistant Manager: Robbie Keane Assistant Manager: Judy Murray Other staff UNICEF Goodwill Ambassador: David Beckham The match Soccer Aid 2022 The 2022 match was held at the London Stadium, home of West Ham United, on 12 June 2022. England squad Celebrities Liam Payne (captain) Lucien Laviscount (withdraw) Tom Grennan Chunkz Alex Brooker Damian Lewis Mo Farah Mark Wright David Harewood Aitch Russell Howard Legends David James Gary Neville Jamie Carragher Anita Asante Fara Williams Joe Cole Mark Noble Stewart Downing Teddy Sheringham Eniola Aluko Coaching Staff Manager: Harry Redknapp and Emma Hayes Coach: David Seaman and Vicky McClure Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Usain Bolt (captain) Martin Compston Mo Gilligan Chelcee Grimes Steven Bartlett Lee Mack Noah Beck Munya Chawawa Kem Cetinay Mark Strong Tom Stoltman Legends Petr Cech Patrice Evra Cafu Roberto Carlos Andrea Pirlo (withdrew) Heather O'Reilly Carli Lloyd Andriy Shevchenko Dimitar Berbatov Robbie Keane Coaching Staff Manager: Arsène Wenger Player/Coach: Robbie Keane Coach: Idris Elba and Graham Stack The match Soccer Aid 2023 The 2023 match was held at Old Trafford on 11 June 2023. Jill Scott became the first female to captain a team in any edition. Steven Bartlett withdrew from the game after a hamstring injury he picked up during practice. England squad Celebrities Paddy McGuinness Bugzy Malone Tom Grennan Mo Farah Alex Brooker Chunkz Joel Corry Scarlette Douglas Liam Payne Danny Dyer Asa Butterfield Tom Hiddleston Legends David James Gary Neville Gary Cahill Michael Dawson Jill Scott (captain) Karen Carney Jack Wilshere Nicky Butt (withdrew) Paul Scholes Zavon Hines Eniola Aluko Jermain Defoe Coaching Staff Manager: Stormzy, Harry Redknapp and Emma Hayes Player/Coach: Zavon Hines Coach: Vicky McClure, Robbie Williams and David Seaman Soccer Aid World XI squad Celebrities Usain Bolt (captain) Lee Mack Steven Bartlett (withdrew) Kem Cetinay Mo Gilligan Maisie Adam Tommy Fury Noah Beck Leon Edwards Sam Claflin Niko Omilana Legends Ben Foster Roberto Carlos Patrice Evra Kaylyn Kyle Heather O'Reilly Nani Darren Fletcher Izzy Christiansen Francesco Totti Hernán Crespo Gabriel Batistuta (withdrew) Robbie Keane Coaching Staff Manager: Mauricio Pochettino and Martin Compston Assistant Manager: Jesús Pérez Player/Coach: Robbie Keane Coach: Melanie C and Daniel Bachmann The match Soccer Aid 2024 Statistics As of the 2023 match. Top Scorers Most Appearances Notes See also World XI Game4Ukraine Global Tour for Peace References External links Soccer Aid at UNICEF.org.uk UNICEF 2006 British television series debuts 2010s British television series 2020s British television series 2006 in British television 2008 in British television 2010 in British television 2012 in British television 2014 in British television 2016 in British television 2018 in British television 2019 in British television 2020 in British television 2021 in British television 2022 in British television 2023 in British television Charity events in the United Kingdom ITV (TV network) original programming Recurring events established in 2006 Recurring sporting events established in 2006 Charity football matches
5172002	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lena%20Luthor	Lena Luthor	Lena Luthor is the name of two fictional comic book characters in DC Comics. The first one, introduced in 1961, is the sister of Superman's nemesis Lex Luthor, while the second one, introduced in 2000, is Lex Luthor's daughter who is named after her aunt. On live-action television, the original Lena Luthor was portrayed by Denise Gossett in a 1991 episode of Superboy, Cassidy Freeman in three seasons (2008–2011) of Smallville, and by Katie McGrath in five seasons (2016–2021) of Supergirl. Publication history Lena Luthor first appeared in Superman's Girl Friend, Lois Lane #23 and was created by Jerry Siegel and Kurt Schaffenberger. Fictional character biography First Lena Luthor In Silver Age continuity, Lena is Lex Luthor's younger sister. After Lex began his villainous career, his family changed their last name in shame to the anagram "Thorul" and told Lena that Lex had been killed in a mountain-climbing accident. Soon after this they were killed in an auto accident. As a result, Lena never knew she had an older brother, as Lex Luthor himself (with occasional help from Supergirl and Superman) worked to keep her from learning the truth. Lena appeared irregularly in DC Comics' from 1961 to 1975. Lena had psychic/empathic abilities, gained from touching a Space Brain that Luthor was experimenting on before he became a villain. In 1981, Lena lost her powers after brain surgery, and the decision was made to tell her the truth about Luthor. After the initial shock, there were signs of reconciliation after Luthor discovered he had unwittingly aided another criminal's conspiracy against Lena, and he was deeply apologetic. In Final Crisis: Legion of 3 Worlds #3, Legionnaires Polar Boy, Wildfire, and Dawnstar travel to Smallville during the 20th century, back to when Superman was still a suburban legend. The three heroes arrive to the Luthor household, where they hear a young Lex Luthor arguing with his father about his mother and sister. In the pages of Superman: Secret Origin, Lena Luthor cared about Lex even when he ran away after their mother died when she was young and their father died of a heart attack. In the revived Adventure Comics, Lex made certain to cover up his Smallville history, and that included disavowing a connection to his sister. Lena is now paralyzed, living in Smallville with her daughter Lori Luthor. Lori became friends with Superboy who was attracted to Lori's petty crimes when trying to take care of her mother. Both were shocked to find Lex Luthor on Lori's doorstep, intent on taking control of Superboy again and claiming he can cure Lena's condition. With Superboy's help Luthor indeed cures Lena, but he then undoes his cure, claiming he only helped her to prove to Superboy that he could and that so long as Superman lives, he will never reveal how he did it. Currently, Lena is under the care of Wayne Enterprise doctors, thanks to Red Robin. In 2011, "The New 52" rebooted the DC universe. Lena Luthor is paralyzed as a result of a childhood illness, with Luthor initially claiming to Bizarro that he never tried to save her because he was afraid of failure, only to admit privately later that he actually tried and failed to save her and instead left her paralyzed. He was eventually able to treat her paralysis, but delayed the treatment as it involved technology he did not invent himself, leaving Lena enraged that he expected her to be forever under his shadow. In 2016, DC Comics implemented another relaunch of its books called "DC Rebirth" which restored its continuity to a form much as it was prior to "The New 52". A desperate Lex tried to use Doctor Omen's Super-Man technology to cure Lena only for it to make her more paralyzed and give her a higher intellect as well as developing a psychic link to her Mother Box. What Lex didn't know yet is that Lena Luthor created a bunch of binary clones of herself and Superwoman of Earth-3 with one of them becoming Bizarress. Lena later proceeded to use the Mother Box's power to merge with one of Lex Luthor's exo-armors to gain mobility. The Lana Lang version of Superwoman defeated Lena and returned her to LexCorp. Lex locked up Lena as he vowed to find a way to help his sister. Second Lena Luthor After Crisis on Infinite Earths, Lena Luthor is the daughter of Lex Luthor and Contessa Erica Del Portenza. She is named after Lex's foster sister of the same name who had been killed by their foster father Casey Griggs. After Lena's birth, Lex takes advantage of Contessa Erica's wish to be unconscious at child birth by keeping her permanently drugged and unconscious at his corporate headquarters, not wishing to share his daughter's love with anyone else (although he himself avoids attending the birth to provide himself with a clear alibi for an assassination attempt he arranged at the time). When Brainiac 13 arrives from the 64th century, the modern Brainiac possesses the infant Lena to escape being deleted by his future self. Even after Brainiac leaves Lena's body, Luthor trades her to Brainiac 13 for control of the future technology that has transformed Metropolis. Lena returns to visit Lex Luthor during the Our Worlds at War crossover, where she has apparently been aged to adolescence by Brainiac 13. Lena plays a sneaky role during the event, helping Luthor and his allies beat Imperiex by feeding her father information, while secretly manipulating events to benefit Brainiac 13. She is ultimately convinced at the end to side with her father. At the end of the crossover, Brainiac 13 and Imperiex are both destroyed, and Lena is regressed to infanthood and returned to her father by Superman, who tells Luthor that he now has a second chance to try to be a man instead of a god. In the Superman's Metropolis miniseries, the artificial intelligence controlling the B-13 technology believes itself to be Lena Luthor. When it creates a human body (female, but bald) to pursue a romantic relationship with Jimmy Olsen, Superman confronts her with the real Lena Luthor, making her realize her personality is a computer simulation of Lena's. Lena returned in Superman #850 visiting Lex in Strker's Island Penitentiary with her grandmother, Leticia Luthor. Other versions Supergirl: Cosmic Adventures in the Eighth Grade Lena Thorul is a main character in the series. She is Lex Luthor's thirteen-year-old sister who attends the same boarding school as Supergirl. Lena hates superheroes, and specifically blames Supergirl for the recent misfortune that has befallen her brother (in the first issue Supergirl was accidentally responsible for Lex Luthor's capture). Unaware that Linda Lee is really Supergirl just as Linda is unaware that Lena Thorul is related to Lex Luthor, the two become best friends and roommates. Though sweet and fun when interacting with Linda (whom Lena perceives as an outsider, just like herself), Lena is hostile and suspicious towards everyone else. This is particularly true in regards to Linda's evil doppelganger Belinda Zee (Superiorgirl). As the series progresses, Lena's xenophobia becomes increasingly apparent. It is revealed that Lena is in secret communication with her older brother, waiting for the correct time to enact a complicated revenge scheme against Superman. When Linda'a identity is inadvertently exposed to Lena by the time-lost duplicate of Supergirl known as Supragirl, Lena goes over the edge and takes control of the minds of half the students in the school (the other half being transformed into Bizarro versions of themselves by Superiorgirl). Lena begins to question her hatred when confronted by the manipulations of reality by Mister Mxyzptlk and by Supergirl's willingness to save all of reality from the fifth dimensional imp. While Supergirl is battling Mxyzptlk, Lena is critically injured. Supergirl forces a truce between Luthor and Superman so that they can save Lena. Luthor saves his little sister, but the cost of her survival is that her hatred is now directed at her own brother. At the series end, Lena is referenced to be recovering in the hospital. Lena Luthor (Earth-9) A variation of the character appears in Tangent Comics: Wonder Woman #1 (September, 1998). Lena Thorul was an Element Girl scientist who saw the inevitable futility of the gender war between the Element Girl and Beast Boy Gothamites, in which she felt the Gothamites had lost touch with each other and with their true potential. That they were stronger as a race when the two sexes truly comprehend each other. Thorul sought to create a symbol of what the Gothamites could be if they were united as a people, through the use of outlawed technology, she successfully created a unique and powerful female Gothamite with the attributes of both the Element Girls and Beast Boys which she named her as Wanda. Upon revealing Wanda to the Gothamites as a symbol of unity, however, this was greeted with revulsion from the Gothamites who ironically agreed together that Wanda was an abomination and Thorul was immediately killed for creating her. In other media Television Live action The original version of Lena Luthor appeared in the Superboy TV series two-part story "Know Thine Enemy" with the young version played by Jennifer Hawkins and the adult version played by Denise Gossett. In the first part, Lena appears in flashbacks of Lex Luthor's childhood while Superboy experiences Lex's life through a device Luthor invented called a "psychodisk". Frequently abused by their father, Lex is very protective of Lena and tries to stop their father from beating her only to get a beating himself. Lex and Lena dream of one day escaping from their less-than-perfect home life. Eventually, Lex urges Lena to go spend the night at a friend's house and builds a bomb with which he plans to kill his parents while Lena is away. He has taken out a life insurance policy on them and plans to collect it after their deaths. He eventually does kill them, though the scene is not depicted because Superboy escapes the psychodisk recording before it can happen. In the second part, it revealed that Lena faked her own death and changed her name to escape the curse of the Luthor name, but she is found by Lana Lang. Her apparent death has driven Lex over the edge, causing him to construct a series of bombs that will wipe out all life on earth, leaving only android duplicates of himself and Lena on the planet. Because Lena is the only person Luthor claims to have ever loved, Lana believes she can stop his mad plan. Lena is taken to Luthor's underground hideout and attempts to get him to stop the countdown on his bombs. Luthor denies that he ever loved Lena, but the android duplicate of Lex stops the countdown with seconds to spare and attempts to get Lena to stay with him so they can have the better life they had always dreamed of. Lex deactivates the android and Lena leaves, never to be seen again. A character based on the original Lena Luthor named Tess Mercer appears in the CW television series Smallville, portrayed by Cassidy Freeman as an adult and Leigh Bourke as a young girl. The character's name is derived from two of Lex Luthor's female personal assistants in the films and comics, Eve Teschmacher and Mercy Graves, part of whose profession are also incorporated into the character's plotline. Tess Mercer debuted on Smallvilles Season 8 premiere as Lex Luthor's protégé, who took over LuthorCorp as the acting CEO after Lex's disappearance. The final season of Smallville reveals that Tess Mercer is born Lutessa Lena Luthor as the illegitimate daughter of Lionel Luthor with Lex's nanny Pamela Jenkins (who had appeared in the season 1 episode "Crush"). Lionel left Lutessa at Granny Goodness's orphanage where Granny's powers were used to suppress Lutessa's memories of her true identity, and she was eventually adopted by the Mercer family in Louisiana under her father's arrangements. In the episode "Abandoned", Tess eventually learns the truth of her past once she reviews the orphanage's records and is distraught knowing that she's Lionel's daughter. In the series finale, Tess discovers from the fully revived Lex Luthor that he knew they are half-siblings all along. When Lex mortally stabs her (claiming it will save her from "turning into me"), Tess poisons Lex with a neurotoxin that erases all his memories, telling her brother as she dies that Clark Kent had already saved her from that dark fate. After the television series' ten-season run ended in 2012, Smallville was continued through a comic book series named Season Eleven, written by Bryan Q. Miller, who also wrote for the show. The story sets six months after the television series finale, and Lutessa Luthor's death is ruled a suicide. However, Lex Luthor apparently has a ghostly encounter with her at a street corner of Metropolis. It is later reveals that Tess's consciousness bonded to Lex's mind when she poisoned him, forcing Lex to find a way of separating Tess from himself while he tries to regain his memories. Her friends eventually discover what happened, and extract her memories from Lex's mind and upload it to the Watchtower's computer as an AI until they can clone a new body for her. Tess's consciousness is eventually transferred into a new robotic form capable of flight and air manipulation, and she becomes the new Red Tornado and a member of the Justice League. A variation of the original Lena Luthor known as Lena Kieran Luthor appears in The CW series Supergirl, portrayed by Katie McGrath as an adult and by Lucy Loken as a teenager. She debuts in the season two premiere episode titled "The Adventures of Supergirl" and was promoted to a series regular for the third season. This version is initially depicted as the adoptive sister of Lex Luthor, but is later revealed to be his paternal half-sister through an affair that Lionel Luthor had. As the new CEO of Luthor Corp following her brother's incarceration, Lena moves to National City and rebrands the company as "L-Corp" to distance it and herself from Lex's reputation. Lex hires the assassin John Corben to kill her in retaliation, but Lena shoots him to save Alex Danvers. She later helps Kara Danvers find Veronica Sinclair, and in turn, Kara goes to a gala being held at L-Corp (as herself and Supergirl), later discovered to be a trap to robbers involved in a crime wave involving alien guns. Soon after, it is discovered that her mother was none other than the director of Project Cadmus, who plans to wipe out earth's entire alien population with an airborne substance. Lena turns on Lillian right before they are about to go through with the plan before revealing she switched out the substance and called the police. In the episode "Luthors", Lena discovers she is the product of an affair Lionel had with his mistress, before being framed by her mother for stealing kryptonite. She was then kidnapped by Lillian, ensuring the latter's escape alongside that of Metallo so she can use her to access one of Lex Luthor's storage areas before being rescued by Supergirl. In the episode "Ace Reporter", Lena reunites with her ex-boyfriend Jack Spheer, who is the CEO of Spheerical Industries and has invented a new nanobot technology called Biomax. When Kara discovers that Jack had been faking the human trials and injected himself with Biomax, Lena confronts him, only to find out he is being controlled by his CFO, Beth Breen. While Supergirl fights Jack, Lena fights Breen and destroys the control device and overloads the mainframe to save Supergirl, causing Jack to die, leaving Lena devastated. Later, Lena agrees to work with Rhea, unaware of her alien heritage, on a business project, a transmitter portal. Lena ends up forming a motherly bond with Rhea, who encourages her to be different than her family. Lena then finds out Rhea is an alien after she uses an alien element to finish the portal, but Rhea manages to convince her to continue working with her. Rhea then betrays Lena and uses the portal to bring her Daxamite fleet to Earth, then transports Lena and Mon-El to her ship. In the episode "Resist", Rhea forces Lena and Mon-El to get married, but they are saved by Supergirl, Lillian, and Cyborg Superman. In "Nevertheless, She Persisted", Lillian then reveals a device that Lex created to kill Kryptonians, but Lena and Winn modify it to kill Daxamites, killing Rhea and causing the fleet to retreat, saving the Earth. During Season Three, Lena Luthor develops a rivalry with Morgan Edge. When Morgan Edge poisoned Lena in the episode "For Good", Lilian Luthor plans revenge by targeting Morgan Edge. After Lena is cured of the poison, she has a moment with her mother as Lilian and Morgan are arrested by the authorities upon their respective defeats at the hands of Supergirl. Kara and Lena maintain a good friendship for most of the series until Lex Luthor reveals Supergirl's true identity to Lena, causing Lena to become bitter at this apparent 'evidence' that her friend didn't truly trust her. Lena initially attempted to use alien technology to basically brainwash most of humanity to remove their darker impulses, even spending the first half of the season pretending to have forgiven Kara's lie so that she could access the Fortress of Solitude, but when she is forced to accept that the kind of mind-manipulation she is attempting is impossible, she rejects Lex's offer to join her in conquering the world and returns to help Supergirl instead. After Lex has been drained of his stolen powers, Lena uses Myriad to erase his knowledge of Kara's secret identity. The episode "Mxy in the Middle" revealed that Lena's late mother was Elizabeth Walsh (also portrayed by Katie McGrath) who was a witch. The episode "It's a Super Life", features Mxyzptlk showing Kara a range of alternate realities where she told Lena the truth about her identity on her own in an attempt to undo the subsequent deterioration of their relationship. However, each reality ultimately results in a worse outcome, ranging from Lena and Mon-El being killed by Reign or Agent Liberty blackmailing Kara into revealing her identity by threatening Lena. In a reality where Lena and Kara never met, Lena suffered an accident that left her gravely injured, which led to her being transformed into a Metallo-like equivalent by her mother. Animation The original Lena Luthor appears in the webseries DC Super Hero Girls, voiced by Romi Dames. This version is a supervillain. In DC Super Hero Girls: Intergalactic Games, she is revealed to be resentful of the supers from Superhero High, Lena's particularly envious of Supergirl as she gained her powers when she landed on Earth while she had tried to do everything to gain her own powers, losing her hair (revealed to be a wig) in one of the processes. She is defeated by Wonder Woman and Platinum, who she uses for her plan. After failing her master Brainiac, she is left to drown in the truck taking her away. Big Barda saves her in exchange for help, but she turns her down. Lena is taken to prison afterwards. Dames reprises her role in the Lego DC Super Hero Girls series as the main antagonist. Unlike the main series, instead of avenging her brother's arrest at the hands of the heroes, she wishes to surpass him as a true supervillain, but she never succeeds. She's developed a series of Kryptomites with one of six different colors each, which effect everyone that comes near them by changing their emotions, such as anger, sadness, fear, distrust and forgetfulness, while the green ones only act as normal kryptonite that only affect Supergirl. She's usually seen assisting the Female Furies and Eclipso, though the latter of which Lena always hinders her plans in the end, hindering her own plan in the process. The original version of Lena Luthor appears in the premiere of the 2019 DC Super Hero Girls TV series, voiced by Cassandra Lee Morris. While she is once again depicted as both as the sister of Lex Luthor and as a villain, this version is a child. Her villainous ways in this version are not because of her brother, but in spite of him, and every other teenager. She desires to create a world solely run by children, while teenagers and adults remain under her control after destroying their favorite places. Ultimately, her plan failed and her parents take her away. Her mother reveals that, her full name is once again Lutessa "Lena" Luthor, but chooses to go by Lena. The original version of Lena Luthor is referenced in Young Justice: Outsiders. She is mentioned to be the current CEO of LexCorp after Lex became Secretary General of the United Nations. Godfrey states that Lena recently announced that LexCorp will pledge funds to the Meta-Human Youth Center. Miscellaneous The second version of Lena Luthor appears in the second Robot Chicken DC Comics Special Robot Chicken DC Comics Special 2: Villains in Paradise, voiced by Sarah Hyland. Lex Luthor has her interning at the Legion of Doom's coffee shop called "Hall of Doom Coffee" during spring break since the court order says that Lex gets custody of Lena on weekends and holidays. Her plight of having to work on spring break and not being with her boyfriend is understood by Gorilla Grodd as they follow each other on a social network. When Lex finds out that Lena has snuck away to go to spring break to be with her boyfriend upon finding Scarecrow's nephew Calvin working in Lena's place, Lex pilots the Hall of Doom to a beach location to find her while the other Legion of Doom members take advantage by taking a vacation. Lex finds out that Lena's boyfriend is Superboy when he finds her after an incident where some of the Legion of Doom members mistook the Justice League's private beach for a nude beach. As Lex tells Lena that she is not to see Superboy again, Superman tells Superboy never to see Lena again. Both Lena and Superboy tell about their love romance for each other to the other heroes and villains in a song parody of "Summer Nights". As the Justice League and the Legion of Doom argue about Superboy and Lena's relationship, the group is attacked by an enlarged Starro (which was previously flushed down the Hall of Doom's toilet by Captain Cold). Starro attacked both sides and overwhelmed them until seeing Lena and Superboy in a romantic moment and stopped attacking which ended with Starro getting killed upon Green Lantern sending a boat construct with Batman in it through Starro. Lena and Superboy are later seen at the wedding of Gorilla Grodd and Bizarro. References External links Short biography on Lena Thorul – From Supermanica Short biography on Lena Luthor – From Supermanhomepage DC Comics characters DC Comics characters who have mental powers DC Comics telekinetics DC Comics telepaths Comics characters introduced in 1961 Fictional empaths Fictional characters from Kansas Fictional children of presidents of the United States Characters created by Jerry Siegel Female characters in animation Superman characters DC Comics female supervillains
5172177	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comando%20Vermelho	Comando Vermelho	Comando Vermelho (, Red Command or Red Commando), also known as C.V., is a Brazilian criminal organization engaged primarily in drug trafficking, arms trafficking, protection racketeering, kidnappings-for-ransom, armored truck hijackings, loansharking, irregular warfare, narco-terrorism, and turf wars against rival criminal organizations, such as Primeiro Comando da Capital and Terceiro Comando Puro. The gang formed in 1979 out of a prison alliance between common criminals and leftist guerrillas, who were imprisoned together at Cândido Mendes (a maximum-security prison on the island of Ilha Grande). The prisoners formed the alliance to protect themselves from prison violence and guard-inflicted brutality; as the group coalesced, the common criminals were infused with leftist social justice ideals by the guerrillas. In 1979, prison officials labeled the alliance “Comando Vermelho,” a name which the prisoners eventually co-opted as their own. In the 1980s, the gang expanded beyond Ilha Grande into other prisons and the favelas of Rio de Janeiro, and became involved in the rapidly growing cocaine industry. Meanwhile, Brazil’s shift towards democracy and the eventual end of the military dictatorship in 1985 allowed the leftist guerrillas to re-enter society; thus, the CV largely abandoned its left-wing ideology. The cocaine trade brought the CV massive profits and growth; by the end of 1985 the gang controlled as much as 70% of the drug trade in Rio de Janeiro’s favelas. During this period, the CV established trading relationships with Colombian cartels. However, the group’s decentralized leadership structure and disputes over profits prompted infighting, causing splinter groups such as the Terceiro Comando and Amigos dos Amigos to emerge. Conflicts with these splinter groups, as well as fierce resistance to state crackdowns on their operations, drove a sharp uptick in violence in Rio and throughout Brazil throughout the late 1980s and into the 2000s. Violence continued to escalate until 2008, when the state government implemented a new policy to mitigate violent crime, called Pacification, which used new permanent proximity-policing units (Unidade de Policia Pacificadora, or UPPs) to “maintain state control and provide social order” in favelas. Pacification proved initially successful; a sharp decline in violence between the state and the CV followed after implementation. However, in 2013, Pacification efforts eroded, and widespread violent conflict between the CV and state forces quickly returned. Additionally, in 2016, a 20-year-old truce between the Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), a rival criminal organization based in Sao Paulo, and the CV broke down, sparking an outbreak in violent clashes between the two groups Today, while not as powerful as at its peak, the CV remains a significant presence in Rio and throughout Brazil; recent estimates suggest the group is the second-largest criminal organization in Brazil behind the PCC. InSight Crime reports the CV may boast as many as 30,000 members throughout Brazil. The gang continues to engage in drug trafficking, arms trafficking, and turf wars with rival gangs. Notably, in recent years a struggle has intensified between the CV, the PCC, and other rival gangs over control of trade routes and territory in the Amazon region. History Origins (1964-1979) The exact year that the Comando Vermelho was founded is officially 1979, stemming from a prison alliance between leftist guerrillas and common criminals housed together during the 1970s by Brazil’s military dictatorship at Cândido Mendes, a maximum security Brazilian prison. Soon after their regime began in 1964, Brazil’s military dictatorship faced a persistent challenge from leftist guerrilla rebels, made up largely of “middle-class intellectuals.” In hopes of delegitimizing the rebels, in the early 1970s the Brazilian government began placing those they captured in prison alongside common criminals. One such prison, Candido Mendes, located on Ilha Grande, housed a mix of violent criminals and guerrillas in its notoriously brutal “Block B,” or “The Pit.” Inmates there were subject to frequent abuse at the hands of both their peers and the guards. The inmates banded together for mutual protection, shielding themselves from guard beatings and establishing a code of conduct for prisoners. Additionally, the guerrillas began to “educate” the common criminals with ideas about resistance, revolution, and social justice. As the alliance cemented, members introduced a “common code of prison rules,” designed to promote loyalty among members, reduce violence within the prison, and advance the common cause of the prisoners, while still maintaining a degree of autonomy for individual members to act as they desired. In attempts to break up the alliance, prison officials moved inmate leaders to different wings and prisons, but this instead helped the group spread throughout the prison system. During this period prison officials gave the group its name: one official called the group “Comando Vermelho” in a memo to his colleagues. The name was adopted first by the press and then later by the group itself. Split with the guerrillas and the cocaine boom (1979-late 1980s) In 1979, sensing an impending democratization movement, newly-installed President Joao Figueiredo and his military regime began to fear that they and members of their armed forces could face trial for human rights violations in a democratic system. To protect themselves, Figueiredo “manipulated a grassroots movement demanding amnesty for thousands of political prisoners and exiles to insulate himself and his colleagues from potential indictments,” and passed the sweeping 1979 Amnesty Law, protecting political prisoners and their government captors from prosecution. As a result, the leftist guerrilla elements of the CV were released from prison, weakening the group’s ideological bent. Meanwhile, the CV began to spread beyond prison gates. While many of its original members were bank robbers, the group quickly became involved in the burgeoning cocaine market. CV members helped traffic drugs overseas for Colombian cartels and distributed cocaine into the local Rio de Janeiro market. The cocaine trade proved incredibly lucrative and the CV grew rapidly: “by the end of 1985, the gang already controlled 70% of the drug market in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro.” During this period, the CV became increasingly involved in the provision of social services and administration of justice for the favela communities which it controlled. In exchange for the cooperation of favela residents, the CV prohibited theft, robbery, and rape, and provided public goods like school supplies, medical equipment, and food distribution for the poor. The official end of the military dictatorship in 1985 marked the end of all remaining ties between the leftist guerrillas and the CV. Many of the guerrillas re-entered society and “rose inside political parties;” some would go on to hold elected office. Infighting and growing cartel-state violence (Late 1980s-2008) Massive profits created incentives for different CV factions to splinter off as local leaders sought larger profit shares. Notable break-away groups which emerged during this period include Terceiro Comando and Amigos dos Amigos. As these groups clashed over territory in Rio, violence rapidly increased throughout the city. After Pablo Escobar’s death, the CV established a working relationship with the FARC, a Colombian guerrilla group which moved into the cocaine trade. Led by Luiz Fernando da Costa (alias Fernandinho Beira-Mar or Seaside Freddy) the CV procured arms and ammunition, which they delivered to the FARC in exchange for their supply of cocaine. Pacification (2008-2013) Beginning in 2008, in an effort to combat the widespread gang-related violence, Rio state police forces implemented a new “Pacification” strategy, “inspired by notions of community-oriented policing." The strategy, which proceeds in stages, begins with state occupation of a target favela using overwhelming military force, followed by the installation of a proximity-policing unit (Unidade de Policia Pacificadora, UPP), which remains in the favela after military withdrawal. Rather than eliminating the drug trade, the UPPs were primarily tasked with securing the favela communities from gang-related violence. The early period of Pacification (2008–10) saw forty UPP battalions installed and 200 communities pacified, and was largely successful for the state. The CV, which suddenly ceased their violent confrontation with state forces, ceded significant territory to the state; one UPP effort left “the CV’s principal stronghold firmly in the hand of the state for the first time in more than a generation.” Resurgence in violence (2013–Present) Despite its initial success for the state, corruption and over-expansion caused erosion in the Pacification system, and by 2013 program began to break down. Since then, violent clashes between the CV and state forces have surged. In 2016, following the collapse of a 20-year truce between the CV and the PCC, violence surged further. In recent months, sources consistently report frequent violent clashes between the CV and the PCC as well as other rival gang groups. Additionally, an emerging struggle for control of the Amazon region has intensified between rival gangs including the CV. Seeking access to the valuable trafficking routes in the Colombia-Brazil-Peru tri-border region, the CV, the PCC, the Familia do Norte, and Colombian militia groups including the Border Command and the Carolina Ramirez Front have violently fought, contributing to a significant uptick in regional fatalities. Armed militia groups in Rio represent another growing challenge for the CV. Militia groups, formed by former and current police officers purporting to fight crime, have grown to control substantial territory throughout Rio. In recent years, violence between militias and gangs has intensified; in 2020 and 2021, “clashes between gangs and militias were responsible for 28% of reported fatalities” in Rio. For example, in July and August 2022, the CV clashed frequently with the Campinho police militia for “control of the Morro do Fuba community in the North Zone.” Structure The Comando Vermelho’s structure is loosely hierarchical yet allows significant autonomy throughout the organization. While there is no one single boss, imprisoned senior leaders exercise authority over favela leaders, known as donos, who deliver rents to the prison leaders as a form of “insurance scheme.” Essentially, non-imprisoned members provide financial support and carry out instructions from imprisoned leaders, thus protecting themselves from retribution in the event that they are captured themselves. Beneath the favela donos, there are gerentes de boca (“drug mouth bosses”) who carry out drug trafficking, soldados (“soldiers”) who protect the favela’s turf, and vapors, the lowest-level gang members, who are often young teens. Within this structure, there is significant freedom for gang members to run operations as they see fit. According to Penglase, the “CV is most accurately described as a loose association of drug traffickers who come together for reciprocal assistance yet who act with great degrees of autonomy.” Members of the CV operate with a shared identity and a common set of norms, but negotiate separately with individual drug suppliers, known as “matutos.” High levels of autonomy have been characteristic of the CV since its inception on Ilha Grande: while prisoners were barred from violence against each other, they were freely allowed to pursue independent business. Another distinct aspect of CV structure is that they allow their leaders to freely step away from gang activity if they choose to do so, in stark contrast with many comparable gangs who require members to remain active until death. Inside prisons with a strong CV presence, senior leaders practice internal criminal governance. These leaders "rule prison life, settle internal faction disputes that occur outside of prison and make the final decision on any matters of mutual interest for faction affiliates." Comando Vermelho and state conflict A defining characteristic of the CV is their willingness to openly engage the state in armed confrontation. Since the mid-1980s, as state forces steadily increased the severity of their crackdowns, the CV has responded with frequent violent clashes. Lessing writes that “nowhere else in Brazil, or in much of the world for that matter,” have Rio cartels, and primarily the CV, “systematically engaged the state in armed confrontation for so long.” Currently, the CV continues to violently fight with state forces, and the ACLED reports that state violence represents a disproportionate share of reported fatalities in Rio de Janeiro. One suggested explanation for the CV’s violent conflict with the state is the varying levels of conditionality in state crackdowns––whether the state cracks down harder on violent cartel behavior. In 2008, after the highly-conditional Pacification policy was implemented, cartel-state violence declined, only to see a resurgence after the policy eroded. Examples of CV-State conflict On 19 November 2016, a police helicopter of the Rio de Janeiro police was shot down by small arms fire during a clash with gang members of Comando Vermelho and crashed in a ditch. All four police officers on board were killed. In June 2018, the Red Command launched attacks on a Bolivian Army base in Porvenir and a Brazilian police station in Epitaciolandia, in both instances stealing weapons and ammunition. Comando Vermelho and funk carioca The Comando continue to attract new Brazilian youth and bring them into their ranks. In addition to sponsoring groups like neighborhood associations and special interest clubs, and organizing sporting events, one of the most common ways in which the criminal organization is able to catch the youth's attention is through the popular musical style of funk, a form of Brazilian music derived from Miami bass. Due to the genre's popularity with young Brazilians, the group "is known to have subsidized funk parties to recruit young kids for drug dealing". In addition to these funk parties (bailes funk), "where drugs and sex attract even bourgeois or petty-bourgeois youth", held regularly by the organization every Sunday, funk artists are also sponsored by the Comando Vermelho to record songs and even entire CDs that promote the group and eulogize the group's dead members. Because the Comando pays for the production and recording of the funk songs, they "are often well recorded and of a high technical quality, and are being played on pirate radio stations and sold by hundreds of street vendors in Rio de Janeiro and in São Paulo". Thus the funk artists that are in league with Comando Vermelho sometimes garner significant sales and airplay despite making a type of music that is Proibidão, or "extremely prohibited", in terms of where it can be sold and who can play it. In addition to promoting the crime group, the funk sponsored by the Comando also challenges the ideas and laws of the Division of the Repression Against Drugs. Notable leaders and members William da Silva Lima, alias “The Professor” (Deceased): Lima was a founding member of the Comando Vermelho, having been imprisoned at Cândido Mendes during the 1970s after attempting to escape another prison. He took part in several bank robberies and was a major figure during the CV’s initial rise to power. He later wrote a memoir, Four Hundred Against One, which describes his experience during the early years of the Comando Vermelho. He died of a heart attack in his home in the South Zone of Rio at the age of 76. Luiz Fernando da Costa, alias "Fernandinho Beira-Mar," alias "Seaside Freddy" (Incarcerated): Beira-Ma is an imprisoned senior leader who led the CV’s business dealings with the “Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia” (FARC), the Colombian guerrilla group that entered the cocaine trade following the death of Pablo Esobar. In 2001, he was captured by the Colombian military following a shootout, and was extradited to Brazil. Márcio dos Santos Nepomuceno, alias "Marcinho VP" (Incarcerated): Considered the most powerful drug lord in Rio de Janeiro, he is currently the top leader of the Comando Vermelho, having taken control of this crime syndicate following the arrest of Fernandinho Beira-Mar in 2002, after Beira-Mar brutally killed Ernaldo Pinto Medeiros (a.k.a. UÉ), who was the founder and top leader of Amigos dos Amigos in retaliation for the murder of Orlando Jogador, one of the original leaders of Comando Vermelho (who would have been ordered by UÉ). Elias Pereira da Silva, alias "Elias Maluco"/Crazy Elias (Deceased): He was one of the most powerful drug dealers in Rio de Janeiro and one of the most dangerous members of the Comando Vermelho, until he was arrested for the murder of famous Brazilian journalist Tim Lopes. His death is one of the most mysterious in the Brazilian criminal underworld: he was found dead, hanged in his cell on September 22, 2020, but it is unknown if he committed suicide or if someone inside the prison killed him and made it look like a suicide. Roni Peixoto, alias "Gordo"/Fat Man (Deceased): He was known by the nickname "Gordo" (or Fat Man in English) because he was an overweight man at the time when he was the leader of the Comando Vermelho in Minas Gerais. Considered one of the biggest drug lords in the state during the 2000s, he was Beira-Mar's right-hand man, responsible for controlling drug trafficking throughout Minas Gerais and the introducer of crack in Belo Horizonte (the capital of Minas Gerais), which may have led to his brutal murder in 2022. Cláudio Augusto da Silva Duarte, alias "Mano C" (Incarcerated): Leader of the CV in the state of Pará (in northern Brazil). Ocimar Prado Junior, a.k.a. "Coquinho" (Incarcerated): Leader of the CV in the state of Amazonas (in northern Brazil). In popular culture In 2006, Ross Kemp’s docuseries “Ross Kemp on Gangs” included an episode titled “Rio De Janeiro,” which investigated the Comando Vermelho and their police adversaries. The 2002 crime drama film film City of God is based in a Rio favela and is inspired by true events surrounding the emergence of organized crime groups like the CV. The DVD release of this movie contains an extra documentary "News of a Private War" which features interviews with the police and local children from the favelas. In the 2010 documentary “Dancing with the Devil,” director John Blair investigates criminal organizations in Rio’s favelas. The 2010 Brazilian crime film "400 contra 1" was inspired by CV founder William da Silva Lima’s memoirs and narrates a fictionalized history of the birth of the gang in the late 1970s. See also Primeiro Comando da Capital Militias-Comando Vermelho conflict Notes References General bibliography "Blood on the streets as drug gang and police fight for control of Rio favelas" in The Guardian UNODC Report: Firearms and drugs fuel conflict in Brazil's favelas 1979 establishments in Brazil Far-left politics in Brazil Organized crime groups in Brazil Street gangs Terrorism in Brazil
5172884	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre%20Schoendoerffer	Pierre Schoendoerffer	Pierre Schoendoerffer (; 5 May 1928 – 14 March 2012) was a French film director, a screenwriter, a writer, a war reporter, a war cameraman, a renowned First Indochina War veteran, a cinema academician. He was president of the Académie des Beaux-Arts for 2001 and for 2007. In 1967, he was the winner of the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature for The Anderson Platoon. The film followed a platoon of American soldiers for six weeks at the height of fighting in Vietnam during 1966. Biography Family Pierre Schoendoerffer was born in Chamalières of a French Alsatian Protestant family. As Alsace was a territory contested and annexed in the 17th, 19th and 20th centuries by both France and Germany leading to the Franco-Prussian War (1870) next World War I (1914–18), his forefathers were French, and lost all their belongings. His maternal grandfather, who was an 1870 veteran, volunteered in the French Army in 1914 at the age of 66 and the rank of captain. He was killed during the Second Battle of the Aisne at Chemin des Dames. His father was the director of the Annecy hospital and died shortly after the end of the battle of France (1940), where he was injured. He met his wife Patricia in Morocco (then a Spanish-French joint protectorate), she was a journalist for France-Soir. They had three children, actor and screenwriter Frédéric Schoendoerffer, director and producer Ludovic Schoendoerffer and actress Amélie Schoendoerffer. Pierre Schoendoerffer died, aged 83, on 14 March 2012 in France. Early life (1942–47) During World War II, Schoendoerffer lost his father and was not doing well with his studies at school in Annecy. In winter 1942–43, he read Joseph Kessel's epic adventure novel Fortune Carrée (1932), which changed his ambitions; he wanted to become a mariner and travel the world In 1946, he spent his summer as a fisherman aboard a small fishing trawler in the Bourgneuf-en-Retz bay, near Pornic, Pays de la Loire (close to Brittany). From this experience he would later direct Than, the Fisherman shot in Vietnam, and Iceland Fisherman. The following year he went back to the Pays de la Loire region and embarked on a Swedish cargo ship at Boulogne. From mariner to war cameraman (1947–54) In 1947, on board a merchant navy coaster, he sailed for two years in the Baltic Sea and North Sea. This experience would later find echoes in Seven Days at Sea, The Drummer-Crab and even in Above the Clouds. From 1949 to 1950 he left the sea to fulfill mandatory military service in the Alpine infantry's 13e Bataillon de Chasseurs Alpins ("13th Alpine Hunters Battalion", 13e BCA) based in Chambéry and Modane, Rhône-Alpes. The Alpine infantry would later be the title character's corps in The Honor of a Captain. Young Schoendoerffer had realized he was not born to be a mariner, but he did not want to be a soldier either, thinking he would be wasting his time. What he wanted to do was filmmaking. As he failed to enter the television and cinema industries, he began photography instead. One day as he read a Le Figaro article about war cameraman Georges Kowal, Killed in action during the First Indochina War, he decided to try his luck in the Service Cinématographique des Armées ("Armies' Cinematographic Service", SCA, now ECPAD). In late 1951, he volunteered to become a war cameraman for the French army and was sent to Saigon, in French Indochina. There Corporal Schoendoerffer met and became friends with Service Presse Information ("Information Press Service", SPI) war photograph Sergeant-Chief Jean Péraud, who took him as his protégé. Schoendoerffer's first SCA production was a 9-minute short documentary First Indochina War Rushes (1952) that would surface thirty years later on screen in The Honor of a Captain. In 1954, his friend and superior Sergeant-Chief Péraud asked him by telegram to join him at the battle of Dien Bien Phu and he dropped with the 5th Vietnamese Parachutist Battalion (5e BPVN aka 5e BAWOUAN). As a result, upranked Corporal-Chief Schoendoerffer "celebrated" his 26th birthday in the midst of the 57-day siege. He filmed the entire battle for the SCA but after the French ceasefire and the defeat, just as the other soldiers destroyed their equipment so that it would not be captured by the Viet Minh, Schoendoerffer destroyed his films and camera. This event was later depicted on screen by his own son, Frédéric, in Pierre Schoendoerffer's 1992 docudrama Dien Bien Phu recreating the battle. At the end of the battle in 1954, he saved and secretly hid six SCA 1-minute reels which ended up in Roman Karmen's hands. From prisoner of war to war correspondent (1954–56) After the battle, on 7 May 1954, he was captured and sent to a Viet Minh re-education camp. During the march to the camp, following Jean Péraud, he tried to escape with paratroopers commander Marcel Bigeard, but he was caught. Péraud vanished though and has since been Missing in action. In prison, his life was spared at the insistence of Roman Karmen, the Soviet war reporter who directed all the main sequences illustrating the battle, from the Viet Minh raising the Red flag over General de Castries's bunker staged a few weeks after the siege, to the French Union POWs column marching from Dien Bien Phu to the re-education camp (a crane was used for the shooting), that are featured in Вьетнам ("Vietnam", 1955). During this time, Karmen had some friendly meetings with Schoendoerffer; they spoke about their job, and he revealed to the French prisoner that he had found his reels and had watched them. Karmen kept the reels though, so as a result the only footage covering the battle is from the Viet Minh's perspective. Schoendoerffer was released by the Viet Minh four months later, on 1 September 1954. On the battle's tenth anniversary, in Paris, Schoendoerffer was invited with Bigeard to comment on the Viet Minh footage, including segments from Vietnam, which were broadcast on the French public channel ORTF (Cinq colonnes à la une show) for the first time. After the First Indochina War Schoendoerffer left the French army and became a war reporter-photographer in South Vietnam for French and American news magazines: Paris Match, Paris-Presse, Time, Life, Look. In April 1955 he left South Vietnam to return to France, stopping along the way in Hong Kong, Taipei, Japan, Hawaii and San Francisco. In Hong Kong, through the AFP news agency, he met Joseph Kessel, the adventurer, World War I and Free French World War II aviator, war correspondent, reporter, and novelist whose Fortune Carrée he had admired in his childhood. Over dinner and a long "Kesselian" night with a lot of alcohol and even a little bit of opium, Schoendoerffer narrated his three-year adventure in Indochina to Kessel who was impressed. Soon they parted, but with the promise to keep in touch in Paris. In Hollywood Schoendoerffer became an apprentice on a movie for ten days, thanks to his connections with Life magazine, but without a Green Card he was eventually forced to leave. Back in France, he signed his first important contract with Pathé Journal and two weeks later he flew to Morocco, where the French Algeria anti-colonial rebellion was being emulated. He became a war correspondent, filming the riots for the French audience - Morocco was then a French protectorate. There he met Patricia, a journalist at France Soir, who later became his wife. In 1956, he resigned from Pathé, whose representative threatened him: "You are leaving us? So you'll never do cinema again, because we are huge!". Writer and director (1956–2003) At this point Schoendoerffer was confused with his young career, the major Pathé bringing him back to the situation he experienced in 1951. As he narrated his Hong Kong meeting with Kessel to his fiancée Patricia, she convinced him to contact the one he regarded as an "historical monument". Kessel was actually searching for him since he had a film project in Afghanistan, The Devil's Pass, and he wanted Schoendoerffer to direct it. Kessel wrote the script, Raoul Coutard, a First Indochina War photograph (SPI) veteran was in charge of the cinematography on his first film (later he would join Jean-Luc Godard), Jacques Dupont assisted Schoendoerffer with the direction and Georges de Beauregard produced it. In 1958, he married "Pat", Patricia, the journalist he met in Morocco in 1955. In 1959, Pierre Lazareff, founder of the newspaper France Soir (where Patricia Schoendoerffer and Joseph Kessel worked), asked him to direct a reportage about the Algerian War for his Cinq colonnes à la une (ORTF) TV show. Thanks to Lazareff he later returned to Vietnam in 1966 and made his acclaimed The Anderson Platoon for the ORTF. Later in 1991 he went back to Dien Bien Phu and recreated the battle in a self-titled epic docudrama — in the fashion of Tora! Tora! Tora! — in which his son Frédéric played his own role as cameraman. The actual Vietnamese army was used to play the role of both the Viet Minh and the State of Vietnam national army fighting on the French Union's side against the Communists. Meanwhile, men from the French 11th Parachute Brigade played the role of the French paratroopers. In the 2000s (decade), his latest productions consist of the 2003 novel The Butterfly Wing (L'Aile du Papillon) and Above the Clouds (Là-Haut, un roi au-dessus des nuages), the theatrical adaptation of his 1981 novel Up there (Là-Haut). Reception Critical success Pierre Schoendoerffer received acclaim in international short and feature film festivals. As a writer he won multiple festival, academy and military awards and prizes, including the Prix Vauban, in 1984, (celebrating his life achievement.) In France he is famous for his 1977 three-time César Award-winning Le Crabe-Tambour ("Drummer Crab"), based on his French Academy-award–winning self-titled novel. His first success was in 1965 with his Cannes Film Festival Best Screenplay winning The 317th Platoon (La 317e Section). Both films are based on his experience in the First Indochina War. He is most known abroad, particularly in the United States, for his 1967 Oscar-winning Vietnam War B&W documentary, The Anderson Platoon (La Section Anderson), originally made for the French public channel ORTF's popular Cinq colonnes à la une monthly show. It earned him an Oscar, an International Emmy Award, a Red Ribbon Award at the New York Film Festival, a BBC's Merit Award and an Italia Prize. Awards Military honors Médaille militaire Croix de Guerre TOE Croix du combattant volontaire Civic honors Commandeur de la Légion d'Honneur Officier de l'Ordre National du Mérite Officier des Arts et Lettres Chevalier des Palmes Académiques Artistic prizes 1965: Cannes Film Festival Best Screenplay The 317th Platoon 1967: Academy Award for Documentary Feature (Oscars): The Anderson Platoon 1967: Prix Italia: The Anderson Platoon 1967: Merit Award (BBC): The Anderson Platoon 1969: Prix Interallié: Farewell to the King Fine Arts Academy Pierre Schoendoerffer was elected at the Académie des Beaux-Arts' Section VII: Artistic creation in the cinema and the audio-visual field, Seat#4, on 23 March 1988, replacing Guillaume Gillet. He is president of the Académie des Beaux-Arts since 2001. Filmography Feature films 1959: Ramuntcho (Ramuncho) based on the 1897 novel by Pierre Loti 1959: Pêcheur d'Islande (Iceland Fisherman) — based on the 1886 novel by Pierre Loti 1965: The 317th Platoon (La 317e section) — based on his 1963 novel 1966: Objectif 500 millions (Objective 500 Million) 1977: Le Crabe-tambour (The Drummer Crab) — based on his 1976 novel 1982: A Captain's Honor (L'Honneur d'un Capitaine) 1992: Diên Biên Phu (Dien Bien Phu) 2004: Above the Clouds (Là-haut, un roi au-dessus des nuages) — based on his 1981 novel Feature documentaries 1956: La Passe du diable (The Devil's Pass) — co-directed with Jacques Dupont, written by Joseph Kessel 1967: The Anderson Platoon (La Section Anderson) — Cinq colonnes à la une TV show 1976: La Sentinelle du matin (The Morning Sentinel) 1975: Al-Maghrib al-Aqsa (Morocco) 1986: Le Défi (The Challenge) 1989: Réminiscences (Reminiscences) — sequel of The Anderson Platoon Short films 1958: Than, le Pêcheur (Than: The Fisherman) Short documentaries 1952: Épreuves de Tournage de la Guerre d'Indochine (First Indochina War Rushes) — segments are featured in L'Honneur d'un Capitaine (1982) and in two battle of Dien Bien Phu documentaries by Peter Hercombe (2004) and Patrick Jeudy (2005) 1959: L'Algérie des combats (Algeria That Fights) — Cinq colonnes à la une TV show 1963: Attention Hélicoptère (Warning Helicopter) 1973: Sept Jours en mer (Seven Days at Sea) Bibliography Novels 1963: La 317e Section (The 317th Platoon) — adapted on screen in 1965 by himself 1969: Farewell to the King (L'Adieu au Roi) — adapted on screen in 1989 by John Milius 1976: The Paths of the Sea (Le Crabe-tambour) — winner of Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française - adapted on screen in 1977 by himself 1981: Là-haut (Upthere) — adapted on screen in 2003 by himself 2003: L'Aile du papillon (The Butterfly Wing) Essays 1994: Diên Biên Phu, 1954/1992 De la Bataille au Film (Dien Bien Phu: 1954–1992 From the battle to the movie) — based on his 1992 movie Inspirations and influence His inspirations Schoendoerffer was primarily influenced by epic adventure novels, notably Joseph Kessel's Fortune Carrée (1932). Kessel wrote The Devil's Pass (1956) he co-directed with Jacques Dupont. In the late 1950s, he adapted on screen two Pierre Loti novels, first Iceland Fisherman (1886) then Ramuncho (1897). Following his 1992 motion picture Dien Bien Phu, Schoendoerffer spent three years working on the screen adaptation of his favourite writer Joseph Conrad's Typhoon (1902). The script was ready and the filmmaker started location spotting for shooting but the producer didn't find enough money to cover the high production budget and so the project was eventually cancelled. Young Schoendoerffer was also inspired by Hollywood movies he watched instead of going to high school class. In The 317th Platoon, there's a running reference to Michael Curtiz' Charge of the Light Brigade (1936) historical movie. In 2004, a L'Express journalist asked Schoendoerffer his favourite movie: Akira Kurosawa's Ran (1985). Military photograph Jean Péraud was a "big brother" for him — he was three years younger — and "the most important person he met in Indochina" as well as an inspiring character model. His own experience as a mariner, a Vietnam veteran and a globetrotter is a strong inspiration in most of his works. This is obvious in the Drummer-Crab, but the most autobiographical work is Dien Bien Phu (1992), where his elder son Frédéric impersonates him. His influence French actress Aurore Clément seen in the Drummer-Crab plays a role in Apocalypse Now'''s French plantation chapters connecting the Vietnam war with the French experience in the First Indochina War. During the production of Oliver Stone's Platoon (1986), Stone, who was also a Vietnam veteran forced his cast and crew to live like an actual platoon in the jungle, it was the very same technique used by Schoendoerffer twenty one years earlier in The 317th Platoon. Film on Pierre Schoendoerffer Produced in 2011, Pierre Schoendoerffer, the Sentinel of Memory'' is the first feature documentary about him. Directed by Raphaël Millet, it is a co-production between Nocturnes Productions and the Institut national de l'audiovisuel (INA, the French National Institute for Audiovisual). In it, Pierre Schoendoerffer revisits his life and career, with a strong focus on the impact that his experience as a war cinematographer for the French army during the Indochina War had on him. References External links International Herald Tribune obituary dated March 14, 2012 The Daily Telegraph obituary dated March 14, 2012 Complete biography from the Académie des Beaux-Arts A short biography Dien Bien Phu: a portrait signed Schoendoerffer, French public channel France 3, News 12h/14h, May 5, 2004 1928 births 2012 deaths People from Chamalières French Protestants French film directors 20th-century French novelists 21st-century French novelists French military personnel of the First Indochina War Members of the Académie des beaux-arts Prix Interallié winners Grand Prix du roman de l'Académie française winners Officers of the Ordre national du Mérite Directors of Best Documentary Feature Academy Award winners French male novelists 20th-century French male writers 21st-century French male writers Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Screenplay winners
5173456	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalar%20field%20theory	Scalar field theory	In theoretical physics, scalar field theory can refer to a relativistically invariant classical or quantum theory of scalar fields. A scalar field is invariant under any Lorentz transformation. The only fundamental scalar quantum field that has been observed in nature is the Higgs field. However, scalar quantum fields feature in the effective field theory descriptions of many physical phenomena. An example is the pion, which is actually a pseudoscalar. Since they do not involve polarization complications, scalar fields are often the easiest to appreciate second quantization through. For this reason, scalar field theories are often used for purposes of introduction of novel concepts and techniques. The signature of the metric employed below is . Classical scalar field theory A general reference for this section is Ramond, Pierre (2001-12-21). Field Theory: A Modern Primer (Second Edition). USA: Westview Press. , Ch 1. Linear (free) theory The most basic scalar field theory is the linear theory. Through the Fourier decomposition of the fields, it represents the normal modes of an infinity of coupled oscillators where the continuum limit of the oscillator index i is now denoted by . The action for the free relativistic scalar field theory is then where is known as a Lagrangian density; for the three spatial coordinates; is the Kronecker delta function; and for the -th coordinate . This is an example of a quadratic action, since each of the terms is quadratic in the field, . The term proportional to is sometimes known as a mass term, due to its subsequent interpretation, in the quantized version of this theory, in terms of particle mass. The equation of motion for this theory is obtained by extremizing the action above. It takes the following form, linear in , where ∇2 is the Laplace operator. This is the Klein–Gordon equation, with the interpretation as a classical field equation, rather than as a quantum-mechanical wave equation. Nonlinear (interacting) theory The most common generalization of the linear theory above is to add a scalar potential to the Lagrangian, where typically, in addition to a mass term, V is a polynomial in . Such a theory is sometimes said to be interacting, because the Euler–Lagrange equation is now nonlinear, implying a self-interaction. The action for the most general such theory is The n! factors in the expansion are introduced because they are useful in the Feynman diagram expansion of the quantum theory, as described below. The corresponding Euler–Lagrange equation of motion is now Dimensional analysis and scaling Physical quantities in these scalar field theories may have dimensions of length, time or mass, or some combination of the three. However, in a relativistic theory, any quantity , with dimensions of time, can be readily converted into a length, , by using the velocity of light, . Similarly, any length is equivalent to an inverse mass, , using Planck's constant, . In natural units, one thinks of a time as a length, or either time or length as an inverse mass. In short, one can think of the dimensions of any physical quantity as defined in terms of just one independent dimension, rather than in terms of all three. This is most often termed the mass dimension of the quantity. Knowing the dimensions of each quantity, allows one to uniquely restore conventional dimensions from a natural units expression in terms of this mass dimension, by simply reinserting the requisite powers of and required for dimensional consistency. One conceivable objection is that this theory is classical, and therefore it is not obvious how Planck's constant should be a part of the theory at all. If desired, one could indeed recast the theory without mass dimensions at all: However, this would be at the expense of slightly obscuring the connection with the quantum scalar field. Given that one has dimensions of mass, Planck's constant is thought of here as an essentially arbitrary fixed reference quantity of action (not necessarily connected to quantization), hence with dimensions appropriate to convert between mass and inverse length. Scaling dimension The classical scaling dimension, or mass dimension, , of describes the transformation of the field under a rescaling of coordinates: The units of action are the same as the units of , and so the action itself has zero mass dimension. This fixes the scaling dimension of the field to be Scale invariance There is a specific sense in which some scalar field theories are scale-invariant. While the actions above are all constructed to have zero mass dimension, not all actions are invariant under the scaling transformation The reason that not all actions are invariant is that one usually thinks of the parameters m and as fixed quantities, which are not rescaled under the transformation above. The condition for a scalar field theory to be scale invariant is then quite obvious: all of the parameters appearing in the action should be dimensionless quantities. In other words, a scale invariant theory is one without any fixed length scale (or equivalently, mass scale) in the theory. For a scalar field theory with spacetime dimensions, the only dimensionless parameter satisfies = . For example, in = 4, only is classically dimensionless, and so the only classically scale-invariant scalar field theory in = 4 is the massless 4 theory. Classical scale invariance, however, normally does not imply quantum scale invariance, because of the renormalization group involved – see the discussion of the beta function below. Conformal invariance A transformation is said to be conformal if the transformation satisfies for some function . The conformal group contains as subgroups the isometries of the metric (the Poincaré group) and also the scaling transformations (or dilatations) considered above. In fact, the scale-invariant theories in the previous section are also conformally-invariant. 4 theory Massive 4 theory illustrates a number of interesting phenomena in scalar field theory. The Lagrangian density is Spontaneous symmetry breaking This Lagrangian has a ℤ₂ symmetry under the transformation . This is an example of an internal symmetry, in contrast to a space-time symmetry. If is positive, the potential has a single minimum, at the origin. The solution φ=0 is clearly invariant under the ℤ₂ symmetry. Conversely, if is negative, then one can readily see that the potential has two minima. This is known as a double well potential, and the lowest energy states (known as the vacua, in quantum field theoretical language) in such a theory are invariant under the ℤ₂ symmetry of the action (in fact it maps each of the two vacua into the other). In this case, the ℤ₂ symmetry is said to be spontaneously broken. Kink solutions The 4 theory with a negative 2 also has a kink solution, which is a canonical example of a soliton. Such a solution is of the form where is one of the spatial variables ( is taken to be independent of , and the remaining spatial variables). The solution interpolates between the two different vacua of the double well potential. It is not possible to deform the kink into a constant solution without passing through a solution of infinite energy, and for this reason the kink is said to be stable. For D>2 (i.e., theories with more than one spatial dimension), this solution is called a domain wall. Another well-known example of a scalar field theory with kink solutions is the sine-Gordon theory. Complex scalar field theory In a complex scalar field theory, the scalar field takes values in the complex numbers, rather than the real numbers. The complex scalar field represents spin-0 particles and antiparticles with charge. The action considered normally takes the form This has a U(1), equivalently O(2) symmetry, whose action on the space of fields rotates , for some real phase angle . As for the real scalar field, spontaneous symmetry breaking is found if m2 is negative. This gives rise to Goldstone's Mexican hat potential which is a rotation of the double-well potential of a real scalar field by 2π radians about the V axis. The symmetry breaking takes place in one higher dimension, i.e. the choice of vacuum breaks a continuous U(1) symmetry instead of a discrete one. The two components of the scalar field are reconfigured as a massive mode and a massless Goldstone boson. O(N) theory One can express the complex scalar field theory in terms of two real fields, φ1 = Re φ and φ2 = Im φ, which transform in the vector representation of the U(1) = O(2) internal symmetry. Although such fields transform as a vector under the internal symmetry, they are still Lorentz scalars. This can be generalised to a theory of N scalar fields transforming in the vector representation of the O(N) symmetry. The Lagrangian for an O(N)-invariant scalar field theory is typically of the form using an appropriate O(N)-invariant inner product. The theory can also be expressed for complex vector fields, i.e. for , in which case the symmetry group is the Lie group SU(N). Gauge-field couplings When the scalar field theory is coupled in a gauge invariant way to the Yang–Mills action, one obtains the Ginzburg–Landau theory of superconductors. The topological solitons of that theory correspond to vortices in a superconductor; the minimum of the Mexican hat potential corresponds to the order parameter of the superconductor. Quantum scalar field theory A general reference for this section is Ramond, Pierre (2001-12-21). Field Theory: A Modern Primer (Second Edition). USA: Westview Press. , Ch. 4 In quantum field theory, the fields, and all observables constructed from them, are replaced by quantum operators on a Hilbert space. This Hilbert space is built on a vacuum state, and dynamics are governed by a quantum Hamiltonian, a positive-definite operator which annihilates the vacuum. A construction of a quantum scalar field theory is detailed in the canonical quantization article, which relies on canonical commutation relations among the fields. Essentially, the infinity of classical oscillators repackaged in the scalar field as its (decoupled) normal modes, above, are now quantized in the standard manner, so the respective quantum operator field describes an infinity of quantum harmonic oscillators acting on a respective Fock space. In brief, the basic variables are the quantum field and its canonical momentum . Both these operator-valued fields are Hermitian. At spatial points , and at equal times, their canonical commutation relations are given by while the free Hamiltonian is, similarly to above, A spatial Fourier transform leads to momentum space fields which resolve to annihilation and creation operators where . These operators satisfy the commutation relations The state annihilated by all of the operators a is identified as the bare vacuum, and a particle with momentum is created by applying to the vacuum. Applying all possible combinations of creation operators to the vacuum constructs the relevant Hilbert space: This construction is called Fock space. The vacuum is annihilated by the Hamiltonian where the zero-point energy has been removed by Wick ordering. (See canonical quantization.) Interactions can be included by adding an interaction Hamiltonian. For a φ4 theory, this corresponds to adding a Wick ordered term g:φ4:/4! to the Hamiltonian, and integrating over x. Scattering amplitudes may be calculated from this Hamiltonian in the interaction picture. These are constructed in perturbation theory by means of the Dyson series, which gives the time-ordered products, or n-particle Green's functions as described in the Dyson series article. The Green's functions may also be obtained from a generating function that is constructed as a solution to the Schwinger–Dyson equation. Feynman path integral The Feynman diagram expansion may be obtained also from the Feynman path integral formulation. The time ordered vacuum expectation values of polynomials in , known as the n-particle Green's functions, are constructed by integrating over all possible fields, normalized by the vacuum expectation value with no external fields, All of these Green's functions may be obtained by expanding the exponential in J(x)φ(x) in the generating function A Wick rotation may be applied to make time imaginary. Changing the signature to (++++) then turns the Feynman integral into a statistical mechanics partition function in Euclidean space, Normally, this is applied to the scattering of particles with fixed momenta, in which case, a Fourier transform is useful, giving instead where is the Dirac delta function. The standard trick to evaluate this functional integral is to write it as a product of exponential factors, schematically, The second two exponential factors can be expanded as power series, and the combinatorics of this expansion can be represented graphically through Feynman diagrams of the Quartic interaction. The integral with g = 0 can be treated as a product of infinitely many elementary Gaussian integrals: the result may be expressed as a sum of Feynman diagrams, calculated using the following Feynman rules: Each field (p) in the n-point Euclidean Green's function is represented by an external line (half-edge) in the graph, and associated with momentum p. Each vertex is represented by a factor −g. At a given order gk, all diagrams with n external lines and vertices are constructed such that the momenta flowing into each vertex is zero. Each internal line is represented by a propagator 1/(q2 + m2), where is the momentum flowing through that line. Any unconstrained momenta are integrated over all values. The result is divided by a symmetry factor, which is the number of ways the lines and vertices of the graph can be rearranged without changing its connectivity. Do not include graphs containing "vacuum bubbles", connected subgraphs with no external lines. The last rule takes into account the effect of dividing by [0]. The Minkowski-space Feynman rules are similar, except that each vertex is represented by −ig, while each internal line is represented by a propagator i/(q2−m2+iε), where the term represents the small Wick rotation needed to make the Minkowski-space Gaussian integral converge. Renormalization The integrals over unconstrained momenta, called "loop integrals", in the Feynman graphs typically diverge. This is normally handled by renormalization, which is a procedure of adding divergent counter-terms to the Lagrangian in such a way that the diagrams constructed from the original Lagrangian and counter-terms is finite. A renormalization scale must be introduced in the process, and the coupling constant and mass become dependent upon it. The dependence of a coupling constant on the scale is encoded by a beta function, , defined by This dependence on the energy scale is known as "the running of the coupling parameter", and theory of this systematic scale-dependence in quantum field theory is described by the renormalization group. Beta-functions are usually computed in an approximation scheme, most commonly perturbation theory, where one assumes that the coupling constant is small. One can then make an expansion in powers of the coupling parameters and truncate the higher-order terms (also known as higher loop contributions, due to the number of loops in the corresponding Feynman graphs). The -function at one loop (the first perturbative contribution) for the 4 theory is The fact that the sign in front of the lowest-order term is positive suggests that the coupling constant increases with energy. If this behavior persisted at large couplings, this would indicate the presence of a Landau pole at finite energy, arising from quantum triviality. However, the question can only be answered non-perturbatively, since it involves strong coupling. A quantum field theory is said to be trivial when the renormalized coupling, computed through its beta function, goes to zero when the ultraviolet cutoff is removed. Consequently, the propagator becomes that of a free particle and the field is no longer interacting. For a 4 interaction, Michael Aizenman proved that the theory is indeed trivial, for space-time dimension ≥ 5. For = 4, the triviality has yet to be proven rigorously, but lattice computations have provided strong evidence for this. This fact is important as quantum triviality can be used to bound or even predict parameters such as the Higgs boson mass. This can also lead to a predictable Higgs mass in asymptotic safety scenarios. See also Renormalization Quantum triviality Landau pole Scale invariance (CFT description) Scalar electrodynamics Notes References External links The Conceptual Basis of Quantum Field Theory Click on the link for Chap. 3 to find an extensive, simplified introduction to scalars in relativistic quantum mechanics and quantum field theory. Quantum field theory Mathematical physics Theoretical physics Scalars
5173475	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arlington%20Public%20Schools	Arlington Public Schools	Arlington Public Schools is a public school division in Arlington County, Virginia. In 2019, student enrollment was 28,020 students, with students coming from more than 146 countries. In 2015, there were 2,166 teachers. There are 24 elementary schools, 6 middle schools, 4 high schools, 1 secondary institution and 4 other educational programs within the school district. Forbes magazine named the Washington, D.C., and Arlington area as the top place in the nation to educate one's child in 2007. In fiscal year 2019, close to $637.1 million was budgeted for the school district. History The first public schools in Arlington County, Virginia (then known as Alexandria County) were established in 1870: the Columbia and Walker schools, which were for whites only, and the Arlington School for Negroes in Freedman's Village, which was located on land seized from Robert E. Lee's plantation. In 1932, Hoffman-Boston Junior High School, opened, allowing black students to pursue education past primary school in Arlington for the first time. However, since Hoffman-Boston was not accredited until the 1950s, many black Arlingtonians commuted to Washington, DC to pursue secondary education. In 1947, the NAACP sued the Arlington School Board for not providing equal educational facilities to black students in Constance Carter v. The School Board of Arlington County, Virginia. In 1950, the courts ruled in the NAACP's favor. As a result, increased funding was earmarked to the segregated schools for black students and black teachers began receiving equal pay. In 1949, after advocacy from a local citizen's group, Arlingtonians for a Better County, Arlington's school board became the first in Virginia to be democratically elected rather than appointed. In 1954, after the Brown v. Board of Education ruling, all public schools in the United States were required to desegregate. The political leaders of Virginia and the Virginia General Assembly, led by United States Senator Harry F. Byrd, adopted a policy of "massive resistance" to desegregation. Under massive resistance, schools that desegregated would be closed and students would be given money to attend private schools until the schools could be resegregated. Ten days after the Brown ruling, the Arlington County School board began a committee to research how to comply with the ruling. In January 1956, a plan to gradually desegregate Arlington's public schools was released by the committee. Less than a month later, the Virginia General Assembly voted to remove Arlington of its democratically elected school board, which the more conservative Arlington County Board replaced with officials more sympathetic to segregation. The integration plan was overturned by the new school board. That same year, the NAACP, on behalf of black and white students and their families, sued the new school board in an attempt to compel them to integrate in Clarissa Thompson v. the County School Board of Arlington, which was filed concurrently with other integration lawsuits around Virginia. Many white racial moderates feared that the Board would close public schools rather than allow them to be desegregated. On May 1, 1958, the Arlington Committee to Preserve Public Schools, an all-white group which was neutral on segregation, and dedicated to preventing the closure of public schools, was formed. On January 19, 1959, the Supreme Court of Virginia effectively ended massive resistance by ruling in James v. Almond that public school closures in violated of the Constitution of Virginia. On January 22, the Arlington County School Board announced that Stratford Junior High would be the first school to be desegregated. On February 2, four black students- Ronald Deskins, Michael Jones, Gloria Thompson and Lance Newman- arrived at Stratford, protected by nearly 100 police officers, hoping to avoid what had happened to the Little Rock Nine. The desegregation of Stratford, the first public school in Virginia to be desegregated, ultimately passed without incident, and an Anti-Defamation League newsletter declared it "The Day Nothing Happened". With this, Arlington County became the first school system in Virginia to desegregate. Arlington's public schools gradually continued to integrate, although courts only approved of its pupil placement system as being racially neutral in 1971, twelve years after desegregation began. School dances and athletic events were ended in 1959 by the Arlington County School Board after integration began. Athletic events were reinstated in 1961, but school dances were held privately for years afterwards. Hoffman-Boston Junior-Senior High School closed in 1964 and its students were placed in formerly all-white schools. By 1969, all Arlington high schools were desegregated. The only two schools to remain almost completely segregated were Drew Elementary School and Hoffman-Boston Elementary School. In the case John E. Hart et al. v. County School Board of Arlington County, Virginia, parents of Drew Elementary School students sued the Arlington County School Board for further integration. The School Board announced a plan, which the courts approved of, to bus Drew and Hoffman-Boston Elementary School students to other elementary schools around Arlington. Arlington's school board was eventually allowed to be democratically elected again, rather than be appointed by the Arlington County Board. In the wake of the August 2017 Charlottesville, Virginia, deadly white supremacist rally protesting the removal of a statue of Robert E. Lee, the Arlington County School Board voted unanimously in June 2018 to rename Washington-Lee High School to remove Lee's name, sparking outrage among many in the community. In the months prior to the name change, the Arlington County school board narrowed several options to "Washington-Loving High School", their top choice in honor of the Loving v. Virginia court case, and "Washington-Liberty High School". On January 10, 2019, the school board voted unanimously for the latter name. In 2019, Arlington Public Schools celebrated the 60th anniversary of desegregation in Arlington. Students In 2019, there was a total student enrollment of 28,020 students, with students coming from more than 146 countries and speaking 107 different languages. Arlington Public Schools has a 95% graduation rate. In 2009, the student body was 48% white, 26% Latino, 13% black and 11% Asian. In 2019, the student body was 46% white, 28% Hispanic, 10% black and 9% Asian, with American Indian, Alaskan Native, Native Hawaiian, Pacific Islander, and Multiple backgrounds comprising the remaining 7%. Teachers As of 2019, teachers are paid an average salary of $74,554 per year. In 2009, there were 2,166 teachers, of which 78% were white, 10% were black, 8% were Hispanic and 3% were Asian. Arlington County School Board Reid Goldstein, Chair Cristina Diaz-Torres, Vice Chair Mary Kadera, Member Bethany Sutton, Member David Priddy, Member Arlington County School Board Staff Melanie Elliott, Clerk of the School Board Claudia Mercado, Deputy Clerk and Communications Liaison Julieanne Jones, Administrative Assistant John Mickevice, Internal Auditor Director Special facilities The David M. Brown Planetarium is operated by Arlington Schools Planetarium for both Arlington school field trips and public multimedia programs. It offers shows for the general public Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays during the school year. The planetarium is named for astronaut David M. Brown, a graduate of Arlington's Yorktown High School who was killed in the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster in 2003. The Arlington Outdoor Lab is a 225-acre outdoor facility operated by Arlington Schools and located in Fauquier County. In addition to a large classroom building, the lab facility has a pond, streams, small mountains, and forested areas. Schools High schools Wakefield High School Washington-Liberty High School Yorktown High School Middle schools Dorothy Hamm Middle School Dorothy Hamm Middle School is located at 4100 Vacation Lane. The principal is Ellen Smith. The school is named after civil rights activist Dorothy Hamm. From 1951 to 1978, this building was the location of Stratford Junior High School. From 1978 to 2019, the H-B Woodlawn Secondary Program was located here, along with the former Stratford Program (now the Eunice Kennedy Shriver Program). Dorothy Hamm was first opened for the 2019–2020 school year. Students graduating Dorothy Hamm will either attend W-L or Yorktown High Schools. Dorothy Hamm's mascot is the Phoenix. Their colors are red, gold, and white. Gunston Middle School Gunston Middle School is located at 2700 South Lang Street, in Arlington Ridge. The principal is Dr. Lori Wiggins. In 2012–13, there were over 800 students enrolled and more than 80 teachers (41 of whom have their Master's Degree). It is accredited through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The school was originally called Brandon Junior High. In 1957 the school was renamed Gunston Junior High, named after Gunston Hall, the home of George Mason, the estate is nearby in Fairfax County. Gunston's mascot is the Hornet. The school colors are purple and teal. Sports teams include basketball, soccer, wrestling, swimming, track, and tennis. Gunston's curriculum includes the continuation program for students who attended the Key Elementary or the Claremont Elementary Spanish Immersion program. Students in this program take three classes each day taught entirely in Spanish: Science, Social Studies and Spanish Language Arts. About 1/3 of the incoming 6th graders come from the Key or Claremont programs. Gunston also offers the Montessori Middle Years program. Most students attending Gunston will attend Wakefield High School after graduating from 8th grade. The school, at the time, called Gunston Junior High School and encompassing grades 7, 8, and 9, closed in 1978 after a major decline in enrollments. At the time of its closure, the school mascot was the Falcon, and the school colors were black and gold. Gunston reopened in 1994 to address overcrowding in other area schools. After the re-opening in 1994, it subsequently went through a 3-phase major renovation, funded by the 2000 bond package. Construction was completed in 2003. It was built as a two-story building with a public recreation center and public auditorium. Source: Virginia Department of Education Kenmore Middle School Kenmore Middle School is located at 200 South Carlin Springs Road, in Glencarlyn. The principal is David McBride. In 2006–2007, there were 723 students enrolled and over 79 teachers (51 of which have their Master's Degree). It is accredited through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Kemore is an arts and communications technology focus school. Kenmore's mascot is the Cougars. The school colors are green and gold. Kenmore's building was completed for the 2005–2006 school year. The building contains a larger auditorium, cafeteria, art studio, and library/media center. It is multi-storied, unlike the previous building. The previous building as an elementary school and later was a middle school. Most kids attending Kenmore will later on go to Wakefield or Washington-Liberty High School but in some cases will go to Yorktown. Source: Virginia Department of Education Swanson Middle School Swanson Middle School is located at 5800 North Washington Boulevard. The principal is Bridget Loft. In the 2019–2020 school year, there were 972 students enrolled and 98 teachers (8 of which have their Master's Degree. It is accredited through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. Swanson was built in 1939 as part of a New Deal program and is the oldest surviving middle school in the county. Swanson is home of the Admirals, though the school's namesake, Claude A. Swanson, was Secretary of the Navy, and never an "Admiral." They wear white and maroon. In 1977, a student reportedly started a fire in the school as a prank, and ultimately burning the majority of the roof, including its cupola (a small dome-shaped structure crowning the roof). The student was expelled. Later that year, an unknown student or group of students repeatedly set off the fire alarms as a prank, costing Swanson hundreds of dollars in fines for abusing firemen's' time. It is unknown whether the student(s) were ever discovered or apprehended. Swanson, in 2011–2012, decided to make three teams for each grade (they used to only have two per grade). For the 2016–17 school year, they have made four teams for sixth and seventh grade, as well as rename them. Since the opening of Dorothy Hamm Middle School, they have returned to three teams per grade. For sixth grade, there are the Clippers, the Navigators, and the Schooners. For seventh grade there are the Narwhals, the Manatees, and the Orcas. For eighth grade there are the Cruisers, the Galleons, and the Frigates. The names were voted on by Swanson students. Swanson first opened its doors in 1940 as a 7th through 9th grade junior high to relieve crowding at nearby Washington-Lee High School. It is the oldest "junior high" in the state. Because of its unique contribution to education in Virginia as well as its Parisian architecture, inspired by the then recently restored Colonial Williamsburg, the school is pursuing its listing on the National Register of Historic Places. In recognition of the school's history, the Virginia State Legislature passed a resolution on Swanson's 50th anniversary in 1990 proclaiming Swanson as Virginia's first junior high school. It was constructed with WPA funds on the site of the old Torreyson farm in the growing Westover community. One of two North Arlington junior highs targeted for closure in 1977 due to declining enrollment, Swanson reopened as an intermediate school the following year, and the 9th graders were transferred to W-L and Yorktown high schools. Stratford Junior High, although a newer facility, closed its doors. In the fall of 1990, Swanson once again housed three grades as a middle school. It has undergone several renovations, with the most recent in 2017. Source: Virginia Department of Education Thomas Jefferson Middle School Thomas Jefferson Middle School opened as a junior high school in 1938 and was named after the third president of the United States. The original cornerstone was placed with George Washington's trowel. The current facility opened in 1971 and is located at 125 South Old Glebe Road in Arlington, Virginia 22204. It is built as a rectangle with three individual corridors for each grade. Upon entering the main entrance of the school, the administrative offices are to the left and the library is further down the long hall. Here, the three corridors extend themselves to another long hall in which various classrooms are located. Also, three individual staircases are located that lead students to a lower level where lockers are located in individual lobbies. The sixth grade lobby is green, the seventh grade lobby is yellow, and the eighth grade lobby is blue. The sixth and seven grade lobbies are also used as cafeteria seating with the kitchen in the middle. These two lobbies also have small corridors that lead to the school gymnasium. It was renovated in 2010. In September 2019 a new elementary school by the name of Alice Fleet opened right next to the old entrance to the school's lobby. Jefferson was designed for use as not only a school but also for community recreation, with the second-largest gymnasium in the state and a community theater that can seat 715 people. The school district works with the local Division of Parks, Recreation and Community Resources to share the facilities. The school's gymnasium is actually a part of the Thomas Jefferson Community Center. Indoors, a one-eighth mile track runs around four basketball courts and past athletic equipment. Outdoors, a half-mile bike trail runs around two athletic fields, two baseball diamonds, two basketball courts and four tennis courts. With the very large space, Arlington County uses the area for the annual Arlington County Fair every August. Most students attending TJ will go on to Wakefield High School but some will later go to Washington-Liberty High School. Thomas Jefferson is the only middle school in Arlington Public Schools to offer the Inaternational Baccalaureate Middle Years Programme (IBMYP). Their mascot is the Yellowjackets. Their colors are yellow and blue. Source: Virginia Department of Education Williamsburg Middle School Williamsburg Middle School is located at 3600 North Harrison Street. The principal is Mr Brian Boykin In 2007–2008, there were 1,282 students enrolled and over 77 teachers (66 of which have their Master's Degree). It is accredited through the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. The Williamsburg mascot is the "Wolves." An eighth grade student dresses up inside a wolf costume, and interacts with their peers during special events at the school. In the 2013–2014 school year, the students named their mascot William S. Burg. The school colors are white and blue. There are three teams in each grade (three teams in eighth) along with a separate team (Rockets) for ESOL students. The 6th grade teams consist of the Panthers, Coyotes, and Grizzlies. The 7th grade teams are the Mystics, Capitols, and the Wizards; all based on Washington DC sports teams. The 8th grade teams are based on college mascots in Virginia, and are Patriots, Cavaliers, and Hokies. Outside, there is one field currently, a baseball diamond, one tennis court and a blacktop with a basketball court and four square. There is a multi-usage weight room, an auxiliary gym and the main gym. In 2013, APS (Arlington Public Schools) started construction on a new elementary school on the WMS campus. The elementary school was named by a naming committee selected by the APS School Board, and is called Discovery Elementary School. Most kids attending Williamsburg will later on attend Yorktown High School. Source: Virginia Department of Education Alternative programs Arlington Community High School – a fully accredited alternative high school for students whose life circumstances have interrupted their schooling; formerly known as Arlington Mill High School Arlington Tech – a high school program with project-based learning H-B Woodlawn – an alternative secondary program where students control much of their education and do not have "continuous adult supervision". Langston High School Continuation Program – offers students flexibility in the way and timeframe in which students can earn a high school diploma. New Directions – a program designed for 30-35 students with behavioral difficulties that provides support for responsible decision making and on-time graduation Eunice Kennedy Shriver Program (formerly the Stratford Program) – a secondary school for Arlington Public School students who have special needs. Thomas Jefferson High School for Science and Technology (TJHSST) Elementary schools Abingdon Elementary School Alice West Fleet Elementary School Arlington Science Focus Elementary School Arlington Traditional Elementary School Ashlawn Elementary School Barcroft Elementary School K.W. Barrett Elementary School Campbell Elementary School (formerly Glencarlyn) Carlin Springs Elementary School Claremont Immersion Elementary School Discovery Elementary School Dr. Charles R. Drew Elementary School Glebe Elementary School Hoffman-Boston Elementary School Jamestown Elementary School Francis Scott Key Immersion Elementary School Long Branch Elementary School McKinley Elementary School Montessori Public School of Arlington (formerly Patrick Henry Elementary School) Nottingham Elementary School Oakridge Elementary School Randolph Elementary School Taylor Elementary School Tuckahoe Elementary School Former schools Fairlington Elementary School (1944-1979) Nellie Custis Elementary References External links Arlington Public Schools David M. Brown Planetarium Middle schools Dorothy Hamm Middle School official site Gunston Middle School official site Kenmore Middle School official site Thomas Jefferson Middle School official site Great Schools page on Thomas Jefferson MS Swanson Middle School official site Williamsburg Middle School official site School divisions in Virginia Education in Arlington County, Virginia
5174230	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lady%20Isabel%20and%20the%20Elf%20Knight	Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight	"Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight" (Child #4; Roud #21) is the English common name representative of a very large class of European ballads. The most frequently collected variant, The Outlandish Knight or May Colvin tells the tale of a young woman who elopes with a knight who has promised to marry her (and who in some instances uses magic to charm her) but who then tries to murder her to get money, clothes and horses. By a quick-witted ruse she manages to kill him instead, and in many versions she is helped to keep this experience from her parents by a resourceful parrot. The main variant has been collected frequently from traditional singers in England, Scotland, Ireland and North America. Synopses Three main English language variants of this group of ballads, with rather different plots, have been published: The Gowans Sae Gae Lady Isabel hears the horn of an elf-knight and wishes she had the horn and the knight "to sleep in my bosom". He immediately appears and asks her to go to the greenwood. They ride there, and he tells her that he has killed seven kings' daughters there and she is to be the eighth. She suggests that he put his head on her knee "that we may hae some rest before that I die". She puts him to sleep with a "small charm" and after tying him up with his own belt she kills him with his own dagger. This version is written in couplets, with a refrain as second and fourth line: Fair lady Isabel sits in her bower sewing, Aye as the gowans grow gay There she heard an elf-knight blawing his horn. The first morning in May "Gowan" is a name used for a number of plants with yellow flowers, but unless modified by another word, it usually means the common daisy, Bellis perennis, also called the "may gowan". May Day, the morning of May 1, and May Eve, the evening of April 30, were important holidays with pagan connotations. This variant is Child's A. The Water o Wearie's Well A king's daughter is full of woe. A harpist plays and everyone else falls asleep. He takes her on the back of his horse to Wearie's Well. He tells her to wade in, and when she expresses her doubts - when she is up to her knee and then her waist - says that no harm will befall her and that he has often watered his horse there. When she is up to her chin he tells her: Seven king's-daughters I've drownd there, In the water o Wearie's Well, And I'll make you the eight o them, And ring the common bell She asks him for a kiss to "comfort me" and when he leans down to kiss her she pulls him from the saddle and drowns him. She swims to the shore and thanks God that "The dangers she o'ercame". This version was Child's B. The Outlandish Knight The Roud Folk Song Index lists about 60 names for this group of songs, most of which refer to this variant, including Fause (or False) Sir John, May Colvin (or variants), Go Bring Me Some of Your Mother's Gold, and Pretty Polly. This variant includes Child's C to F, and the vast majority of versions listed by Roud, including many named Lady Isabel and the Elf-knight or variants thereon. A knight offers to take a young woman to his home in the north and marry her, and suggests she takes "some of your father's gold and some of your mother's fee"(Child F), as well as two horses (often white for her, dapple-grey for him) from her father's stables (where there are almost always "thirty and three"). They ride, sometimes to the side of a river, or more often to the banks of the sea, where he tells her to dismount: 'Mount off, mount off, thy lily-white steed, And deliver it unto me For six pretty maidens I have drowned here And the seventh thou shalt be.' He tells her to take off her clothing, sometimes item by item (Child E), as it is too costly to be allowed to rot in the sea. She asks him either to turn his back: For it is not fitting that such a ruffian A naked woman should see. (Child E) or to cut down the local vegetation: 'Go fetch the sickle to cut the nettle That grows so near the brim, For fear it should tangle my golden locks Or freckle my lily white skin' (Child F) and then either she pushes him into the sea or "seizes him by the middle so sma" and throws him in. He asks her to help him out, but she refuses: 'Lie there, lie there, you false-hearted man, Lie there instead of me, For if six pretty maidens thou hast drowned here, The seventh has drowned thee.' She rides home, leading the spare horse. Sometimes the story ends here, but often when she arrives home a parrot comments on how late she has returned, saying he is afraid "Some ruffian hath led you astray". She promises him a luxurious cage if he keeps her secret, and when her father asks the parrot what makes him "speak before it is day" he replies that a cat was going to eat him. His mistress promises him that: "Thy cage shall be made of the glittering gold, And the door of the best ivory" In performance the last syllable of the fourth line is sometimes repeated twice, and then the line is repeated: The seventh has drowned thee. thee, thee, The seventh has drowned thee. In Scotland this variant is sometimes called May Colvin (various alternative spellings occur). Child gives two versions of this. Child's D version is very similar to other texts except that the young woman is named as May Colven and the knight as False Sir John. In the second the knight uses a charm to make an initially reluctant May Collin go with him, and the story ends when, after the parrot episode, she goes to her parents, tells them what has happened, and they go to the scene of the crime to find and bury the body "for fear it should be seen". Publication history The earliest known version of any of these variants is either a broadside entitled The False Knight Outwitted sometime in the second half of the eighteenth century (also the earliest "Outlandish Knight" text and Child's version F), or May Colvin, published in Herd's "Ancient and Modern Scottish Songs" in 1776 (Child's version C). The earliest printed version of "The Gowans sae Gae" was in "Ancient Ballads and Songs Volume 1" by Peter Buchan while "The Water o Wearie's Well" was first published in Volume 2 of the same book. Both volumes were published in 1828. The Outlandish Knight variant was repeatedly printed by broadside publishers both in London and the provinces. Most broadside texts are fairly similar to one another, and often start: An outlandish knight came from the north lands And He came a'wooing of me He told me he'd take me to the north lands And there he would marry me. The song seems to have been in circulation earlier than the printed version. In her semi-autobiographical novel Lark Rise, Flora Thompson born in 1876 and growing up in Juniper Hill, Oxfordshire, stated that in the early 1880s she heard an 83-year-old man sing the Outlandish Knight. He would have been born about 1800 and said he had learned it from his grandfather (who was probably born about 1740), who in turn learned it from his own grandfather (who was probably born about 1680). Versions in 18th and 19th century ballad collections May Colvin was published in "Ancient and modern Scottish songs, heroic ballads, etc.; Vol. 1" (1776) by David Herd. May Colvin was published in "The Scottish Minstrel", (1821), by Robert Archibald Smith. May Collin was published in "A Ballad Book" (First published in 1823 for private distribution, re-published in 1880) by Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe. May Collean was published in "The Scottish Ballads" (1828) by Robert Chambers. The Gowans sae Gae and The Water o'Wearies Well were published in "Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland" (1828) by Peter Buchan. The Outlandish Knight was published in "Ancient poems, ballads, and songs" (1846) by James Henry Dixon. May Colvin was published in "Minstrelsy, Ancient and Modern" (1846) by William Motherwell. May Colvin was published in "The Ballads and songs of Ayrshire" (1847) by James Paterson. Two texts of May Colvin were published in "The Book of Scottish Ballads" (1857) by Alexander Whitelaw. These are Herd's and Motherwell's versions. The Water o Wearie's Well was included in "Early ballads illustrative of history, traditions and customs" by Robert Bell, published in 1861. The Outlandish Knight was published in "Northumbrian minstrelsy : a collection of the ballads, melodies and small pipe-tunes of Northumbria", (1881) by J Collingwood Bruce and John Stokoe. Child published The Gowans Sae Gae (one text), The Water o'Wearies Well (one text), May Collen/Collin (two texts), and two texts of the Outlandish Knight type in "The English and Scottish Popular Ballads Part 1" (1882). The Outlandish Knight was published in "Shropshire Folk-Lore" (1883) by Charlotte S Burne. The Outlandish Knight was published in "Traditional Tunes" (1891) by Frank Kidson. May Collean was published in "The Ballads and Songs of Carrick" (c.1892) by Rev. Roderick Lawson. The Outlandish Knight was published in "Songs & Ballads of Northern England" (1899) by Stokoe & Reay. Other song books Arthur Quiller-Couch, (ed.) The Oxford Book of Ballads, 1910. Carl Sandburg; "American Songbag", Pretty Polly; 1927. Cecil Sharp, English Folk Songs from the Southern Appalachians, Oxford University Press, London, 1952. vol. 1, p. 7. R. Vaughan Williams & A. L. Lloyd, The Penguin Book of English Folk Songs, Penguin Books, 1959, pp. 80–81 (as "The Outlandish Knight") The Outlandish Knight, "Songs of the Midlands", Roy Palmer, 1972. Geoffrey Grigson (ed.), The Penguin Book of Ballads, Penguin Books, 1975. . pp. 40–41 Steve Roud and Julia Bishop, (eds), "The New Penguin Book of English Folk Songs", 2012, . pp 311–313, 490-491. (as "The Outlandish Knight") Collection history The Roud Folk Song Index lists about 367 instances of this group of ballads collected from traditional singers, with the great majority being of the Outlandish Knight story. 198 were collected in the USA, 120 in England, 31 in Canada, 9 in Ireland, 8 in Scotland, and 1 in Australia. This is probably an underestimate as it is based on named performers, and collectors haven't always named the sources of the songs they publish. Steve Roud and Julia Bishop point out that this is one of about half a dozen Child ballads that have been most consistently popular, having been collected "time and again all over the English-speaking world" Field recordings Many of these are available to listen online. Discussion Relationships and origins These ballads have received a lot of attention from folklorists and other scholars. There is some consensus that they derive from a family of ballads related to the Dutch ballads about Heer Halewijn. Discussion is sometimes confusing as both an individual variant and the group as a whole can be referred to as a ballad by scholars. The ballad family is known throughout Europe and is described by Child as the ballad which "has perhaps obtained the widest circulation". He notes that the Scandavian and German versions (both Low and High German) are the fullest versions, while the southern European ones are rather shorter, and the English versions somewhat brief. The Dutch song Heer Halewijn is one of the earlier (13th century) versions of this tale, fuller and preserving older elements, including such things as the murderer's head speaking after the heroine has beheaded him, attempting to get her to do tasks for him. At least 60 French, or French-Canadian versions have been collected and these almost all end in the same location as the English version, on a riverbank or by the sea, a motif only found elsewhere in the extensive and widespread Polish variants. Numerous German variants are known. Child says 26 German variants but Lloyd, writing more than a century later, claims over 250. In some, the heroine rescues herself; in others her brother rescues her; and in still others, the murderer succeeds but her brother kills him after the fact. In some of them, the dead women reappear as doves and attempt to warn the latest victim. At least eleven Danish variants are known, often including the heroine's meeting with the sister or the men of the murderer and dealing with them as well. An Icelandic version has a very short account of the tale. Other variants are northern Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, and Magyar. In his introduction to this group of ballads Child discusses their place in European culture. He places them in the group of ballads and stories often named after what is considered to be the most complete example, the Dutch ballad Heer Halewijn, he describes ballads from Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Germany, Transylvania, Italy, Spain, Portugal and France and he reviews theories put forward to explain the origin of this ballad family and the nature of the "Outlandish Knight". He mentions theories that the ballad draws on stories about elves, or about the nix or neck, malevolent water spirits in German folklore, and that it is derived from the Judith and Holofernes story in the Old Testament. Holger Olof Nygard, in an article in "The Journal of American Folklore" discusses the various theories put forward about the origin of the ballads in this group and what he calls its "continental analogues". These include: Svend Grundtvig's suggestion that the ballads are derived from some "obscured elf song" and that it derived from a Scandinavian source. Nygard points out that elves are not considered predatory in Scandinavian folklore and that the only ballad in which the male protagonist is referred to as an elf is Child's A version. Franz Böhme's theory that the knight was originally a nix, or neck, a water spirit found in the folklore of Germanic people - Child seems to have accepted this idea at first but dropped it after Grundtvig and others asked how such a creature could be killed by drowning. The notion of Goethe and others that the story may have derived from the French Bluebeard tales. Nygard says the tale and ballads have been separate and distinct as far as records go back, and that this is a case of "polygenesis of a narrative idea". Nygard dismisses Franz Holz's suggestion that the tale originates in the mediaeval idea that maiden's blood could cure leprosy because apart from an odd Swiss ballad no version gives any indication what the knight does with the maidens (apart from killing them) or suggests he is in ill-health. Leon Pineau suggested that the knight represented "the spirits of shadows, death, night and winter, finally overcome by the warmth of summer" and the murdered maids representing months of the year. Nygard sees this as an example of "the tendency to write the ballad group's early history not on its own terms but on terms dictated by something else". Paul de Keyser's psychoanalytic theory, based on Dutch versions in which the hero is beheaded, makes the ballad group about "punishment by castration arising from the suppressed desires of the singer". But the girl's brother only has a role in a few versions of the ballad. Last but not least, Nygard discusses the idea put forward by Sophus Bugge that the story itself descends from the biblical tale of Judith and Holofernes. But, among other objections, Nygard points out that Holofernes did not intend to kill Judith - he wanted sex with her - and had not murdered a succession of other maidens either, yet those murders seem to be at the heart of the ballad. He points out too that Bugge cherry-picks details occurring only in widely scattered variants that happen to fit with his biblical theory. Two sentences in Nygard's conclusion are worth quoting: "We are left with a handful of improbable impossibilities as to the source of the ballad. And for these we may well be thankful, for their authors have trod the sands of surmise and have taught us how to avoid them, if we will but learn by example. Age Child takes it for granted that the Scottish and English ballads he publishes are old, and that they are the remnants of more elaborate originals: "although the best English forms are not without ancient and distinctive marks, most of these have been eliminated, and the better ballads are very brief" In this he follows Charles Kirkpatrick Sharpe who writes of the version of May Collin in his "Ballad Book" (Child's version D): "This ballad appears modern from a great many expressions, yet I am certain that it is old". But Steve Roud points out that as the two earliest British versions are late 18th century and "Despite its archaic feel and close foreign relatives, the ballad does not seem to be very old, at least in Britain" Locality There have been various other rationalisations, attaching the story to specific locations and historical events: for example to Gilles de Laval in the early fifteenth century. The variant May Collean has been attached, as a legend, to the coast of Ayrshire, where the heroine was said to come from the family Kennedy of Colzean. A rocky promontory called Gamesloup, on the Ayrshire coast, is pointed to by local people as the spot where the knight drowned his victims. This local association is noted by A. L. Lloyd who quotes it as an example of a ballad which "so strikes the common imagination that people want to make the piece their own by giving it a local setting". Authenticity of The Gowans sae Gae There have been doubts raised about the authenticity of Child's A version, The Gowans sae Gae, the suggestion being that it was composed by Peter Buchan (editor of "Ancient Ballads and Songs of the North of Scotland" (1828), the source of Child's A and B versions) or one of his informants,. This is referred to by D K Wilgus: In addition to the now-discredited notion that the "Lady Isabel" form is the Scottish original of the non-supernatural English texts, two explanations of the "Elf-Knight" text are possible. One, based on the comparative evidence, is that the "Lady Isabel" text is a palpable fraud perpetuated by Peter Buchan with the probable help of a "supplier". This is the option chosen by Nygard. The other possibility, argued by David Buchan, is that "Lady Isabel" is a "stray" from Scandinavia which turned up in Aberdeenshire. In terms of the Anglo-American tradition of the "Outlandish Knight" the "Lady Isabel" text is of little importance, since it seems to have had no influence except in the scholarly titling of variants. Wilgus goes on to say: Nygard depended to some extent on extratextual information in being influenced by the suspicion of texts from Peter Buchan's collection, voiced by Child and other scholars. Ironically, Child's suspicions were largely based on the subliterary character of other texts, while "Lady Isabel" is literarily superior. Neither of Buchan's variants is found at all widely in the tradition, if they are found at all. Versions titled Isabelle and the Elf-Knight are mainly versions of the "Outlandish Knight" variant. Cultural relationships Standard references Roud 21 Child 4 Textual variants Several variations of the ballad were classified by Francis James Child that feature a "Lord" instead of an elf knight. Some variations have a parrot at the end, who promises not to tell what happened. In some of these, the parrot is eaten by the cat. The variations of the ballad vary on some of the key characters and details: Other titles: An Outlandish Rover The Highway Robber The Old Beau The False-Hearted Knight If I Take Off My Silken Stays The Roud Folk Song Index lists 68 different titles. "The Outlandish Knight" is the most frequent. Songs that refer to Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight The dialogue between the Lady and the parrot, which appears in some versions, was made into a comic song: "Tell Tale Polly", published in Charley Fox's Minstrel Companion (ca. 1860). Motifs Another related ballad, "Hind Etin" (Child Ballad #41), also begins with abduction and rape by an elf, but ends with the pair falling in love and living happily together. Many of the same motifs are found in Child Ballad 48, "Young Andrew". Literature Various forms of these ballads show great similarity to the fairy tales Fitcher's Bird and Bluebeard. Art Arthur Rackham's "May Colvin and the Parrot" illustrates this ballad. Kentucky artist and ballad singer Daniel Dutton has a painting of this ballad, titled "False Sir John", on his Ballads of the Barefoot Mind website. Music Variants of the song are commonly sung to several different tunes. The following tune was collected by Ralph Vaughan Williams in 1908 from Mr Hilton in South Walsham, Norfolk. It was published in the Folk Song Journal of English Folk Dance and Song Society (IV 123), and included in The Penguin Book of English Folk Songs. Recordings See also List of the Child Ballads References Further reading Francis James Child, The English and Scottish Popular Ballads, Volume 1, New York: Dover Publications, 1965. Meijer, Reinder. Literature of the Low Countries: A Short History of Dutch Literature in the Netherlands and Belgium. New York: Twayne Publishers, Inc., 1971, page 35. Marcello Sorce Keller, "Sul castel di mirabel: Life of a Ballad in Oral Tradition and Choral Practice", Ethnomusicology, XXX(1986), no. 3, 449-469. External links "Scottish Ballads Online" Child Ballad #4: Lady Isabel and the Elf Knight Seven variants from Francis J Child's collection with a further three from the appendix and a link to versions from the living tradition. Ballads Child Ballads Isabel Elves Isabel Jean Ritchie songs
5174257	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2001%E2%80%932002%20India%E2%80%93Pakistan%20standoff	2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff	The 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff was a military standoff between India and Pakistan that resulted in the massing of troops on both sides of the border and along the Line of Control (LoC) in the region of Kashmir. This was the second major military standoff between India and Pakistan following the successful detonation of nuclear devices by both countries in 1998, the first being the Kargil War of 1999. The military buildup was initiated by India responding to a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament in New Delhi on 13 December 2001 (during which twelve people, including the five terrorists who attacked the building, were killed) and the Jammu and Kashmir Legislative Assembly on 1 October 2001 in which 38 people were killed. India claimed that the attacks were carried out by two Pakistan-based terror groups fighting in Indian-administered Kashmir—Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad, both of whom India has said are backed by Pakistan's ISI–a charge that Pakistan has denied. Farooq Abdullah the then chief minister of Jammu and Kashmir state urged India to launch a war against militant training camps across the border in Pakistan. In Western media, coverage of the standoff focused on the possibility of a nuclear war between the two countries and the implications of the potential conflict on the American-led "Global War on Terrorism" in nearby Afghanistan. Tensions de-escalated following international diplomatic mediation which resulted in the October 2002 withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani troops from the international border. The Indian codename for the military mobilization was Operation Parakram, which has been characterized by Sanjay Ahirwal of NDTV as a manifestation of India's "resolve to have an eyeball to eyeball confrontation" with Pakistan, and also an operation which led to attainment of some of its military and political objectives. Towards the end of the protracted military standoff, in a surreptitious operation, India's Jat Regiment occupied a strategically important mountain peak on the Pakistani side of the LoC near Dras, Point 5070, and subsequently rechristened it Balwan. This had implications for the Pakistani army, which was accustomed to occupying the peak during summer, as the peak gave India a vantage view of Gultari valley which sustained Pakistani posts in Dras. In consequence, the Pakistani army dispensed its entire chain of command, including the Pakistani Brigade Commander and GOC of the Northern Areas over the loss of this peak, while their Indian counterpart Lt. Gen. Deepak Summanwar was felicitated with an Uttam Yudh Seva Medal as a recognition of India's complete domination of the boundary area near Dras. Prelude On the morning of 13 December 2001, a cell of five armed men attacked the Parliament of India by breaching the security cordon at Gate 12. The five men killed seven people before being shot dead by the Indian Security Forces. World leaders and leaders in nearby countries strongly condemned the attack on the parliament, including Pakistan. On 14 December, the ruling Indian National Democratic Alliance blamed Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) for the attack. Indian Home Minister L.K. Advani claimed, "we have received some clues about yesterday's incident, which shows that a neighboring country, and some terrorist organizations active there are behind it", in an indirect reference to Pakistan and Pakistan-based militant groups. The same day, in a démarche to Pakistan's High Commissioner to India, Ashraf Jehangir Qazi, India demanded that Pakistan stop the activities of LeT and JeM, apprehend the organisation's leaders and their access to all financial assets. Following the Indian Government's statements, Pakistan put its military into full combat readiness the same day. The spokesman for the Pakistani military's public media wing (ISPR), Major-General Rashid Qureshi, said that the attack on the Indian parliament was a result of India's efforts to start a conflict with Pakistan, claiming that "Those [Indians] who can kill thousands of defenseless people in Kashmir can resort to such tactics to gain international sympathy. We demand the international community probe this attack independently to know the truth." while another senior official maintained that India's failure to solve internal problems have caused them to blame Pakistan for everything without cause, stating "Why have the Indians rejected the U.S. government’s offer to send an FBI team to investigate the attack on the parliament?" On 20 December, amid calls from the United States, Russia, and United Nations to exercise restraint, India mobilised and deployed its troops to Kashmir and Indian Punjab in what was India's largest military mobilisation since the 1971 conflict. The Indian codename for the mobilisation was Operation Parakram January offensive Planning The troop deployment to India's western border was expected to take three to four weeks, accordingly, the military action involving a limited offensive against the terrorists' training camps in Pak administered Kashmir was planned by the Indian Cabinet Committee on Security for the second week of January 2002. It would start with an airstrike by the Indian Air Force's Tiger Squadron to attack zones with a large concentration of camps. Special forces of the Indian Army would then launch a limited ground offensive to further neutralize the terrorist camps and help to occupy the dominant positions on the LoC. 14 January 2002, was decided as the tentative D-day. According to the Indian strategy, a limited strike in the Pakistan administered Kashmir was preferred as it would convey the Indian resolve to Pakistan and yet keep the international retribution levels that are manageable. Indian actions would then be comparable to the ongoing US offensive in Afghanistan against Osama bin Laden's Al-Qaida terrorists. The CCS had weighed in the possibility of Pakistan launching an all-out offensive as a response to the Indian strikes. The intelligence assessment suggested that the Pakistani Army was not well prepared. This further minimized the chances of Pakistan launching a full-scale war. The Indian plans were strengthened by a strong economy with low inflation, high petroleum, and forex reserves. Finance minister Yashwant Sinha announced that the Indian economy was prepared for war, in spite of being the final option. The limited strike served as a tactical option. The troop build-up signaled "India's seriousness" to the international community. If Pakistan's strategy did not change then India would have no other option. Military confrontations In late December, both countries moved ballistic missiles closer to each other's border, and mortar and artillery fire was reported in Kashmir. By January 2002, India had mobilized around 500,000 troops and three armored divisions on Pakistan's border, concentrated along the Line of Control in Kashmir. Pakistan responded similarly, deploying around 300,000 troops to that region. The tensions were partially defused after Musharraf's speech on 12 January promising action on terror emanating from Pakistan. Artillery duels were commonplace during the protracted military confrontations. In one such instance, well over 40 Pakistani soldiers perished on Point 5353 near Dras when Indian troops from nearby Point 5165, Point 5240 and Point 5100 commenced artillery fire on the Pakistani post, rendering the Pakistanis unable to reinforce their troops. Diplomacy India initiated its diplomatic offensive by recalling Indian high commissioner and the civilian flights from Pakistan were banned. Pakistan picked up the war signals and began mobilization of its military and initiated diplomatic talks with US President George W. Bush. American Secretary of State Colin Powell engaged with India and Pakistan to reduce tensions. In the first week of January, British Prime Minister Tony Blair visited India with a message that he was pressurizing Pakistani President Musharraf. The US declared LeT and JeM as foreign terrorist groups. Musharraf's speech On 8 January 2002, Indian Home Minister L. K. Advani visited the US, where he was informed about the contents of the upcoming landmark speech by Musharraf. On 12 January 2002, President Pervez Musharraf gave a speech intended to reduce tensions with India. He for the first time condemned the attack on Parliament as a terrorist attack and compared it with the 11 September attacks. He declared in his speech that terrorism was unjustified in the name of Kashmir and Pakistan would combat extremism on its own soil. Pakistan would resolve Kashmir with dialogue and no organization will be allowed to carry out terrorism under the pretext of Kashmir. As demanded by India, he also announced plans for the regulation of madrasas and banning the known terrorist groups that were operating out of Pakistan. He announced a formal ban on five jihadi organizations, that included Jaish-e-Muhammad and Lashkar-e-Taiba engaged in militancy in Kashmir. Indian decision The Indian Prime Minister Atal B. Vajpayee though skeptic of the seriousness of Musharraf's pledges, decided not to carry out the military attack planned for 14 January. Kaluchak massacre Tensions escalated significantly in May 2002. On 14 May, three suicidal terrorists attacked an army camp at Kaluchak near Jammu and killed 34 people and injured fifty more before getting killed, most of the victims were the wives and children of Indian soldiers serving in Kashmir. The terrorist incident again revived the chance of a full-blown war. On 15 May, PM Vajpayee was quoted in the Indian Parliament saying "Hamein pratikar karna hoga (We will have to counter it)." American Deputy Secretary of State, Richard Armitage, quoted the incident as a trigger for further deterioration of the situation. The Indian Cabinet had little belief that diplomatic pressure could stop Pakistan's support for the militants in Kashmir. India accused Pakistan that it was failing to keep its promise on ending the cross-border terrorism. Musharraf's follow-up to his speech on 12 January was observed by India as weak and disingenuous. Pakistan did not extradite the terrorist leaders demanded by India, and Lashkar was allowed to continue its operations in Pakistan as a charity with a new name. During the spring, jihadi militants started crossing the Line of Control again. June Offensive Planning On 18 May, Vajpayee reviewed the preparedness with the Defence Minister Fernandes, Director-General Military Operations and Military Intelligence Chief. The CCS met and favored taking military action against terrorists in Pakistan. A limited military action similar to the one planned in January was not considered viable as Pakistan had strengthened its forces on the LoC. Any action limited to Pakistan administered Kashmir would only have limited military gains. Indian military favored an offensive along the Indo-Pak border that will stretch the Pakistani troops and provide India access to Pakistan administered Kashmir. The Indian armed forces accordingly prepared the plan to target the war-waging capabilities of Pakistan and destroy the terrorist camps. The battle canvas planned for June was larger than the one planned in January. The Indian Air Force along with the 1 Strike Corps of India would initiate an attack in Shakargarh bulge to engage Pakistan's Army Reserve North (ARN) that was spread from Muzaffarabad to Lahore. This would engage Pakistan's key strike corp while Indian strike formations from Eastern Command would carry out the offensive at the Line of Control and capture the strategic positions used by the terrorists for infiltrations. The period considered was between 23 May and 10 June. Military confrontations During the end of May 2002, the Indian and Pakistani armed forces continued to be fully mobilized. The tenor of statements published in the Indian press and intelligence information collected, pointed to an imminent invasion by India. An SOS sent to Israel by the Indian Defence Ministry for defense supplies during the month of June confirmed the intelligence. On 18 May, India expelled the Pakistani High Commissioner. That same day, thousands of villagers had to flee Pakistani artillery fire in Jammu. On 21 May, clashes killed six Pakistani soldiers and 1 Indian soldier, as well as civilians from both sides. On 22 May, Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee announced to his troops to prepare for a "decisive battle". Between 25 and 28 May, Pakistan conducted 3 missile tests. India reviewed its nuclear capability to strike back. On 7 June the Indian Air Force lost an unmanned aerial vehicle near Lahore, which Pakistan claimed to have shot down. Threat of nuclear war As both India and Pakistan are armed with nuclear weapons, the possibility a conventional war could escalate into a nuclear one was raised several times during the standoff. Various statements on this subject were made by Indian and Pakistani officials during the conflict, mainly concerning a no first use policy. Indian External Affairs Minister Jaswant Singh said on 5 June that India would not use nuclear weapons first, while Musharraf said on 5 June he would not renounce Pakistan's right to use nuclear weapons first. There was also concern that a 6 June 2002 asteroid explosion over Earth, known as the Eastern Mediterranean Event, could have caused a nuclear conflict had it exploded over India or Pakistan. Diplomacy Vajpayee contacted the leaders of the global community including Bush, Blair, Russian President Vladimir Putin and French President Jacques Chirac and informed them Musharraf could not deliver on his 12 January speech and the patience of the country was running out. In the diplomacy that followed, Bush, Putin, Blair and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi requested Vajpayee to avoid taking the extreme step. The global community informed India that it would negotiate with Musharraf to clarify his position on stopping the cross-border infiltration. Attempts to defuse the situation continued. The Russian President Vladimir Putin tried to mediate a solution, but in vain. Restraint was urged by the global community as there were fears that Pakistan would proceed to use its nuclear weapons in the face to counter its conventional asymmetry as compared to the Indian armed forces. In April, in an interview to German magazine Der Spiegel Musharraf had already hinted that he was willing to use nukes against India. Pakistan's nuclear threats led to US Secretary of State Powell contacting Musharraf at five occasions in the last week of May and reading the riot act. On 5 June 2002, American Deputy Secretary of State Richard Armitage visited Pakistan. He asked Musharraf if he would "permanently" end cross-border infiltration and help to dismantle the infrastructure used for terrorism. On 6 June 2002, Musharraf 's commitment was conveyed to Powell, and to India after his arrival. On 10 June 2002, Powell announced Musharraf's promise to the global community, after which India called off its strike plans. A full-frontal invasion would have translated into war. Political logic implied it was better to give another chance to Musharraf. The military build-up on the border by India in January and June had forced both the international community and Pakistan into action. July–August strikes On 29 July 2002 for the first time after the end of the Kargil war, India used air power to attack positions held by the Pakistani forces at Loonda Post on the Indian side of the Line of Control in the Machil sector. Eight IAF Mirage 2000 H aircraft dropped precision-guided bombs weighing 1,000-pounds to destroy four bunkers that were occupied by Pakistan. The forward trenches prepared by Indian troops in earlier years were also occupied by the Pakistani forces and 155-millimetre Bofors howitzers were used to hit them. According to Indian military intelligence officials, at least 28 Pakistani soldiers were killed in the fighting. The air assault was conducted in daylight and to demonstrate India's willingness to escalate the conflict in response to provocations. Towards the end of the protracted military standoff, in a surreptitious operation, India's Jat Regiment occupied a strategically important mountain peak on the Pakistani side of the LoC near Dras, Point 5070, and subsequently rechristened it Balwan. This had implications for the Pakistani army, which was accustomed to occupying the peak during summer, as the peak gave India a vantage view of the Gultari valley, which sustained Pakistani posts in Dras. In consequence, the Pakistani army dispensed its entire chain of command, including the Pakistani Brigade Commander and GOC of the Northern Areas, over the loss of this peak, while their Indian counterpart Lt. Gen. Deepak Summanwar was felicitated with an Uttam Yudh Seva Medal as a recognition of India's domination of the boundary area near Dras. Pakistani army troops stationed near the post in the Kupwara sector's Kel area of the LoC had been shelling the Indian positions across the LoC. India suspected a troop build-up situation near the border post that was similar to Kargil. Indian army planned retaliation by sending troops to attack the Pakistani posts. The initial ground attack to retake the post failed, with the Indian army suffering 11 casualties. Later on, after deliberations with the then Army Chief, General Sundararajan Padmanabhan, the plan was modified and instead of only a ground assault, the decision was made to first attack Pakistani positions using the IAF jets followed by a ground assault by the Indian Special Forces. At 1:30 pm on 2 August, IAF's LGB capable Mirage 2000 H fighter aircraft loaded with laser-guided weapons bombed the Pakistani bunkers located in the Kel. The attack destroyed the bunkers with an unknown number of casualties. Easing of tension While tensions remained high throughout the next few months, both governments began easing the situation in Kashmir. By October 2002, India had begun to demobilise their troops along her border and later Pakistan did the same, and in November 2003 a cease-fire between the two nations was signed. Casualties The Indian casualties were up to 1,874, including 798 fatal. Pakistani casualties were not divulged. Cost of standoff The Indian cost for the buildup was $3 billion to $4 billion while Pakistan's was $1.4 billion. The standoff led to a total of 155,000 Indians and 45,000 Pakistanis displaced, per Pakistani media estimates. One of the reasons for the failure of Operation Parakram is described to be the slow mobilisation of 500,000 troops. It took nearly three weeks for India to completely move 500,000 troops, 3 armoured divisions, and other supporting units to the border. The delay allowed Pakistan to move its own 300,000 troops along with the supporting units to the border. Lacking strategic surprise, Indian military decided to withdraw its troops. On 5 November 2011 former Indian naval chief, Admiral Sushil Kumar, claimed that operation Parakram lacked clear objectives. He described the operation as a "punishing mistake" for India. Moreover, he said that Operation Parakram, may in fact have encouraged both Pakistan and China to increase cross-border violations. Had India tried a similar operation against China, it would have been a fatal blunder for India. See also Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts 2002 Eastern Mediterranean event India-Pakistan relations Kaluchak Incident References External links Gen. Padmanabhan mulls over lessons of Operation Parakram Thoughts on Operation Parakram Operation Parakram Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistan from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Indo-Pakistani wars Vajpayee administration Kashmir conflict I I India–Pakistan military relations 2002 in India 2001 in India Military history of India Wars involving India Military history of Pakistan Nuclear history of Pakistan 2000s in Jammu and Kashmir
5174301	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturday%20Night%20Football	Saturday Night Football	Saturday Night Football (branded for sponsorship purposes as Saturday Night Football presented by Capital One) is an American weekly presentation of prime time broadcasts of National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) college football games that are produced by ESPN, and televised on ABC. Games are presented each Saturday evening starting at 7:30 p.m. Eastern Time/6:30 p.m. Central Time during the college football regular season, which has been the case since 2017 (some weeks until 2015 saw no game on ABC, due to Saturday evening Sprint Cup Series NASCAR coverage or to avoid competition with the World Series; ESPN would then carry that week's high-profile game instead, with ESPN2 carrying a secondary game usually seen on ESPN/ABC). The ESPN on ABC Saturday Night Football coverage began in 2006, as both ESPN and ABC are owned by The Walt Disney Company. It is ESPN's biggest game of the week, and in most cases (outside where another networks carries the game), the city and/or campus of that night's game is where that day's ESPN College GameDay had originated. , the primary broadcast team for half of the games includes play-by-play announcer Chris Fowler and analyst Kirk Herbstreit, with Holly Rowe as sideline reporter. Kevin Negandhi, Booger McFarland, and Dan Orlovsky host the halftime show. Negandhi also provides in game updates throughout the game. Other ESPN broadcast teams may also occasionally appear for regional (and some national) telecasts. Overview Saturday Night Football premiered on September 2, 2006, with a game between the Notre Dame Fighting Irish and Georgia Tech Yellow Jackets. While ABC and ESPN have aired college football games on Saturday nights for decades, this program marks the first time that a collegiate sports broadcast has officially been part of any major broadcast television network's primetime schedule. Twelve weeks of regular season games were televised during the three-month college football season in 2006, 2007 and from 2009 to 2011; the Dr. Pepper Big 12 Football Championship Game closing out each season until a conference realignment in which four university football programs left and two others joined the Big 12 Conference resulted in the Championship Game being discontinued after the 2010 event (the Big 12 Football Championship Game returned in 2017, however, it did not return to ABC until 2018, when the network aired the game in the afternoon instead of in primetime). With the college football season being extended by one week, ABC televised thirteen weeks of games in 2008, closing with the 2008 Big 12 Championship Game on December 6. With the loss of the Sprint Cup Series to NBC and NBCSN, Saturday Night Football expanded its seasonal game schedule full-time to 13 weeks beginning in 2015, starting with the Advocare Classic. Games from the Atlantic Coast Conference, the Big 12 Conference, the old Big East Conference, the Big Ten Conference, the Pac-12 Conference, the now-defunct Western Athletic Conference and the American Athletic Conference have aired on Saturday Night Football, as well as non-conference games in which teams from these conferences were either playing at home or a neutral-site game to which ABC holds the television rights. All BCS/CFP and Power 5 conferences have appeared on Saturday Night Football, as the Southeastern Conference has had its teams featured in 22 non-conference games. Boise State, Utah State, BYU, Temple, UConn, UCF, Cincinnati, SMU, Tulsa, and Memphis are the only Group of 5 teams to be featured on "Saturday Night Football" to date, with the latter four teams being featured when they were members of the BCS-aligned Big East or American Athletic Conference. In recent years, following the loss of some broadcast rights of the Pac-12 Conference to Fox Sports in 2012, the Pac-12's Saturday Night Football appearances have been limited to non-conference games, especially home games against Notre Dame and games against the Southeastern Conference, as well as road games against conferences that still have broadcast rights with ABC. Besides Pac-12 and Big Ten games, ABC makes most of its game broadcast selections or options twelve days prior to the game (with some being made six days beforehand). This allows ABC to 'flex' the most compelling game it has the rights to broadcast into the Saturday Night Football slot. As a result, the Saturday night game is usually ABC's "game of the week". Beginning in 2024, ABC will have the option to feature an SEC game on Saturday Night Football for the first time. As of the 2016 college football season, all games on ABC are broadcast in the 16:9 letterbox format on both the SD and HD feeds. As ESPN has signed new contracts with various conferences to produce college football coverage, the network has begun branding its coverage of select conferences to which it has rights. This branding was first seen on SEC broadcasts in 2011, which became the "SEC on ESPN". ACC broadcasts followed suit in 2012 becoming the "ACC on ESPN". In 2018, the network started branding games aired on ABC as the "ACC on ABC", even though the ACC on ESPN logo is still used for replay wipes. Similarly, all Pac-12 games broadcast under the branding of "Pac-12 on ESPN" or as the "Pac-12 on ABC". In 2016, a new contract brought conference branding to Big Ten telecasts as well, which air on both ESPN and ABC. While Big Ten games that air on ESPN cable channels are branded as the "Big Ten on ESPN", games airing on ABC are now branded as the "Big Ten on ABC". While the program is still officially part of ESPN College Football which is reflected when talent appears on screen, the Big Ten on ABC logo and branding is used for intro, program IDs, and replay wipes. Similarly, because of the new ESPN-Big 12 deal, games featuring teams from the Big 12 will appear on the network under the "Big 12 on ESPN" or "Big 12 on ABC" brand, with replay wipes having the Big 12 on ESPN brand logo. Similarly, with the American Conference, games with teams from the American will appear under the "American Conference on ESPN" or "American Conference on ABC" brand. This is the first time any regularly scheduled sporting event outside of the National Spelling Bee has carried any ABC branding since 2006. The Advocare Classic (formerly the Cowboys Classic) became the opening game for Saturday Night Football beginning in 2011; however in 2013, the matchup between the Georgia Bulldogs and Clemson Tigers served as the opening game with the Classic matchup between LSU and TCU being broadcast on ESPN. The Classic served as the opening game for Saturday Night Football again in 2014 (that year, involving the Florida State Seminoles and Oklahoma State Cowboys), in 2015 (Alabama Crimson Tide and Wisconsin Badgers) and in 2016 (Alabama Crimson Tide and USC Trojans). In 2017, the Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game (between the top ranked Alabama Crimson Tide and the third ranked Florida State Seminoles; which was later described as the Greatest Opener of All Time) served as the opening game for Saturday Night Football (first time since 2010), while the Advocare Classic featuring the Michigan Wolverines and Florida Gators aired in the 3:30 ET timeslot. In 2018, the Camping World Kickoff (between the new look Louisville Cardinals and the defending 2017 national champion Alabama Crimson Tide) served as the Saturday Night Football season premiere. The Advocare Classic, between the 2017 ACC Runner-Up Miami Hurricanes and LSU Tigers, aired the next night in primetime, as it served as the Sunday Night Kickoff game presented by NHTSA. The Advocare Classic returned to Saturday Night Football in 2019, with the Oregon Ducks facing the Auburn Tigers, for the first time since the 2011 Tostitos BCS National Championship Game, in which Auburn won 27–21. Broadcast teams 2006 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit and Bob Davie, analysts; and Lisa Salters, sideline reporter. Ten games: Notre Dame–Georgia Tech, Ohio State–Texas, Nebraska–USC, Notre Dame–Michigan State, Ohio State–Iowa, Oregon–California, Michigan–Penn State, Oklahoma–Texas A&M, Wake Forest–Florida State, and Notre Dame–USC. Dan Fouts, play-by-play; Tim Brant, analyst; and Jack Arute, sideline reporter. Three games: USC–Arizona, Nebraska–Iowa State, and UCLA–California. Mark Jones, play-by-play; David Norrie, analyst; and Stacey Dales, sideline reporter. Two games: Arizona State–USC and Virginia Tech–Miami (Fla.). Gary Thorne, play-by-play; Andre Ware, analyst; and Todd Harris, sideline reporter. One game: Texas–Kansas State. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Bob Griese and Paul Maguire, analysts; and Erin Andrews, sideline reporter. One game: California–USC. Mike Patrick, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. One game: Nebraska–Oklahoma (Big 12 Championship Game). 2007 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Lisa Salters, and Chris Spielman, sideline reporters. Eleven games: Tennessee–California, USC–Nebraska, Iowa–Wisconsin, USC–Washington, Ohio State–Purdue, Michigan–Illinois, Ohio State–Penn State, Florida State–Boston College, Kansas–Oklahoma State, Missouri–Kansas, and Oklahoma–Missouri (Big 12 Championship Game, with Spielman). Dan Fouts, play-by-play; Tim Brant, analyst; and Todd Harris, sideline reporter. Two games: Washington State–USC and Notre Dame–UCLA. Terry Gannon, play-by-play; David Norrie, analyst; and Jeannine Edwards, sideline reporter. Two games: Oregon State–USC and USC–California. Ron Franklin, play-by-play; Ed Cunningham, analyst; and Jack Arute, sideline reporter. One game: Texas A&M–Oklahoma. Dave LaMont, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. One game: Boston College–Maryland. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Bob Griese and Paul Maguire, analysts; and Bonnie Bernstein, sideline reporter. One game: Oklahoma–Texas Tech. 2008 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Lisa Salters or Erin Andrews, sideline reporter. Twelve games: Alabama–Clemson (Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game, with Andrews), Ohio State–USC (with Andrews), Georgia–Arizona State, Illinois–Penn State, Missouri–Texas, Penn State–Ohio State, Texas–Texas Tech, Oklahoma State–Texas Tech, Boston College–Florida State, Texas Tech–Oklahoma, Oklahoma–Oklahoma State, and Missouri–Oklahoma (Big 12 Championship Game). Ron Franklin, play-by-play; Ed Cunningham, analyst; and Heather Cox or Jack Arute, sideline reporter. Two games: Michigan State–California (with Cox) and Oklahoma State–Colorado (with Arute). Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Rob Stone or Erin Andrews, sideline reporter. Two games: Virginia Tech–Nebraska (with Andrews) and California–USC (with Stone). Mike Patrick, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. One game: Ohio State–Wisconsin. Mark Jones, play-by-play; Bob Davie, analyst; and Todd Harris, sideline reporter. One game: Oregon–USC. 2009 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Lisa Salters, sideline reporter. Twelve games: Alabama–Virginia Tech (Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game), Texas Tech–Texas, Iowa–Penn State, Oklahoma–Miami (Fla.), Michigan–Iowa, Texas–Missouri, USC–Oregon, Connecticut–Cincinnati, Notre Dame–Pittsburgh, Oregon–Arizona, Notre Dame–Stanford, and Texas–Nebraska (Big 12 Championship Game). Mike Patrick, play-by-play; Craig James, analyst; and Heather Cox, sideline reporter. Three games: Oregon State–USC, USC–Arizona State, and Texas Tech–Oklahoma State. Ron Franklin, play-by-play; Ed Cunningham, analyst; and Shelley Smith, sideline reporter. Three games: USC–California (with Smith), Oklahoma–Nebraska, and Kansas–Texas (with Smith). Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Matt Millen, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Two games: Texas–Oklahoma State and Georgia–Georgia Tech. 2010 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Erin Andrews, Heather Cox, or Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Ten games: LSU–North Carolina (Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game), Oregon State–Boise State, Stanford–Oregon, Florida State–Miami (Fla.) (with Cox), Oklahoma–Missouri, Oregon–USC, Arizona–Stanford, Nebraska–Texas A&M (with Cox), Oklahoma–Oklahoma State, and Nebraska–Oklahoma (Big 12 Championship Game) (with Rowe). Mike Patrick, play-by-play; and Craig James, analyst. Four games: USC–Stanford (with Shelley Smith), Ohio State–Minnesota (with Ray Bentley), Clemson–Florida State (with Jeannine Edwards), and Florida State–Maryland. Ron Franklin, play-by-play; and Ed Cunningham, analyst. Three games: Texas–Texas Tech (with Jeannine Edwards), Missouri–Texas Tech, and USC–Arizona (with Shelley Smith). Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Matt Millen, analyst; and Heather Cox, sideline reporter. Two games: Notre Dame–Boston College and Oklahoma State–Texas. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; and Todd Blackledge, analyst. Two games: Notre Dame–Michigan State (with Holly Rowe) and Notre Dame–USC (with Shelley Smith). Mark Neely, play-by-play; Mike Bellotti and Brock Huard, analysts. One game: USC–Oregon State. 2011 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Erin Andrews or Lisa Salters, sideline reporter. Seven games: Oregon–LSU (Advocare Classic), Oklahoma–Florida State, LSU–West Virginia, Nebraska–Wisconsin, Stanford–USC, Kansas State–Oklahoma State (with Salters), and Oregon–Stanford. Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Matt Millen, analyst; and Heather Cox or Jeannine Edwards, sideline reporter. Two games: Ohio State–Nebraska (with Edwards) and Washington–Stanford (with Cox). Mike Patrick, play-by-play; Craig James, analyst; and Jenn Brown, sideline reporter. One game: Clemson–Georgia Tech. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. One game: Texas Tech–Oklahoma. Mark Jones, play-by-play; and Ed Cunningham, analyst. One game: Notre Dame–Wake Forest. 2012 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Heather Cox, sideline reporter. Twelve games: Michigan–Alabama (Advocare Classic), Notre Dame–Michigan State, Clemson–Florida State, Wisconsin–Nebraska, Florida State–Miami, Notre Dame–Oklahoma, Oklahoma State–Kansas State, Notre Dame–Boston College, Stanford–Oregon, and Notre Dame–USC. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Two games: Nebraska–Ohio State, Texas–Kansas State. Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. One game: Baylor–Texas. 2013 Brent Musburger, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; and Heather Cox, sideline reporter. Eleven games: Georgia–Clemson, Notre Dame–Purdue, Kansas State–Texas, Wisconsin–Ohio State, Ohio State–Northwestern, Florida State–Clemson, Miami–Florida State, Notre Dame–Pittsburgh, Stanford–USC, Baylor–Oklahoma State, Duke–Florida State (ACC Championship) Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Shannon Spake, sideline reporter. Two games: Michigan–Connecticut, UCLA–USC. Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. One game: Penn State–Ohio State. 2014 Chris Fowler, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Heather Cox, and Tom Rinaldi, sideline reporters. Nine games: Florida State–Oklahoma State (Advocare Classic), Tennessee–Oklahoma, Clemson–Florida State (with Rinaldi), Notre Dame–Syracuse, Nebraska–Michigan State, Notre Dame–Florida State (with Rinaldi), Ohio State–Michigan State, Florida State–Miami, Florida State–Georgia Tech (ACC Championship) Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Three games: Ohio State–Penn State, USC–UCLA, Oregon-Oregon State Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Todd McShay, sideline reporter. One game: Illinois–Ohio State Bob Wischusen, play-by-play; Matt Millen, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. One game: Oklahoma State–Kansas State 2015 Chris Fowler or Rece Davis, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Heather Cox and Tom Rinaldi, sideline reporters. Eleven games: Wisconsin–Alabama (Advocare Classic), Oregon–Michigan State (with Davis), UCLA–Arizona, Notre Dame–Clemson, Miami–Florida State, Penn State–Ohio State, Ohio State–Rutgers, Notre Dame-Temple, Oklahoma-Baylor, Oklahoma-Oklahoma State (with Rinaldi), North Carolina-Clemson (ACC Championship, with Rinaldi) Brad Nessler, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Two games: Minnesota-Ohio State, TCU-Oklahoma Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Chris Spielman, analyst; and Todd McShay, sideline reporter. One game: Stanford–USC 2016 Chris Fowler or Rece Davis, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Samantha Ponder and Tom Rinaldi, sideline reporters, Jerry Punch and Marty Smith pit reporters (Battle at Bristol only) Thirteen games: USC-Alabama (Advocare Classic), Virginia Tech-Tennessee (Pilot Flying J Battle at Bristol, with Davis, Punch and Smith), Stanford-UCLA, Louisville-Clemson (with Rinaldi), Florida State-Miami, Ohio State-Wisconsin, Ohio State-Penn State, Clemson-Florida State, Nebraska-Ohio State, Michigan-Iowa, Oklahoma-West Virginia, Clemson-Virginia Tech (ACC Championship) Joe Tessitore, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Two games: USC-Stanford, Florida-Florida State 2017 Chris Fowler, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi, sideline reporters Thirteen games: Florida State–Alabama (Chick-fil-A Kickoff Game, with Rinaldi), Oklahoma–Ohio State, Clemson-Louisville, Penn State-Iowa, Clemson-Virginia Tech (with Rinaldi), Michigan State-Michigan, Michigan-Penn State (with Rinaldi), Georgia Tech-Clemson, Virginia Tech-Miami, Notre Dame–Miami (with Rinaldi), UCLA–USC, Notre Dame–Stanford, Miami-Clemson (ACC Championship, with Rinaldi) Steve Levy, play-by-play, Brian Griese, analyst; Todd McShay, sideline reporter Two games: Utah-USC, Texas Tech-Oklahoma 2018 Chris Fowler, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Maria Taylor and Tom Rinaldi, sideline reporters. Thirteen games: Louisville-Alabama (Camping World Kickoff), Ohio State-TCU (Advocare Showdown), Stanford-Oregon, Ohio State-Penn State (with Rinaldi), Notre Dame-Virginia Tech, Wisconsin-Michigan, Ohio State-Purdue (with Rinaldi), Texas-Oklahoma State, Clemson-Boston College, Cincinnati-UCF, Notre Dame-USC, Clemson-Pitt (ACC Championship) Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; Holly Rowe, sideline reporter One game: Penn State-Pittsburgh Steve Levy, play-by-play; Brian Griese, analyst; Todd McShay, sideline reporter One game: Oklahoma-Texas Tech 2019 Chris Fowler, Rece Davis, Sean McDonough, or Bob Wischusen, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Maria Taylor or Molly McGrath, sideline reporter. Thirteen games: Auburn–Oregon (Advocare Classic), LSU–Texas (with Davis), Clemson–Syracuse (with McDonough), Oklahoma State–Texas, Nebraska–Ohio State, Michigan State–Ohio State, Michigan–Penn State, Michigan–Notre Dame, Memphis–SMU, Clemson–NC State, Baylor–Oklahoma, Arizona State–Oregon, Boise State–Washington (Las Vegas Bowl, with Wischusen and McGrath) Steve Levy, play-by-play; Brian Griese, analyst; Todd McShay, and Molly McGrath or Maria Taylor, sideline reporters. Two games: Colorado–Utah, Clemson–Virginia (ACC Championship, with Taylor) Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; Holly Rowe, sideline reporter One game: Iowa–Penn State 2020 Chris Fowler, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Maria Taylor, Allison Williams, Molly McGrath, or Holly Rowe, sideline reporters. Nine games: Miami-Louisville (with Williams), Florida State-Miami (with McGrath), Miami-Clemson (with Williams), Michigan-Minnesota (with Taylor), Ohio State-Penn State (with Taylor), Stanford–Oregon (with Taylor), Wisconsin-Michigan (with Rowe), Oklahoma State–Oklahoma (with Rowe), Clemson-Virginia Tech (with Taylor) Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; Todd McShay, and Allison Williams or Molly McGrath, sideline reporters. Three games: Clemson–Wake Forest (with Williams), Oklahoma-Iowa State (with McGrath), North Carolina-Florida State (with McGrath) Dave Pasch or Joe Tessitore, play-by-play; Greg McElroy, analyst; and Allison Williams or Holly Rowe, sideline reporter Two games: USC–UCLA (with Pasch and Williams), Tulsa–Cincinnati (AAC Championship, with Tessitore and Rowe) Beth Mowins, play–by–play; Kirk Morrison, analyst; and Stormy Buonantony, sideline reporter One game: Utah–Washington 2021 Chris Fowler, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst; Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Six games: Georgia-Clemson, Auburn-Penn State, West Virginia-Oklahoma, TCU-Oklahoma, Penn State-Ohio State, Oklahoma-Oklahoma State Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Molly McGrath, sideline reporter. Four games: Washington-Michigan, Indiana-Penn State, Michigan-Nebraska, Oregon-Utah Dave Pasch, play-by-play; Dusty Dvoracek, analyst; and Tom Luginbill, sideline reporter. Two games: Ohio State-Indiana, Notre Dame-Virginia Mark Jones, play-by-play; Robert Griffin III, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. Two games: Oregon-Washington, Pittsburgh-Wake Forest (ACC Championship) Joe Tessitore, play-by-play; Greg McElroy, analyst; and Laura Rutledge, sideline reporter. One game: Utah State-Oregon State (LA Bowl) 2022 Chris Fowler or Rece Davis, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst: Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Seven games: Notre Dame–Ohio State, USC–Stanford (with Davis), Wisconsin–Ohio State, NC State–Clemson, Clemson–Florida State, TCU–Texas, Notre Dame-USC Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Todd Blackledge, analyst; and Molly McGrath, sideline reporter. Three games: Clemson-Boston College, Michigan State-Michigan, Clemson-North Carolina (ACC Championship) Joe Tessitore, play-by-play; Greg McElroy, analyst; and Katie George, sideline reporter. Two games: Minnesota-Penn State, Florida State-Miami Mark Jones, play-by-play; Robert Griffin III, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. One game: Michigan State–Washington Dave Pasch, play-by-play; Dusty Dvoracek, analyst; and Tom Luginbill, sideline reporter. One game: Oklahoma State-Oklahoma Tom Hart, play-by-play; Brock Osweiler, analyst; and Taylor McGregor, sideline reporter. One game: SMU–BYU (New Mexico Bowl) 2023 Sean McDonough, play-by-play; Greg McElroy, analyst; and Molly McGrath, sideline reporter. Three games: North Carolina–South Carolina (Duke's Mayo Classic), Pitt-West Virginia, Miami-North Carolina Chris Fowler or Rece Davis, play-by-play; Kirk Herbstreit, analyst: Holly Rowe, sideline reporter. Three games: Notre Dame-Duke (with Davis), Duke-Florida State, Colorado-UCLA Mark Jones, play-by-play; Louis Riddick, analyst; and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporter. One game: Wisconsin–Washington State Dave Pasch, play-by-play; Dusty Dvoracek, analyst; and Tom Luginbill, sideline reporter. One game: Texas-Baylor Joe Tessitore, play-by-play; Jordan Rodgers, analyst; and Katie George, sideline reporter. One game: Notre Dame-Louisville Tiffany Greene, play-by-play; Jay Walker, analyst; Harry Lyles Jr., and Quint Kessenich, sideline reporters. One game: South Carolina State–Jackson State (MEAC/SWAC Challenge) Schedules All rankings are from that week's AP Poll, and that week's CFP rankings since 2014. 2006 schedule ABC did not air games on either October 21 or October 28 to avoid competing with the World Series. 2007 schedule ABC did not air games on either September 8 or October 13 due to broadcasts of NASCAR NEXTEL Cup Series races. 2008 schedule ABC did not air games on either September 6 or October 11 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2009 schedule ABC did not air games on either September 12 or October 17 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2010 schedule ABC did not air games on either September 11 or October 16 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2011 schedule Notes: 1) ABC did not air games on either September 10 or October 15 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2) Many of the markets scheduled to receive the Texas Tech–Oklahoma game on October 22 instead saw Washington–Stanford, as a thunderstorm delayed the start of the game, and most affiliates stuck with the latter even after the storm cleared. The Texas Tech–Oklahoma game was seen on ESPN2 after the Alabama-Tennessee game, expect in Big 12 markets, where it aired on ABC. 2012 schedule ABC did not air Games on either September 8 or October 13 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2013 schedule ABC did not air Games on either September 7 or October 12 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2014 schedule ABC did not air games on either September 6 or October 11 due to broadcasts of NASCAR Sprint Cup Series races. 2015 schedule 2016 schedule 2017 schedule 2018 schedule 2019 schedule Beginning this season, all games, excluding the ACC Championship Game, started at 7:30 ET. 2020 schedule 2021 schedule 2022 schedule 2023 schedule Standings Nielsen ratings Top 10 Regular Season Games Seasonal Seasonal rankings (based on average total viewers per episode) of Saturday Night Football on ABC. Theme music At the time the Saturday night package began in 2006, ABC Sports was integrated with ESPN, resulting in ESPN production concepts being applied to ABC-televised sports events. As a result, during the 2006 and 2007 seasons, the theme music used for the ESPN College Football and College GameDay broadcasts was used on ABC's college football telecasts – including Saturday Night Football – with the exception in both years being the Rose Bowl, during which it used the bowl game version of the network's 1998-2005 sports theme (a cut that had traditionally been used in broadcast intros). Saturday Night Football games began using the bowl version of the 1998-2005 theme as well in 2008, continuing through the 2010 BCS National Championship Game. The intro theme was updated in 2011, with the main theme music being changed to a different cut of the 1998-2005 bowl game theme (one that had usually been used during studio shows in the past). Bowl Championship Series games aired on ESPN during this period were produced identically to Saturday Night Football productions, and used this same theme music arrangement. In 2012, the theme for all college football telecasts on both ESPN and ABC was changed to a heavily updated version of yet another one of ABC's 1998-2005 themes (this one had usually been used for intro teasers in the past). However, unlike previous SNF themes, this theme was a completely new recording, using the tune of the 1998-2005 song as the base. In 2015, ABC began using the same theme used by all ESPN college football productions since the 2014-15 New Years' Six bowl games. See also College Football Final College Football Scoreboard College GameDay ESPN College Football on ABC ESPN College Football Thursday Primetime ESPN College Football Saturday Primetime ESPN2 College Football Saturday Primetime References External links Weekly listings for the 2006 through 2010 college football seasons 2006 American television series debuts 2010s American television series 2020s American television series ABC Sports American Broadcasting Company original programming College football television series English-language television shows Saturday mass media
5174493	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big%20Wapwallopen%20Creek	Big Wapwallopen Creek	Big Wapwallopen Creek (also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately long and flows through Bear Creek Township, Fairview Township, Rice Township, Wright Township, Dorrance Township, Hollenback Township, Nescopeck Township, and Conyngham Township. The watershed of the creek has an area of . The creek has three named tributaries: Balliet Run, Watering Run, and Bow Creek. The creek is designated as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery and is also Class A Wild Trout Waters for part of its length. However, a portion is considered to be impaired by organic enrichment and/or low levels of dissolved oxygen and its pH ranges from moderately acidic to slightly alkaline. Big Wapwallopen Creek has three large waterfalls, all of which are more than high. The creek flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge in its lower reaches, where it descends . It mainly flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale. The creek has existed for several million years, but the portion of its course that flows through the Wapwallopen Gorge is less than 20,000 years old. The creek's watershed is mainly rural and most of it is forested. It is the main source of flooding in six townships. Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village that historically existed on the creek. The Delaware tribe inhabited the area by 1675 and the Shawnee tribe also historically inhabited the area. Numerous mills were built on the creek in the 1700s and 1800s, including two powder mills in the Wapwallopen Gorge. The second powder mill was built in 1859 by E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company and was one of the largest powder mills in the United States at the time. That powder mill operated until 1912. Numerous bridges were built across the creek in the 1900s. The Wapwallopen Gorge is listed on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory. It is possible to canoe on of the creek, but there are some unrunnable points. Course Big Wapwallopen Creek begins in Crystal Lake in Bear Creek Township. It flows west for several tenths of a mile and enters Fairview Township. The creek turns west-southwest for approximately a mile, passing Arbutus Peak to the south and crossing Pennsylvania Route 437. It then turns west-northwest for several tenths of a mile before turning southwest and then west, crossing Pennsylvania Route 309. It passes through Pole Bridge Swamp and begins flowing along the border between Rice Township and Wright Township. Over the next couple of miles, the creek gradually turns south-southwest, still following the township line. It then passes through Hickory Swale and receives Bow Creek, its first named tributary, from the left. It turns southwest for several tenths of a mile before turning south and then southwest. It then turns west for more than a mile before turning southwest for a few miles, receiving the tributary Watering Run from the left before entering Dorrance Township and crossing Interstate 81. The creek then turns south for a few tenths of a mile before turning west and then southwest for a few miles, passing Feys Grove. It eventually turns west-southwest and enters Hollenback Township. After a few miles, the creek turns south for a short distance and receives Balliet Run, its last named tributary, from the left. It then turns west-northwest for more than a mile before turning south. At this point, the creek turns west again and enters a gorge. After several tenths of a mile, it turns north again, still flowing through the gorge and crossing the border between Hollenback Township and Nescopeck Township several times. The creek then turns west-northwest and begins flowing along the border between Nescopeck Township and Conyngham Township. After approximately a mile, it leaves the gorge and crosses Pennsylvania Route 239. It then reaches its confluence with the Susquehanna River just southwest of Wapwallopen. Big Wapwallopen Creek joins the Susquehanna River upriver of its mouth. Tributaries Big Wapwallopen Creek has three named tributaries: Balliet Run, Watering Run, and Bow Creek. The creek also has numerous unnamed tributaries. Balliet Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of . Watering Run joins Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of . Bow Creek joins Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of its mouth. Its watershed has an area of . Two unnamed tributaries of Big Wapwallopen Creek include "Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary E" and "Big Wapwallopen Creek Tributary H". Their watersheds have areas of and , respectively. Hydrology A portion of the Big Wapwallopen Creek was considered impaired according to the EPA in its "2004 Waterbody Report for Big Wapwallopen Creek." The cause of the impairment is organic enrichment and/or low levels of dissolved oxygen. The creek has a United States Geological Survey stream gage near Wapwallopen. The concentration of dissolved oxygen in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth in 1975 and 1976 ranged from 9.4 to 13.0 milligrams per liter (0.0094 to 0.0130 oz/cu ft). The concentration of hydrogen ions ranged from 0.00003 to 0.00127 milligrams per liter (3.0×10−8 to 1.269×10−6 oz/cu ft) milligrams per liter in December 1975 and February to August 1976 and the concentration of carbon dioxide ranged from 0.7 to 30 milligrams per liter (0.00070 to 0.02997 oz/cu ft) during the same time period. Between December 1975 and August 1976, the ammonia concentration ranged from 0.026 to 0.090 milligrams per liter (2.6×10−5 to 9.0×10−5 oz/cu ft). In the mid 1970s, the concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrates in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 0.60 to 1.96 milligrams per liter (3.5×10−7 to 1.13×10−6 oz/cu in). The concentration of nitrogen in the form of nitrites ranged from 0.026 to 0.076 milligrams per liter (2.6×10−5 to 7.6×10−5 oz/cu ft). The phosphorus concentration ranged from 0.050 to 0.500 milligrams per liter (5.0×10−5 to 0.000499 oz/cu ft), the sulfate concentration ranged from 10.0 to 36.0 milligrams per liter (0.0100 to 0.0360 oz/cu ft), and the chloride concentration ranged from 6.0 to 13.0 milligrams per liter (0.0060 to 0.0130 oz/cu ft). In 1975 and 1976, the calcium concentration in Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth ranged from 5.60 to 9.60 milligrams per liter (0.00559 to 0.00959 oz/cu ft). The magnesium concentration ranged between 0.50 and 5.50 milligrams per liter (0.00050 and 0.00549 oz/cu ft). The concentration of iron ranged from less than 10 to 3,150 micrograms per liter (5.8×10−9 to 1.8208×10−6 oz/cu in). The turbidity of Big Wapwallopen Creek near its mouth was measured several times in 1975 and 1976. It ranged from less than one Jackson Turbidity Unit to 50 Jackson Turbidity Units. The specific conductance of the creek ranged from 70 to 100 micro-siemens per centimeter at . The creek's pH ranged from 5.9 to 7.5 in December 1975 and February to August 1976. The concentration of water hardness in the creek between December 1975 and August 1976 ranged from 12 to 42 milligrams per liter (0.012 to 0.042 oz/cu ft). Between 1920 and 2013, the average annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at Wapwallopen was more than five times: in 1928, in 1978, in 1994, in 2004, and in 2001. The average annual discharges in these years were , , , , and , respectively. The average annual discharge of the creek has been less than four times: in 1931 and 1932, in 1965, and in 2001. The values in these years were , , and . The average annual discharge of the creek in 2013 was The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at its mouth has a 10 percent chance of reaching 3350 cubic feet per second. It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 6550 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 8400 cubic feet per second. The peak annual discharge has a 0.2 percent chance of reaching 15,000 cubic feet per second. The peak annual discharge of the creek at the confluence of Balliet Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching 1900 cubic feet per second. It has a 2 percent chance of reaching 3050 cubic feet per second and a 1 percent chance of reaching 3600 cubic feet per second. The peak annual discharge has a 0.2 percent chance of reaching 5200 cubic feet per second. The peak annual discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek upstream of the tributary Watering Run has a 10 percent chance of reaching , a 2 percent chance of reaching , a 1 percent chance of reaching , and a 0.2 percent chance of reaching . The peak annual discharge of the creek upstream of the tributary Bow Creek has a 10 percent chance of reaching , a 2 percent chance of reaching , a 1 percent chance of reaching and a 0.2 percent chance of reaching . Geography, geology, and climate The elevation near the mouth of Big Wapwallopen Creek is above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is between above sea level. The gradient of the creek for its first is . For the next it is only . From there to the creek's mouth, the gradient is . The mean elevation of the creek's watershed upstream of State Route 3012/Hobbie Road is above sea level. Big Wapwallopen Creek is in the ridge and valley physiographic province. It flows off the southwestern edge of the Pocono Plateau. Closer to its mouth, there are three large waterfalls on the creek. All of the waterfalls are more than high with the highest being high. The uppermost waterfall cuts through red sandstone. The falls are known as the Upper Falls, the Middle Falls, and the Lower Falls, respectively. Big Wapwallopen Creek has a long stretch of rapids formed from numerous small ledges and boulders. The creek flows through a gorge known as the Wapwallopen Gorge or (locally) as the Powder Hole. The gorge is in Conyngham Township, Hollenback Township, and Nescopeck Township. The creek drops a total of in the gorge. Within the gorge, there are large floodplains that are relatively forested and flat. The gorge was likely created several million years ago by the precursor to Big Wapwallopen Creek. However, the creek's original channel in this location was slightly to the west of its current one. It moved to its present channel 20,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age, when glaciers covered the area for a thousand years. Along most of the creek's length, it cut through glacial material to flow through its preglacial valley. However, at the site of the Wapwallopen Gorge it failed to do this and instead carved a new path through bedrock. The old glacial valley of Big Wapwallopen Creek was broad and gently sloping. Big Wapwallopen Creek has been described as a small creek. The topography of the creek's watershed mainly consists of broken hills, with a few swamps and lakes. Nescopeck Mountain is on the watershed's southeastern border. The channel of Big Wapwallopen Creek is sinuous and flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone and shale. The creek is surrounded by steep, high hills with a height of for its last . In the Wapwallopen Gorge, it cuts through a rib of gray siltstone belonging to the Trimmers Rock Formation. This rock formation dates to 380 million years ago (the late Devonian) and covers the northern three quarters of the gorge. It mainly consists of gray siltstone, shale, and sandstone. The southern quarter of the gorge has bedrock consisting of the Irish Valley Member of the Catskill Formation. This formation contains siltstone, sandstone, shale, and claystone. The Soil Infiltration Index near the creek at State Route 3012/Hobbie Road is . The Carbondale coal formation occurs near Big Wapwallopen Creek and also appears as far away as the Wyoming Valley. The coal formation is estimated to be long, several miles wide, and thick. It is lighter in color and burns more easily than the Mauch Chunk coal or the Lehigh Coal. The annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek ranges from . The average rate of precipitation where the creek crosses State Route 3012/Hobbie Road is per year and the average rate for the whole drainage basin is per year. A precipitation intensity of in 24 hours is expected to occur at this site once every two years. The water temperature of the creek was measured several times from late 1975 to 1976. The values ranged from in January 1976 to in August 1976. The rate of groundwater recharge in the creek's watershed is per year, or 32 percent of the annual precipitation rate. It ranges from 218 to 721 gallons per minute per square mile, with an average of 469 gallons per minute per square mile. The rate of evapotranspiration ranges from per year, with an average of per year. Watershed The watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek has an area of . At the confluence of the tributary Balliet Run, its watershed has an area of . Upstream of the tributary Watering Run, its watershed has an area of and upstream of the tributary Bow Creek, its watershed has an area of only . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Berwick. However, the source is in the quadrangle of Wilkes-Barre East. The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Wilkes-Barre West, Freeland, and Sybertsville. The creek is in the Lower North Branch Susquehanna drainage basin and its watershed is in the south-central part of Luzerne County. It flows in a general southwesterly direction. A total of 84 percent of the upper of the watershed is forested land. A total of 1 percent is storage land. The creek's mouth is located approximately to the southwest of the city of Wilkes-Barre. The community of Mountain Top is located at the headwaters of the creek. The historical community of Glen Summit Springs was also at the headwaters of the creek. Big Wapwallopen Creek flows through a rural valley with steep slopes. The uppermost of Big Wapwallopen Creek are all on private land. A dammed reservoir with an area of is located on the creek at its headwaters. This reservoir is known as Crystal Lake and it is primarily used as a public water supply. However, it is capable of reducing peak discharges on the creek in Fairview Township. Big Wapwallopen Creek is one of the main sources of flooding in Rice Township and Wright Township. It is also a primary flooding source in Conyngham Township, Dorrance Township, Fairview Township, Hollenback Township, and Nescopeck Township. However, in Conyngham Township, a 100 year flood of the creek would only inundate a small and undeveloped area. A tract of land known as American Legion Post 781 is in the vicinity of Big Wapwallopen Creek in Wright Township. The tract is owned by the North Branch Land Trust and has an area of . The watershed of the creek is away from the planned Bell Bend Nuclear Power Plant. The two sites are separated by the Susquehanna River. The designated use of Big Wapwallopen Creek is use for aquatic life. History Big Wapwallopen Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1192144. The creek is also known as Wapwallopen Creek or Big Wap.' Big Wapwallopen Creek is named after a Native American village on the Susquehanna River near the creek. The Delaware and Shawnee tribes historically had camps and wigwams on the creek. The Delaware tribe was hunting and fishing in the vicinity of the creek's watershed as early as 1675. The first land grant in Nescopeck Township was located to the west of Big Wapwallopen Creek. It was known as the Campania Tract and it was surveyed to Daniel Grant in 1769. The tract was patented to George Campbell in 1773. Prince Maximilian of Wied visited the area near the creek during his travels in North America. Nathan Beach constructed a mill on Big Wapwallopen Creek in the Wapwallopen Gorge in 1795. The mill eventually burned down by accident. Cornelius Garrison built a mill on the creek in southwestern Wright Township in 1833. A mill owned by Samuel Heller was operational on the creek as late as the late 1800s. In 1856, William Silver also built a powder mill in the Wapwallopen Gorge. He then sold partial ownership of the mill to G.P. Parrish. However, early in 1859, a freshet and an explosion destroyed the mill and caused Silver's and Parrish's company went bankrupt. E.I. Du Pont de Nemours and Company bought the site in April 1859 and constructed the powder mills known as the Wapwallopen Mills there. At that time, the mills were one of the largest powder mills in the United States. While the mills were in operation, there were fatal explosions every eight years and the infrastructure was destroyed by flooding numerous times. However, by 1868, the mills were producing 70,000 tons of black powder per year. The mills operated until 1912, when the Du Pont company moved the machinery to Moosic due to increasing costs of shipping black powder and also a desire to consolidate operations. Only ruins remain today. There were still some gristmills on the creek as late as 1955. The artist Thomas Addison Richards created a graphite-on-wove-paper drawing of Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1852. The Crystal Spring Water Company was chartered on April 11, 1861. It got its water supply from the upper reaches of the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek. In the 1800s, F.K. Miller constructed a tannery on a tributary of the creek in southeastern Dorrance Township. By 1865, the community of Dorrance had a gristmill, four sawmills, and a tavern on the creek. Historically, there was a timbering industry in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek. It was carried out by J.C. Patterson. However, the timbering was completed by the 1870s on several properties. In the early 1900s, the main industry in the watershed of Big Wapwallopen Creek was agriculture. However, the creek's main stem and Crystal Lake were used as a water supply by the Spring Brook Water Supply Company. A small hydroelectric plant and several mills operated in the lower reaches of the creek. In the early 1900s, the main population centers in the watershed included Wapwallopen, Hobbie, and Briggsville. Their populations were 450, 113, and 60, respectively. The Lehigh Valley Railroad and the Central Railroad of New Jersey historically passed through the upper part of the creek's watershed and the Wilkes-Barre and Hazleton Railway also passed through the creek's drainage basin. The Albert Methodist Church was moved from the Powder Glen near Wapwallopen in the early 1900s and dedicated in 1927. In March 1936, Big Wapwallopen Creek flooded in Rice Township to a depth of over Nuangola Road. The two largest floods in Hollenback Township occurred in August 1955 and June 1972. During these flooding events, discharge of Big Wapwallopen Creek at the Hobbie Road Bridge was 3140 and 5410 cubic feet per second, respectively. The gage heights were and , respectively. The floodwaters reached a depth of on Hobbie Road and many nearby homes were flooded. A metal truss bridge carries T-392/Faux Road over Big Wapwallopen Creek. It is long. A masonry arch bridge with a length of was built across the creek in 1897 and repaired in 1963. Another metal truss bridge was built over the creek in 1908 and is long. Three concrete tee beam bridges with lengths of , , and were constructed over the creek in 1925 and the third was repaired in 1963. A concrete slab bridge with a length of was built across the creek in 1930 and a concrete tee beam with a length of was built over the creek in 1957. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of was built over it in 1958. Another bridge of the same type, but with two spans and a length of was built over the creek in 1961. Two prestressed box beam or girders bridges with three spans were built across Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1965 and repaired in 1982. Both carried Interstate 81 and were long. A concrete culvert bridge carrying Pennsylvania Route 239 was built over the creek in 1970. This bridge is long. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of was built over the creek in 1993. A prestressed box beam or girders bridge with a length of was constructed across the creek in 1996. The Big Wapwallopen Creek Watershed Association is based on Dorrance. Biology The drainage basin of Big Wapwallopen Creek is designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection as a Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to its mouth. They also do so in all three of the creek's named tributaries. A long stretch of the creek from Crystal Lake to a powerline crossing upstream of Nuangola Road is designated as Class A Wild Trout Waters for both brook trout and brown trout. The tributaries Bow Creek and Balliet Run are also Class A Wild Trout Waters. Big Wapwallopen Creek is stocked with trout. It was stocked with rainbow trout a month before the fishing season in 2014, on March 5. It has also been stocked with brook trout at times. Minnows and suckers have been observed within the creek. A major fish kill occurred in Big Wapwallopen Creek in 1967. A tank of a caustic substance was accidentally overturned and its contents spilled into the creek, polluting it for a stretch running from approximately from the tributary Bow Creek to Legion Road/Legislative Route 40112. Approximately 4000 fish were killed, most of them minnows, suckers, and trout. Hemlock trees form a canopy over Big Wapwallopen Creek in some places. The Wapwallopen Gorge is listed as a Locally Significant site on the Luzerne County Natural Areas Inventory. Hemlock and yellow birch are common at the gorge's upper end. However, river birch and sycamore are more common at the lower end of the gorge. There are riparian forests along Big Wapwallopen Creek in the American Legion Post 781 land tract. The tract of land also contains some wet areas such as vernal pools and marshes. These areas provide breeding grounds for reptiles, amphibians, fish, and aquatic invertebrates. Recreation It is possible to canoe on of Big Wapwallopen Creek during snowmelt or within two days of heavy rain. The difficulty rating ranges from 1 to 2+, though at least one of the waterfalls in the Wapwallopen Gorge is unrunnable. Edward Gertler's book Keystone Canoeing describes the scenery as "good to excellent" and describes the creek as "short and scenic" and a "clear brook". There are also hiking opportunities along the lower reaches of the creek. There are also three swimming holes, known collectively as the Powder Hole, on Big Wapwallopen Creek. As of 2001, these have the highest injury and death rate of any swimming hole in the area. Between 1986 and 2001, at least three people died at the swimming holes and three others were severely injured. A Jewish camp known as Camp Davidowitz was historically situated along Big Wapwallopen Creek. It was from Hazleton and had an area of . The creek is designated as Approved Trout Waters from a powerline crossing upstream of Nuangola Road downstream to county road. In 2016, it opened for trout fishing on April 16. See also Walker Run, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver Little Wapwallopen Creek, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver List of rivers of Pennsylvania References Rivers of Pennsylvania Tributaries of the Susquehanna River Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania
5174613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Catholic%20Archdiocese%20of%20Lyon	Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lyon	The Archdiocese of Lyon (; ), formerly the Archdiocese of Lyon–Vienne–Embrun, is a Latin Church metropolitan archdiocese of the Catholic Church in France. The archbishops of Lyon serve as successors to Saints Pothinus and Irenaeus, the first and second bishops of Lyon, respectively, and are also called primates of Gaul. He is usually elevated to the rank of cardinal. Bishop Olivier de Germay was appointed archbishop on 22 October 2020. History Persecution The "Deacon of Vienne", who was martyred at Lyon during the persecution of 177, was probably a deacon installed at Vienne by the ecclesiastical authority of Lyon. The confluence of the Rhône and the Saône, where sixty Gallic tribes had erected the famous altar to Rome and Augustus, was also the centre from which Christianity was gradually propagated throughout Gaul. The presence at Lyon of numerous Asiatic Christians and their almost daily communications with the Orient were likely to arouse the susceptibilities of the Gallo-Romans. A persecution arose under Marcus Aurelius. Its victims at Lyon numbered forty-eight, half of them of Greek origin, half Gallo-Roman, among others Saint Blandina, and Saint Pothinus, first Bishop of Lyon, sent to Gaul by Saint Polycarp about the middle of the 2nd century. The legend according to which he was sent by Saint Clement dates from the 12th century and is without foundation. The letter addressed to the Christians of Asia and Phrygia in the name of the faithful of Vienne and Lyon, and relating the persecution of 177, is considered by Ernest Renan as one of the most extraordinary documents possessed by any literature; it is the baptismal certificate of Christianity in France. The successor of Saint Pothinus was the illustrious Saint Irenaeus (177-202). The discovery on the Hill of Saint Sebastian of ruins of a naumachia capable of being transformed into an amphitheatre, and of some fragments of inscriptions apparently belonging to an altar of Augustus, has led several archæologists to believe that the martyrs of Lyon suffered death on this hill. Very ancient tradition, however, represents the church of Ainay as erected at the place of their martyrdom. The crypt of Saint Pothinus, under the choir of the church of St. Nizier, was destroyed in 1884. But there are still revered at Lyon the prison cell of Saint Pothinus, where Anne of Austria, Louis XIV, and Pius VII came to pray, and the crypt of Saint Irenaeus built at the end of the 5th century by Saint Patiens, which contains the body of Saint Irenaeus. There are numerous funerary inscriptions of primitive Christianity in Lyon; the earliest dates from the year 334. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries, the See of Lyon enjoyed great renown throughout Gaul: witness the local legends of Besançon and of several other cities relative to the missionaries sent out by Saint Irenaeus. Faustinus, bishop in the second half of the 3rd century, wrote to Saint Cyprian and Pope Stephen I, in 254, regarding the Novatian tendencies of Marcian, Bishop of Arles. But when Diocletian's new provincial organization (tetrarchy) had taken away from Lyon its position as metropolis of the three Gauls, the prestige of Lyon diminished for a time. Merovingian period At the end of the empire and during the Merovingian period several saints, as follows, are counted among the Bishops of Lyon. Saint Justus (374-381) who died in a monastery in the Thebaid (Egypt) and was renowned for the orthodoxy of his doctrine in the struggle against Arianism (the church of the Maccabees, whither his body was brought, was as early as the 5th century a place of pilgrimage under the name of the collegiate church of Saint Justus). Saint Alpinus and Saint Martin (disciple of Saint Martin of Tours; end of 4th century); Saint Antiochus (400–410); Saint Elpidius (410–422); Saint Sicarius (422–33); Saint Eucherius (–50), a monk of Lérins and the author of homilies, from whom doubtless dates the foundation at Lyon of the "hermitages" of which more will be said below; Saint Patiens (456-98) who successfully combated the famine and Arianism, and whom Sidonius Apollinaris praised in a poem; Saint Lupicinus (491-94); Saint Rusticus (494-501); Saint Stephanus (d. before 515), who with Saint Avitus of Vienne convoked a council at Lyon for the conversion of the Arians; Saint Viventiolus (515-523), who in 517 presided with Saint Avitus at the Council of Epaone; Saint Lupus, a monk, afterwards bishop (535-42), probably the first archbishop, who when signing in 438 the Council of Orléans added the title of "metropolitanus"; Saint Sardot or Sacerdos (549-542), who presided in 549 at the Council of Orléans, and who obtained from King Childebert the foundation of the general hospital; Saint Nicetius or Nizier (552-73), who received from the pope the title of patriarch, and whose tomb was honoured by miracles. The prestige of Saint Nicetius was lasting; his successor Saint Priseus (573-588) bore the title of patriarch, and brought the council of 585 to decide that national synods should be convened every three years at the instance of the patriarch and of the king; Saint Ætherius (588-603), who was a correspondent of Saint Gregory the Great and who perhaps consecrated Saint Augustine, the Apostle of England; Saint Aredius (603-615); Saint Annemundus or Chamond (c. 650), friend of Saint Wilfrid, godfather of Clotaire III, put to death by Ebroin together with his brother, and patron of the town of Saint-Chamond, Loire; Saint Genesius or Genes (660-679 or 680), Benedictine abbot of Fontenelle, grand almoner and minister of Queen Bathilde; Saint Lambertus (c. 680-690), also abbot of Fontenelle. At the end of the 5th century Lyon was the capital of the Kingdom of Burgundy, but after 534 it passed under the domination of the kings of France. Ravaged by the Saracens in 725, the city was restored through the liberality of Charlemagne who established a rich library in the monastery of Ile Barbe. In the time of Saint Patiens and the priest Constans (d. 488) the school of Lyon was famous; Sidonius Apollinaris was educated there. The letter of Leidrade to Charlemagne (807) shows the care taken by the emperor for the restoration of learning in Lyon. With the aid of the deacon Florus he made the school so prosperous that in the 10th century Englishmen went there to study. Carolingian period Under Charlemagne and his immediate successors, the Bishops of Lyon, whose ascendancy was attested by the number of councils over which they were called to preside, played an important theological part. Adoptionism had no more active enemies than Leidrade (798-814) and Agobard (814-840). When Felix of Urgel continued rebellious to the condemnations pronounced against adoptionism from 791-799 by the Councils of Ciutad, Friuli, Ratisbon, Frankfort, and Rome, Charlemagne conceived the idea of sending to Urgel with Nebridius, Bishop of Narbonne, Benedict of Aniane, and Archbishop Leidrade, a native of Nuremberg and Charlemagne's librarian. They preached against Adoptionism in Spain, conducted Felix in 799 to the Council of Aachen where he seemed to submit to the arguments of Alcuin, and then brought him back to his diocese. But the submission of Felix was not complete; Agobard, "Chorepiscopus" of Lyon, convicted him anew of adoptionism in a secret conference, and when Felix died in 815 there was found among his papers a treatise in which he professed adoptionism. Then Agobard, who had become Archbishop of Lyon in 814 after Leidrade's retirement to the Abbey of St. Medard, Soissons, composed a long treatise against that heresy. Agobard Agobard displayed great activity as a pastor and a publicist in his opposition to the Jews and to various superstitions. His rooted hatred for all superstition led him in his treatise on images into certain expressions which savoured of Iconoclasm. The five historical treatises which he wrote in 833 to justify the deposition of Louis the Pious, who had been his benefactor, are a stain on his life. Louis the Pious, having been restored to power, caused Agobard to be deposed in 835 by the Council of Thionville, but three years later gave him back his see, in which he died in 840. During the exile of Agobard the See of Lyon had been for a short time administered by Amalarius of Metz, whom the deacon Florus charged with heretical opinions regarding the "triforme corpus Christi", and who took part in the controversies with Gottschalk on the subject of predestination. Amolon (841-852) and Saint Remy (852-75) continued the struggle against the heresy of Valence, which condemned this heresy, and also was engaged in strife with Hincmar. From 879-1032 Lyon formed part of the Kingdom of Provence and afterwards of the second Kingdom of Burgundy. In 1032 Rudolph III of Burgundy died and his kingdom eventually went to Conrad II. The portion of Lyon situated on the left bank of the Saône became, at least nominally, an imperial city. Finally Archbishop Burchard II, brother of Rudolph, claimed rights of sovereignty over Lyon as inherited from his mother, Matilda, daughter of Louis IV of France; in this way the government of Lyon, instead of being exercised by the distant emperor, became a matter of dispute between the counts who claimed the inheritance and the successive archbishops. Lyon attracted the attention of Cardinal Hildebrand, who held a council there in 1055 against the simoniacal bishops. In 1076, as Gregory VII, he deposed Archbishop Humbert (1063–76) for simony. Saint Gebuin (Jubinus), who succeeded Humbert, was the confidant of Gregory VII and contributed to the reform of the Church by the two councils of 1080 and 1082, at which were excommunicated Manasses of Reims, Fulk of Anjou, and the monks of Marmoutiers. It was under the episcopate of Saint Gebuin that Gregory VII (20 April 1079) established the primacy of the Church of Lyon over the Provinces of Rouen, Tours, and Sens, which primacy was specially confirmed by Callistus II, despite the letter written to him in 1126 by Louis VI in favour of the church of Sens. As far as it regarded the Province of Rouen this letter was later suppressed by a decree of the king's council in 1702, at the request of Jacques-Nicolas Colbert, Archbishop of Rouen. Hugh of Die (1081–1106), the successor of Saint Gebuin, friend of Saint Anselm, and for a while legate of Gregory VII in France and Burgundy, had differences later on with Victor III, who excommunicated him for a time. The latter pope came to Lyon in 1106, consecrated the church of Ainay Abbey, and dedicated one of its altars in honour of the Immaculate Conception. The Feast of the Immaculate Conception was solemnized at Lyon about 1128, perhaps at the instance of Saint Anselm of Canterbury, and Saint Bernard wrote to the canons of Lyon to complain that they should not have instituted a feast without consulting the pope. Sovereignty As soon as Thomas Becket, Archbishop of Canterbury, had been proclaimed Blessed (1173), his cult was instituted at Lyon. Lyon of the 12th century thus has a glorious place in the history of Catholic liturgy and even of dogma, but the 12th century was also marked by the heresy of Peter Waldo and the Waldenses, the Poor Men of Lyon, who were opposed by John of Canterbury (1181–1193), and by an important change in the political situation of the archbishops. In 1157 Emperor Frederick Barbarossa confirmed the sovereignty of the Archbishops of Lyon; thenceforth there was a lively contest between them and the counts. An arbitration effected by the pope in 1167 had no result, but by the treaty of 1173, Guy, Count of Forez, ceded to the canons of the primatial church of St. John his title of count of Lyon and his temporal authority. Then came the growth of the Commune, more belated in Lyon than in many other cities, but in 1193 the archbishop had to make some concession to the citizens. The 13th century was a period of conflict. Three times, in 1207, 1269, and 1290, grave troubles broke out between the partisans of the archbishop who dwelt in the château of Pierre Seize, those of the count-canons who lived in a separate quarter near the cathedral, and partisans of the townsfolk. Gregory X attempted without success to restore peace by two Acts, 2 April 1273 and 11 November 1274. The kings of France were always inclined to side with the commune; after the siege of Lyon by Louis X (1310), the treaty of 10 April 1312 definitively attached Lyon to the Kingdom of France, but until the beginning of the 15th century the Church of Lyon was allowed to coin its own money. If the 13th century had imperiled the political sovereignty of the archbishops, it had on the other hand made Lyon a kind of second Rome. Gregory X was a former canon of Lyon, while the future Innocent V was Archbishop of Lyon from 1272 to 1273. Innocent IV and Gregory X sought refuge at Lyon from the Hohenstaufen, and held there two general councils of Lyon. Local tradition relates that it was on seeing the red hat of the canons of Lyon that the courtiers of Innocent IV conceived the idea of obtaining from the Council of Lyon its decree that the cardinals should henceforth wear red hats. The sojourn of Innocent IV at Lyon was marked by numerous works of public utility, to which the pope gave vigorous encouragement. He granted indulgences to the faithful who should assist in the construction of the bridge over the Rhône, replacing that destroyed about 1190 by the passage of the troops of Richard Cœur de Lion on their way to the Crusade. The building of the churches of St. John and St. Justus was pushed forward with activity; he sent delegates even to England to solicit alms for this purpose and he consecrated the high altar in both churches. At Lyon were crowned Clement V (1305) and Pope John XXII (1310); at Lyon in 1449 the antipope Felix V renounced the tiara; there, too, was held in 1512, without any definite conclusion, the last session of the schismatical Council of Pisa against Julius II. In 1560 the Calvinists took Lyon by surprise, but they were driven out by Antoine d'Albon, Abbot of Savigny and later Archbishop of Lyon. Again masters of Lyon in 1562, they were driven thence by the Maréchal de Vieuville. At the command of the famous Baron des Adrets they committed numerous acts of violence in the region of Montbrison. It was at Lyon that Henry IV of France, the converted Calvinist king, married Marie de' Medici (9 December 1600). Later Middle Ages Gerson, whose old age was spent at Lyon in the abbey of St. Paul, where he instructed poor children, died there in 1429. Saint Francis de Sales died at Lyon on 28 December 1622. The Curé Colombet de St. Amour was celebrated at St. Etienne in the 17th century for the generosity with which he founded the Hôtel-Dieu (the charity hospital) and free schools, and also fed the workmen during the famine of 1693. M. Guigue has catalogued the eleven "hermitages" (eight of them for men and three for women) which were distinctive of the ascetical life of Christian Lyon in the Middle Ages; these were cells in which persons shut themselves up for life after four years of trial. The system of hermitages along the lines described by Grimalaius and Olbredus in the 9th century flourished especially from the 11th to the 13th century, and disappeared completely in the 16th. These hermitages were the private property of a neighbouring church or monastery, which installed therein for life a male or female recluse. The general almshouse of Lyon, or charity hospital, was founded in 1532 after the great famine of 1531, under the supervision of eight administrators chosen from among the more important citizens. The institution of the jubilee of Saint Nizier dates beyond a doubt to the stay of Innocent IV at Lyon. This jubilee, which had all the privileges of the secular jubilees of Rome, was celebrated each time that Low Thursday, the feast of Saint Nizier, coincided with 2 April, i.e. whenever the feast of Easter itself was on the earliest day allowed by the paschal cycle, namely 22 March. In 1818, when this coincidence occurred, the feast of Saint Nizier was not celebrated. But the cathedral of St. John also enjoys a great jubilee each time that the feast of Saint John the Baptist coincides with Corpus Christi, that is, whenever the feast of Corpus Christi falls on 24 June. It is certain that in 1451 the coincidence of these two feasts was celebrated with special splendour by the population of Lyon, then emerging from the troubles of the Hundred Years' War, but there is no document to prove that the jubilee indulgence existed at that date. However, Lyonnese tradition places the first great jubilee in 1451; subsequent jubilees took place in 1546, 1666, 1734 and 1886. "Among the Churches of France", wrote Saint Bernard to the canons of Lyon, "that of Lyon has hitherto had ascendancy over all the others, as much for the dignity of its see as for its praiseworthy institutions. It is especially in the Divine Office that this judicious Church has never readily acquiesced in unexpected and sudden novelties, and has never submitted to be tarnished by innovations which are becoming only to youth." Montazet controversy In the 18th century Archbishop Antoine de Montazet, contrary to the Bull of Pius V on the breviary, changed the text of the breviary and the missal, from which there resulted a century of conflict for the Church of Lyon. The efforts of Pope Pius IX and Cardinal Bonald to suppress the innovations of Montazet provoked resistance on the part of the canons, who feared an attempt against the traditional Lyonnese ceremonies. This culminated in 1861 in a protest on the part of the clergy and the laity, as much with regard to the civil power as to the Vatican. Finally, on 4 February 1864, at a reception of the parish priests of Lyon, Pius IX declared his displeasure at this agitation and assured them that nothing should be changed in the ancient Lyonnese ceremonies; by a Brief of 17 March 1864, he ordered the progressive introduction of the Roman breviary and missal in the diocese. The primatial church of Lyon adopted them for public services on 8 December 1869. One of the rites of the ancient Gallican liturgy, retained by the Church of Lyon, is the blessing of the people by the bishop at the moment of Communion. 1800s The Concordat of 1801 assigned as the boundaries of the Archdiocese of Lyon the Departments of the Rhône and Loire and the Ain and as suffragans the Dioceses of Mende, Grenoble, and Chambéry. The Archdiocese of Lyon was authorized by Letters Apostolic of 29 November 1801, to unite with his title the titles of the suppressed metropolitan Sees of Vienne and Embrun. Thus the dioceses of Belley and Mâcon, were suppressed on November 29, 1801 with all of Belley's and some of Mâcon's territory added to the Archdiocese. The Diocese of Belley was restored on October 6, 1822, while the Archdiocese's name changed to Lyon-Vienne, with the title of Embrun passing to the Archbishop of Aix (from whence, 2008, to the Bishop of Gap). 1900s A new diocese of Saint-Étienne was erected on December 26, 1970, from the Archdiocese's territory. The Archdiocese's name returned to Lyon on December 15, 2006 (with the title of Vienne passing to its suffragan Grenoble). Saints The Diocese of Lyon honours as saints: Saint Epipodius and his companion Saint Alexander, probably martyrs under Marcus Aurelius; the priest Saint Peregrinus (3rd century); Saint Baldonor (Galmier), a native of Aveizieux, at first a locksmith, whose piety was remarked by the bishop, Saint Viventiolus: he became a cleric at the Abbey of St. Justus, then subdeacon, and died about 760; the thermal resort of "Aquæ Segestæ", in whose church Viventiolus met him, has taken the name of Saint Galmier; Saint Viator (d. about 390), who followed the Bishop Saint Justus to the Thebaid; Saints Romanus and Lupicinus (5th century), natives of the Diocese of Lyon, who lived as solitaries within the present territory of the Diocese of Saint-Claude; Saint Consortia, d. about 578, who, according to a legend criticized by Tillemont, was a daughter of Saint Eucherius; Saint Rambert, soldier and martyr in the 7th century, patron of the town of the same name; Blessed Jean Pierre Néel, b. in 1832 at Ste. Catherine sur Riviere, martyred at Kay-Tcheou in 1862. Suffragan Dioceses Annecy Belley-Ars Archdiocese of Chambéry Grenoble-Vienne Saint-Étienne Valence (-Die-Saint-Paul-Trois-Châteaux) Viviers Province Suffragan as Primate of the Gauls: Rouen Tours Sens (former province) Prelates Bishops of Lyon incomplete Saint Pothinus ( –177) Saint Irenaeus Archbishops of Lyon incomplete Zechariah of Lyon (195 – after 202) Helios of Lyon Faustinus (second half of the 3rd century) Lucius Verus Julius Ptolémaeus Vocius fl.314 Maximus (Maxime) Tétradius (Tetrade) Verissimus fl. 343 St. Justus (374–381) St. Alpinus fl.254 St. Martin (disciple of St. Martin of Tours; end of 4th century) St. Antiochus (400–410) St. Elpidius (410–422) St. Sicarius (422–433) St. Eucherius (–450) St. Patiens (456–498) who successfully combated the famine and Arianism, and whom Sidonius Apollinaris praised in a poem St. Lupicinus (491–494) St. Rusticus (494–501) St. Stephanus (501 – Before 515), who with St. Avitus of Vienne, convoked a council at Lyon for the conversion of the Arians St. Viventiolus (515–523), who in 517 presided with St. Avitus at the Council of Epaone St. Lupus (535–542), a monk, probably the first archbishop, who when signing in 538 the Council of Orléans added the title of "metropolitanus" Licontius (Léonce) St. Sardot or Sacerdos (549–552) St. Nicetius or Nizier (552–73), Patriarch St. Priscus of Lyon (573–588), Patriarch St. Ætherius (588–603), who was a correspondent of St. Gregory the Great and who perhaps consecrated St. Augustine, the Apostle of England St. Aredius (603–615) St. Viventius St. Annemund or Chamond (c. 650), friend of St. Wilfrid, godfather of Clotaire III, put to death by Ebroin together with his brother, and patron of the town of Saint-Chamond, Loire St. Genesius or Genes (660–679 or 680), Benedictine Abbot of Fontenelle, grand almoner and minister of Queen Bathilde St. Lambertus (c. 680–690), also Abbot of Fontenelle Leidrad (798–814) Agobard, Chorbishop ( –814) Agobard (814–834, 837–840) Amalarius of Metz (834–837) administrator Amulo, (840-852) Remigius (852–875) St. Aurelian (d. 895) Burchard II of Lyon (?–?) Burchard III of Lyon (?–1036) Halinard (1046–1052) Primates of Gauls and Archbishop of Lyon 1077–1082 Saint Gebuin 1081–1106 Hugh of Die 1128–1129 Renaud of Semur 1131–1139 Peter I fl. 1180 Guichard of Pontigny 1193–1226 Renaud de Forez 1227–1234 Robert of Auvergne 1289 Bérard de Got 1290–1295 Louis of Naples 1301–1308 Louis de Villars 1308–1332 Peter of Savoy 1340–1342 Guy III d'Auvergne, Cardinal de Boulogne, papal diplomat 1342–1354 Henri II de Villars 1356–1358 Raymond Saquet 1358–1365 Guillaume II de Thurey 1365–1375 Charles d'Alençon 1375–1389 Jean II de Talaru 1389–1415 Philippe III de Thurey 1415–1444 Amédée II de Talaru 1444–1446 Geoffroy II de Versailles 1447–1488 Charles II of Bourbon 1488–1499 Hugues II de Talaru 1499–1500 André d'Espinay (cardinal) 1501–1536 François II de Rohan 1537–1539 John, Cardinal of Lorraine 1539–1551 Ippolito II d'Este, whom king Francis I of France named Cardinal protector of the crown of France at the court of Pope Paul III, and a patron of scholars 1551–1562 Cardinal François de Tournon, who negotiated several times between Francis I and Emperor Charles V, combated the Reformation and founded the Collège de Tournon, which the Jesuits later made one of the most celebrated educational establishments of the kingdom 1562–1564 Ippolito II d'Este, whom king Francis I of France named Cardinal protector of the crown of France at the court of Pope Paul III, and a patron of scholars 1564–1573 Antoine d'Albon, editor of Rufinus and Ausonius 1573–1599 Pierre d'Epinac, active auxiliary of the League 1612–1626 Denis-Simon de Marquemont 1628–1653 Alphonse-Louis du Plessis de Richelieu (Sep 1628 – 23 Mar 1653) 1653–1693 Camille de Neufville de Villeroy 1714–1731 François-Paul de Neufville de Villeroy (15 Aug 1714 – 6 Feb 1731) 1732–1739 Charles-François de Châteauneuf de Rochebonne 1740–1758 Pierre Guérin de Tencin (11 Nov 1740 – 2 Mar 1758) 1758–1788 Antoine de Malvin de Montazet (16 Mar 1758 – 2 May 1788), of Jansenist tendencies, and who had published for his seminary by the Oratorian Joseph Valla six volumes of "Institutiones theologicæ" known as "Théologie de Lyon", and spread throughout Italy by Scipio Ricci until condemned by the Index in 1792 1788–1799 Yves-Alexandre de Marbeuf (12 May 1788 – 15 Apr 1799) 1791–1794 Antoine-Adrien Lamourette (1742–1794), constitutional bishop of Lyon from 27 March 1791 to 11 January 1794, the date of his death on the scaffold. Primates of Gauls and Archbishop of Lyon-Vienne (Cardinal) Joseph Fesch (29 July 1802 – 13 May 1839) Archbishop of Lyon-Vienne-Embrun (until 1822) (Cardinal) Joachim-Jean d'Isoard (13 June 1839 – 7 October 1839) (Cardinal) Louis-Jacques-Maurice de Bonald (4 December 1839 – 25 February 1870) Jacques-Marie Ginoulhiac (2 March 1870 – 17 November 1875), known for his "Histoire du dogme catholique pendant let trois premiers siècles". (Cardinal) Louis-Marie Caverot (20 April 1876 – 23 January 1887) (Cardinal) Joseph-Alfred Foulon (23 March 1887 – 23 January 1893) (Cardinal) Pierre-Hector Coullie (14 June 1893 – 11 September 1912) (Cardinal) Hector Sévin (2 December 1912 – 4 May 1916) (Cardinal) Louis-Joseph Maurin (1 December 1916 – 16 November 1936) (Cardinal) Pierre-Marie Gerlier (30 July 1937 – 17 January 1965) (Cardinal) Jean-Marie Villot (17 January 1965 – 7 April 1967) (Cardinal) Alexandre Renard (28 May 1967 – 29 October 1981) (Cardinal) Albert Decourtray (29 October 1981 – 16 September 1994) (Cardinal) Jean Marie Balland (27 May 1995 – 1 March 1998) (Cardinal) Louis-Marie Billé (10 July 1998 – 12 March 2002) (Cardinal) Philippe Barbarin (16 July 2002 – 6 March 2020) Olivier de Germay (20 December 2020 – present) See also Catholic Church in France History of Lyon References Bibliography Reference works (Use with caution; obsolete) (in Latin) (in Latin) Studies External links Centre national des Archives de l'Église de France, L'Épiscopat francais depuis 1919, retrieved: 2016-12-24. Lyon Dioceses established in the 2nd century Christianity in Lyon Roman Lyon Medieval Lyon 19th century in Lyon 18th century in Lyon
5174671	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/30%20Rock	30 Rock	30 Rock is an American satirical sitcom television series created by Tina Fey that originally aired on NBC from October 11, 2006, to January 31, 2013. The series, based on Fey's experiences as head writer for Saturday Night Live, takes place behind the scenes of a fictional live sketch comedy show depicted as airing on NBC. The series's name refers to 30 Rockefeller Plaza in New York City, where the NBC Studios are located and where Saturday Night Live is written, produced, and performed. The series was produced by Lorne Michaels's Broadway Video (which also produces Saturday Night Live) and Fey's Little Stranger, in association with NBCUniversal. 30 Rock episodes were produced in a single-camera setup (with the exception of the two live episodes that were produced in the multiple-camera setup) and were filmed in New York. The pilot episode premiered on October 11, 2006, and seven seasons followed. The series stars Fey with a supporting cast that includes Alec Baldwin, Tracy Morgan, Jane Krakowski, Jack McBrayer, Scott Adsit, Judah Friedlander, Katrina Bowden, Keith Powell, Lonny Ross, John Lutz, Kevin Brown, Grizz Chapman, and Maulik Pancholy. Tonally, 30 Rock uses surreal humor to parody the complex corporate structure of NBC and its parent companies General Electric and Comcast. Described as "a live-action cartoon", the show was influential in its extensive use of cutaways. 30 Rock won several major awards (including Primetime Emmy Awards for Outstanding Comedy Series in 2007, 2008, and 2009 and nominations for every other year it ran) and appeared on many critics' year-end "best of" 2006–2013 lists. On July 14, 2009, the series was nominated for 22 Primetime Emmy Awards, the most in a single year for a comedy series. Over the course of the series, it was nominated for 103 Primetime Emmy Awards and won 16, in addition to numerous other nominations and wins from other awards shows. Despite the high praise, the series struggled in the ratings throughout its run, something which Fey herself has made light of. In 2009, Comedy Central and WGN America bought the syndication rights to the show, which began airing on both networks on September 19, 2011; the series also entered into local broadcast syndication on the same day. 30 Rock is regarded as a landmark series, and one of the greatest television series of all time, particularly the 21st century. Its series finale in particular has been named as one of the greatest in television history by several publications. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America West named 30 Rock the 21st best-written television series of all time. Premise Liz Lemon is head writer and showrunner of the NBC sketch comedy series TGS with Tracy Jordan (originally called The Girlie Show), produced in Studio 6H in 30 Rockefeller Plaza. She supervises cast and crew, including star Jenna Maroney, her best friend, while working with network executive Jack Donaghy and page Kenneth Parcell. In the first episode, Jack forces Liz to hire the unpredictable Tracy Jordan as co-star. Episodes often depict conservative Jack and liberal Liz's disagreements, Jenna's attempts to become a film star, Tracy's immature behavior, and the characters' romantic and personal lives. The show satirizes the cultures of NBC, parent company General Electric, and the entertainment industry. The network airs programs like reality shows MILF Island, Queen of Jordan and America's Kidz Got Singing as well as paranormal drama Hunchbacks, and game shows Gold Case and Celebrity Homonym. In later seasons, the show depicts the network being acquired by Philadelphia-based media company Kabletown, a fictionalization of the acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast. Development and production Conception In 2002, Fey was the head writer and a performer on the television show Saturday Night Live (SNL). She pitched the show that became 30 Rock to NBC, originally as a sitcom about cable news. NBC Entertainment president Kevin Reilly felt that "Fey was using the news setting as a fig leaf for her own experience and [he] encouraged her to write what she knew." The show was subsequently reworked to revolve around an SNL-style sketch show. After being presented to Reilly once more, the show was set to air during the 2005–2006 television season. In May 2003, Fey signed a contract with NBC to remain in her SNL head writer position until at least the 2004–2005 television season and to develop a primetime project to be produced by Broadway Video and NBC Universal. Filming was postponed due to Tina Fey's first pregnancy. During the 2004–2005 pilot season, a pilot was announced named Untitled Tina Fey Project. The 30 Rock pilot focused on the boss of a variety show who must manage her relationships with the show's volatile star and its charismatic executive producer. The storyline evolved into one that dealt with a head writer of a variety show who dealt with both of the stars, as well as the show's new network executive. 30 Rock was officially given the green light to air May 15, 2006, along with a 13-episode order. The series underwent further changes during the months leading up to and following its debut. A May 2006 press release mentioned that sketches from The Girlie Show would be made available in their entirety on NBC's broadband website, DotComedy.com. The idea was to air the fictitious TGS with Tracy Jordan online. This aspect of the series was abandoned prior to its debut. Filming Interior scenes for 30 Rock were mostly filmed at Silvercup Studios in Long Island City, Queens, New York City (Studio 8H in 30 Rock in Manhattan for two live episodes). In the episodes "Cleveland" and "Hiatus", Battery Park City, Manhattan, and Douglaston, Queens, doubled for Cleveland, Ohio and Needmore, Pennsylvania, respectively. The show often built elaborate sets, once using a set that took three days to build for only six seconds of video. In the episode "Gavin Volure", stock footage of the Arkansas Governor's Mansion was used for exterior shots of the home of Steve Martin's character. The title sequence comprises photos and videos of 30 Rockefeller Plaza and features the series regulars. The sequence ends with a time lapse of the building and then a title card reading "30 Rock". The sequence remained mostly the same throughout the series, although changes were made to most of the actors' images. Music The series features a "jaunty" jazz score. Most of the incidental music melody is played by either clarinet, bass clarinet, saxophone, or strings, often as wildly varying renditions of the usual central theme. The music is composed by Fey's husband, Jeff Richmond, who is also a producer for 30 Rock. Richmond wrote the theme music, which was nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Main Title Theme Music. Seven short, original songs have been featured in episodes, five of which were performed by Krakowski, another performed by Fey and Jason Sudeikis, and another performed by Morgan. The show also covered three existing songs, including the song "Midnight Train to Georgia" by Gladys Knight and the Pips. The song had its lyrics altered to accommodate the character Kenneth being "misinformed about the time [of the 11:45 train]". The song "Oh My" performed by The Gray Kid is heard throughout the episode "The Source Awards", which was mixed with a piano arrangement composed by Richmond. "Kidney Now!", a rendition of the popular song, "We Are the World", is performed by various artists in the season-three finale. Other popular songs have been featured (with blessings by the singers), such as "I Will Remember You" or "Bitch". The 30 Rock Original Television Soundtrack was released by the Relativity Music Group on November 16, 2010. Internet content On April 2, 2008, NBC announced 30 Rock 360, an online extension of the 30 Rock series. The extension featured Jack Donaghy's Online Business Courses (or Jack U). Users could also read Jack's blogs and upload their own business advice in video form. Users could submit sketches for TGS with Tracy Jordan and act out skits from TGS. The feature reopened Ask Tina, an interactive question and answer platform in which users could ask Fey questions. Fey answered the questions in video form. Ask Tina was a fixture on NBC.com's 30 Rock section throughout the first season. Cast and characters Main 30 Rock features an ensemble cast. The seven roles that receive star billing during the opening credits are: Tina Fey as Liz Lemon, a "sexually frightened know-it-all" and head writer of TGS with Tracy Jordan Tracy Morgan as Tracy Jordan, the loose-cannon, crazy, and unpredictable star of TGS Jane Krakowski as Jenna Maroney, the original star of The Girlie Show, co-star of TGS and Liz's constantly attention-seeking, arrogant, narcissistic, and clueless best friend Jack McBrayer as Kenneth Ellen Parcell, a cheerful, simple-minded, obedient Southern-born NBC page who "lives for television" Scott Adsit as Pete Hornberger, the "sane," quick-witted producer of TGS, who often reveals embarrassing details about his family life Judah Friedlander as Frank Rossitano, a trucker hat-wearing, manchildish, sarcastic writer at TGS whose hat bears a different phrase in every episode Alec Baldwin as Jack Donaghy, the decisive, controlling, suave, and occasionally senseless network executive who constantly interferes with the goings-on at TGS Beginning with season two, several actors received star billing after the opening credits. Katrina Bowden as Cerie Xerox, Liz's beautiful, laid-back assistant, who usually wears revealing outfits to work, much to the delight of the writers' room (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1) Keith Powell as James "Toofer" Spurlock, a TGS writer who is "two for one," a Harvard guy and a black guy, and the polar opposite of both Tracy and Frank (seasons 2–7; recurring season 1) Lonny Ross as Josh Girard, a young and immature TGS writer and co-star, known for his impressions (seasons 2–4; recurring season 1) Kevin Brown as Walter "Dot Com" Slattery, an erudite member of Tracy's entourage who is also a Wesleyan University-trained stage actor (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2) Grizz Chapman as Warren "Grizz" Griswold, a gentle giant member of Tracy's entourage (seasons 3–7; recurring seasons 1–2) Maulik Pancholy as Jonathan, Jack's loyal and overprotective personal assistant, who at times appears to be in love with Jack (seasons 3–5, 7; recurring seasons 1–2) John Lutz as J. D. Lutz, a lazy, overweight TGS writer who is often insulted or made fun of by the rest of the staff (seasons 4–7; recurring seasons 1–3) Recurring Dean Winters as Dennis Duffy, Liz's irresponsible ex-boyfriend Chris Parnell as Leo Spaceman, Tracy's quack doctor who regularly provides him with experimental treatments Jason Sudeikis as Floyd DeBarber, a lawyer working in 30 Rockefeller who dates Liz before moving home to Cleveland Rachel Dratch appears as several minor characters in seasons 1, 5, and 6, including 4 episodes as Greta Johansen, a cat wrangler working on TGS Sue Galloway as Sue LaRoche-Van der Hout, a French-Dutch writer hired by TGS and often referred to as "girl writer" Cheyenne Jackson as Jack "Danny" Baker, a TGS cast member added in the fourth season James Marsden as Criss Chros, Liz's boyfriend and later husband, who ran a hot dog stand in his first episodes of the series Casting Fey worked with Jen McNamara and Adam Bernstein for the casting of the series. Fey's first act as casting director was to cast herself as the lead character, Liz Lemon, who is said to be much like Fey herself when she first became head writer on SNL. The next actor to be cast was Tracy Morgan as Tracy Jordan, who was then a former castmate of Fey's in SNL. Morgan was asked by Fey to play the role, and he believed it was "right up [his] alley and it was tailor made for [him]". Fey said that the character of Kenneth was written with McBrayer in mind. McBrayer is an old friend of Fey's (they worked together at Second City in Chicago), and she "really wanted him for that part and was very happy when no one objected". Rachel Dratch, Fey's longtime comedy partner and fellow SNL alumna, was originally cast to portray Jenna. Dratch played the role in the show's original pilot, but in August 2006, Krakowski was announced as Dratch's replacement, with Dratch remaining involved in the show playing various characters. Fey explained the change by noting that Dratch was better-suited to playing a variety of side characters, which was suitable when the show intended to feature actual sketches from TGS with Tracy Jordan. However, this aspect of the show was scrapped, thus they required more of a straight-ahead acting part for the role of Jenna. Although Fey went on to say, "Rachel and I were both very excited about this new direction," Dratch said that she was not happy with the media's depiction of the change as a demotion; furthermore, she was also skeptical about the reasons she was given for the change and was not happy with the reduction in the number of episodes in which she would appear. Following the first season, Dratch only appeared in a handful of episodes. Shortly following the casting of McBrayer and Dratch, Baldwin was cast as Jack, the "totally uncensored" vice president of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming. Fey said that the character of Jack was written with Baldwin in mind, and she was "very pleasantly surprised when he agreed to do it". Judah Friedlander was cast as Frank Rossitano, a staff writer of The Girlie Show. Friedlander had never met Fey before auditioning for a role in 30 Rock. His character was based on at least two writers with whom Fey used to work at SNL, but he has said that he "certainly brought some of [his] own things to it, as well". Finally, Scott Adsit was cast as Pete Hornberger, a longtime friend of Liz's and producer of The Girlie Show. Adsit, an old friend of Fey's, also had his character written based on him. Following SNLs ongoing tradition, 30 Rock had several real-life politician cameos, including Al Gore (twice), Nancy Pelosi (series finale) and Condoleezza Rice (as Jack's former love interest). Episodes Season one Season one began airing on October 11, 2006, and featured 21 episodes. The season finale aired on April 26, 2007. Jack Donaghy, the "Head of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming" at General Electric (GE), is transferred to work at the NBC headquarters, 30 Rockefeller Plaza, and retool the late-night sketch-comedy series The Girlie Show. The show's cast and crew are outraged by this, especially head writer Liz Lemon and main actress Jenna Maroney. Jack proceeds to wreak havoc on The Girlie Show, forcing Liz to hire off-the-wall movie star Tracy Jordan. He again irritates the cast and crew of The Girlie Show when he changes the name to TGS with Tracy Jordan (or just TGS). As the season progresses, the episodes become less about TGS and more about how the characters deal with juggling their lives and their jobs . Specifically, Liz, but other characters are also explored. Episodes also become less self-contained, and various story arcs develop in the second half of the season. For example, the first major story arc centers on Liz's relationship with Dennis Duffy (Dean Winters), "The Beeper King". Other story arcs include Jenna promoting her movie The Rural Juror; Tracy going on the run from the Black Crusaders; Jack's engagement, which was eventually called off, to a Christie's auctioneer named Phoebe (Emily Mortimer); and another relationship of Liz's with Floyd (Sudeikis). Season two Season two began airing on October 4, 2007, and featured 15 episodes. The second season was originally intended to consist of 22 episodes, but the order was cut to 15 due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The season finale aired on May 8, 2008. After Liz broke up with Floyd in the summer, she is looking for ways to rebound. When Jerry Seinfeld confronts Jack about a new marketing campaign which featured clips of Seinfeld's sitcom, Seinfeld, in all NBC shows, he has a chance encounter with Liz that gives her some much-needed advice. During the TGS summer hiatus, Jenna becomes overweight due to performing in the Broadway show Mystic Pizza: The Musical (based on the real 1988 film Mystic Pizza). Tracy has encountered some marital problems with his wife Angie Jordan (Sherri Shepherd) and they become separated, but later reunite. During the season, Jack develops a relationship with a Democratic congresswoman named Celeste "C. C." Cunningham (Edie Falco). They later break up. An arc that was established in the first season, but becomes more apparent in the second, regards Jack running for the GE chairmanship against his nemesis Devon Banks (Will Arnett). The season ends with Liz planning to adopt a child after believing she was pregnant with Dennis' baby. Kenneth also travels to Beijing to be a page at the 2008 Summer Olympics, and Tracy invents a pornographic video game. Jack ends the season working at a new government job in Washington, DC, but plans to get fired by proposing a "gay bomb". Season three Season three began airing October 30, 2008, and concluded on May 14, 2009. The show experienced a large ratings and popularity spike this season after Tina Fey's highly praised performance as Sarah Palin on SNL. This is also the season where the show made Primetime Emmy Award history, being nominated for 22 awards. The season consisted of 22 episodes. Oprah Winfrey guest-starred in the second episode, playing herself (actually a drug-induced hallucination of Liz's), as well as Jennifer Aniston playing Liz's ex-roommate. Salma Hayek also appeared for a multiple-episode arc, portraying Jack's new girlfriend, Elisa. Other guest stars this season included John Lithgow, Kerry Butler, Megan Mullally, Peter Dinklage, and Steve Martin. Jon Hamm played Liz's love interest and neighbor for several episodes. Alan Alda appeared in the season's final two episodes as Milton Greene, Jack's biological father. Season four The fourth season premiered on October 15, 2009. Like the previous season, it also consisted of 22 episodes. A recurring story arc early in the season revolved around Jack's request that Liz cast a new actor for TGS and Liz's subsequent search for the perfect comedian, much to Jenna and Tracy's dismay, who fear losing their spotlight. The show fictionalizes the acquisition of NBC Universal by Comcast, announced during the season, by portraying the network being acquired by Philadelphia-based cable company Kabletown. The latter half of the season focused on complementary story arcs: Jack's inability to choose between his two girlfriends, Liz's inability to find a boyfriend to live up to her expectations, and Jenna's relationship with a Jenna Maroney impersonator. The season also featured such guest stars as Jeff Dunham, Julianne Moore, Jon Bon Jovi, Cheyenne Jackson, Sherri Shepherd, Will Forte, Elizabeth Banks, Michael Sheen, Matt Damon, and James Franco. Season five 30 Rock premiered its fifth season on September 23, 2010. An [[Live Show\|episode of 30 Rock'''s fifth season]] was produced and broadcast live, twice, on the evening of October 14, 2010. The two separate performances resulted in a live telecast of the episode to American viewers on both the West and East Coasts, to ensure both would view a live performance. Produced in front of a live audience, the episode aired at 8:30 pm EDT and PDT on NBC. A ratings success, the episode was also met with positive reviews. Season five focuses on Liz Lemon's continuing relationship with Carol Burnett (Matt Damon), Jack's start into fatherhood with fiancée Avery Jessup (Elizabeth Banks), struggling with the merger of NBCUniversal with Kabletown, Tracy's foray into getting an EGOT, and Kenneth's attempt to get back to NBC. Aside from featuring the return of Rachel Dratch in "Live Show," other guest stars include Matt Damon, Elizabeth Banks, Susan Sarandon (as Frank's former teacher- who was in prison due to their relationship while he was a student- and present girlfriend), Paul Giamatti (as one of the TGS editors), Sherri Shepherd, Queen Latifah, Rob Reiner, John Amos, Jon Hamm (reprising his role as Drew, Liz Lemon's former love interest who despite being a doctor, she dumped for being too dumb), Julia Louis-Dreyfus (playing the reimagined version of Liz Lemon and also as herself playing this character in "Live Show"), Bill Hader, Chris Parnell, Kelsey Grammer (playing himself), Buck Henry, David Gregory, John Slattery, Daniel Sunjata, Will Forte, Kelly Coffield Park, Elaine Stritch, Dr. Condoleezza Rice, Alan Alda, Cheyenne Jackson, Robert De Niro (playing himself), Dean Winters, Ken Howard, Vanessa Minnillo, Brian Williams (playing himself), Richard Belzer, Ice-T, John Cho, Chloë Grace Moretz (as Kaylie Hooper – the granddaughter of Kabletown CEO Hank Hooper and Jack's sworn enemy as heir to the Kabletown throne), Terrence Mann (as oceanographer Bob Ballard), Cristin Milioti (as Abby Flynn in "TGS Hates Women"), Eion Bailey, Adriane Lenox, Michael Keaton, Margaret Cho (as Avery's kidnapper, North Korean dictator Kim Jong-il), and Tom Hanks (as himself in "100: Part 1" and "100: Part 2"). Season six The sixth season debuted mid-season on January 12, 2012, to accommodate Tina Fey's second pregnancy. Season six finds Liz emotionally maturing while in a new relationship; Jack continues to attempt to recover his wife from North Korea and find his identity at Kabletown, Kenneth moves up (and later down) the corporate ladder. Jenna reaches a new level of fame due to being a judge on a reality show and considers settling down with boyfriend Paul. Many LGBT groups called for Tracy Morgan's resignation or dismissal from the show due to anti-gay comments he made between the end of season five and the filming for season six. Morgan issued an apology and continued with his starring role. 30 Rock had previously received an award from GLAAD, commending the show on its portrayal of LGBT themes and characters. The scandal inspired the second episode of the season, in which Tracy Jordan goes on an offensive rant during a standup set, forcing the show to apologize on his behalf after he mistakenly apologizes to Glad, the plastic bag company, instead of GLAAD. Season seven30 Rock returned for a final, abbreviated season consisting of 13 episodes, which began airing on October 4, 2012. Alec Baldwin reportedly approached NBC and offered to cut his pay for 30 Rock to be renewed for a full seventh and eighth seasons, stating on Twitter: "I offered NBC to cut my pay 20% in order to have a full 7th and 8th seasons of 30 Rock. I realize times have changed." Season seven continues to develop the relationship between Liz and Criss (James Marsden), as the pair try for children and consider getting married. Meanwhile, Jack attempts to improve his prospects at the company, first by trying to "tank" NBC and convince Kabletown CEO Hank Hooper (Ken Howard) to sell it, and later by plotting to discredit Hooper's granddaughter and future CEO, Kaylee Hooper (Chloë Grace Moretz). Ultimately, however, he begins to wonder if he is truly happy. Elsewhere, Tracy has found success with his new movie studio, which produces comedy films mostly starring African American actors, similarly to Tyler Perry; Jenna prepares to marry her long-term boyfriend Paul (Will Forte), and Kenneth has started a relationship with Hazel (Kristen Schaal), unaware that she is using him to get her moment on TGS. Reception Critical30 Rock has received many positive reviews from critics. Chris Harnick, writing in the Huffington Post, has ranked it along with I Love Lucy and Seinfeld as one of the great TV comedies. The Writers Guild of America West listed it as the 21st best written TV series. Its series finale has been rated highly by several publications. HitFix ranked it the 15th best series final, IndieWire included it in its list of 16 best series finals, and HuffPost named it the 5th best. The first season of 30 Rock was reviewed favorably by critics. Metacritic gave the pilot episode a Metascore—a weighted average based on the impressions of a select thirty-one critical reviews—of 67 out of 100. Robert Abele of LA Weekly declared that the show was a "weirdly appropriate and hilarious symbol of our times". The Wall Street Journal's Dorothy Rabinowitz wrote that the "standard caution is relevant—debut episodes tend to be highly polished. All the more reason to enjoy the hilarious scenes and fine ensemble cast here". Some less favorable reviews were received from Brian Lowry of Variety. Lowry said, "Despite her success with Mean Girls, Fey mostly hits too-familiar notes in the pilot. Moreover, she's a limited protagonist, which is problematic." Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune criticized "30 Rock for being less than the sum of its parts, and, as an entry in the single-camera comedy sweepstakes, it fails to show either the inspired inventiveness of Arrested Development or provide the surprisingly perceptive character studies of The Office". At the end of 2006, LA Weekly listed 30 Rock as one of the best "Series of the Year". The show also appeared on similar year end "best of" 2006 lists published by The New York Times, The A.V. Club, The Boston Globe, the Chicago Sun-Times, Entertainment Weekly, the Los Angeles Times, the Miami Herald, People Weekly, and TV Guide. The Associated Press wrote that NBC's "Thursday night comedy block—made up of My Name Is Earl, The Office, Scrubs, and 30 Rock—is consistently the best night of prime time viewing for any network." In 2007, it appeared on The Boston Globe's "best of" list as well as the "best of" lists of the Chicago Sun-Times, the Chicago Tribune, Entertainment Weekly, the Los Angeles Times, Newark Star-Ledger, The New York Times, Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, The San Francisco Chronicle, The San Jose Mercury News, TV Guide and USA Today. 30 Rock was named the best series of 2007 by Entertainment Weekly. At the end of 2009, Newsweek magazine ranked 30 Rock as the best comedy on TV in the past decade, and at the end of 2010, Metacritic reported that the show ranked 12th place in their list of collected Television Critic Top Ten Lists. At the end of 2012, a poll undertaken by 60 Minutes and Vanity Fair named 30 Rock the seventh greatest sitcom of all time. In 2013, the Writers Guild of America named 30 Rock as one of the best-written television series of all time, ranking it at 21st place. In 2019, the series was ranked 12th on The Guardian newspaper's list of the 100 best TV shows of the 21st century. Awards and nominations Capping its critically successful first season, 30 Rock won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series and Elaine Stritch was awarded Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series in September 2007 for her work as a guest actress in the season one finale episode, "Hiatus". Tina Fey and Alec Baldwin were nominated in the Outstanding Lead Actress and Outstanding Lead Actor in a comedy series categories, respectively. "Jack-Tor" and "Tracy Does Conan" were both nominated for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series. 30 Rock received four Creative Arts Emmy Awards. Alec Baldwin received the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 2007. Baldwin also received the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Comedy Series in 2007. The show also received various other guild award nominations during its first season and the Peabody Award. In 2008, Tina Fey and Alec Baldwin both won Screen Actors Guild Awards. The series took home the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Comedy Series in 2008. It also received the Danny Thomas Producer of the Year Award in Episodic Series – Comedy from the Producers Guild of America in 2008. 30 Rock received 17 Primetime Emmy Award nominations for its second season, meaning it was the second-most nominated series of the year. These 17 nominations broke the record for the most nominations for a comedy series, meaning that 30 Rock was the most-nominated comedy series for any individual Primetime Emmy Award year. The previous holder of this record was The Larry Sanders Show in 1996 with 16 nominations. 30 Rock also won the Television Critics Association Award for Outstanding Achievement in Comedy. In 2008, 30 Rock completed a sweep of the major awards at the 60th Primetime Emmy Awards. The show won Outstanding Comedy Series, Alec Baldwin was recognized as Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series, and Tina Fey was given the award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series. This marked the eighth time in the Primetime Emmy Awards history that a show won best series plus best lead actor and actress. Tina Fey also won the award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the second-season finale episode, "Cooter". At the 66th Golden Globe Awards, 30 Rock won the award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy, Alec Baldwin won Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy, and Tina Fey won Best Actress in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy. At the 67th Annual Peabody Awards, 30 Rock received the Peabody Award for the show's 2007 episodes. Upon announcing the award, the Peabody Board commended the show for being "not only a great workplace comedy in the tradition of The Mary Tyler Moore Show, complete with fresh, indelible secondary characters, but also a sly, gleeful satire of corporate media, especially the network that airs it". In 2009, 30 Rock received a record-breaking 22 Primetime Emmy Award nominations and won five of them, including Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Baldwin), and Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for "Reunion". It received 15 Primetime Emmy Award nominations in 2010, including the series' fourth consecutive nominations for Outstanding Comedy Series, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series (Baldwin), and Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series (Fey). 30 Rock received 9 Primetime Emmy Award nominations, in 2011 and 13 in 2012. In 2013, 30 Rocks seventh and final season received 13 Primetime Emmy Award nominations (the most of any comedy series and the most of any final season of a comedy series), including Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series for Fey, Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for Baldwin, Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series for Krakowski, directing, two nominations for writing, and its seventh consecutive nomination for Outstanding Comedy Series, bringing the series' total number of nominations to 103. The series' casting directors won their third prize for Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series, while Tina Fey and Tracey Wigfield won for their writing for the series finale, "Last Lunch". At the 19th Screen Actors Guild Awards, both Fey and Baldwin won for their performances in the Female and Male comedy categories, respectively, while the cast received their final nomination for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series. Ratings Below, "Rank" refers to how well 30 Rock rated compared to other television series which aired during primetime hours of the corresponding television season; for example, in its first year, 101 television series were rated higher. The television season begins in September of any given year and ends in May of the following year. "Viewers" refers to the average number of viewers for all original episodes (broadcast in the series' regular timeslot) of 30 Rock aired during the television season. Although the viewer average may be higher for some seasons than others, the rank will not necessarily be higher. This is due to the number of programs aired during primetime. In some seasons, more regular programs may be aired during primetime than in others. The pilot episode generated 8.13 million viewers, the series' highest ratings until that of its third-season premiere which garnered 8.5 million viewers. In its original timeslot of Wednesday at 8:00 pm EST, the show averaged 6.23 million viewers. 30 Rock aired on Wednesdays for its first four episodes. The season's lowest ratings were achieved by "Jack the Writer" and "Hard Ball" which both achieved 4.61 million viewers. The season-two premiere, "SeinfeldVision" was viewed by 7.33 million viewers, the highest rating since the pilot. On January 10, 2008, 30 Rock entered a hiatus due to the 2007–2008 Writers Guild of America strike. The episode that aired on that date was viewed by 5.98 million viewers. The second-season finale, "Cooter", which aired on May 8, 2008, was viewed by 5.6 million viewers. On December 29, 2006, Nielsen Media Research (NMR) reported the results of having, for the first time, monitored viewers who use a digital video recorder to record shows for later viewing. NMR reported that 30 Rock adds nearly 7.5% to its total audience every week as a result of viewers who use a DVR to record the show and then watch it within a week of its initial airing. A March 2007 report from MAGNA Global, based on NMR data about viewership ranked by among adults 25–54, shows that as of the time of the report 30 Rocks viewers have a median income of $65,000, high enough to place the show tied at 11th in affluence with several other shows. This is during a period where for the season 30 Rock is tied at number 85 in the 18–49 demographic. During its second season, 30 Rock ranked in fourth place, against all primetime programming, for television series which are watched by viewers with income above $100,000. Following Fey's popular impressions of Alaskan governor Sarah Palin on Saturday Night Live, the third-season premiere was seen by 8.5 million viewers, making it the highest-viewed episode in the series. The premiere earned a 4.1 preliminary adults 18–49 rating, an increase of 21% from the second-season premiere. Similarities to other media Two shows debuting on 2006–07 NBC lineup, 30 Rock and Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, revolved around the off-camera happenings on a Saturday Night Live-analogue sketch comedy series. Similarities between the two led to speculation that only one of them would be picked up. Baldwin said, "I'd be stunned if NBC picked up both shows. And ours has the tougher task, as a comedy, because if it's not funny, that's it." Kevin Reilly, then president of NBC Entertainment, was supportive of Fey, describing the situation as a "high-class problem": Evidence of the overlapping subject matter between the shows, as well as the conflict between them, arose when Aaron Sorkin, the creator of Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip, asked Lorne Michaels to allow him to observe Saturday Night Live for a week, a request Michaels denied. Despite this, Sorkin sent Fey flowers after NBC announced it would pick up both series, and wished her luck with 30 Rock. Fey said, "it's just bad luck for me that in my first attempt at prime time I'm going up against the most powerful writer on television. I was joking that this would be the best pilot ever aired on Trio. And then Trio got canceled." Fey wound up "beating" Sorkin when Studio 60 was canceled after one season and 30 Rock was renewed for a second. Though 30 Rocks first-season ratings proved lackluster and were lower than those of Studio 60, Studio 60 was more expensive to produce. One early promo for 30 Rock portrayed Alec Baldwin mistakenly thinking he would meet Sorkin, and when asked on her "Ask Tina" space what she thought of the criticism that 30 Rock received, Fey jokingly replied that people who did not like it were probably confusing it with Studio 60. However, none of 30 Rocks producers have given Studio 60 any serious criticism, positive or negative. In a November 1, 2006, interview, Fey said she had seen the first two episodes of Studio 60. When asked what her impressions were, she jokingly replied, "I can't do impressions of Bradley Whitford and Matthew Perry." At least five 30 Rock episodes have briefly parodied Studio 60: "Jack the Writer" contains a self-referring walk and talk sequence, such sequences being commonly used on Studio 60 and Aaron Sorkin's previous shows. "Jack-Tor": Liz tries to quote global education statistics, only to mess up and realize that she does not know what she is talking about. "Jack Meets Dennis": Liz says the upcoming show will be "worse than that time we did that Gilbert and Sullivan parody." The second episode of Studio 60, "The Cold Open," included a parody of the "Major-General's Song" on the show-within-the-show. "The Fabian Strategy": In the ending sequence, Kenneth watches the credits for TGS, which include Ricky and Ronnie as writers, the two ex-head writers on Studio 60. "Plan B": Aaron Sorkin appears as himself as Liz is attempting to get a new job at NBC's The Sing-Off. Sorkin explains to Liz that he, too, is having trouble finding work writing for television, despite having written such works as The West Wing, A Few Good Men, and The Social Network. Liz adds Studio 60 to that list, but Sorkin tells her to "shut up". The two of them also engage in Sorkin's signature "Walk and Talk" during their exchange, leading them to where they started the conversation, which Liz points out. Some critics have compared 30 Rock to The Mary Tyler Moore Show, with parallels drawn between the relationship of Liz and Jack and that of Mary Richards and Lou Grant. It has also been compared to That Girl. Like That Girl and Mary Tyler Moore, 30 Rock is a sitcom centering on an unmarried, brunette career woman living in a big city where she works in the television industry. That Girl was parodied in the opening segment of 30 Rocks pilot. Syndication It was announced in 2009 that off-network syndication rights for 30 Rock had been acquired by Comedy Central and WGN America for about $800,000 an episode. Between 2011 and 2012, the show was syndicated on local broadcast networks in the United States. Aborted potential spin-off and removed episodes In 2019, Tina Fey and 30 Rock co-showrunner Robert Carlock received a straight-to-series order for an untitled comedy series from NBC. The original script was meant to see Baldwin reprise Jack Donaghy's role and was to follow his political career as mayor of New York following the series finale. Baldwin was in negotiations for a year to star in the project before dropping out. Ted Danson replaced Baldwin as the lead character, and the series setting was changed to Los Angeles to accommodate Danson's wish to remain in his home city. Following this, the series (now titled Mr. Mayor) was rewritten to lose any connections to 30 Rock. On June 22, 2020, at the request of Fey and Carlock, NBC announced that four episodes of the series that depict actors in blackface would be removed from streaming services and taken off circulation on TV. Fey stated: "As we strive to do the work and do better in regards to race in America, we believe that these episodes featuring actors in race-changing makeup are best taken out of circulation. I understand now that 'intent' is not a free pass for white people to use these images. I apologize for pain they have caused". The episodes that were removed are the third season episode "Believe in the Stars" and the fifth season episode "Christmas Attack Zone", both of which featured Jenna in blackface; the sixth season episode "Live from Studio 6H", which featured guest star Jon Hamm in blackface; and the east coast version of the fifth season episode "Live Show". The lattermost's west coast version remained. The decision to remove the episodes came amid protests over the murder of George Floyd. Reunion special On June 16, 2020, NBC announced that it would produce a one-off, hour-long reunion special, which premiered on July 16. The hour-long special aired with no commercial interruptions, but featured promotions and tie-ins for programs airing across NBCUniversal properties (including its new streaming platform Peacock) for the 2020-21 television season — effectively acting as a substitute for a physical upfronts presentation due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The special was produced with the involvement of NBCUniversal Creative Partnerships. The same day, an accompanying online summit for media and advertisers included an early screening of the special, while the special became available on Peacock and aired on other NBCUniversal cable networks on July 17. A number of major NBC affiliate groups declined to air the special, citing concerns over its aim to be a vehicle for promoting NBCUniversal's cable networks and Peacock. Home media Universal Studios Home Entertainment released all seven seasons on DVD in addition to releasing a complete collection bundle. The complete DVD and Blu-ray sets were released through Mill Creek Entertainment on April 21, 2020. Episode downloads and online streaming Episodes of 30 Rock are available to download for a per-episode fee, to U.S. residents only, via Amazon Video, Apple's iTunes Store, Google Play. Back when the show was still running, it was also available on the now-defunct "NBC Direct" service. In addition to paid downloads, all seven seasons can be streamed on Hulu in the U.S. with a paid subscription, having moved there from Netflix on October 1, 2017, under a new agreement with NBCUniversal Television and New Media Distribution. The previous Netflix deal had existed for much of the show's run, and lasted several years after. All 7 seasons of 30 Rock'' (barring the aforementioned four episodes removed from circulation) returned to Netflix on August 1, 2021, and were removed from the service on July 31, 2022, and the series moved to Peacock while remaining on Hulu. DVD releases References External links 2006 American television series debuts 2013 American television series endings 2000s American satirical television series 2000s American single-camera sitcoms 2000s American surreal comedy television series 2000s American workplace comedy television series 2010s American satirical television series 2010s American single-camera sitcoms 2010s American sitcoms 2010s American surreal comedy television series 2010s American workplace comedy television series Best Musical or Comedy Series Golden Globe winners English-language television shows General Electric Metafictional television series NBC original programming Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series Screen Actors Guild Award winners Peabody Award-winning television programs Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series winners Primetime Emmy Award-winning television series Television series about television Television series by Broadway Video Television series by Universal Television Television series created by Tina Fey Television shows filmed in New York (state) Television shows set in New York City
5174906	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-suffragism	Anti-suffragism	Anti-suffragism was a political movement composed of both men and women that began in the late 19th century in order to campaign against women's suffrage in countries such as Australia, Canada, Ireland, the United Kingdom and the United States. To some extent, Anti-suffragism was a Classical Conservative movement that sought to keep the status quo for women. More American women organized against their own right to vote than in favor of it, until 1916. Anti-suffragism was associated with "domestic feminism," the belief that women had the right to complete freedom within the home. In the United States, these activists were often referred to as "remonstrants" or "antis." Background The anti-suffrage movement was a counter movement opposing the social movement of women's suffrage in various countries. It could also be considered a counterpublic that espoused a democratic defense of the status quo for women and men in society. Countries in the Western World began to explore giving women the equal right to vote around the mid 19th century, beginning with the Wyoming Territory in 1869. Areas with the most visible women's suffrage movements were Great Britain and in the United States, although women's suffrage movements took place in many Western countries. Anti-suffrage activities began to emerge in many countries as women publicly advocated for suffrage. Australia Anti-suffrage movements were present in Australia through the 1880s and 1890s. Anti-suffrage organisations in Australia were "closely associated with the Conservative Party, manufacturing interests and anti-socialist forces." The Australian media took part in the anti-suffrage movement, and depicted women as being "weak and unintelligent," emotional and too involved in domestic and trivial matters. Canada Canadian men and women both became involved in debating the women's suffrage movement in the late 19th century. Women's suffrage was debated in the Legislative Assembly in New Brunswick starting in 1885, and anti-suffrage "testimonies" began to appear in the newspapers around that time. Great Britain Organized campaigns against women's suffrage began in earnest in 1905, around the same time that suffragettes were turning to militant tactics. In general, most ordinary women had prioritized domestic and family life over paid employment and political activism when it came to the issue of suffrage. Most historical evidence shows that ordinary women did not have much interest in the right to vote before the first World War and also after suffrage had been granted to women. The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League was established in London on 21 July 1908. Its aims were to oppose women being granted the vote in British parliamentary elections, although it did support their having votes in local government elections. It was founded at a time when there was a resurgence of support (though still by a minority of women) for the women's suffrage movement. The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League, publisher of the Anti-Suffrage Review, submitted a petition to Parliament in 1907 with 87,500 names, but it was rejected by the Petitions Committee of Parliament as "informal". The Anti-Suffrage Review also used shame as a tool to fight against the suffrage movement. An Anti-suffrage correspondence had taken place in the pages of The Times through 1906–1907, with further calls for leadership of the anti-suffrage movement being placed in The Spectator in February 1908. Possibly as early as 1907, a letter was circulated to announce the creation of a National Women's Anti-Suffrage Association and inviting recipients to become a member of the Central Organising Committee or a member. It was issued under the names of thirty peeresses who would become prominent anti-suffragists, as well as a number of peers and MPs. However, the first meeting of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League only took place the following year on 21 July, at the Westminster Palace Hotel with Lady Jersey in the Chair. Seventeen persons were nominated to the central committee at this meeting, including Mrs Humphry Ward in the chair of the Literary Committee and Gertrude Bell as secretary. Other members were Mrs. Frederic Harrison, Miss Lonsdale, Violet Markham and Hilaire Belloc MP. Beatrice Chamberlain served as the editor of the Anti-Suffrage Review. The League's aims were to oppose women being granted the parliamentary franchise, though it did support their having votes in local and municipal elections. It published the Anti-Suffrage Review from December 1908 until 1918. It gathered 337,018 signatures on an anti-suffrage petition and founded the first local branch in Hawkenhurst in Kent. The first London branch was established in South Kensington under the auspices of Mary, Countess of Ilchester. Soon after, in May 1910, a Scottish branch was organised into the Scottish National Anti-Suffrage League by the Duchess of Montrose. By December of that year, there were 26 branches or sub-branches in the country, a total which grew to 82 by April 1909, and 104 in July 1910. It was announced that 2000 subscriptions had been received by December, 1908, rising to 9000 in July, 1909. In 1910, the group amalgamated with the Men's League for Opposing Woman Suffrage to form the National League for Opposing Women's Suffrage with Lord Cromer as president and Lady Jersey as Vice-President. The merger was in effect a takeover, as the president of the former organisation, Lord Cromer, became president of the new one. In 1912 Lord Curzon and Lord Weardale became joint presidents. By 1914, there were around 15,000 members. The organisation continued its activities and the publication of the Anti-Suffrage Review until 1918 when both came to an end as women's suffrage was granted. Reasons for suffrage opposition The opposition to the right for women to vote was a multifaceted phenomenon in which women themselves played a major part. One reason for women's opposition was their belief that women were equal to men (although women were expected to be "equal" in different spheres from men); and that women already had significant moral authority in society, which they would lose if they entered the corrupt world of partisan politics. Anti-suffragists were also appalled by the violent tactics of suffragettes, who had attacked Members of Parliament with whips and a hatchet. Many female maternal reformers, who sought to protect women's defined spheres of motherhood, education, philanthropy, and civil service, felt that women were the better sex for preserving British society through social service to their communities rather than by meddling with politics. Many women had little desire to participate in politics, and believed that to do so was women just imitating men, instead of using the moral authority that came from being "real women." Some feared that the right to vote would lead to uninformed women in making decisions on important political matters. Since Britain was in the process of colonizing other regions around the globe, some viewed the right to vote as a threat to their imperial power as it would make the British look weak to other nations who were male oriented still. Some suffragist female groups developed militant and violent tactics which tarnished the image of women as peaceful people that the anti-suffragists had been striving to preserve. Anti-suffragists used these acts as reasons to show that women were unable to handle political matters and that both genders had different strengths. Women writers promoted anti-suffragism through their wide readerships by raising questions of what ideal women were to be like. Ireland Women's suffrage movements had been going on in Ireland since the 1870s. However, as Suffragettes in Ireland became more militant, more organized anti-suffrage campaigns emerged. An Irish branch of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League was started in 1909 in Dublin. This branch of the League also opposed suffrage in Britain as well. Reasons for suffrage opposition Irish opposition to the women's vote was both religious and cultural. Both Catholic and Protestant churches in Ireland wanted women's influence to remain domestic in nature. Women were closely associated with their husbands for legal and political purposes and it was argued that husband's votes were sufficient to allow a woman's political expression. Irish nationalism also played a role in anti-suffrage movements. Because of the nationalistic movements going on in Ireland, both men and women nationalists opposed giving women the vote because they were prioritizing Irish Home Rule. A nationalist paper, Bean na hÉireann, which was published by the Inghinidhe na hÉirann (Daughters of Ireland), took a very anti-suffrage stance. United States While men were involved in the anti-suffrage movement in the United States, most anti-suffrage groups were led and supported by women. In fact, more women joined Anti-suffrage groups than suffrage associations, until 1916. While these groups openly stated that they wanted politics to be left to men, it was more often women addressing political bodies with anti-suffrage arguments. The first women-led anti-suffrage group in the United States was the Anti-Sixteenth Amendment Society. The group was started by Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren in 1869. During the fight to pass the nineteenth amendment, women increasingly took on a leading role in the anti-suffrage movement. Helen Kendrick Johnson's Woman and the Republic (1897) was a lauded anti-suffrage book that described the reasons for opposing women's right to vote. Other books, such as Molly Elliot Seawell's The Ladies' Battle (1911), Ida Tarbell's The Business of Being a Woman (1912), Grace Duffield Goodwin's Anti-Suffrage: Ten Good Reasons (1915) and Annie Riley Hale's The Eden Sphinx (1916) were similarly well-received by the media and used as a "coherent rationale for opposing women's enfranchisement." Anti-suffrage dramas were also published between the mid 1800s and up to the 1920s. The first playwright to create anti-suffrage plays was William Bentley Fowle, who wrote the one-act play for amateurs, Women's Rights, published in 1856. Later plays were adapted for the professional stage, such as The Rights of Man (1857) by Oliver S. Leland and Election Day (1880) by Frank Dumont. Nellie Locke published an anti-suffrage drama in 1896, called A Victim of Women's Rights. Many anti-suffrage dramas were overtly political and incorporated the use of farce to paint suffragists as "self-absorbed" and "mannish in dress and manner." They also criticized the idea of the New Woman in general and advocated for women and men to occupy separate spheres of influence. The Remonstrance, a journal published by the Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women (MAOFESW) between 1890 and 1920 was used to promote anti-suffrage ideas and also to react to and refute the claims of suffragists. Early backing for the anti-suffrage movement The anti-suffrage movement began in the United States after the Massachusetts State legislature introduced a proposal to promote female voting rights. Two hundred women opposed this initiative as they did not want women to gain full citizenship. Though nothing became of this proposal, its introduction mobilized the suffrage movement on both sides. In 1871, a petition to the United States Congress was published by nineteen women in Godey's Lady's Book and Magazine in opposition to votes for women, the first instance of the mobilization from anti-suffrage women. Women turned out at the New York State Constitutional Convention in 1894 to protest women's suffrage. Emergence of anti-suffrage organizations In 1895, the Massachusetts Association Opposed to the Further Extension of Suffrage to Women (MAOFESW) was created and is noted to be the first effort of the anti-suffragists to institutionalize their cause. In Des Moines, Iowa, 35 women formed the Iowa Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1898. California, Illinois, New York, Oregon, South Dakota and Washington all formed groups by 1900. Ohio formed an anti suffrage group, the Ohio Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1902. The New York State Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage was founded in 1897, and by 1908 it had over 90 members. It was active in producing pamphlets and publications explaining their views of women's suffrage, until the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution was passed in 1920. A Geneva branch was founded in 1909. The suffragists in New York often extended invitations to open discussion with the anti-suffragists. The New York association had its own magazine, The Anti-Suffragist, published by Mrs. William Winslow Crannell from July 1908 to April 1912. The National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage (NAOWS) was the first national organization of women who challenged the fight for women's suffrage. Several state associations assembled for an anti-suffrage convention in New York City and formed the NAOWS. The association gained significant momentum between 1912 and 1916 and was operational in twenty-five states. The NAOWS was said to have as many as 350,000 members. At the start, the organization was run by Josephine Dodge and Minnie Bronson. Alice Hay Wadsworth, wife of James Wolcott Wadsworth Jr., assumed leadership of the association when it moved its headquarters from New York to Washington D.C. in 1917. NAOWS produced The Woman's Protest, a newsletter that helped defeat close to forty woman suffrage referendums. Everett P. Wheeler, a lawyer from New York, created the Man-Suffrage Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage in 1913. This organization was made up of powerful and affluent men and started out with around 600 members opposed to women's suffrage. World War I Anti-suffragists helped contribute to war relief work during World War I. NAOWS contributed to the Belgian war relief effort. Many anti-suffrage groups highlighted their charitable efforts, painting themselves as "self-sacrificing." They wanted the country to see that women could make a difference without the vote, however, it was partly the efforts of women aiding the war that helped women gain the vote in the end. Reasons for suffrage opposition There were several concerns that drove the anti-suffrage argument. Anti-suffragists felt that giving women the right to vote would threaten the family institution. Illinois anti-suffragist, Caroline Corbin felt that women's highest duties were motherhood and its responsibilities. Some saw women's suffrage as in opposition to God's will. Antis such as Catharine Beecher and Sara Josepha Hale both shared a religiously based criticism of suffrage and believed women should be only involved with Kinder, Küche, Kirche (children, kitchen and church). Some anti-suffragists did not want the vote because they felt it violated traditional gender norms. Many anti-suffragists felt that if women gained the vote there would be an end to "true womanhood." There were also those who thought that women could not handle the responsibility of voting because they lacked knowledge of that beyond the domestic sphere and they feared the government would be weakened by introducing this ill-informed electorate. Anti-suffragists did not see voting as a "right," but as a "duty" and that women already had their own unique responsibilities and duties in the domestic sphere. Also, since Antis believed that governments had authority due to "force," women wouldn't be able to "enforce the laws they may enact." Anti-suffragists, such as Josephine Dodge, argued that giving women the right to vote would overburden them and undermine their privileged status. They saw participation in the private sphere as essential to a woman's role and thought that giving them public duties would prevent them from fulfilling their primary responsibilities in the home. Anti-suffragists claimed that they represented the "silent majority" of America who did not want to enter the public sphere by gaining the right to vote. Being against women's suffrage didn't mean, however, that all Antis were against civic pursuits. Jeanette L. Gilder, a journalist, wrote "Give women everything she wants, but not the ballot. Open every field of learning, every avenue of industry to her, but keep her out of politics." Dodge encouraged women to become involved in "charitable, philanthropic and educational activities." It was also cited that women had made reforms such as raising the age of consent without the vote and that gaining this right was, therefore, unnecessary and could even be harmful to further reform movements. The thought was that women were able to influence the government because they were seen as politically neutral and non-partisan and giving them the right to vote would strip them of this unique position. In addition, because voting is "only a small part of government," they believed there was no need to vote in order to participate in politics. This particular line of reasoning, that women should stay out of politics, kept the General Federation of Women's Clubs (GFWC) from officially endorsing suffrage until 1914. Anti-suffragism was not limited to conservative elements. The anarchist Emma Goldman opposed suffragism on the grounds that women were more inclined toward legal enforcement of morality (as in the Women's Christian Temperance Union), that it was a diversion from more important struggles, and that suffrage would ultimately not make a difference. She also said that activists ought to advocate revolution rather than seek greater privileges within an inherently unjust system. Anti-suffragists saw women's efforts to gain the vote to be all surface dressing with a lack of serious intent to change the world for the better. Other Antis believed that social reform was better accomplished through trade unions and non-partisan groups. Progressives criticized suffrage in the Utah Territory as a cynical Mormon ploy, resulting in the passage of the Edmunds-Tucker Act. The anti-suffrage movement began to change in its position against suffrage in 1917, expanding their scope to include anti-radical rhetoric. The anti-suffrage movement focused less on the issue of suffrage and began to spread fear of radical ideas and to use "conspiratorial paranoia." Suffragists were accused of subversion of the government and treason. They were also accused of being socialists, "Bolsheviks" or "unpatriotic German sympathizers." The Texas branch of the NAOWS accused women's suffrage groups of being linked to "socialism, anarchy and Mormonism." Accusations of being associated with unpopular radical movements was named after the second president of NAOWS, Alice Wadsworth, and called "Wadsworthy" attacks. In addition to associating suffrage with radicalism, the antis also felt that they were oppressed and had lost much perceived political power by 1917. Anti-suffrage movements in the American South included an appeal to conservatism and white supremacy. In Virginia, the NAOWS chapter even linked race riots to women's suffrage. Anti-suffragism after the nineteenth amendment Once the nineteenth amendment was passed, some women who opposed suffrage exercised this right. They took the energy they were investing in the anti-suffrage movement and turned it towards supporting the platform of the Republican party. Former members of anti-suffrage groups in New York became involved in the Women's National Republican Club. In this way, they left the private sphere and entered the public sphere, one of the things that they were resisting in their anti-suffrage efforts. Former anti-suffragist, Ida Tarbell, pointed out that it would take some time for women to get comfortable with voting. Some women didn't vote or get involved in politics. Others, like Annie Nathan Meyer advocated for all anti-suffrage women to not vote in order to allow the country to suffer from what she saw as a terrible decision to allow women to vote. The passage of the Nineteenth Amendment also kickstarted a coalition of anti-suffragists who organized themselves into a political anti-feminist movement in order to "oppose expansion of social welfare programs, women's peace efforts, and to foster a political culture hostile to progressive female activists. This coalition effectively blended anti-feminism and anti-radicalism by embracing and utilizing the hysteria of the post-World War I Red Scare." Criticism There was contemporary criticism of the anti-suffrage movement in the United States. One criticism was that anti-suffragists did not present a consistent argument against suffrage. Other arguments were seen as inconsistent, such as Antis claiming that voting meant women must hold office, when members of anti-suffrage groups were already holding offices such as being on the school board. Other critics, such as Alice Stone Blackwell, pointed out that the anti-suffrage groups exaggerated certain claims, such as membership numbers. Critics also argued that there were no new arguments presented over time. Anti-suffrage groups were also criticized for being "inconsistent" in that they wanted women out of the public sphere, yet they gathered together into public lobbying groups against suffrage. The Valley Independent wrote in 1915 that any organization that wanted to oppose women's suffrage and which was made up of women "leaves a bad taste in our mouth." Some critics were "almost contemptuous," such as Anna Howard Shaw, who said, "You'd think they would have loyalty enough to their sex not to make us all out a set of fools." Shaw believed that Antis were "puppets of more power male forces." Florence Kelley called anti-suffragists "lazy, comfortable, sheltered creatures, caring nothing for the miseries of the poor." Archives The archives of the Women's National Anti-Suffrage League are held at The Women's Library at the Library of the London School of Economics, ref 2WNA The Library and Archives division of the Georgia Historical Society have a collection of broadsides from the National Association Opposed to Woman Suffrage from 1917–1919. The documents appear to be printed by state affiliates of the national group. One of the documents was issued by The Men's Anti-Ratification League of Montgomery, Alabama. Notable people Catharine Beecher Hilaire Belloc Gertrude Bell Emily Bissell Minnie Bronson Beatrice Chamberlain Madeleine Vinton Dahlgren Josephine Jewell Dodge Jeannette Leonard Gilder Emma Goldman Grace Duffield Goodwin Gertrud Haldimann Annie Riley Hale Sarah Josepha Hale Ethel Bertha Harrison (known as. Mrs. Frederic Harrison) Mary Hilliard Hinton Mary, Countess of Ilchester Helen Kendrick Johnson Lillian Bayard Taylor Kiliani Adeline Knapp Margaret Elizabeth Leigh Eliza Lynn Linton Nellie Locke Miss Lonsdale Violet Markham Charlotte Elizabeth McKay Annie Nathan Meyer Duchess of Montrose Jane Marsh Parker Gladys Pott Molly Elliot Seawell Ida Tarbell Alice Hay Wadsworth Mary Augusta Ward See also Antifeminism Timeline of women's suffrage Women's suffrage Who Needs Feminism Women Against Feminism References Citations Sources Other sources The Times, Wednesday, Jul 22, 1908; pg. 13; Issue 38705; col D The Times, Thursday, Dec 08, 1910; pg. 9; Issue 39450; col E: "Woman Suffrage. The Anti-Suffrage Movement, A New Organization." Further reading Benjamin, Anne M. A History of the Anti-Suffrage Movement in the United States from 1895 to 1920: Women Against Equality. Lewiston: The Edwin Mellen Press, 1992. Jablonsky, Thomas J, "The Home, Heaven, and Mother Party: Female Anti-Suffragists in the United States, 1868–1920." Brooklyn: Carlson, 1994 Camhi, Jane Jerome. Women Against Women: American Anti-Suffragism, 1880–1920. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Carlson Pub., 1994. Goodier, Susan. No Votes for Women: The New York State Anti-Suffrage Movement (University of Illinois Press; 2013) 272 pages; argues that antis were not against women's rights, but saw the female domestic role as threatened by masculine political responsibilities. Harrison, Brian Howard. Separate Spheres : The Opposition to Women’s Suffrage in Britain. London : Croom Helm, 1978. Primary sources Almroth Wright. The Unexpurgated Case Against Woman Suffrage. London: Constable & Co. Ltd, 1913. Available online: External links 19th-century introductions Criticism of feminism Social theories Organizations established in 1908 Anti-suffragist organizations Women's organisations based in the United Kingdom
5174980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Early%201980s%20recession	Early 1980s recession	The early 1980s recession was a severe economic recession that affected much of the world between approximately the start of 1980 and 1983. It is widely considered to have been the most severe recession since World War II. Background A key event leading to the recession was the 1979 energy crisis, mostly caused by the Iranian Revolution which caused a disruption to the global oil supply, which saw oil prices rising sharply in 1979 and early 1980. The sharp rise in oil prices pushed the already high rates of inflation in several major advanced countries to new double-digit highs, with countries such as the United States, Canada, West Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and Japan tightening their monetary policies by increasing interest rates in order to control the inflation. These G7 countries each, in fact, had "double-dip" recessions involving short declines in economic output in parts of 1980 followed by a short period of expansion, in turn, followed by a steeper, longer period of economic contraction starting sometime in 1981 and ending in the last half of 1982 or in early 1983. Most of these countries experienced stagflation, a situation of both high inflation rates and high unemployment rates. Globally, while some countries experienced downturns in economic output in 1980 and/or 1981, the broadest and sharpest worldwide decline of economic activity and the largest increase in unemployment was in 1982, with the World Bank naming the recession the "global recession of 1982". Even after major economies, such as the United States and Japan exited the recession relatively early, many countries were in recession into 1983 and high unemployment would continue to affect most OECD nations until at least 1985. Long-term effects of the early 1980s recession contributed to the Latin American debt crisis, long-lasting slowdowns in the Caribbean and Sub-Saharan African countries, the US savings and loans crisis, and a general adoption of neoliberal economic policies throughout the 1990s. Impact by country Canada The Canadian economy experienced overall weakness from the start of 1980 to the end of 1983, with low yearly real GDP growth rates of 2.1% and 2.6% in 1980 and 1983, respectively, and a steep 3.2% decline in real GDP for 1982. As with other G7 countries, Canada had two separate economic contractions in the early 1980s. These were a shallow drop in GDP and a slowing in employment growth for five months between February and June 1980, and a deeper 17-month contraction in both GDP and employment between July 1981 and October 1982, although both contractions were driven by the same desire of governments to reduce inflation by increasing interest rates. Real Canadian GDP declined by 5% during the 17-month 1981-82 recession with the unemployment rate peaking at 12%. In-between the two downturns, Canada had 12 months of economic growth, with growth between October 1980 and June 1981 being relatively robust with the total GDP and employment in June 1981 actually surpassing their pre-recession peaks and 1981 having a yearly increase in real GDP of 3.5%. Canada had higher inflation, interest rates, and unemployment than the United States during the early 1980s recession. While inflation accelerated across North America in the late 1970s, it was higher in Canada because of the US decision to switch to a floating exchange rate, which lowered the value of the Canadian dollar to US$0.85 by 1979, which made US imports more expensive for Canadians to purchase. Canada's inflation rate was 10.2% for 1980 overall, rising to 12.5% for 1981 and 10.8% for 1982 before dropping to 5.8% for 1983. To control its inflation, the US introduced credit controls producing a slump in demand for Canada's housing and auto industry exports in early 1980 thereby triggering the 1980 portion of the larger early 1980s recession in Canada. Most Canadians were also hit hard financially by a steady rise in oil and gas prices during the 1970s, especially their acceleration in 1979 when the worldwide oil supply was disrupted by the Iranian revolution, with the price of oil reaching almost $40 a barrel compared to $3 a barrel at the start of the decade. The Bank of Canada raised its prime interest rate throughout 1980 and early 1981 in an attempt to rein in inflation, with the deeper second portion of the early 1980s recession beginning in July 1981. The Bank of Canada's interest rate peaked at 21% in August 1981 and was kept at high levels until spring 1982, but the inflation rate still averaged more than 12% in 1981-82. Jobs were also lost to mechanization in industry and to workforce downsizing by many Canadian firms in order to stay efficient and compete internationally in the increasingly globalized economy Alberta, the prime location of Canada's oil industry at the time, experienced a boom in the late 1970s, 1980 and early 1981, with rapid employment growth, attaining, at 76%, the highest percentage of persons aged 15–64 being employed (defined as the "employment ratio") of all the provinces in early 1981. By the start of 1982, however, Alberta's oil boom had ended due to over-expansion and the deep global recession of that year, which caused oil prices to plummet, with Alberta then suffering the steepest drop (7.2 percentage points) in its employment ratio of all the provinces by mid-1983. Yukon's mining industry was also particularly hard hit and more than 70,000 of 115,000 miners across the country were out of work by the end of 1982. Canada's GDP increased markedly in November 1982 officially ending the recession, although employment growth did not resume until December 1982 before faltering again in 1983. The average unemployment rates for 1982 and 1983 averaged 11.1% and 12%, respectively, steep rises from 7.6% in 1981. A slowdown in productivity in Canada also emerged during the recession as average output per worker slowed by 1%. The lingering effects of the recession combined with mechanization and companies downsizing to complete internationally, kept Canada's unemployment rates above 10% until 1986. Despite this, Canada's GDP growth rate was among the highest of the OECD countries from 1984 to 1986, although growth was by far strongest in Ontario and Quebec. Liberal Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, who was in power from the start of the recession in early 1980, was very low in the public opinion polls in early 1984 and on February 29, 1984, decided to resign as Liberal Party leader. His successor as Prime Minister was John Turner, who, although leading in the opinion polls when he called an election for September, ended up being resoundingly defeated by the Progressive Conservatives under Brian Mulroney. Japan Throughout the 1970s, Japan had the world's third largest gross national product (GNP)—just behind the United States and Soviet Union—and ranked first among major industrial nations in 1990 in per capita GNP at US$23,801, up sharply from US$9,068 in 1980. After the relatively mild economic slump in the mid-1980s, Japan's economy began a period of expansion in 1986 that continued until it again entered a recessionary period in 1992. United Kingdom Economic impact As with most of the rest of the developed world, recession hit the United Kingdom at the beginning of the 1980s. That followed a string of crises that had plagued the British economy for most of the 1970s. Consequently, unemployment had gradually increased since the mid-1960s. When the Conservative Party, led by Margaret Thatcher won the general election of May 1979, and swept James Callaghan's Labour Party from power, the country had just witnessed the Winter of Discontent in which numerous public sector workers had staged strikes. Inflation was about 10% and some 1.5 million people were unemployed, compared to some 1 million in 1974, 580,000 in 1970 and just over 300,000 in 1964. Thatcher set about controlling inflation with monetarist policies and changing trade union legislation in an attempt to reduce the strikes of public-sector workers. Thatcher's battle against inflation raised the exchange rate, resulting in the closure of many factories, shipyards and coal pits because imports were cheaper and the strong pound made British products more expensive in export markets. Inflation fell below 10% by the turn of 1982, having peaked at 22% in 1980, and by spring 1983, it had fallen to a 15-year low of 4%. Strikes were also at their lowest level since the early 1950s, and wage growth rose to 3.8% by 1983. However, unemployment reached 3 million, or 12.5% of the workforce, by January 1982, a level that had not been seen for some 50 years. The unemployment rate would remain similarly high for a number of years afterwards. Northern Ireland was the hardest-hit region, with unemployment standing at nearly 20%. The rate exceeded 15% in much of Scotland and Northern England. By April 1983, Britain, once known globally as the "workshop of the world" became a net importer of goods for the first time in modern times. Areas of Tyneside, Yorkshire, Merseyside, South Wales, Western Scotland and the West Midlands were particularly hard hit by the loss of industry and subsequent sharp rise in unemployment. Only in Southeast England did unemployment remain below 10%. Despite the economic recovery that followed the early 1980s recession, unemployment in the United Kingdom barely fell until the second half of the decade. As late as 1986, unemployment exceeded 3 million, but it fell below that figure the following year. By the end of 1989, it had fallen to 1.6 million. Social impact The mass unemployment and social discontent resulting from the recession were widely seen as major factors in widespread rioting across Britain in 1981 in parts of towns and cities including Toxteth, Liverpool, as well as a number of districts of London. In 1985, the economy had been out of recession for three years, but unemployment remained stubbornly high. Another wave of rioting occurred across numerous areas of Britain, including several areas across London. Poor employment opportunities, and social discontent were once again seen as factors in the rioting. Political impact In the first three years of Thatcher's premiership, opinion polls gave the government approval ratings as low as 25%, with the polls initially being led by the Labour opposition and then by the SDP-Liberal Alliance, the latter being formed by the Liberal Party and the Social Democratic Party in 1981. However, an economic recovery, combined with the Falklands War, led to the Thatcher-led Conservative Party winning 42.4% of votes for a parliamentary majority in the general election in 1983. Recovery In the UK, economic growth was re-established by the end of 1982, but the era of mass unemployment was far from over. By the summer of 1984, unemployment had hit a new record of 3.3 million although the Great Depression had seen a higher percentage of the workforce unemployed. It remained above the 3 million mark until the spring of 1987, when the Lawson Boom, seen as the consequence of tax cuts by Chancellor Nigel Lawson, sparked an economic boom that saw unemployment fall dramatically. By early 1988, it was below 2.5 million; by early 1989, it fell below 2 million. By the end of 1989, it was just over 1.6 million, almost half the figure of three years earlier. However, the unemployment figures did not include benefit claimants who were placed on Employment Training schemes, an adult variant of the controversial Youth Training Scheme, who were paid the same rate of benefit for working full-time hours. Other incentives that aided the British economic recovery after the early 1980s recession included the introduction of enterprise zones on deindustrialised land in which traditional industries were replaced by new industries as well as commercial developments. Businesses were given temporary tax breaks, and exemptions as incentives to set up base in such areas. United States Like Canada, the early 1980s recession in the United States technically consisted of two separate downturns, one commencing in January 1980 which yielded to modest growth in July 1980 with a deeper downturn from July 1981 to November 1982. One cause was the Federal Reserve's contractionary monetary policy, which sought to rein in the high inflation. In the wake of the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis, stagflation began to afflict the economy. Unemployment Unemployment had risen from 5.1% in January 1974 to a high of 9.0% in May 1975. Although it had gradually declined to 5.6% by May 1979, unemployment began rising again. It jumped sharply to 6.9% in April 1980 and to 7.5% in May 1980. A mild recession from January to July 1980 kept unemployment high, but despite economic recovery, it remained at historically high levels (about 7.5%) until the end of 1981. In mid-1982, Rockford, Illinois, had the highest unemployment of all metro areas, at 25%. In September 1982, Michigan led the nation with 14.5%, Alabama was second with 14.3%, and West Virginia was third with 14.0%. The Youngstown–Warren Metropolitan Area had an 18.7% rate, the highest of all metro areas, and Stamford, Connecticut, had the lowest unemployment, at 3.5%. The peak of the recession occurred in November and December 1982, when the nationwide unemployment rate was 10.8%, the highest since the Great Depression. In November, West Virginia and Michigan had the highest unemployment with 16.4%, Alabama was in third with 15.3%. South Dakota had the lowest unemployment rate in the nation, with 5.6%. Flint, Michigan, had the highest unemployment rate of all metro areas, with 23.4%. In March 1983, West Virginia's unemployment rate hit 20.1%. In spring 1983, thirty states had double-digit unemployment. When Reagan was re-elected in 1984, the latest unemployment numbers (August 1984) showed that West Virginia still had the highest rate in the nation (13.6%) followed by Mississippi (11.1%) and Alabama (10.9%). Inflation Inflation, which had averaged 3.2% annually since World War II had more than doubled after the 1973 oil shock, to a 7.7% annual rate. Inflation reached 9.1% in 1975, the highest rate since 1947. Inflation declined to 5.8% the following year but then edged higher. By 1979, inflation reached a startling 11.3% and in 1980, it soared to 13.5%. A brief recession occurred in 1980. Several key industries, including housing, steel manufacturing, and automobiles, experienced a downturn from which they did not recover until the end of the next recession. Many of the economic sectors that supplied the basic industries were also hit hard. Each period of high unemployment saw the Federal Reserve increase interest rates to reduce high inflation. Each time, once inflation fell and interest rates were lowered, unemployment slowly fell. Determined to wring inflation out of the economy, Federal Reserve chairman Paul Volcker slowed the rate of growth of the money supply and raised interest rates. The federal funds rate, which was about 11% in 1979, rose to 20% by June 1981. The prime interest rate, an important economic measure, eventually reached 21.5% in June 1982. Financial industry crisis The recession had a severe effect on financial institutions such as savings and loans and banks. Banks The recession came at a particularly bad time for banks because of a recent wave of deregulation. The Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 had phased out a number of restrictions on their financial practices, broadened their lending powers, and raised the deposit insurance limit from $40,000 to $100,000, which caused moral hazard. Banks rushed into real estate lending, speculative lending, and other ventures as the economy soured. By mid-1982, the number of bank failures was rising steadily. Bank failures reached 42, the highest since the depression, as both the recession and high interest rates took their toll. By the end of the year, the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) had spent $870 million to purchase bad loans in an effort to keep various banks afloat. In July 1982, the US Congress enacted the Garn–St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982, which further deregulated banks and deregulated savings and loans. The Act authorized banks to begin offering money market accounts in an attempt to encourage deposit in-flows, and it also removed additional statutory restrictions in real estate lending and relaxed loans-to-one-borrower limits. That encouraged a rapid expansion in real estate lending while the real estate market was collapsing, increased the unhealthy competition between banks and savings and loans, and encouraged too many branches to be started. The recession affected the banking industry long after the economic downturn had technically ended, in November 1982. In 1983, another 50 banks failed. The FDIC listed another 540 banks as "problem banks", on the verge of failure. In 1984, the Continental Illinois National Bank and Trust Company, the nation's seventh-largest bank (with $45 billion in assets), failed. The FDIC had long known of its problems. The bank had first approached failure in July 1982, when the Penn Square Bank, which had partnered with Continental Illinois in a number of high-risk lending ventures, collapsed. However, federal regulators were reassured by Continental Illinois executives that steps were being taken to ensure the bank's financial security. After its collapse, federal regulators were willing to let the bank fail to reduce moral hazard and so other banks would rein in some of their more risky lending practices. Members of Congress and the press, however, felt that Continental Illinois was "too big to fail". In May 1984, federal banking regulators finally offered a $4.5 billion rescue package to Continental Illinois. Continental Illinois itself may not have been too big to fail, but its collapse could have caused the failure of some of the largest banks. The American banking system had been significantly weakened by the severe recession and the effects of deregulation. Had other banks been forced to write off loans to Continental Illinois, institutions like Manufacturer's Hanover Trust Company, Bank of America, and perhaps Citicorp would have become insolvent. Saving and loan crisis The recession also significantly exacerbated the savings and loan crisis. In 1980, there were approximately 4590 state and federally chartered savings and loan institutions (S&Ls), with total assets of $616 billion. From 1979, they began losing money because of spiraling interest rates. Net S&L income, which had totaled $781 million in 1980, fell to a loss of $4.6 billion in 1981 and a loss of $4.1 billion in 1982. The tangible net worth for the entire S&L industry was virtually zero. The Federal Home Loan Bank Board (FHLBB) regulated and inspected S&Ls and administered the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation (FSLIC), which insured deposits at S&Ls. The FHLBB's enforcement practices were significantly weaker than those of other federal banking agencies. Until the 1980s, savings and loans had limited lending powers and so the FHLBB was a relatively small agency, overseeing a quiet, stable industry. Unsurprisingly, the FHLBB's procedures and staff were inadequate to supervise S&Ls after deregulation. Also, the FHLBB was unable to add to its staff because of stringent limits on the number of personnel that it could hire and the level of compensation it could offer. The limitations were placed on the agency by the Office of Management and Budget and were routinely subject to the political whims of that agency and political appointees in the Executive Office of the President. In financial circles, the FHLBB and FSLIC were called "the doormats of financial regulation". Because of its weak enforcement powers, the FHLBB and FSLIC rarely forced S&Ls to correct poor financial practices. The FHLBB relied heavily on its persuasive powers and the US states to enforce banking regulations. With only five enforcement lawyers, the FHLBB would have been in a poor position to enforce the law, even if it had wanted to. One consequence of the FHLBB's lack of enforcement abilities was the promotion of deregulation and of aggressive, expanded lending to forestall insolvency. In November 1980, the FHLBB lowered net worth requirements for federally insured S&Ls from 5% of deposits to 4%. The FHLBB lowered net worth requirements again to 3% in January 1982. Additionally, the agency required S&Ls to meet those requirements only over 20 years. The rule meant that S&Ls less than 20 years old had practically no capital reserve requirements. That encouraged extensive chartering of new S&Ls since a $2 million investment could be leveraged into $1.3 billion in lending. Congressional deregulation exacerbated the S&L crisis. The Economic Recovery Tax Act of 1981 led to a boom in commercial real estate. The passage of the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act and the Garn–St. Germain Act expanded the authority of federally chartered S&Ls to make acquisition, development, and construction real estate loans, and the statutory limit on loan-to-value ratios was eliminated. The changes allowed S&Ls to make high-risk loans to developers. Beginning in 1982, many S&Ls rapidly shifted away from traditional home mortgage financing and into new, high-risk investment activities like casinos, fast-food franchises, ski resorts, junk bonds, arbitrage schemes, and derivative instruments. Federal deregulation also encouraged state legislatures to deregulate state-chartered S&Ls. Unfortunately, many of the states that deregulated S&Ls were also soft on supervision and enforcement. In some cases, state-chartered S&Ls had close political ties to elected officials and state regulators, which further weakened oversight. As the risk exposure of S&Ls expanded, the economy slid into the recession. Soon, hundreds of S&Ls were insolvent. Between 1980 and 1983, 118 S&Ls with $43 billion in assets failed. The Federal Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation, the federal agency which insured the deposits of S&Ls, spent $3.5 billion to make depositors whole again (in comparison, only 143 S&Ls with $4.5 billion in assets had failed in the previous 45 years, costing the FSLIC $306 million). The FSLIC pushed mergers as a way to avoid insolvency. From 1980 to 1982, there were 493 voluntary mergers and 259 forced mergers of savings and loans overseen by the agency. Despite the failures and mergers, there were still 415 S&Ls at the end of 1982 that were insolvent. Federal action initially caused the problem by allowing institutions to get involved in creating wealth by unhealthy fractional reserve practices, lending out much more money than they could ever afford to pay back out to customers if they came to withdraw their money. That ultimately led to S&Ls' failure. Later, the government's inaction worsened the industry's problems. Responsibility for handling the S&L crisis lay with the Cabinet Council on Economic Affairs (CCEA), an intergovernmental council located within the Executive Office of the President. At the time, the CCEA was chaired by Treasury Secretary Donald Regan. The CCEA pushed the FHLBB to refrain from re-regulating the S&L industry and adamantly opposed any governmental expenditures to resolve the S&L problem. Furthermore, the Reagan administration did not want to alarm the public by closing a large number of S&Ls. Such actions significantly worsened the S&L crisis. The S&L crisis lasted well beyond the end of the economic downturn. The crisis was finally quelled by passage of the Financial Institutions Reform, Recovery and Enforcement Act of 1989. The estimated total cost of resolving the S&L crisis was more than $160 billion. Political fallout The recession was nearly a year old before President Ronald Reagan stated on October 18, 1981, that the economy was in a "slight recession". The recession, which has been termed the "Reagan recession", coupled with budget cuts, which were enacted in 1981 but began to take effect only in 1982, led many voters to believe that Reagan was insensitive to the needs of average citizens and favored the wealthy. In January 1983, Reagan's popularity rating fell to 35%, approaching levels experienced by Richard Nixon and Jimmy Carter at their most unpopular periods. Although his approval rating did not fall as low as Nixon's during the Watergate scandal, Reagan's re-election seemed unlikely. Pressured to counteract the increased deficit caused by the recession, Reagan agreed to a corporate tax increase in 1982. However, he refused to raise income tax or to cut defense spending. The Tax Equity and Fiscal Responsibility Act of 1982 instituted a three-year, $100 billion tax hike, the largest tax increase since the Second World War.<ref>Green, Joshua. "Reagan's Liberal Legacy." Washington Monthly", January/February 2003.</ref> The 1982 US midterm elections were largely viewed as a referendum on Reagan and his economic policies. The election results proved to be a setback for Reagan and his Republicans. The Democrats gained 26 seats in the US House of Representatives seats, then the most for the party in any election since the "Watergate year" of 1974.Paul R. Abramson, John H. Aldrich and David W. Rhode, Change and Continuity in the 1984 Elections. Rev. ed. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly Press, 1987. . However, the net balance of power in the US Senate was unchanged. Recovery The midterm elections were the low point of Reagan's presidency. According to Keynesian economists, a combination of deficit spending and the lowering of interest rates would slowly lead to economic recovery. Many economists also insist that the significantly-lower tax rates significantly contributed to the recovery. From a high of 10.8% in December 1982, unemployment gradually improved until it fell to 7.2% on Election Day in 1984. Nearly two million people left the unemployment rolls. Inflation fell from 10.3% in 1981 to 3.2% in 1983. Corporate income rose by 29% in the July–September quarter of 1983, compared with the same period in 1982. Some of the most dramatic improvements came in industries that were the hardest hit by the recession, such as paper and forest products, rubber, airlines, and the auto industry. By November 1984, voter anger at the recession had evaporated, and Reagan's re-election was certain. Reagan was subsequently re-elected by a landslide electoral and popular vote margin in the 1984 presidential election. Immediately after the election, Dave Stockman, Reagan's OMB manager admitted that the coming deficits were much higher than the projections that had been released during the campaign. West Germany See also Early 1990s recession 1982 crisis in Chile Supply-side economics Reaganomics References Sources Brunner, Karl. "The Recession of 1981/1982 in the Context of Postwar Recessions." Policy Statement and Position Papers. Rochester, N.Y.: Bradley Policy Research Center, William E. Simon Graduate School of Business Administration, University of Rochester. March 1983. Day, Kathleen. S&L Hell: How Politics Created a Trillion Dollar Debacle''. New York: W.W. Norton and Co., 1993. Guell, Robert C., Issues in Economics Today. New York: McGraw Hill Professional, 2004. U.S. Federal Reserve Board. Monetary Policy Report to the Congress. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, February 14, 2007. Accessed May 5, 2007. Recessions 1982 elections in the United States 1981 in the United States 1982 in the United States 1980s economic history
5175047	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Westall	William Westall	William Westall (12 October 1781 – 22 January 1850) was a British landscape artist best known as one of the first artists to work in Australia. Early life Westall was born in Hertford and grew up in London, mostly Sydenham and Hampstead. The son of brewery manager Benjamin Westall (d.1794) and his second wife Martha née Harbord, William Westall had four step-siblings, the eldest of whom, Richard Westall, was a reputable painter and illustrator. William was interested in painting from a young age; Rienitz and Rienitz (1963) suggest that he looked up to his half-brother, and was ambitious to follow in his footsteps. There is evidence to suggest that Westall's parents did not support this career choice; however Richard became head of the family upon the death of Benjamin Westall in March 1794, and must have approved Westall's artistic ambitions, as from that time forward William Westall was given a thorough art education. At the age of sixteen he won a silver palette in a competition run by the Society of Artists of Great Britain, and at eighteen was enrolled at the prestigious Royal Academy. Voyages In 1800, whilst still a probationary student in his first year, Westall was approached by Sir Joseph Banks to serve as landscape and figure painter to a voyage of exploration under Matthew Flinders, aboard . The position had first been offered to Julius Caesar Ibbetson, who declined; and then William Daniell, who accepted but subsequently pulled out. Daniell was a fellow student of Westall, and was engaged to one of Westall's stepsisters, so it seems likely that Westall prevailed upon Daniell to recommend him as his replacement; however one source states that Westall was recommended by Benjamin West, President of the Royal Academy. Elisabeth Findlay reconciles these claims by suggesting that Daniell "contrived" to have West put Westall's name forward. Westall's nomination was approved by Banks; thus Westall, at just 19 years of age, was appointed to what has come to be regarded as one of the notable scientific expeditions ever undertaken, as a member of a team of scientists that included botanist Robert Brown and botanical artist Ferdinand Bauer, both now revered as amongst the very best in their respective fields. Madeira Leaving London on 18 July 1801, the expedition reached Madeira, its first landfall, on 1 August. The following day Flinders, Brown and Bauer rowed to Bugio Island. The gardener Good records that he was not permitted to go with them, so instead he and Westall rowed around Investigator in search of turtles and birds, obtaining one of each. A day later Investigator anchored at Funchal, Madeira Island, and the following morning Westall went ashore with the other scientists, walking around Funchal and the vineyards north and east of the town. The next day the scientists went ashore again, with the intention of climbing the highest peak, Pico Ruivo. They walked all day, then spent an uncomfortable night in an unfurnished room in a chapel, probably the old chapel at Alegría. Early the next morning Westall returned alone to Funchal, the others continuing on for a few hours before turning back. Westall was charmed by the island and seems to have been enthusiastic in his work. However, on returning to the ship, their boat was swamped, Westall was almost drowned, and all of his sketches were lost. This event seems to have profoundly affected him: it is claimed that he subsequently nearly died from exposure and stress, and even three years later he was claiming that "his head had been affected" by the accident. Throughout his life he maintained that the swamping was a deliberate act. Cape Colony The next landfall was at Simon's Town, in the Cape Colony just east of the Cape of Good Hope. Anchoring in False Bay on 16 October, Investigator remained eighteen days, during which time the scientists spent a good deal of time ashore. Nothing is known of Westall's movements in the first week, but Good, travelling with Brown, Bauer and ship's surgeon Hugh Bell, reports falling in with him at Devil's Peak on 26 October, Westall having set out from Simon's Town with mineralogist John Allen two days earlier; the two men had become separated, and Westall had "fared very indifferently and slept one night at Constantia." The following day Westall accompanied Bauer and Bell towards Cape Town, while Good and Brown climbed Table Mountain. Good and Brown slept that night in the Tokai home of a German named Johann Gasper Loos, and woke in the morning to find Westall and Bell there too, the latter two having lost their way to Cape Town, and arrived at Loos' house late in the evening. All four men then returned to the ship together. As with Madeira, Westall was delighted with the landscapes on offer at the Cape, and worked conscientiously, making some highly detailed sketches. Seven of Westall's field drawings from the Cape are extant. Australia Investigator came in sight of Australia on 6 December, and the following morning Westall made his first sketch of Australia, a coastal profile from about off Cape Leeuwin. He made two further coastal profiles the following day, one of Chatham Island (Western Australia), the other of the Eclipse Islands. Late that night the Investigator anchored alongside Seal Island in King George the Third's Sound (now King George Sound); they remained in King George Sound for almost four weeks. The next morning, the 9th, Westall sketched Seal Island from the anchorage. Later that day he went with Flinders and others, firstly to examine Seal Island and search for a bottle and parchment that George Vancouver had left there ten years previously. They then went across to Possession Point and the opposite shore, and examined Princess Royal Harbour. Not much is known of Westall's subsequent movements, but on 14 December he was on shore with Brown, Good, Westall, Allen, and possibly Bauer and a man named White, when they made the first contact with an Australian Aborigine, who initially advanced on them, shouting and brandishing a spear, but then retreated before them, setting fire to the grass behind him. On 23 December Westall was one of a large party who set off on a grueling two-day overland expedition to Torbay Inlet and back. By 30 December Investigators men had established amicable relations with the Aborigines. That day Westall sketched an Aboriginal man named Warena, and showed it to him. Warena was pleased, and bared his body to the waist so that Westall could complete the drawing. A sketch of an Aboriginal man survives, and Rienitz and Rienitz assume that this is Warena, but Vallance et al. (2001) note that the sketch does not match Brown's description of Warena as a "middle aged stout man". On 1 January 1802, Westall landed with Bauer, apparently in company with Brown, and apparently at Limeburner Point. Westall and Bauer subsequently went exploring together, and discovered the Western Australian Pitcher Plant (Cephalotus follicularis). From this time on, the surviving drawings by Westall decrease markedly in both number and quality. Findlay assumed that nearly all of Westall's drawings have survived, and sees the Westall's low output as indicative of his growing disillusionment with the Australian landscape, which he perceived as lacking in the picturesque qualities he sought. Rienitz and Rienitz, on the other hand, perceive Westall as diligent enough, and assume that many of his drawing have been lost. Only five sketches and a watercolour are extant from Westall's time in King George's Sound, and he seems to have made only one sketch during the five days spent in Lucky Bay. At Cape Catastrophe, where eight men were drowned, Westall sketched Thistle Island, and painted a snake. The arrival of Investigator at the settlement at Port Jackson (now Sydney) on 8 May 1802 seems to have revitalised Westall. During there ten-week hiatus there, he produced a great deal of work, including no fewer than thirteen detailed drawings of the Hawkesbury River, with which he was much taken. He also sketched some local Aborigines, and was commissioned by the Governor, Phillip Gidley King, to paint Government House. The resulting watercolour is one of a very few paintings that Westall completed during the voyage. Heading north up the east coast, Westall continued drawing coastal profiles, but put less effort in than ever. Anchoring in Port Bowen on 21 August, the scientists went ashore to explore, and Flinders offered to name the highest mountain over whoever reached the peak first. Westall won; hence the name of Mount Westall. Continuing north, Investigator found a passage through the Great Barrier Reef, passed through Torres Strait, and anchored off Murray Island, where about fifty Torres Strait Islanders came out in canoes to trade. From this time onward, Westall largely eschewed landscapes in favour of portraying events and people. Amongst his work in this period is the watercolour Murray Isles, which depicts the islanders coming out to trade; The English Company's Islands: Probasso, a Malay Chief, a portrait of a Macassan trepanger chieftain; and several watercolour copies of Aboriginal cave paintings. The last of these makes Westall the first European artist to depict Aboriginal cave paintings, and, more generally, one of the first Europeans to document Aboriginal artwork when on 14 January 1803 Flinders' party made landfall on Chasm Island. Within the island's rock shelters, they discovered an array of painted and stenciled patterns and Flinders enlisted Westall to record these images. In his journal, Flinders not only detailed the location and the artworks but also authored the inaugural site report:In the deep sides of the chasms were deep holes or caverns undermining the cliffs; upon the walls of which I found rude drawings, made with charcoal and something like red paint upon the white ground of the rock. These drawings represented porpoises, turtle, kanguroos [sic], and a human hand; and Mr. Westall, who went afterwards to see them, found the representation of a kanguroo [sic], with a file of thirty-two persons following after it. The third person of the band was twice the height of the others, and held in his hand something resembling the whaddie, or wooden sword of the natives of Port Jackson; and was probably intended to represent a chief. They could not, as with us, indicate superiority by clothing or ornament, since they wore none of any kind; and therefore, with the addition of a weapon, similar to the ancients, they seem to have made superiority of person the principal emblem of superior power, of which, indeed, power is usually a consequence in the very early stages of society. By the time Flinders had finished surveying the Gulf of Carpentaria, Investigator was rotting badly, and Flinders reluctantly decided to return to Port Jackson via the west and south coasts. Arriving back at Port Jackson in June 1803, Investigator was condemned, and Flinders decided to return to England to request a new ship. Though some of the scientists elected to remain in Port Jackson and await Flinders' return, Westall joined Flinders as a passenger on . They set sail on 10 August, but a week later the ship was wrecked on the Wreck Reefs, and the crew and passengers were marooned on a narrow sandbank for nearly three weeks while Flinders returned to Port Jackson in Porpoises cutter to obtain help. Two rescue ships were sent: Cumberland, which was instructed to return to Port Jackson; and Rolla, which was en route to Canton. Westall decided to board the latter. Very few of Westall's drawings were lost in the wreck, though some were water-damaged, and incurred further damage when Flinders' second lieutenant and brother Samuel Flinders allowed the sheep to run over them while Westall had them laid out drying in the sun. Whilst marooned on the sandbank, Westall produced a watercolour entitled View of Wreck Reef Bank Taken at Low Water: Terra Australia; this was Westall's final drawing of the voyage. China and India Westall arrived in Canton at the end of 1803. Rather than returning immediately to England, he spend some time exploring Canton, then sailed on to India. As he was on the British government payroll at the time, he had no right to do so without permission, and must have known it, since, just before departing for India, he wrote a long letter to Banks justifying his travel plans. In doing so he complained about the monotony of the Australian landscape, declared that he would not have agreed to the position if he had known that the voyage was confined to Australia alone, and hinted that he had the right to go to India as compensation for the failure of the Investigator to stop anywhere interesting. The admiralty took a dim view of the letter, terminating his employment immediately, and telling him to make his own way home. Madeira and Jamaica Westall returned to England at the end of 1804, only to learn that Flinders was imprisoned on Mauritius. Realising that he would not be asked to work his sketches up for some time, he sailed once more to Madeira, and then on to Jamaica, returning to England in 1806. Career By 1809, the Admiralty were feeling pressure to show some results of the voyage; yet Flinders still had not been released by the French, so a published account of the voyage was still some years off. To fill the void, the Admiralty commissioned Westall to produce nine oil paintings of Australian scenes. These took Westall three years to complete. A selection were exhibited in 1810, and again in 1812, and as a result Westall won election as an Associate of the Royal Academy. When work on Flinders' A Voyage to Terra Australis got underway in 1811, it was Westall's oil paintings that became the basis of the engravings to be published therein. Westall himself took responsibility for squaring down the paintings to drawings of the actual size to be published, and these were then handed over to engravers, who produced intaglio plates using a combination of etching and direct engraving. A Voyage to Terra Australis was eventually published in 1814, and shortly afterwards Westall published the engravings separately under the title Views of Australian Scenery. In 1811 Westall published Foreign Scenery, a collection of landscapes depicting Madeira, the Cape of Good Hope, China and India. This was a financially successful venture, and attracted the attention of publisher Rudolf Ackermann, who approached him to contribute to several of his works. Westall ended up doing a good deal of work for Ackermann, including views of several universities and public schools for Ackermann's series of school histories; and over a hundred drawing for Great Britain Illustrated (1830). He also worked for John Murray, such as several contributions to A Picturesque Tour of the River Thames (for which he shared authorship with Samuel Owen 1828). Later life In 1820, Westall married Ann Sedgwick; they had four sons, William, Thomas, Richard and Robert, who was also an artist. Supporting his family became the prime imperative of Westall's later life, and it is said that he often complained that he had sacrificed the chance of fame and success in order to earn a steady income in illustration. Westall's health began to decline in the 1840s, and in 1847 he broke his arm. He never recovered from this setback, finding it difficult to continue working. He gave his final exhibition in 1848, and died in January 1850, aged 68. His grave is in the graveyard of St John-at-Hampstead in north London, south of the church. In 1899, Westall's sons sold 140 of the original drawings from the voyage of HMS Investigator to the Royal Colonial Institute (later the Royal Commonwealth Society) for 100 guineas. In 1968 they were published as Drawing of William Westall; later that year they were purchased by the National Library of Australia for 38,000 pounds. Assessment of his work Westall's work during the voyage of the Investigator has been the subject of much analysis and comment, most of it critical. In terms of output, the 140 drawing he produced during the voyage compares unfavourably with the 2000 sketches produced by Bauer in the same period. Moreover, some of Westall's drawings are so lacking in detail as to appear almost cursory. He has also been criticised for his choice of subjects: his primary task was to record landscapes, but in the latter half of the voyage he mostly neglected them in favour of portraying people and events. But the main criticism levelled against Westall's Investigator work relates to his taking of artistic license. There was an expectation that Westall's pictures would serve as accurate objective records, and in many cases they are: his coastal profiles in particular have been praised for their accuracy. In some cases, however, Westall has introduced substantial inaccuracies. When an Aborigine was shot in the back, Westall's sketch showed the gunshot wound in the chest; and his sketch of Wreck Reef shows emergent coral reef, when in fact the coral remained always underwater. These inaccuracies were compounded when Westall came to convert his sketches into oil paintings. A devotee of the picturesque aesthetic ideal, Westall sought to impose this ideal upon the Australian landscape. To this end he manipulated the foreground of his paintings heavily, rearranging and inserting features to obtain a desirable composition. Examples include his Entrance to Port Lincoln from behind Memory Cove, February 1802, which superimposes the foreground from one sketch of Port Lincoln upon the background of another; and his Part of King George Sound, on the South Coast of New Holland, which is based upon his drawing of King George's Sound, but has a completely revised foreground, including the insertion of a Eucalyptus that Westall sketched at Spencer Gulf, 1800 kilometres to the east. Westall's later work has not been subjected to much critical analysis, but his contemporary and friend John Landseer considered that he was under-rated, and a better artist than William Hodges and John Webber, the artists on James Cook's second and third expeditions respectively. Landseer thought that Westall would have received more recognition, were he not "a mild and unobtrusive man, whilst the others were pushing and solicitous". Publications For a list of publications illustrated by Westall, see Wikisource:Author:William Westall. See also European and American voyages of scientific exploration Footnotes References Further reading External links William Westall, Dictionary of Australian Artists Online. Westall's works in the National Library of Australia, Canberra Westall's work in the National Portrait Gallery (United Kingdom) Westall in the National Library of Australia's online exhibition Travellers Art(2003) 'William Westall', The Navigators - The Naturalists (ABC Learn Online) Profile on Royal Academy of Arts Collections , drawn by Westall and engraved by Edward Goodall for the Forget Me Not annual, 1835, with a poetical illustration by Letitia Elizabeth Landon. , drawn by Westall and engraved by W A Le Petit for Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1836. Australian landscape painters 1781 births 1850 deaths 18th-century English painters English male painters 19th-century English painters People from Hertford Associates of the Royal Academy 19th-century English male artists 18th-century English male artists
5175362	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1960s%20in%20fashion	1960s in fashion	Fashion of the 1960s featured a number of diverse trends, as part of a decade that broke many fashion traditions, adopted new cultures, and launched a new age of social movements. Around the middle of the decade, fashions arising from small pockets of young people in a few urban centers received large amounts of media publicity, and began to heavily influence both the haute couture of elite designers and the mass-market manufacturers. Examples include the mini skirt, culottes, go-go boots, and more experimental fashions, less often seen on the street, such as curved PVC dresses and other PVC clothes. Mary Quant popularized the mini skirt, and Jackie Kennedy introduced the pillbox hat; both became extremely popular. False eyelashes were worn by women throughout the 1960s. Hairstyles were a variety of lengths and styles. Psychedelic prints, neon colors, and mismatched patterns were in style. In the early-to-mid 1960s, London "Modernists" known as Mods influenced male fashion in Britain. Designers were producing clothing more suitable for young adults, leading to an increase in interest and sales. In the late 1960s, the hippie movement also exerted a strong influence on women's clothing styles, including bell-bottom jeans, tie-dye and batik fabrics, as well as paisley prints. Women's fashion Early 1960s (1960–1962) High fashion Fashions in the early years of the decade reflected the elegance of the First Lady, Jacqueline Kennedy. In addition to tailored skirts, women wore stiletto heel shoes and suits with short boxy jackets, and oversized buttons. Simple, geometric dresses, known as shifts, were also in style. For evening wear, full-skirted evening dresses were worn; these often had low necklines and close-fitting waists. For casual wear, capri trousers were the fashion for women and girls. Bikini The bikini, named after the nuclear test site on Bikini Atoll, was invented in France in 1946 but struggled to gain acceptance in the mass-market during the 1950s, especially in America. The breakthrough came in 1963, after rather large versions featured in the surprise hit teen film Beach Party, culminating with the Beach party film genre. The rise of trousers for women The 1960s were an age of fashion innovation for women. The early 1960s gave birth to drainpipe jeans and capri pants, a style popularized by Audrey Hepburn. Casual dress became more unisex and often consisted of plaid button down shirts worn with slim blue jeans, comfortable slacks, or skirts. Traditionally, trousers had been viewed by western society as masculine, but by the early 1960s, it had become acceptable for women to wear them every day. These included Levi Strauss jeans, previously considered blue collar wear, and "stretch" drainpipe jeans with elastane. Women's trousers came in a variety of styles: narrow, wide, below the knee, above the ankle, and eventually mid thigh. Mid-thigh cut trousers, also known as shorts, evolved around 1969. By adapting men's style and wearing trousers, women voiced their equality to men. Mid 1960s (1963–1966) Space Age fashions Space age fashion first appeared in the late 1950s, and developed further in the 1960s. It was heavily influenced by the Space Race of the Cold War, in addition to popular science fiction paperbacks, films and television series such as Star Trek: The Original Series, Dan Dare, or Lost In Space. Designers often emphasized the energy and technology advancements of the Cold War era in their work. The space age look was defined by boxy shapes, thigh length hemlines and bold accessories. Synthetic material was also popular with space age fashion designers. After the Second World War, fabrics like nylon, corfam, orlon, terylene, lurex and spandex were promoted as cheap, easy to dry, and wrinkle-free. The synthetic fabrics of the 1960s allowed space age fashion designers such as the late Pierre Cardin to design garments with bold shapes and a plastic texture. Non-cloth material, such as polyester, lucite, and PVC, became popular in clothing and accessories as well. For daytime outerwear, short plastic raincoats, colourful swing coats, bubble dresses, helmet-like hats, and dyed fake-furs were popular for young women. Colors associated with Space Age fashions, especially in 1965 and '66, were dominated by metallic silver and the stark whites of André Courrèges. The futuristic-looking geometry of the Op Art of such artists as Bridget Riley and Victor Vasarely influenced prints, as did geometric art from earlier in the century like that of Piet Mondrian, inspiration for Yves Saint Laurent's popular Mondrian shift dresses of 1965. Fluorescent colors (also known as day-glo or neon) and even light-up dresses like those shown by Diana Dew in 1967 were also seen. In 1966, the Nehru jacket arrived on the fashion scene, and was worn by both sexes. Suits were very diverse in color but were, for the first time ever, fitted and very slim. Waistlines for women were left unmarked and hemlines were getting shorter and shorter. Footwear for women included low-heeled sandals and kitten-heeled pumps, as well as trendy white go-go boots and shoes of transparent plastic. Shoes, boots, and handbags were often made of patent leather or vinyl. The Beatles wore elastic-sided boots similar to Winkle-pickers with pointed toes and Cuban heels. These were known as "Beatle boots" and were widely copied by young men in Britain. The French designer André Courrèges was particularly influential in the development of space age fashion. The "space look" he introduced in the spring of 1964 included trouser suits, goggles, box-shaped dresses with high skirts, and go-go boots. Go-go boots eventually became a staple of go-go girl fashion in the 1960s. The boots were defined by their fluorescent colors, shiny material, and sequins. Other influential space age designers included Pierre Cardin, Paco Rabanne, Rudi Gernreich, Emanuel Ungaro, Jean-Marie Armand, Michèle Rosier, and Diana Dew, though even designers like Yves Saint Laurent showed the look during its peak of influence from 1963 to 1967. Italian-born Pierre Cardin was best known for his helmets, short tunics, and goggles. However, Paco Rabanne has been credited as the one who revolutionized the Space Age fashion. Rabanne was known for his 1966 "12 Unwearable Dresses in Contemporary Materials" collection, made of chain mail, aluminum, and plastic. Rabanne would even design the iconic green dress, as well as the other costumes, Jane Fonda wore in the 1968 science fiction film Barbarella. People Magazine journalist Hedy Philips described Rabanne's Space Age fashion as "turning the fashion world upside down." A timeless fashion piece: miniskirt Although designer Mary Quant is credited with introducing the miniskirt in 1964, André Courrèges also claimed credit for inventing the miniskirt. The miniskirt changed fashion forever. The definition of a miniskirt is a skirt with a hemline around 6, 7 inches above the knees. Early references to the miniskirt from the Wyoming newspaper The Billings Gazette, described the miniskirt as a controversial item that was produced in Mexico City. During the 1950s, the miniskirt began appearing in science fiction films like Flight to Mars and Forbidden Planet Mary Quant and Andre Courreges both contributed to the invention of the miniskirt during the 1960s. Mary Quant, A British designer, was one of the pioneers of the miniskirt during 1960. She named the skirt after her favorite car, the Mini Cooper. Quant introduced her design in the mid-1960s at her London boutique, Bazaar. She has said: " We wanted to increase the availability of fun for everyone. We felt that expensive things were almost immoral and the New Look was totally irrelevant to us." Miniskirts became popular in London and Paris and the term "Chelsea Look" was coined. Andre Courreges was a French fashion designer who also began experimenting with hemlines in the early 1960s. He started to show space-age dresses that hit above the knee in late 1964. His designs were more structured and sophisticated than Quant's design. This made the miniskirt more acceptable to the French public. His clothes represented a couture version of the "Youthquake" street style and heralded the arrival of the "moon girl" look. As teen culture became stronger, the term "Youthquake" came to mean the power of young people. This was unprecedented before the 1960s. Before World War II, teenagers dressed and acted like their parents. Many settled down and began raising families when they were young, normally right after high school. They were often expected to work and assist their families financially. Therefore, youth culture begins to develop only after World War II, when the advancement of many technologies and stricter child labor laws became mainstream. Teenagers during this period had more time to enjoy their youth, and the freedom to create their own culture separate from their parents. Teens soon began establishing their own identities and communities, with their own views and ideas, breaking away from the traditions of their parents. The fabulous "little girl" look was introduced to USA—styling with Bobbie Brooks, bows, patterned knee socks and mini skirts. The miniskirt and the "little girl" look that accompanied it reflect a revolutionary shift in the way people dress. Instead of younger generations dressing like adults, they became inspired by childlike dress. Second-wave feminism made the miniskirt popular. Women had entered the professional workforce in larger numbers during World War II and many women soon found they craved a career and life outside the home. They wanted the same choices, freedoms, and opportunities that were offered to men. During the mid-1960s, Mod girls wore very short miniskirts, tall, brightly colored go-go boots, monochromatic geometric print patterns such as houndstooth, and tight fitted, sleeveless tunics. Flared trousers and bell bottoms appeared in 1964 as an alternative to capri pants, and led the way to the hippie period introduced in the 1960s. Bell bottoms were usually worn with chiffon blouses, polo-necked ribbed sweaters or tops that bared the midriff. These were made in a variety of materials including heavy denims, silks, and even elasticated fabrics. Variations of polyester were worn along with acrylics. A popular look for women was the suede mini-skirt worn with a French polo-neck top, square-toed boots, and Newsboy cap or beret. This style was also popular in the early 2000s. Women were inspired by the top models of those days, such as Twiggy, Jean Shrimpton, Colleen Corby, Penelope Tree, Edie Sedgwick and Veruschka. Velvet mini dresses with lace-collars and matching cuffs, wide tent dresses and culottes pushed aside the geometric shift. False eyelashes were in vogue, as was pale lipstick. Hemlines kept rising, and by 1968 they had reached well above mid-thigh. These were known as "micro-minis". This was when the "angel dress" first made its appearance on the fashion scene. A micro-mini dress with a flared skirt and long, wide trumpet sleeves, it was usually worn with patterned tights, and was often made of crocheted lace, velvet, chiffon or sometimes cotton with a psychedelic print. The cowled-neck "monk dress" was another religion-inspired alternative; the cowl could be pulled up to be worn over the head. For evening wear, skimpy chiffon baby-doll dresses with spaghetti-straps were popular, as well as the "cocktail dress", which was a close-fitting sheath, usually covered in lace with matching long sleeves. Feather boas were occasionally worn. Famous celebrities associated with marketing the miniskirt included: Twiggy; model Jean Shrimpton, who attended an event in the Melbourne Cup Carnival in Australia wearing a miniskirt in 1965; Goldie Hawn, who appeared on Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In with her mini skirt in 1967; and Jackie Kennedy, who wore a short white pleated Valentino dress when she married Aristotle Onassis in 1968. The Single Girl Writer Helen Gurley Brown wrote Sex and the Single Girl in 1962. This book acted as a guide for women of any marital status to take control of their own lives financially as well as emotionally. This book was revolutionary since it encouraged sex before marriage; something that was historically looked down upon. With the high success of this book, a pathway was set for media to also encourage this behavior. Betty Friedan also wrote The Feminine Mystique the following year, giving insight into the suburban female experience, further igniting women's push for a more independent lifestyle. The second-wave of feminism was getting its start during this period: pushing for a new feminine ideal to be capitalized on. Fashion photography in the 1960s represented a new feminine ideal for women and young girls: the Single Girl. 1960s photography was in sharp contrast to the models of the 1920s, who were carefully posed for the camera and portrayed as immobile. The Single Girl represented 'movement'. She was young, single, active, and economically self-sufficient. To represent this new Single Girl feminine ideal, many 1960s photographers photographed models outside—often having them walk or run in fashion shoots. Models in the 1960s also promoted sports wear, which reflected the modern fascination with speed and the quickening pace of the 1960s urban life. Although the Single Girl was economically, socially and emotionally self-sufficient, the ideal body form was difficult for many to achieve. Therefore, women were constrained by diet restrictions that seemed to contradict the image of the empowered 1960s Single Girl. Fashion photographers also photographed the Single Girl wearing business wear, calling her the Working Girl. The Working Girl motif represented another shift for the modern, fashionable woman. Unlike earlier periods, characterized by formal evening gowns and the European look, the 1960s Working Girl popularized day wear and "working clothing". New ready to wear lines replaced individualized formal couture fashion. The Working Girl created an image of a new, independent woman who has control over her body. There was a new emphasis on ready-to-wear and personal style. As the 1960s was an era of exponential innovation, there was appreciation for something new rather than that of quality. Spending a lot of money on an expensive, designer wardrobe was no longer the ideal and women from various statuses would be found shopping in the same stores. The Single Girl was the true depiction of the societal and commercial obsession with the adolescent look. Particular to the mid-sixties, icons such as Twiggy popularized the shapeless shift dresses emphasizing an image of innocence as they did not fit to any contours of the human body. The female body has forever been a sign of culturally constructed ideals. The long-limbed and pre-pubescent style of the time depicts how women were able to be more independent, yet paradoxically, also were put into a box of conceived ideals. Dolly Girl The "Dolly Girl" was another archetype for young females in the 1960s. She emerged in the mid-1960s, and her defining characteristic is the iconic miniskirt. "Dolly Girls" also sported long hair, slightly teased, of course, and childish-looking clothing. Clothes were worn tight fitting, sometimes even purchased from a children's section. Dresses were often embellished with lace, ribbons, and other frills; the look was topped off with light colored tights. Crocheted clothing also took off within this specific style. Corsets, seamed tights, and skirts covering the knees were no longer fashionable. The idea of buying urbanized clothing that could be worn with separate pieces was intriguing to women of this era. In the past, one would only buy specific outfits for certain occasions. Late 1960s (1967–1969) The hippie subculture Starting in 1967, youth culture began to change musically and Mod culture shifted to a more laid back hippie or Bohemian style. Hosiery manufacturers of the time like Mary Quant (who founded Pamela Mann Legwear) combined the "Flower Power" style of dress and the Pop Art school of design to create fashion tights that would appeal to a female audience that enjoyed psychedelia. Ponchos, moccasins, love beads, peace signs, medallion necklaces, chain belts, polka dot-printed fabrics, and long, puffed "bubble" sleeves were popular fashions in the late 1960s. Both men and women wore frayed bell-bottomed jeans, tie-dyed shirts, work shirts, Jesus sandals, and headbands. Women would often go barefoot and some went braless. The idea of multiculturalism also became very popular; a lot of style inspiration was drawn from traditional clothing in Nepal, India, Bali, Morocco and African countries. Because inspiration was being drawn from all over the world, there was increasing separation of style; clothing pieces often had similar elements and created similar silhouettes, but there was no real "uniform". Fringed buck-skin vests, flowing caftans, the "lounging" or "hostess" pajamas were also popular. "Hostess" pajamas consisted of a tunic top over floor-length culottes, usually made of polyester or chiffon. Long maxi coats, often belted and lined in sheepskin, appeared at the close of the decade. Animal prints were popular for women in the autumn and winter of 1969. Women's shirts often had transparent sleeves. Psychedelic prints, hemp and the look of "Woodstock" emerged during this era. Indian fashion In general, urban Indian men imitated Western fashions such as the business suit. This was adapted to India's hot tropical climate as the Nehru suit, a garment often made from khadi that typically had a mandarin collar and patch pockets. From the early 1950s until the mid-1960s, most Indian women maintained traditional dress such as the gagra choli, sari, and churidar. At the same time as the hippies of the late 1960s were imitating Indian fashions, however, some fashion conscious Indian and Ceylonese women began to incorporate modernist Western trends. One particularly infamous fad combined the miniskirt with the traditional sari, prompting a moral panic where conservatives denounced the so-called "hipster sari" as indecent. Feminist influences During the late 1960s, there was a backlash by radical feminists in America against accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity within the fashion industry. Instead, these activists wore androgynous and masculine clothing such as jeans, work boots or berets. Black feminists often wore afros in reaction to the hair straighteners associated with middle class white women. At the 1968 feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine fashion-related products into a "Freedom Trash Can," including false eyelashes, high-heeled shoes, curlers, hairspray, makeup, girdles, corsets, and bras which they termed "instruments of female torture". Men's fashion Early 1960s (1960–1962) Business wear During the early 1960s, slim fitting single breasted continental style suits and skinny ties were fashionable in the UK and America. These suits, as worn by Sean Connery as James Bond, the Rat Pack's Frank Sinatra, and the cast of Mad Men, were often made from grey flannel, mohair or sharkskin. Tuxedos were cut in a similar form fitting style, with shawl collars and a single button, and were available either in the traditional black, or in bright colors such as red or sky blue popularized by Frankie Valli of The Four Seasons. Men's hats, including the pork pie hat and Irish hat, had narrower brims than the homburgs and fedoras worn in the 1950s and earlier. During the mid-1960s, hats began to decline after presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson appeared in public without one. Ivy League Ivy League fashion, the precursor to the modern preppy look, was desirable casual wear for middle class adults in America during the early to mid 1960s. Typical outfits included polo shirts, harrington jackets, khaki chino pants, striped T-shirts, Argyle socks, seersucker or houndstooth sportcoats, sweater vests, cardigan sweaters, Nantucket Reds, basketweave loafers, Madras plaid shirts, and narrow brimmed Trilbys sometimes made from straw. The style remained fashionable for men until it was supplanted by more casual everyday clothing influenced by the hippie counterculture during the late 1960s and early 1970s. Mid 1960s (1963–1966) Surf fashion In America and Australia, surf rock went mainstream from 1962 to 1966, resulting in many teenage baby boomers imitating the outfits of groups like The Beach Boys. Pendleton jackets were common due to their cheapness, warmth and durability. Design wise the surf jacket suited popularly with nonchalance, warmth for coastal Californian climate, and utility pockets for surf wax and VW car keys, two surf essentials (Pendleton Woolen Mills). The Pendleton Surf Jacket expanded upon Fifties pop-cultural fashions, however new in its relaxed, intangibly cool vibe. The surf jacket split from the tough guy rock 'n' roll teen, and mellowing leather's rock attitudes to woolen plaids. Following Rock n Roll's decline were rebels without causes, "Greasers" and "Beats"; dressed down in inappropriate daywear to denounce conformity, Sixties youth, inventors of Surf Fashion, expressed more nomadic and hedonically in this "dress down" style. Surf styles mainstreamed into fashion when Soul Surfers wanted to make livings in surfing-associated careers. They opened businesses that expanded selling surf products into selling surf clothing. These surfer entrepreneurs proliferate surf fashion by mixing their lifestyles into casual wear. As Rock n Roll Beats, and Greaser car clubs used jackets to identify, and as 1950 varsity sports wore lettered cardigans, 1960s Surfies wore surf jackets to identify with surf clubs and as surfers (Retro 1960s Swimwear). Jackets worn as group status identifiers continued in the Sixties, but with focus around beach music and lifestyle. As surfers banded over localism, plaid and striped surf jackets gained relevancy. Teens wore them to proclaim surf clubs; what beach they were from, and where they surfed. For a surfer though, it is curious why a woolen plaid jacket paired with UGG boots, and not the board-short or aloha shirt identified the surfer. The Pendleton plaid, originally worn by loggers, hunters and fishermen, was a common item of casual wear for American men of all classes before the British invasion. For the youth of the 1960s, however, the plaid Pendleton signified counterculture, and tribal seamen style translated from Welsh folklore, rebellious Scots Highlanders, and rugged American frontiersmen (Bowe). The Sixties invented the Californian Cool style, by relaxing style to escape Cold War meltdowns with Polynesian fascinations, bridging the macho 1950s teen towards 1960s Hippie style. The Cold War's tense political context conceived Surf Fashion as a way to relax and escape established violence. California, the birthplace of American Surfing, also produced much of the technology experimentations used in the nuclear space race. Caltech designers in Pasadena were designing nuclear arms for day jobs and were surfing at night. The modern surfboard design itself originates from the military-industrial complex's product development, where the Manhattan Project's Hugh Bradner also designed the modern neoprene wetsuit (Inside the Curl). Californian engineers for the Cold War were also surfing and equally engineering that fashion. Just as the Bikini's name comes from a nuclear test site, Surf fashion in this era consistently references the Cold War context. Surfing became an attractive fashion identity in this era because it perpetuates adolescence, and the pursuit of pleasure in times of anxiety and paranoia. In a teenage-driven culture, which aimed to ignore establishment conflicts, surfers mused Hawaii and its associated tiki culture as a place of escape with tropical paradises as the antithesis to modern society. This sustained Hawaiian flora and fauna patterns' in fashion its attraction. The Sixties Surfer was not the first to escape violence or revolutionize the pursuit of happiness through Polynesian fascination. Accounts of Thomas Jefferson theorize that his exposure to the surfer image in South Pacific travel journals influenced his imagined Pursuit of Happiness (Martin D. Henry). Similarly, Hawaii's surfer image and Californian translation responds to the decade's violence and further inspired full-on nonviolent revolutionary Hippie fashions. Additionally, as Californian water inspired lifestyles influenced fashion, many guys improvised their own faded jeans using chlorine from backyard swimming pools. Sneakers such as Converse All Stars made the transition from sportswear to streetwear, and guys in California and Hawaii began to grow out their hair. Mod and British Invasion influences The leaders of mid-1960s style were the British. The Mods (short for Modernists) adopted new fads that would be imitated by many young people. Mods formed their own way of life creating television shows and magazines that focused directly on the lifestyles of Mods. British rock bands such as The Who, The Small Faces, the Beatles, and The Kinks emerged from the Mod subculture. It was not until 1964, when the Modernists were truly recognized by the public, that women really were accepted in the group. Women had short, clean haircuts and often dressed in similar styles to the male Mods. The Mods' lifestyle and musical tastes were the exact opposite of their rival group, known as the Rockers. The rockers liked 1950s rock-and roll, wore black leather jackets, greased, pompadour hairstyles, and rode motorbikes. The look of the Mods was classy. They mimicked the clothing and hairstyles of high fashion designers in France and Italy, opting for tailored suits that were topped by parkas. They rode on scooters, usually Vespas or Lambrettas. Mod fashion was often described as the City Gent look. The young men incorporated striped boating blazers and bold prints into their wardrobe. Shirts were slim, with a necessary button down collar accompanied by slim fitted trousers. Levi's were the only type of jeans worn by Modernists. In the USSR during the mid to late 1960s, Mods and Hippies were nicknamed Hairies for their mop top hair. As with the earlier Stilyagi in the 1950s, young Russian men who dressed this way were ridiculed in the media, and sometimes forced to get their hair cut in police stations. Late 1960s (1967–1969) Folk and counterculture influences The late 1960s to early 1970s witnessed the emergence of the hippie counterculture and freak scene in Britain, Australia, New Zealand and America. Middle class youths of both sexes favored a unisex look with long hair, tie dye and flower power motifs, Bob Dylan caps, kurtas, hemp waistcoats, baja jackets, bell bottoms, sheepskin vests, western shirts and ponchos inspired by acid Westerns, sandals, digger hats, and patches featuring flowers or peace symbols. Jimi Hendrix popularized the wearing of old military dress uniforms as a statement that war was obsolete. Early hippies, derisively referred to as freaks by the older generation, also used elements of roleplay such as headbands, cloaks, frock coats, kaftans, corduroy pants, cowboy boots, and vintage clothing from charity shops, suggesting a romantic historical era, a distant region, or a gathering of characters from a fantasy or science fiction novel. Peacock Revolution By 1968, the space age mod fashions had been gradually replaced by Victorian, Edwardian and Belle Époque influenced style, with men wearing double-breasted suits of crushed velvet or striped patterns, brocade waistcoats and shirts with frilled collars. Their hair worn below the collar bone. Rolling Stones guitarist Brian Jones epitomised this "dandified" look. Due to the colorful nature of menswear, the time period was described as the Peacock Revolution, and male trendsetters in Britain and America were called "Dandies," "Dudes," or "Peacocks." From the late 1960s until the mid-1970s Carnaby Street and Chelsea's Kings Road were virtual fashion parades, as mainstream menswear took on psychedelic influences. Business suits were replaced by Bohemian Carnaby Street creations that included corduroy, velvet or brocade double breasted suits, frilly shirts, cravats, wide ties and trouser straps, leather boots, and even collarless Nehru jackets. The slim neckties of the early 1960s were replaced with Kipper ties exceeding five inches in width, and featuring crazy prints, stripes and patterns. Hairstyles of the 1960s Women's hairstyles Women's hair styles ranged from beehive hairdos in the early part of the decade to the very short styles popularized by Twiggy and Mia Farrow just five years later to a very long straight style as popularized by the hippies in the late 1960s. Between these extremes, the chin-length contour cut and the pageboy were also popular. The pillbox hat was fashionable, due almost entirely to the influence of Jacqueline Kennedy, who was a style-setter throughout the decade. Her bouffant hairstyle, described as a "grown-up exaggeration of little girls' hair", was created by Kenneth. During the mid and late 1960s, women's hair styles became very big and used a large quantity of hair spray, as worn in real life by Ronnie Spector and parodied in the musical Hairspray. Wigs became fashionable and were often worn to add style and height. The most important change in hairstyles at this time was that men and women wore androgynous styles that resembled each other. In the UK, it was the new fashion for mod women to cut their hair short and close to their heads. Meanwhile, hippie girls favored long, straight natural hair, kept in place with a bandana. Men's hairstyles For professional men born before 1940, the side parted short back and sides was the norm in the UK, Europe and America from the early 60s until the end of the decade. Black men usually buzzed their hair short or wore styles like the conk, artificially straightened with chemicals. Blue collar white men, especially former military personnel, often wore buzzcuts and flat tops. During the early to mid 60s, rebellious Irish-American, Italian-American and Hispanic teens influenced by the greaser subculture often wore ducktails, pompadours and quiffs. Due to the influence of mod bands like the Beatles or the Rolling Stones, mop-top hairstyles were most popular for white and Hispanic men during the mid 60s. The mod haircut began as a short version around 1963 through 1964, developed into a longer style worn during 1965–66, and eventually evolved into an unkempt hippie version worn during the 1967–1969 period and into the early 1970s. Facial hair, evolving in its extremity from simply having longer sideburns, to mustaches and goatees, to full-grown beards became popular with young men from 1966 onwards. Head coverings changed dramatically towards the end of the decade as men's hats went out of style, replaced by the bandanna, digger hat, Stetson, or Bob Dylan cap if anything at all. As men let their hair grow long, the Afro became the hairstyle of choice for African Americans. This afro was not just a fashion statement but also an emblem of racial pride. They started to believe that by allowing their hair to grow in its nature state without chemical treatments, they would be accepting their racial identities. Image gallery A selection of images representing the fashion trends of the 1960s: See also 1970s in fashion Fashion designers Barbara Hulanicki Rudi Gernreich Bill Gibb Guy Laroche Emilio Pucci Jean Muir Mary Quant Paco Rabanne Oscar de la Renta Yves Saint-Laurent (designer) Mila Schön Style icons Marella Agnelli Anouk Aimée Brigitte Bardot Jane Birkin Amanda Burden Pattie Boyd Claudia Cardinale Cher Consuelo Crespi Julie Christie Catherine Deneuve Farah Diba Faye Dunaway Jane Fonda Dolores Guinness Gloria Guinness Audrey Hepburn Jacqueline Kennedy Sophia Loren Babe Paley Hope Portocarrero Lee Radziwill Vanessa Redgrave Jacqueline de Ribes Diana Ross Diana Rigg Edie Sedgwick Nancy Sinatra Queen Sirikit Sharon Tate Raquel Welch Steve Winwood Natalie Wood Stevie Wright Jayne Wrightsman Harry Vanda Gloria Vanderbilt Supermodels Marisa Berenson Pattie Boyd Capucine Colleen Corby Cathee Dahmen Celia Hammond Lauren Hutton Donyale Luna Nico Jean Shrimpton Penelope Tree Twiggy Veruschka Agneta Frieberg Fashion photographers Richard Avedon David Bailey Cecil Beaton Hiro (photographer) William Klein Patrick Lichfield Terry O'Neill Norman Parkinson Lord Snowdon Bert Stern Teenage subcultures Greaser subculture Rocker subculture Raggare Bodgies Mod subculture Soc subculture Youthquake Surfer Beatnik Hippie Rude Boy Skinhead Black Panthers Other Carnaby Street Miniskirt Swinging London Twiggy Vogue Diana Vreeland References External links Everyday Life in the 1960s - Expired Knowledge Hippie movement 1960s fashion 1960s decade overviews
5175640	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20rights%20in%20Morocco	Human rights in Morocco	Morocco became a highly repressive country under the absolute monarchy of King Hassan II, and continues to be considered repressive under the reign of King Mohammed VI, though the latter has instituted some reforms. Dozens of journalists, artists, and ordinary citizens are regularly sentenced to lengthy prison sentences for exercising basic rights enjoyed elsewhere in the world, such as freedom of the press, protesting the government, or criticizing government officials. Morocco heavily restricts basic human rights, such as freedom of speech, the right to assembly, and the right to criticize officials. Moroccans also feel the pressures of inflation within the country, such as the lack of basic services like healthcare, clean water, and the difficulty of parents to access quality education for their children. While there have been a handful of reforms that have been generally welcomed internationally, most Moroccans feel this is insufficient, and continue to be unhappy with the trajectory of the country under the policies of King Mohammed VI, despite his transition of the government to an ostensible constitutional monarchy. Under his father, King Hassan II, Morocco had one of the worst human rights records in Africa and the world, especially during the time period known as the "Years Of Lead", which lasted from the early 1960s until the late 1980s; it was a period in the country's history that was known for the brutal repression of political dissent and opposition, that involved wide-scale arrests, arbitrary detention, lengthy imprisonment, and even killings of political opponents. Currently, Morocco continues to face some of these issues, as well as other human rights problems, such as poor prison conditions, the mistreatment of women and the LGBT community, and the widespread use of torture by police. Despite the considerable improvements made in the last several years under the leadership of King Mohammed VI, who has rolled back some of his father's harshest decrees, repression of political dissidence, and torture of citizens by officials, is still commonplace in Morocco today. This article deals with Morocco and not the disputed Western Sahara. See Human rights in Western Sahara in that regard. Morocco administers 80% of the territory, hence Moroccan law applies to its "Southern Provinces". Freedom of expression Freedom of the press is quasi-absent and many journalists are thought to practice self-censorship. Questioning the legitimacy of the monarchy or the actions of the King is taboo and questioning the kingdom's "territorial integrity" (i.e. the annexation of Western Sahara) is illegal. In 2005 the well-known Moroccan journalist Ali Lmrabet was "banned from practising journalism for 10 years" and fined 50,000 Dirhams (about 4,500 euros) for reporting about conflict in Western Sahara, according to Reporters Without Borders. As of 2007 Lmrabet is still barred from working as a journalist. Many high-profile Moroccan journalists, such as Aboubakr Jamai, Ali Anouzla, Ahmed Benchemsi and Rachid Niny, have been reduced to silence through a combination of imprisonment, heavy fines, advertising boycott and distribution/withholding of state funds. Many online journalists were sentenced to prison for criticizing the King or denouncing rampant corruption by King-appointed governors. Their cases were much less publicised internationally because they were often young journalists writing for small publications or covering regional news (such as Mohammed Erraji from Agadir who was sentenced to 2 years in prison in 2010 for criticising the King's speech) Between 2000 and 2007, with the appearance in the scene of a few independent francophone magazines, such as Tel Quel and Le Journal Hebdomadaire and their sister Arabic counterparts (e.g. Assahifa Al Ousbouia), government control over the media has moved somewhat from direct intervention to more subtle pressures, such as the use of lawsuits and libel cases. On May 2, 2007, the New York City-based NGO Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ) published their annual report on the "10 countries where press freedom has most deteriorated" where it reported that according to CPJ Executive Director Joel Simon; "Democracy's foothold in Africa is shallow when it comes to press freedom" and that Morocco was among the "Top 10 Backsliders" in 2007 after "having been considered as a leader in its region". In the report, Morocco was considered, along with Tunisia, as the country which "sentences the most journalists to prison in the Arab world". According to the 2013 Press Freedom Index, Reporters Without Borders has ranked Morocco 136 out of 179, a drop from the 89th position the country held in 2002. As of the 2015 Index, the same organization had placed Morocco at 130 out of 180 countries. According to Human Rights Watch annual report 2016, Moroccan authorities restricted the rights to peaceful expression, association and assembly through several laws. The authorities continue to prosecute print and online media when they criticize the government, and the king. In addition, authorities imposed administrative obstacles to restrict journalists' work. In Rabat, the police expelled two French journalists and confiscated their tapes claiming that they have no filming authorization. The report said that Moroccan official television allows some space for debate and criticism. However, such debate does not tackle significant issues. In June 2020, an investigation by Amnesty International alleged that Moroccan journalist Omar Radi, was targeted using the Israeli spyware Pegasus. The rights group claimed that the journalist was targeted three times and spied after his device was infected with an NSO tool. Meanwhile, Amnesty also claimed that the attack came after the NSO Group updated their policy in September 2019. On 19 April 2022, the Human Rights Watch reported that Rabie al-Ablaq, a social media commentator, risks up to four years in prison on a charge of disrespecting the king. On 11 April 2022, a court in the northern city of al-Hoceima tried the commentator. He was charged on behalf of two videos posted on Facebook and YouTube in which he addressed the king in a casual tone and contrasted his personal wealth to Morocco's widespread poverty. Moroccan authorities used indirect and underhanded tactics to silence critical activists and journalists. In the 129-page report, “They’ll Get You No Matter What: Morocco’s Playbook to Crush Dissent,” the Human Rights Watch documented a range of tactics that, when used together, form an ecosystem of repression, aiming not only to muzzle dissenting voices but to scare off all potential critics. It is a criminal offence in Morocco to undermine the monarchy: in August 2023, a Moroccan resident of Qatar was sentenced to five years' imprisonment for criticising the King's policy decisions on Facebook. Political persecution Government repression of political dissent has dropped sharply since the mid-1990s. The previous decades are sometimes described as the Years of Lead (Les Années de Plomb), and included forced disappearances, killings of government opponents and secret internment camps such as Tazmamart. To examine the abuses committed during the reign of King Hassan II (1961–1999), the government has set up an Equity and Reconciliation Commission (IER), which is to rehabilitate the victims and pay compensation for state outrages against them. This has been hailed internationally as a big step forward, and an example to the Arab world. However, the IER has also come under attack from parts of the human rights-community, since its mission was not to reveal the identities of or prosecute human rights offenders, which most of the victims were requesting. There are also persistent allegations of violence against Sahrawi pro-independence and pro-Polisario demonstrators in Western Sahara, considered by Morocco as its Southern Provinces, and Morocco has been accused of detaining Sahrawi independentists as prisoners of conscience. In May 2006 a delegation from the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (UNHCHR) visited the disputed territory of Western Sahara and its report from the visit sharply criticized the lack of basic human rights in the region, in particular regarding the Saharawi population. The secret report has been leaked and can be found at for example ARSO.org. Later the same year, in October, Morocco stopped a planned and earlier agreed visit of a delegation from the European Parliament. The decision came less than 48 hours before the delegation was to leave for Rabat and Western Sahara. The mission was to study alleged human rights violations from both Polisario and the Moroccan authorities. (texts in English and French). Morocco claimed that the majority of the members of the delegation were known supporters of the Polisario front, and thus the neutrality of the delegation was not assured. The president of the delegation, Mr Ioannis Kasoulides, contested these allegations saying the composition of the group was not for Morocco to decide, and besides Morocco had already earlier accepted the composition of the group and had furthermore been allowed to influence its visiting program. Freedom of religion Freedom of religion is generally observed, with some limitations. According to the spokesman for the Moroccan government, "the Kingdom does guarantee not only freedom of worship, but also the building of places of worship for Christians and Jews as well as performing their rituals freely and respectfully.". It is illegal to proselytize for religions other than Islam (article 220 of the Penal Code, 15 years' imprisonment). There still exists a Moroccan Jewish community, although most Jews emigrated in the years following the creation of Israel in 1948. Social rights and equality Children In Morocco, thousands of children—predominantly girls and some as young as eight—work illegally in private homes as domestic workers, where they often encounter physical and verbal violence, isolation, and seven-day-a-week labor that begins at dawn and continues until late at night. They are poorly paid and almost none attend school. Domestic workers, including children, are excluded from Morocco's Labor Code, and as a result do not enjoy the rights afforded to other workers, including a minimum wage or limit to their hours of work. However, under Moroccan family law (2004 mudawana) and its Constitution (2012), it is illegal to have minor domestic workers. Women and family In 2004, the Moroccan parliament took steps to improve the status of women and children, and has passed a new family law, Mudawanat al Usra (English Family Code), which is widely regarded as very progressive by regional standards. For example, men are now permitted only one wife unless their wife signs an agreement. In addition to being candidates in mixed electoral lists, women have a national list in parliamentary elections that allow them for at least 10% of the seats. In parallel, and in September 2006, a national observatory to fight violence against women was founded. Many state departments, administrations, universities as well as national female associations are sought to coordinate efforts together. In 2006, the Moroccan citizenship was transferred to the children via the father. Soumya Naâmane Guessous, a Moroccan sociologist has launched a campaign for the transmission of Moroccan citizenship by the mother to her children. The ability for mother to pass their citizenship onto their children does not appear in the Mudawana code but was granted by a royal decision in October 2006. Recently, in 2009, new legislation has also allowed women to divorce their husbands without the consent of the husband. Berber identity Berber activists regularly contend that under the banner of Arabization, their unique language and culture are being repressed in favor of an Arab one. This is viewed as discrimination and method of marginalization. However, on October 17, 2001, the Royal Institute of the Amazigh Culture was founded to maintain and develop the Amazigh languages and culture. Police and army reforms In 2006 Morocco started implementing a few reforms related to policing and the army. On October 16 of the same year a newly established Groupes urbains de sécurité (GUS) (Urban Security Groups) police unit was disbanded. While many Moroccans regarded the presence of GUS as a relief, many others considered it as a step back to the rule of the Makhzen. The disbanding came after many criticisms about excesses or abuses of power were noted. Some irresponsible actions of certain members of the unit turned over the public opinion which became discreditory. GUS was also accused of corruption. In many cases, civil offenders used to pay a bribe (between 10 and 20 dirhams) which led to the appearance of the popular nickname; "10 drahem". Capital punishment and imprisonment While capital punishment remains a legal penalty in Morocco, no executions have taken place since 1993, when Mohamed Tabet was executed following a 10-year moratorium. He was executed for various serious offences including rape, kidnapping, abduction and barbaric acts. It is reported that he raped and sexually assaulted up to 1,500 women over a period of 13 years. Between 1956 and 1993, 198 people were sentenced to death, with the Equity and Reconciliation Commission estimating that 528 people were killed during Hassan II's reign in both judicial and extrajudicial executions. Discussing the issue in Morocco has been taboo for decades. However, human rights organizations and some liberal media outlets and left-wing political parties led by the Front of Democratic Forces have been attempting to start a capital punishment debate. As for societal and civil movements, blogs and websites have already started debating the issue. The main and the newly created (2003) civil entity Coalition nationale pour l’abolition de la peine de mort au Maroc (CNAPM) (National coalition for the abolition of capital punishment in Morocco) which represents seven associations carrying the slogan Ensemble pour l'abolition de la peine de mort (Together against capital punishment) is also leading the debate. At the political level the situation is paradoxical. Officially, the attitude of the current government is for "de facto" abolition. However, the Ministry of Justice has declared that terrorism is still an obstacle to "de jure" abolition and death sentences are still being handed down, especially against terrorists. The abolition issue was recommended by the Board of the IER Equity and Reconciliation Commission. In October 2006, it was announced that the issue was scheduled to be presented to the parliament for a vote in spring 2007. A political battle between moderate Islamist parties led by the Justice and Development Party (who advocate the death sentence as being consistent with Sharia laws) and leftist parties is expected to be difficult for both. In April 2015, the Minister of Justice and Liberties (PJD government) made a public announcement about a bill relative to capital punishment, among other subjects. The goal is to reduce the number of crimes punishable by death penalty, from 31 to 11. Unlike other countries in Europe, Asia, and other parts of the world, including the United States, life imprisonment in Morocco is otherwise known as "perpetual confinement", thus meaning that life imprisonment in the country lasts for the rest of the natural life of the convicted person and is always imposed without the possibility of parole. Moreover, prison conditions are considered to be substandard by international standards, due to major concerns about overcrowding, the use of torture, poor infrastructure, and harsh prison rules. It is also widely reported that Morocco may have political prisoners. The wife of Abdelqader Belliraj, a dual citizen of Morocco and Belgium, told Human Rights Watch in January 2020 of the abuse her husband is subjected to in prison since 2016. Belliraj is reportedly kept in confinement for 23 hours a day since his imprisonment and deprived of any contact with inmates. The act violates the United Nations standards on the treatment of prisoners. Belliraj is given life imprisonment for allegedly having plotted terrorism. Several of defendants along with Belliraj claimed they were abducted and made to spend weeks without communication, while being interrogated and tortured in police stations. Human rights activists have raised concerns regarding the extradition of dual Australian-Saudi citizen Dr Osama AlHasani to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, following his detention in Morocco. The supporters of the detainee have called his detention a political case and cited the demand for his extradition requested by the Saudi Arabian government. AlHassani was arrested in Morocco upon his arrival on 8 February after being allegedly accused of organizing opposition activity against Wahhabism, the Sunni Islam followed in Saudi Arabia. Clear details regarding AlHassani's arrest remain unclear. AlHassani's wife has expressed fear upon her husband's return to the kingdom, saying he may face the same fate as Jamal Khashoggi. One new death sentence was handed down in 2021. There are 82 people on death row in Morocco/Western Sahara. 2006 CIA Black site controversy Following the terrorist attack in Casablanca in May 2003, human rights groups accused Morocco of mistreating and torturing detainees. Some Moroccan and international media have also alleged that the country has established CIA internment camps ("black sites") on its territory, inside Temara interrogation centre where human rights violations are committed. In September 2006, activists demanded that Morocco acknowledge the existence of such secret detention centers. Prior to that, Human Rights Watch's Vanessa Saenen had declared on 2005 We have information based on interviews from people who have been in Guantanamo Bay that there are secret detention centres. Even the US government doesn’t bother to hide this, and we have information from released prisoners on Jordan, on Morocco, on Egypt and Libya, but not on Romania and Poland. Human rights organizations and bodies Association Marocaine des Droits de l'Homme (AMDH) - a non-profit human rights non-governmental organization founded on 24 June 1979 Organisation Marocaine des Droits Humains (OMDH) - a non-profit human rights non-governmental organization founded on 10 December 1988 Conseil Consultatif des Droits de l'Homme (CCDH) - a governmental human rights body founded by late King Hassan II Annakhil Association for Women and Children (AEFE) - an independent, non-profit NGO in the Tensift-El Haouze region in the south of Morocco with an aim to improve the social, legal, economic and sanitary situation of women and children by offering a framework for reflection and resolution of problems. Ligue marocaine de la défense des droits de l'homme (LMDDH) - a non-profit human rights non-governmental organization founded in 1972 Association des droits numériques (ADN) - a non-profit digital rights non-governmental organization founded in 2014 Historical situation The chart shows of Morocco's ratings since 1972 in the Freedom in the World reports, published annually by Freedom House. A rating of 1 is "free"; 7, "not free". International treaties Morocco's stances on international human rights treaties are as follows: See also Amina Filali Gender equality in Morocco LGBT rights in Morocco List of human rights articles by country Human rights in Western Sahara Notes 1.Note that the "Year" signifies the "Year covered". Therefore the information for the year marked 2008 is from the report published in 2009, and so on. 2.As of January 1. 3.The 1982 report covers the year 1981 and the first half of 1982, and the following 1984 report covers the second half of 1982 and the whole of 1983. In the interest of simplicity, these two aberrant "year and a half" reports have been split into three year-long reports through interpolation. References External links Amnesty International USA - Morocco and Western Sahara includes links to annual reports Human Rights Watch - Morocco 2006 annual report Morocco's Truth Commission: Honoring Past Victims during an Uncertain Present, November 2005 International Freedom of Expression Exchange - Morocco - IFEX United States Department of State - Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2007 2005 Morocco 2007 2005 Western Sahara United States Library of Congress – Country Profile: Morocco Federal Research Division, May 2006
5175666	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St.%20Louis%20Cardinals%20all-time%20roster	St. Louis Cardinals all-time roster	This list is complete and up-to-date through 2023 season. The following is a list of players, both past and current, who appeared in at least one game for the St. Louis Cardinals franchise, including the 1882 St. Louis Brown Stockings, the 1883–1898 St. Louis Browns, and the 1899 St. Louis Perfectos. Players in Bold are members of the National Baseball Hall of Fame. Players in Italics have had their numbers retired by the team. * designates elected as a manager. A Ody Abbott, OF, 1910 Ted Abernathy, P, 1970 Juan Acevedo, P, 1998–1999 Babe Adams, P, 1906 Buster Adams, OF, 1939, 1943, 1945–1946 Jim Adams, C, 1890 Joe Adams, P, 1902 Matt Adams, 1B, 2012–2018 Sparky Adams, 3B, 1930–1933 Jim Adduci, 1B/OF, 1983 Tommie Agee, OF, 1973 Juan Agosto, P, 1991–1992 Eddie Ainsmith, C, 1921–1923 Gibson Alba, P, 1988 Cy Alberts, P, 1910 Sandy Alcántara, P, 2017 Grover Cleveland Alexander, P, 1926–1929 Nin Alexander, C/OF, 1884 Luis Alicea, 2B, 1988, 1991–1994, 1996 Dick Allen, 1B/3B, 1970 Ethan Allen, OF, 1933 Neil Allen, P, 1983–1985 Ron Allen, 1B, 1972 Matty Alou, OF/1B, 1971–1973 Tom Alston, 1B, 1954–1957 Walter Alston, 1B, 1936 George Altman, OF, 1963 Luis Alvarado, SS/2B, 1974, 1976 Brant Alyea, OF, 1972 Rubén Amaro Sr., SS, 1958 Red Ames, P, 1915–1919 Bryan Anderson, C/1B, 2010, 2012 Craig Anderson, P, 1961 Dwain Anderson, SS, 1972–1973 Ferrell Anderson, C, 1953 George Anderson, OF, 1918 John Anderson, P, 1962 Marlon Anderson, 2B/OF, 2004 Mike Anderson, OF, 1976–1977 John Andrews, P, 1973 Nate Andrews, P, 1937, 1939 Joaquín Andújar, P, 1981–1985 Pat Ankenman, SS, 1936 Rick Ankiel, OF/P, 1999–2001, 2004, 2007–2009 Dean Anna, PH, 2015 John Antonelli, 3B/1B/2B, 1944–1945 Nolan Arenado, 3B, 2021–present Harry Arndt, 2B/3B, 1905–1907 Scott Arnold, P, 1988 René Arocha, P, 1993–1995 Randy Arozarena, OF, 2019 Luis Arroyo, P, 1955 Rudy Arroyo, P, 1971 Harry Atkinson, OF, 1895 Bryan Augenstein, P, 2011 Dennis Aust, P, 1965–1966 John Axford, P, 2013 Benny Ayala, OF, 1977 Manny Aybar, P, 1997–1999 B Les Backman, P, 1909–1910 Harrison Bader, OF, 2017–2022 Bill Bailey, P, 1921–1922 Cory Bailey, P, 1995–1996 Doug Bair, P, 1981–1983, 1985 Doug Baird, 3B, 1917–1919 Dave Bakenhaster, P, 1964 Bill Baker, C, 1948–1949 Luken Baker, 1B, 2023–present Steve Baker, P, 1983 Orson Baldwin, P, 1908 Art Ball, 2B, 1894 Jimmy Bannon, OF/SS/P, 1893 Jap Barbeau, 3B, 1909–1910 Brian Barber, P, 1995–1996 George Barclay, OF, 1902–1904 Brian Barden, 3B, 2007–2009 Ray Bare, P, 1972, 1974 Clyde Barfoot, P, 1922–1923 Greg Bargar, P, 1986 Sam Barkley, 2B, 1885 Mike Barlow, P, 1975 Frank Barnes, P, 1957–1958, 1960 Jacob Barnes, P, 2023–present Skeeter Barnes, 3B, 1987 Jack Barnett, OF, 1907 Steven Baron, C, 2018 Tres Barrera, C, 2023 Frank Barrett, P, 1939 Red Barrett, P, 1945–1946 Shad Barry, OF, 1906–1908 Brian Barton, OF, 2008 Dave Bartosch, OF, 1945 Rich Batchelor, P, 1993, 1996–1997 Frank Bates, P, 1899 Miguel Batista, P, 2011 Allen Battle, OF, 1995 Ed Bauta, P, 1960–1963 José Bautista, P, 1997 Moose Baxter, 1B, 1907 Johnny Beall, OF, 1918 Ralph Beard, P, 1954 Jim Beauchamp, 1B, 1963, 1970–1971 Johnny Beazley, P, 1941–1942, 1946 Zinn Beck, 3B, 1913–1916 Jake Beckley, 1B, 1904–1907 Bill Beckmann, P, 1942 Fred Beebe, P, 1906–1909 Clarence Beers, P, 1948 Matt Belisle, P, 2015 David Bell, 3B/2B, 1995–1998 Hi Bell, P, 1924, 1926–1927, 1929–1930 Les Bell, 3B, 1923–1927 Ronnie Belliard, 2B, 2006 Jack Bellman, C, 1889 Carlos Beltrán, OF, 2012–2013 Rigo Beltrán, P, 1997 Alan Benes, P, 1995–1997, 1999–2001 Andy Benes, P, 1996–1997, 2000–2002 Joe Benes, SS/2B/3B, 1931 Gary Bennett, C, 2006–2007 Pug Bennett, 2B, 1906–1907 Vern Benson, 3B/OF, 1951–1953 Sid Benton, P, 1922 Jeff Berblinger, 2B, 1997 Augie Bergamo, OF, 1944–1945 Lance Berkman, OF/1B, 2011–2012 Jack Berly, P, 1924 Joe Bernard, P, 1909 Frank Bertaina, P, 1970 Harry Berte, 2B/SS, 1903 Bob Bescher, OF, 1915–1917 Frank Betcher, SS/3B/2B/OF, 1910 Harry Betts, P, 1903 Bruno Betzel, 2B/3B/OF, 1914–1918 Jim Bibby, P, 1972–1973 Ed Biecher, OF, 1897 Lou Bierbauer, 2B/3B/SS, 1897–1898 Larry Bigbie, OF, 2006 Steve Bilko, 1B, 1949–1954 Dick Billings, C, 1974–1975 Frank Bird, C, 1892 Ray Blades, OF, 1922–1928, 1930–1932 Harry Blake, OF, 1899 Sheriff Blake, P, 1937 Coonie Blank, C, 1909 Don Blasingame, 2B, 1955–1959 Johnny Blatnik, OF, 1950 Buddy Blattner, SS/2B, 1942 Bob Blaylock, P, 1956, 1959 Gary Blaylock, P, 1959 Michael Blazek, P, 2013 Jack Bliss, C, 1908–1912 Bud Bloomfield, 3B, 1963 Charlie Boardman, P, 1915 Joe Boever, P, 1985–1986 Mitchell Boggs, P, 2008–2013 Dick Bokelmann, P, 1951–1953 Sam Bohne, SS, 1916 Bill Bolden, P, 1919 Don Bollweg, 1B, 1950–1951 Bobby Bonds, OF, 1980 Bobby Bonilla, 1B, 2001 Frank Bonner, 3B/OF/C, 1895 Rod Booker, 2B/3B/SS, 1987–1989 Pedro Borbón, P, 1980 Pedro Borbón Jr., P, 2003 Frenchy Bordagaray, OF/3B, 1937–1938 Pat Borders, C/1B, 1996 Rick Bosetti, OF, 1977 Ricky Bottalico, P, 1999 Kent Bottenfield, P, 1998–1999 Jim Bottomley, 1B, 1922–1932 Peter Bourjos, OF, 2014–2015 Bob Bowman, P, 1939–1940 Matt Bowman, P, 2016–2018 Blaine Boyer, P, 2009 Cloyd Boyer, P, 1949–1952 Ken Boyer, 3B, 1955–1965 Jack Boyle, C, 1887–1889, 1891 Buddy Bradford, OF, 1975 Terry Bradshaw, OF, 1995–1996 Darren Bragg, OF, 1999 Dave Brain, SS/3B, 1903–1905 Harvey Branch, P, 1962 Jackie Brandt, OF, 1956 Jeff Brantley, P, 1998 Russell Branyan, 3B/1B, 2007 Roy Brashear, 1B, 1902 Joe Bratcher, OF, 1924 Steve Braun, OF, 1981–1985 Al Brazle, P, 1943, 1946–1954 John Brebbia, P, 2017–2019 Harry Brecheen, P, 1940, 1943–1952 Ted Breitenstein, P/OF, 1891–1896, 1901 Herb Bremer, C, 1937–1939 Roger Bresnahan, C, 1909–1912 Rube Bressler, OF, 1932 Eddie Bressoud, SS, 1967 Rod Brewer, 1B/OF, 1990–1993 Marshall Bridges, P, 1959–1960 Rocky Bridges, 2B, 1960 Grant Briggs, C/OF, 1892 Nelson Briles, P, 1965–1970 Ed Brinkman, SS, 1975 John Brock, C/OF, 1917–1918 Lou Brock, OF, 1964–1979 Steve Brodie, OF/2B/3B, 1892–1893 Ernie Broglio, P, 1959–1964 Herman Bronkie, 3B, 1918 Aaron Brooks, P, 2022 Jim Brosnan, P, 1958–1959 Tony Brottem, C/1B/OF, 1916, 1918 Cal Broughton, C, 1885 Andrew Brown, OF, 2011 Buster Brown, P, 1905–1907 Ed Brown, OF/2B/P, 1882 Jim Brown, OF, 1915 Jimmy Brown, 2B, 1937–1943 Mordecai Brown, P, 1903 Tom Brown, OF, 1895 William Brown, 1B, 1894 Byron Browne, OF, 1969 Barret Browning, P, 2012 Cal Browning, P, 1960 Pete Browning, OF, 1894 Jonathan Broxton, P, 2015–2017 Glenn Brummer, C, 1981–1984 Tom Brunansky, OF, 1988–1990 George Brunet, P, 1971 Justin Brunette, P, 2000 Tom Bruno, P, 1978–1979 Ron Bryant, P, 1975 Johnny Bucha, C, 1948, 1950 Jerry Buchek, SS/2B, 1961, 1963–1966 Jim Bucher, 2B/3B, 1938 Gary Buckels, P, 1994 Dick Buckley, C, 1892–1894 Fritz Buelow, C/OF, 1899–1900 Nelson Burbrink, C, 1955 Al Burch, OF, 1906–1907 Bob Burda, 1B/OF, 1962, 1971 Lew Burdette, P, 1963–1964 Tom Burgess, OF, 1954 Sandy Burk, P, 1912–1913 Jimmy Burke, 3B, 1899, 1903–1905 Joe Burke, 3B, 1890 Leo Burke, OF/3B, 1963 Jesse Burkett, OF, 1899–1901 Ken Burkhart, P, 1945–1948 Alec Burleson, OF, 2022–present Ed Burns, C, 1912 Farmer Burns, P, 1901 Todd Burns, P, 1993 Harry Burrell, P/OF, 1891 Ray Burris, P, 1986 Ellis Burton, OF, 1958, 1960 Mike Busby, P, 1996–1999 Guy Bush, P, 1938 Doc Bushong, C, 1885–1887 Ray Busse, SS, 1973 Art Butler, SS, 1914–1916 Joey Butler, OF, 2014 John Butler, C, 1904 Johnny Butler, 3B/SS, 1929 Keith Butler, P, 2013–2014 Bud Byerly, P, 1943–1945 Bill Byers, C/1B, 1904 Bobby Byrne, 3B, 1907–1909 C Al Cabrera, SS, 1913 Génesis Cabrera, P, 2019–2023 Miguel Cairo, 2B/OF/3B, 2001–2003, 2007 Kiko Calero, P, 2003–2004 Jack Calhoun, 3B/1B/OF, 1902 Carmen Cali, P, 2004–2005 John Callahan, P, 1898 Wese Callahan, SS, 1913 Ernie Camacho, P, 1990 Harry Camnitz, P, 1911 Lew Camp, 3B, 1892 Count Campau, OF, 1890 Bill Campbell, P, 1985 Billy Campbell, P, 1905 Dave Campbell, 2B, 1973 Jim Campbell, PH, 1970 Sal Campisi, P, 1969–1970 Chris Cannizzaro, C, 1960–1961 Ozzie Canseco, OF, 1992–1993 Conner Capel, OF, 2022 Doug Capilla, P, 1976–1977 Ramón Caraballo, 2B, 1995 Bernie Carbo, OF, 1972–1973, 1979–1980 José Cardenal, OF, 1970–1971 Tex Carleton, P, 1932–1934 Dylan Carlson, OF, 2020–present Steve Carlton, P, 1965–1971 Duke Carmel, OF, 1959–1960, 1963 Chris Carpenter, P, 2004–2012 Cris Carpenter, P, 1988–1992 Hick Carpenter, 3B, 1892 Matt Carpenter, 3B/1B, 2011–2021 Chuck Carr, OF, 1992 Clay Carroll, P, 1977 Cliff Carroll, OF, 1892 Kid Carsey, P, 1897–1898 Ed Cartwright, 1B, 1890 Bob Caruthers, OF/P, 1884–1887, 1892 Pete Castiglione, 3B, 1953–1954 Alberto Castillo, C, 1999 Troy Cate, P, 2007 Danny Cater, 1B, 1975 Ted Cather, OF, 1912–1914 Andy Cavazos, P, 2007 Brett Cecil, P, 2017–2018 César Cedeño, 1B/OF, 1985 Roger Cedeño, OF, 2004–2005 Orlando Cepeda, 1B, 1966–1968 Ice Box Chamberlain, P, 1888–1890 Adron Chambers, OF, 2011–2013 Bill Chambers, P, 1910 Cliff Chambers, P, 1951–1953 Johnnie Chambers, P, 1937 Charlie Chant, OF, 1976 Chappy Charles, 2B/SS, 1908–1909 Tom Cheney, P, 1957, 1959 Cupid Childs, 2B, 1899 Pete Childs, 2B/OF/SS, 1901 Nelson Chittum, P, 1958 Bob Chlupsa, P, 1970–1971 Randy Choate, P, 2013–2015 Jason Christiansen, P, 2000–2001 Larry Ciaffone, OF, 1951 Al Cicotte, P, 1961 Gino Cimoli, OF, 1959 Frank Cimorelli, P, 1994 Steve Cishek, P, 2015 Ralph Citarella, P, 1983–1984 Stubby Clapp, 2B/OF, 2001 Doug Clarey, 2B, 1976 Danny Clark, OF, 1927 Jack Clark, 1B, 1985–1987 Jim Clark, OF, 1911–1912 Mark Clark, P, 1991–1992 Mike Clark, P, 1952–1953 Phil Clark, P, 1958–1959 Will Clark, 1B, 2000 Josh Clarke, OF/2B/SS, 1905 Stan Clarke, P, 1990 Dad Clarkson, P, 1893–1895 Royce Clayton, SS, 1996–1998 Doug Clemens, OF, 1960–1964 Jack Clements, C, 1898 Lance Clemons, P, 1972 Verne Clemons, C, 1919–1924 Donn Clendenon, 1B, 1972 Maikel Cleto, P, 2011–2013 Reggie Cleveland, P, 1969–1973 Tony Cloninger, P, 1972 Ed Clough, OF/P, 1924–1926 Dick Cole, 2B, 1951 Percy Coleman, P, 1897 Vince Coleman, OF, 1985–1990 Walter Coleman, P, 1895 Darnell Coles, 3B/1B/OF, 1995 Bill Collins, OF, 1892 Dave Collins, 1B, 1990 Phil Collins, P, 1935 Ripper Collins, 1B, 1931–1936 Jackie Collum, P, 1951–1953, 1956 Bob Coluccio, OF, 1978 Charles Comiskey, 1B, 1882–1889, 1891 Joe Connor, 3B, 1895 Roger Connor, 1B, 1894–1897 Tim Conroy, P, 1986–1987 Willson Contreras, C, 2023–present Ed Conwell, 3B, 1911 Paul Cook, C, 1891 Mike Coolbaugh, 3B, 2002 Scott Coolbaugh, 1B/3B, 1994 Duff Cooley, OF, 1893–1896 Jimmy Cooney, SS, 1924–1925 Tim Cooney, P, 2015 Mort Cooper, P, 1938–1945 Scott Cooper, 3B, 1995 Walker Cooper, C, 1940–1945, 1956–1957 Mays Copeland, P, 1935 Joe Corbett, P, 1904 Roy Corhan, SS, 1916 Rhéal Cormier, P, 1991–1994 Pat Corrales, C, 1966 Frank Corridon, P, 1910 Jim Cosman, P, 1966–1967 John Costello, P, 1988–1990 Chip Coulter, 2B, 1969 Jack Coveney, C, 1903 Bill Cox, P, 1936 Danny Cox, P, 1983–1988 Estel Crabtree, OF, 1933, 1941–1942 Allen Craig, OF/1B, 2010–2014 Roger Craig, P, 1964 Doc Crandall, PH, 1913 Forrest Crawford, SS, 1906–1907 Glenn Crawford, OF, 1945 Pat Crawford, 1B/2B/3B, 1933–1934 Willie Crawford, OF, 1976 Doug Creek, P, 1995 Jack Creel, P, 1945 Gus Creely, SS, 1890 Bernie Creger, SS, 1947 Creepy Crespi, 2B, 1938–1942 Lou Criger, C, 1899–1900 Jack Crimian, P, 1951–1952 Nabil Crismatt, P, 2020 Morrie Critchley, P, 1882 Tripp Cromer, SS, 1993–1995 Jack Crooks, 2B/3B, 1892–1893, 1898 Ed Crosby, SS/2B, 1970, 1972–1973 Jeff Cross, SS, 1942, 1946–1948 Lave Cross, 3B, 1898–1900 Monte Cross, SS, 1896–1897 Joe Crotty, C/OF, 1882 Bill Crouch, P, 1941, 1945 Rich Croushore, P, 1998–1999 George Crowe, 1B, 1959–1961 Mike Crudale, P, 2002–2003 Walton Cruise, OF, 1914, 1916–1919 Gene Crumling, C, 1945 Héctor Cruz, 3B/OF, 1973, 1975–1977 Iván Cruz, 1B, 2002 Jesús Cruz, P, 2020 José Cruz, OF, 1970–1974 Tommy Cruz, OF, 1973 Tony Cruz, C, 2011–2015 Mike Cuellar, P, 1964 George Culver, P, 1970 John Cumberland, P, 1972 Joe Cunningham, OF, 1954, 1956–1961 Ray Cunningham, 3B/2B, 1931–1932 George Cuppy, P, 1899 Clarence Currie, P, 1902–1903 Murphy Currie, P, 1916 Jermaine Curtis, OF, 2013 John Curtis, P, 1974–1976 Ned Cuthbert, OF, 1882–1883 D John D'Acquisto, P, 1977 Gene Dale, P, 1911–1912 Jack Damaska, 2B/OF, 1963 Pete Daniels, P, 1898 Rolla Daringer, SS, 1914–1915 Alvin Dark, SS, 1956–1958 Dell Darling, C/2B/SS, 1891 Vic Davalillo, OF, 1969–1970 Jerry DaVanon, SS, 1969–1970, 1974, 1977 Curt Davis, P, 1938–1940 Daisy Davis, P/OF, 1884 Eric Davis, OF, 1999–2000 Jim Davis, P, 1957 Jumbo Davis, 3B/OF/SS, 1889–1890 Kiddo Davis, OF, 1934 Ron Davis, OF, 1968 Spud Davis, C, 1928, 1934–1936 Willie Davis, OF, 1975 Bill Dawley, P, 1987 Boots Day, OF, 1969 Pea Ridge Day, P, 1924–1925 Ken Dayley, P, 1984–1990 Cot Deal, P, 1950, 1954 Austin Dean, OF/1B, 2020–2021 Dizzy Dean, P, 1930, 1932–1937 Paul Dean, P, 1934–1939 Pat Deasley, C, 1883–1884 Doug DeCinces, 3B, 1987 Frank Decker, 2B, 1882 George Decker, 1B, 1898 Tony DeFate, 3B/2B, 1917 Rube DeGroff, OF, 1905–1906 Mike DeJean, P, 2003 Iván DeJesús, 3B/SS, 1985 Paul DeJong, SS, 2017–2023 Bobby Del Greco, OF, 1956 Joe Delahanty, OF/2B, 1907–1909 Bill DeLancey, C, 1932, 1934–1935, 1940 Art Delaney, P, 1924 José DeLeón, P, 1988–1992 Luis DeLeón, P, 1981 Wilson Delgado, SS/2B/3B, 2002–2003 Eddie Delker, 2B/SS/3B, 1929, 1931–1932 Wheezer Dell, P, 1912 Rich DeLucia, P, 1995 Ben DeLuzio, OF, 2022 Frank Demaree, OF, 1943 Lee DeMontreville, SS/2B/OF, 1903 Don Dennis, P, 1965–1966 John Denny, P, 1974–1979 Mark DeRosa, 3B, 2009 Paul Derringer, P, 1931–1933 Russ Derry, PH, 1949 Joe DeSa, 1B/OF, 1980 Daniel Descalso, 3B/2B/SS, 2010–2014 Delino DeShields, 2B, 1997–1998 Jim Devlin, P, 1888–1889 Aledmys Díaz, SS, 2016–2017 Einar Díaz, C, 2005 Leo Dickerman, P, 1924–1925 Corey Dickerson, OF, 2022 Brandon Dickson, P, 2011–2012, 2021 Murry Dickson, P, 1939–1940, 1942–1943, 1946–1948, 1956–1957 Chuck Diering, OF, 1947–1951 Larry Dierker, P, 1977 Mike DiFelice, C, 1996–1997, 2002 Pat Dillard, OF/3B/SS, 1900 Pickles Dillhoefer, C, 1919–1921 Mike Dimmel, OF, 1979 Frank DiPino, P, 1989–1990, 1992 Dutch Distel, 2B/SS/OF, 1918 Steve Dixon, P, 1993–1994 Bill Doak, P, 1913–1924, 1929 George Dockins, P, 1945 Cozy Dolan, OF, 1914–1915 John Dolan, P, 1893 Tom Dolan, C/OF, 1883–1884, 1888 Red Donahue, P, 1895–1897 She Donahue, 2B/SS, 1904 Mike Donlin, OF/1B, 1899–1900 Blix Donnelly, P, 1944–1946 Jim Donnelly, 3B, 1890, 1898 Brendan Donovan, 2B/OF/3B/1B, 2022–present Patsy Donovan, OF, 1900–1903 Bert Dorr, P, 1882 Octavio Dotel, P, 2011 Klondike Douglass, OF/C, 1896–1897 Taylor Douthit, OF, 1923–1931 Dennis Dove, P, 2007 Tommy Dowd, OF, 1893–1898 Dave Dowling, P, 1964 Carl Doyle, P, 1940 Jeff Doyle, 2B, 1983 John Doyle, P, 1882 Moe Drabowsky, P, 1971–1972 Lee Dressen, 1B, 1914 Rob Dressler, P, 1978 J. D. Drew, OF, 1998–2003 Dan Driessen, 1B, 1987 Mike Drissel, C, 1885 Carl Druhot, P, 1906–1907 Matt Duff, P, 2002 Charlie Duffee, OF/3B, 1889–1890 Zach Duke, P, 2016–2017 Bob Duliba, P, 1959–1960, 1962 Chris Duncan, OF/1B, 2005–2009 Taylor Duncan, 3B, 1977 Wiley Dunham, P, 1902 Grant Dunlap, OF, 1953 Jack Dunleavy, OF, 1903–1905 Shawon Dunston, OF, 1999–2000 Don Durham, P, 1972 Joe Durham, OF, 1959 Leon Durham, OF, 1980, 1989 Leo Durocher, SS, 1933–1937 Jesse Duryea, P, 1891 Erv Dusak, OF/2B, 1941–1942, 1946–1951 Frank Dwyer, P, 1892 Jim Dwyer, OF, 1973–1975, 1977–1978 Eddie Dyer, P, 1922–1927 E Bill Eagan, 2B, 1891 Billy Earle, C/OF/2B/3B/SS, 1890 Bill Earley, P, 1986 George Earnshaw, P, 1936 Ed Easley, C, 2015 Jack Easton, P/OF, 1891–1892 Rawly Eastwick, P, 1977 Johnny Echols, PR, 1939 Dennis Eckersley, P, 1996–1997 Al Eckert, P, 1935 David Eckstein, SS, 2005–2007 Joe Edelen, P, 1981 Tommy Edman, 2B/SS/OF/3B, 2019–present Jim Edmonds, OF, 2000–2007 Johnny Edwards, C, 1968 Wish Egan, P, 1905–1906 Red Ehret, P, 1895 Cal Eldred, P, 2003–2005 Seth Elledge, P, 2020–2021 Harry Elliott, OF, 1953, 1955 Jim Ellis, P, 1969 Mark Ellis, 2B, 2014 Rube Ellis, OF, 1909–1912 Bones Ely, SS, 1893–1895 Juan Encarnación, OF, 2006–2007 Bill Endicott, OF, 1946 Del Ennis, OF, 1957–1958 Charlie Enwright, SS, 1909 Hal Epps, OF, 1938, 1940 Eddie Erautt, P, 1953 Duke Esper, P, 1897–1898 Brian Esposito, C, 2007 Chuck Essegian, OF, 1959 Roy Evans, P, 1897 Steve Evans, OF, 1909–1913 Bryan Eversgerd, P, 1994, 1998 Bob Ewing, P, 1912 John Ewing, OF, 1883 Reuben Ewing, SS, 1921 F Joe Fagin, C, 1895 Ron Fairly, 1B, 1975–1976 Pete Falcone, P, 1976–1978 Brian Falkenborg, P, 2006–2007 George Fallon, 2B/SS, 1943–1945 Harry Fanok, P, 1963–1964 Doc Farrell, SS/2B/1B, 1930 John Farrell, 2B, 1902–1905 Jeff Fassero, P, 2002–2003 Jack Faszholz, P, 1953 Pedro Feliz, 3B, 2010 Bobby Fenwick, 2B, 1973 Joe Ferguson, C, 1976 José Fermín, 2B/3B, 2023–present Junior Fernández, P, 2019–2022 Don Ferrarese, P, 1962 Neil Fiala, PH, 1981 C. J. Fick, P, 2012 Bien Figueroa, SS/2B, 1992 Chuck Finley, P, 2002 Mike Fiore, 1B/OF, 1972 Sam Fishburn, 1B/2B, 1919 Bob Fisher, 2B, 1918–1919 Chauncey Fisher, P, 1901 Eddie Fisher, P, 1973 Showboat Fisher, OF, 1930 Mike Fitzgerald, 1B, 1988 Max Flack, OF, 1922–1925 Jack Flaherty, P, 2017–2023 Tom Flanigan, P, 1958 Curt Flood, OF, 1958–1969 Tim Flood, 2B, 1899 Bernardo Flores, P, 2021 Randy Flores, P, 2004–2008 Ben Flowers, P, 1955–1956 Jake Flowers, 3B/SS/2B, 1923, 1926, 1931–1932 Rich Folkers, P, 1972–1974 Curt Ford, OF, 1985–1988 Hod Ford, SS, 1932 Eric Fornataro, P, 2014 Bob Forsch, P, 1974–1988 Tony Fossas, P, 1995–1997 Alan Foster, P, 1973–1974 Jack Fournier, 1B, 1920–1922 Dave Foutz, P/OF/1B, 1884–1887 Dexter Fowler, OF, 2017–2020 Jesse Fowler, P, 1924 Earl Francis, P, 1965 Tito Francona, 1B/OF, 1965–1966 Charlie Frank, OF, 1893–1894 Fred Frankhouse, P, 1927–1930 Micah Franklin, OF, 1997 Ryan Franklin, P, 2007–2011 Herman Franks, C, 1939 John Frascatore, P, 1994–1995, 1997–1998 Willie Fraser, P, 1991 George Frazier, P, 1978–1980 Joe Frazier, OF/1B, 1954–1956 Roger Freed, 1B, 1977–1979 Julie Freeman, P, 1888 Sam Freeman, P, 2012–2014 David Freese, 3B, 2009–2013 Gene Freese, SS/2B/3B, 1958 Howard Freigau, 3B/SS, 1922–1925 Benny Frey, P, 1932 Frankie Frisch, 2B, 1927–1937 Danny Frisella, P, 1976 Art Fromme, P, 1906–1908 Eric Fryer, C, 2016–2017 Brian Fuentes, P, 2012 John Fulgham, P, 1979–1980 Harry Fuller, 3B, 1891 Shorty Fuller, SS, 1889–1891 Chick Fullis, OF, 1934, 1936 Chick Fulmer, 2B, 1884 Rafael Furcal, SS, 2011–2012 Eddie Fusselback, C/OF/P, 1882 Les Fusselman, C, 1952–1953 G Gary Gaetti, 3B, 1996–1998 Phil Gagliano, 2B/3B/OF, 1963–1970 Del Gainer, 1B/OF, 1922 Fred Gaiser, P, 1908 Andrés Galarraga, 1B, 1992 John Gall, OF/1B, 2005–2006 Mike Gallego, 2B, 1996–1997 Giovanny Gallegos, P, 2018–present Jim Galloway, 2B/SS, 1912 Pud Galvin, P, 1892 Joe Gannon, P, 1898 John Gant, P, 2017–2021 Ron Gant, OF, 1996–1998 Joe Garagiola Sr., C, 1946–1951 Adolis García, OF, 2018 Greg Garcia, 2B/3B/SS, 2014–2018 Jaime García, P, 2008, 2010–2016 Luis García, P, 2021 Danny Gardella, PH, 1950 Glenn Gardner, P, 1945 Art Garibaldi, 3B, 1936 Mike Garman, P, 1974–1975 Debs Garms, OF/3B, 1943–1945 Wayne Garrett, 3B, 1978 John Gast, P, 2013 Rich Gedman, C, 1991–1992 Charlie Gelbert, SS, 1929–1932, 1935–1936 Frank Genins, SS/OF, 1892 Joe Gerhardt, 2B/3B, 1890 Al Gettel, P, 1955 Tom Gettinger, OF, 1889–1890 Pretzels Getzien, P, 1892 Rube Geyer, P, 1910–1913 Ray Giannelli, 1B/OF, 1995 Bob Gibson, P, 1959–1975 Billy Gilbert, 2B, 1908–1909 Shawn Gilbert, 2B, 1998 George Gilham, C, 1920–1921 Frank Gilhooley, OF, 1911–1912 Bernard Gilkey, OF, 1990–1995 Jim Gill, 2B/OF, 1889 Carden Gillenwater, OF, 1940 George Gillpatrick, P, 1898 Hal Gilson, P, 1968 Joe Girardi, C, 2003 Dave Giusti, P, 1969 Jack Glasscock, SS, 1892–1893 Troy Glaus, 3B, 2008–2009 Tommy Glaviano, 3B, 1949–1952 Bill Gleason, SS, 1882–1887 Jack Gleason, 3B, 1882–1883 Kid Gleason, P, 1892–1894 Bob Glenn, P, 1920 Harry Glenn, C, 1915 John Glenn, OF, 1960 Danny Godby, OF, 1974 Roy Golden, P, 1910–1911 Walt Goldsby, OF, 1884 Paul Goldschmidt, 1B, 2019–present Hal Goldsmith, P, 1929 Austin Gomber, P, 2018, 2020 Marco Gonzales, P, 2014–2015, 2017 Julio González, 3B/2B/SS, 1981–1982 Mike González, C, 1915–1918, 1924–1925, 1931–1932 Bill Goodenough, OF, 1893 Mike Goodfellow, C, 1887 Marv Goodwin, P, 1917, 1919–1922 George Gore, OF, 1892 Herb Gorman, PH, 1952 Jack Gorman, OF, 1883 Nolan Gorman, 2B, 2022–present Hank Gornicki, P, 1941 Julio Gotay, SS, 1960–1962 Al Grabowski, P, 1929–1930 Mike Grady, C/1B, 1897, 1904–1906 Alex Grammas, SS, 1954–1956, 1959–1962 Wayne Granger, P, 1968, 1973 Mudcat Grant, P, 1969 Mark Grater, P, 1991 Dick Gray, SS/3B/2B/OF, 1959–1960 Bill Greason, P, 1954 David Green, OF/1B, 1981–1984, 1987 Gene Green, OF/C, 1957–1959 Scarborough Green, OF, 1997 Khalil Greene, SS, 2009 Tyler Greene, 2B/SS, 2009–2012 Nick Greenwood, P, 2014–2015 Luke Gregerson, P, 2018–2019 Bill Greif, P, 1976 Randal Grichuk, OF, 2014–2017 Tim Griesenbeck, C, 1920 Tom Grieve, OF, 1979 Sandy Griffin, OF, 1893 Clark Griffith, P, 1891 Bob Grim, P, 1960 Burleigh Grimes, P, 1930–1931, 1933–1934 John Grimes, P, 1897 Charlie Grimm, 1B, 1918 Dan Griner, P, 1912–1916 Marv Grissom, P, 1959 Dick Groat, SS, 1963–1965 Johnny Grodzicki, P, 1941, 1946–1947 Mark Grudzielanek, 2B, 2005 Joe Grzenda, P, 1972 Mario Guerrero, SS, 1975 Pedro Guerrero, 1B, 1988–1992 Lee Guetterman, P, 1993 Preston Guilmet, P, 2018 Mike Gulan, 3B, 1997 Harry Gumbert, P, 1941–1944 Joe Gunson, C, 1893 Don Gutteridge, 3B, 1936–1940 Santiago Guzmán, P, 1969–1972 Jedd Gyorko, 3B/2B/SS, 2016–2019 H Bob Habenicht, P, 1951 John Habyan, P, 1994–1995 Jim Hackett, 1B, 1902–1903 Luther Hackman, P, 2000–2002 Harvey Haddix, P, 1952–1956 Chick Hafey, OF, 1924–1931 Casey Hageman, P, 1914 Kevin Hagen, P, 1983–1984 Joe Hague, 1B/OF, 1968–1972 Don Hahn, OF, 1975 Fred Hahn, P, 1952 Hal Haid, P, 1928–1930 Ed Haigh, OF, 1892 Jesse Haines, P, 1920–1937 Charley Hall, P, 1916 Russ Hall, SS, 1898 Bill Hallahan, P, 1925–1926, 1929–1936 Bill Hallman, 2B, 1897 Dave Hamilton, P, 1978 Mark Hamilton, 1B/OF, 2010–2011 Josh Hancock, P, 2006–2007 Fred Haney, 3B, 1929 Larry Haney, C, 1973 J. A. Happ, P, 2021 Dan Haren, P, 2003–2004 Dick Harley, OF, 1897–1898 Bob Harmon, P, 1909–1913 Chuck Harmon, OF/1B/3B, 1956–1957 Brian Harper, OF/3B/C/1B, 1985 George Harper, OF, 1928 Jack Harper, P, 1900–1901 Ray Harrell, P, 1935, 1937–1938 Mitch Harris, P, 2015 Vic Harris, 2B/OF, 1976 Bill Hart, P, 1896–1897 Billy Hart, P/OF, 1890 Bo Hart, 2B, 2003–2004 Chuck Hartenstein, P, 1970 Jumbo Harting, C, 1886 Fred Hartman, 3B, 1897, 1902 Pat Hartnett, 1B, 1890 Andy Hassler, P, 1984–1985 Marcus Hatley, P, 2015 Grady Hatton, 2B/3B, 1956 Arnold Hauser, SS, 1910–1913 Bill Hawke, P/OF, 1892–1893 Blake Hawksworth, P, 2009–2010 Pink Hawley, P, 1892–1894 Jeremy Hazelbaker, OF, 2016 Doc Hazelton, 1B, 1902 Francis Healy, C/3B/OF, 1934 Bunny Hearn, P, 1910–1911 Jim Hearn, P, 1947–1950 Mike Heath, C, 1986 Cliff Heathcote, OF, 1918–1922 Jack Heidemann, SS, 1974 Emmet Heidrick, OF, 1899–1901 Don Heinkel, P, 1989 Tom Heintzelman, 2B, 1973–1974 Bob Heise, 2B, 1974 Clarence Heise, P, 1934 Rick Heiserman, P, 1999 Ryan Helsley, P, 2019–present Scott Hemond, C, 1995 Charlie Hemphill, OF, 1899 Solly Hemus, SS, 1949–1956, 1959 George Hendrick, OF, 1978–1984 Harvey Hendrick, 3B/OF, 1932 Tom Henke, P, 1995 Roy Henshaw, P, 1938 Pat Hentgen, P, 2000 Dustin Hermanson, P, 2001, 2003 Carlos Hernández, C, 2000 Keith Hernandez, 1B, 1974–1983 Larry Herndon, OF, 1974 Ed Herr, SS/OF/2B/3B, 1888, 1890 Tom Herr, 2B, 1979–1988 Iván Herrera, C, 2022–present Neal Hertweck, 1B, 1952 Ed Heusser, P, 1935–1936 Mike Heydon, C/OF, 1901 Jason Heyward, OF, 2015 Jim Hickman, 1B/3B, 1974 Jim Hicks, OF, 1969 Jordan Hicks, P, 2018–2019, 2021–2023 Irv Higginbotham, P, 1906, 1908–1909 Bill Higgins, 2B, 1890 Dennis Higgins, P, 1971–1972 Eddie Higgins, P/OF, 1909–1910 Andy High, 3B/2B, 1928–1931 Palmer Hildebrand, C/OF, 1913 Tom Hilgendorf, P, 1969–1970 Carmen Hill, P, 1929–1930 Hugh Hill, OF, 1904 Ken Hill, P, 1988–1991, 1995 Marc Hill, C, 1973–1974 Steven Hill, 1B/C, 2010, 2012 Howard Hilton, P, 1990 Jack Himes, OF, 1905–1906 Sterling Hitchcock, P, 2003 Bruce Hitt, P, 1917 Glen Hobbie, P, 1964 Ed Hock, OF, 1920 Charlie Hodnett, P/OF, 1883 Art Hoelskoetter, 2B/3B/C, 1905–1908 Joe Hoerner, P, 1966–1969 Jarrett Hoffpauir, 2B/3B, 2009 Bob Hogan, P, 1882 Marty Hogan, OF, 1894–1895 Aaron Holbert, 2B, 1996 Greg Holland, P, 2018 Mul Holland, P, 1929 Matt Holliday, OF, 2009–2016 Ed Holly, SS, 1906–1907 Wattie Holm, OF/3B, 1924–1929, 1932 Darren Holmes, P, 2000 Ducky Holmes, OF, 1898 Ducky Holmes, C, 1906 Rick Honeycutt, P, 1996–1997 Don Hood, P, 1980 Buck Hopkins, OF, 1907 Johnny Hopp, OF, 1939–1945 Bill Hopper, P, 1913–1914 Bob Horner, 1B, 1988 Rogers Hornsby, 2B/SS, 1915–1926, 1933 Oscar Horstmann, P, 1917–1919 Ricky Horton, P, 1984–1987, 1989–1990 Paul Householder, OF, 1984 John Houseman, 2B/OF, 1897 David Howard, SS/2B/3B/1B/OF, 1998–1999 Doug Howard, 1B, 1975 Earl Howard, P, 1918 Thomas Howard, OF, 1999–2000 Art Howe, 3B, 1984–1985 Roland Howell, P, 1912 Bill Howerton, OF, 1949–1951 Dummy Hoy, OF, 1891 Al Hrabosky, P, 1970–1977 Jimmy Hudgens, 1B/2B, 1923 Rex Hudler, OF/2B, 1990–1992 Charlie Hudson, P, 1972 Dakota Hudson, P, 2018–present Joe Hudson, C, 2019 Nat Hudson, P/OF, 1886–1889 Frank Huelsman, OF, 1897 Chad Huffman, OF, 2017 Miller Huggins, 2B, 1910–1916 Dick Hughes, P, 1966–1968 Terry Hughes, 3B/1B, 1973 Tom Hughes, P, 1959 Jim Hughey, P, 1898, 1900 Tim Hulett, 2B/SS, 1995 Rudy Hulswitt, SS, 1909–1910 Bob Humphreys, P, 1963–1964 Ben Hunt, P, 1913 Joel Hunt, OF, 1931–1932 Randy Hunt, C, 1985 Ron Hunt, 2B, 1974 Brian Hunter, OF/1B, 1998 Herb Hunter, 1B, 1921 Steve Huntz, SS, 1967, 1969 Walt Huntzinger, P, 1926 Clint Hurdle, 1B, 1986 Scott Hurst, OF, 2021 Bill Hutchinson, P, 1897 Chad Hutchinson, P, 2001 Ira Hutchinson, P, 1940–1941 Ham Hyatt, 1B, 1915 Pat Hynes, P, 1903 I Dane Iorg, OF/1B, 1977–1984 Walt Irwin, PH, 1921 Jason Isringhausen, P, 2002–2008 César Izturis, SS, 2008 J Ray Jablonski, 3B, 1953–1954, 1959 Al Jackson, P, 1966–1967 Danny Jackson, P, 1995–1997 Edwin Jackson, P, 2011 Larry Jackson, P, 1955–1962 Mike Jackson, P, 1971 Ryan Jackson, 2B/3B/SS, 2012–2013 Elmer Jacobs, P, 1919–1920 Tony Jacobs, P, 1955 Bert James, OF, 1909 Charlie James, OF, 1960–1964 Mike James, P, 2000–2001 Hal Janvrin, 1B, 1919–1921 Kevin Jarvis, P, 2005 Hi Jasper, P, 1916 Larry Jaster, P, 1965–1968 Julián Javier, 2B, 1960–1971 Jon Jay, OF, 2010–2015 Hal Jeffcoat, P, 1959 Gregg Jefferies, 1B, 1993–1994 Marcus Jensen, C, 1999 José Jiménez, P, 1998–1999 Kelvin Jiménez, P, 2007–2008 Alex Johnson, OF, 1966–1967 Billy Johnson, 3B, 1951–1953 Bob Johnson, 3B/1B, 1969 Dan Johnson, 1B, 2015 Darrell Johnson, C, 1960 Jerry Johnson, P, 1970 Ken Johnson, P, 1947–1950 Lance Johnson, OF, 1987 Mark Johnson, C, 2008 Rankin Johnson Sr., P, 1918 Rob Johnson, C/P, 2013 Si Johnson, P, 1936–1938 Syl Johnson, P, 1926–1933 Tyler Johnson, P, 2005–2007 Cowboy Jones, P, 1899–1901 Gordon Jones, P, 1954–1956 Howie Jones, OF, 1921 Nippy Jones, 1B, 1946–1951 Red Jones, OF, 1940 Sam Jones, P, 1957–1958, 1963 Tim Jones, SS/2B, 1988–1993 Bubber Jonnard, C, 1929 Brian Jordan, OF, 1992–1998 Mike Jorgensen, 1B, 1984–1985 Félix José, OF, 1990–1992 Kevin Joseph, P, 2002 Jimmy Journell, P, 2003, 2005 Lyle Judy, 2B, 1935 Al Jurisich, P, 1944–1945 Skip Jutze, C, 1972 K Jim Kaat, P, 1980–1983 Rob Kaminsky, P, 2020 Jerry Kane, 1B/C, 1890 Ed Karger, P, 1906–1908 Jason Karnuth, P, 2001 Eddie Kasko, 3B/SS, 1957–1958 Ray Katt, C, 1956, 1958–1959 Tony Kaufmann, P/OF, 1927–1928, 1930–1931, 1935 Marty Kavanagh, OF/2B, 1918 Eddie Kazak, 3B, 1948–1952 Bob Keely, C, 1944–1945 Vic Keen, P, 1926–1927 Jeff Keener, P, 1982–1983 Randy Keisler, P, 2007 Bill Keister, 2B, 1900 John Kelleher, 3B, 1912 Mick Kelleher, SS, 1972–1973, 1975 Alex Kellner, P, 1959 Win Kellum, P, 1905 Billy Kelly, C, 1910 Carson Kelly, C, 2016–2018 Joe Kelly, P, 2012–2014 John Kelly, OF, 1907 Pat Kelly, 2B, 1998 Rudy Kemmler, C, 1886 Adam Kennedy, 2B, 1999, 2007–2008 Jim Kennedy, SS/2B, 1970 Terry Kennedy, C, 1978–1980 Matt Keough, P, 1985 Kurt Kepshire, P, 1984–1986 John Kerins, 1B/C, 1890 George Kernek, 1B, 1965–1966 Don Kessinger, SS/2B, 1976–1977 Dean Kiekhefer, P, 2016 Darryl Kile, P, 2000–2002 Paul Kilgus, P, 1993 Kwang-hyun Kim, P, 2020–2021 Newt Kimball, P, 1940 Hal Kime, P, 1920 Wally Kimmick, SS, 1919 Ellis Kinder, P, 1956 Chick King, OF, 1959 Curtis King, P, 1997–1999 Jim King, OF, 1957 John King, P, 2023–present Lynn King, OF, 1935–1936, 1939 Ray King, P, 2004–2005 Silver King, P, 1887–1889 Billy Kinloch, 3B, 1895 Josh Kinney, P, 2006, 2008–2009 Tom Kinslow, C, 1898 Matt Kinzer, P, 1989 Walt Kinzie, 2B, 1884 Mike Kircher, P, 1920–1921 Bill Kissinger, P, 1895–1897 Lou Klein, 2B/SS, 1943, 1945–1946, 1949 Nubs Kleinke, P, 1935, 1937 Ron Kline, P, 1960 Steve Kline, P, 2001–2004 Rudy Kling, SS, 1902 Billy Klusman, 2B, 1890 Clyde Kluttz, C, 1946 Alan Knicely, 1B/C, 1986 Jack Knight, P, 1922 Andrew Knizner, C, 2019–present Mike Knode, OF/2B/3B/SS, 1920 Ed Knouff, P/OF, 1887–1888 Darold Knowles, P, 1979–1980 Will Koenigsmark, P, 1919 Gary Kolb, OF, 1960, 1962–1963 Erik Komatsu, OF, 2012 Ed Konetchy, 1B, 1907–1913 Jim Konstanty, P, 1956 George Kopshaw, C, 1923 George Kottaras, C, 2014 Ernie Koy, OF, 1940–1941 Pete Kozma, SS/2B, 2011–2015 Lew Krausse Jr., P, 1973 Charlie Krehmeyer, OF/C/1B, 1884 Kurt Krieger, P, 1949, 1951 Howie Krist, P, 1937–1938, 1941–1943, 1946 Otto Krueger, 3B/SS, 1900–1902 Ted Kubiak, SS/2B, 1971 Bill Kuehne, 3B/SS, 1892 Ryan Kurosaki, P, 1975 Whitey Kurowski, 3B, 1941–1949 Bob Kuzava, P, 1957 L John Lackey, P, 2014–2015 Mike Laga, 1B, 1986–1988 Lerrin LaGrow, P, 1976 Jeff Lahti, P, 1982–1986 Gerald Laird, C, 2011 Eddie Lake, SS/2B/3B, 1939–1941 Steve Lake, C, 1986–1988 Dan Lally, OF, 1897 Jack Lamabe, P, 1967 Fred Lamlein, P, 1915 Tom Lampkin, C, 1997–1998 Les Lancaster, P, 1993 Hobie Landrith, C, 1957–1958 Don Landrum, OF, 1960–1962 Tito Landrum, OF, 1980–1987 Don Lang, 3B, 1948 Max Lanier, P, 1938–1946, 1949–1951 Ray Lankford, OF, 1990–2001, 2004 Paul LaPalme, P, 1955–1956 Dave LaPoint, P, 1981–1984, 1987 Ralph LaPointe, 2B, 1948 Bob Larmore, SS, 1918 Jason LaRue, C, 2008–2010 Lyn Lary, SS, 1939 Don Lassetter, OF, 1957 Arlie Latham, 3B, 1883–1889, 1896 Mike LaValliere, C, 1985–1986 Doc Lavan, SS, 1919–1924 Johnny Lavin, OF, 1884 Tom Lawless, 3B/2B, 1985–1988 Brooks Lawrence, P, 1954–1955 Casey Lawrence, P, 2023 Kyle Leahy, P, 2023 Tom Leahy, C, 1905 Mike Leake, P, 2016–2017 Wade LeBlanc, P, 2021 Leron Lee, OF, 1969–1971 Manuel Lee, 2B, 1995 Jim Lentine, OF, 1978–1980 Leonard, OF, 1892 Dominic Leone, P, 2018–2019 Barry Lersch, P, 1974 Roy Leslie, 1B, 1919 Jon Lester, P, 2021 Dan Lewandowski, P, 1951 Bill Lewis, C, 1933 Fred Lewis, OF, 1883–1884 Johnny Lewis, OF, 1964 Sixto Lezcano, OF, 1981 Matthew Liberatore, P, 2022–present Don Liddle, P, 1956 Gene Lillard, P, 1940 Bob Lillis, SS, 1961 Mike Lincoln, P, 2004 Johnny Lindell, OF, 1950 Jim Lindeman, 1B/OF, 1986–1989 Jim Lindsey, P, 1929–1934 Royce Lint, P, 1954 Larry Lintz, 2B/SS, 1975 Frank Linzy, P, 1970–1971 Mark Littell, P, 1978–1982 Jeff Little, P, 1980 Mark Little, OF, 1998 Dick Littlefield, P, 1956 John Littlefield, P, 1980 Carlisle Littlejohn, P, 1927–1928 Danny Litwhiler, OF, 1943–1944, 1946 Paddy Livingston, C, 1917 Scott Livingstone, 3B/OF, 1997 Bobby Locke, P, 1962 Whitey Lockman, OF, 1956 Tom Loftus, OF, 1883 Bill Lohrman, P, 1942 Kyle Lohse, P, 2008–2012 Jeoff Long, OF/1B, 1964 Tom Long, OF, 1915–1917 Braden Looper, P, 1998, 2006–2008 Art Lopatka, P, 1945 Aurelio López, P, 1978 Felipe López, 3B/2B, 2008, 2010 Irving Lopez, 3B/2B, 2023 Joe Lotz, P, 1916 Lynn Lovenguth, P, 1957 John Lovett, P, 1903 Grover Lowdermilk, P, 1909, 1911 Lou Lowdermilk, P, 1911–1912 Sean Lowe, P, 1997–1998 Peanuts Lowrey, OF, 1950–1954 Josh Lucas, P, 2017 Con Lucid, P, 1897 Eric Ludwick, P, 1996–1997 Ryan Ludwick, OF, 2007–2010 Bill Ludwig, C, 1908 Larry Luebbers, P, 1999 Julio Lugo, 2B, 2009 Héctor Luna, 2B/OF/SS, 2004–2006 Memo Luna, P, 1954 Ernie Lush, OF, 1910 Johnny Lush, P, 1907–1910 Lance Lynn, P, 2011–2015, 2017 Bill Lyons, 2B, 1983–1984 Denny Lyons, 3B, 1891, 1895 George Lyons, P, 1920 Harry Lyons, OF, 1887–1888 Hersh Lyons, P, 1941 Tyler Lyons, P, 2013–2018 M Bob Mabe, P, 1958 John Mabry, OF/1B, 1994–1998, 2001, 2004–2005 Mike MacDougal, P, 2010 Ken MacKenzie, P, 1963 John Mackinson, P, 1955 Evan MacLane, P, 2010 Lonnie Maclin, OF, 1993 Max Macon, P, 1938 Bill Magee, P, 1901 Lee Magee, OF/2B/1B, 1911–1914 Sal Maglie, P, 1958 Joe Magrane, P, 1987–1990, 1992–1993 Art Mahaffey, P, 1966 Mike Mahoney, 1B, 1898 Mike Mahoney, C, 2005 Duster Mails, P, 1925–1926 James Mallory, OF, 1945 Gus Mancuso, C, 1928, 1930–1932, 1941–1942 Seth Maness, P, 2013–2016 Leslie Mann, OF, 1921–1923 Fred Manrique, 3B/2B, 1986 Tom Mansell, OF, 1883 Rabbit Maranville, SS, 1927–1928 Walt Marbet, P, 1913 Marty Marion, SS, 1940–1950 Roger Maris, OF, 1967–1968 Fred Marolewski, 1B, 1953 Mike Maroth, P, 2007 Jason Marquis, P, 2004–2006 Eli Marrero, C, 1997–2003 Chip Marshall, C, 1941 Doc Marshall, C, 1906–1908 Joe Marshall, OF/1B, 1906 Víctor Marte, P, 2012–2013 Fred Martin, P, 1946, 1949–1950 John Martin, P, 1980–1983 Morrie Martin, P, 1957–1958 Pepper Martin, OF/3B, 1928, 1930–1940, 1944 Stu Martin, 2B, 1936–1940 Carlos Martínez, P, 2013–2021 José Martínez, OF/1B, 2016–2019 Marty Martínez, SS/2B/3B, 1972 Silvio Martínez, P, 1978–1981 Ted Martínez, OF/2B/3B/SS, 1975 Tino Martinez, 1B, 2002–2003 Ernie Mason, P/OF, 1894 Justin Masterson, P, 2014 Mike Matheny, C, 2000–2004 Joe Mather, OF, 2008, 2010 Greg Mathews, P, 1986–1988, 1990 T. J. Mathews, P, 1995–1997, 2001 Mike Matthews, P, 2000–2002 Wally Mattick, OF, 1918 Steven Matz, P, 2022–present Gene Mauch, SS, 1952 Harry Maupin, P, 1898 Dal Maxvill, SS, 1962–1972 Jakie May, P, 1917–1921 Mike Mayers, P, 2016–2019 Jack McAdams, P, 1911 Ike McAuley, SS, 1917 Bake McBride, OF, 1973–1977 George McBride, SS, 1905–1906 Pete McBride, P/2B, 1899 Harry McCaffery, OF/2B/3B/1B, 1882–1883 Joe McCarthy, C, 1906 Tommy McCarthy, OF, 1888–1891 Lew McCarty, C, 1920–1921 Tim McCarver, C, 1959–1961, 1963–1969, 1973–1974 Jim McCauley, C, 1884 Pat McCauley, C, 1893 Kyle McClellan, P, 2008–2012 Bob McClure, P, 1991–1992 Billy McCool, P, 1970 Jim McCormick, 2B/3B, 1892 Harry McCurdy, C, 1922–1923 Lindy McDaniel, P, 1955–1962 Von McDaniel, P, 1957–1958 Mickey McDermott, P, 1961 Mike McDermott, P, 1897 Keith McDonald, C, 2000–2001 Dewey McDougal, P, 1895–1896 Sandy McDougal, P, 1905 Will McEnaney, P, 1979 Joe McEwing, 2B/OF, 1998–1999 Guy McFadden, 1B, 1895 Chappie McFarland, P, 1902–1906 Ed McFarland, C, 1896–1897 T. J. McFarland, P, 2021–2022 Dan McGann, 1B, 1900–1901 Chippy McGarr, 2B, 1888 Bill McGee, P, 1935–1941 Willie McGee, OF, 1982–1990, 1996–1999 Dan McGeehan, 2B, 1911 Willie McGill, P, 1891 Jim McGinley, P, 1904–1905 Jumbo McGinnis, P, 1882–1886 Lynn McGlothen, P, 1974–1976 Stoney McGlynn, P, 1906–1908 Bob McGraw, P, 1927 John McGraw, 3B, 1900 Tom McGraw, P, 1997 Terry McGriff, C, 1994 Mark McGrillis, 3B, 1892 Mark McGwire, 1B, 1997–2001 Austin McHenry, OF, 1918–1922 Otto McIvor, OF, 1911 Cody McKay, C/3B/1B/P, 2004 Ed McKean, SS, 1899 Michael McKenry, PH, 2016 Ralph McLaurin, OF, 1908 Larry McLean, C, 1904, 1913 Jerry McNertney, C, 1971–1972 Mart McQuaid, 2B/OF, 1891 Trick McSorley, SS, 1886 Paul McSweeney, 2B/3B, 1891 Larry McWilliams, P, 1988 Lee Meadows, P, 1915–1919 Joe Medwick, OF, 1932–1940, 1947–1948 Dad Meek, C, 1889–1890 Ryan Meisinger, P, 2020 Adalberto Mejía, P, 2019 Alex Mejia, 3B/2B/SS/1B, 2017 Miguel Mejia, OF, 1996 Roberto Mejía, 2B/OF, 1997 Sam Mejías, OF, 1976 Luis Meléndez, OF, 1970–1976 Steve Melter, P, 1909 Ted Menze, OF, 1918 Óscar Mercado, OF, 2023 John Mercer, 1B, 1912 Kent Mercker, P, 1998–1999 Lloyd Merritt, P, 1957 Sam Mertes, OF, 1906 Steve Mesner, 3B, 1941 Butch Metzger, P, 1977 Ed Mickelson, 1B, 1950 Ed Mierkowicz, PH, 1950 Larry Miggins, OF/1B, 1948, 1952 Pete Mikkelsen, P, 1968 Miles Mikolas, P, 2018–2019, 2021–present Eddie Miksis, OF, 1957 Aaron Miles, 2B, 2006–2008, 2010 Frank Millard, 2B, 1890 Andrew Miller, P, 2019–2021 Bob Miller, P, 1957, 1959–1961 Brad Miller, 3B/SS/2B, 2020 Chuck Miller, OF, 1913–1914 Doggie Miller, 3B/C, 1894–1895 Dots Miller, 1B, 1914–1917, 1919 Dusty Miller, OF, 1890, 1899 Eddie Miller, SS, 1950 Elmer Miller, OF, 1912 Justin Miller, P, 2021 Kohly Miller, 3B, 1892 Shelby Miller, P, 2012–2014 Stu Miller, P, 1952–1954, 1956 Trever Miller, P, 2009–2011 Jocko Milligan, C, 1888–1889 Buster Mills, OF, 1934 Larry Milton, P, 1903 Minnie Miñoso, OF, 1962 Bobby Mitchell, OF/P, 1882 Clarence Mitchell, P, 1928–1930 Johnny Mize, 1B, 1936–1941 Vinegar Bend Mizell, P, 1952–1953, 1956–1960 Herb Moford, P, 1955 Mike Mohler, P, 1999–2000 Gabe Molina, P, 2002–2003 Yadier Molina, C, 2004–2022 Fritz Mollwitz, 1B, 1919 Jordan Montgomery, P, 2022–2023 Wally Moon, OF, 1954–1958 Jim Mooney, P, 1933–1934 Donnie Moore, P, 1980 Gene Moore, OF, 1933–1935 Randy Moore, OF, 1937 Terry Moore, OF, 1935–1942, 1946–1948 Tommy Moore, P, 1975 Whitey Moore, P, 1942 Jerry Morales, OF, 1978 Bill Moran, C/OF, 1892 Charley Moran, C/P/SS, 1903, 1908 Forrest More, P, 1909 Bobby Morgan, 2B/3B/SS, 1956 Eddie Morgan, OF, 1936 Joe Morgan, PH, 1964 Mike Morgan, P, 1995–1996 Gene Moriarty, OF, 1892 Max Moroff, 2B/3B, 2021 John Morris, OF, 1986–1990 Matt Morris, P, 1997–1998, 2000–2005 Walter Morris, SS, 1908 Hap Morse, SS/OF, 1911 Clayton Mortensen, P, 2009 Charlie Morton, 2B/OF, 1882 Walt Moryn, OF, 1960–1961 Brandon Moss, 1B/OF, 2015–2016 Jason Motte, P, 2008–2012, 2014 Taylor Motter, 2B/3B/SS/1B/OF, 2023 Mike Mowrey, 3B, 1909–1913 Jamie Moyer, P, 1991 Heinie Mueller, OF, 1920–1926 Billy Muffett, P, 1957–1958 Edward Mujica, P, 2012–2013 Mark Mulder, P, 2005–2008 Tony Mullane, P/OF, 1883 Jerry Mumphrey, OF, 1974–1979 Red Munger, P, 1943–1944, 1946–1952 Les Munns, P, 1936 Yairo Muñoz, SS/OF/3B/2B, 2018–2019 John Munyan, C, 1890–1891 Steve Mura, P, 1982 Simmy Murch, 2B/3B/SS, 1904–1905 Tim Murchison, P, 1917 Wilbur Murdoch, OF, 1908 Ed Murphy, P, 1901–1903 Howard Murphy, OF, 1909 Joe Murphy, P, 1886–1887 John Murphy, 3B, 1902 Mike Murphy, C, 1912 Morgan Murphy, C, 1896–1897 Rob Murphy, P, 1993–1994 Tom Murphy, P, 1973 Red Murray, OF, 1906–1908 Stan Musial, OF/1B, 1941–1944, 1946–1963 Bert Myers, 3B, 1896 Hi Myers, OF, 1923–1925 Lynn Myers, SS, 1938–1939 N Mike Nagy, P, 1973 Sam Nahem, P, 1941 James Naile, P, 2022–present Sam Narron, C, 1935, 1942–1943 Chris Narveson, P, 2006 Ken Nash, 3B/2B/SS, 1914 Packy Naughton, P, 2022–present Mike Naymick, P, 1944 Joe Neale, P/OF, 1890–1891 John Nelson, 1B/SS, 2006 Mel Nelson, P, 1960, 1968–1969 Rocky Nelson, 1B, 1949–1951, 1956 Pat Neshek, P, 2014 Juan Nicasio, P, 2017 Art Nichols, 1B/C/OF, 1901–1903 Kid Nichols, P, 1904–1905 George Nicol, P, 1890 Hugh Nicol, OF, 1883–1886 Charlie Niebergall, C, 1921, 1923–1924 Tom Niedenfuer, P, 1990 Dick Niehaus, P, 1913–1915 Bert Niehoff, 2B, 1918 Bob Nieman, OF, 1960–1961 Tom Nieto, C, 1984–1985 Tom Niland, OF/SS, 1896 John Nogowski, 1B, 2020–2021 Pete Noonan, C, 1906–1907 Lars Nootbaar, OF, 2021–present Irv Noren, OF, 1957–1959 Fred Norman, P, 1970–1971 Bud Norris, P, 2018 Lou North, P, 1917, 1920–1924 Ron Northey, OF, 1947–1949 Joe Nossek, OF, 1969–1970 Abraham Núñez, 3B, 2005 Howie Nunn, P, 1959 Rich Nye, P, 1970 O Dan O'Brien, P, 1978–1979 Johnny O'Brien, SS/2B/P, 1958 Jack O'Connor, C, 1899–1900 Paddy O'Connor, C, 1914 Ken O'Dea, C, 1942–1946 Bob O'Farrell, C, 1925–1928, 1933, 1935 Bill O'Hara, OF/1B/P, 1910 Tom O'Hara, OF, 1906–1907 Charley O'Leary, SS, 1913 Randy O'Neal, P, 1987–1988 Dennis O'Neill, 1B, 1893 Jack O'Neill, C, 1902–1903 Mike O'Neill, P, 1901–1904 Tip O'Neill, OF, 1884–1889, 1891 Tyler O'Neill, OF, 2018–present Charlie O'Rourke, PH, 1959 Patsy O'Rourke, SS, 1908 Tim O'Rourke, 3B, 1894 Rebel Oakes, OF, 1910–1913 Henry Oberbeck, OF, 1883 Ken Oberkfell, 3B, 1977–1984 Bruce Ogrodowski, C, 1936–1937 Seung-hwan Oh, P, 2016–2017 Kevin Ohme, P, 2003 José Oliva, 3B/1B, 1995 Ed Olivares, OF/3B, 1960–1961 Omar Olivares, P, 1990–1994 Darren Oliver, P, 1998–1999 Gene Oliver, C/OF, 1959–1963 Diomedes Olivo, P, 1963 Al Olmsted, P, 1980 José Oquendo, 2B, 1986–1995 Luis Ordaz, SS, 1997–1999 Joe Orengo, 2B/3B, 1939–1940 Jesse Orosco, P, 2000 Ernie Orsatti, OF, 1927–1935 Bill Ortega, PH, 2001 Donovan Osborne, P, 1992–1993, 1995–1999 Champ Osteen, SS, 1908–1909 Claude Osteen, P, 1974 Adam Ottavino, P, 2010 Jim Otten, P, 1980–1981 John Otten, C/OF, 1895 Johan Oviedo, P, 2020–2022 Mickey Owen, C, 1937–1940 Rick Ownbey, P, 1984, 1986 Marcell Ozuna, OF, 2018–2019 P Ed Pabst, OF, 1890 Gene Packard, P, 1917–1918 Dick Padden, 2B, 1901 Don Padgett, OF/C, 1937–1941 Matt Pagnozzi, C/1B, 2009–2010 Tom Pagnozzi, C, 1987–1998 Phil Paine, P, 1958 Lance Painter, P, 1997–1999, 2003 Richie Palacios, OF/2B, 2023–present Vicente Palacios, P, 1994–1995 Andre Pallante, P, 2022–present Orlando Palmeiro, OF, 2003 Lowell Palmer, P, 1972 Al Papai, P, 1948, 1950 Stan Papi, SS/2B, 1974 Erik Pappas, C, 1993–1994 Craig Paquette, 3B/OF/1B, 1999–2001 Freddy Parent, 2B, 1899 Kelly Paris, 3B/SS, 1982 Mike Parisi, P, 2008 Harry Parker, P, 1970–1971, 1975 Roy Parker, P, 1919 Roy Parmelee, P, 1936 Jeff Parrett, P, 1995–1996 Tom Parrott, OF, 1896 Stan Partenheimer, P, 1945 Mike Pasquella, PH, 1919 Corey Patterson, OF, 2011 Daryl Patterson, P, 1971 Harry Patton, P, 1910 Gene Paulette, 1B, 1917–1919 Gil Paulsen, P, 1925 George Paynter, OF, 1894 Josh Pearce, P, 2002–2004 Frank Pears, P, 1893 Alex Pearson, P, 1902 Jason Pearson, P, 2003 Homer Peel, OF, 1927, 1930 Charlie Peete, OF, 1956 Heinie Peitz, C/3B/1B, 1892–1895, 1913 Joe Peitz, OF, 1894 Brayan Peña, C/1B, 2016 Francisco Peña, C, 2018 Gerónimo Peña, 2B, 1990–1995 Orlando Peña, P, 1973–1974 Tony Peña, C, 1987–1989 Terry Pendleton, 3B, 1984–1990 Brad Penny, P, 2010 Ray Pepper, OF, 1932–1933 Jhonny Peralta, SS, 2014–2017 Troy Percival, P, 2007 Hub Perdue, P, 1914–1915 Audry Pérez, C, 2013–2014 Chris Perez, P, 2008–2009 Eduardo Pérez, OF/1B, 1999–2000, 2002–2003 Mike Pérez, P, 1990–1994 Timo Pérez, OF, 2006 Pol Perritt, P, 1912–1914 Gerald Perry, 1B, 1991–1995 Pat Perry, P, 1985–1987 Bill Pertica, P, 1921–1923 Steve Peters, P, 1987–1988 Brock Peterson, OF/1B, 2013 Mark Petkovsek, P, 1995–1998 Jeff Pfeffer, P, 1921–1924 Tommy Pham, OF, 2014–2018 Ed Phelps, C, 1909–1910 Josh Phelps, OF/1B, 2008 Eddie Phillips, PR, 1953 Mike Phillips, 2B/SS, 1977–1980 Bill Phyle, 3B, 1906 Ron Piché, P, 1966 Charlie Pickett, P, 1910 George Pierce, P, 1917 A. J. Pierzynski, C, 2014 Joel Piñeiro, P, 2007–2009 George Pinkney, 3B, 1892 Vada Pinson, OF, 1969 Cotton Pippen, P, 1936 Stephen Piscotty, OF, 2015–2017 Phil Plantier, OF, 1997 Tim Plodinec, P, 1972 Tom Poholsky, P, 1950–1951, 1954–1956 Plácido Polanco, 3B/2B/SS, 1998–2002 Cliff Politte, P, 1998 Howie Pollet, P, 1941–1943, 1946–1951 Daniel Ponce de Leon, P, 2018–2021 Sidney Ponson, P, 2006 Bill Popp, P, 1902 Colin Porter, OF, 2004 Darrell Porter, C, 1981–1985 Jay Porter, C/1B, 1959 Mike Potter, OF, 1976–1977 Nels Potter, P, 1936 Jack Powell, P, 1899–1901 Ted Power, P, 1989 Joe Presko, P, 1951–1954 Mike Proly, P, 1976 George Puccinelli, OF, 1930, 1932 Albert Pujols, 1B/OF, 2001–2011, 2022 Bill Pulsipher, P, 2005 Nick Punto, 2B, 2011 Bob Purkey, P, 1965 Ambrose Puttmann, P, 1906 Q Juniel Querecuto, 3B/1B/2B, 2023 Joe Quest, 2B, 1883–1884 Finners Quinlan, OF, 1913 Joe Quinn, 2B, 1893–1896, 1898, 1900 José Quintana, P, 2022 Jamie Quirk, C/3B/SS, 1983 Dan Quisenberry, P, 1988–1989 R Roy Radebaugh, P, 1911 Dave Rader, C, 1977 Scott Radinsky, P, 1999–2000 Ken Raffensberger, P, 1939 Brady Raggio, P, 1997–1998 Gary Rajsich, 1B, 1984 John Raleigh, P, 1909–1910 Milt Ramírez, SS, 1970–1971 Roel Ramírez, P, 2020–2021 Mike Ramsey, 2B/SS/3B, 1978, 1980–1984 Toad Ramsey, P, 1889–1890 Dick Rand, C, 1953, 1955 Vic Raschi, P, 1954–1955 Colby Rasmus, OF, 2009–2011 Eric Rasmussen, P, 1975–1978, 1982–1983 Tommy Raub, C, 1906 Rangel Ravelo, 1B/OF, 2019–2020 Floyd Rayford, 3B, 1983 Bugs Raymond, P, 1907–1908 Britt Reames, P, 2000 Art Rebel, OF, 1945 Phil Redding, P, 1912–1913 Milt Reed, PH, 1911 Ron Reed, P, 1975 Bill Reeder, P, 1949 Jimmie Reese, 2B, 1932 Tom Reilly, SS, 1908–1909 Art Reinhart, P, 1919, 1925–1928 Jack Reis, P, 1911 Ken Reitz, 3B, 1972–1975, 1977–1980 Édgar Rentería, SS, 1999–2004 Bob Repass, 2B, 1939 Rip Repulski, OF, 1953–1956 George Rettger, P/OF, 1891 Jerry Reuss, P, 1969–1971 Al Reyes, P, 2004–2005 Alex Reyes, P, 2016, 2018–2021 Anthony Reyes, P, 2005–2008 Dennys Reyes, P, 2009–2010 Bob Reynolds, P, 1971 Ken Reynolds, P, 1975 Mark Reynolds, 1B, 2015 Flint Rhem, P, 1924–1928, 1930–1932, 1934, 1936 Bob Rhoads, P/OF, 1903 Arthur Rhodes, P, 2011 Charlie Rhodes, P, 1906, 1908–1909 Dennis Ribant, P, 1969 Del Rice, C, 1945–1955, 1960 Hal Rice, OF, 1948–1953 Chris Richard, OF/1B, 2000 Lee Richard, 2B/SS/3B, 1976 Bill Richardson, 1B, 1901 Gordie Richardson, P, 1964 Pete Richert, P, 1974 Don Richmond, 3B, 1951 Dave Ricketts, C, 1963, 1965, 1967–1969 Dick Ricketts, P, 1959 John Ricks, 3B, 1891, 1894 Elmer Rieger, P, 1910 Joe Riggert, OF, 1914 Lew Riggs, PH, 1934 Andy Rincon, P, 1980–1982 Ricardo Rincón, P, 2006 Jimmy Ring, P, 1927 Tink Riviere, P, 1921 Skipper Roberts, C, 1913 Kramer Robertson, SS, 2022 Drew Robinson, OF, 2019 Hank Robinson, P, 1914–1915 Kerry Robinson, OF, 2001–2003 Shane Robinson, OF, 2009, 2011–2014 Wilbert Robinson, C, 1900 Yank Robinson, 2B, 1885–1889, 1891 Jack Roche, C, 1914–1915, 1917 John Rodriguez, OF, 2005–2006 José Rodríguez, P, 2000, 2002 Nerio Rodríguez, P, 2002 Rich Rodriguez, P, 1994–1995 Preacher Roe, P, 1938 Wally Roettger, OF, 1927–1929, 1931 Cookie Rojas, 2B/OF/SS, 1970 Stan Rojek, SS, 1951 Scott Rolen, 3B, 2002–2007 Ray Rolling, 2B, 1912 Drew Rom, P, 2023–present Johnny Romano, C, 1967 J. C. Romero, P, 2012 JoJo Romero, P, 2022–present Austin Romine, C, 2022 John Romonosky, P, 1953 Marc Ronan, C, 1993 Ángel Rondón, P, 2021–2022 Jorge Rondón, P, 2014 José Rondón, OF/3B/2B/1B, 2021 Gene Roof, OF, 1981–1983 Jorge Roque, OF, 1970–1972 Alberto Rosario, C/3B, 2016–2017 Mike Rose, C, 2006 Chief Roseman, OF, 1890 Trevor Rosenthal, P, 2012–2017 Tyson Ross, P, 2018 Jack Rothrock, OF, 1934–1935 Stan Royer, 3B/1B, 1991–1994 Dave Rucker, P, 1983–1984 Ken Rudolph, C, 1975–1976 Jack Russell, P, 1940 Paul Russell, 2B/3B/OF, 1894 Brendan Ryan, SS, 2007–2010 Jack Ryan, C, 1901–1903 Mike Ryan, 3B, 1895 Mike Ryba, P, 1935–1938 Marc Rzepczynski, P, 2011–2013 S Chris Sabo, 1B/3B, 1995 Ray Sadecki, P, 1960–1966, 1975 Bob Sadowski, 2B, 1960 Fernando Salas, P, 2010–2013 Mark Salas, C/OF, 1984 Slim Sallee, P, 1908–1916 Ike Samuels, 3B/SS, 1895 Ali Sánchez, C, 2021 Eduardo Sánchez, P, 2011–2012 Orlando Sánchez, C, 1981–1983 Ricardo Sánchez, P, 2020 Ray Sanders, 1B, 1942–1945 Reggie Sanders, OF, 2004–2005 War Sanders, P, 1903–1904 Rafael Santana, 2B/SS/3B, 1983 Al Santorini, P, 1971–1973 Bill Sarni, C, 1951–1952, 1954–1956 Luis Saturria, OF, 2000–2001 Ed Sauer, OF, 1949 Hank Sauer, OF, 1956 Ted Savage, OF, 1965–1967 Carl Sawatski, C, 1960–1963 Steve Scarsone, 2B/OF/3B, 1997 Jimmie Schaffer, C, 1961–1962 Bobby Schang, C, 1927 John Schappert, P/1B/OF, 1882 Bob Scheffing, C, 1951 Carl Scheib, P, 1954 Richie Scheinblum, PH, 1974 Bill Schindler, C, 1920 Freddy Schmidt, P, 1944, 1946–1947 Walter Schmidt, C, 1925 Willard Schmidt, P, 1952–1953, 1955–1957 Red Schoendienst, 2B, 1945–1956, 1961–1963 Ducky Schofield, SS/2B, 1953–1958, 1968, 1971 Ossee Schreckengost, 1B, 1899 Pop Schriver, C/1B, 1901 Max Schrock, 2B/3B/P, 2020 Heinie Schuble, SS, 1927, 1936 Johnny Schulte, C, 1927 Barney Schultz, P, 1955, 1963–1965 Buddy Schultz, P, 1977–1979 Joe Schultz, OF, 1919–1924 Walt Schulz, P, 1920 John Schulze, C, 1891 Skip Schumaker, 2B/OF, 2005–2012 Ferdie Schupp, P, 1919–1921 Lou Scoffic, OF, 1936 George Scott, P, 1920 Tony Scott, OF, 1977–1981 Xavier Scruggs, 1B, 2014–2015 Scott Seabol, 3B/2B/1B/OF, 2005 Kim Seaman, P, 1979–1980 Diego Seguí, P, 1972–1973 Epp Sell, P, 1922–1923 Carey Selph, 2B, 1929 Walter Sessi, OF, 1941, 1946 George Seward, OF, 1882 Jimmy Sexton, SS/3B, 1983 Mike Shannon, 3B/OF, 1962–1970 Spike Shannon, OF, 1904–1906 Wally Shannon, 2B/SS, 1959–1960 Bobby Shantz, P, 1962–1964 Al Shaw, OF, 1907–1909 Don Shaw, P, 1971–1972 Danny Shay, SS/2B, 1904–1905 Gerry Shea, C, 1905 Danny Sheaffer, C/3B, 1995–1997 Jimmy Sheckard, OF, 1913 Biff Sheehan, OF, 1895–1896 Ray Shepardson, C, 1924 Bill Sherdel, P, 1918–1930, 1932 Ryan Sherriff, P, 2017–2018 Tim Sherrill, P, 1990–1991 Charlie Shields, P, 1907 Vince Shields, P, 1924 Ralph Shinners, OF, 1925 Bob Shirley, P, 1981 Burt Shotton, OF, 1919–1923 Clyde Shoun, P, 1938–1942 John Shoupe, 2B, 1882 Chasen Shreve, P, 2018–2019 Frank Shugart, OF/SS, 1893–1894 Michael Siani, OF, 2023–present Dick Siebert, 1B, 1937–1938 Sonny Siebert, P, 1974 Kevin Siegrist, P, 2013–2017 Magneuris Sierra, OF, 2017 Curt Simmons, P, 1960–1966 Ted Simmons, C, 1968–1980 Jason Simontacchi, P, 2002–2004 Dick Simpson, OF, 1968 Dick Sisler, 1B/OF, 1946–1947, 1952–1953 Ted Sizemore, 2B, 1971–1975 Bob Skinner, OF, 1964–1966 Gordon Slade, SS, 1933 Jack Slattery, C, 1906 Enos Slaughter, OF, 1938–1942, 1946–1953 Heathcliff Slocumb, P, 1999–2000 Bill Smiley, 2B, 1882 Bill Smith, P, 1958–1959 Bob Smith, P, 1957 Bobby Smith, OF, 1957–1959, 1962 Bryn Smith, P, 1990–1992 Bud Smith, P, 2001–2002 Charley Smith, 3B, 1966 Earl Smith, C, 1928–1930 Frank Smith, P, 1955 Fred Smith, 3B, 1917 Germany Smith, SS, 1898 Hal Smith, C, 1956–1961 Jack Smith, OF, 1915–1926 Jud Smith, 3B, 1893 Keith Smith, OF, 1979–1980 Lee Smith, P, 1990–1993 Lonnie Smith, OF, 1982–1985 Ozzie Smith, SS, 1982–1996 Reggie Smith, OF/1B, 1974–1976 Tom Smith, P, 1898 Travis Smith, P, 2002 Wally Smith, 3B/SS, 1911–1912 Willie Smith, P, 1994 John Smoltz, P, 2009 Homer Smoot, OF, 1902–1906 Red Smyth, OF, 1917–1918 Frank Snyder, C, 1912–1919, 1927 Miguel Socolovich, P, 2015–2017 Clint Sodowsky, P, 1999 Ray Soff, P, 1986–1987 Eddie Solomon, P, 1976 Lary Sorensen, P, 1981 Edmundo Sosa, SS/2B, 2018–2019, 2021–2022 Elías Sosa, P, 1975 Jorge Sosa, P, 2006 Allen Sothoron, P, 1924–1926 Billy Southworth, OF, 1926–1927, 1929 Cory Spangenberg, 3B, 2022 Chris Speier, SS, 1984 Daryl Spencer, SS, 1960–1961 Ed Spiezio, 3B, 1964–1968 Scott Spiezio, 3B/OF, 2006–2007 Scipio Spinks, P, 1972–1973 Ed Sprague Sr., P, 1973 Jack Spring, P, 1964 Russ Springer, P, 2003, 2007–2008 Joe Sprinz, C, 1933 Tuck Stainback, OF, 1938 Gerry Staley, P, 1947–1954 Harry Staley, P, 1895 Tracy Stallard, P, 1965–1966 Virgil Stallcup, SS, 1952–1953 Pete Standridge, P, 1911 Eddie Stanky, 2B, 1952–1953 Cody Stanley, C, 2015 Ray Starr, P, 1932 Nick Stavinoha, OF, 2008–2010 Gene Stechschulte, P, 2000–2002 Bill Steele, P, 1910–1914 Bob Steele, P, 1916–1917 Bill Stein, OF/3B/1B, 1972–1973 Henry Stein, C, 1900 Jake Stenzel, OF, 1898–1899 Ray Stephens, C, 1990–1991 Bob Stephenson, SS, 1955 Garrett Stephenson, P, 1999–2000, 2002–2003 Stuffy Stewart, 2B/OF, 1916–1917 Kelly Stinnett, C, 2007 Bob Stinson, C/OF, 1971 Jack Stivetts, P/OF, 1889–1891 Chuck Stobbs, P, 1958 Milt Stock, 3B, 1919–1923 Dean Stone, P, 1959 Tige Stone, OF/P, 1923 Alan Storke, SS, 1909 Todd Stottlemyre, P, 1996–1998 Allyn Stout, P, 1931–1933 Chris Stratton, P, 2022–2023 Gabby Street, C, 1931 Cub Stricker, 2B/SS, 1892 George Strief, 2B/OF, 1883–1884 Joe Stripp, 3B, 1938 Al Strueve, C/OF, 1884 Johnny Stuart, P, 1922–1925 John Stuper, P, 1982–1984 Andrew Suárez, P, 2023 Willie Sudhoff, P, 1897–1901 Joe Sugden, C, 1898 Dan Sullivan, C/1B, 1885 Harry Sullivan, P, 1909 Joe Sullivan, OF, 1896 Sleeper Sullivan, C, 1882–1883 Suter Sullivan, SS/OF/2B/1B/P, 1898 Kid Summers, C/OF, 1893 Tom Sunkel, P, 1937, 1939 Jeff Suppan, P, 2004–2006, 2010 Max Surkont, P, 1956 Rick Sutcliffe, P, 1994 Gary Sutherland, 2B, 1978 Bruce Sutter, P, 1981–1984 Jack Sutthoff, P, 1899 John Sutton, P, 1977 Larry Sutton, 1B/OF, 2000–2001 Mark Sweeney, OF/1B, 1995–1997 Pete Sweeney, 3B/2B/1B/OF, 1889–1890 Charlie Swindells, C, 1904 Steve Swisher, C, 1978–1980 Bob Sykes, P, 1979–1981 Lou Sylvester, OF/2B, 1887 T Jeff Tabaka, P, 2001 So Taguchi, OF, 2002–2007 Brian Tallet, P, 2011 John Tamargo, C, 1976–1978 Travis Tartamella, C, 2015 Lee Tate, SS, 1958–1959 Fernando Tatís, 3B, 1998–2000 Don Taussig, OF, 1961 Julián Tavárez, P, 2004–2005 Oscar Taveras, OF, 2014 Carl Taylor, OF, 1970 Chuck Taylor, P, 1969–1971 Ed Taylor, P, 1903 Jack Taylor, P, 1898 Jack Taylor, P, 1904–1906 Joe Taylor, OF, 1958 Ron Taylor, P, 1963–1965 Bud Teachout, P, 1932 Patsy Tebeau, 1B, 1899–1900 Rubén Tejada, 3B/SS/2B/P, 2016 Garry Templeton, SS, 1976–1981 Gene Tenace, C, 1981–1982 Ryan Tepera, P, 2023 Greg Terlecky, P, 1975 Scott Terry, P, 1987–1991 Dick Terwilliger, P, 1932 Bob Tewksbury, P, 1989–1994 Moe Thacker, C, 1963 Ryan Theriot, SS/2B, 2011 Tommy Thevenow, SS, 1924–1928 Jake Thielman, P, 1905–1906 Lane Thomas, OF, 2019–2021 Roy Thomas, P, 1978–1980 Tom Thomas, P, 1899–1900 Brad Thompson, P, 2005–2009 Gus Thompson, P, 1906 Mark Thompson, P, 1999–2000 Mike Thompson, P, 1973–1974 Milt Thompson, OF, 1989–1992 Zack Thompson, P, 2022–present John Thornton, OF, 1892 Joe Thurston, 3B/2B, 2009 Bobby Tiefenauer, P, 1952, 1955, 1961 Mike Timlin, P, 2000–2002 Bud Tinning, P, 1935 Jess Todd, P, 2009 Bobby Tolan, OF, 1965–1968 Brett Tomko, P, 2003 Fred Toney, P, 1923 Specs Toporcer, SS/2B/3B, 1921–1928 Joe Torre, 3B/1B, 1969–1974 Mike Torrez, P, 1967–1971 Paul Toth, P, 1962 Harry Trekell, P, 1913 Coaker Triplett, OF, 1941–1943 Mike Trost, C/OF, 1890 Bill Trotter, P, 1944 Tommy Tucker, 1B, 1898 John Tudor, P, 1985–1988, 1990 Oscar Tuero, P, 1918–1920 Sam Tuivailala, P, 2014–2018 Lee Tunnell, P, 1987 Tuck Turner, OF, 1896–1898 Art Twineham, C, 1893–1894 Mike Tyson, 2B/SS, 1972–1979 U Bob Uecker, C, 1964–1965 Tom Underwood, P, 1977 Jack Urban, P, 1959 Tom Urbani, P, 1993–1996 José Uribe, SS/2B, 1984 John Urrea, P, 1977–1980 Lon Ury, 1B, 1903 V Raúl Valdés, P, 2011 Benny Valenzuela, 3B, 1958 Fernando Valenzuela, P, 1997 Breyvic Valera, 2B, 2017 Bill Van Dyke, OF, 1892 Jay Van Noy, OF, 1951 Andy Van Slyke, OF, 1983–1986 Dazzy Vance, P, 1933–1934 John Vann, PH, 1913 Emil Verban, 2B, 1944–1946 Dave Veres, P, 2000–2002 Johnny Vergez, 3B, 1936 Drew VerHagen, P, 2022–present Ernie Vick, C, 1922, 1924–1926 Carlos Villanueva, P, 2015 Héctor Villanueva, C, 1993 Ron Villone, P, 2008 Fernando Viña, 2B, 2000–2003 Bob Vines, P, 1924 Bill Virdon, OF, 1955–1956 Joe Visner, OF, 1891 José Vizcaíno, SS/2B/1B, 2006 Luke Voit, 1B, 2017–2018 Dave Von Ohlen, P, 1983–1984 Bill Voss, OF, 1972 Pete Vuckovich, P, 1978–1980 W Michael Wacha, P, 2013–2019 Brandon Waddell, P, 2021 Ben Wade, P, 1954 Leon Wagner, OF, 1960 Dave Wainhouse, P, 2000 Adam Wainwright, P, 2005–2010, 2012–2023 Jordan Walden, P, 2015 Bill Walker, P, 1933–1936 Duane Walker, OF/1B, 1988 Harry Walker, OF, 1940–1943, 1946–1947, 1950–1951, 1955 Jordan Walker, OF, 2023–present Larry Walker, OF, 2004–2005 Oscar Walker, OF, 1882 Roy Walker, P, 1921–1922 Speed Walker, 1B, 1923 Tom Walker, P, 1976 Bobby Wallace, SS, 1899–1901, 1917–1918 Mike Wallace, P, 1975–1976 Tye Waller, 3B, 1980 Denny Walling, 1B, 1988–1990 Jake Walsh, P, 2022 P. J. Walters, P, 2009–2011 Dick Ward, P, 1935 Cy Warmoth, P, 1916 Lon Warneke, P, 1937–1942 Jack Warner, C, 1905 Bill Warwick, C, 1925–1926 Carl Warwick, OF, 1961–1962, 1964–1965 Ray Washburn, P, 1961–1969 Rico Washington, 3B/OF/2B, 2008 Gary Waslewski, P, 1969 Steve Waterbury, P, 1976 George Watkins, OF, 1930–1933 Allen Watson, P, 1993–1995 Milt Watson, P, 1916–1917 Art Weaver, C, 1902–1903 Jeff Weaver, P, 2006 Luke Weaver, P, 2016–2018 Skeeter Webb, SS, 1932 Tyler Webb, P, 2018–2021 Herm Wehmeier, P, 1956–1958 Bob Weiland, P, 1937–1940 Curt Welch, OF, 1885–1887 Todd Wellemeyer, P, 2007–2009 Jake Wells, C/OF, 1890 Kip Wells, P, 2007 Perry Werden, 1B, 1892–1893 Bill Werle, P, 1952 Jake Westbrook, P, 2010–2013 Wally Westlake, OF, 1951–1952 Gus Weyhing, P, 1900 Dick Wheeler, OF, 1918 Harry Wheeler, OF, 1884 Jimmy Whelan, PH, 1913 Pete Whisenant, OF, 1955 Lew Whistler, OF/1B, 1893 Abe White, P, 1937 Bill White, SS, 1888 Bill White, 1B, 1959–1965, 1969 Ernie White, P, 1940–1943 Gabe White, P, 2005 Hal White, P, 1953–1954 Jerry White, OF, 1986 Rick White, P, 2002 Burgess Whitehead, 2B/SS/3B, 1933–1935 Mark Whiten, OF, 1993–1994 Fred Whitfield, 1B, 1962 Kodi Whitley, P, 2020–2022 Art Whitney, 3B, 1891 Bill Whitrock, P/OF, 1890 Possum Whitted, OF/3B/SS, 1912–1914 Bob Wicker, P/OF, 1901–1903 Floyd Wicker, PH, 1968 Chris Widger, C, 2003 Matt Wieters, C, 2019–2020 Ty Wigginton, 1B/OF/3B, 2013 Bill Wight, P, 1958 Fred Wigington, P, 1923 Del Wilber, C, 1946–1949 Hoyt Wilhelm, P, 1957 Denney Wilie, OF, 1911–1912 Rick Wilkins, C, 2000 Ted Wilks, P, 1944–1951 Jerome Williams, P, 2016 Jimy Williams, SS/2B, 1966–1967 Justin Williams, OF, 2020–2021 Otto Williams, SS, 1902–1903 Stan Williams, P, 1971 Steamboat Williams, P, 1914, 1916 Woody Williams, P, 2001–2004 Howie Williamson, PH, 1928 Joe Willis, P, 1911–1913 Ron Willis, P, 1966–1969 Vic Willis, P, 1910 Charlie Wilson, SS/3B, 1932–1933, 1935 Chief Wilson, OF, 1914–1916 Craig Wilson, 3B, 1989–1992 Jimmie Wilson, C, 1928–1933 Preston Wilson, OF, 2006–2007 Zeke Wilson, P, 1899 Jim Winford, P, 1932, 1934–1937 Ivey Wingo, C, 1911–1914 Masyn Winn, SS, 2023–present Randy Winn, OF, 2010 Tom Winsett, OF, 1935 Patrick Wisdom, 3B/1B, 2018 Rick Wise, P, 1972–1973 Corky Withrow, OF, 1963 Bobby Witt, P, 1998 Nick Wittgren, P, 2022 Jimmy Wolf, OF, 1892 Harry Wolter, OF/P, 1907 Tony Womack, 2B, 2004 Kolten Wong, 2B, 2013–2020 John Wood, P, 1896 Gene Woodburn, P, 1911–1912 Hal Woodeshick, P, 1965–1967 Jake Woodford, P, 2020–present Tracy Woodson, 3B, 1992–1993 Frank Woodward, P, 1919 Floyd Wooldridge, P, 1955 Mark Worrell, P, 2008 Todd Worrell, P, 1985–1989, 1992 Red Worthington, PH, 1934 Jamey Wright, P, 2002 Mel Wright, P, 1954–1955 Y Esteban Yan, P, 2003 Juan Yepez, OF, 2022–present Stan Yerkes, P, 1901–1903 Ray Yochim, P, 1948–1949 Babe Young, 1B, 1948 Bobby Young, 3B, 1948 Cy Young, P, 1899–1900 Dmitri Young, 1B, 1996–1997 Gerald Young, OF, 1994 J. B. Young, P, 1892 Pep Young, SS/3B/2B, 1941, 1945 Joel Youngblood, OF/3B, 1977 Eddie Yuhas, P, 1952–1953 Sal Yvars, C, 1953–1954 Z Chris Zachary, P, 1971 Elmer Zacher, OF, 1910 George Zackert, P, 1911–1912 Dave Zearfoss, C, 1904–1905 Todd Zeile, 3B, 1989–1995 Bart Zeller, C, 1970 Bill Zies, C, 1891 Eddie Zimmerman, 3B, 1906 Ed Zmich, P, 1910–1911 Guillermo Zuñiga, P, 2023–present References Roster Major League Baseball all-time rosters
5175993	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oklahoma%20House%20of%20Representatives	Oklahoma House of Representatives	The Oklahoma House of Representatives is the lower house of the legislature of the U.S. state of Oklahoma. Its members introduce and vote on bills and resolutions, provide legislative oversight for state agencies, and help to craft the state's budget. The upper house of the Oklahoma Legislature is the Oklahoma Senate. The Oklahoma Constitution established the powers of the Oklahoma House of Representatives in 1907. Voters further amended those powers through constitutional referendums. One referendum required legislators to balance the annual state budget. Others specified the length and dates of the legislative session. Today, there are 101 House members, each representing a legislative district. District boundaries are redrawn every decade to ensure districts of equal population. Members must be 21 years of age at the time of election and a qualified elector and a resident of the legislative district to serve in the House. The state holds district elections every two years coincident with federal elections and special elections to fill vacant seats. The House meets from early February until the last Friday in May. Members elect a Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives as the presiding officer and a Speaker Pro Tempore, who serves as the presiding officer in the absence of the speaker. Members organize in political party-based caucuses to develop partisan policy agendas. After the 2022 election, Republicans hold a supermajority of the House seats in the 59th Oklahoma Legislature. History Early years The Oklahoma Constitution established both the Oklahoma House of Representatives and Oklahoma Senate in 1907. It met in Guthrie until 1910. William H. Murray was the first Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. Less than 50 legislative employees aided lawmakers in the first year. A weakening of the Democratic coalition leading up to the 1908 election allowed Republicans to make gains in the Oklahoma House. Republicans gained an even third of the legislative seats. The largest gains came in Holdenville, Okmulgee, and Guthrie, each of which had a sizable African-American population. The Oklahoma Democratic lawmakers of the early 1900s opposed integration. The first legislature passed legislation that made it almost impossible for African-Americans to vote. The legislature's first African-American member, A. C. Hamlin, served only one term, though he did gain the support of his fellow lawmakers to fund an African-American school in his district and create more equal accommodations for black and white railroad passengers. The Democratic Party also pushed to make Oklahoma City the capital over Guthrie, a Republican and African-American voting stronghold. In 1913, a House investigative committee forced the resignation of the state auditor and impeached the state printer and insurance commissioner. The legislature at the time included Democratic members who were angry at then Governor Lee Cruce over his veto of a redistricting plan that would have gerrymandered Congressional districts and his attempt to remove public institutions established by earlier legislatures. Cruce escaped an impeachment trial by one vote of the House investigative committee. Women earned the right to vote in Oklahoma in 1918 through a constitutional amendment approved by voters. In 1920, Bessie S. McColgin became the first woman elected to the Oklahoma House of Representatives. A Republican, McColgin and her female colleague in the Oklahoma Senate, focused on the passage of public health bills, but failed in many of their efforts. After eight Democratic-controlled Legislatures, Republicans took the majority from 1921 to 1922 and elected George B. Schwabe as Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. The Republican-dominated House brought impeachment charges against Lieutenant Governor Martin Trapp and narrowly failed to approve impeachment charges against both the state treasurer and Oklahoma Governor James Roberts. The Democratic-dominated Senate did not sustain the impeachment charges against Trapp. Members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives voted eleven articles of impeachment against Governor Henry S. Johnston, which led to his expulsion from office. 1930s through 1950s A severe drought beginning in 1932 in western Oklahoma combined with land consolidation and mechanization in eastern Oklahoma drove farmers out of the state and left others in economic distress. Legislatures of the 1930s battled with governors William H. Murray and Ernest W. Marland, targeting Murray's efforts to generate relief for farmers and Marland's proposals to create a state public works program, reform the tax code and create unemployment insurance. Lawmakers did enact an old age pension system funded by a dedicated sales tax. The rejection of providing state matching funds for New Deal projects resulted in fewer projects. A conservative reaction developed in Oklahoma in the late 1930s and rejected further New Deal programs. In 1941, Governor Leon C. Phillips pushed the state legislature to send a constitutional amendment to voters to force the Oklahoma House of Representatives to approve a balanced budget each year. Ever since voters approved the state question, the state legislature has been constitutionally required to pass a balanced budget. The number of Republican Party seats in the Oklahoma House of Representatives plummeted in the 1930s. 1960s to present The legislative sessions held by the Oklahoma House of Representatives and Oklahoma Senate changed due to two key legislative reforms in 1966 and 1989. In 1966, Oklahomans voted to institute 90-day annual sessions. An initiative petition championed by Governor Henry Bellmon in 1989 further required the legislative sessions to end by 5 p.m. on the last Friday in May. After earlier attempts to raise legislative pay failed, voters approved a state question in 1968 to create a board to set legislative compensation. It set compensation at $8,400 that year. State legislators enacted Oklahoma's open meeting and open records laws in 1977, but made the Oklahoma House of Representatives exempt. A shift in the behavior of Oklahoma voters occurred, beginning in the 1960s. Registered Democrats began to more often vote Republican at the federal level and later at state level. As partisan debate became more polarizing, southern states including Oklahoma abandoned old voting patterns of supporting the Democratic party. After the 2004 Presidential Election, Republicans gained control of the House for the first time since 1921. In 2010, Republicans gained a large majority of 70 seats in the Oklahoma House of Representatives. Following the 2018 general election, Republicans gained the largest majority in state history with 76 of the 101 seats. This also includes the largest ever freshman class, with 46 new representatives. Powers and legislative process The Oklahoma House and the Oklahoma Senate are responsible for introducing and voting on bills and resolutions, providing legislative oversight for state agencies, and helping to craft the state's budget. Every ten years, legislators are responsible for designating new district boundaries for state electoral districts, along with Congressional districts. The governor must sign these bills into law, or a statewide panel convenes to draw the disputed lines. Legislators, with staff support, develop and file bills prior to the legislative session. Bill sponsors submit requests for bill drafting to the professional staff of the Oklahoma House of Representatives. The staff ensure bills have proper legal language and meet constitutional requirements. The bills are filed electronically with the Clerk of the House's office by a designated filing deadline. Since 1999, members of the Oklahoma House are limited to a maximum of eight bills that will receive a hearing. A proposal may be introduced as a bill, a joint resolution, a concurrent resolution, or a simple resolution. Legislators use joint resolutions to propose a constitutional amendment. Concurrent resolutions (passed by both houses) and simple resolutions (passed by only one house) do not have the force of law. Instead, they serve to express the opinion of approving house of houses, or to regulate procedure. Article 5 Section 33 of the Oklahoma Constitution requires bills for raising revenue to originate in the Oklahoma House. The Oklahoma House meets in regular session in the west wing of the Oklahoma State Capitol in Oklahoma City, from the first Monday in February to the last Friday in May. Special sessions may be called by the governor, or by a written call signed by two-thirds of the members of each chamber of the Legislature. Bills receive a First Reading when they are published in the House Journal. They then undergo a Second Reading upon assignment to committee. The committee system is designed to screen out legislation that is, in the committee's judgment, unnecessary or not ready for passage. Committees either stop the progress of a bill or approve it for consideration on the floor of the House. When a bill is called up on the floor, either the principal author or a designated member will be recognized for the explanation of the bill. Typically, after questions from other members, the bill is advanced to Third Reading and a vote is taken on final passage. Fifty-one votes are required for bill passage on the floor of the Oklahoma House. Lawmakers also vote on whether or not to make the bill effective upon signature of the governor, which requires a two-thirds majority. Action on the floor is recorded in the House Journal. Once approved on Third Reading, which is the name for this stage of the floor process, approved bills are sent to the Oklahoma Senate. If amended, bills will return to the Oklahoma House of Representatives for an acceptance of the Senate amendment(s) or to work out the differences in a conference committee, but can go directly to the governor after Senate passage. The Oklahoma House is not subject to the state's open meeting and open records laws due to provisions to exempt the state legislature in the 1977-enacted laws. Party composition Current members Notable past members Mary Fallin, 27th governor of Oklahoma, former U.S. Congresswoman Dan Boren, former U.S. Congressman Ernest Istook, former U.S. Congressman Jari Askins, 15th Oklahoma lieutenant governor, 1st female House minority leader Ken A. Miller, former Oklahoma treasurer Glen D. Johnson Jr., current Chancellor of Higher Education, former U.S. Congressman, former speaker of the House John Jarman, former U.S. Congressman Frank Keating, 25th governor of Oklahoma Henry Bellmon, 18th and 23rd governor of Oklahoma George Nigh, 17th and 22nd governor of Oklahoma David Boren, 21st governor of Oklahoma and former U.S. senator James C. Nance, Oklahoma community newspaper chain publisher and former Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives, President pro tempore of the Oklahoma Senate and member Uniform Law Commission Harry J. W. Belvin, longest serving Principal Chief of the Choctaw Nation served as both an Oklahoma Senator and a 3-term Member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives Leon C. Phillips, 11th governor of Oklahoma William H. Murray, 9th governor of Oklahoma John Newbold Camp, former U.S. Congressman Victor Wickersham, former U.S. Congressman A. C. Hamlin, first African-American in Oklahoma Legislature Todd Hiett, former speaker of the House and current corporation commissioner T. W. Shannon, first African-American speaker of the House Susan Winchester, first female speaker pro tempore of the House Pam Peterson, first female majority floor leader Organization Leadership in the state House begins two leaders elected by their fellow lawmakers - the Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives and Speaker Pro Tempore. Party caucuses play a major role in this process by nominating candidates for key leadership positions. The speaker appoints a majority floor leader and a majority whip. The majority floor leader sets the floor calendar during session. The duties of the majority whip are to assist the floor leader, ensure member attendance, count votes, and communicate the majority position on issues. The speaker also names assistant floor leaders, assistant whips, and caucus officers. Additionally, the minority party caucus elects a minority leader. The minority leader develops caucus positions, negotiates with the majority party caucus, and directs minority caucus activities on the chamber floor. The speaker appoints committee and subcommittee chairs and vice chairs. The majority floor leader selects an informal team that assists with management of legislation on the House Floor. As of November 2018, The Oklahoma House of Representatives has 22 committees and 10 subcommittees. A non-partisan staff provides professional services for members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives in addition to the Oklahoma Legislative Service Bureau. Individual members are also assisted by partisan staff members, and those in leadership positions have additional partisan staff. Committees are staffed primarily by research, fiscal and legal staff. The current Clerk of the House is Jan B. Harrison. Membership Terms and qualifications In order to file for election to the Oklahoma House of Representatives, one must be 21 years of age at the time of their election and a qualified elector and resident of their legislative district. Officers of the United States or state government and individuals who have been adjudged guilty of a felony are not eligible to election to the Oklahoma Legislature. If a member of the Oklahoma Legislature is expelled for corruption, they are not eligible to return to legislative office. State representatives serve a two-year term and are limited to six terms or 12 years. No member of the Oklahoma House of Representatives can serve more than 12 years in the Oklahoma Legislature. A term-limited member can not run for election to the Senate as both Representative terms and Senate terms are added together in determining the total number of Legislative years in office. Salaries and benefits Members of the Oklahoma House of Representatives receive $38,400 in annual pay. The Speaker of the Oklahoma House of Representatives receives $56,332 in annual pay. The Speaker Pro Tempore, minority leader and appropriations chair receive $50,764 in annual pay. Pay is set by a nine-member state board appointed by the governor, Speaker, and President Pro Tempore of the Oklahoma Senate. State legislators can seek reimbursement for expenses related to meals, lodging, and travel related to their duties at any point during the year. They have access to benefits, including health and life insurance and retirement savings plans. Current makeup As of November 2018, members of the Republican Party hold a supermajority in the House, or three-fourths seats. There are 77 Republicans and 24 Democrats. Representation Originally, the House was apportioned according to a method spelled out in the state constitution, in which each county formed a legislative district. Representation was determined by taking the total population of the state, according to the most recent federal census, and that number was divided by one hundred, with the quotient equaling one ratio. Counties having a population less than one full ratio received one Representative; every county containing an entire ratio but less than two ratios was to be assigned two Representatives; every county containing a population of two entire ratios but less than three ratios was to be assigned three Representatives; and every county containing a population of three entire ratios but less than four ratios was to be assigned four Representatives. After the first four Representatives, a county was to qualify for additional representation on the basis of two whole ratios of population for each additional Representative. In 1964, the United States Supreme Court ruled that this method violated the federal constitution, as it resulted in districts having wildly different populations. State lawmakers implemented a new method that continues to be used today. The Oklahoma House of Representatives must draw new district boundaries within 90 days of the latest Federal Decennial Census. Under the holding of Reynolds v. Sims, 377 U.S. 533 (1964) districts must be apportioned within a five percent margin of the average target size district as determined by the U.S. Census population figures divided by the one hundred and one districts. This allows for certain districts to be slightly smaller or larger than others. The Oklahoma House of Representatives draws its own maps of its district lines, which are subject to the approval of both the state senate and the governor. Should the redistricting not occur in the time limits prescribed by law, the lines are determined by a panel of five statewide elected officials. Leadership Majority Leadership Minority Leadership Past composition of the House of Representatives See also List of United States state legislatures Government of Oklahoma Oklahoma Senate References External links Oklahoma House homepage Oklahoma Legislature State lower houses in the United States
5176810	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Late%20Night%20with%20Conan%20O%27Brien%20sketches	List of Late Night with Conan O'Brien sketches	The following is a list of sketches performed on Late Night with Conan O'Brien on NBC. Late Night sketches appearing on Tonight Moral Outrage In response to a recent news story, usually about misconduct, Conan speaks at length about his moral outrage, and his feeling of responsibility to remove this type of behavior from society; meanwhile, the camera occasionally makes brief cuts from Conan to Max. Conan may also speak of a dim-witted accomplice who aids the deviant in his exploits, after which the camera briefly cuts from Conan to LaBamba. Finally, Conan urges the public to expose such people using the show's address which, together with the heading "Shameless Adulterous Weasel" or the like, is superimposed over Max. In the Year 2000/3000 The sketch is typically performed with Richter participating, but after Richter left Late Night, the celebrity guest would participate (when Richter was scheduled as a guest, he would again take part). Each guest version would usually be titled "The [guest's surname] Edition" with "2.0" added for guests who have done the sketch more than once. In 2006, the naming format was changed to simply "The [guest's name] Edition". Its introduction is as follows: Conan: "... It's time, once again, to look into the future."Andy/Guest: "The future, Conan?"Conan: "That's right, Andy/[Guest's name]. Let's look to the future, all the way to the year 2000!" During an "In the Year 2000" sketch, O'Brien, Andy or the guest, as well as band member Richie "LaBamba" Rosenberg, each wears a black robe and futuristic-looking collar and hold a lit flashlight to their face. Between La Bamba's chant of "In the year 2000...", O'Brien and Andy or the guest alternate delivering jokes, often based on current events, in the form of humorous predictions of what will happen in the year 2000. Quite commonly, the second-to-last prediction involves Conan mocking his guest, while the last prediction involves the guest mocking Conan in return. This sketch is very similar to one Conan performed with the Happy Happy Good Show in 1988. The sketch was created prior to the actual year 2000, but the show's writers decided to keep the named year the same even after the passing of that year, in a sort of ironic twist. However, when the sketch was revived on The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, Richter heaped ridicule upon O'Brien for failing to update the name of the skit nine years after the year 2000 had passed. The sketch is renamed "In the Year 3000", with the black robe (referred to as a "ratty smock" by Richter) being replaced with a more futuristic-looking outfit consisting of a large metallic collar with a series of blinking lights, which Conan said were very expensive to make and Andy said smelled bad. Appearing on Tonight June 3, 2009, it was the first Late Night sketch to be carried over to Conan's Tonight Show. The open to the sketch included narration by William Shatner and, on one occasion, George Takei. This segment was also adopted by ABS-CBN's Goin' Bulilit in their annual segment "Ngayong (Year)" but with different style. Celebrity Survey In this sketch, Conan has supposedly sent out questionnaires to celebrities and he reads their replies. Conan reads a question and then recites the answer that each of three celebrities gave. The answers of the first two celebrities are ordinary "straight" answers. The third is the gag answer and often relates to something unseemly about the celebrity. For example, to the question: "I like to think of my viewers as people who..." Brian Williams wrote "want to be informed." Meredith Vieira wrote "want to be my friend." Tony Danza wrote "have broken both arms and can't change the channel;" A running joke has the survey frequently including a question which is answered by O.J. Simpson somehow referring to committing murder. To the question: "My favorite time of day is..." Evangeline Lilly wrote: "Dawn." Matt Lauer wrote "Twilight". O. J. Simpson wrote: "Murder O'Clock." A reply where Paris Hilton is the final respondent to a question has been used in every segment for at least the last four years, usually about her promiscuous dating habits. O'Brien and bandleader Max Weinberg have been used as well, with answers that perceive O'Brien as a loser and Max as a pervert. Another running gag has both Larry King and Kirstie Alley answering, usually poking fun at Larry King's age and Kirstie Alley's weight. Reintroduced on The Tonight Show on June 5, 2009 and later reintroduced February 1, 2012 on Conan. Noches de Pasion con Señor O'Brien (Nights of Passion with Mr. O'Brien) A Spanglish telenovela parody, which Conan announces that they have made specifically for the NBC-owned Telemundo Spanish network. Conando (Conan with a fake mustache) is the hero of the piece, fighting mild villains to save the beautiful damsel in distress, usually from an abusive boyfriend or entering into a forced marriage, in most episodes. Each episode features a dramatic entrance, to which the villains bewilderedly ask "¿Conando?", the damsel swoons "¡Conando!" and to which Conan even more wildly replies "¡Si! ¡Conando!" In almost every sketch, Conando defenestrates the villains, making extensive use of stock footage. Quite often the sketch would include ridiculous phrases which you would not often use in daily conversation, but are common in Spanish-learning texts. Also, on occasion, the sketch would include long and complicated speeches which are obviously and extremely voiced-over. Also, on occasion, the sketches would include long and complicated speeches which Conan himself would rapidly read off cue cards with the speed, grammar mistakes, pronunciation and agility of an advanced level high school Spanish student. Reintroduced on Tonight June 8, 2009, and performed many times on Tonight, Richter is introduced as Conando's sidekick Nachito, who always shows up when Conando is about to make love to the damsel, thus spoiling the romantic mood. In one sketch, the damsel did not end up with Conando but rather Mario Lopez. The Audiencey Awards Conan awards members of the studio audience for various talents. Typically this will always include "best celebrity impression" to highlight lookalikes (as in movie casting), and then a variety of other awards which are achieved with props and superimposed images. For example, the winner of "Best Foreign Language Audience Member" was shown with a large superimposed moustache and sombrero, and the "Audience Member Who Smells the Most Like Fresh Salmon" was attacked by a man in a bear costume. Awards show intermission segments (red carpet, how the award is built, etc.) are also parodied. Reintroduced on Tonight June 16, 2009, and later reintroduced again on Conan on June 21, 2011. Movie casting A fictitious new made-for-TV movie is announced, based on a real-life event Conan has mentioned. Conan then says he has the inside scoop on the movie's casting. Viewers are shown two photos side-by-side of a person or thing who will be portrayed in the movie and the person that will be playing the role. The casting first starts off with people who strikingly resemble the person they are playing but then goes off to extremes with, usually, objects or fictitious characters bearing some resemblance to the person they are playing. The humor is in how similar the two photos are despite how vastly different the two people/things pictured are or vice versa, with Conan often commenting on how great the casting is. Running gags include President George W. Bush being played by Ralph Wiggum, Patrick Star, or a deer in the headlights, Joe Biden being played by Bob Barker, Hillary Clinton being played by Chucky, Condoleezza Rice being played by Snoop Dogg, Donald Rumsfeld being played by Skeletor, and Dick Cheney being played by The Penguin. Reintroduced on June 17, 2009. Mike Merritt's Inner Thoughts As Conan speaks on a recent news story dealing with race, the camera cuts to bassist Mike Merritt, as the audience hears his inner thoughts regarding Conan's lack of knowledge on racial issues and his attempt at "trying to be black." He also makes note of the scant number of black people in the studio, which usually includes only him and an audience member, or crew member, who is either hired for the show or whose skin is heavily made up to look tan. He would sign off by calling Conan a "pasty-faced pumpkin head", just before Conan finishes his speech by saying, "...because we're all part of this beautiful mosaic that is mankind", while believing that the audience is applauding for him. Reintroduced on Tonight July 7, 2009, with Conan commenting on that day's memorial service for Michael Jackson. Has been seen on Conan on TBS as well. New Coins/Stamps Conan says he has "connections" which allow him to show "New" (fake) state quarters, Euros or commemorative stamps. The stamps are usually states based on people or current events. The state quarters insult the state they are based on, and the Euros insult the country they are based on. One such Euros skit led to the creation of Conan O'Brien Hates My Homeland. The new coins sketch was reintroduced on Tonight July 13, 2009. Photo Gallery Conan, Max, and announcer Joel Godard have recently had a party and Conan displays the ridiculous and fictional events of this party. These events typically include heavy drinking and rather gory violence or homicide on the part of one or the entire cast. Towards the end of the bit they are always joined by a celebrity, played by an actor with a superimposed picture of the celebrity at hand. The celebrity usually ends up getting into a fight with Conan, Joel, or Max, or is seen in compromising positions and/or situations, always looking back at the camera with exactly the same look, since the superimposed picture never changes. Before his death, Carl "Oldie" Olsen, played by William Preston, was usually in the party instead of Joel Godard. Reintroduced on Tonight July 21, 2009, featuring only Conan and Andy, and their trip to the beach. Hanging Out with Jordan Schlansky During the 2007-08 writers' strike, O'Brien interviewed various members of his production staff, including associate producer Jordan Schlansky. O'Brien asked Schlansky about his feelings on working for O'Brien, his skill with a bullwhip, his appreciation for the band Rush, and his healthy eating habits. During the interview O'Brien found Schlansky to be totally unfazed by his boss's jokes or antics, reacting to most with a stoic demeanor. At the end of the segment, O'Brien thanked Schlansky, commenting, "I can't believe you're a real person." The positive reaction to the Schlansky interview led to an episode where Jordan and O'Brien had dinner at an Italian restaurant, with O'Brien purposefully trying to annoy and embarrass Schlansky throughout the bit, without apparent success. When O'Brien moved from New York to Los Angeles, most of his staff moved with him and found places to live, except for Schlansky. O'Brien and a realtor helped Schlansky find a house, with O'Brien again trying unsuccessfully to provoke an emotional reaction from Schlansky. Throughout subsequent sketches O'Brien would make more pointed criticisms of Schlansky's various tastes and lifestyle. Conan on the Aisle Conan and Andy review movies released in cinemas around the time of the sketch's original airing. Initially called 'Conan and Andy on the Aisle', until Richter left Late Night. Conan and Andy usually comments on a negative quality which is either fictitious or exaggerated by an edited scene he then shows as proof. For example, when Conan was reviewing Jurassic Park III, he mentioned that the movie had scenes that were disgusting and weird. A scene then appeared where a couple ran and were surprised by a dinosaur which opened its mouth to roar. Late Night edited the couple's lost child into the dinosaur's mouth, and the child says "hello" to the parents. The sketch occasionally reviewed TV shows. For example, Conan poked fun at the then-new television series Viva Laughlin claiming the producers missed some key signals of the show's poor quality. A clip of the show featuring one of its musical numbers appeared interspersed with footage of a "crew member" who, horrified at how terrible the show is, suddenly activates a TNT detonator and the scene switches to stock footage of an imploding building. Reintroduced on Tonight August 4, 2009. Brian McCann on the Spot During the monologue or opening segment, O'Brien mentions a big news item and says Brian McCann is on the scene and cuts to him via a "remote feed", which is actually McCann standing in front of a greenscreen backdrop. McCann gives an increasingly absurd report that involves a variety of gags, such as the backdrop turning into a slideshow of various landmarks as he attempts to convince O'Brien that he is taking a tour. At one point McCann is seen wearing a pants suit and blond wig in a report about Hillary Clinton. Throughout the sketch McCann becomes increasingly frustrating to O'Brien, who wanders off his set and shows up on McCann's screen and knocks him unconscious with a breakaway chair. The camera angle shifts to show the green screen was right next to Conan's set. As McCann is revealed to be faking unconsciousness, O'Brien then derides his acting and wonders if he will lie there for the rest of the bit. McCann has also done a remote feed of sporting events, such as NBA Finals and U.S. Open, where he had Kevin Garnett, Doc Rivers, and Tiger Woods to interview, though they did not appear on screen. But at the end, the interviewees come out, partially hiding themselves, but only to reveal that it is actually Pierre Bernard. Then O'Brien would knock out McCann with an object. When reintroduced on Tonight August 24, 2009, O'Brien did not hit McCann with a chair. Instead, McCann just walked out of his shot and into O'Brien's (a running gag in the satellite interview sketch), followed by Bernard, who portrayed the Obama family off screen, and an elderly man playing Brett Favre, who appeared earlier in the broadcast. Pender Sings Trumpeter Mark Pender is invited by Conan to sing a song about a current event. Pender begins normally, but upon reaching the refrain, he loses control, or he would intentionally climb over the railing into the audience, eventually writhing around on the floor within the top of his voice shouting "baby" over and over again until Conan finally stops him. The rhythm of the song is typically the same, with different lyrics each time. Reintroduced on Tonight August 28, 2009, when it was incorporated into the "Conan, Please Blow Up My Car" contest. The Interrupter A melodramatic villain (played by Brian Stack), the Interrupter constantly interrupts Conan by finishing his sentences for him, always knowing exactly what Conan is going to say, even when it's denigrating to the Interrupter himself. He appeared in a black cape, purple ruffled shirt, long black hair and a handlebar mustache. Occasionally, if the sketch runs long enough, the roles will eventually become reversed, with the Interrupter starting sentences and Conan doing the interrupting. Eventually, the sketches evolved so that the first celebrity guest, and O'Brien himself, would replace the Interrupter as the one interrupting. Reintroduced on Tonight on September 3, 2009 and reprised for Stack's final show on Conan on April 2, 2015. Small Talk Moment Conan and Max make small talk about a particular subject. The result is usually that both Max and Conan, bantering back and forth, end up going into extreme detail or citing obscure people and events. Once they have exhausted the subject, Max stops and says, "Wow, Conan! Talking about (this subject) sure is interesting", to which Conan enthusiastically responds, "IT SURE IS, MAX!!!" They then stare at one another in dull fashion as the camera cuts back and forth between them. Reintroduced on November 23, 2009 when Max returned from his tour with Bruce Springsteen. The topic of the first return sketch was soccer. Late Night sketches Actual Items A parody of Jay Leno's Headlines segment on The Tonight Show in which Leno finds humorous mistakes in various newspapers. Conan's bit takes regular newspaper ads and stories and adds blatantly fake text; for example, an ad depicting a leather living room couch was modified to include a cartoon cow exclaiming, "How's my ass feel, you son of a bitch?", or an ad for a new home, labeling one of the rooms as "The Room You Will Die In." Adding to the humor, Conan repeatedly insists that his ads are real, commenting "you can't make this stuff up, why would you, that would waste everybody's time." This sketch appeared on the show's very first episode in September 1993. "ASS" Stamp Conan and Max converse about a current event or person, with Conan asking leading questions to which Max replies incorrectly, but in great detail in an attempt to appear knowledgeable. Usually, this is initiated when Conan introduces a person who is famous for some accomplishment but not necessarily widely recognizable. Max will claim to recognize the person and perhaps claim to be a long-time friend or acquaintance of the individual. Conan then catches Max in the lie, stating "I made it up just to make a fool out of you!". Max replies "Well, I guess I know what's coming...", Conan says "You sure do", and a large red stamp (like a typical rubber stamp imprint) of the word "ASS" appears on the screen over a dejected Max, along with a dramatic voiceover of the word. Occasionally, the roles will be reversed, and Conan will be "stamped". Other stamps are often used to abruptly punctuate various one-off sketches, including words such as "Alone", "Liar", "Sad", and "Small Penis". Another sketch on Tonight ended with an "Admirable" stamp after Barack Obama called the work of AFTRA members "admirable" in a video. Otherwise, these sketches bear no particular resemblance to the standard recurring "Ass Stamp" sketch. A variation of the ass stamp appeared on Conan's new show on TBS in 2011 during the NFL playoffs where Conan and Andy are trying to feign an interest in the NFL playoffs and afterward, a stamp appears over the two of them calling them "GIRLS". This happened again during the Stanley Cup Playoffs when Conan said he was cheering for the Boston Bruins, since Conan is from Boston. Andy then called him out on it, saying he's never heard about him talk about hockey before. Andy then quizzed him on who the coach was, name a forward, the goalie, etc., and then asked who the Assistant Equipment Manager was, and then ridiculous ones like Vice-President of Corporate Partnerships. Eventually, Conan got one wrong and Conan was stamped as a "PHONY A-HOLE". Before Plastic Surgery A picture of a famous celebrity, usually either rumored to have had or has actually had plastic surgery done in real life, is shown. The picture is then distorted with exaggerated features into a grotesque new picture of what that person looked like before the surgery. The last item in the sketch often makes a joke using an unaltered photograph of another unrelated celebrity, animal, plant or object as the before picture: for example, if George W. Bush had plastic surgery, his before picture would be that of a chimpanzee. The sketch is loosely related to the "If They Mated" sketch in that it uses the same technology for a similar comedic premise. Celebrity Secrets Features celebrities in a room that looks like a jail cell or perhaps a police interrogation room, smoking a cigarette and downing hard liquor, usually telling some humorous "secret" previously unknown about them. For example, one featured Michael Caine saying "I was convinced that the 'MC' in MC Hammer's name stood for Michael Caine. When I found out it didn't, I destroyed his career." Another featured Alex Trebek taking a drink, and admitting he had a "potent potables" problem. When Gwyneth Paltrow appeared on the sketch she admitted that anytime before she starts a new film she kills a hobo with a hammer, as well as admitting an affinity for porn. When U2 appeared on the sketch, they admitted they were not Irish. When Senator John McCain ran for president in 2008, Conan began replaying his secrets segments, which included McCain plugging "The McCain-Feingold Singles Guide to Portland." Coked up Werewolf Shown in 2003 numerous times. The sketch was simply a man in a werewolf costume, rubbing his snout in a manner stereotypically associated with cocaine users. Conan O'Brien Hates My Homeland The premise of this skit had its origin when Late Night received many angry letters from viewers in Ukraine after mocking that nation in another recurring skit, New Euros, where the joke was an image on a Ukrainian Euro Coin depicting a man in Eastern European dress with four arms, holding up seventeen fingers, with the caption on the coin saying "Over 17 years since the Chernobyl Accident". O'Brien was unaware that his show was even airing in Ukraine - thus, the premise of "Conan O'Brien Hates My Homeland" is that O'Brien, in an effort to find out where else the show is being aired without his knowledge, reads fast-paced insults of each of the nations of the world in alphabetical order , with the expectation that angry mail will come pouring in from offended viewers in countries where the show is broadcast. O'Brien insults 5 countries (with a bell ringing between each one) each time the bit airs. A sample insult: Georgia: Where Europe meets Asia and says "Hey, why don't we both dump our crap here?" Announcer Joel Godard then tells insulted viewers around the world a real address to send their angry letters. On August 9, 2007, Zimbabwe was the last country to be featured, thus ending the sketch after three years. Finland An announcer on the Finnish entertainment channel SubTV, which airs the show a couple of days after it is aired in the USA, asked people to defend Finland before O'Brien got to insult it, and the viewers in Finland began sending mail before the bit had even gotten to the letter F. O'Brien responded by assuming the Finnish "just couldn't wait" to be insulted and officially insulted Finland in the segment. An overwhelming number of postcards were supposedly received, which apparently "forced" O'Brien to give Finland a formal apology. O'Brien then went as far as to have the flag of Finland shown in the background during a speech and slandered the Finns' "hated" neighbor Sweden with a sign saying "Sweden Sucks!" printed over the flag of Sweden. In 2006, the Finland antics increased. While talking to fans before the show, O'Brien met two Finnish fans who commented that he strongly resembled Tarja Halonen, who served as the 11th president of Finland between 2000 and 2012. Amused that his show was even airing in Finland, O'Brien made frequent references to his resemblance to Halonen, even putting her picture beside a live feed of his head. Upon learning that Halonen was running for reelection, O'Brien filmed a segment of the show which took the form of a campaign commercial for the President. When Halonen won, she offered to meet him if he ever came to Finland, which O'Brien did in a later episode. Desk Drive Conan and Andy "drive" the host desk through increasingly bizarre situations and locations. Both Desk Drive and Syncro-Vox were later ripped off by the German late night show Die Harald Schmidt Show. Fantastic Guy This sketch sometimes occurs when Conan announces future guests. After announcing the first guest, a member of the audience (played by writer Brian Stack) is seen saying that the guest is "Fantastic!" right to the camera with a thumbs up. After Conan announces the next guest, the member does almost the same thing, but ends by making up a word by combining a guest's name or work with the word "fantastic". (For example: "Wow, Omar Epps? That charismatic scene-stealer is Epps-tastic!" or "Tell that group, "don't stop the 'tastic!") Then, Conan reminds viewers he will also be doing his usual "hilarious monologue", the camera shows that the man prepares to do his bit, but changes his mind. Conan also mentions the show's "zany, off-the-wall comedy bits", and the man either already stopped paying attention and/or begun torturing himself. (Examples: reading a disturbing or uninteresting book or newspaper article, drinking bleach or drilling his teeth.) Conan then questions the man, asking if he just likes the guests but "thinks everything else we do is crap?" or some other negative word. The man will then finish with "not crap, craptastic!" Guests We'll Never Have Back Conan will start by talking about how great the guests for that night's show are, then mention that sometimes they book guests whose appearances end up being disastrous. He then introduces a series of fictional clips from past shows where the guests reveal themselves to have unforeseen quirks or cause disturbing mishaps. Some examples include a chef who does not actually make anything, but only reassembles food to its original form, and a character named Barney Brittlebones who crumples to the floor the instant he makes physical contact with Conan. Horny Manatee During the airing of the usual "New College Mascots" sketch, a character called the "FSU Webcam Manatee" was featured - a manatee in front of a computer, dancing to the Divinyls' "I Touch Myself", being watched remotely by trumpeter Mark Pender. Conan, in an ad-libbed statement, mentioned that the character appeared on the (at the time) fictitious web site "HornyManatee.com". The next night, Conan told viewers that if he mentions a web site which does not exist, NBC corporate policy is to buy the domain name lest someone else use it and potentially make NBC liable for the site's content. Conan said Late Night decided to use the domain name to create an actual web site, giving it the appearance of a fake porn site. With http://www.hornymanatee.com/ (no longer operational), Conan asked viewers to submit pictures to the page. Since that night, Conan has periodically given viewers an "update" on the website's status, mentioning its hit count and several fan submitted images, poems, and other media pouring in. Conan also used the updates as lead ins for special, on-stage Horny Manatee segments. For example, Conan called on James Lipton to dramatically recite the fan-made poetry, then dance with the Manatee on air at his own request, and flew the Pittsburgh-based pop-punk duo Rocket Me Nowhere to New York to perform their tribute song "My Hopeless Manatee". The last time Conan stated site's hit count (January 18, 2007), it was "20 million hits" and counting. In an interview with New York Times, O'Brien has also said that he was overwhelmed at the viewer response. As of December 16, 2006, the site has achieved an Alexa website ranking of about 31,000,000, over thirty times the rank for SaveTheManatee.org (about 937,000), to which Late Night is donating some proceeds of its "Horny Manatee" T-shirts offered on the site. Currently, traffic to the website is routed to NBC's main site. If They Mated Pictures of two famous celebrities, usually believed to be dating at the time, are shown. The pictures are then combined into a grotesque new picture of what their offspring would look like if they mated. The segment became so successful that it later spawned a book. The last item in the sketch often makes a joke using an unaltered photograph of a celebrity as the offspring: for example, if Saddam Hussein and Osama bin Laden ("two of the most hated people in the world") were to have a child, it would be Steve Bartman. Another notable example; Paris Hilton and her pet chihuahua would create George W. Bush. Once Conan mated Kelly Ripa with Clay Aiken then asked the question "What do you get when you cross a perky talk show host and a guy who just won't come out of the closet?", and a picture of Conan was shown. The sketch was revived on O'Brien's TBS show, Conan as "If They Melded" using video of two famous celebrities, though they usually are not dating each other. Joe's Conan begins by talking about needing to relax and unwind by going to his favorite bar - Joe's. Theme music plays with an exterior shot of the bar. He walks inside and the bartender (Kevin Dorff) and a patron (Brian McCann) begin to berate Conan invariably for showing up to an event 'completely plastered' insisting on feminine activities and in some way or another ruining food or drink that's to be served. Conan drinks hard liquor while being yelled at and looking insecure. The sketch always ends with the bartender, Joe, demanding Conan pay the money he owes. Conan stands up, screams, "I'LL PAY WHEN I'M GOOD AND READY!", and hurls his drink against the wall, often returning to break a stool over the bartender and patron Kids’ Drawings Conan tells the audience about a recent visit to the studio by a local grade school class of young children who were so impressed with their visit that they sent in crayon drawings of their favorite experiences. Conan looks at these drawings for the first time with the audience. Masturbating Bear The Masturbating Bear was a recurring character on Late Night. The character consisted of a man in a bear costume dressed in a diaper-like undergarment which contained oversized genitalia, and was often accompanied by several human "handlers" armed with cattle prods. The character would be asked to perform some sort of innocuous task such as explaining a chart on recent economic fluctuations or smoking weed with Conan O'Brien. Inevitably, a few seconds into whatever task he had come to perform, the bear would begin furiously fondling himself as part of the song "Sabre Dance" plays. The bear would then usually be given electric shocks by his human handlers. Despite repeated instances of masturbation, the Masturbating Bear would continue to be invited back on Late Night. Once, the bear was revealed to be Jim Carrey in costume. During the last week of Conan's run on Late Night, Conan declared the bear was too risque for 11:30 and tried to retire the bear by encasing him in carbonite, a la Han Solo. This drew a protest from Carrie Fisher, who subsequently freed the bear. The bear was last seen sailing away on a boat with Fisher until he reappeared on The Tonight Show on January 20, 2010 in the wake of the controversy surrounding Jay Leno and Conan O'Brien, which saw O'Brien's departure. Originally, it was thought NBC would be able to claim the Masturbating Bear as intellectual property. As a result, he was transformed into the Self-Pleasuring Panda for O'Brien's tour. When O'Brien took his TBS show to New York City for a week in 2011, the bear was, in one episode, depicted as being out of show business and settling down with a wife and two children in the New York suburbs. After a brief video reel revealed such, the bear was invited on stage to a cheering audience. However, Conan's words about the size of the audience became too much for the bear, who stripped out of his business attire and began to pleasure himself both on stage and on hanging rafters above. After a series of bear attacks in April 2012, the bear came to Conan's TBS show in Los Angeles. During Conan's June 2012 trip to Chicago, Conan introduced the Masturbating Bear, but instead a man dressed as a Chicago Bears player watching Internet pornography with his pants down was brought onto the stage. The original Masturbating Bear came out soon after. In a 2015 Reddit AMA, O'Brien revealed that the masturbating bear died in 2015 of autoerotic asphyxiation. New Characters Conan tells the audience that it is time for new additions to be added to Late Night's current characters, such as "The Masturbating Bear" or the FedEx Pope (Brian McCann). New additions are often more ridiculous than ones before, such as the Nudist Who Has No Skeleton or the Screeching Raccoon with a Jet Pack. Some are popular enough to warrant a second appearance, though few are actually made into recurring characters. Generally the new characters are absurdist in nature and carry names which fully describe their appearance or concept, sometimes extending to full multi phrase sentences. For example, one recurring character was "Gorilla Nurse Using an Old Fashioned Abdominal Exerciser While Listening to 'Angel of the Morning' by Juice Newton" a character which consisted simply of a stuffer gorilla in a nurses costume being vibrated by an old abdominal exerciser while the titular music played. A related gag also exists where Conan promises that he will not waste the audience's time with zany, random jokes, only to introduce a completely zany, random character. Notable characters from this bit include Fidel Castro Rabbit DJ, Nation of Twain, Man protected from three-inch bees, Hippie fire hydrant on a bacon skateboard, Cactus Chef Playing "We Didn't Start the Fire" on the Flute and the Oscillating Air Purifier that Looks Like Slash, and R2–Mr. T2. Another version is "New College Mascots", which feature fake mascots which often make fun of a real college or its surrounding area. One such skit featured an "FSU Webcam Manatee" which spawned the "Horny Manatee" sketch of December 2006. In the lead-up to his departure for The Tonight Show in early 2009, O'Brien brought back characters which would be inappropriate in the 11:30 PM time slot, such as the Masturbating Bear, which was frozen in carbonite, but subsequently rescued by Carrie Fisher. The New York Daily News reported on May 27, 2009 that O'Brien eventually plans to reintroduce the Masturbating Bear on Tonight. Pierre Bernard's Recliner of Rage A comedy bit in which Late Night graphic designer Pierre Bernard, Jr. sits in a recliner and relates a story that has recently angered him personally. This tale is always a long, drawn-out personal tale delivered in a soft-spoken tone that usually involves some sort of comic-book, anime, sci-fi-related, or similarly esoteric medium. At the end of his complaint he states "Bottom line, America..." as he grabs the handle of the recliner and shifts it back into an upright position to lean forward and point furiously at another camera centered on him to give his final geeky demands on the matter. Much of the humor of the sketch comes from the dry, emotionless manner in which Bernard delivers his "rage." A complaint about the TV show Stargate SG-1 led to him getting small cameos on the show; whereas a complaint about the Japanese anime franchise Robotech numerous DVD releases in the marketplace prompted a "response" from robotech.com about the complaint and an offer to send Bernard a free complete collection of the DVDs. In 2007, Bernard and O'Brien starred in a spin-off sketch entitled "Pierre Bernard: Serial Killer." The sketch had been inspired by Bernard's real life refusal to allow the show to tape a remote segment at his home focusing on his sizable action figure collection. Conan insisted that the only explanation for Bernard's reluctance to allow a camera crew into his home was that the graphic designer was, in fact, a serial killer. During the sketch, O'Brien interviewed Bernard in the manner of news magazine shows such as Dateline NBC, asking questions designed to implicate Bernard as a murderer. Initially, Bernard seemed reluctant but as the sketch went on he seemed to get more into the act. At one point, Bernard admitted that he did not describe himself as prolific because "I haven't been killing for very long." After the taped portion of the sketch, Bernard was wheeled on stage on a gurney wearing a muzzle similar to Hannibal Lecter in The Silence of the Lambs. Pierre Bernard moved with O'Brien on The Tonight Show to continue as a graphic designer and occasional performer, first seen on June 3, 2009. Puppets and Triumph the Insult Comic Dog Late Night made extensive use of puppets since the show's inception. For example, in one sketch, called "Puppet's Last Words Channel", a puppet scientist prepares to take a drink from a cup labeled "acid" and says, "I sure do love my morning cup of coffee." The acid melts the puppet's face. In another segment of the same sketch, a puppet exclaims to another puppet that she was born with both sets of genitalia. One recurring gag features "Vomiting Kermit", showcasing the Muppet retching streams of liquid from its mouth. Perhaps the most notable puppet, both on and off the show, is Triumph the Insult Comic Dog. On June 19, 2009, Triumph crossed over onto The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien, and would eventually cross over to Conan on TBS. Conan would later appear on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon to ceremoniously retrieve Triumph, which had somehow been hiding behind one of the couches on the set. Before retrieving the puppet, Fallon asked Conan, "You were the host [of Late Night] for 16 years. Then...what happened?" Conan put his arm around Jimmy and said, "Don't you worry about that; you're a young guy!" Robot on the Toilet A classic sketch where Conan reveals the character who is then wheeled out on stage sitting on a porcelain toilet. After a few moments of silence, we suddenly hear the clang and clatter of metal falling into the toilet, followed by the robot raising its robot arms in celebration. SAT Analogies Conan helps students with their standardized exams by providing satirized SAT analogies based on current events. Although the newest SAT format introduced in 2005 has dropped analogies, the segment continues to be used in new episodes. A typical example: person who sees a pregnant woman: "you're glowing": person who sees a pregnant Nicole Richie: "who stuffed an avocado in that cocktail straw?" The sketch often ends with an analogy involving Paris Hilton that makes a joke about her sexual history, for example: Final episode of "The Sopranos": lots of guys getting whacked resulting in messy loss of bodily fluids: Paris Hilton: popular hotel heiress Syncro-Vox This sketch relies heavily on the low-budget filming method Syncro-Vox. A TV screen is lowered down to the seat where the interviewed would actually sit. On the screen is a still image of a celebrity, with live video of the mouth of the back stage impersonator superimposed—because of this method, the fake interviews are also called the "Clutch Cargo routine", after the 1959 cartoon, that is the most widely remembered user of Syncro-Vox. Commonly impersonated celebrities are Arnold Schwarzenegger (who always tries to plug his 'smash hit holiday classic', Jingle All the Way, and makes lame comebacks such as "YOU CAME OUT EIGHT YEARS AGO!"), George W. Bush, Barbara Bush (who is given the gruff voice of a man from New Jersey), Bill Clinton, Hillary Clinton and Martha Stewart (either of whom if, nagged by Conan about a point she wishes to dismiss, will begin talking in a demonically deeper voice as her eyes glow red), Michael Jackson, Sammy Sosa, Barry Bonds, Rafael Palmeiro, Donald Trump (who will frequently describe things with the adjective "Trump," proclaim his accomplishments to be "yuge," and respond to Conan's correcting him with "you're fired!"), Saddam Hussein, Tom Cruise (who often shouts triumphantly and raises his fists or feet, in reference to his infamous "Couch Jumping Incident" on Oprah), Mike Tyson, John Kerry and Keith Richards. Most of the impressions are done by either Robert Smigel or Brian Stack. This bit was parodied, along with the entire show, on Robot Chicken's Star Wars special. O'Brien provided his own voice. Both Syncro-Vox and Desk Drive were later ripped off by the German late night show Die Harald Schmidt Show. Quackers Quackers was a white domesticated duck who first appeared on the August 6, 2007 show during a sketch. The sketch involved Conan nervously reacting to various band members shouting at him, only to learn they were being literal. For example, one band member shouted, "Conan, Duck!" and Conan dove for cover behind his desk, only to learn the band member was pointing out a duck was in the studio. Conan, noting the audience's apparently positive reaction to the duck, dubbed it Quackers. Two nights later, Quackers made a return appearance, during which the duck unexpectedly defecated on the studio floor and then rubbed its own beak in it as if eating, simultaneously prompting riotous laughter/howling from the audience and a horrified response from Conan, who referred to him as "Quackers the Shit-Eating Duck". The August 10 and September 4 shows included a "special announcement" about a new show coming to NBC, the family sitcom "Quackers the Shit-Eating Duck." Quackers also displays an ability to mug to the audience for applause. On the September 19 episode, Conan notes Quackers' popularity amongst viewers again and also mentions Quackers' popularity on YouTube. The episode also contains a clip of Quackers as an action star. The Walker, Texas Ranger Lever This sketch sprang from NBC's purchase of entertainment company Universal in early 2004, creating NBC Universal. Conan noted that this purchase now allowed him to play clips from the show Walker, Texas Ranger starring Chuck Norris without paying any royalties. The "Walker Texas Ranger Lever" was a prop lever which, when pulled, would cause a supposedly random clip from the TV show to play. The clips were nearly always taken out of context and usually involved either Norris performing some improbable feat of heroics, or a particularly despicable act of violence being committed by a villain. For example, one clip involved Walker tasting the dirt in a random patch of land and determining that a plane had crashed there. Another involved a villainous father (played by Dan Lauria) exhorting a young boy to jump from a high ledge, insisting that he would catch the youth. Yet when the boy did jump the man stepped back allowing the child to hit the ground. The sketch would usually begin with Conan introducing the premise and then commenting that he did not intend to use the lever immediately, followed by his immediately pulling it. In most instances of the sketch, Conan would comment after at least one clip that the sketch was finished, after which he would pull the lever "one last time." After a clip is played, the camera would generally cut back to Conan for a, usually shocked, reaction. In late summer 2004, the bit seemed to have been retired as Chuck Norris walked in and fired a prop gun at Conan. Norris also revealed his own lever and pulled it, playing a clip showing him mock-fighting Conan with martial arts moves in the back of the studio. The lever did return on occasion in 2005. Notably, the premise of the bit was technically incorrect, since Walker was owned by CBS, Sony Pictures Television, and a few other companies; Walker just ran on NBC Universal-owned USA Network at the time. One of the last and most popular clips to be shown was part of a "spring cleaning" segment where they were airing jokes which they had previously developed but had not aired before. With the Walker clip Conan insisted that they had been too scared to air it when they had originally discovered it, explaining "Once you see it. You'll understand why." The clip in question involved a young Haley Joel Osment informing the characters, in a rather cheerful manner, that "Walker told me I have AIDS." When the camera cut back to the studio for a reaction shot, Conan simply stood up, walked to a corner of the stage where he stood for a few seconds as the audience reacted in amusement and shock, and then returned to his seat where he nervously chuckled and wished to introduce a commercial break, though continued the 'Spring Cleaning' segment. The merger also led to the creation of two other short-lived triggers, a Knight Rider pull chain, and a Beverly Hills Cop Theme button. Sometimes these were combined, such as playing the Beverly Hills Cop theme behind a Walker, Texas Ranger scene. In 2007, the lever returned, playing clips from B-grade 1970s/1980s Norris movies (a different movie each episode). This began with the Slaughter in San Francisco Lever (which was used during the April/May run of shows in San Francisco); Breaker! Breaker!, A Force of One and The Octagon have also been used. The lever also sparked its share of the Colbert/O'Brien/Stewart feud, once Norris started appearing with 2008 presidential candidate Mike Huckabee and Conan took credit for the outcomes. In the penultimate episode of the show Conan claimed that the lever was the most requested skit on the show by fans. In 2010, during Conan's live Legally Prohibited tour, the "Walker, Texas Ranger lever" was reintroduced, used in the shows by Conan as well as by guests. However, to avoid potential legal issues with NBC claiming use of intellectual property, the lever was rechristened the "Chuck Norris Rural Policeman Handle", and featured clips from Walker that were not used previously on Late Night, with the exception of the aforementioned clip with Haley Joel Osment, which was featured at the end of every "Rural Policeman Handle" segment. The lever returned again four years later on Conan's current show on TBS when he traveled to Dallas from March 31 to April 3, 2014 on the last night. As he no longer worked for NBC, he instead showed different clips featuring Chuck Norris from Walker - the same clips showed during the Legally Prohibited tour - Again, with the exception of the clip with Haley Joel Osment, which was shown at the end of the segment. A digital version of the lever, built to work on Google Chrome browser, is available as an extension. Nerding It Up For Pierre In this bit, Conan tries to explain a popular news story to graphic designer Pierre Bernard (See "Pierre Bernard's Recliner of Rage" above) by relating current events to obscure events in various anime or science fiction shows that Pierre understands and enjoys, such as Battlestar Galactica. A previous version of this sketch was "Dumbing It Down For La Bamba", where Conan would use basic, often childish language when describing current events to the band's trombonist. Questions From The Audience Conan reflects on the fact that he has had a long and varied career. He offers to field any questions from the audience on some of the celebrities he has met or any other interesting aspect of his life in show business. However the questions from the audience always relate to obscure topics such as how best to grow a plant or car maintenance advice. While Conan expresses disappointment that the question is not about his career, he is always able to give expert in-depth answers to the audience's queries. 60 A parody of the Fox series "24". "60" takes the premise of 24 to the extreme: each one second episode takes place in the same minute. The story revolved around Canadian Special Agent Chuck Aloo (Andy Blitz) attempting to protect the Prime Minister from a diabolical plot involving a sandwich with mustard in it. "Andy's Little Sister, Stacy," The 1997 inaugural iteration of the running sketch was the first sketch written for the show by writer Brian Stack. In the skit, Amy Poehler, who was Stack's former colleague from their Chicago improv days, plays the 13-year-old younger sibling of O'Brien's sidekick, Andy Richter, whose unrequited crush on O'Brien manifests in a range of emotion that runs "from adorable bashfulness to volcanic, homicidal rage." Stack would later say of Poehler in a 2021 Washington Post interview, "I’ve always been in awe of her incredible talent, but seeing her, Conan and Andy [Richter] have so much fun in that sketch is an especially wonderful memory for me and I’ll never forget it." Artie Kendall the Ghost Crooner The ghost of an old-fashioned lounge singer (played by Brian Stack) who worked in the studio during the 1930s when it was a radio studio. Kendall's song lyrics reflect antiquated views that offend Conan. Kendall later reveals he was killed by the League of Women Voters, who, offended at Kendall's misogyny, made him dig his own grave before beating him to death with the shovel. Like Hannigan the Traveling Salesman, the old-timey tone of Artie Kendall was partially inspired by Stack's love of old movies like Thin Man and My Man Godfrey. Stack was also inspired by the fact that Rockefeller Center had been in operation since the 1930s, and that radio singer Bing Crosby had "sort of a dark side" in his personal life that did not appear in his onscreen persona. The numerous songs Kendall sings all have different lyrics, but each one has exactly the same melody and arrangement every time. (Which also happens to be exactly the same melody Bathtime Bob sang.) Audience Interview In this bit introduced in mid-2005, Conan says that because he's always interviewing famous celebrities, who endorse their latest movie/album/etc., he rarely gets an opportunity to talk to the audience, which he says he'd like to do. So, for a change of pace, he says he's going to go into the audience, pick out a random member, and ask them some basic question. However, the gag is that the audience member he "randomly" picks is always a celebrity, who faithfully reveals him/herself when Conan asks what their name is and who always sits on the first seat immediately right of the aisle of the back row in the far righthand section. They also happen to still endorse some product, or even a standard "latest work" as well. Some examples of guests include Ted Danson, Jerry Stiller, Alan Alda, Bob Saget, Jerry Springer, Donald Trump, Mr. T, Fabio, and Larry King. Audience Talent Conan goes into the audience and selects pre-picked audience members to show their unique talents, but the person's "talent" is obviously faked. Conan does not know who the people are going to be, and the audience does not know what their talent is until Conan reveals it. This was a very similar precursor to the Audiencey Awards. Billy Tyler, the Kid No One Loves A little boy named Billy Tyler would come out talking about all the hardships he has endured in his life. Each one more pathetic than the last. Finally, when Conan offers him words of encouragement and advice, Billy rejects it screaming "You're a loser!" and running off. Cloppy A depressed and suicidal horse whose name is a reference to the "clop-clop" sound he makes as he slowly walks offstage to shoot himself. In one interview, actor Nicolas Cage expresses his fondness of Cloppy. Subsequent editions of "Cloppy" have included mentions to Cage's endorsement of the sketch. Conan and Max Hang Out Conan introduces a moment of camaraderie between him and Max, then cuts to a scene of Conan in his dressing room. Max comes in and enthusiastically invites Conan to go somewhere, such as to lunch, to grab a beer, or to shop at the NBC store because it has great stuff. Conan happily agrees, but as soon as the two begin walking together they awkwardly do not speak to each other and look bored. The camera follows them like this down hallways and elevators until they reach their destination, at which point they quickly grab the food or drink and part ways. The destination may involve other sight gags; when Conan and Max visited the NBC store, Conan is seen shoplifting several items. Conan Babies Appearing in the show's early years on Friday nights, this sketch was introduced as the day's earliest Saturday morning cartoon (since, technically, the Friday night shows aired in the early hours of Saturday). The title was a take-off of Muppet Babies and the sketch itself was a parody of low-budget 1970s cartoons, featuring very limited animation of Conan, Andy, and Max as babies getting into adventures. Conan, Andy, and Max provided their own voices, and mouths, in the same Syncro-Voxed style as their Fake Celebrity Interviews. Most of Max's dialogue consisted of the word "caca" and each sketch would end with the three babies incongruously breaking out into song, à la The Archies or Josie and the Pussycats. Conan's Diary After interviewing an attractive female celebrity, Conan occasionally opens his "Hello Kitty" diary and writes about the interview while the celebrity remains in the interview chair. The audience and celebrity can hear a voiceover of what Conan is writing. Conan admires his own interviewing skills, then notes that he thinks the celebrity has a crush on him. The celebrity, feeling awkward, asks him to stop writing. Conan audibly notes that the celebrity is an "insane bitch", and finishes writing. Conan Sings a Lullaby Conan explains that many viewers are new parents trying to get their baby to sleep and he will help them, so he begins to sing a nice lullaby with the aid of his acoustic guitar "Bessie Lou" (also the name of his desk, guest chair, and couch) and then takes advantage of a baby's lack of understanding of language and mentions things adults would find horrible in a soothing way. After a while, Conan figures that his main audience is getting bored, so after telling the parents to turn the baby away from the TV, he starts showing humorous and sometimes violent pieces of footage. With the baby now asleep, Conan tells the parents to go have sex. Dudez-A-Plenti Conan decides to form his very own boy band following the success of the Backstreet Boys and the show Making the Band. He calls for an audition, in which he picks 5 buff young men: Elliot, Professor P, Iago, the Kid Man, and Samantha. In their first group meeting, they think of ideas for their first hit song, only to come up with the words "Baby" and "I Wish". This leads to their first "hit" single: "Baby, I Wish You Were My Baby". The group reunites one year later to record their first music video for a new song called "Awesome", which includes the word "awesome" 28 times according to Conan. Emergency Guest In this recurring skit during the show's early years, Conan announces to the audience that a regularly scheduled celebrity guest has unexpectedly cancelled their appearance at the last minute. In order to fill out the air time, Conan brings out the "emergency guest" which is a life sized mannequin in a large glass "break in case of emergency" box. After being placed into the guest chair and activated by Andy, the mannequin plays recorded messages which feature typical banter for late night talk show guests such as name dropping other celebrities he's seen at parties and requesting a clip from his latest movie be played. Conan frequently struggles to keep the conversation in-sync. The mannequin also reassures the audience that there's no need to panic. Often, the Emergency Guest malfunctions and needs to be deactivated before the interview is over. Conan then walks into the off stage hallway and breaks out the Emergency Emergency Guest, a minor celebrity such as Nipsey Russell or Joyce Brothers who makes a cameo appearance European Guy Conan begins to discuss some political issue negatively affecting America, and is interrupted by Gustavo, a European who smugly and arrogantly points out Europe's superiority over America. He appears in strange clothing (particularly shoes) and frequently eats strange lollipops, all of which have stereotypically silly European-sounding names (Stolflucht, Flexenfüsser, etc.), which he defends as superior to their American equivalents, in spite of their peculiar appearances Friends of the Show Conan is frequently visited by Mr. T, Abe Vigoda, and James Lipton as themselves, who appear in bizarre situations on the show. Abe Vigoda is often poked fun of for his advanced age, fueled by the false reports of his death in the past. Memorable bits featuring Vigoda involve him being found in odd places by Conan, such as under the audience risers, being dressed up as a character such as "Viyoda", and using the extra screen space afforded by the widescreen 16:9 HDTV format to shoot baskets, with Vigoda on one side of Conan and the basket on the other. Mr. T appears both in the show's regular segments, such as Celebrity Secrets, and in remotes, such as going to an apple orchard with Conan. Lipton typically appears to lend his serious acting abilities to humorous situations, such as a dramatic re-enactment of Christian Bale's 2009 profanity-laced tirade towards a director of photography, with Lipton playing both Bale and the crew member. The "Fun Hole" Guy Conan gets interrupted by a man in the audience (played by Brian McCann) who wears a blue T-shirt with a sweater around his shoulders. He complains about lack of decency, takes the sweater off and storms off, revealing him wearing fishnet stockings, and a shirt that says "Fun Hole" on the back with an arrow pointing down to his speedo-clad buttocks. Good Priest, Bad Priest Conan's Catholic church pastors, Father DeCarlo and Father Kelly, would come on the show and subject Conan to an interrogation related to some sort of upcoming religious celebration (Such as why he does not have a manger for Christmas). Most of the time, they start to abuse Conan by bringing up his "touching himself" nightly. Father DeCarlo acts as the "Good Priest", asking questions calmly, while Father Kelly would act as the "Bad Priest", trying to intimidate Conan. Towards the end of the sketch, Jesus enters, resulting in Conan exclaiming "Jesus Christ!", and tells the priests to leave Conan alone, and recruiting them on a more important mission, usually abusing figures such as Santa Claus and the Easter Bunny. The sketch ends with Jesus telling Conan and the crowd "You owe me one... you all owe me one!" In recent episodes Jesus has been joined by Mary (resulting in Conan yelling "Holy Mother of God!") and Joseph (resulting in Conan yelling "Jesus, Mary, and Joseph!"), then the skit ends with Jesus, Mary, and Joseph going to the Olive Garden and running into God then awkwardly having a conversation about God being Jesus' real father. Guest Autographs Conan shows the audience some autographs supposedly from guests on his show. In reality, the fictitious autographs are often from celebrities who have appeared in news or tabloids rather than on the program. The messages left by the celebrity often mock something unseemly the celebrity is currently known for or may even mock O'Brien in some way. Guys That Make Fun of Conan's Name In the first year of the show, Conan would occasionally point out that he has an unusual first name that often makes people think of Conan the Barbarian. The show would then cut to four guys who stand around and make bad jokes about Conan's name, such as "Conan the vegetarian, hey, where's your salad?" or "Conan the Yogi Bear-ian, hey, where's Boo-Boo?" For unexplained reasons, one of the four guys in the sketch would always nod in agreement, but never speak. Instant Audience Member Upgrade A take-off on the airline instant upgrade, Conan chooses two audience members and bumps them up to first class audience, where he gives them more comfortable chairs, a drink, a celebrity feature, a curtain to separate them from the economy class audience section, etc. Kids’ Drawings Conan references a recent studio visit from a local grade school class of children who sent in drawings of some of their favorite moments visiting the show. Conan reveals these crayon drawings for the first time for the audience, horrified by what the kids have decided to draw. Moral Dilemma Not seen since Andy Richter's departure (although he was barely involved), the bit involved Conan looking through the show's Lost and Found box, and finding something he wished he could keep. At that point, a devil would appear on Conan's shoulder to help him rationalize keeping the item. While he would acknowledge the logic behind the devil's reasoning, he would muse, "I can't help but wonder if there's another side to the argument." At this point, instead of the expected angel, a bear (an actor in a bear costume) would appear on Conan's other shoulder, announcing himself: "Hi, Conan, I'm your bear! Grrr!" Conan would ask the bear for his advice regarding the lost item, but the bear would only have bear-related advice to offer ("I don't know, but I can tell you that you should always check before sticking your nose into a beehive, for bears' noses are awfully sensitive to bee stings"). Usually, the bit would end with the devil getting one-upped in some way or another (in one such sketch, the bear turned out to be Conan's guardian angel in disguise). No-Reason-to-Live Guy Conan begins to talk about a mundane news piece or the guest line-up at his desk when he is interrupted by a man in the audience (played by Brian McCann). The man seems to have been misinformed and reacts to Conan's calm correctness in disbelief and yells, "There's no reason to live!" He then proceeds to run to the top of the audience area where a blue kayak is waiting, while yelling, "Where's my kayak?" He gets in the kayak and "paddles" it off-screen, at which point the scene cuts to a shot of a man in a kayak falling down an icy mountain. After this, another "audience member" usually rides off in a kayak in a similar way, or the first man comes back through the studio doors (sometimes in poor disguises), gets upset again (usually when Conan mentions how stupid the sketch is) and rides to his demise using another means of transportation, accompanied by related stock footage, again while yelling "Where's my [vehicle]?" The sketch usually involves three different "deaths." In addition to the kayak, other means of transportation have included a train, a bike, a skateboard, balloons, a three bedroom house, and a car. This sketch evolved from a bit done a week or two before NBC broadcast the Torino Olympics where Brian McCann appeared on video as if he was reporting from the Bobsled run in Italy. He starts sliding down the course and Conan tries to tell him the course was not finished, based on news reports of the time that said Olympic officials were crunched for time to finish some of the venues. McCann says he cannot hear because of the noise of the bobsled then he says, "What's that?" and there is a quick cut to stock footage of a kayak falling down a snow-covered mountain. Then the show cuts back to Conan, who has his head in his hands as if embarrassed and the audience is howling in laughter at the absurd scene, especially after McCann's line: "Someone put me in a kayak!" When the next guest comments about the kayak, Conan says, "You try to find footage of a bobsled crashing that matches. It was the best we could do." For the record, the Olympic officials were putting finishing touches on the venues with only the nightly ceremonies park unfinished. Patterns Conan shows a series of images, and viewers have to figure out the progressive pattern that links them. For instance, "Squirrel, handyman, poorly guarded insane asylum, Tom Green: That's right, these are more and more likely to be missing a nut." Pimpbot 5000 A robot that combines the technology of a futuristic android with the street-wise attitude of a 1970s pimp. He always talks in rhymes that simultaneously reference his robotic and pimp nature: "I got a diamond studded watch/new transistors in my crotch." Pleasing the Affiliates Conan attempts to please local affiliates by responding to their fictional requests for positive mention Polly the NBC Peacock Only seen in the first few seasons of the show, Conan has a discussion with Polly the NBC Peacock, which is actually just a cardboard cut out of an NBC peacock logo with a moving mouth. The sketch revolves around Conan discussing television programs airing the current week. When NBC shows are mentioned, Polly lavishes praise upon them, when non-NBC shows are mentioned, Polly criticizes them harshly. With Conan playing the straight man, Polly's comments get progressively more outlandish, such as claiming that "A lot of people don't know it, but Tim Allen's face spews dangerous radiation" during a discussion of ABC sitcom Home Improvement, or claiming that "Watching the show officially fulfills your requirement for jury duty" when discussing the legal drama JAG (which started on NBC before moving to CBS). The sketch usually ends with Conan suggesting the audience watch a non-NBC program, to which a flustered Polly replies, "It's in Spanish!" Preparation H Raymond In this sketch Brian McCann plays a large-eared man named Raymond with a Prince Charles-like appearance, who parades down the aisles passing out Preparation H to Conan's audience. While he possesses a common theme song, chorused by the phrase "Raymond's here to help....oooooooohhh...", Raymond's dialogue content is often related to current events such as the "roid" usage by pro baseball athletes or Thanksgiving, 2006. Often though, the sketch can be seen as a random assortment of ideas, all beginning and culminating with the distribution of Preparation H. Queen Elizabeth Telephone Call Conan receives a phone call from Queen Elizabeth II to discuss a current issue. Her Majesty quickly gets off topic, and ends every comment by referring to Conan using random bisyllabic words, such as Coughdrop O'Branflakes. Rude Audience Member While Conan is introducing the second guest, the camera repeatedly cuts to one audience member, with each successive cut introducing attention-grabbing sound and visual effects. Conan becomes increasingly agitated, chastising the person as if he or she is purposely making it happen. After he threatens to call security, the camera stays on Conan, and it seems like the distraction is over. Finally, the audience member is shown in a much more exaggerated way (for example, on a giant screen behind Conan, or on the Times Square Jumbotron) that completely disrupts the show. Satellite TV Conan shares the extra channels that the large satellite dish on the roof of 30 Rockefeller Center fictionally picks up. Some channels have absurd titles like "Clive Clemmons' Inappropriate Response Channel" (this particular channel displayed clips of people making inappropriate and/or completely off-topic statements in everyday conversation, after which fictional British heavy metal guitarist Clive Clemmons plays a riff and exclaims "Inappropriate!" One example had a woman mention the quality of the office coffee, to which her co-worker responded "Thank God for Saddam Hussein!"). Others include a pornography channel featuring "Max on Max action", in which Max Weinberg made love to a duplicate Max Weinberg; the "Sexual Harassment Skeleton Channel", wherein a skeleton gropes women in the workplace but always avoids getting fired, with the argument that he is "only a skeleton" and "doesn't even have muscles to move his arms." There is "Jar Barf", a program wherein food jars with the middle of their lids cut out, and featuring added googly eyes, are shown vomiting their contents; the "Potato Judge TV", about a ruthless judge on the judicial bench; and the "Men Without Hats Channel" that features people in everyday situations singing about it to the Men Without Hats tune "Safety Dance". (One involved a man in an office singing "You can file if you want to/You can leave your friends behind/Because your friends don't file/And if they don't file then they're no friends of mine.") The Slipnutz A singing trio (Andy Blitz, Jon Glaser, Brian Stack) who were inconveniently booked on the same show with Slipknot (and later as "They Might Be Slipnutz" with They Might Be Giants). Their routine involves them slipping and sliding on nuts scattered on the floor. They later promoted their greatest-hits album, which included the songs "Old West Cowboys Slipping on Nuts" and "Viking Raiders Slipping on Nuts". The band eventually broke up, with each member going solo. Their last appearance on the show included a tribute to the Slipnutz by Patti Smith, Coldplay, John Mayer, Los Labos, and Steve Winwood. Spoiler Alert Conan and Max talk about a recent film, TV, or book-related story, but find a way to keep from spoiling the ending, in case the show is Tivoed, or a viewer has not read the book. So Conan employs a spoiler alert system, which consists of two people standing in front of the camera, covering their ears and yelling incoherently "la la la la la! I'm not listening", the result of which is that the audience is unable to listen to what Conan and Max are discussing. Hannigan the Traveling Salesman A hat-wearing traveling salesman (played by Brian Stack) from the 1950s who bursts into the studio, addresses Conan as "little girl", and runs through a scripted sales pitch in an attempt to sell Conan unfunny jokes, sketch ideas and other useless home products. Hannigan was created at the suggestion of writer Andrew Weinberg, who suggested that Stack play an "old-timey salesman". Stack wrote the sketches with Weinberg and Michael Koman, with whom he would later collaborate on the TV series Eaglehart. Hannigan's voice was inspired by Stack's appreciation for William Powell's Thin Man film series. Unknown Colleges' Team Mascots Conan presents about three or four fictional colleges' athletic teams' mascots. These mascots often have nothing to do with anything about the school's location or name. One mascot that always finds its way onto the segment is S&M Lincoln, a very disturbing version of Abraham Lincoln wearing a top hat and having a ball gag stuffed in his mouth, while being dressed in little more than leather S&M gear and being weighed down by heavy chains, while whipping himself with a cat o' nine tails. What in the World? Conan is shown an extremely magnified portion of a picture. He throws out a wild guess as to what he is looking at, at which point the picture is zoomed out a little. Conan tries again, although it's not yet evident what is depicted in the photo. It zooms out again, and the picture is now recognizable and seemingly mundane—for instance, a celebrity or other normal situation. The final time it zooms out, something unexpected or outrageous that had previously been out of frame is revealed. The opening audio cue for this bit is an annoying-sounding man saying, "What in the world?" which Conan often asks not to have repeated, to no avail. Annual sketches The State of the Show Address - An elaborate parody of the President of the United States' annual State of the Union Address delivered in place of the show's opening credits and monologue on the same night the President gives his speech. When Conan mentions that there will be no monologue that night, the audience will stand and burst into hearty applause, after which Conan replies, "You bastards." Central Time Zone New Year's Countdown - Aired each New Year's Eve, Late Night was the only show to do a countdown to midnight for the Central Time Zone of the United States, since the show's regular time slot begins before and ends after midnight Central Time. After the monologue, Conan does a fictional list of people who have died that year, starting with a celebrity who has faded into obscurity who many believe has died, and continuing with many outlandish and random celebrities who are obviously alive. Each year the Late Night staff creates a bit when the New Year begins. In 2003, the bit was announcer Joel Godard lying on a table while an Asian man wearing a Speedo lands on top of him at the stroke of midnight. In 2005, giant papier-mâché busts of Chicagoans James Belushi and Oprah Winfrey inched slowly towards each other and "French kissed" at the stroke of midnight. Earlier remotes had Conan going out to various remote locations in the Central Time Zone to celebrate the new year there. One bit had the remote correspondent already celebrating the new year in South Bend, Indiana (which is in the Eastern Time Zone, one hour ahead of Central Time), but having to move to the Central Time Zone city of Hudson Lake, Indiana in a race against time in order to "correctly" celebrate the new year. The 2004 and 2005 celebrations also had O'Brien joined by a group of costumed revellers (representing various Midwestern locales) including: Abraham Lincoln (Springfield, Illinois) A Green Bay Packers "cheesehead" fan Dorothy from The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (Kansas) Prince (Minneapolis) A gaucho from Belize (Belize is in the same time zone as the Central US) The countdown did not air on New Year's Eve in both 2005-06 and 2006–07, as these dates were on Saturday and Sunday night respectively. NBC carried live specials with Carson Daly on these occasions. Another such special aired for 2007-08 (a Monday night); a writer's strike meant Late Night could not have resumed its Central Time countdown that year in any event. By 2008-09, the Carson Daly specials had supplanted the special New Year's Tonight and Late Night episodes permanently (repeats of both shows followed the live special). Sweeps Ahoy - Airing during or just after each "sweeps month", this sketch airs bits and doctored footage of previous Late Night publicity stunts the show did to increase their ratings. World's Fastest Menorah and Other Holiday Icons - Usually shown for a period of 3–4 days after the annual lighting of the Rockefeller Center Christmas Tree, Conan always mentions that so many people come to New York just to see the tree, usually adding things like, "It's just a tree! Big deal!" He then says something like, "Rockefeller Center might have their Christmas Tree, but we here at Late Night have the World's Fastest Menorah!" This summons the menorah, which sits on a platform pulled by a string by a stagehand, flying by the camera lever. Of course, the platform is not visible in the camera's field of vision. The menorah is accompanied by a quick excerpt of "Hava Nagila". As the week progresses, Conan introduces other holiday icons, which include a bungee-jumping Baby Jesus (accompanied by Handel's "Hallelujah"), a rocket-powered fruitcake (accompanied by ZZ Top's "La Grange"), and a Kwanzaa kinara in a pimped-out ride. A Look Back - Sometime around New Year's, a retrospective of the past year on the show. Conan and Max sit at a mini-bar on stage with party decorations, their ties undone, and recall their many adventures. An alternate version is presented in the form of a newsreel, with Joel Godard narrating events of the year over real footage, intercut with relevant Fake celebrity interviews from the past year. During the 2007-08 writers' strike In November 2007, a Writers Guild of America strike forced Late Night and other late night TV shows into reruns. The show would resume production on January 2, 2008; the strike still continued, however (it would not conclude until February 12, 2008), forcing the show to refrain from using any of its regular sketches or characters. As such, a small series of new sketches was devised to keep viewers entertained, or to just kill time. These sketches included the following: Ring Spin - As he has done for years during rehearsals, Conan began spinning his wedding ring on his desk, attempting to break his record of 41 seconds. The closest he came was 40 seconds until the February 8, 2008 broadcast when, with the help of MIT professor Dr. Peter Fisher, he spun the ring for 51 seconds on a piece of teflon. On June 8, 2008, the bit appeared again, this time with Conan accepting a challenge from guest Ted Koppel. Conan won the challenge by a mere 3 seconds, with a total of 30 seconds against Koppel's 27. On November 6, 2008, scheduled guest Katt Williams failed to show for his guest spot (it was later revealed he had been arrested on weapons charges). To fill some time, Conan performed a ring spin - saying that two historic events could happen within a 24-hour span. German Disco Light Show - By pressing a button Conan starts a light show similar to one seen at a "bad German disco." This has been done several times using various musical tracks. Guest Maze Entrance - To increase the length of time taken for celebrities to reach the desk, a short maze is erected between the entry point and the desk. An overhead camera shows the guests' progression through the maze. Who Made Huckabee? - Conan had a recurring mock feud with Comedy Central hosts Stephen Colbert and Jon Stewart regarding who was responsible for the success of presidential candidate Mike Huckabee. Conan noted that the popularity of Huckabee's high-profile supporter Chuck Norris was the result of his own Walker, Texas Ranger Lever sketch, therefore "Conan made Huckabee." Colbert, on his show, then claimed that "Colbert made Huckabee" after giving him the "Colbert Bump." Following a series of cross-show statements, Conan, Colbert and Stewart each put forward increasingly farcical reasons why he was responsible for Huckabee's success, insulting their rivals in the process. Eventually, a large (and silly) fight scene amongst the three was staged on Late Night. Huckabee himself appeared afterwards to state that none of "these three idiots" created him, but in fact the "great nation of the United States had created him". Zipline - On January 14, 2008, Conan lived out one of his "dreams" by riding a zipline over his audience while wearing a helmet which shoots smoke out the back. Conan then asked viewers to send in suggestions on how to improve this stunt via http://www.latenightunderground.com. Two days later, Conan repeated the zipline this time with rockets strapped to his feet and crashing into large bowling pins. Another variation of this sketch is when he went down the zip line and knocked down John Wilkes Booth as he was about to assassinate Abraham Lincoln. Crew Interview - Conan also filled in some of his episodes by interviewing Late Night's behind-the-scenes crew members, such as the propmaster or the special effects man, in which he would play around with the items in their workspaces, such as the breakable props. Assassination Conan invites a guest who supposedly is privy to an upcoming, well-kept secret, who suffers a simulated death before he can reveal what he knows. For example, shortly before the final episode of Seinfeld, an actor appearing on the show began talking about what the final episode would be about; a few words in, an assassin shoots him in the chest. On another occasion, Conan introduced a man who claimed to be a high-ranking executive with Coca-Cola, who was going to discuss the soda's secret ingredients. As the interview started, the "executive" fell dead after getting hit by shuriken, and a group of ninjas with the Coca-Cola logo on their backs were shown running away from the stage. These sketches have not appeared on the show for several years. Awful Sports Chanter In response to an upcoming sporting or other spectator event, Conan advises that you should keep chants short and easy to follow. As an example of what not to do, a sports enthusiast (played by Andy Blitz) is shown in the audience, and begins a standard chant for that event while clapping each syllable (such as "Let's Go Mets!"). However, instead of repeating the line, he expands it into a very long chant that begins supportive and usually ends up as a narrative of some sort, occasionally asking the audience to chant along as if it's easy to follow. Conan interrupts the chant to go to commercial as Blitz continues to chant up to the break. Car Chases Conan explains that television shows' ratings go up when they cut to a car chase in action. He tells the audience that Late Night will begin doing this, however there are no car chases in Manhattan due to traffic congestion. So Late Night stages their own "car chases". While played as if they are real car chases, they are executed using Matchbox style vehicles, and model buildings in the hallways of the show's backstage area. The toy cars are pulled by fishing line as a camera gets a shot appearing to be from a helicopter. More recently, car chases have been shot when celebrities have encountered legal difficulties, including Michael Jackson, Paris Hilton and O. J. Simpson. The sketch has not been seen since early 2008. Carl "Oldy" Olson An old man portrayed for comic effect by William Preston similar to Larry "Bud" Melman from Late Night with David Letterman, though Oldy is somewhat frailer but more vulgar. Conan O'Brien College Band Search For a few years, Late Night held an annual college band search. Conan's Legs Conan explains how the show is trying to reach out and collect more viewers by taking a page out of the Today Show handbook. He explains that many Americans tune into the Today Show just to see Katie Couric's legs. The front of his desk is removed, revealing feminine legs. He continues by doing a few camera tricks such as moving his legs, bouncing a ball, and even shaving them. In actuality, the front of the desk is covered by a greenscreen substituted by a shot of a woman's legs recorded live offstage. The audience is presumed to understand the special effect, leading O'Brien to attempt to sync more complex actions with those of the offstage actress, or sometimes to intentionally fool her. The sketch stopped some time before Couric eventually left Today to anchor the CBS Evening News. Continuity Errors Conan and Andy review a recent broadcast for errors, discovering inconsistencies that no one seemed to have caught, such as Conan suddenly having a receding hairline or wearing a bib while eating a giant pie. Frankenstein Wastes a Minute of Our Time Frankenstein's monster (played by writer Brian Stack) appears by one of the doors leading from the main set, acting excited about something, and inviting the cameraman (and the audience, vicariously) to come with him to take a look. He makes a long trek around the backstage area, stopping along the way to wave the cameraman to keep following. Invariably, what he finds is extremely mundane like a spatula, although it is usually near something that is considerably more interesting, and Conan assumes that is the item Frankenstein led the camera to. Frankenstein once found Tom Hanks (who was not a guest on that night's episode) during the sketch, and pushed him out of the way to show off a light switch. (Hanks then immediately reentered the frame to join in pointing out the light switch with great enthusiasm.) The joke format is extremely similar to a shaggy dog story. NBC owns Universal, and the character's makeup design and the sketch title's logo resemble the ones from the classic Universal films are no coincidence. The Hole In The Floor There is a hole in the floor in front of Conan's desk. Conan throws objects through it and generally hassles an office worker below. The hole is created using bluescreen technology. Jerry Butters Jerry Butters (played by Brian McCann) is a talentless talk show host with his own early-morning show down the hall. His set is bland and reminiscent of a 1970s talk show with fake palms and dull brown colors. Jerry will interrupt Conan's show in the style of a suburban neighbor who initially wants to just have a friendly chat, but eventually needs a favor or some advice for a particular problem he is facing in his current show. Such problems in the past have included Abe Vigoda dying midway through an interview (after Jerry had asked him which was a better experience, his part in The Godfather or the children's comedy Good Burger). He also invariably promotes his own show by addressing Conan's audience with the line "It's on at four in the morning... so check it out!". Krunk During the first two seasons of the show, beginning in early 1994, O'Brien encouraged guests to insert the word krunk, a fictional expletive with multiple uses invented by the show's writers that "the censors don't quite know what to do with yet", into their conversations. Mick Ferguson, The Guy Who's Awfully Proud of his Bullet Proof Legs Long-time staff writer Brian McCann, in a mock-Vaudeville dance, sings "Oh I got bulletproof legs, I got bullet proof legs, oh ya can't hurt me cuz I have bullet proof legs! Oh they cost me a fortune but ya don't...." Invariably, a shadowy figure pulls out a gun and shoots him in the chest, which apparently is not bulletproof. In the second incarnation of it, the same man is standing on the screen and Mick implores Conan to get rid of him because he shot him before. Conan has a security guy come out and check the figure over stating that he does not have a weapon. Relieved Mick begins his song and dance again, only to have the Security guy pull out a gun and shoot him in the chest. Another incident has the security guard and a search dog guarding Mick. After Conan calms Mick's fears of the security guard by vouching for him, the search dog pulls a gun and shoots Mick in the chest. The camera then switches to Conan, who looks into it and says, "We're gonna get to the bottom of this." The More You Know These are spoofs of the famous NBC public service announcements. They were used frequently in earlier years, especially when Andy Richter was still Conan's sidekick. These sketches would begin seemingly innocently, but would quickly devolve into parody, usually involving dark themes. For example, in one such sketch, Max Weinberg commands: "Sometimes condoms break; deal with it, missy!" Segue Sam When Conan struggled for the right words to preview the next guest, he called on the services of Segue Sam, portrayed by Jon Glaser. The impeccably dressed and debonair Sam was pulled into the studio by a butler as he reclined on a couch. Sam invariably was able to provide a witty, smooth segue to the next guest. Staring Contest A famous skit held while Andy Richter still served as O'Brien's sidekick. An homage to the game show Make Me Laugh, Richter (unlike O'Brien) would be subjected to a series of purely physical-comedy skits taking place behind O'Brien, usually insulting and disgusting, which would eventually force Richter to look away. On the last episode Richter served as sidekick, the show subjected O'Brien to the skits instead; this was the only time Richter ever won the staring contest. The two tied after one competition in which, as a distraction, Albert Einstein was inspired by a large-breasted woman in a bikini to add the "squared" to his theory of special relativity, and Andy and Conan joined them in a celebratory dance. Tomorry the Ostrich During the break between the first and second guest, Tomorry the ostrich would come out to deliver the blue card with a list of tomorrow night's guests. Tomorry would lay an egg containing the card. Tomorry was a large ostrich with a long, solid neck that members of the audience often pulled on as Tomorry passed by. Nobody's Watching This is a series of sketches that ran over the course of a week or two during the summer of the early years of the 2000s. NBC still had the rights to the NBA Finals which would air during primetime hours and subsequently push back the late night programming depending on how long the games ran. On some occasions, Late Night would air as late as an hour after it is normal time. In these cases, Conan would explain to the audience that it was currently 2 A.M. or later, keeping with the running joke that his show was live and not recorded earlier in the day, and therefore, "nobody's watching." The host would use this an excuse to show low-budget commercials of spoof products that were supposedly sponsors or local businesses. No longer continued. Conan of the Night Seen limitedly in the early part of the 2000s these sketches began with Conan putting on a fake mustache, using a cheesy Spanish accent, and playing out a film noire-style sketch in which a murder was investigated or caused. One such sketch ended with the mustachioed Conan "throwing" a knife into Max's chest. Monologue digressions Awkward Throws to Max Weinberg - Conan usually begins his monologue by saying "We've got a good show tonight, isn't that right Max?" to which Max replies in an intentionally nonchalant tone, "Yeah", then usually shrugs. One such awkward throw started with Max saying, "Mmm-hmmmm" in a satisfied matter, prompting Conan to blurt out, "I didn't ask, 'How's the rice, Uncle Ben?'!" "Donald Trump Impression" - Conan's impression of Donald Trump has him tugging on his hair, sucking his cheeks in, using Trump's catch phrase, "You're fired!" and performing Trump's python hand move as The Max Weinberg 7 plays the intro to The O'Jays' "For the Love of Money", which is used as the theme song to Trump's NBC show The Apprentice. This bit is usually performed any time that Trump is mentioned, whether in the monologue or in interviews or comedy sketches. Conan has performed this bit with Donald Trump himself present in the studio on more than one occasion. Eating a Tear - Conan sometimes will say something that will cause him to shed, and then eat, a tear. This is pantomimed by running a finger from his eye down his cheek to his mouth. "I'm-a Gonna Go to Hell When I Die" - a rousing gospel-styled song, started on November 12, 2004, that has no lyrics other than its title and is always accompanied by a rhythmic clapping beat. The audience will usually start clapping along, causing Conan to exclaim, "Don't clap along to that, that's terrible!" Occasionally, Conan has recycled the tune with a new title/lyric, notably "I Had an Unhappy Childhood and You Have to Pay". This is often sung by Conan after the audience finds one of his jokes distasteful, many times when referring to Star Jones. Another variation, sung in a different tune, is "I'll Be Beaten to Death When I Leave Tonight". The Shark Attack - Conan leaves the screen, crouches down just enough and walks past the camera so that only his red pompadour is visible. International Symbol for Larry King - Conan pretends to pull suspenders away from his body, then makes spectacles with his thumbs and forefingers. He then explains that this is the International Symbol for Larry King, comparing it to the equivalent for choking. "Keep cool, my babies!" - Often spoken immediately before his monologue as a response to thunderous applause, Conan will utter this phrase in order to calm his excited audience. "Keep cool, my babies!" is often followed by "The String Dance" (see entry below). "The Late Night Cat" - Conan jumps out of the frame and disappears (with a whooshing sound, as in Miscellaneous Pantomiming below) for a few seconds before reappearing extremely close to the camera, out of focus, and hissing at it in a feline manner (complete with "claws" extended). This usually occurs when the studio audience dislikes a joke told in the monologue. Smoothing the Eyebrows - Conan quickly licks the tips of the index and pinkie fingers of one hand, and uses them simultaneously to smooth his eyebrows. I love you too, sir - If an audience member screams something (often admirable) at Conan, he makes a joke such as, "I love you too, sir" or "It's nice of my dad for coming." Making fun of LaBamba - Conan sometimes looks over toward band member Richie "LaBamba" Rosenberg when there is a homosexual or unsavory reference in the monologue. LaBamba usually reacts by staring back at Conan with a bemused, disappointed, or "deflated" look on his face and/or shaking his head. Conan usually proceeds to explain that LaBamba would not be surprised by the reference if he would just attend the rehearsal. Miscellaneous Pantomiming - Conan will duck in and out of frame, while making a whooshing sound. "Making Fun of Products" - Conan will mock a certain product or brand. He then asks the producer if said brand is a sponsor. The producer answers "yes" before Conan lets off an uncomfortable laugh. "Nerd Impression" - When nerds are mentioned in Conan's monologue (such as in the context of "Star Wars/Star Trek/The Lord of the Rings/The Matrix nerds"), he sometimes alters his voice to sound like a "nerd" criticizing Conan for that joke. This usually involves pushing his "glasses" up the bridge of his nose, wagging his finger, bucking his teeth, waving an invisible lightsaber, using sci-fi related quotes, or saying something like, "How dare you", or "I'll get you, Conan O'Brien!" and pushing the buttons on an invisible calculator. On Tonight, he has added turnings of a Rubik's Cube. Coinciding with the release of Harry Potter and the Half-Blood Prince in theaters, Conan has placed an invisible sorcerer's hat on his head and drawn the lightning bolt on his forehead (as if he were Harry Potter), then waves an invisible wand while saying in his nerd voice, "I strike at thee!" "The String Dance" - Conan mimes attaching strings to his hips and pulls them, shaking his hips back and forth until he "cuts" one of the strings, dropping the "attached" hip. The string dance is customarily performed before the monologue during the audience applause, or during the monologue, but Conan has also performed the dance at the request of guests. Jim Carrey also chose to perform his own version of the string dance on his appearance in December 2005. Justin Timberlake, Ice-T, MC Hammer, The Rock, Paula Abdul, Usher, Matt Bluhm, John Tesh, and Christina Applegate have also performed the dance. Houston Texans wide receiver David Anderson performed it as a touchdown celebration during the 2008 season. In the epilogue of the February 12, 2009 episode of Comedy Central's The Colbert Report, host Stephen Colbert "stole" Conan's strings in retribution for Conan's departure from New York to Los Angeles. As "ransom" for the strings, Colbert demanded Conan's return to New York. On February 18, 2009 Conan's opening monologue expressed disdain over Colbert's theft of the string dance and openly challenged him to the rights of the dance. Colbert then emerged from backstage to the surprise of the audience. The audience responded with a mix of ecstatic cheering and mock jeering for Colbert and encouraged a string dance-off. Colbert "won" by "tying" string around Conan. Unusual Audience Reactions - Conan is always amused by, and makes fun of, the unusual reactions of his audience to some of his monologue jokes. The most common reaction is a horrified/angry "booing", morphing into "polite laughter and applause", which Conan admits is his favorite reaction. Another audience reaction is delayed laughter to a punchline, sometimes sparking Conan's "Delayed reaction always creeps me out" song, in the style of "I'm-a Gonna Go to Hell When I Die". Anna Nicole Smith Impression - Conan imitates her nonsensical mutterings, drug-induced wandering, and outbursts. He will wander back and forth in front of the camera, muttering, and finally jumps out with the "cat hiss", also seen in the Late Night Cat digression. Not seen since her death. Geraldo Rivera Impression - When there's a news story or any reference to news personality Geraldo Rivera, Conan often places his index finger across his upper lip, denoting a mustache. Tom Selleck Impression - Similar to the Geraldo Rivera impression except Conan places two fingers across his upper lip to convey a thicker mustache. Arnold Schwarzenegger Impression - When a topic comes up referring to the actor, Conan will often put on an Arnold Schwarzenegger accent, speak in a pseudo-Germanic language, pretend to eat a giant sausage (Conan claims he "likes his Arnold to be eating a sausage at the end") while flexing his muscles and giving a "death-stare" to the audience. George W. Bush Impression - When there's a news story or any reference to President George W. Bush, Conan will often look away from the camera, as if distracted by something, then look straight back at the camera with a confused look on his face, exclaiming "Huh?" Congress/Parliament applause - If one of his jokes gets lukewarm applause, Conan will liken it to members of Congress or Parliament clapping along. He'll also say "Yes, very good, O'Brien", or something to that effect, in a somewhat aristocratic tone. U.S.A. Chant - Most usually done when he has redeemed an obviously bad joke with a good one, Conan sometimes celebrates by beginning a chant of "U.S.A! U.S.A!" As soon as the audience joins in, Conan immediately stops and stares at them. Rhetorical Set-Up Questions - Conan frequently introduces a monologue joke by asking a rhetorical question about whether or not the audience has heard of a certain event; he then gives them no time to respond, and criticizes them for being uninformed. Producer Impression - Often, when Conan says something especially odd or stupid, he will say that the producer is looking at him and then imitates the producer with a serious tone and expression, often crossing his arms, then poking fun at his impression's similarity to Jackie Mason. Miscellaneous The Growl - Conan often gives a Bob Hope- or Roy Orbison-like growl at attractive women, sometimes accompanied by barking or meows and hisses while miming a "clawing" motion. The Microphone - Conan will sometimes knock over the microphone on his desk for a quick laugh. Once in a while, he will knock it over and then jokingly threaten the audience, such as "I'll clear this studio if I have to", and "...fill it with a minty foam." He also states on occasion that the microphone is made of chocolate or marzipan. He also has been known to put the desk microphone up to his face and breathe heavily into it while staring wide-eyed. Occasionally, he will take his clip-on microphone and stick it up his nose "just because the producer hates it". The Conan/Max staredown - Similar to the Small Talk moment, but without any dialogue, Conan and Max will stare at each other blankly for a long time with the cameras switching between Conan and Max. Eventually, Conan seems to get creeped out and looks away. He then says that someone should discover a way to "bottle that chemistry." Conan Cost Cutting - After a sketch involving Tim Harrod in an expensive "Grub Man" costume, the show began to re-use the costume in order to amortize the cost. It appeared as a "surrendering croissant", a "victorious cannoli", a "liposuctioned Jabba the Hutt", a "pissed off kreplach", and a "beach rock." At the end of any sketch involving the costume, Conan mentions how many different ways the costume has been used and a "per costume total", which is the cost of the original costume divided by the number of uses. He'll then invite viewers to mail in their suggestions for a further use for the costume and, in return, will receive an "I'm a Conan Cost Cutter" button. The address for viewers to send in their own suggestions for use of the Grub-Man costume was: Grub-Man Costume Ideas c/o Late Night 30 Rockefeller Plaza New York, NY 10112 A variation on this bit was used when the show acquired an expensive whale costume for a single sketch, and then devoted an entire "Whale Week" to whale-related bits, ostensibly to get their money's worth from the costume. The whale costume in question has been used with decreasing frequency since. Mike Koman - Koman, one of the show's writers, often plays a sketch character. Whenever he does, Conan is guaranteed to needle him in some way, as when he was the "M.I.T. Nerd" or "Donald Trump's Brother". The Evil Puppy - This bit involves a puppy, often a golden retriever, sitting on a throne of skulls, flanked by black-robed Druids, all of this under a red light, while O Fortuna plays in the background. Often, as the camera shows close-ups of the puppy squirming around on the chair, the audience will "awwww" at its cuteness, as Conan warns that the puppy is going to "conquer the world" or "suck your liver out through your eye sockets." Usually appears on Friday the 13th. Sometimes, the Evil Puppy's powers are portrayed causing pain and humiliation through supernatural means. Jeff Won't Talk - Conan pokes fun at the show producer, Jeff, who is only ever seen shaking his head on camera and gesturing for Conan to move it along. Faulty G.E. In-house Voice Directory System - Conan reveals the company's voice-operated directory's voice recognition system, powered by General Electric, "doesn't work." Here, Conan will request the name of a person he wants to be directed to. However, the system brings up only a similar-sounding name or a totally different name, after a prolonged pause. He also uses song verses and random sentences for hilarious results. The Gentler Side of Grand Theft Auto IV - Since the release of the highly anticipated video game Grand Theft Auto IV, Conan has presented in-game footage of the game that do not display any acts of violence or sexuality. Typically, the player-controlled protagonist Niko Bellic would proclaim random things about himself and society in a friendly, humorous way, as opposed to the game's actual extremely graphic nature. Ginger, NO! - A fake interview is set up with a staff member when all of a sudden Conan says "Ginger, NO!" The camera then cuts to a German Shepherd who raises a handgun and shoots the interviewee. Late Night Sausage Party - On nights when all of the guests are male, Conan complains about the new movie "The Women", and how there are no men in the movie—not even extras! He counters this by having all male guests and a gravelly voiced announcer begins the "sausage party" by announcing the guests and making crass and inappropriate remarks regarding their sausages. Dubble Letter Week - A whole week of episodes was scheduled in which the guests had double letters in their names. (i.e. Ted Koppel, Larry King). (Max once reacted with disappointment, saying that he wished he had a double letter in his name, to which Conan responded, "Oh, but you do, Max." Max was then subjected to the Ass Stamp, with the double letter in 'ASS' highlighted.) This Show Will Not Air - Conan does something very outrageous or over the line, but reassures the audience by saying that "This show will never air." Hold for Editing - When a joke bombs Conan will sometimes pause for a few seconds and say, "Hold for editing." He will then resume the monologue or sketch as if the section containing the bad joke will be removed from the show before it is broadcast. Conan's second generation Ford Taurus - On several occasions, Conan had expressed pride in his car, a green 1992 Ford Taurus SHO. He actively sought to sell it and went so far as to have it appraised at Sotheby's and Christie's auction houses despite being extremely dirty and having mechanical problems. The car was finally "sold" to actor Brad Pitt during one of the final shows, however a sketch during his debut on The Tonight Show revealed that he still owned the car. The Show Is Cheap/NBC Has No Money - Conan frequently made jokes commenting about the show being cheap, especially during sketches where bad special effects or shoddy-looking costumes/graphics were obvious. Often he would also make references to how NBC did not want to pay for anything. "That was stupid." - Much like the "This show is cheap" comments, whenever there was an especially bizarre sketch or a bad joke, Conan usually commented about how dumb or stupid it was before moving on. "Gotta go, move it along." - If a joke/sketch ran especially long or if Conan was wasting too much time he would often mock his producer by saying "Gotta go, move it along!" in a deep voice. Notes External links "Conan O'Brien's Romance-A-Tee - The first short film featured on HornyManatee.com Conan vs Bear, from skits on the show Sketches Late Night with Conan O'Brien Late Night with Conan O'Brien Late Night With Conan O'Brien Sketches
5176913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20French%20Americans	List of French Americans	French Americans are U.S. citizens or nationals of French descent and heritage. The majority of Franco-American families did not arrive directly from France, but rather settled French territories in the New World (primarily in the 17th and 18th centuries) before moving or being forced to move to the United States later on (see Quebec diaspora and Great Upheaval). Also, the largest French territory in North America was sold to the U.S., absorbing their French citizens (see Louisiana Purchase). About thirteen million U.S. residents are of French descent, and about 1.5 million of them speak the French language at home. Being isolated, mixed with different cultures, or ignored, the French-Americans developed particular cultures that reflect varying degrees of adaptation of their environments. This gave birth to streams of French-Americans like the Acadians, the Cajuns (an Anglicization of the autonym Cadien, from the French word for Acadian, Acadien), Louisiana Créoles and many others. The following is a list of notable French Americans by occupation, including both original immigrants who obtained American citizenship and their American descendants. To be included in this list, the person must have a Wikipedia article showing they are French American or must have references showing they are French American and are notable. Business General John Vernou Bouvier III (1891–1957), Wall Street stockbroker and father of U.S. First Lady Jacqueline Lee Bouvier Roger E Brunschwig, highly decorated world wars hero, activist, businessman Warren Buffett, of French Huguenot ancestry and among the top wealthiest men in the world François Castaing, 27-year veteran automotive executive Clyde Cessna, Louis Chevrolet, co-founder with William C. Durant of the Chevrolet Motor Car Company Yvon Chouinard, rock climber, environmentalist and outdoor industry businessman John de Menil, President of Schlumberger North America Georges Doriot (1899–1988), one of the first American venture capitalists William C. Durant, founder of General Motors; a co-founder with Louis Chevrolet of the Chevrolet Motor Car Company Jean-Louis Gassée (born 1944), founder of Be Inc. King Camp Gillette, founder of the Gillette Safety Razor Company Stephen Girard (1750–1831), banker and tradesman from Bordeaux Augustus D. Juilliard (1836–1919), businessman whose philanthropy built the renowned conservatory of dance, music, and theater in New York City that bears his name Philippe Kahn (born 1952), mathematician and entrepreneur known as the inventor of the camera phone, a pioneer in the wireless industry, and the founder of Borland Joseph LaCombe, retired American businessman and owner of Joseph LaCombe Stable Inc., a thoroughbred horse racing stable Thomas W. Lamont, banker Robert LeFevre (1911–1986), libertarian businessman and radio personality Gérard Louis-Dreyfus, French businessman and father of actress Julia Louis-Dreyfus Étienne Lucier, fur trader from French Prairie André Meyer (1898–1979), Wall Street investment banker Pierre Omidyar (born 1967), French-born Iranian, founder of eBay Frank Perdue & Associates, the Perdue family is of French Huguenot ancestry, and can be traced back to Anjou, France; the family created the Perdue Chicken Company Ross Perot (1930–2019), entrepreneur, philanthropist and candidate for the Presidency of the United States Alexis F. du Pont (1879–1948), member of the American du Pont family and helped found St. Andrew's School in Middletown, Delaware; father of Alexis Felix du Pont Jr.; founder of U.S. Airways Alexis Felix du Pont Jr. (1905–1996), American aviation pioneer, soldier, philanthropist, and a member of the prominent Du Pont family Eleuthère Irénée du Pont de Nemours, patriarch of a successful American business family; chemical industry Richard Chichester du Pont (1911–1943), American businessman and an aviation and glider pioneer Baroness Micaela Almonester de Pontalba, New Orleans-born businesswoman; French mother Felix Rohatyn (1928–2019), businessman, investment banker, served in public service as an ambassador Jacques Telesphore Roman (1800–1848), businessman Paul Tulane (1801–1887), businessman and philanthropist, Tulane University named in his honor Entertainment Actors Renée Adorée, French-born American actress Jessica Alba, actress; mother is of partial French-Canadian ancestry Cliff Arquette(1905–1974), American actor was of part French-Canadian descent, and his family's surname was originally "Arcouet" Lewis Arquette (1935–2001), American actor, was of French-Canadian descent Patricia Arquette (born 1968), American actress, is of French-Canadian descent Alexis Arquette (July 28, 1969 – September 11, 2016), was an American actress, cabaret performer, underground cartoonist, and activist. Alexis was of French-Canadian descent. René Auberjonois (1940–2019), Tony Award-winner, American character actor (and grandson of the painter), best known for his early 1980s role as Clayton Endicott III on the television show Benson and his role as Odo on Star Trek: Deep Space Nine Tina Aumont, California-born actress; father was an immigrant from France Alec Baldwin, actor, one of the four brothers; mother had part French-Canadian ancestry Daniel Baldwin, actor, one of the four brothers; mother had part French-Canadian ancestry Stephen Baldwin, actor, one of the four brothers; mother had part French-Canadian ancestry William Baldwin, actor, one of the four brothers; mother had part French-Canadian ancestry Lucille Ball (1911–1989), actress; mother was of partial French heritage Adrienne Barbeau (born 1945), 1980s B-movie actress; father was of part French-Canadian ancestry Jean-Marc Barr, French-American film actor and director Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), cowboy actor and artist, descendant of Nicolas Martiau Hugh Beaumont, actor with large filmography; father was of French ancestry Pierre Bellocq, French-American artist and horse racing cartoonist Melissa Benoist, American actress, of partial French descent through paternal great-grandfather Marcheline Bertrand, actress of half French-Canadian ancestry, mother of actress Angelina Jolie Jessica Biel (born 1982), American actress with distant French roots JB Blanc (born 1969), actor; father of French descent Cate Blanchett, (actress) Joan Blondell (1906–1979), American actress; father Eddie was of French descent Caprice Bourret (born 1971), French American actress and model Charles Boyer (1899–1978), film actor, immigrant from France Elizabeth Bracco, actress with French and Italian ancestry Lorraine Bracco, actress with French and Italian ancestry Jules Brulatour, pioneering figure in American silent cinema Ellen Bry, actress best-known for her work on the NBC medical drama series St. Elsewhere Mary Cadorette, former American actress Dove Cameron, American actor of French descent Dean Cain, American actor, of part French descent Trishelle Cannatella (born 1979), American actress, model; of Cajun ancestry Leslie Caron (born 1931), film actress and dancer; born in France Charisma Carpenter (born 1970), American actress, of part French descent Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor; father was of French-Canadian ancestry and family surname was Anglicization of Carré Lacey Chabert (born 1982), actress, father of mostly Cajun/French descent Loan Chabanol (born 1982), actress Timothée Chalamet (born 1995), French-American actor; born to a French father, of French and British descent, and an American Jewish mother, holds both passports Lon Chaney Sr., silent film actor, of part French descent Lon Chaney Jr., actor and son of Lon Chaney Sr.; of part French descent David Charvet, French-born American actor and singer, husband of Brooke Burke Lilyan Chauvin, French-born actress Robert Clary (1926–2022) actor, published author, and lecturer Claudette Colbert, French-born actress Bud Cort (born 1948), actor, of partial French descent Phil Cousineau, author, screenwriter, and documentary filmmaker Joan Crawford, actress, her father was of partial French Huguenot ancestry Billy Crudup, actor Willem Dafoe, actor, father was of partial French descent Lili Damita, French-born actress Bette Davis, film actress, born in Lowell, Massachusetts; father was of English descent and mother was of French-Canadian descent Robert De Niro, one of the most acclaimed actors of all time; two-time Academy Award winner; mother had small amount of French ancestry Ellen DeGeneres, actress, talk-show host; father was of part French descent Johnny Depp (born 1963), actor; He is descended from a French Huguenot immigrant (Pierre Dieppe, who settled in Virginia around 1700) Lily-Rose Depp, French-born American actress and model. She is the daughter of American actor, producer, and musician Johnny Depp and French singer, actress, and model Vanessa Paradis. Julie Delpy (born 1969), actress, immigrant from France Emilie de Ravin (born 1981), actress; naturalized American citizen Emily Deschanel, actress and daughter of cinematographer Caleb Deschanel, of partial French descent Zooey Deschanel, actress and daughter of cinematographer Caleb Deschanel, of partial French descent Arielle Dombasle (born 1958), singer and actress working primarily in the cinema of France Brad Dourif (born 1950), actor; paternal grandparents were immigrants from France Fiona Dourif (born 1981), American actress of part French ancestry, daughter of Brad Dourif Joanne Dru, actress; sister of actor and TV game show host Peter Marshall Val Dufour, actor, known for his role of Andre Lazar on The Edge of Night Nicole duFresne (1977–2005), playwright and actress Josh Duhamel (born 1972), actor, father is of partial French-Canadian ancestry Tiffany Dupont (born 1981), French American actress known for the film One Night With the King James Duval, actor, known for his roles as Frank in Donnie Darko and as Singh in Go; both parents are of partial French ancestry Clea DuVall, actress, father is of part French descent Robert Duvall, of distant French paternal ancestry Mireille Enos, actress; mother is French Jon Favreau, actor, director, screenwriter, voice artist, and comedian; father is of partial French-Canadian ancestry Robert Florey (1900–1979), actor, director, screenwriter Jorja Fox, actress, CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, mother is of French-Canadian and Belgian ancestry Brendan Fraser, actor Eva Le Gallienne, actress Brittny Gastineau (born 1983), American actress, and model; daughter of former NFL player Mark Gastineau and Lisa Gastineau Richard Gautier, actor Cam Gigandet, actor, known for Never Back Down and Red Sky Robert Goulet (1933–2007), actor/singer Adrian Grenier, actor, mother has small amount of French ancestry Alice Guy-Blaché, pioneer filmmaker; first female director in the motion picture industry Anne Hathaway (born 1982), film actress; of mostly Irish and French ancestry Kyle Hebert, voice actor Frances Heflin, actress, of partial French descent Van Heflin, actor, of partial French descent Gillian Jacobs, actress, known for her role on the NBC sitcom Community; of part French descent Celina Jade, actress, singer and martial artist Angelina Jolie (born 1975), actress, maternal grandfather was of French-Canadian descent Victoria Justice (born 1993), father is of part French descent Minka Kelly (born 1980), American actress; known for role of Lyla Garrity on NBC's Friday Night Lights; biological father is aerosmith guitarist Rick Dufay, born in France, to American parents Rod La Rocque (1898–1969), film actor of French Canadian descent Shia LaBeouf (born 1986), actor, Cajun (French) father Art LaFleur (born 1943) American actor Christopher Lambert (born 1957), actor Cynthia Lamontagne, actress Dorothy Lamour (1914–1996), film actress, mother was of French Cajun ancestry John Larroquette, Emmy Award-winning film and television actor Brie Larson, (born 1989), film actress. Larson was born Brianne Sidonie Desaulniers. Her father is French Canadian, and in her childhood, Larson spoke French as her first language Eva LaRue (born 1966), actress best known for portraying Natalia Boa Vista on CSI: Miami; was on a soap opera for many years; ovarian cancer spokesperson Lash LaRue (1917–1996), actor Taylor Lautner (born 1992), actor, martial artist, of partial French descent Sabrina Le Beauf (born 1958), actress, French Creole, known for playing Sandra on The Cosby Show Eva Le Gallienne, well-known actress, producer, and director, during the first half of the 20th century Christian LeBlanc (born 1958), two-time Emmy Award-winning American actor Matt LeBlanc (born 1967), American actor, known as Joey Tribbiani on the show Friends; father was of French-Canadian heritage Adam LeFevre, actor, Taxi, of partial French descent Harry Lennix, actor, Suspect Zero, 24, of partial French descent Jennifer LeRoy, adult film actress, actress and model Hal LeSueur, actor and brother of Joan Crawford; father is of partial French Huguenot ancestry Jared Leto, actor and frontman of Thirty Seconds to Mars, of French Cajun descent Matthew Libatíque is an American cinematographer who is known for his work on the films Pi (1998), Requiem for a Dream (2000), The Fountain (2006), Black Swan (2010). Jon Lormer, French-American actor Julia Louis-Dreyfus, daughter of French-Jewish businessman Gérard Louis-Dreyfus; known for her roles in the series Seinfeld and The New Adventures of Old Christine Brook Mahealani Lee (born 1971), Eurasian model; former miss Hawaii, Miss USA, and Miss Universe 1997 J. P. Manoux, Marquant actor, Phil of the Future, Angel, Smallville, Scrubs, Charmed, and Crossing Jordan Peter Marshall, best known as the original host of the TV game show Hollywood Squares; brother of actress Joanne Dru Mike Marshall, French-American actor; son of director William Marshall and half-brother of Tonie Marshall Tonie Marshall, French-American actress; son of director William Marshall and half-sister of Mike Marshall Rosita Marstini (1887–1948), dancer, stage personality, silent and sound film actress from Nancy, France Charles Martinet (1955), actor best known as the voice of Mario and Luigi in the Super Mario franchise. The Marx Brothers, whose father Sam Marx was born in France Rose McGowan (born 1973), American actress best known for Charmed; of Irish paternal and French maternal ancestry Meiling Melançon, actress Christopher Meloni (born 1961), American actor, mother is of French-Canadian heritage Adolphe Menjou (1890–1963), film actor, especially from the 1920s–1940s Jesse Metcalfe (1978), played John Rowland in Desperate Housewives; father is of partial French ancestry Wentworth Miller, mother has distant French ancestry Yvette Mimieux (1942-2022), American actress, of French and Mexican ancestry Nathan Fillion (born 1970), actor Madison Pettis (born 1998), American actress of French, Irish, Italian, and African-American ancestry Victor Pépin, circus master with the Circus of Pépin and Breschard Pauley Perrette, (born 1969), American actress Ryan Phillippe, of part French descent Tyrone Power, actor, mother was of part French-Canadian descent, father was of partial French Huguenot ancestry Dennis William Quaid (born 1954), American film actor. Quaid has English, Irish, Scots-Irish, and Cajun (French) ancestry. Randy Randall Rudy Quaid (born 1950), American film actor. Quaid has English, Irish, Scots-Irish, and Cajun (French) ancestry. Maggie Quigley (born 1979), Euro-Asian American actress and former fashion model, known for Mission Impossible III and Balls of Fury, father of part French-Canadian descent Mickey Rourke, actor, mother of part French descent Brandon Routh, actor, of partial French heritage Carol Roux, actress Kiele Sanchez (born 1977), actress, mother of French descent Reni Santoni, film, television and voice actor Chloë Sevigny (born 1974), actress with French-Canadian ancestry April Scott (born 1977), American actress of French, Native American, and Spanish ancestry Michael Sinterniklaas (born 1972), voice actor Tom Sizemore (born 1961), actor of maternal part French ancestry Leelee Sobieski (born 1983), film actress, father is an immigrant from France, who is of Polish and Swiss descent Shannyn Sossamon (born 1978), born in Honolulu, Hawaii, of French, Hawaiian, Dutch, English, Irish, Filipino, and German descent Sylvester Stallone (born 1946), actor and film producer; mother is half French; maternal grandmother is from Brest Stéphanie Szostak (born 1975), actress Charlize Theron (born 1975), born in South Africa, now an American actress of French Huguenot, Dutch, and German descent Justin Theroux, actor, screenwriter and director, father is of French-Canadian and Italian heritage Franchot Tone, Hollywood actor, of partial French descent Beth Toussaint, actress, Red Eye Luis van Rooten (1906–1973), actor Michael Vartan, actor, born in France (not of French descent) Hervé Villechaize (1943–1973), French American actor born to Paris and immigrant from France Mari Blanchard, actress Tessa Gräfin von Walderdorff (born 1994), actress of French, Swiss, Dutch and German ancestry Rudolph Valentino (1895–1926), his mother was French from Lure, Haute-Saône Artists Barzolff (born 1973), visual artist and graphic designer Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), artist and sculptor, "Cowboy of Cowboy Artists" Tom Bergeron (born 1955), TV host, Emmy Award-nominated Louise Bourgeois (1911–2010), abstract expressionist artist; born in Paris, married an American Brooke Burke (born 1971), television personality and model, known for hosting Wild On! (1999–2002); of French, Irish, Jewish, and Portuguese ancestry Isabelle Collin Dufresne (1935–2014), artist, author, and former colleague of Andy Warhol Katie Couric, TV personality, most of her ancestry is French Ellen DeGeneres, TV personality, father is of French Cajun ancestry Leah Dizon (born 1986), actress, model, and singer; of French, and Asian (Filipino-Chinese) ancestry Angela Dufresne (born 1969), artist based in Brooklyn, New York Edgar de Evia, Mexican-born photographer and son of French pianist Pauline Joutard Sean Flynn, photographer whose death in Cambodia remains a mystery; son of actress Lili Damita and actor Errol Flynn Melody Gardot (born 1985), jazz singer from Philadelphia Peter Grain (1785–1857), painter, architect and panoramist Van Heflin (1908–1971), actor Gaston Lachaise (1882–1935), sculptor Danielle Lacourse (born 1986), French American Miss USA runner-up Bonnie Jill Laflin (born 1976), model and actress; of French descent Don LaFontaine (1940–2008), voiceover artist; recorded more than 5,000 film trailers and hundreds of thousands of television advertisements, network promotions, and video game trailers; his nicknames include "Thunder Throat" and "The Voice of God" Allie LaForce (born 1988), beauty queen from Vermilion, Ohio; Miss Teen USA 2005 Ali Landry, actress, model Brook Mahealani Lee (born 1971), Miss USA and Miss Hawaii USA prior to winning the Miss Universe 1997 pageant; of mixed Korean, Portuguese, French, Hawaiian and Chinese ancestry Paul de Longpré (1855–1911), flower painter Madonna (born 1958), international singer; mother is of French-Canadian descent Josie Maran (born 1978), American supermodel of partial French ancestry Michelle Maylene (born 1987), pornographic actress; of Filipino, and French ancestry Maria McBane (born 1946), model and actress, Playboy Playmate of the Month May 1965 Linda Moon, Playboy magazine Playmate of the Month October 1966 Frederic Remington (1861–1909), western artist and sculptor Bernard Renaud (Renot) (born 1935), French-born American artist, sculptor, illustrator and author René Ricard (1946–2014), artist, poet, and philosopher Jasmin St. Claire (born 1974), pornographic actress; of Italian, Russian, and French ancestry Patrick Tatopoulos, Greek-French-American production designer Tila Tequila (born 1981), model, singer, and actress; of 3/4 Vietnamese, and 1/4 French ancestry Stephanie Trudeau (born 1986), French American Miss Montana winner Henry Villierme (1928–2013), French American artist (Bay Area Figurative Movement) Musicians Phil Anselmo (born 1968), heavy metal musician Sara Bareilles (born 1979), American singer, her first single was "Love Song" David Benoit (born 1953), American jazz pianist Jello Biafra, singer for 1970s punk band Dead Kennedys Brent Bourgeois (born 1958), American rock musician, songwriter, and producer Wellman Braud, jazz string bass player Colbie Caillat, young singer and daughter of Ken Caillat Lucien Cailliet (1897–1985), American composer, conductor, arranger and clarinetist Marcel Chagnon, American country music singer-songwriter Cher, American singer, actress Kurt Cobain (1967–1994), lead singer, guitarist, and songwriter for band Nirvana; His ancestry was mostly of French and Irish origin Amie Comeaux (1976–1997), country singer Alice Cooper (born 1947), American singer; has French Huguenot ancestry Joe Dassin (1938–1980), French-speaking musician Paul De Lisle, singer, Smash Mouth Gavin DeGraw (born 1977), American singer of French descent Marianne Dissard (born 1969), French-born singer Leah Dizon (born 1986), singer, model, actress of French and Asian ancestry Michael Doucet, singer, songwriter and founder of the Cajun band BeauSoleil Joe Duplantier (born 1976), singer and guitarist of the metal band Gojira Mario Duplantier (born 1981), drummer of the metal band Gojira G-Eazy, (born 1989), rapper Mary Gauthier, folk singer-songwriter George Girard, musician Ice-T, rapper, actor and vocalist of the heavy metal band Body Count of African-American and Creole descent Dan Ingram, Top 40 disc jockey with a forty-year career on radio stations such as WABC and WCBS-FM in New York City JoJo (born 1990), American pop/R&B singer-songwriter and actress Beyoncé (born 1981), American R&B singer-songwriter and actress; a French Creole of French and African-American and Native American descent Solange Knowles (born 1986), R&B singer; a French Creole of French and African-American and Native American descent Ray Lamontagne (born 1974), American Grammy Award-winning singer-songwriter Amel Larrieux (born 1973), American R&B/soul singer-songwriter Calixa Lavallée, lived in Rhode Island and served in the American Civil War as lieutenant Mylon LeFevre, gospel singer and writer Victoria Legrand, French-born lead singer and keyboardist of the dream pop duo Beach House Iry LeJeune, one of the best-selling and most popular musicians during 1940 Braeden Lemasters, lead guitarist and singer of Wallows, of French Huguenot descent Paz Lenchantin, bass player part of the band A Perfect Circle J. B. Lenoir, Chicago blues guitarist, singer-songwriter Charles Martin Loeffler, French-born composer Madonna (born 1958), French-Canadian on her mother's side of the family W. A. Mathieu, composer, pianist, choir director, music teacher, and author Pierre Monteux (1875–1964), orchestra conductor Dave Mustaine, founder of heavy metal Band Megadeth; former member of Metallica Madeleine Peyroux, American jazz singer-songwriter, and guitarist Lily Pons (1898–1976), coloratura soprano Elvis Presley, American singer-songwriter and actor, often referred to as "the King of Rock and Roll", or simply "the King" Marc Rebillet, American musician, French father Zachary Richard,(born 1950), American Cajun musician, singer-songwriter and poet Shandi Sinnamon, singer-songwriter Izzy Stradlin, American rock musician DeVante Swing, member of R&B group Jodeci Edgard Varèse, French-born composer Jaci Velasquez (born 1979), American singer, Grammy Award, and Dove Award winner of Mexican, French, and Spanish ancestry Maïa Vidal (b. 1988), singer-songwriter Rufus Wainwright (born 1973), singer-songwriter Clarence White (1944-1973), musician for The Byrds Other entertainers Charlotte d'Amboise (born 1964), American actress and dancer and daughter of Jacques d'Amboise Christopher d'Amboise (born 1960), American dancer, choreographer, writer, and theatre director, son of Jacques d'Amboise Jacques d'Amboise (1934-2021), American ballet dancer and choreographer Kevyn Aucoin (1962–2002), make-up artist and photographer Anthony Bourdain, author and the "Chef-at-Large" of Brasserie Les Halles, based in New York City with locations in Miami, Florida, and Washington, D.C. and host of the Travel Channel's culinary and cultural adventure program Anthony Bourdain: No Reservations Joseph C. Brun (1907–1998), French-born American cinematographer Damien Chazelle, American director and screenwriter Steven Crowder, French-Canadian and American conservative political commentator on YouTube Vance DeGeneres, performer, producer, and writer of several television shows Caleb Deschanel, American cinematographer Lynsey DuFour, soap opera writer Virginie Amélie Avegno Gautreau (1859–1915), artist's model, also known as "Madame X" Paul Germain, animation screenwriter and producer Michael Goudeau, juggler and ex-circus clown; writer and executive producer for the Showtime series Bullshit! Marianne Gravatte, Playboy playmate Lloyd Jacquet, comic-book innovator Susan La Flesche Picotte (1865–1915), physician; 3/4 Native, 1/4 French Fredric Lean award-winning documentary filmmaker Ted LeFevre, theatrical set designer Monique Lhuillier (born 1971), fashion designer Yolanda "Tongolele" Montes, exotic dancer and actress of the Cinema of Mexico Don Ohlmeyer, TV producer and president of NBC West Coast; father was of French Huguenot descent Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis (1929–1994), First Lady and wife of the late John F. Kennedy; maiden name is Bouvier and she is usually referred to by all three of her surnames together; father was of French descent Jean-Paul Poulain (died 2007), Maine Franco-American cabaret recording artist Carrie Prejean, model and beauty pageant contestant; father is of French descent Lee Radziwill (Caroline Lee Bouvier), daughter of stockbroker John Vernou Bouvier III and sister of former first lady Jacqueline Onassis Camille Rowe, model; father is French Oliver Stone, director Cyril Takayama, Japanese/French American illusionist Susette LaFlesche Tibbles (1854–1903), sister of Susan La Flesche, writer, and artist Garry Trudeau, cartoonist, best known for the Doonesbury comic strip Paul Verdier, stage director, actor, and playwright; had a number of guest parts on American television Jurgen Vsych, film director, screenwriter and author Ludwig Ahgren, online streamer and YouTuber; mother is French Explorers Étienne de Veniard, Sieur de Bourgmont (1679–1734), French explorer who made the first maps and documentation of the Missouri and Platte rivers Jean Baptiste Baudreau II, only man in American history executed by breaking wheel Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville, founder of New Orleans, Biloxi, Natchez; co-founder of Mobile; served as colonial Governor of Louisiana (New France) for four terms, totaling 30 years Antoine de la Mothe Cadillac, founder of Detroit and one-time colonial governor of Louisiana (New France) Jean-Baptiste Charbonneau, born on the Lewis and Clark Expedition, depicted on a US$1 coin Toussaint Charbonneau, member of the Lewis and Clark Expedition François Chouteau (1797–1838), first white settlers of Kansas City, Missouri René Auguste Chouteau (1749–1829), trader with American Indians; founder of and influential figure in early St. Louis George Drouillard, translator on the Lewis and Clark Expedition Jean Baptiste Point du Sable (1745–1818), first permanent settler in Chicago, Illinois Marquis Duquesne (1700–1778), French Governor of New France; served from 1752 to 1755; best known for his role in the French and Indian War Peter Faneuil (1700–1743), colonial merchant and philanthropist who donated Faneuil Hall to Boston John C. Fremont (1813–1890), explorer with Kit Carson John Lewis Gervais, statesman and planter from South Carolina; formed delegate to the Continental Congress Joseph Gervais, pioneer settler and trapper in the Columbia District of the Hudson's Bay Company Antoine LeClaire, founder of Davenport, Iowa Pierre Antoine and Paul Mallet, early explorers and traders in the 18th century, in particular of the Santa Fe Trail Alexander McGillivray (1750–1793), leader of the Creek Indians Henry Davis Minot, railroad executive John Bevins Moisant (1868–1910), aviator Etienne Provost (1785–1850), explorer of Utah Valley Paul Revere (1734/1735–1818), silversmith and a patriot in the American Revolution Daniel Roberdeau (1727–1795), merchant Charles Rochon, founder of modern-day Mobile, commemorated with a plaque at Fort Conde Ceran St. Vrain, (1802–1870), trader in Missouri, Louisiana and New Mexico, including on the Santa Fe Trail Jedediah Smith, (1799–1831), discovered South Pass of the Rocky Mountains, first American to reach California by land William Sublette (1799–1845), explorer, fur trapper, mountain man Pedro Vial (1746–1814), French explorer who pioneered the Santa Fe Trail in the 18th century Law and politics Governors and presidents Donald Trump (born 1946) 45th president of the United states. He is a descendant of french huguenots who fled to Netherlands after L'edit de Fontainebleau Armand Beauvais (1783–1843), Governor of Louisiana Joe Biden (born 1942), American politician and the 46th president of the United States. Joseph Sr.'s parents, Mary Elizabeth (née Robinette) and Joseph H. Biden (an oil businessman from Baltimore, Maryland) were of English, French, and Irish descent. Newton C. Blanchard (1849–1922), United States Representative, Senator, and Governor of Louisiana Kathleen Blanco, Governor of Louisiana Pierre Derbigny (1769–1829), Governor of Louisiana Jacques Dupre, Louisiana state representative, state senator and Governor of Louisiana William Pope Duval (1784–1854), first governor of Florida Edwin Edwards (1927–2021), Louisiana governor for four terms Paul Octave Hébert (1818–1880), Governor of Louisiana from 1853 to 1856 and a general in the Confederate Army John Jay, second governor of New York and first Chief Justice of the United States Robert M. La Follette, Governor of Wisconsin and progressive reformer Paul Laxalt, Governor of Nevada of French, Basque descent. Earl Long (1895–1960), three-time Democratic governor of Louisiana Huey Long (1893–1935), Louisiana Governor and a U.S. senator Alexander Mouton (1804–1885), United States Senator and Governor of Louisiana Thomas Nelson Jr. (1738–1789), signer of the Declaration of Independence, Governor of Virginia Pierre S. du Pont, IV, Governor of Delaware, U.S. Representative Aram J. Pothier, twice Governor of Rhode Island; of French Canadian descent Andre B. Roman (1795–1866), speaker of the Louisiana House of Representatives and twice elected Governor of Louisiana Franklin D. Roosevelt, 32nd president of the United States John Sevier, Governor of Tennessee until his death; house representative Henry S. Thibodaux (1769–1827), Governor of Louisiana; father-in-law of Alexander Hamilton Jacques Villeré (1761–1830), second governor of Louisiana George Washington (1732–1799), general of the American Revolutionary War, first American President, descendant of French-American Nicolas Martiau Congressmen and senators Les AuCoin, former Democratic congressman from Oregon Kelly Ayotte (born 1968), New Hampshire former U.S. Senator Joe Biden, U.S. Senator and 46th President of the United States. Carolyn Bourdeaux (born 1970) Democratic member of the United States House of Representatives from Georgia Elias Boudinot (1740–1821), early American statesman James Carville, French-American (Cajun) from Louisiana; outspoken Democrat and served in the Clinton administration; has been a political commentator for many years Hillary Clinton (born 1947), United States Secretary of State, former Democratic member of the United States Senate from New York; wife of William Jefferson Clinton; former first lady of the US Davy Crockett (1786–1836), folk hero, frontiersman, soldier and Congressman from Tennessee Tom DeLay (born 1947), former Republican member of the United States House of Representatives from Sugar Land, Texas, the former House Majority Leader, prominent member of the Republican Party Mike Gravel (1930–2021), Alaska former U.S. senator and candidate for the 2008 Democratic presidential nomination F. Edward Hebert, former Congressman, Chairman of Armed Services Committee Hiram Johnson, Governor of California, Congressman and U.S. Senator. Philip La Follette, Governor of Wisconsin two separate terms Robert M. La Follette Sr. (1855–1925), politician who served as a U.S. Congressman, the 20th Governor of Wisconsin from 1901 to 1906, and Senator from Wisconsin from 1905 to 1925 as a member of the Republican Party John Baptiste Charles Lucas, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Pennsylvania Bernard de Marigny, early President of the Louisiana Senate Michael Michaud (born 1955), Democratic member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Millinocket, Maine, first elected in 2002 Wilmer Mizell (1930–1999), Republican member of the U.S. House of Representatives for North Carolina, 1969–1975 Lisa Murkowski (born 1957), Republican member of the U.S. Senate for Alaska, 2002- (her mother was of French-Irish descent) Gary Peters, junior Senator from Michigan (his mother was from France) Julien de Lallande Poydras (1740–1824), represented the Territory of Orleans in the U.S. House of Representatives, 1809–1811; a self-made businessman, philanthropist, poet, and educator Daniel Roberdeau (1727–1795), represented Pennsylvania from 1777 to 1779 in the Continental Congress and served as a brigadier general in the state militia during the Revolutionary War Joseph Rosier, Senator John Sevier (1745–1815), served four years as the only governor of the State of Franklin and twelve years as governor of Tennessee, and as a US Representative from Tennessee from 1811 until his death Mayors Prudent Beaudry, mayor of Los Angeles Paul Bertus, mayor of New Orleans Etienne de Boré, first Mayor of New Orleans Paul Capdevielle, Confederate army officer, then mayor of New Orleans Joey Durel, mayor of Lafayette, Louisiana Barry E. DuVal, mayor of Newport News, Virginia, 1990 Peter Force (1790–1868), mayor of Washington, D.C., and archivist William Freret, thirteenth mayor of New Orleans Charles Genois (1793–1866), mayor of New Orleans Nicholas Girod, mayor of New Orleans John Brennan Hussey, former mayor of Shreveport, Louisiana Moon Landrieu, judge, former mayor of New Orleans, and former United States Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Damien Marchessault, mayor of Los Angeles Joseph Edgard Montegut, mayor of New Orleans James Pitot, second mayor of New Orleans Louis Philippe de Roffignac, mayor of New Orleans Jacques Roy, former mayor of Alexandria, Louisiana J. A. D. Rozier, mayor of New Orleans Charles Trudeau, fifth mayor of New Orleans Joanne Verger, mayor of Coos Bay, serving four terms; served in the Oregon House of Representatives from 2001 to 2004; elected to the Oregon State Senate in 2004 Other politicians Amy Coney Barrett, judge P. G. T. Beauregard, civil servant, politician, inventor, author, and the first prominent general for the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War Jonathan Blanchard, lawyer, statesman; delegate for New Hampshire to the Continental Congress in 1784 Charles Joseph Bonaparte, Secretary of the Navy (1905) and US Attorney General (1906) in the Theodore Roosevelt Administration; founder of the Bureau of Investigation in 1908, renamed in 1935 the Federal Bureau of Investigation Merle Boucher, North Dakota House of Representatives, representing the 9th district since 1991 Richard Boucher, Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs James Carville, political consultant Todd Chretien, activist Eugene Debs, union organizer F.O. "Potch" Didier, Louisiana sheriff Cat Doucet, Louisiana sheriff George H. Durand, politician, jurist, and attorney Henry Durant, first President of the University of California Henry Fowle Durant, founder of Wellesley College Michael Raoul Duval, investment banker and lawyer; had Senior White House positions while serving under presidents Richard Nixon and Gerald Ford, where he rose to the position of Special Counsel to the President Christopher Emery (born 1957), author, Chief Enterprise Architect, and former White House Assistant Chief Usher Pierre (Peter) Charles L'Enfant, architect and urban planner John C. Frémont, military officer, explorer and the first candidate of the Republican Party for the office of President of the United States Edmond-Charles Genêt, French Ambassador to the U.S. during the American Revolution John Lewis Gervais, American statesman from South Carolina; delegate to the Continental Congress from 1782 to 1783 Izabel Goulart (born 1984), Brazilian model of French and Italian ancestry; Victoria's Secret Angel John Grenier, one of the figures responsible for the rise of the Republican Party in Alabama Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804), American founding father, army officer, lawyer, politician, leading statesman, financier, and political theorist Russel L. Honoré, retired Lieutenant General who served as the 33rd commanding general of the U.S. First Army Caroline Kennedy (born 1957), daughter of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and John F. Kennedy John F. Kennedy Jr. (1960–1999), son of Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and U.S. President John F. Kennedy Jacques Paul Klein, Under-Secretary-General United Nations, Ambassador, Major General, USAF Eric LaFleur, Louisiana House of Representatives Raymond "Lala" Lalonde, former Democratic Louisiana state representative Lyndon LaRouche, American political figure Dudley J. LeBlanc, popular member of Democratic Party Edwin O. LeGrand, one of the fifty-seven men who signed the Texas Declaration of Independence William Lenoir, American Revolutionary War officer and prominent statesman Nathaniel Macon, spokesman for the Old Republican faction of the Democratic-Republican Party Robert B. Macon, representative Alexander McGillivray, leader of the Creek Indians Ernest Nathan Morial, American political, legal, and civil rights leader Libby Pataki, former First Lady of New York Joel Roberts Poinsett, physician, botanist and American statesman Pierre S. du Pont, IV, member of the Republican Party; served three terms as U. S. Representative from Delaware and two terms as Governor of Delaware Hope Portocarrero (1929–1991), former First Lady of Nicaragua Julien de Lallande Poydras (1740–1824), French-American politician who served as Delegate from the Territory of Orleans to the United States House of Representatives Pierre Salinger, press secretary Pierre Soulé, U.S. politician and diplomat during the mid-19th century, best known for writing the Ostend Manifesto in 1854 as part of an attempt to annex Cuba to the United States Billy Tauzin, politician Joanne Verger, Mayor of Coos Bay, serving four terms; served in the Oregon House of Representatives from 2001 to 2004; elected to the Oregon State Senate in 2004 David Vitter, politician Authors and writers Laura Albert, better known under her pen-name JT LeRoy, writer and publisher Louis L'Amour, author P. G. T. Beauregard, author, civil servant, politician, inventor, and the first prominent general for the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War Stephen Vincent Benét (1898–1943), author, poet, short story writer and novelist Bryan Bergeron, author Edd Cartier, pulp magazine illustrator Kate Chopin (1851–1904), author of short stories and novels Robert Cormier (1925–2000), American author with French-Canadian roots John Dufresne, American author Gilbert Chinard (1881–1972), author, historian Will Durant (1885–1981), philosopher, historian, and writer John Crittenden Duval, author Kelly Le Fave (born 1959), poet Richard Le Gallienne, man of letters Robert Grenier, contemporary American poet who is often associated with the Language School Jack Kerouac (1922–1969), novelist, writer, poet, artist, and part of the Beat Generation Theodore de Laguna, American philosopher; early feminist Sidney Lanier (1842–1881), musician and poet Steve Lavigne, comic book illustrator best known for his lettering and coloring on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comics Jonathan Littell, French-American author Grace Metalious (1924–1964), author, best known for Peyton Place Alice Miel, author Anaïs Nin (1903–1977), known for published diaries William Pène du Bois, author, illustrator and publicist Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours (1739–1817), writer, economist and statesman Annie Proulx Paul Theroux Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862), author of many articles and essays, development critic, naturalist, transcendentalist, pacifist, tax resister and philosopher; known for Walden, Civil Disobedience, Resistance to Civil Government George Steiner, born in Paris to Austrian-Jewish parents before moving to the US Gerald Vizenor (born 1934), poet, novelist and literary theorist;t known as an Anishinaabe writer, but he has written extensively about his French ancestors in texts such as Wordarrows (the narrative persona, "Clement Beaulieu", was the name of his uncle) Marguerite Yourcenar, author and first woman to be elected to the Académie Française, in 1980 Education Jonathan Blanchard, pastor, educator, social reformer, abolitionist and the first president of Wheaton College Richard Grenier, neoconservative cultural columnist for The Washington Times; film critic for Commentary and The New York Times Vladimir Lefebvre, mathematical psychologist at the University of California, Irvine Jean Mayer (1920–1993), French-American nutritionist; tenth president of Tufts University from 1976 to 1992 Eric H. du Plessis, professor Edward Sorin (1814–1893), founder of the University of Notre Dame in Indiana and of the St. Edward's University in Texas Fred G. Hoffherr (d. 1956), professor Emeritus of French of Barnard College, led department Jeffrey Vitter (born 1955), Frederick L. Hovde Dean of Science at Purdue University Journalism Andrew Anglin (born 1984), editor of The Daily Stormer Abbie Boudreau (born 1978), CNN investigative journalist Jacqueline Bouvier Kennedy Onassis (1929–1994), former journalist and First Lady of the United States Ric Bucher, NBA analyst for ESPN Richard Grenier, neoconservative cultural columnist for The Washington Times; film critic for Commentary and The New York Times Ellen DeGeneres, television producer and host Adrian Nicole LeBlanc, journalist Connie LeGrand, television journalist; served in broadcasting in South Carolina; host of Speed News (now The Speed Report) John R. MacArthur, reporter for The Wall Street Journal (1977), the Washington Star (1978), The Bergen Record (1978–1979), Chicago Sun-Times (1979–1982); assistant foreign editor at United Press International (1982) Suzanne Malveaux, CNN correspondent, of French Creole ancestry E. Annie Proulx, American journalist and author Pierre Salinger (1925–2004), news correspondent and presidential press secretary for John F. Kennedy Military Augustin de La Balme, General of Cavalry during the American Revolution John Bayard, Colonel in the Continental Army George Dashiell Bayard, grandson of John Bayard brigadier general in the Union Army P. G. T. Beauregard, general for the Confederate Army during the American Civil War, writer, civil servant and inventor Frank Besson, U.S. General Albert Gallatin Blanchard, Civil War General in the Confederate Army Joseph Blanchard, Lieutenant during the French-Indian War Jerome Napoleon Bonaparte II, serving in American and French Armies. Benjamin Bonneville, French-born officer in the United States Army, fur trapper, and explorer in the American West Mitch Bouyer (1837–1876), interpreter/guide in the Old West following the American Civil War, killed at the Battle of the Little Bighorn on June 25, 1876 Claire Lee Chennault, World War II aviator and founder of the Flying Tigers Godfrey Chevalier, pioneer of the naval aviation. Davy Crockett, American folk hero, frontiersman, soldier, and politician. The earliest known paternal ancestor was Gabriel Gustave de Crocketagne, whose son Antoine de Saussure Peronette de Crocketagne was given a commission in the Household Troops under French King Louis XIV. Claudius Crozet, French-born educator and civil engineer Stephen Decatur (1779–1820), naval officer notable for his heroism in actions at Tripoli, Libya in the Barbary Wars and in the War of 1812 Xavier Debray, French-born officer who served as Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Wilmot Gibbes de Saussure, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Lewis DuBois, American Revolutionary War commander Dudley M. DuBose, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Michael Durant, Army pilot officer William G. Fournier, Army soldier and a recipient of the military's highest decoration—the Medal of Honor—for his actions in World War II. Rene Gagnon (1925–1979), one of the U.S. Marines immortalized in the famous World War II photograph (by Joe Rosenthal) of the raising of the flag on Iwo Jima Victor Girardey, French-born immigrant who served as brigadier General in the Confederate States Army Richard Grenier, lieutenant in the Naval Academy Robert Grenier, longtime CIA officer who served as the CIA's top counter-terrorism official in 2005 Florent Groberg, Medal of Honor recipient. Born in France to French mother and American father Louis Hébert, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Paul Octave Hébert, cousin of Louis Hébert, Governor of Louisiana and Brigadier General in the Confederate Army. Jean Joseph Amable Humbert, figure in New France's military who settled in New Orleans in 1808 Papa Jack Laine, bandleader Leon J. LaPorte, four-star general Robert E. Lee (1807–1870), General of the Confederate Army during the American Civil War 1861–1865, a descendant of military engineer Nicolas Martiau John A. Lejeune, U.S. Marine Corps lieutenant general and the 13th Commandant of the Marine Corps. Nicknamed "the greatest of all Leathernecks". Curtis Emerson LeMay (1906–1990), Chief of Staff of the U.S. Air Force from 1961 to 1965. William Lenoir, American Revolutionary War officer and prominent statesman in late 18th-century and early 19th-century North Carolina Robert C. Macon, Army General during World War II; commanded the 83rd Infantry Division during the drive across Europe and served as military attaché in Moscow Arthur Middleton Manigault, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Francis Marion (1732–1795), Brigadier General during American Revolutionary War; known as "Swamp Fox"; one of the fathers of modern guerrilla warfare Nicolas Martiau (1591–1657), military engineer of Jamestown, Virginia 1620, ancestor of President George Washington Dabney H. Maury, Major General in the Confederate Army Benjamin McCulloch (1811–1862), Texas Ranger, military officer, California 49er, sheriff, U.S. Marshall, U.S. Peace Commissioner ending the Utah War of 1857–58, a descendant of Nicolas Martiau Henry Eustace McCulloch (1816–1895), Texas Ranger, military officer in the Texas Revolution as well as the Mexican-American War and the American Civil War, a descendant of Nicolas Martiau Gilbert du Motier, Marquis de La Fayette (1757–1834), aristocrat, considered a national hero in both France and the United States for his participation in the French and American revolutions, for which he became an honorary citizen of the United States Alfred Mouton, Confederate general in the American Civil War Prince Achille Murat, former colonel who settled in New France Thomas Nelson Jr. (1738–1789), Brigadier General, Signer of the Declaration of Independence, Governor of Virginia, descendant of Nicolas Martiau Abner Monroe Perrin, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army John Joseph Pershing (1860–1948), General of the Armies – commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (AEF) on the Western Front in World War I, 1917–18. Pershing's great-great-grandfather, Frederick Pershing, whose name originally was Pfoerschin, emigrated from Alsace in 1749 Camille Armand Jules Marie, Prince de Polignac, French officer who served as Major General in the Confederate Army Stephen Rochefontaine, Chief of Engineers of the Continental Army Frederick Rosier, Royal Air Force commander Gilbert Moxley Sorrel, Brigadier General in the Confederate Army Pierre Sprey (1937–2021), defense analyst and member of Fighter Mafia group John Bordenave Villepigue (1830–1862), Brigadier General in the confederate Army Lewis Warrington (1782–1851), captain in the US Navy, distinguished in the Barbary Wars illegitimitate son of Donatien-Marie-Joseph de Vimeur, vicomte de Rochambeau Religion Antoine Blanc, fourth Bishop and first Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New Orleans Roy Bourgeois, American priest in the Maryknoll order of the Roman Catholic Church and founder of the human rights group SOA Watch Charles J. Chaput, 9th and current Archbishop of Philadelphia Anton Docher (1852–1928), The Padre of Isleta and Indians protector, New Mexico Claude Marie Dubuis, second Roman Catholic bishop of Texas Peter L'Huillier, retired archbishop of the Orthodox Church in America's Diocese of New York and New Jersey Jean-Baptiste Lamy (1814–1888), first Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Santa Fe, New Mexico Mathias Loras (1792–1858), priest who later became the first Bishop of the Dubuque Diocese in what would become the state of Iowa Tammy Faye Messner Michael Portier (1795–1859), Roman Catholic bishop and the first Bishop of Mobile Science Felicie Albert, French-born American physicist Paul André Albert (1926–2019), metallurgist and technology pioneer John James Audubon (1785–1851), ornithologist, naturalist, and painter Daniel Barringer, geologist and son of Daniel Moreau Barringer, congressman William Beaumont, surgeon in the Army; known as the "father of gastric physiology" P. G. T. Beauregard, inventor, author, civil servant, politician, and the first prominent general for the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War Jonathan Betts-LaCroix, chief technical officer of OQO Thomas Blanchard, inventor, awarded over 25 patents for his creations Octave Chanute, railway engineer and aviation pioneer hailed as the father of aviation Louis Chevrolet, co-founder of the Chevrolet brand cars with William C. Durant Philippe Cousteau Jr., environmentalist Georges A. Deschamps, electrical engineer René Dubos (1901–1982), microbiologist, experimental pathologist, environmentalist, humanist, and Pulitzer Prize-winning author William C. Durant, leading pioneer of the United States automobile industry, co-founder of Chevrolet cars with Louis Chevrolet William F. Durand, forerunner of NASA, first civilian chair of the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, naval officer and pioneer mechanical engineer John C. Garand, inventor, gunsmith and machinist Karl Guthe Jansky, physicist Napoleon LeBrun, architect of several notable Philadelphia churches Pierre Charles L'Enfant (1754–1825), architect and urban planner William B. Lenoir, former NASA astronaut John Bevins Moisant (1868–1910), American aviator Matilde E. Moisant (1878–1964), American pioneer aviator and sister of John Bevins Moisant Paco Nathan, computer scientist, author, and performance art show producer Norbert Rilleaux, inventor, engineer Michel (Michael) Ter-Pogossian (1925–1996), physicist; the father of positron emission tomography Edward Livingston Trudeau (1848–1915), physician who established the Adirondack Cottage Sanitorium at Saranac Lake for treatment of tuberculosis Vincent du Vigneaud, American biochemist and Nobel Prize winner Sports Baseball Danny Ardoin (born 1974), baseball player (catcher) Peter Bergeron, baseball player Brett Bochy, baseball pitcher Bruce Bochy, baseball manager Lou Boudreau, Hall of Fame baseball player Mike DeJean, baseball player Jim Duquette, current vice president of baseball operations for the Baltimore Orioles Leo Durocher, Brooklyn Dodgers player and Manager and Hall of Famer Andre Ethier, baseball player, French father Mike Fontenot (born 1980), Louisiana State University and Major League Baseball infielder Ray Fontenot (born 1957), former Major League pitcher Jeff Francoeur, baseball player Greg Gagne, baseball player Chad Gaudin, baseball player Tom Glavine, baseball pitcher Ron Guidry, former baseball player Cal Hubbard, former baseball umpire Nap Lajoie, Hall of Fame former second baseman in Major League Baseball Gene Lamont, former catcher and who managed the Chicago White Sox (1992–1995) and Pittsburgh Pirates (1997–2000) Jim Lefebvre, former second baseman, third baseman and manager in Major League Baseball Edward LeRoux, club owner Max Macon, Major League Baseball player and manager John Maine, current New York Mets pitcher Charlie Manuel, manager of the Philadelphia Phillies Rabbit Maranville, Major League Baseball Hall of Famer Jason Marquis, pitcher for the Chicago Cubs Wilmer Mizell, Major League Baseball player for the Pittsburgh Pirates and the St. Louis Cardinals Bill Monbouquette, baseball player, member of Red Sox Hall of Fame Andy Pettitte, starting pitcher for the NY Yankees Jerry Remy, Red Sox second baseman; later TV presenter Edd Roush (1893–1988), center field baseball player and Hall of Famer Scott Servais (born 1967), manager of the Seattle Mariners Ryan Theriot (born 1979), second baseman for the Chicago Cubs; born in Baton Rouge, Louisiana Basketball Paul Arizin (1928–2006), former basketball player and Hall-of-Famer Bob Cousy, former NBA player and Hall-of-Famer Pat Durham, American former professional basketball Marcus Gaither (1961–2020), American-French basketball player Edwin Jackson, basketball player for Unicaja Malaga Zach LaVine, NBA basketball player (Minnesota Timberwolves) Joakim Noah, NBA basketball player (Chicago Bulls) Tony Parker, NBA basketball player (San Antonio Spurs) Mickaël Piétrus, former NBA basketball player Robert Sacre, Canadian-American basketball player, son of Greg LaFleur Dominique Wilkins, NBA basketball player Football George Andrie (1940–2018), player for the Dallas Cowboys David Bergeron (born 1981), player, with Carolina Panthers Steve Broussard, former punter for the Green Bay Packers Steve Broussard, former NFL running back; played for Atlanta Falcons, Seattle Seahawks, and the Cincinnati Bengals Chris DeFrance, wide receiver for the Washington Redskins Joe DeLamielleure, former American football offensive lineman Jake Delhomme, NFL quarterback Greg DeLong, former NFL tight end Keith DeLong, former linebacker for the San Francisco 49ers A.J. Duhe, linebacker/defensive end, Miami Dolphins Billy Joe DuPree, Cowboys player of French Creole descent Brett Favre (born 1967), NFL quarterback, descended from Jean Faure / Favre; born in Royan, Poitou-Charentes, France Jerry Fontenot, NFL offensive center for the Bears, Saints and Packers Gus Frerotte, NFL quarterback Mitch Frerotte (died 2008), NFL lineman; cousin of Gus Frerotte Mark Gastineau, former New York Jets Joe Germaine, NFL player, originally drafted by the St. Louis Rams in 1999 Dorial Green-Beckham, NFL wide receiver, Tennessee Titans Ray Guy, former punter for the Oakland Raiders Bobby Hebert, former NFL quarterback Brock Huard, Seattle Seahawks former quarterback Damon Huard, former quarterback for the Kansas City Chiefs, New England Patriots, Miami Dolphins, Cincinnati Bengals, and San Francisco 49ers Dick Jauron, Buffalo Bills head coach Charlie Joiner, San Diego Chargers player David LaFleur, player in heart of Dallas Cowboys Greg LaFleur, former player; now the athletic director at Southern University; father of Robert Sacre Curly Lambeau, player, coach, and founder of the Green Bay Packers Jack Lambert, NFL Hall of Famer and one of the Steelers' greatest players Greg Landry, former Detroit Lions quarterback Tom Landry, coach, Dallas Cowboys Steve Largent, NFL Hall of Famer Chad Lavalais, NFL player Dick LeBeau, Pittsburgh Steelers defensive coordinator; former football player Roger LeClerc, former player for the Denver Broncos and Chicago Bears Stefan LeFors, football quarterback Frank LeMaster, former linebacker for the Philadelphia Eagles Josh LeRibeus, guard for Washington Redskins Billy Lyon, former defensive tackle for the Green Bay Packers and Minnesota Vikings Tyrann Mathieu, Arizona Cardinals player, French Creole Tommy Mont, former Washington Redskins quarterback Luke Petitgout, NFL defender on the New York Giants team Noel Prefontaine, CFL kicker with the Edmonton Eskimos Darrell Royal, winningest football coach in University of Texas Longhorn history; College Football Hall of Fame member Bob St. Clair, NFL Hall of Famer; player for the 49ers Brian St. Pierre, quarterback originally drafted by the Pittsburgh Steelers Jim Thorpe (1888–1953), Hall of Fame football player; 1/2 Native American, 1/4 Irish, and 1/4 French; also a star baseball, basketball, and an Olympic star Mike Tolbert, player for the Carolina Panthers Dick Vermeil, former NFL player Christian Yount (born 1988), American football long snapper for the Cleveland Browns Hockey Bryan Berard, former professional ice hockey player Donald Brashear, former professional ice hockey player Thomas Bordeleau, professional ice hockey player currently playing for the San Jose Sharks Brian Boucher, former professional ice hockey goaltender and current analyst Francis Bouillon, former professional ice hockey player Sean Couturier, professional ice hockey currently playing for the Philadelphia Flyers Johnny Gaudreau, professional ice hockey player for the Columbus Blue Jackets Guy Hebert, former professional ice hockey goaltender Pat Lafontaine, former professional ice hockey player John LeClair, former professional ice hockey player Paul Martin, hockey player Zach Parise, professional ice hockey player currently playing for the New York Islanders Philippe Sauvé, former professional ice hockey goaltender NASCAR Greg Biffle, NASCAR driver Brett Bodine, NASCAR driver Geoff Bodine, NASCAR driver Todd Bodine, NASCAR driver Bill France Sr. (1909–1992), co-founder of NASCAR Bobby Labonte, NASCAR driver and brother of Terry Labonte Terry Labonte, NASCAR driver and brother of Bobby Labonte Corey LaJoie, NASCAR driver and son of Randy LaJoie Randy LaJoie, NASCAR driver and father of Corey LaJoie Jack Roush, NASCAR team owner Rodeo Earl W. Bascom (1906–1995), rodeo pioneer, rodeo champion, rodeo hall of fame inductee, "father of modern rodeo" Soccer Davy Arnaud (born 1980), soccer coach and former player Roger Levesque Brian Maisonneuve (born 1973), former soccer player Bert Patenaude (1909–1974), Hall-of-Famer and first player to score a hat-trick in a FIFA World Cup David Regis (born 1968), former soccer defender Quentin Westberg (born 1986), football (soccer) goalkeeper, playing for Troyes AC in France's Ligue 1 Tennis Jim Courier (born 1970), professional tennis player Robert LeRoy (1885–1946), professional tennis player Melanie Oudin, professional tennis player Mary Pierce, tennis player who won multiple Grand Slam titles Other sports Laila Ali (born 1977), professional boxer; daughter of Muhammad Ali and his Louisiana Creole wife Surya Bonaly (born 1973), professional figure skater Walter Cartier, boxer Randy Couture, mixed martial arts champion Jean Cruguet (born 1939), thoroughbred horse racing jockey who won the United States Triple Crown of Thoroughbred Racing Bryson DeChambeau, professional golfer Eddie Delahoussaye, former quarter-horse jockey Kent Desormeaux, Hall of Fame jockey Bob Duval, professional golfer; known for being the father of David Duval, formerly the top-ranked player in the world David Duval, professional golfer and former World No. 1 who competes on the PGA Tour Eric Guerin, Hall of Fame jockey Hulk Hogan, professional wrestler; French on his maternal side Philip Lafond, professional wrestler Jack LaLanne, fitness, exercise and nutritional expert Jason Lamy-Chappuis, French Nordic combined athlete who has been competing since 2002 Edward LeMaire, pro figure skater Greg LeMond, cyclist and three-time winner of the Tour de France Lash LeRoux, professional wrestler Louis Meyer (1904–1995), American Hall of Fame race car driver best known as the first three-time winner of the Indianapolis 500 Francis Ouimet, golf player Allaire du Pont, American sportswoman and a member of the prominent French-American Du Pont family Steve Prefontaine, legendary middle and long-distance runner and first athlete to represent the Nike brand Nicolas Rossolimo (1910–1975), Chess Grandmaster, chess champion of France and U.S. Open champion Régis Sénac, fencer and instructor Craig Titus, IFBB professional bodybuilder Martin Trainer, PGA Tour golfer Triple H (born 1969), professional wrestler Benny Valger, nicknamed "The French Flash", American professional featherweight boxer who fought from the late 1910s until the 1930s Other Art Jack E. Boucher, photographer Xavier Fourcade, art dealer Steve Lavigne, American comic book illustrator best known for his lettering and coloring on Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles comics Raymond Loewy, designer Richard Marquis, glass artist Daniel Wildenstein, art dealer Cuisine Anthony Bourdain, author and the "Chef-at-Large" of Brasserie Les Halles Wylie Dufresne, chef and owner of WD~50 restaurant in Manhattan Nathalie Dupree, chef, cookbook author, and cooking show host Pierre Franey, chef Emeril Lagasse, celebrity chef, restaurateur, television personality, and cookbook author Jacques Pépin, chef Paul Prudhomme, chef Justin Wilson, chef Miscellanea Frank Abagnale (born 1948), impostor Jérôme Napoléon Bonaparte, farmer, president of Maryland Club Mary Katherine Campbell (1905–1990), Miss America titleholder, 1922 and 1923; first runner-up 1924; of Cajun ancestry Derek Chauvin, former Minneapolis police officer convicted in the murder of George Floyd. Simon Favre, 18th-century interpreter of Muscogean languages; ancestor of Brett Favre Charles Guiteau, assassin of U.S. President James Garfield Alice Heine, American-born Princess of Monaco Jean Lafitte, sometimes spelled Laffite (c. 1780–c. 1826), Gulf of Mexico pirate, who provided critical support and expert artillery gunners to the American forces under Gen. Andrew Jackson in January 1815, at the Battle of New Orleans Wayne LaPierre, President of the National Rifle Association of America Marie Laveau, voodoo queen Ervil LeBaron, Mormon fundamentalist prophet; ordered the killings of many of his opponents Carlene LeFevre, competitive eater; wife of Rich LeFevre Rich LeFevre, nicknamed "The Locust"; competitive eater; husband of Carlene LeFevre Bugs Moran, born Adelard Cunin to Jules and Marie Diana Gobeil Cunin, French immigrants, in Saint Paul, Minnesota Georges de Paris, French-American tailor of the United States presidents Albert Simard (d. 1973), Legion of Honour, activist Elmo Patrick Sonnier, convicted murderer and rapist executed Virginie de Ternant (1818–1887), owner and manager of Parlange Plantation See also List of Cajuns List of Louisiana Creoles Notes References French Americans Americans French
5177287	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinnerbait	Spinnerbait	A spinnerbait or spinner is any one of a family of hybrid fishing lures that combines the designs of a swimbait with one or more spoon lure blades. Spinnerbaits get the name from the action of the metallic blades, which passively revolve around the attachment point like a spinning propeller when the lure is in motion, creating varying degrees of vibration and flashing that mimic small fish or other preys of interest to large predatory fishes. The two most popular types of spinnerbaits are the in-line spinner and safety pin spinnerbait, though others such as the tail spinner also exist. Spinnerbaits are used principally for catching freshwater fishes such as perch, pike and bass. Mode of operation Spinnerbaits attract predatory fish primarily by creating significant amount of turbulence, noise and flashing reflections with the spinning blade. The turbulence waves, in particular, provoke the fish's lateral line system, a special tactile sensory organ that enables fish to detect vibrations transmitted through the water and "feel" objects at a distance. Most fish have well-developed lateral lines and can detect the slightest disturbance in water around it, which may warn fish of approaching dangers, signal the presence of territorial intruders, or indicate the potential location of prey. Spinnerbait blades also functions as individual spoon lures, mimic prey and stimulate other fish senses by creating flashes (sight) and noises (hearing) that can be detected quite far away in clear, calm water conditions. Blade designs The most important part of any spinnerbait next to the hook is the blade. There are several different shapes, and numerous sizes, with colors ranging from gold, silver, and bronze, to painted blades with a myriad of different colors and patterns. The two main characteristics of a spinnerbait blade are flash (available light reflecting off the blade as it moves) and vibration (the 'thump' of the blade as it spins). Some blade designs produce more vibration, while other designs produce more flash. Each blade applies to different scenarios, making it crucial to properly arm and prepare yourself for multiple weather conditions. The most prominent blade types include the following: Colorado blade: A round, spoon-shaped blade, the Colorado blade is designed for maximum vibration, its broad shape and parabolic cross-section producing a deep, heavy vibration that can be detected by fish at long distances via their lateral line, and by the angler through the rod. It is often favored for use in situations where the fish cannot see the lure very well, such as in murky water or at night. It also applies to when you're fishing deeper waters, allowing you to feel the blades movement throughout your rod. Willowleaf blade: A long, narrow blade shaped like the foliage it is named after, the Willowleaf has an almost flat cross-section, and stresses flash over vibration, having very little vibration at all. It has the most flash out of all blade types, therefore, making it perfect for imitating baitfish. It is most successful during the summer and fall seasons when there is ample visibility and bass are actively feeding. The flash from the blade and clear waters allow prey to easily see it and be enticed. A popular safety-pin blade setup is to have a Willowleaf blade with a Colorado blade mounted just ahead of it on the frame in a 'tandem' configuration. Indiana blade: This blade is a hybrid of the Willowleaf and Colorado blades, sharing design features of both, such as the narrow width of the Willowleaf and the rounded shape of the Colorado, with a curved cross-section halfway between the two. This blade is highly versatile, providing a middle ground between the extremes offered by the other two. It is the primary blade type used on most in-line spinners. Its name derives from the fact that it was introduced and popularized by an Indiana spinnerbait manufacturer, Hildebrandt. Oklahoma blade: This blade, also referred to as turtleback, Olympic, or mag willow, is a shortened, rounded variant of the Willowleaf blade. In terms of vibration and speed of rotation, it falls between the Colorado and Indiana blades. For heavily pressured waters, this blade creates a sonic signature that is unlike the three more common blade types, and therefore it is more likely to attract attention from predatory fish. Types In-line spinner The in-line spinner is named for the fact that a metal blade revolves around a central axis (a wire), which may be attached by a clevis (a c-shaped metal piece with holes that accommodates the wire) or by itself. Most in-line spinners have metal weights rigged behind the spinning blade and beads or brass hardware that separates the two for frictionless spinning. Due to the fact that the spinning blade cause the whole bait to rotate, line twist builds that creates line problems and tangles. Swivels are used to solve the problem of twist. The blade factor As with all spinner type baits, various shapes of blades are used depending on many factors. Speed of retrieve is a major consideration because different blade designs revolve at different speeds. For example, the elongated willow leaf design requires the most speed to start and maintain the spin. The broader and more circular Colorado blade requires less speed and a slower retrieve to maintain spin. An Indiana blade falls somewhere in between. Vibration is higher with broader blades, less with streamlined blades, but flash depends more on blade size, texture and color than on design. A hammered nickel (pock-marked) blade has the most flash in that the dimpling reflects light at more angles than a smooth polished blade. Painted blades can have more or less flash depending on color and patterns, but always less flash than silver finishes under a sunny sky and have more flash under low light conditions. Under low light conditions fluorescent colored blades stand out over regular colors or polished metal. Treble or single hook dressing The treble hook can be dressed or not, depending on personal preferences of bait profile and action. By itself, the flash and maybe the vibration are the only attractors. But anytime you add something to a bait, you change its appearance and action and may have to alter presentation. The simplest hook dressings have been hair or feather and add a fluttering tail action that is imparted by blade vibration. These materials come in many colors, though black or white have been traditional attractors. Flashy artificial materials such as Flashabou, add a fluttering flash in different incandescent or solid flash colors, increasing the total flash profile of the in-line. Many believe that a dressed treble presents a body/target that follows the flash ahead of it and that it may entice more strikes than a bare treble hook. For this reason, some companies have added soft plastic dressings to the hook to change the appearance and action of the bait and these are routinely called trailers. Soft plastic trailers have traditionally been curly tailed grubs and come in any color desired, as well as either single tail, double tails or quadratails. The speed of retrieve will always depend first on the blade size and design, but trailers provide lift for any spinner type bait, allowing a slightly lower retrieve speed. The weight material on the wire behind the spinning blade and also been made to look like a fish or like traditional minnow type baits such as the Rapala. In-line spinners have limitations such as not being good for heavy weeds or where very slow or vertical presentations are required. In-lines are usually considered swimming, horizontal baits and may be cast or trolled behind a slow moving boat. In-lines come in all sizes: small trout and panfish sizes to musky and salmon sizes up to six inches in length. In-line spinners are a multispecies bait that have a time and place in anyone's tackle box. Safety pin or overhead arm spinnerbait Invented in 1951 and first manufactured in St. Louis, Missouri, the "safety-pin" or overhead blade style spinnerbait is probably the most popular spinnerbait design among bass, northern pike, and redfish anglers in the USA. Its most prominent feature is a wire frame that is bent roughly 90 degrees and embedded at its base in a bullet-, cone-, or arrowhead-shaped lead body with a single hook behind it. Retrieval One advantage of safety-pin spinnerbaits is that they allow the angler to cover the entire water column. Often, safety-pin style spinnerbaits are retrieved within sight and just below the surface at a steady rate. Slow-rolling a spinnerbait is similar to the presentation of a skirted jig in that the lure remains in contact with the bottom throughout the retrieve. If fished as a "drop-bait," the main blade helicopters above the weighted body and hook as the bait falls, thus simulating a dying minnow. Most times the strike occurs as the horizontal retrieve is resumed. A faster retrieve can be used to "bulge" the bait, create a surface wake (i.e., "waking a spinnerbait"), or "buzz" the spinnerbait in which the blades chop the surface, creating more noise and leaving a bubbly trail. Blade options At the tip of the wire frame's overhead arm, a spinner blade is attached by a swivel or other means to an enclosed wire loop. Another blade may be attached "in-line" on the overhead arm by means of a clevis to create a "tandem" blade spinnerbait. The characteristics of blades that are stated above for in-line spinners also apply to safety-pin style spinnerbaits. There are no hard-and-fast rules for when to use a particular design, color or size blade or blade combination. Generally, the rounder Colorado blade is used for slow, steady, colder-water retrieves, dropping the bait in a free fall during retrieve pauses, or slow rolling the bait along the bottom. Narrow willowleaf blades are used for fast retrieves and through vegetation. For more on blade hydrodynamics, see below. Skirt options Like in-line spinners, skirt material options are many and depend on the body/target/action profile desired. Skirts are either tied on or attached by a latex or silicone collar to the lead body molded on the hook. For bass, silicone skirts have recently dominated the field over hair or "living" rubber skirts because of all the available molded-in patterns, metal flakes, and incandescent colors. The skirt's pulsating, fluttering motion caused by blade spin is the same as for in-line spinners, but the body target is rounder and has more action with the similar retrieve or a pause in retrieve. The skirt also adds resistance, which can enable the user to retrieve the bait slower depending on how many strands are used; but again, minimum or maximum speed capability depends on blade size and shape. The length of the skirt is typically 1/4-inch past the curve of the hook, but some anglers prefer longer or shorter skirts in order to produce different profiles and action. Spinnerbait with oversized, swivel-mounted blades or that are retrieved too fast have a tendency to roll over due to torque created by the spinning blade. This decreases the odds of getting a solid hook-up. Ideally, the bait should run true, meaning the overhead arm and the hook are vertical during the horizontal retrieve. Spinnerbaits with spinner blades attached on separate in-line frames are relatively free from torque-induced roll-over and, consequently, achieve higher hook-up ratios. Trailer considerations Spinnerbait dressings or trailers are even more varied than for in-line spinners, and personal preference dominates choice. Shaped pork rind and soft plastic trailers are the norm, with soft plastic being the most prevalent trailer material. They come in many colors. As with in-line spinners, the trailer affects lure profile, action and lift depending on shape and size. For example, a straight, split-tail eel design has the least lift or drag and is more of a skirt-like extension; whereas a large curly-tail grub produces the most rear action, more lift, and the largest profile within the pulsating skirt. Pork or soft plastic chunk baits contribute the most lift to the bait on the horizontal retrieve. Another advantage of some soft molded trailers—particularly split eel trailers—is that when a fish sucks the lure into its mouth, the trailer tails can catch on the gill rakes. This prolongs the time it takes the fish to spit out the lure and gives the angler another second to react and set the hook. Wire arm length consideration Generally, safety-pin spinnerbaits fall into two groups: short-arm and long-arm. Short-arm spinnerbaits are preferred for more vertical presentations, such as flipping bridge pilings or docks, and working down steep structure like bluffs. They excel for "yo-yo" retrieves. This type of spinnerbait falls better (doesn't nose-dive), presents the spinner blades closer to the skirted body and hook, and is more effective than long-arm models when the bait is dragged across the bottom like a jig or slow-rolled. Typically a Colorado blade is used to slow the fall and create the maximum fluttering flash as the lure descends. Disadvantages: the short arm guards the hook point less effectively and, therefore, makes the lure more prone to snag vegetation and brush than long-arm frames. When dragged over a tree limb, the angler must give a quick tug on the line to skip the lure over the branch before the blade clears and its weight rolls the lure upside down, burying the hook point in wood. Long-arm spinnerbaits are used when a bait has multiple blades or when more weed resistance is needed during a horizontal retrieve. Single, large blades produce more fish-attracting vibration, increase skirt and trailer pulsation, and provide added lift to the bait on the slowest retrieves. Long-arm baits are typically preferred for "waking a spinnerbait." Disadvantages: the long arm sometimes actually blocks the hook point, especially when larger fish crush the entire lure in their mouth, thus reducing the lure's hook-up efficiency. Because of the position of the blade relative to the lure's body, long-arm spinnerbaits tend to nose-dive when the retrieve is stopped, which means the hook no longer points toward the angler, reducing the hook-up effectiveness of the lure. Stinger (trailer) hooks Adding a trailer hook or "stinger" hook (either a single or treble hook) behind the main spinnerbait hook is also a personal preference and may ensure a better hookup as well preventing fish that jump from throwing the bait. Some anglers prefer the single hook to be rigged so that the point is down, especially in open-water situations. Others prefer it rigged point-up. In either case the hook must be prevented from coming off the main hook or grabbing weeds. One way to accomplish this is to use rubber or silicone tubing cut to 1/8", inserting the eye of the trailer hook and forcing the main hook through the tube-covered eye. The trailer hook is now fixed stationary behind the main hook. Another way allows the hook more side to side motion and consists of stops above and below the eye placed on the main hook. These stops can be 1/8-inch cut silicone tubing or disks hole-punched from the plastic lid of a coffee can or wide rubber bands and placed above and below the trailer hook eye encircling the main hook. The overhead arm spinnerbait is used for fewer species, but is a great tool for larger sportfish that dominate the food chain. For smaller species, an In-line Spinner or Beetle Spin type design is preferred. Beetle spin Chuck Wood invented the Beetle Spin in 1963–1964. Virgil Ward saw it at the Fishing Shack in Olathe Kansas and his Bass Buster company produced it, then the Johnson Tackle Company bought out Bass Buster. Typically used for panfish, other sport species also attack the bait. A small blade is attached by a swivel (the as for overhead arm spinnerbaits), but the wire frame is formed into a spring clip that opens to allow a jighead to be attached by sliding the jig eye into position such that the jig hook runs in the same direction as the overhead blade. Jighead dressings are on the short, more compact side and variable in material and design. The curl tail grub is popular, along with straight tail plastics and hair. The original jig dressing was called the cricket, a straight, double-tailed soft plastic creature that had little action except that it wagged up and down and side-to-side behind the spinning blade or with variations in retrieve speed. As the Beetle Spin became more popular, more designs were introduced and softer plastic was used for better action. Many species of fish will hit a Beetle Spin combo. Tailspinner A tailspinner is a type of spinnerbait that consists of a lead body with the line tie point on top, a single treble hook on the bottom, and a single small blade mounted on the tail, hence the name. Mann's Bait Company's "Little George" tailspinner—introduced in the 1960s—is the most well-known lure in this class. When fished vertically for schooling fish in deep water, the bait is ripped upward and then allowed to flutter back down on a semi-taut line. Anglers use it for horizontal presentations as well; it casts like a bullet, so it works well on windy days; however, it sinks like a bullet, too, so one has to reel it quickly in shallow water to keep it from snagging on the bottom. See also Swimbait Spoon lure References Notes Bibliography Hauge S (2008) Big Book of Bass: Strategies for Catching Largemouth and Smallmouth pp. 76–77, Creative Publishing. . Martin M (2008) Roland Martin's 101 Bass-Catching Secrets Edition 2, Skyhorse Publishing. . Oster D (2000) Luring Largemouth Bass: Sure-Fire Strategies for Catching More and Bigger Bass pp. 70–71, Creative Publishing. . Oster D (2000) Largemouth Bass: Tournament-Tested Patterns for Catching Big Bass in Lakes, Rivers, and Reservoirs pp. 62–67, Creative Publishing. . Sternberg D (2003) The Ultimate Guide to Freshwater Fishing Chapter on Spinner and Spinnerbaits, pp. 214–223. Publishing Solutions. . Further reading Confessions of a spinnerbait addict Joe Doggett, Field and Stream, June 2002, 107(2): 67–71. Dredge up bass with spinnerbaits Mark Hicks, Field and Stream, April 1990, 94(12): 55f. Spring stands for spinnerbaits Ken Schultz, Field and Stream, March 1979, 83(11): 103–108. External links Spinnerbaits Spinnerbait Fishing Tips Fishing equipment
5177706	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasily%20Maklakov	Vasily Maklakov	Vasily Alekseyevich Maklakov (; , Moscow – July 15, 1957, Baden, Switzerland) was a Russian student activist, a trial lawyer and liberal parliamentary deputy, an orator, and one of the leaders of the Constitutional Democratic Party, notable for his advocacy of a constitutional Russian state. He served as deputy in the (radical) Second, and conservative Third and Fourth State Duma (Russian Empire). According to Stephen F. Williams Maklakov is "an inviting lens to which to view at the last years of Tsarism". In February 1917 Maklakov was appointed as commissar in the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. In October 1917 he was sent to Paris as ambassador, but by the time he arrived there, the Russian Provisional Government no longer existed. He subsequently went on to organize the activities of Russian émigrés. Imperial Russia Vasily, or Basil, was the son of Alexey Nikolaevich Maklakov (1837 – May 1895), a Moscow ophthalmology professor, the inventor of ocular tonometry, a member of the zemstvo and the Moscow City Duma. His mother came from a noble and wealthy family, spoke three foreign languages, and played the piano. She had seven children and died when he was 11 years old. Vasily had a full-time governess, and he and his siblings learned to speak French fluently. He was interested in organic chemistry and bought a Bunsen burner. He studied mathematics and physics after he left the 5th Moscow Gymnasium in 1887. He was impressed by French political life and influenced by Count Mirabeau. During a visit to the famous World's fair in Paris with his father, French students took him to election meetings and introduced him to candidates. Back home, Maklakov published an account of the "Paris Student Association" in Russkiye Vedomosti. Like Lenin and Ayn Rand, he was influenced by the death of Nikolay Chernyshevsky, a victim of injustice. In 1890, he raised money for the poor with concerts; he was arrested for his participation in the student movement and expelled from the university "for political unreliability". He spent five days in the Butyrka prison. Then, he went back to Paris with his stepmother, the author of children books, and he met with the anarchists and geographers Léon Metchnikoff and Reclus. Back home, Vasily organized a student economic commission and held his first political speech. He met with Leo Tolstoy and began to appear in newspapers, mainly because of the Russian famine of 1891–1892. In 1894, he joined the army in Rostow as a volunteer. After his father had a talk about his son with the Director of Police Pyotr Durnovo, the trustee P.A. Kapnist suggested for Vasily to change faculties and to study history. Maklakov was seen as "a man of outstanding intelligence". After the ban was lifted, he graduated under Paul Vinogradoff, an eminent scholar and researcher of classical antiquity at Imperial Moscow University. Maklakov was offered to stay to prepare for the professorship but this was opposed. He then decided to choose for advocacy and graduated from the law faculty. His thesis was dedicated to "The impact of dependent land ownership on civil legal capacity at the end of the Carolingian period". After the death of their father, the brothers inherited Dergaykovo-estate near New Jerusalem Monastery. Lawyer In 1896, he entered the bar and became a member of the Moscow Law Society. It seems that he became the assistant of the Polish lawyer Alexander Robertovich Lednicki and collaborated with Fedor Nikiforovich Plevako (1842-1909), a distinguished attorney at law and judicial speaker. Maklakov and his brother and sister Maria moved to Zubovsky Boulevard, not far from Leo Tolstoy in Khamovniki District. Together, they walked or went to the baths on which Maklakov had an interesting account. At Yasnaya Polyana, outside Moscow, they discussed the fate of the Doukhobors. At the novelist's urging, he defended a "Bespopovtsy" in the Kaluga Governorate accused of blasphemy; later he defended a "Tolstoyan", who was accused of storing prohibited works of Tolstoy; that case ended with an extremely lenient sentence. Plevako, a real state adviser, owned a Jugendstil apartment building at Novinskiy Boulevard. Maklakov, divorced, lived there too; they both were friendly with Anton Chekhov visiting Moscow in May 1903. Chekhov's intention to spend the summer at the Maklakov estate at Voskresensk did not materialise, but Maklakov signed Chekhov's will. Maklakov owned several hunting dogs and a dacha in Zvenigorod according to Chekhov. Between 1901 and 1905, Maklakov defended several political demonstrations but also profitable commercial cases involving major Russian enterprises. He was deeply interested in the rule of law. In 1904, he was the secretary and archivist of the opposition circle Beseda. Then, he participated in the Union of Liberation, a moderate reform group of around 23 men. It saw as its task to fight the autocracy and to introduce a constitutional system in Russia. It imagined the future of Russia only in the development of the existing system, an organic evolution, not in coups. The members had a zemstvo background, representing the landowning class and intelligentsia. The October Manifesto During the First Russian Revolution, the Tsar asked his cousin Grand Duke Nicholas to assume the role of dictator, but the Grand Duke threatened to shoot himself if the Tsar refused to endorse Sergei Witte's memorandum. After a ten-day general strike in October, Nicholas II had no choice but to take a number of steps in the constitutional liberal direction. In the October Manifesto, Witte advocated the creation of an elected parliament, which took the form of establishing the State Duma and the multi-party system. On 20 October 1905, Witte was appointed as the first Chairman of the Russian Council of Ministers (effectively Prime Minister), but the Kadets refused to join his cabinet. The Kadets doubted that Witte could deliver on the promises made by the Tsar in the October Manifesto since they knew the Tsar's staunch opposition to reform. On 9 November 1906, the cabinet issued a decree enabling Russia's 90 million peasants to start a complex process of transforming their property rights. On 24 November, by Imperial decree, provisional regulations on the censorship of magazines and newspaper was released. After an armed uprising in December 1905, the reactionary Pyotr Durnovo was appointed as Minister of Interior on 1 January 1906, a decision that was heavily criticized. The real ruler of the country was Dmitri Trepov. In the Russian Constitution of 1906, the Tsar gave up autocracy. In July, regretting his "moment of weakness", he dissolved the First Duma. The ministers remained responsible solely to Nicholas II, not to the Duma. As deputy in the State Duma At the end of 1905, Maklakov joined the Freemasons when the right to form unions and private meetings was established under Nicholas II of Russia and thus the limitations on Freemasonry were lifted. Maklakov played an active part in the organization of the Constitutional Democratic Party (KD or Kadets), the first open political party serving on its central committee in October 1905. He promoted a coalition cabinet unlike Stolypin, Milyukov and Dmitri Trepov. Maklakov was elected by the Muscovites in the Arbat District to the Second Duma in February 1907, but he was more a lawyer than a deputy. He attracted attention with a brilliant speech about military field courts, dealt with Sergei Konstantinovich Gershelman, advocated the abolition of the death penalty and insisted on the inviolability of the individual. He was strongly opposed the signing of the Vyborg Manifesto, written by Pavel Milyukov. He tended toward conservatism, regretted the dissolution of the Union of Liberation, argued for a shift to the right and opposed alliances with revolutionaries. He hated long political meetings and did not like party discipline. He argued that as a political party the KD must prepare itself for government participation and so must be prepared to defend the rights of whatever sort of government if it wanted to be regarded as a serious political force and to concentrate on defending not only the rights of the people but also those of the state. After the Coup of June 1907, which was considered by Maklakov as a day that would go down in infamy, Stolypin and the Tsar changed the electoral law and gave greater electoral value to the votes of landowners and owners of city properties and less value to the votes of the peasantry. In summer 1908, Maklakov travelled to Siberia because of the construction of the Amur Railway. In early 1909, he inherited Plevako's law practice. In May 1909, he delivered a lecture about the legal history of Russia in the 19th century. In 1912, the influence of the Kadets in the Duma had shrunk. A high point of his legal career was the defence of Menahem Mendel Beilis, a Russian Jew wrongly accused of ritual murder of a 13-year-old Ukrainian child. Beilis was tried twice; the evidence against him was very weak. Alexander Tager wrote that "the whole country was against the process, except for the extreme right and that the ritual murder of which he was accused was a fiction of the Black Hundreds". Maklakov "hit the nail on the head," and in October 1913, Beilis was acquitted and immediately released. His acquittal was "a clear defeat for the authorities and a victory for liberal and radical public opinion" and greatly calmed public opinion, for no innocent man was convicted. The actual killers of the child were professional criminals. Maklakov had published articles claiming that the jury's verdict had saved the court's good name. Later it turned out that five of the jurors, including the foreman, had been members of the Union of the Russian People. First World War In 1914, Maklakov joined the All-Russian Zemstvo Union, which supported sick and wounded soldiers. Maklakov grew hostile to the government under Ivan Goremykin as the Eastern Front (World War I) went on. Russia hoped that the war would last until Christmas, but after a year, the situation had become disastrous. In the large cities, there were a shortage of food and high prices, and the Russian people blamed all on "dark forces" or spies for and collaborators with Germany. His younger brother, Nikolay Maklakov, a staunch monarchist who served as Russia's Interior Minister, was forced to resign. In September Maklakov published a sensational article, "A Tragic Situation," describing Russia as a vehicle with no brakes, driven along a narrow mountain path by a "mad chauffeur, who can't drive," an allegory with a reference to the Tsar. At the end of 1915, he actively supported the Progressive Bloc, a coalition of liberal parties that called for sweeping reforms, with the aim of inducing the Tsar to co-operate with the Fourth Duma. The most conservative of its leaders, Maklakov was anxious to preserve the party's unity, which appeared fragile in the face of his many ideological clashes with Milyukov, who was reputed for his intransigent liberal individualism. Milyukov suggested for Maklakov to join the Octobrists. In early November 1916, Grand Duke Nicholas Mikhailovich of Russia, Prince Lvov and general Mikhail Alekseyev attempted to persuade the Tsar to send away Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, Rasputin's steadfast patron, to the Livadia Palace, in Yalta, or to Britain. On 3 November, Maklakov held a powerful speech the government of Boris Shturmer. He was visited soon by Yusupov but refused to get involved in a conspiracy although later that month, he decided to give him legal advice. Maklakov approved the murder of Grigory Rasputin and even served as a sort of "legal adviser" to one of its perpetrators, Felix Yusupov, but he categorically refused to participate in the plot. One of the five participants in the assassination, Vladimir Purishkevich, claimed that it was Maklakov who had supplied Prince Felix Yusupov with a dumbbell or truncheon and poison to murder Grigori Rasputin. On the day of the murder (30 December 1916), Maklakov left for Moscow, but went back the next day. In 1923, Maklakov wrote that he had supplied Yusupov with harmless aspirin. Also, Lazovert stated later he had used not poison but a harmless powder. The extent of his involvement in the murder of the "mad monk" is a matter of keen debate. On 26 February 1917, Nikolai Pokrovsky reported on his negotiations with the Bloc, led by Maklakov, at the session of the Council of Ministers in the Mariinsky Palace. The Bloc spoke for the resignation of the government by Nikolai Golitsyn. On 27 February, Vasily was appointed as one of the 24 commissars the Provisional Committee of the State Duma. On 28 February, his brother Nikolay was arrested having tried to prevent a revolution" together with Alexander Protopopov (on 8 February). After the February Revolution, Vasily Maklakov supported Lavr Kornilov against Kerensky and aspired to take the office of Minister of Justice in the Provisional Government. After the post went to Alexander Kerensky, Maklakov was put in charge of the government's "legal commission". When he was elected in the Moscow City Duma on 8 July, he lived on 32 Novinsky Boulevard. He was friendly with countess Sofia Panina the first woman in world history to hold a cabinet position. Maklakov was elected in the Constituent Assembly but in October send to Paris. Panina was arrested when she refused to transfer the funds of the Ministry of Education to the Bolsheviks. In the first political trial she was accused of embezzling 93,000 rubles from the Ministry, which she denied. France In October 1917, Maklakov was appointed to replace Alexander Izvolsky as Ambassador to France. When he arrived in Paris, Maklakov learned of the Bolshevik takeover (October Revolution) and he represented a no longer existent government. In December was put out of charge by Trotsky but nevertheless continued to occupy the splendid mansion of the Russian embassy for seven years. Hôtel d'Estrées served as the informal headquarters of the White émigré, the anti-Bolsheviks. Throughout that period, French authorities considered Maklakov "an ambassador who had not yet been accredited". There was considerable ambiguity in this position. For example, he once received a letter from Premier Clemenceau addressed to "Son Excellence Monsieur Maklakoff, Ambassade de Russie", with the lightly erased letters "ur" at the end of "Ambassade". Maklakov lightly compared himself to "a magazine that one puts on a seat to show that it is occupied". In Paris, he met with Nikolay Sokolov, who had investigated the cases of the execution of the Romanov family but held no longer legal authority. The Sokolov dossier was marked "secret" and secured inside the military procurator's archive until 1991. His sister Maria organized a gymnasium, funded by Henri Deterding. In 1920 Maklakov and Peter Struve managed to get Wrangel' regime officially recognized by France. Wrangel was extremely friendly, but not everybody was charmed by his personality. He wired Pyotr Wrangel that the French considered to encourage the Polish army to attack. Early September, Maklakov visited the Crimea to meet the leaders of the White Army at Sebastopol. It was his last visit to Russia. Maklakov recognized Wrangels qualities, who wanted to implement an agrarian reform, but three months later Wrangel's army ceased to exist. There was an official delegation of Bolsheviks in Paris, diplomatic relations between the Soviets and the United Kingdom and France were established on 2 February and 28 October 1924. Wrangel was told to abandon his (military) adventures. For ten years, Maklakov corresponded with Vasily Shulgin, a member of the White Movement who escaped to Serbia. He assumed control of a network of offices Russes that certified marriages and births of Russian émigrés throughout France and performed other work normally undertaken by Russian consulates. It was through Maklakov that the widow of Count Sergei Witte was able to obtain the memoirs of her late husband, which were of a destructive nature, stored in the safe of a bank in Bayonne. His secret memoirs, completed in 1912, were published in translation in 1921. The debate between Milyukov and Maklakov began in 1912 on the question of absenteeism and with Maklakov's criticism of the Constitutional Democratic Party. Maklakov supported Stolypin who had tried to form a "coalition cabinet", but Milyukov did not trust the Tsar and his Manifesto and refused to co-operate. Could the revolutions of 1917 have been prevented if the Kadets had adopted a less radical stance, particularly in 1905-1906? The German Gestapo arrested Maklakov in April 1942, as he had not registered; he then spent 2–3 months in jail without trial. He was forced to leave Paris and moved in at the historian Baron Boris Nolde. Throughout World War II, he kept in touch with the French Resistance. In February 1945, Maklakov and several surviving members of the Provisional Government visited the Soviet embassy to express their pride and gratitude for the war effort of the Russian people. The visit was controversial among the émigré community, particularly after émigrés learned that Maklakov and others had drunk a toast "to the motherland, to the Red Army, to Stalin". In 1929 and again in 1945, he corresponded with Mark Aldanov, the literary consultant of the Chekhov Publishing House, which published mainly works by émigré authors. Some had joined the Union of Russian Patriots. Despite encroaching deafness, Maklakov remained at the helm of the Russian Emigration Office (eventually subsumed into the structure of Charles de Gaulle's government) until his death at the age of 88. His front-rank reputation and talent for mediation allowed Maklakov (rather than better-known but controversial men like Kerensky and Milyukov) to manoeuvre between the many warring factions that made up the Russian émigré community and to represent their interests in dealing with the French government. For years, Maklakov was assisted by his sister Maria who was able to decipher his handwriting and did the typing in Rue Peguy (5th arrondissement of Paris). He died in a Swiss spa. Legacy In his memoirs, "From the Past", first published in 1954, Maklakov discusses the causes of events in Russia, which he witnessed and participated in, touches upon such issues that have not lost their relevance today such as the essence of democracy, the functions of a democratic state, the relationship between the state and the individual, the coordination of the interests of the majority in society and minorities. He expressed his hope for its further evolution", for "its synthesis with the rest of the world". He was not entirely satisfied with Western democracies: they could not prevent world wars, nor the emergence of totalitarian regimes, nor ensure equal rights for all. Maklakov spent most of his career attempting to reform the (legal) system in Russia unsuccessfully. He wrote several books on the history of social thought and the Russian liberal movement. In Soviet times Maklakov (and the Kadets) were seen as "bourgeois" and "not studied". In 1926 and with the help of Nikolai Golovin Maklakov took control of the Okhrana archives from 1883 to 1917 stored at the Paris embassy. His personal archive was transferred to Hoover Institution (Stanford University) after his death. In 1959 Georgy Adamovich published a biography on Maklakov. Works "Tolstoy as a public figure" (1912) Memories. Leader of the Moscow Cadets on Russian politics. 1880-1917 "State Power and Public Life at the Decline of Old Russia," (1936) "The First State Duma. Memories of a Contemporary," completed in 1939 and even typed, but did not go on sale. The First State Duma: Contemporary Reminiscenses. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1964. "The Second State Duma" (1940) or (1944, 1946)? Court speeches, Duma speeches, and public lectures. 1904-1926 (with a foreword by M.A. Aldanov) - Paris. 1949 "Soviet Power and Emigration" From the past. Contemporary notes. Chekhov Publishing House. New York 1954 Politician, Lawyer, Man (1959). Sources Dedkov, N.I. (2005) The conservative liberalism of Vasilii Maklakov. Hamza, Gabor, Some Remarks on the Educational Background and Political Career of Alexander Fjodorovits Kerensky in (Tzarist) Russia. Polgari Szemle 11 (2015) 394–397. pp. Hamza, Gabor, Survey on the oeuvre of Vasilij Aleksejevic Maklakov (1869-1957), the Statesman, Diplomat and Scholar of Classical Antiquity. Jogelmeleti Szemle 2016/4. http://jesz.ajk.elte.hu/2016_4.pdf Kröner, A.W.(1998) "The Debate Between Miliukov and Maklakov on the Chances for Russian Liberalism." [s.n.]. Kröner, Anthony (2021) Vasilii Maklakov: A Russian liberal between autocracy and revolution 1869-1957 Williams, Stephen F. (2017) The Reformer: How One Liberal Fought to Preempt the Russian Revolution See also On YouTube: Stephen F. Williams "The Reformer" List of Russian legal historians List of scholars in Russian law References 1869 births 1957 deaths Politicians from Moscow People from Moskovsky Uyezd Russian Constitutional Democratic Party members Members of the 2nd State Duma of the Russian Empire Members of the 3rd State Duma of the Russian Empire Members of the 4th State Duma of the Russian Empire Russian Constituent Assembly members Russian Freemasons Lawyers from Moscow White Russian emigrants to France
5178211	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1804%20New%20England%20hurricane	1804 New England hurricane	The 1804 New England hurricane (also known as the Storm of October 1804) was the first tropical cyclone in recorded history known to have produced snowfall. An unusual late-season storm in 1804, it yielded vast amounts of snow, rain, and powerful winds across the northeastern United States. Prior to its approach towards the East Coast of the United States, it passed through the Caribbean Sea on October 4, and later emerged near Georgetown, South Carolina. By early on October 9, a trough near the Virginia Capes turned the disturbance toward New England. Soon thereafter, the hurricane's abundant moisture clashed with an influx of cold Canadian air, leading to the deepening of the resulting pressure gradient and provoking inland intensification. While situated over Massachusetts, it attained its peak intensity of 110 mph (175 km/h), undergoing an extratropical transition. Even as it drifted towards the Canadian maritimes, consequently gradually weakening, precipitation persisted for another two days before the snowstorm finally subsided on October 11. Due to its unusual nature, both heavy snowfall and strong winds caused a swath of devastation stretching from the Mid-Atlantic states to northern New England. In the Middle-Atlantic region, moderate damage occurred at sea but little was noted inland. In New England, strong gusts inflicted significant damage to numerous churches. Widespread residential damage, in contrast, was mostly negligible and had no lasting consequences. Thousands of trees were knocked over, obstructing roads and fiscally damaging the timber industry throughout the region. Cold temperatures, wet snow, and high winds downed numerous branches in fruit orchards, froze potato crops, flattened dozens of barns, and killed over a hundred cattle. In general, the agriculture, shipping, timber, and livestock trades suffered most acutely following the passage of the hurricane, while structural damage was widespread but generally inconsequential. The storm's most severe effects were concentrated at sea and led to a majority of the hurricane's deaths. Winds swept dozens of watercraft and multiple ships ashore, while high waters capsized many others. Several wharves were destroyed, subsequently harming local shipping businesses. Snow and rainfall totals varied widely between states, with a clear delineation between areas that received frozen precipitation and rainfall in the Northeast. Areas of Massachusetts received up to of rain, in contrast to snow totals upward of measured in Vermont. In all, the hurricane caused more than 15 deaths at sea and one inland, and also resulted in at least $100,000 (1804 USD) in damage. The hurricane of 1804, generally described as the most severe storm in the United States since the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635 nearly 200 years earlier, set several major precedents which have only infrequently been replicated since. It was the first known tropical cyclone to generate snowfall, and its early and extensive accumulations throughout New England were not only unprecedented but unusually heavy. Meteorological history The origins of the hurricane prior to its approach near New England are mostly unknown. A modern study conducted in 2006 traced its origins to north of Puerto Rico on October 4, 1804, and reports indicated it also passed by Dominique and Guadaloupe on the same day. Little else was known about the storm until its approach towards the East Coast of the United States and transit near South Carolina. Weather historian David Ludlum concluded that both the hurricane's strength and its abnormally cold environment were derived from the influx of unseasonably cold air from the north converging upon the storm's abundant moisture, increasing the pressure gradient and leading to intensification. He also speculated that the storm could have formed non-tropically from the southern Appalachian Mountains before arriving on the Atlantic coast, but given meteorological circumstances, characteristics, and timing, it was evaluated that the storm was of tropical origin. The earliest evidence of a disturbance near the United States was noted on October 8, when rainfall was recorded in upstate New York, precipitated by the storm's western periphery, in advance of an approaching trough. The following morning, the trough's motion near the Virginia Capes area was accompanied by intensifying winds and a change in their direction; initially southwesterly at force 3 (retroactively estimated based on the Beaufort scale, which was devised in 1805), the incoming gale's winds rapidly turned towards the west-northwest, escalating to force 6 by the afternoon. A 2001 study noted the unusual orientation of the storm's winds; although a majority of New England hurricanes induced southeasterly gusts, the 1804 hurricane's, in contrast, were mostly southwesterly. Historical records chronicled the remainder of the storm's track along the East Coast of the United States. A "dreadful squall" occurred near Cape Henry at noon on October 9, and historical documents confirm it quickly reached Chesapeake Bay later that morning, maintaining west-to-north winds. While gusts in New York City, where the storm arrived that afternoon, initially blew towards the southeast, they soon shifted towards the north-northwest and coincided with a rapid drop in atmospheric pressure, which bottomed out at 977 mbar (28.87 inHg) by the early afternoon. Though the barometer at the weather station remained at that point for much of the afternoon, the air temperature plummeted rapidly from to during the same period. A strong westerly circulation encouraged the swift eastward movement of the trough's northern segment, steering the track of the storm northeastward over New England. By the evening, the storm had fully traversed the northeastern United States, where accounts indicated the passage of the storm's eye. The results of the 2001 study also suggested atypical strengthening occurred around this time, achieving its peak intensity with 1-minute maximum sustained winds of 110 mph (175 km/h) over Massachusetts, equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. The storm's maximum diameter was estimated to be at its largest point. As the hurricane weakened throughout the night, it underwent an extratropical transition, evidenced by a passageway of weak winds off of the trough's center. Its eye was consequently distorted as it meandered northward towards Canada, where it subsequently encountered an area of high pressure; though gusts diminished that evening, moderate precipitation persisted for another two days, before the snowstorm finally departed on October 11. Impact and records The hurricane brought strong gusts, copious snow, and heavy rain throughout New England and across the Mid-Atlantic region. High precipitation amounts were observed along the storm's trajectory, peaking at inches of rain in Salem, Massachusetts and of snow at Windsor, Vermont. It was the first known tropical cyclone to feature frozen precipitation, and remained the only instance until a later disturbance in 1841 and Hurricane Ginny in 1963, which triggered of snow in regions of northern and central Maine. The unusually widespread and severe October snow was seen few times – if ever – until the 2011 Halloween nor'easter, which dropped several feet in New England at its worst. Similarly, Hurricane Sandy in 2012 brought heavy snow along areas of the East Coast, with its highest depths concentrated in Virginia, albeit while exhibiting extratropical characteristics. In addition, a modern survey concluded that the 1804 storm was the only known hurricane to strike New England with southwesterly winds, and it was also one of only two, the other being the 1869 Saxby Gale, confirmed to have intensified while inland over New England. In the Middle-Atlantic states, it caused little injury overall, though many boats and ships were capsized. To the north in New England, many churches endured significant damage, and shipwrecks led to 15 deaths, with one other death owing to a building collapse. Due to intense gusts, hundreds of trees were uprooted and many buildings were unroofed. Agriculture, shipping, timber, and livestock industries also suffered substantial impairment, with considerable injury experienced by barns, crops, watercraft, timber, and livestock. Farther north, entire swaths of forest were leveled, and heavy snow blocked roads, paths, and turnpikes. Fruit orchards and sugar groves endured the worst of the storm, reducing the season's harvests. Private properties generally suffered damage to roofs, windows, and chimneys; several buildings throughout the region were reported to have collapsed. Overall, approximately $100,000 in damage and more than 16 deaths were recorded. Mid-Atlantic and south Though the hurricane was reported to have passed by Dominique, Guadaloupe, and Georgetown, South Carolina, few other details are known and no damage was observed. Losses in the Mid-Atlantic states were much less severe than those in New England, but isolated damage was still noted. Offshore Cape Henry, Virginia, a vessel weathered through a squall, but managed to escape without being capsized. To the north near Chesapeake Bay, a mail boat was impeded by unrelenting west-to-northwesterly gusts at Havre de Grace, Maryland, and consequently was unable to traverse the bay. A negative storm tide at Baltimore grounded multiple boats, and farther north at Philadelphia, an arriving ferry was inundated by a sudden gale. In New Jersey, a ferry was overturned near Trenton, and another ran ashore within the proximity of Absecon Beach. The hurricane's impact in New York state was largely insignificant, though rain totals reached in New York City. Meanwhile, to the west in the Catskill Mountains, up to of snow accumulated, despite reports of fast-melting snow at Rochester. Winds at Hudson were seemingly more extreme than any other previous storm in the region, and the Hudson Valley as a whole experienced intense gusts throughout the day; however, there was only a single report of inland damage, with houses flattened at Newburgh as a result of the severe winds. Shipping was slightly disrupted throughout the state of New York, with high winds forcing ships to travel with lowered sails, also preventing vessels from docking at New York Harbor on October 10. Southern New England Devastation was widespread throughout the state of Massachusetts, with high winds and heavy snow averaging causing significant havoc. In Boston, strong winds, described as "unprecedented in the annals" of the city, were documented during the afternoon of October 9, with the intense gusts blowing off the steeple of the Old North Church. The steeple was eventually repaired and restored several times, yet was blown down by once more in 1954 by Hurricane Carol and mended once again. Meanwhile, the roof of the King's Chapel was tossed from its initial location, landing on an adjacent house and crushing two carriages into pieces. Churches and meetinghouses in Salem, Beverly, Charlestown, and Danvers were also seriously impaired. A residence in Boston caved in, killing one person and injuring three others, and consequently was to be demolished. All across the state, the storm bent and crumpled structures and also ruined many wharves. In Dighton and Milton, winds toppled several homes, while shipping was impacted by the storm in Gloucester. Property damage throughout the state – especially to chimneys, roofs, and windows – was generally severe, with chimneys even falling onto stage coaches in the streets of Boston. The Charlestown Navy Yard was dismantled to prevent its imminent collapse, and in Peabody, more than 30,000 unburnt bricks were wrecked. The storm uprooted thousands of trees throughout the easternmost sections of the state. In the town of Lynn, the storm was reportedly the most severe since the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635, with roofs torn off structures, fences and chimneys toppled, and orchards bearing the brunt of formidable destruction. The chimney of the local schoolhouse collapsed into the roof and a bench was thrown into the cellar. Intense winds uprooted thousands of trees, of which many sank into local marshes. At Plum Island, gusts toppled trees and fences, yet no residential damage was observed. Further south in Plymouth, however, winds wrecked several houses and overturned numerous boats. At Rehoboth, winds brought down at least 80 trees, and in Quincy, a few houses' roofs were torn away, more than a dozen barns were demolished, and gusts killed numerous cows, with similar damage noted at Taunton. Many ornamental and fruit trees also endured significant damage, high winds blew away many roofs, chimneys, and fences. Meanwhile, at Dedham, more than 130 trees toppled onto the fifth Massachusetts Turnpike, and many forests were razed throughout other parts of the region, making roads impassable. Remarkably, the Endicott Pear Tree in Danvers survived to later weather through three other hurricanes in 1815, 1843, and 1934. Approximately of rain was measured during the day in Salem, while an additional fell that evening, apparently "a greater quantity than has ever been known in the same space of time". At least 27 vessels were damaged by the hurricane in Boston, with six watercraft having struck the South Boston Bridge, resulting in one death. Winds propelled several boats off of Gloucester out to sea, and their company was presumed to be lost. Ships elsewhere also withstood the hurricane's powerful gusts without much success – the Dove capsized at Ipswich Bar, killing seven people. The captain of the Hannah drowned at Cohasset and the vessel Mary was also beached, but the latter craft's crew survived. At Cape Cod, the Protector was swept inland near Highland Light, losing $100,000 (1804 USD) in goods and leading to one death, while the John Harris capsized nearby, its crew perishing with it. Three bodies were also washed ashore at Plymouth, apparently from drowning at sea. Dozens of watercraft were driven aground at Salem, Cape Ann, and Marblehead, causing significant damage. At Abington, the storm's effects to local shipping activities were detrimental, with many vessels shipwrecked by high winds. Despite being heavily occupied, the port at New Bedford experienced no losses of ships or boats. Powerful winds induced substantial destruction throughout other portions of the state. The diary of William Bentley featured an account on the hurricane, describing the destruction of two barns in Salem and the death of a horse. The property of Paul Revere and Bentley's own house suffered considerable injury, and in nearby Nahant, many buildings' roofs were hurled away by intense gusts. Bentley also observed the unusual abundance of seaweed which was swept inland during the aftermath of the storm. Where snow fell it was mainly heavy, with reports of snowfall totaling in the Berkshires and up to near Stockbridge; however, no accumulation was measured in Boston and Worcester due to higher-than-optimal temperatures. In Abington, the hurricane not only impacted the shipping industry but also inflicted severe damage to oak and pine forests. Severe damage was inflicted to crops as a result of the storm, with potatoes freezing, apples tossed from branches, and stacks of hay ruined. Livestock also encountered noteworthy losses, with "large numbers" of cattle, sheep, and fowl having died near Walpole, Newbury, and Topsfield – over a hundred cattle died at Topsfield alone. While reports of snowfall were generally sporadic in Massachusetts, snowfall was copious in Connecticut. More than of snow accumulated at Litchfield, while over was recorded at Goshen. Moderate snowfall also accrued at Woodbridge, and other regions of the state received up to . However, the delineation between areas of rain and snow was clearly evident, with more than of rain measured in nearby New Haven. Devastation was also widespread in Rhode Island, with numerous houses damaged at Newport and Providence. In Newport, many ships were damaged, and several deaths were recorded. Trees of immense size were also uprooted in both towns, and fence boards were scattered by strong gusts. In Providence, many ships were grounded, a brick house was impaired, and various other structures' chimneys collapsed. The hurricane was described as the "severest storm and gale of wind within the recollection of any of its inhabitants," although little else was known about its impacts in Rhode Island. Despite the high wind speeds and proximity to other snow-receiving areas, none fell in Providence as a result of warmer temperatures. Northern New England and Canada Although winds in New Hampshire, along the hurricane's northern edge, were less severe, higher snowfall totals were recorded. In Portsmouth, damage was minimal and mainly confined to fences. On October 10, thundersnow was observed in Walpole as precipitation changed due to sinking temperatures, which soon followed by a period of high winds. Though the average snowfall amount in the Connecticut River Valley was estimated to be near , much of it quickly melted, leaving only left by the snowstorm's departure. Still, the heavy weight of the unusually early wet snow snapped many tree branches still in full bloom, ruining fruit orchards and sugar groves. As a result, production of cider, already in low supply, was reduced even further; damages to one orchard alone reached $300 (1804 USD). Due to snow-obstructed roads, post was delivered on horseback, and at Gilsum, the hurricane was so intense that a group of men traveling toward Keene were forced to return due to blocked roads smothered with over of snow. The timber industry suffered the blizzard's detrimental effects, the worst blow to the trade since its formation in New Hampshire; in addition, several barns were obliterated. Totals reached at Hanover, at Goffstown, and over in the Green Mountains; meanwhile, in southern portions of the state, of ice accrued upon the accumulations already on the ground. The storm's damage radius was estimated to be at least , and encompassed the towns of Peterborough, Rindge, Lyme, and Amherst, each received of frozen precipitation. At Rye Beach, a woman, swept to sea on a stranded ship, was found dead with an infant in her hands, and the Amity was also wrecked along its shores, causing an additional death. In contrast to the higher precipitation totals found in New Hampshire, accumulations merely averaged in Vermont. Even so, a source detailed snowfall depths of within the vicinity of Lunenburg by the time the hurricane's precipitation subsided, and reported higher depths of in other regions of the state. In the vicinity of Windsor, up to of snow may have fallen during the course of the snowstorm. The snow was deep enough to cover the entire heights of corn stalks and potato crops, impeding the impending harvest, while massive drifts in the state's hills obstructed roads. Even farther north in Maine, the snowstorm's effects remained disastrous; following its passage, a timber lot at Thomaston was nearly entirely uprooted, clearing a massive forested area and making towns from great distances away, previously obstructed, suddenly visible. The effect of the storm was so pronounced that, according to Sidney Perley, "people felt as if they were in a strange place". The storm was particularly severe on the Atlantic coast, especially in Kennebec, Wiscaset, Berwick, Kittery, and York, causing moderate destruction and killing several cattle. However, at Portland, the hurricane was less severe and its impact was minimal. Precipitation arrived in Canada on October 9 and persisted through the following day, without triggering any recorded damage. Records Due to its unusual nature, the hurricane of 1804 set several major precedents which have only rarely occurred since then. Having defied many behaviors normally exhibited by New England hurricanes, the cyclone, described as the most severe in the United States since the Great Colonial Hurricane of 1635, was not only unique in its production of snow, but also in its meteorological characteristics and unusual timing. Though the disturbance developed within the confines of the Atlantic hurricane season, its widespread early-season snowfall was unprecedented, with few comparable storms since, among them being the 2011 Halloween nor'easter, producing several feet of snowfall in many areas. Similar circumstances occurred in 2012 with the arrival of Hurricane Sandy, which had a comparable track to the 1804 snowstorm, though it was extratropical by the time it made landfall. The storm was also the first known instance of snow instigated by a tropical cyclone until a later storm in 1841. Since that time, there has been only one other confirmed snowfall event as a result of a tropical cyclone while still considered to be tropical, which was caused by Hurricane Ginny in 1963, generating accumulations of in Maine. The storm also displayed abnormal meteorological characteristics which went against conventional understanding. Winds prevailed toward the southwest, the only known example of a northeastern hurricane producing winds in that direction; most generally yielded southeasterly gusts. In addition, it was one of only two systems recorded strengthening while inland, the other being the 1869 Saxby Gale. See also 1804 Antigua–Charleston hurricane 1804 Atlantic hurricane season List of New England hurricanes Little ice age Notes Footnotes References Citations Bibliography 1800s Atlantic hurricane seasons New England hurricane New England hurricane 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England 1804 New England New England hurricane New England hurricane
5179134	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%BCnchen%20Hauptbahnhof	München Hauptbahnhof	München Hauptbahnhof or Munich Central Station is the main railway station in the city of Munich, Germany. It is one of the three stations with long-distance services in Munich, the others being Munich East station (München Ost) and Munich-Pasing station (München-Pasing). München Hauptbahnhof sees about 450,000 passengers a day, which puts it on par with other large stations in Germany, such as Hamburg Hauptbahnhof and Frankfurt (Main) Hauptbahnhof. It is classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station, one of 21 in Germany and two in Munich, the other being München Ost. The mainline station is a terminal station with 32 platforms. The subterranean S-Bahn with 2 platforms and U-Bahn stations with 6 platforms are through stations. The first Munich station was built about to the west in 1839. A station at the current site was opened in 1849 and it has been rebuilt numerous times, including to replace the main station building, which was badly damaged during World War II. Location The station is located close to Munich's city centre in the north of the borough of Ludwigsvorstadt-Isarvorstadt. The main entrance to the east of the station is via the Prielmayerstraße or Bayerstraße to Karlsplatz (Stachus). In the station forecourt (Bahnhofsplatz) in front of the main entrance are tram stops on several lines. The station is bordered to the north by Arnulfstraße and to the west by Paul-Heyse-Straße, which passes through a tunnel near the end of the platforms. The station is bordered to the south by Bayerstraße. The station precinct extends some distance to the west and ends at Donnersbergerbrücke. History During the industrialisation of the mid-19th century a new, more efficient system was needed to accelerate the transport of passengers and goods. Horse-drawn carts on the mostly poor roads were no longer sufficient. As a solution, the construction of a railway, as was being developed in England, was considered. However, the Bavarian King, Ludwig I preferred the extension of canals. Construction of railways was left to private companies and associations. After the opening of the approximately railway from Nuremberg to Fürth on 28 November 1835, interested citizens founded railway committees in Munich and Augsburg. The two committees soon joined to facilitate the construction of a railway line from Augsburg to Munich. The two major cities would be connected by a faster service than could be provided by stagecoach over a distance that in 1835 was measured as 17 Poststunden (“post hours”, which were each half a Bavarian mile, that is about ), equivalent to about . Based on the travel speed of a locomotive, a railway could be expected to reduce travel time to one-third of a stage coach's time. The railway committee commissioned a state official to plan the approximate route of the line. The state was to build the railway. The government turned down the proposal, but indicated that Bavaria would financially support its construction. Joseph Anton von Maffei founded the Munich–Augsburg Railway Company (München-Augsburger Eisenbahn-Gesellschaft) as a private company on 23 July 1837. After further support from shareholders had been found, construction began in the spring of 1838. The station in Marsfeld In 1838, the initial planning began for the station in Munich. The Planning Director of the Munich–Augsburg railway, Ulrich Himbsel, and his deputy, Joseph Pertsch, proposed a railway layout with an entrance building and a warehouse for freight. Behind the entrance building, a semicircular building was followed by four radially arranged halls. This was based on English models. Joseph Pertsch preferred a location on today's Sonnenstraße, while Ulrich Himbsel favoured a station at Spatzenstraße. This would have been at the location of the current station. The Munich-Augsburg railway company could not afford the building and the land on either site. A temporary wooden building was put into operation with the opening of the first section of the line from Munich to Lochhausen on the Munich–Augsburg line on 1 September 1839. This station was built in Marsfeld at the present site of Hackerbrücke. It consisted of a simple wooden station building and two toll booths. In the entrance building there were two waiting rooms and several work spaces. Attached to this building there was a wide station hall with two tracks with a turntable at the end of each. There was also a locomotive workshop in the station area. A year later, on 4 October 1840, the entire line to Augsburg was opened. The line was used by about 400 passengers daily. The first complaints were made about the location of the station in 1841. The station was too far from the city centre, so the trip to the station was too costly. The wooden building was considered to be too small for a city like Munich and not very impressive. King Ludwig commissioned the architect Friedrich von Gärtner to redesign the station in 1843. It would be closer to the city centre, as the old station was half an hour away from the city. When, in 1844, the Munich-Augsburg Railway Company was nationalised, the first steps for the realisation of a new station building were carried out. Three new plans were presented. The station under the first option would have been at the shooting range, under the second option it would have been on the Marsfeld plain and under the third it would have been on Sonnenstraße. In the following years, the state and the city could not choose between the three proposals. The station suffered a major fire on 4 April 1847, although its cause could not be determined. No one was injured. Parts of the freight and operations facilities were destroyed. The decision on where to construct a new station had to be taken now. On 5 April 1847, the king of Bavaria decided to build the new station at the shooting range. The station at Marsfeld was to be restored in the autumn of 1847 to serve until the completion of the new station. Due to a delay in the construction, the tracks were extended to the buildings of the former shooting range. The building of the shooting range now served as an entrance building to the new station, which was opened on 15 November 1847. The new central station (Centralbahnhof) of Friedrich Bürklein Direction of the construction was transferred to the architect Friedrich Bürklein, a disciple of Friedrich von Gärtner. The new station hall was opened in 1848. It was long, wide and high and had room for five tracks. The station building was opened a year later, on 1 October 1849. The station was used daily by around 1,500 passengers. The building was built of red and yellow brick in the Rundbogenstil with Romanesque revival and Italian Renaissance forms; sand and limestone were also used for individual components. The station building was a basilica-like building, which was extended with a pavilion on the east side. It was equipped with the latest technology, a central hot water heater and a mechanical clock with a central drive, with dials that were up to from the central mechanism. The station was illuminated from 1851 by coal gas. The new building proved again to be too small with the opening of the railway to Landshut in 1858. This meant that the Royal Bavarian Eastern Railway Company (Königlich privilegirte Actiengesellschaft der bayerischen Ostbahnen) built a station north of the actual station. The new station, also called the Ostbahnhof, consisted of a and platform hall with four tracks. This became a carriage house with three tracks, a goods shed and other outbuildings. In 1859, the Bavarian Eastern Railway's line to Nuremberg was commissioned. On 12 August 1860, the Rosenheim–Salzburg railway was opened, adding extra importance to the station. As no more platforms were available in the main hall, trains had to use the Ostbahnhof. The station was also used by international passengers and, in 1860, it was already used by 3,500 passengers daily. To the south a station was also built for postal services in the same style as the other buildings. New construction in the 1880s The opening of the line from Munich to Ingolstadt in 1867, the Munich–Mühldorf–Simbach and the Munich–Grafing–Rosenheim lines in 1871 and the Munich–Buchloe in 1873 created further capacity problems. Thus, two projects were developed: Friedrich Bürklein planned another wing station. The other option was a new building, requiring the demolition of the Ostbahnhof. They chose the second option. So from 1877 to 1883 under the leadership of Carl Schnorr von Carlsfeld, Jacob Graff and Heinrich Gerber, a new concourse was built with 16 tracks. Carl Schnorr von Carlsfeld was responsible for the redesign of the tracks, Jacob Graff was the site manager of the building and Heinrich Gerber was in charge of the construction. The old hall was twice the size of the new, so that the front part of it remained as the main hall. The other premises were extended. The project was completed at the end of the 1883. The Munich Centralbahnhof precinct was divided into three station sections. The first section, which was also called the inner section, took over passenger, express freight, and small freight operations. The middle section at Arbeitersteg (“workers’ bridge”, now called Donnersberger Bridge) contained wagonload operations and the marshalling yard. The outer section ended at the Friedenheimer Bridge and included locomotive and carriage sheds and the central workshop. The station was long up to its last crossover and wide at its widest point. There were 226 sets of points, 42 turntables and of tracks. Remodelling of the station and construction of the wing stations A few years later, the station again proved to be too small. The architect Friedrich Graf suggested the station be relocated to Landsbergerstraße to create a circle line from South station via Schwabing station to a planned North station. The plans were not realised, instead, freight was separated from passenger operations so that the Hauptbahnhof became a passenger-only station. Now freight was handled at the Laim marshalling yard. Construction began in 1891. In 1893, the Royal Bavarian State Railways opened the Starnberg wing station (Starnberger Flügelbahnhof), partly serving traffic on the line to Starnberg. It had six tracks and only had a temporary wooden building. Long-distance traffic was now concentrated in the main hall and local traffic towards Pasing was moved to the wing station. In 1897, the wing station received Bavaria's first electro-mechanical interlocking. In 1896, the Laim marshalling yard was opened; only the handling of small goods could not be moved to Laim. In addition, the line to Landshut was moved to a new course running to the west of Nymphenburg Park to allow a connection to the Laim yard. Next new flyovers were built on the line towards Pasing. On 1 May 1904 was the station's name was changed from München Centralbahnhof ("central station") to München Hauptbahnhof ("main station"). The station now had 22 tracks and handled 300 trains daily. In subsequent years, the station, which then served a city of 407,000, handled 18,000 passengers per day. The passenger numbers continued to rise, and further extensions were planned. FX Liebig and Theodore Lechner recommended a new through station on the Kohleninsel (“Coal Island”, now called “Museum Island”) to improve connections to the Isar Valley Railway. This is now the location of the Deutsches Museum. Other possibilities considered were a through station west of Hackerbrücke (Hacker Bridge), on the site of the current S-Bahn station, and connected to the East station by a tunnel, transferring local traffic only to an underground station and moving the main station to the South Station. In a memorandum of September 1911, the Bavarian government discarded all these options in favour of an extension of the Starnberg wing station and the construction of Holzkirchen wing station (Holzkirchner Bahnhof), partly serving the line to Holzkirchen. It was also planned to relocate all the local traffic to the wing stations. It was assumed from the outset that in the future a through station would be appropriate. Construction began in 1914, and continued through the First World War, but it was delayed. The wing stations finally opened on 30 April 1921. Local traffic was largely shifted to the wing stations. The station reached 36 tracks in its largest expansion since the Holzkirchen wing station included an additional ten tracks. The trains were controlled by nine electromechanical interlockings built from 1922 to 1929. The Reichsbahn and Hitler’s reconstruction plans Between 1925 and 1927, six of the lines beginning in Munich were electrified so that all parts of the station except the Holzkirchen wing station received overhead lines. This was part of the Deutsche Reichsbahn’s new restructuring plan. The Reichsbahn planned to move the station to the west of the Hacker Bridge. A connection to the South Ring (Südring) by a long tunnel under the Theresienwiese was part of the plan. Local traffic would still terminate at an adjacent terminal station. Laim marshalling yard would have to be demolished under these plans and a new marshalling yard would be built in Milbertshofen instead. As a result of the Great Depression during the following years, none of these plans were realised. From 1933, Adolf Hitler directed Hermann Alker to create new plans for rebuilding the station. A new station would be built between Laim and Pasing stations and the old railway tracks would be replaced by a boulevard from Karlsplatz to the new station. In addition, a U-Bahn was planned from the new station to the central city under the boulevard. Alkers presented his plans but his client was not satisfied, as the station building would not look impressive at the end of the wide boulevard. In 1938, Hermann Giesler, solved the problem by turning the station to a 45-degree angle to the road. He planned a huge domed building with a height of and a diameter of . In May 1942, Deutsche Reichsbahn began on Hitler's instruction to develop plans for his Breitspurbahn extreme broad-gauge railway concept, that would connect the whole of Europe. This was planned to have a track gauge of with a structure gauge of . Munich would be on broad gauge lines between Berlin and Munich and between Paris and Vienna. The ten standard gauge tracks and the four broad gauge tracks would be laid in a tunnel below the surface. These plans were not realised, however. The timetable of the summer 1939 showed the station had a total of 112 arrivals and departures by scheduled long-distance services each day. It was the eleventh busiest node of Deutsche Reichsbahn's long-distance network. During and after the Second World War During World War II the station suffered heavy damage from Allied bombing, but train services resumed after each air raid. However, after bombings from 11 July to 13 July 1944, trains had to be diverted because of the impact of 112 bombs. It was only possible for trains to reach Pasing. All trains had to either run around Munich at a distance or use the North Ring as a bypass. Overall, the loss amounted to 7.1 million Reichsmarks. In addition, there were numerous deaths and injuries. On 30 April 1945, American troops entered Munich and initially German troops were ordered to defend the station. Since a counter-attack would have been pointless, it was not carried out. Reconstruction started on 6 May 1945 on the building despite shortages and a complicated approval process. On 24 July 1945 it was possible to operate 128 trains. From 16 December there were 235 trains per day. The train shed was demolished from 16 May to 16 August 1949, due to the danger of it collapsing, and then the remaining buildings were demolished to enable their reconstruction. A new beginning after the war was marked in May 1950 by the construction of the new Starnberg wing station, designed by Heinrich Gerbl. Its monumental neoclassicism was seen as backward looking and the pillared hall were criticised for being reminiscent of the Nazi period. The main hall had a width of and a length of . In the same year, the first four areas of the new main hall were completed. A hotel was opened in 1951 in the southern part of the station. From 26 July 1952 push–pull operations were introduced to avoid a change of locomotives. The main hall was put in operation in 1953. The electrification of the Holzkirchen wing station followed in May 1954. The commissioning of radio for shunting operations on 6 February 1956 simplified shunting in the station area. A roof was completed on the concourse of the Holzkirchen wing station on 1 August 1958. The construction of the hall in the main station building, based on plans by Franz Hart, was completed on 1 August 1960. The hall is wide and long. In addition to the columns at the edge of a span of , it has a middle row of columns, which was unusual at the time. The current station building was completed on 1 August 1960. Construction of centralised signalling and the S-Bahn trunk line The central signalling centre was brought into operation on 11 October 1964 at 4 AM. The new signal box controlled 295 sets of points and 446 signals and detected occupancy on 300 sections of track and seven automatic block sections. In the signalling centre there were four interlockings, one controlling the Holzkirchen wing station, two controlling the tracks of the main hall and the other one controlling the Starnberg wing station. The new interlockings needed only 38 staff for operations and 12 for maintaining the signal technology, saving 93 jobs. In the following years, postal operations, which included the station's own underground post office railway, had growing problem due to the interference of passengers. On 18 August 1969, a separate package handling facility was brought into operation at Wilhelm-Hale-Straße, which was connected with the station by a double-track line. The Starnberg wing station was affected by the construction of the S-Bahn trunk line from 1967 because the trunk line was built under it. The trunk line and the new underground station were taken into operation on 28 April 1972 in time for the 1972 Summer Olympics. During the Summer Olympics the station had a high volume of passengers. On 2 September 1972, there were, for example, 35,000 passengers, excluding S-Bahn operations. The first U-Bahn lines, U8/U1 (now U2/U1) commenced operations through the station on 18 October 1980. As a further development of the S-Bahn, the line to Wolfratshausen as S-Bahn line S 7 was connected to the trunk line with a -long tunnel under all the tracks on 31 May 1981. Until then the S-Bahn trains to and from Wolfratshausen, then called line S 10, ended and started in Holzkirchen wing station. The U-Bahn platform on lines U4/U5 opened on 10 March 1984. In the 1980s, the entrance building was converted under the leadership of Ekkehard Fahr, Dieter Schaich and Josef Reindl into a circulating hall with a travel centre in order to create a transparent and open environment. In the timetable of the summer of 1989, the station was the twelfth largest node in the network of Deutsche Bundesbahn, with 269 arrivals and departures by scheduled long-distance services per day. Improving infrastructure The platforms were thin with a width of and were too low. After the elimination of the -wide baggage platforms, new passenger platforms were built that are up to high and up to wide. In addition, the facilities of the platforms, such as benches, were renewed and some platforms were extended to be long. A baggage tunnel was put into operation under tracks 12 and 13. The northern and southern carriage sidings and the maintenance facilities were extended. The construction work began in August 1976. It was completed at Christmas 1987. A new split-flap display was installed in 1981 at the cross platform concourse. The individual platforms, except for the Holzkirchen wing station platforms, were given split-flap destination displays. These replaced panels that were once attached to the buffer stops. Some still exist at the Holzkirchen wing station, but are no longer used. An additional 37 monitors were installed at internal sites such as the ticket office. All displays are controlled by a computer, on which all changes to the basic timetable are stored. They are updated by the signal centre. A washing plant was established to the south of the tracks for Intercity-Express trains in 1991 and in the following years it was expanded into an ICE depot. Since 2004, the entire area of the station has video monitoring. The 70 cameras are controlled by the control center of DB Security in the station. Meanwhile, the split-flap displays have been replaced with more modern LCD displays. The loudspeaker systems have also been modernised. Current A Transrapid route to Munich Airport was planned and to be operational in 2011. However, the original cost estimate of €1.85 billion was revised to €3.2 billion due to the increased price for steel and other materials. The cost escalation caused the project to be cancelled in 2007. From 2013 to 2015, the mezzanine level linking the Hauptbahnhof to the current S-Bahn and U-Bahn stations and pedestrian pathways to the streets and aboveground tram platforms was extensively renovated to give the bright and airy feeling, to comply with new EU regulations on fire protection measures and escape routes, and to increase the number of stores and restaurants. The current Hauptbahnhof consists of several buildings that were constructed at various times without any common design or physical cohesion between them. This causes lot of maintenance headaches and difficulties in navigating from one area to another for passengers and employees. The various buildings have their own façades that don't harmonise with each other; the larger building resembles some East German Plattenbau architecture. Some areas radiate a quite gloomy and unwelcoming atmosphere. The current layout has all platforms connecting to the main concourse in the east, making the transfers from one train to other lengthy and inconvenient. The passengers boarding and disembarking the trains at either Holzkirchner or Starnberger must walk even longer way through the often crowded platforms 11 and 26 respectively. Reconstruction The proposal for an extensive reconstruction project of Hauptbahnhof has been launched in 2015 with plannings approved in 2017 and 2018. The project called for complete replacement of many Hauptbahnhof buildings except for the steel-reinforced building in the middle that covers the platforms 11 through 26. The new single building utilises a modern and more unified design surrounding the central platform hall along with a new aboveground pedestrian zone in the east towards Karlsplatz (Stachus). A new office tower will be built at the northwestern corner of the area to be used for a branch of Deutsche Bahn's administration department. A new underground pedestrian tunnel will be built at western parts of platforms 11–26, connecting the Starnberger and Holzkirchner wing stations directly as well as the platforms 11–26 and subway stations. This will reduce the need to walk to the main concourse for transferring to other trains. The construction of a second S-Bahn trunk route (a second main tunnel route through the centre of Munich) with a second S-Bahn station has begun in 2018. While the new U-Bahn line, designated as U9, has been planned and approved, the construction has yet to begun and would not be completed until 2035 at latest. However, the construction of third U-Bahn station for U9 line has been incorporated at the same time to expedite the completion of three projects at the same site. On 24 October 2018, the reconstruction project was officially launched with the removal of large clock on the eastern main façade, which will be transferred to the new building as a link to the past. Shortly after the launch, the eastern entrance hall and middle part of the large building were demolished for the construction of second S-Bahn and third U-Bahn stations. The three projects are expected to be completed by 2028. Station layout Apart from Lindau Hauptbahnhof, München Hauptbahnhof is the only major terminal station in Bavaria. The station is used by about 450,000 passengers a day and is one of 21 stations classified by Deutsche Bahn as a category 1 station. There are 32 tracks, split over the original three stations: Holzkirchner Bahnhof (Holzkirchen wing station), tracks 5-10 This outlying section mainly has regional services to Mühldorf (operated by DB Regio's Südostbayernbahn), as well as Salzburg and Kufstein (operated by Transdev's Bayerische Regiobahn). The platforms in this area are lower height than in the rest of the station and are the only ones not covered. At times, ICE or railjet sets are parked here. Track 10 has platforms on both sides, but boarding is normally performed using the platform facing track 9/10. As there is no connecting tunnel, ways to and from other tracks are quite long. It also has its own tram and bus stop, served by lines 18, 19/N19 and 58. Contrary to the name, there are no longer scheduled trains to Holzkirchen. Those now arrive at and leave from tracks 27-36, using a tunnel at Donnersbergerbrücke. Hauptbahnhof (main concourse), tracks 11-26 Starting and ending point for all InterCityExpress (ICE), Intercity (IC)/EuroCity (EC) long-distance services and Nightjet service. RegionalExpress and RegionalBahn services also depart from here to Augsburg, Ingolstadt and Landshut, among other directions. The steel structure of the main hall was designed and manufactured in 1960 by Friedrich Krupp AG. In the main hall there is the DB tourist center, a DB Lounge and plenty of shops, snack bars and other service facilities. Starnberger Bahnhof (Starnberg wing station), tracks 27-36 This is also an outlying section. Regional services call here for Memmingen, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Bayrischzell/Lenggries/Tegernsee and Lindau. Trains departing from here are operated by DB Regio's Werdenfelsbahn, Transdev's Bayerische Oberlandbahn, Transdev's Bayerische Regiobahn and NETINERA's alex. Trains to Holzkirchen now start here, joining S-Bahn-tracks at Donnersbergerbrücke. This connection makes it possible, e.g. in case of a closure of the S-Bahn tunnel below the station, to let S-Bahn services terminate (eastbound) at and depart (westbound) from the Starnberger Bahnhof. Platforms are covered at the beginning, and track 27 has platforms on both sides. Referred to in the name, Starnberg can still reached by some regional trains starting here, but a more frequent service is offered by the S-Bahn. The subterranean Munich S-Bahn station is separated operationally from the mainline station and known as München Hbf (tief). To optimise passenger flow, separate platforms for entering (centre) and disembarking (outer) trains exist. This arrangement of platforms is called "Spanish solution". The subway station is situated near the U-Bahn lines for the U1 and U2 trains, but if one wishes to change from the S-Bahn to U4/U5 trains, it is more practical to stay on the S-Bahn to Karlsplatz (Stachus), as the U4/U5 station is on the opposite side of the station. Due to the station's size, walking from one platform to another may take a considerable amount of time. Deutsche Bahn recommends planning for a minimum walking time of 10 minutes from the central hall to Starnberger Bahnhof or Holzkirchner Bahnhof; 15 minutes between Starnberger and Holzkirchner Bahnhof; and 15 minutes between the S-Bahn station and Holzkirchner Bahnhof. The two outlying parts of the station have shorter tracks than the main hall, which means passengers always have to walk down most of the length of either platform 11 or 26 when changing from there. Unlike Frankfurt Hbf or Leipzig Hbf, there is no passenger tunnel under the tracks. The mainline station lobby is only closed between 1:30 and 3:00, but platforms can be reached all the time. The S-Bahn station operate 24/7 on the S8, and the U-Bahn station closes only between 1:30 and 4:00 (2:30-4:00 on weekends). On the ground floor of this station many shops exist where you can shop for daily household needs, dressing, and you will find almost all major brands of places to eat. Platforms Station services Trains Long distance The station is the southern point of the InterCityExpress line to Hamburg-Altona via the Hanover-Würzburg high-speed rail line. It also has frequent links to Dortmund via Frankfurt and Cologne using the Cologne-Frankfurt high-speed rail line. The most recent addition is the Nuremberg-Ingolstadt high-speed rail line, which has greatly benefited from Munich traffic. Additional ICE services using mainly ordinary lines on their run exist to Vienna, Berlin and a number of other cities. There are also numerous InterCity and EuroCity services to most parts of Germany as well as neighbouring Austria, the Czech Republic, Switzerland, France, and Italy. The station used to have a number of DB NachtZug and CityNightLine services to northern Germany, the Netherlands, Denmark, France and Italy, but these were suspended in 2016. Facilities for autoracks in night services are located at München Ost railway station. Currently, night services operated by other railway companies, particularly ÖBB are found at the station, for example to Rome, Budapest and Zagreb. Regional trains There are numerous RegionalExpress and RegionalBahn services to Landshut, Regensburg, Plattling, Passau, Kempten, Lindau, Garmisch-Partenkirchen and Nuremberg among others. The Bayerische Oberlandbahn operates services to Bayrischzell, Lenggries and Tegernsee. All lines are electrified, except the ones to Mühldorf (due to be electrified by 2030), and Kempten (partially electrified, a proposal to electrify the whole route exists but no date has been given) and the lines of the Bayerische Oberlandbahn. To minimise pollution, services using these lines preferably end at tracks 5–10 and 27–36. S-Bahn The Munich S-Bahn operates through a separate part of the station as a S-Bahn station on the S-Bahn trunk line (S-Bahn-Stammstrecke) with two tracks and three platforms in the Spanish solution (the island platform is for boarding only and the side platforms are for disembarking), which is in the northern basement at level -2. This station is served by seven S-Bahn lines S 1, S 2, S 3, S 4, S 6, S 7 and S 8 (in service 24/7). The planned construction of a new S-Bahn station as part of the construction of the second trunk line (zweiten Stammstrecke) at level -5 (-41 metres), formerly intended to start in 2006, has been delayed due to financing issues. Other facilities In the east of the main hall at ground level and on the first floor there are several food shops, newsagents, flower and gift shops, etc. There is also an extensive shopping arcade in the basement to the north and east, as well as direct access to adjacent stores in the inner city through a shopping arcade. Since 1995, the Children and Youth Museum of the City of Munich (Kinder- und Jugendmuseum München) has been located in the Starnberg wing station. In the southern part of the building there is an InterCityHotel. As with many stations, a few hotels are located around the station, including the luxury hotel Sofitel’s Munich Bayerpost and Le Méridien. At the southernmost platform 11 there is an office of the Bahnhofsmission charity, which provides travellers and the homeless with around the clock assistance, food and rest facilities. In the northern section there is a police station of the Munich and Federal Police. In the first floor of the northern wing there is a canteen ("Casino") for employees of the DB and their guests. Two parking decks on the fourth and fifth floors of the main building are accessible from Bayerstraße and Arnulfstraße. U-Bahn At the Hauptbahnhof there are two underground stations of the Munich U-Bahn. The underground station of Munich U-Bahn trunk line 2 is at level -4 and is orientated in a north–south direction under the station forecourt and has four tracks. It branches to the north as line U1 to Olympia-Einkaufszentrum and line U 2 to Feldmoching. It was originally planned to build the station under the Kaufhaus Hertie department store. To enable shorter connections to the main hall and the underground station of lines U 4 and U 5 it was decided instead to build it directly next to the main station. Construction of the U-Bahn station began in the spring of 1975, which required the closure of the station forecourt to surface traffic. The building was built because of its great breadth and depth by the cut and cover method. First the side walls and the roof were built and then the individual levels were built from top to bottom. The U-Bahn station was opened on 18 October 1980. The station is differentiated from the other U-Bahn stations opened in 1980 on line U 2 by the silver lining of the walls opposite the platform and on the pillars in the middle of the station. The platforms connect at the northern end via a mezzanine level to the S-Bahn station and at the south end there is another mezzanine connecting with the U-Bahn station of lines U 4 and U 5. In the middle of the platform escalators lead a mezzanine level connecting with the station forecourt. The station of U-Bahn trunk line 3 is on level -2 and is orientated in an east–west direction under Bayerstraße south of the main station and has 2 tracks. The station was opened on 10 March 1984. The silver-coloured tunnel-like walls opposite the platforms are curved inward, which give the station a tubular character. The platform does not have columns and is on a slight curve. The lighting is on struts arranged in a square under a retracted ceiling. At the eastern end of the platform is a connection via a mezzanine to the underground station of lines 1 and 2. There is a connection to the southern entrance of the mainline station at the entrance level at the western end of the station. In addition, there is a lift at this end, which provides the disabled with access to the U-Bahn platform. Trams and buses There are four tram stops around the station, known as Hauptbahnhof, Hauptbahnhof Nord, Hauptbahnhof Süd and Holzkirchner Bahnhof. Hauptbahnhof Nord is served by routes 16, 17, 20, 21 and 29. The Hauptbahnhof stop on the station forecourt is served by 16, 17, 19, 20 and 29, with routes 20 and 29 only stopping towards Stiglmaierplatz. The Hauptbahnhof Süd and Holzkirchner Bahnhof stops are served by routes 18, 19 and 29. The first tram route serving the station forecourt, was a horse tram line that ran from Promenadenplatz to Maillingerstraße and was opened on 21 October 1876. Over the next few years, the horse tram network was expanded and by 1900, four tram routes served the station. The network was electrified and further expanded and by 1938, nine routes served Hauptbahnhof, which had become one of the focal points of the Munich tram system. By 1966, Hauptbahnhof was served by ten tram routes. In the years following, the number of trams and routes in Munich declined, mostly as a result of the construction of the U-Bahn, but they continued to serve Hauptbahnhof, albeit with frequent route number changes and with the number of services serving the station increasing to eleven at one point. Since 2018, MVG CityRing bus routes 58 clockwise//68 anti-clockwise have served the station. The Hauptbahnhof Nord stop is also served by Museum Bus route 100, as well as by some regional bus services. The whole station forecourt is currently (2020) being remodelled with an extra, third track for trams, which when completed, will see the recasting of the tram services in this area, planned for 2021/2022. Many station buildings have also been demolished in connection with the construction of the 'Second Cross City S-Bahn' tunnel to be completed in the period 2028/2032. This will also see a further, fourth tram track laid on the station forecourt. References Sources External links Webcam Railway stations in Munich Railway stations located underground in Munich Buildings and structures in Munich Munich U-Bahn stations Munich S-Bahn stations Railway stations in Germany opened in 1839 Railway stations in Germany opened in 1848 Transit centers in Germany
5179641	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfoWars	InfoWars	InfoWars is an American far-right conspiracy theory and fake news website owned by Alex Jones. It was founded in 1999, and operates under Free Speech Systems LLC. Talk shows and other content for the site are created primarily in studios at an undisclosed location in an industrial area in the outskirts of Austin, Texas. Reports in 2017 stated that the InfoWars website received approximately 10 million monthly visits, making its reach greater than some mainstream news websites such as The Economist and Newsweek at the time. The site has regularly published fake stories which have been linked to harassment of victims. In February 2018, Jones, the publisher, director and owner of InfoWars, was accused of discrimination and sexually harassing employees. InfoWars, and in particular Jones, advocate numerous conspiracy theories, particularly around purported domestic false flag operations by the U.S. government (which they allege include the 9/11 attacks and Sandy Hook shootings). InfoWars has issued retractions various times as a result of legal challenges. Jones has had contentious material removed, and has also been suspended and banned from many platforms for violating their terms of service, including Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, iTunes, and Roku. InfoWars earns revenue from the sale of products pitched by Jones during the show, including dietary supplements. It has been called as much "an online store that uses Mr. Jones's commentary to move merchandise" as a media outlet. On July 30, 2022, amidst a $150 million lawsuit brought against Jones and InfoWars by Sandy Hook families, Free Speech Systems filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection. History InfoWars was created in 1999 by American conspiracy theorist Alex Jones, who remains its controlling influence. InfoWars features The Alex Jones Show on their broadcasts and was established as a public-access television program aired in Austin, Texas in 1999. During the 2016 presidential election, the website was promoted by bots connected to the Russian government. A 2017 study by the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University found that InfoWars was the 13th most shared source by supporters of Donald Trump on Twitter during the election. In 2016, Paul Joseph Watson was hired as editor-at-large. In February 2017, political commentator Jerome Corsi was hired as Washington bureau chief, after InfoWars was granted a White House day pass. In June 2018, Corsi's connection to InfoWars ended; he received six months of severance payments. In May 2017, Mike Cernovich joined the InfoWars team as a scheduled guest host for The Alex Jones Show, with CNN reporting the "elevation to InfoWars host represents the meteoric rise in his profile". On July 6, 2017, alongside Paul Joseph Watson, Jones began hosting a contest to create the best "CNN Meme", for which the winner would receive $20,000. They were responding to CNN reporting on a Reddit user who had created a pro-Trump, anti-CNN meme. In June 2017, it was announced that Roger Stone, a former campaign advisor for Donald Trump, would be hosting his own InfoWars show "five nights a week", with an extra studio being built to accommodate his show. In March 2018, a number of major brands in the U.S. suspended their ads from InfoWarss YouTube channels, after CNN notified them that their ads were running adjacent to InfoWars content. In July 2018, YouTube removed four of InfoWarss uploaded videos that violated its policy against hate speech and suspended posts for 90 days. Facebook also banned Jones after it determined four videos on his pages violated its community standards in July 2018. In August 2018, YouTube, Apple and Facebook removed content from Jones and InfoWars, citing their policies against hate speech and harassment. In an October 2018 Simmons Research survey of 38 news organizations, InfoWars was ranked the second least trusted news organization by Americans, with The Daily Caller being lower-ranked. On March 12, 2020, Attorney General of New York Letitia James issued a cease and desist letter to Jones concerning InfoWarss sale of unapproved products that the website falsely asserted to be government-approved treatments for coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). On April 9, the FDA ordered InfoWars to discontinue the sale of a number of products marketed as remedies for COVID-19 in violation of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, including toothpaste, liquids, and gels containing colloidal silver. Claims of sexual harassment and antisemitism In February 2018, Jones was accused by two former employees of antisemitism, anti-black racism and sexual harassment of both male and female staff members. He denied the allegations. InfoWars, Haaretz reported in 2017, had accused Israel of involvement in the 9/11 attacks, accused the Rothschilds of the promotion of "endless war, debt slavery and a Luciferian agenda" and US health-care of being under the control of a "Jewish mafia." Two former employees filed complaints against Jones with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. Removals from other websites On July 27, 2018, Facebook suspended Alex Jones's official page for thirty days, claiming Jones had participated in hate speech against Robert Mueller. This was swiftly followed by action from other bodies—on August 6, Facebook, Apple, YouTube and Spotify all removed content by Alex Jones and InfoWars from their platforms for violating their policies. YouTube removed channels associated with Infowars, including The Alex Jones Channel, which had gained 2.4 million subscriptions prior to its removal. On Facebook, four pages associated with InfoWars and Alex Jones were removed due to repeated violations of the website's policies. Apple removed all podcasts associated with Jones from its iTunes platform and its podcast app. On August 13, Vimeo removed all Jones's videos because they "violated our terms of service prohibitions on discriminatory and hateful content". By February 2019, a total of 89 pages associated with InfoWars or Alex Jones had been removed from Facebook due to its recidivism policy, which is designed to prevent circumventing a ban. In May 2019, President Donald Trump tweeted or retweeted defenses of people associated with InfoWars, including editor Paul Joseph Watson and host Alex Jones, after the Facebook ban. Jones's accounts have also been removed from Pinterest, Mailchimp and LinkedIn. As of early August, Jones still had active accounts on Instagram and Twitter. Twitter, however, ultimately decided to permanently deactivate Jones's account as well as the InfoWars account in September 2018. The Wikipedia community deprecated and blacklisted InfoWars as a source by snowball clause consensus in 2018; the community determined that InfoWars is a "conspiracy theorist and fake news website". Jones had tweeted a Periscope video calling on others "to get their battle rifles ready against antifa, the mainstream media, and Chicom operatives". In the video he also says, "Now is time to act on the enemy before they do a false flag." Twitter cited this as the reason to suspend his account for a week on August 14. On September 6, Twitter permanently banned InfoWars and Alex Jones for repeated violations of the site's terms and conditions. Twitter cited abusive behavior, namely a video that "shows Jones shouting at and berating CNN journalist Oliver Darcy for some 10 minutes during congressional hearings about social media." On September 7, 2018, the InfoWars app was removed from the Apple App Store. On September 20, 2018, PayPal informed InfoWars they would cease processing payments in ten days because "promotion of hate and discrimination runs counter to our core value of inclusion." On May 2, 2019, Facebook and Instagram banned Jones and InfoWars as part of a larger ban of far-right extremists. The ban covered videos, audio clips, and articles from InfoWars, but excluded criticism of InfoWars. Facebook indicated it would take down groups that violated the ban. The InfoWars app was pulled from Google Play on March 27, 2020, for violating its policies on spreading "misleading or harmful disinformation", after Jones opposed efforts to contain COVID-19 and said "natural antivirals" could treat the disease. In March 2023, the Southern Poverty Law Center reported on Jones' leaked texts from his Sandy Hook defamation trial. The texts revealed that Jones and his collaborators had been trying to evade social media bans of InfoWars content by setting up alternate websites such as National File to disguise its origin. Content Promotion of conspiracy theories and fake news InfoWars disseminates multiple conspiracy theories, including false claims against the HPV vaccine and claims the 2017 Las Vegas shooting was part of a conspiracy. In 2015 skeptic Brian Dunning listed it a #4 on a "Top 10 Worst Anti-Science Websites" list. InfoWars advocates New World Order conspiracy theories, 9/11 conspiracy theories, the chemtrail conspiracy theory, conspiracy theories involving Bill Gates, supposed covert government weather control programs, claims of rampant domestic false flag operations by the US Government (including 9/11), and the unsupported claim that millions voted illegally in the 2016 US presidential election. Jones frequently uses InfoWars to assert that mass shootings are conspiracies or "false flag" operations; these false claims are often subsequently spread by other fake news outlets and on social media. This has been characterized as Second Amendment "fan fiction". Infowars has published and promoted fake news, and Jones has been accused of knowingly misleading people to make money. In the summer of 2015, video editor Josh Owens and reporter Joe Biggs took a video of workers loading cargo in Texas. They claimed the men were drug smugglers; the Drudge Report picked up their headline, and Donald Trump used it in a campaign speech. Owens admitted years later: "It's not about truth, it's not about accuracy — it's about what's going to make people click on this video...In essence, we lied." (Biggs was later indicted for seditious conspiracy for his role with the Proud Boys in the January 6, 2021 attack on the Capitol.) As part of the probe by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) into Russian interference in the 2016 United States elections, InfoWars was investigated to see if it was complicit in the dissemination of fake news stories distributed by Russian bots. From May 2014 to November 2017, InfoWars republished articles from multiple sources without permission, including over 1,000 from Russian state-sponsored news network RT, as well as stories from news outlets such as CNN, the BBC, and The New York Times which Salon said were "dwarfed" by those from RT. A 2020 study by researchers from Northeastern, Harvard, Northwestern and Rutgers universities found that InfoWars was among the top 5 most shared fake news domains in tweets related to COVID-19, the others being The Gateway Pundit, WorldNetDaily, Judicial Watch and Natural News. Claims of false flag school shootings InfoWars has regularly claimed, without evidence, that mass shootings have been staged "false flag" operations and has accused survivors of such events of being crisis actors employed by the United States government. InfoWars host Alex Jones promoted the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting conspiracy theories, claiming that the massacre of twenty elementary school students and six staff members was "completely fake" and "manufactured," a stance for which Jones was heavily criticized. In March 2018, six families of victims of the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting, as well as an FBI agent who responded to the attack, filed a defamation lawsuit against Jones for his role in spreading conspiracy theories about the shooting. In December 2019, InfoWars and Jones were ordered to pay $100,000 in legal fees prior to the trial for another defamation lawsuit from a different family whose son was killed in the shooting. In a June 2022 agreement, the families will drop their Texas and Connecticut defamation cases against Infowars, Prison Planet TV and IW Health, and in return, those companies will no longer pursue their Texas case for bankruptcy protection. The families may continue to pursue defamation cases against Alex Jones and Free Speech Systems. Jones has also accused David Hogg and other survivors of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting of being crisis actors. Pizzagate conspiracy theory InfoWars promoted fabricated Pizzagate claims. The fake claims led to harassment of the owner and employees of Comet Ping Pong, a Washington, D.C. pizzeria targeted by the conspiracy theories, including threatening phone calls, online harassment, and death threats. The owner sent a letter to Jones in February 2017 demanding a retraction or apology. (Such a letter is required before a party may seek punitive damages in an action for libel under Texas law). After receiving the letter, Jones said, "I want our viewers and listeners to know that we regret any negative impact our commentaries may have had on Mr. Alefantis, Comet Ping Pong, or its employees. We apologize to the extent our commentaries could be construed as negative statements about Mr. Alefantis or Comet Ping Pong, and we hope that anyone else involved in commenting on Pizzagate will do the same thing." InfoWars also issued a correction on its website. InfoWars reporter Owen Shroyer also targeted East Side Pies, a group of pizza restaurants in Austin, Texas, with similar fake "Pizzagate" claims. Following the claims, the pizza business was targeted by phone threats, vandalism, and harassment, which the co-owners called "alarming, disappointing, disconcerting and scary". Chobani retraction In 2017, InfoWars (along with similar sites) published a fake story about U.S. yogurt manufacturer Chobani, with headlines including "Idaho yogurt maker caught importing migrant rapists" and "allegations that Chobani's practice of hiring refugees brought crime and tuberculosis to Twin Falls". Chobani ultimately filed a federal lawsuit against Jones, which led to a settlement on confidential terms in May 2017. Jones offered an apology and retraction, admitting he had made "certain statements" on InfoWars "that I now understand to be wrong". Businesses While Jones has stated, "I'm not a business guy, I'm a revolutionary", he spends much of InfoWarss air time pitching dietary supplements and survivalist products to his audience. As a private firm, InfoWars and its affiliated limited liability companies are not required to make public financial statements; as a result, observers can only estimate its revenue and profits. Prior to 2013, Jones focused on building a "media empire". By 2013, Alex Seitz-Wald of Salon estimated that Jones was earning as much as $10 million a year between subscriptions, web and radio advertising, and sales of DVDs, T-shirts, and other merchandise. That year, Jones changed his business model to incorporate selling proprietary dietary supplements, including one that promised to "supercharge" cognitive functions. Unlike most talk radio shows, InfoWars itself does not directly generate income. It gets no syndication fees from its syndicater GCN, no cut of the advertising that GCN sells, and it does not sell its three minutes per hour of national advertising time. The show no longer promotes its video service (though it still exists), and has not made any documentary films since 2012. Virtually all money is made by selling Jones's dietary supplements to viewers and listeners through the site's online store. In 2017, the supplements sold on the InfoWars store were primarily sourced from Dr. Edward F. Group III, a chiropractor who founded the Global Healing Center supplement vendor. A significant portion of InfoWarss products contain colloidal silver, which Jones falsely claimed "kills every virus", including "the whole SARS-corona family"; this claim was disputed by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). A lesser source of revenue for InfoWars is its "money bomb" telethons, which resemble public radio fundraisers, except InfoWars is a for-profit institution. According to former InfoWars employees, a money bomb was able to raise $100,000 in a day. In 2014, Jones claimed that InfoWars was accumulating over $20 million in annual revenue. The New York Times attributed most of the revenue to sales of supplements, including "Super Male Vitality" and "Brain Force Plus," which InfoWars purported would increase testosterone and mental agility, respectively. Court documents in 2014 indicate that InfoWars was successful enough for Jones and his then-wife to be planning to "build a swimming pool complex... featuring a waterfall and dining cabana with a stone fireplace". The documents also listed Jones's possessions, including four Rolex watches, a $40,000 saltwater aquarium, a $70,000 grand piano, $50,000 in weapons, and $70,000 in jewelry. After InfoWars was banned by Facebook, YouTube, Apple, Spotify, and Pinterest, Jones appealed to viewers, "The enemy wants to cut off our funding to destroy us. If you don't fund us, we'll be shut down." Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection In April 2022, it became known the company behind InfoWars had filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection, as had Infowars Health (or IWHealth), against further civil litigation lawsuits. The court filings estimated InfoWars assets at between $0–$50,000, but its liabilities (including from the damages awarded against Jones in defamation suits) was estimated as being between $1 million to $10 million. Hosts Alex Jones Alex Jones is the main host and operator of InfoWars. Owen Shroyer Owen Shroyer (born 1989) is an American political activist and commentator from St. Louis who now lives and works in Texas. He is considered to be part of the US alt-right movement. Shroyer previously worked as an AM radio host in St. Louis on KXFN and later KFNS. He began hosting a podcast and posting YouTube videos of his views. Shroyer has been quoted as supporting conspiracy theories about the Clinton family. On August 20, 2021, Shroyer was charged in connection with the 2021 United States Capitol attack. He announced on InfoWars that there was a warrant for his arrest and that he would fight the charges. However, in 2023, he pled guilty to entering and remaining on restricted grounds, and in exchange the other charges were dropped. He was sentenced to 60 days in prison. In January 2022, Shroyer falsely claimed that Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau signed a $1 million non-disclosure agreement with a minor who had allegedly accused him of sexual misconduct, citing articles from the Buffalo Chronicle, another fake news website. The video clip of Shroyer was shared by James Wells, a former British Member of the European Parliament. See also List of fake news websites Fake news websites in the United States Knowledge Fight References External links Alex Jones Websites with far-right material Conspiracist media Internet properties established in 1999 Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2022 Fake news websites American conservative websites Mass media in Austin, Texas 1999 establishments in the United States
5180201	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Washington%20University%20School%20of%20Engineering%20and%20Applied%20Science	George Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science	The School of Engineering and Applied Science (SEAS) at the George Washington University in Washington, D.C. is a technical school which specializes in engineering, technology, communications, and transportation. The school is located on the main campus of the George Washington University and offers both undergraduate and graduate programs. History In May 2011, site preparation began for construction of the $300 million project. The building consists of six below-grade stories used for lab space, parking, and mechanical systems, as well as eight above-grade stories. The design of the Science and Engineering Hall combines flexible, reconfigurable spaces within common areas on each floor to promote collaborative thinking and to integrate lectures and laboratories with hands-on projects. Other key features of the building include: a vibration and particulate-free nanotechnology facility, a three-story high-bay including a strong wall and floor with easy access to a street level loading dock, and a multi-use auditorium and media center for science and engineering symposia and conferences. The building was designed by architecture firm Ballinger and conceptualized to meet the growing research needs of engineering disciplines. After four years of construction, which included demolishing the campus' largest parking deck, the building was completed in November 2014. Since January 2015, the School of Engineering and Applied Science has occupied the Science and Engineering Hall on George Washington University's main campus in Foggy Bottom. Previously, the engineering school was housed in Tompkins Hall. Tompkins Hall is still used as office space for faculty as well as the computing facility. The Science and Engineering Hall is the largest academic building dedicated to these fields in Washington, D.C. The facility is 500,000 square feet and eight floors tall. It houses 140 faculty members and classrooms used by four schools: the School of Engineering and Applied Science, Columbian College of Arts & Sciences, the School of Medicine and Health Sciences, and the Milken Institute School of Public Health. The building is designed with sustainability in mind. Departments Biomedical Engineering The Department of Biomedical Engineering offers Bachelor of Science, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degree programs in biomedical engineering. Until 2015, these programs were administered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering. Undergraduate students may choose from a number of options with the bachelor of science degree. Graduate students may select focus areas of concentration in medical imaging or medical instrumentation. Faculty and students conduct research programs across a wide array of topics, leveraging the proximity of the GW Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Children's National Medical Center, and federal agencies to do so. The department has 6 full-time faculty, 9 affiliated faculty, 228 undergraduate students, and 49 graduate students. Its annual research expenditure is around $1.2 million. Civil and Environmental Engineering The department offers a Bachelor of Science degree in civil engineering; a five-year bachelor's/master's degree; master's, doctoral, and professional degree programs in civil engineering; and several graduate certificate programs. The department has 12 full-time faculty, 83 undergraduate students, and 49 graduate students. It has an annual research expenditure of around $551,000. Computer Science The Department of Computer Science offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degree programs in computer science, as well as a Master of Science and Doctor of Philosophy in computer science and a Master of Science in Cybersecurity in Computer Science. The department also offers a graduate certificate in computer security and information assurance. The department is one of the largest at SEAS, both in terms of faculty and students. The department has 18 full-time faculty members, 187 undergraduate students, and 445 graduate students. It has an annual research expenditure of $3.7 million. Electrical and Computer Engineering The Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering (ECE) offers Bachelor of Science degree programs in computer engineering and electrical engineering. Students may also choose from a number of options with each degree. Graduate students may pursue Master of Science or doctor of philosophy degrees in computer engineering or electrical engineering. The department also offers a Master of Science degree program in telecommunications engineering, as well as professional degree programs and graduate certificate programs. The department has 23 full-time faculty members, 87 undergraduate students, and 245 graduate students. It has an annual research expenditure of $2.65 million. Engineering Management and Systems Engineering The Department of Engineering Management and Systems Engineering offers Bachelor of Science, Bachelor of Arts, Master of Science, and Doctor of Philosophy degree programs in engineering management and systems engineering. They also offer an online Doctor of Engineering in engineering management. The department has 15 full-time faculty, 119 undergraduate students, and 879 graduate students. It has an annual research expenditure of $1.1 million. Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering The Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering offers a Bachelor of Science degree program in mechanical engineering, a Master of Science, or Doctor of Philosophy degrees in mechanical and aerospace engineering. The department also offers professional degree programs and graduate certificate programs. It has 27 full-time faculty, 249 undergraduate students, and 152 graduate students. It has an annual research expenditure of $4.3 million. Research laboratories SEAS has research laboratories dedicated to high-performance computing, nanotechnology, robotics, transportation engineering, among other fields, including: Biomedical engineering research Biomedical engineering research at the George Washington University includes biofluid dynamics, medical imaging, cardiac electrophysiology, plasma medicine, therapeutic ultrasound, nanomedicine and tissue engineering. Cybersecurity research Cybersecurity research is spread across six laboratories at the George Washington University including Dr. Zhang's laboratory which focuses on data security, the Cyber Security Policy and Research Institute, and Dr. Monteleoni's laboratory in Machine Learning. Undergraduate programs With approximately 780 students enrolled, SEAS has a variety of undergraduate programs. Applied Science and Technology (B.S.) Biomedical Engineering (B.S.) The Bachelor of Science in Biomedical Engineering is an ABET-accredited program located in the Department of Electrical & Computer Engineering Civil Engineering (B.S.) The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering (CEE) at SEAS has eleven full-time teaching and/or research faculty. The following programs are currently offered by the department as B.S. options (note that all BS degrees are degrees in civil engineering, not the concentration): Civil Engineering – This option is the most general of the options and has a bias toward structural engineering studies. Civil Engineering with Medical Preparation Option – This is the same degree, but with more emphasis in medical school preparation. Some changes include more requirements in chemistry and organic chemistry, and introduction to circuit theory. Environmental Engineering Option in Civil Engineering Transportation Option in Civil Engineering Sustainability option in Civil Engineering 5-year Bachelor's/Master's programs – The department recently enacted three options for both general CE and EE option students to complete a Master of Science degree in one additional year. A letter of intent is necessary, along with a 3.0 GPA, but application to the graduate school and GREs are not necessary. There are currently three options available: B.S./M.S. in Civil Engineering with Structural Engineering Focus B.S./M.S. in Civil Engineering with Environmental Engineering Focus B.S./M.S. in Civil Engineering with Transportation Engineering Focus Computer Engineering (B.S.) Offered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the computer engineering program combines the best of both worlds: electronic system hardware design with computer software design. Students in the program are prepared in the theory and application of hardware and software design, computer networks, embedded systems, and very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuit design and applications. Students can take electives in advanced topics, such as optical networks, broadband wireless networks, and technologies for the next generation of information systems. Students work on projects in modern, well-equipped VLSI and computer engineering laboratories. The capstone design sequence involves students in the design and fabrication of a large-scale digital system based on their area of interest. This program is accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of ABET. Computer Science (B.S.) Technical Tracks: Computer Security and Information Assurance – for students interested in the design and implementation of secure computing infrastructures. Artificial Intelligence (AI) – for students interested in artificial intelligence and its applications. Computational Mathematics and Sciences Computer Graphics and Digital Media – for students interested in computer graphics, visualization, animation and digital media. Data Science Foundations and Theory – for students interested in exploring theory or developing strong foundations, perhaps in preparation for graduate work in Computer Science. Software engineering and Application Development – for students interested in the software engineering concepts and techniques required for the design and implementation of large software systems and applications. Systems – for students interested in the software engineering concepts and techniques required for the design and implementation of large software systems and applications. Individually designed technical track: This track will comprise at least three courses, not necessarily with CSci designations, but the content must meet a broad technical requirement that it be closely related to the disciplines of computing. Computer Science (B.A.) Medical Preparation option – If you are interested in combining a Computer Science major with preparation for admission to a school of medicine, consider the Medical Preparation options in the B.A. and B.S. programs. In these options, you add additional natural science material to your course requirements. Bioinformatics option – The emerging field of Bioinformatics combines the disciplines of Computer Science and Biochemistry, and focuses on the use of computers to characterize the molecular components of living things. If you choose this option in either the B.S. or the B.A. program, you will study a number of subjects in Biology and Chemistry, including molecular biology and genetics, and take specific coursework in Bioinformatics. Both options also meet the requirements for medical school admission, and the B.A. option in bioinformatics meets the requirements for a second major in biology. Digital Media option – Digital Media encompasses audio, video, the World Wide Web and other technologies that can be used to create and distribute digital content. Graphics is the use of computers to create virtual worlds from which visuals can be generated and with which humans can interact. You can choose between two degree options. The Bachelor of Science (BS) concentrates on the technology. The Bachelor of Arts (BA) allows you to explore the use of digital media and computer graphics in the arts, sciences, engineering, business, medicine, and in a number of other disciplines. The expanded breadth is made available through the opportunity to take a number of related courses from other departments. Biomedical Computing option – Biomedical Computing is at the intersection of health care and computer science. It involves all aspects of the analysis, management, and visualization of information in biomedical applications. The technology is based on computer science, but the field demands knowledge of the problems that need to be solved in medicine and health care. Electrical Engineering (B.S.) Offered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the electrical engineering program focuses on signal processing; communication theory and practice; voice, data, video and multimedia communication networks; very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuit design and applications; and control systems. Students can take electives in advanced topics, such as optical networks, broadband wireless networks, and technologies for the next generation of information systems. This program is accredited by the Engineering Accreditation Commission of ABET. Mechanical Engineering The Mechanical Engineering Program is one of the oldest SEAS programs. Most graduates easily secure their EIT designation. The specialized major options are as follows: Aerospace Option in Mechanical Engineering – The Aerospace Engineering Option leads to a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering while preparing the student to work in the aerospace industry or to pursue graduate study in Aerospace Engineering. It provides a strong foundation in aerodynamics, airplane performance, propulsion, aerospace structures, orbital mechanics, spacecraft dynamics, and aircraft and spacecraft design. The Biomechanical Engineering Option – The Biomechanical Engineering Option leads to a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering while preparing the student to work in the biomedical industry or to pursue graduate study in biomedical engineering. It provides a strong foundation in human anatomy and physiology, biomechanics, biomaterials, and design of biomedical devices. Patent Law Option in Mechanical Engineering – The Patent Law Option leads to a bachelor's degree in Mechanical Engineering while providing a strong foundation in fundamental principles of patent law and the influences of the US patent system on modern engineering design. A student in this option obtains background that can lead to work as a technical specialist in a patent law firm or in the patent department of an industrial employer. The option also provides excellent preparation for pursuit of a subsequent law school degree in intellectual property. Robotics option in Mechanical Engineering Systems Engineering Systems Engineering is a multidisciplinary field that applies engineering techniques and mathematical methods to improve planning and decision making. By observing systems composed of people, machines, and procedures, Systems Engineers attempt to model and predict the behavior of complex systems so that they can be (re)designed to operate optimally. Graduate programs As of the Spring 2017 semester, SEAS offers 12 master's programs, 8 doctoral programs, and 13 certificate programs. It also facilitates a number of combined B.S./M.S. programs for current GW undergraduate students, as well as accelerated master's programs with global partner institutions and special programs for working professionals in select tech and government agencies located in Washington, D.C. and Northern Virginia, such as Booz Allen Hamilton. As of Fall 2016, there were 834 graduate students enrolled in a master's or doctorate program. In terms of gender ratio, 27% of the graduate students at SEAS are female, one of the highest in the country. Degree programs are offered in the following fields of study. They may be completed full-time or part-time on George Washington University's main campus in Foggy Bottom & off-campus sites in Arlington, Virginia: Biomedical Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) Offered through the Department of Biomedical Engineering, the M.S. and Ph.D. programs in Biomedical Engineering are designed to prepare students to apply engineering principles to problems in medicine and biology; to understand and model attributes of living systems; and to synthesize biomedical systems and devices. Students choose from two areas of focus: Medical imaging or medical instrumentation. Students may choose to do a master's thesis or take extra courses in lieu of a thesis. Civil and Environmental Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering offers graduate degree and certificate programs that are designed to help students explore solutions for issues such as improving clean water access; designing intelligent transportation systems to alleviate traffic congestion; improving the crashworthiness of cars; and designing bridges to become more resistant to earthquake. Students choose from six areas of focus: Engineering mechanics Environmental engineering Geotechnical engineering Structural engineering Transportation safety engineering Water safety engineering Computer Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) Offered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the Master of Science program in Computer Engineering program offers up-to- date knowledge and skills in the advances of computer systems architecture and networking and in the rapidly growing use of superscalar microprocessors, real-time embedded systems, VLSI and ASIC design modules, digital signal processors and networked computing platforms. Students learn sophisticated computer architecture and integrated circuit design techniques using industry-standard computer-aided design tools and choose from among two areas of focus: computer architecture and high-performance computing or microelectronics and VLSI systems. The program offers a flexible schedule that includes courses in the late afternoon and evening, as well as the ability to choose a thesis or non-thesis degree option. The doctoral program in computer engineering is designed to involve students in research in the areas of computer architecture and high-performance computing, or microelectronics and VLSI systems. The research interests of the faculty in the computer architecture and high-performance computing area span computer architecture, parallel processing, cloud computing, and high-performance and grid computing. In the microelectronics and VLSI design area, the faculty's interests include the design and modeling of electronic and nanoelectronic devices and systems, microfluidic devices integrated with electronic devices, the design of MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) for sensors and for RF-MEMS devices, micro and nanoelectronic circuits with applications to sensors and biosensors, and techniques to develop CMOS Integrated sensors and their interface circuits using analog and digital circuits. Students choose from the following Areas of Focus in selecting their coursework: Computer architecture and high-performance computing MEMS, electronics, and photonics (microelectronics and VLSI systems) Computer Science (M.S., Ph.D.) Offered through the Department of Computer Science, the M.S., Ph.D., and certificate programs in Computer Science are designed to equip students with excellent skills at the forefront of computing. Through research and teaching, the department contributes to computing breakthroughs that are fueling advances in medicine, communications, transportation, security, and other areas vital to society and the world. Students choose from the following areas of focus: Algorithms and theory Computer architecture, networks, parallel and distributed computing Computer security and information assurance Database and information retrieval systems Machine intelligence and cognition Multimedia, animation, graphics, and user interface Software engineering and systems Cybersecurity in Computer Science (M.S.) Offered through the Department of Computer Science, the M.S. in Cybersecurity in Computer Science is designed to respond to the large and fast-growing need for technical cybersecurity experts both nationally and internationally. As the first such degree offered in the D.C. area, students acquire up-to-date knowledge and skills in cybersecurity, an increasingly important field to national security, the economy, and private citizens. Students take a combination of core courses focused on design and analysis of algorithms; computer architectures; and advanced software paradigms. These are to be combined with courses focused on security (ex. applied cryptography, computer network defense, etc.) and elective courses. Additionally, the program is federally designated as a National Center of Academic Excellence for Information Assurance Excellence by the Department of Homeland Security and National Security Agency. This qualifies students for internships, scholarships, and job opportunities with the U.S. government in the cybersecurity field. Cybersecurity Policy & Compliance (M.Eng.) Offered through the Off-Campus division of the Department of Engineering Management and Systems Engineering (EMSE). The Master of Engineering in Cybersecurity Policy and Compliance (M.Eng.[CPC]) follows this history, bringing a fully online cybersecurity master's degree to those seeking critical positions at the managerial level leading an organization's cyber practices. Data Analytics (M.S.) Established in 2017, the Data Analytics program is jointly administered between the Departments of Computer Science (CS) and Engineering Management & Systems Engineering (EMSE). It is a terminal master's degree. Electrical Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) Offered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, students are able to choose their coursework around specific research areas of the department, such as wireless/mobile communications, micro-electro- mechanical systems, magnetics, and remote sensing. Students in the doctoral program in electrical engineering conduct research in a variety of areas Students can choose from the following six areas of focus: communications and networks; electrical power and energy; electromagnetics, radiation systems, and microwave engineering; microelectronics and VLSI systems; and signal and image processing, systems and controls. Students choose from the following Areas of Focus in selecting their coursework: Applied electromagnetics Communications and networks Electrical power and energy Electronics, photonics, and MEMS (VLSI systems and microelectronics) Signal and image processing, systems and controls Engineering Management (M.S., Ph.D., D. Eng.) Offered through the Department of Engineering Management and Systems Engineering (EMSE), the M.S., Ph.D., D. Eng., and certificate programs in Engineering Management are designed to prepare technical managers who need a broad education in order to keep an organization operating efficiently and working ahead of its competitors. The Engineering Management program provides a graduate education in the latest management techniques for technical and scientific organizations. Students choose from five areas of focus: Crisis, emergency and risk management Economics, finance and cost engineering Engineering and technology management Environmental and energy management Knowledge and information management Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) Programs offered include: Aerospace engineering Design of mechanical engineering systems Fluid mechanics, thermal sciences, and energy Industrial engineering Solid mechanics and materials science Structures and dynamics Robotics, mechatronics, and controls Regulatory Biomedical Engineering (M.Eng.) Systems Engineering (M.S., Ph.D.) The following options are offered: Operations research and management science Systems engineering and integration Enterprise information assurance Telecommunications Engineering (M.S.) Offered through the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, the Master of Science in Telecommunications Engineering is geared towards the practicing or aspiring telecommunications engineer. The program provides students with a foundation in the fundamentals of telecommunications engineering, including topics such as transmission systems, computer networking, network architectures and protocols, and telecommunications security protocols. Optionally, students may take courses on optical networking, wireless networking, cloud computing, and other current topics. Certificate programs Certificate programs are offered in the following areas. Each program consists of 4–6 courses to be completed within one calendar year or at the student's desired pace. Students enrolled in a master's or doctoral program may also complete a certificate in conjunction with their degree: Notable alumni Many of the school's former students have gone on to careers in both the private and public sectors. Some notable alumni include Ian Waitz (Vice Chancellor of Massachusetts Institute of Technology), Stanley Crane (CEO of Southern Railway (U.S.) and member of the National Academy of Engineering), Mario Cardullo (inventor of read-write Radio-frequency identification), and Christopher J. Wiernicki (CEO of American Bureau of Shipping), among numerous others. References External links School of Engineering and Applied Science web site Engineering Engineering schools and colleges in the United States Engineering universities and colleges in Washington, D.C. 1884 establishments in Washington, D.C. Educational institutions established in 1884
5180310	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmsley%20Building	Helmsley Building	The Helmsley Building is a 35-story skyscraper at 230 Park Avenue between East 45th and 46th Streets, just north of Grand Central Terminal, in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It was built in 1929 as the New York Central Building and was designed by Warren & Wetmore in the Beaux-Arts style. It was the tallest structure in the "Terminal City" complex around Grand Central prior to the completion of what is now the MetLife Building. The Helmsley Building carries vehicular traffic through its base: traffic exits and enters the Park Avenue Viaduct through two portals passing under the building. The lobby of the building is between the vehicular portals. Flanking the viaduct's ramps are passageways connecting 45th and 46th Streets, with entrances to Grand Central Terminal. Before the construction of Grand Central Terminal, the area to the north of the predecessor Grand Central Depot was occupied by an open-air rail yard; the tracks and depot were operated by the New York Central Railroad. After the terminal was completed in 1913, the tracks were buried under a series of buildings that were constructed over the tracks as part of the Terminal City development. The New York Central Building was erected for the railroad between 1927 and 1929 as the last major structure to be built within Terminal City. It was renamed the New York General Building in 1958 and the Helmsley Building in 1978, though ownership was changed several times afterward. The building's facade and lobby became New York City designated landmarks in 1987. Site The Helmsley Building straddles the ramps of the Park Avenue Viaduct in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. It is bounded by 45th Street to the south, Vanderbilt Avenue to the west, 46th Street to the north, and Depew Place to the east. Its address is 230 Park Avenue. The building is assigned its own ZIP Code, 10169; it was one of 41 buildings in Manhattan that had their own ZIP Codes . The Helmsley Building measures north-south and west-east. Immediately to the south are Grand Central Terminal and the MetLife Building. In addition, the building is near 50 Vanderbilt Avenue to the southwest, the Roosevelt Hotel to the west, 383 Madison Avenue to the northwest, 245 Park Avenue to the northeast, and 450 Lexington Avenue to the southeast. The Helmsley Building was developed as part of the original "Terminal City" complex above Grand Central Terminal's rail yards. Architecture The Helmsley Building was designed by Warren & Wetmore. The design is influenced by that of the Manhattan Municipal Building, which spanned Chambers Street in Lower Manhattan, with side wings projecting to the west and east. The wings slightly resemble the "court of honor" designed by Reed and Stem, another collaborator in the Grand Central project. Inside the base are two S-ramps carrying Park Avenue to the Park Avenue Viaduct. The western ramp carries southbound traffic and the eastern ramp carries northbound traffic. The building's lobby is between the two ramps, while pedestrian arcades run to the outside of either ramp; the arcades connect 45th and 46th Streets. The arcades contain storefronts on the sides facing away from the viaduct's ramps: the west side of the western arcade and the east side of the eastern arcade. The arcades are connected to Grand Central North, a system of passageways that lead to Grand Central, which opened in 1999. The eastern and western wings are each 15 stories tall, while a centrally positioned tower rises another 20 stories. The lowest four stories comprise the base, which include the lobbies and the viaduct ramps. The eleven stories above it comprise an office block with a floor plan shaped like an irregular "H" aligned west–east. The western wings project further than the eastern wings, and the center of the northern facade curves slightly inward. The 20-story tower has a floor plan measuring . It terminates in a pyramidal roof with an octagonal base. Facade The facade of the four-story base is composed of limestone and Texas pink granite. It includes bronze grilles as well as sculptures depicting industrial progress. There is a clock atop the base, located above the ground with a diameter of . The clock is flanked by a figure of the god Mercury on the left, representing transportation, and a figure of the goddess Ceres on the right, representing agriculture. The composition measures tall by wide and was designed by Edward McCartan. The windows on the base contain one of four types of display-window designs: the original designs installed with the rest of the building in 1929, and one of three modifications. The pedimental sculptures were carved by the Ardolino Brothers. The upper stories are faced with brick. The northern facade of the fifth through 15th stories curve along the wings. The facade of this section contains paired sash windows with decorative metal spandrels, as well as limestone keystones above the windows on the 15th story. Above the 15th floor is a cornice with terracotta bison heads, which symbolize industry. There are 78 bison heads in total. The cornice also contains images of Mercury's winged helmet, winged wheels representing advancement, scrolls of wisdom, wheels of progress, and other motifs. The 15th story of the eastern facade had a sky bridge that connected to 466 Lexington Avenue until the bridge was demolished in 1982. The 16th through 35th-story facades contain identical decorative elements on all sides. Like the lower stories, these are faced with brick and contain paired sash windows. Above the 28th floor are limestone keystones over the windows, as well as a cornice with brackets. There is an ornate entablature above the 31st floor; keystones above the 32nd-floor windows; bracketed keystones above the 33rd floor windows; and an observation deck on the 33rd floor. The last full floor, the 34th floor, has three pairs of windows on all sides, protruding from the roof as dormers. The top of the Helmsley Building is a pyramid with an ornate cupola. The roof was lit at night by electric floodlights and torches with up to 100,000 candlepower. At the pinnacle were "32-marine-type fixtures" that each had a capacity of up to 100 watts. The cupola had oval openings and was topped by a glass ball with a 6,000 watt lantern. Eight projectors, one from each corner of the octagon's base, also illuminated the roof. The lighting made the Helmsley Building into a point of interest that could be seen from several miles away. When the Helmsley Building was completed, the copper roof was gilded, but by the late 1950s had been painted green. The gilding was restored in the 1970s and removed in 2002. Features The building has of office space. Of this, the lower 15 floors each have an area of and the upper 20 floors each cover . The building was erected with 40 elevators, only 25 of which were in use . Structural features The building uses of steel, of which went into the foundation. There are two levels of tracks underneath the building. Due to the different track layouts on each level, the columns on each level were offset, preventing through-columns from being built. Furthermore, the tracks were electrified and more than 700 trains passed through each day. As a solution, girders were installed above the lower track level, and the steel frame for the building was placed upon these girders and insulated with vibration-proof mats and cork tubes. The Helmsley Building did not have basements because that space was occupied by the tracks. Because of this, the machinery, utilities, and storage areas were installed on the 15th floor. Lobby The lobby's interior is designed to evoke New York Central's "prowess". This is evidenced in the walls, which are made of marble, as well as the detailing of the bronze, where the railroad's initials are repeated many times. A vestibule leads from 46th Street and contains multi-pane windows, bronze doors, a chandelier, and a pair of flanking vestibules with small storefronts. Another nearly-identical but smaller vestibule on the southern end, near 45th Street, leads to the western walkway. The lobby contains bronze chandeliers and an elaborate cornice with brackets and friezes. There are thirty-two elevators, grouped in eight banks of four, labeled "A" through "H". The elevator banks are double-height arched vestibules, with marble frames around the elevator openings, as well as bronze-ornamented elevator indicators. The elevators contain elaborately decorated bronze doors painted "Chinese red", with the railroad's initials. The bronze reliefs above the elevator doors contain winged helmets flanking a globe, a symbol of global influence. The elevator cab interiors contain Chinese red walls with wood moldings, as well as ceilings with gift domes and painted cloudscapes. The elevator banks and cabs are similar, with minor variations. History In the 19th century, the New York Central Railroad lines north of Grand Central Depot in Midtown Manhattan were served exclusively by steam locomotives, and the rising traffic soon caused accumulations of smoke and soot in the Park Avenue Tunnel, the only approach to the depot. After a fatal crash in 1902, the New York state legislature passed a law to ban all steam trains in Manhattan by 1908. New York Central's vice president William J. Wilgus proposed electrifying the line and building a new electric-train terminal underground, a plan that was implemented almost in its entirety. The old Grand Central Depot was torn down in phases and replaced by the current Grand Central Terminal. Construction on Grand Central Terminal started on June 19, 1903, and the new terminal was opened on February 2, 1913. Passenger traffic on the commuter lines into Grand Central more than doubled in the years following the terminal's completion. The terminal spurred development in the surrounding area, particularly in Terminal City, a commercial and office district created above where the tracks were covered. Terminal City soon became Manhattan's most desirable commercial and office district. A 1920 New York Times article said, "With its hotels, office buildings, apartments and underground Streets it not only is a wonderful railroad terminal, but also a great civic centre." Most of these buildings were designed by Warren & Wetmore, which had also designed the terminal itself. Planning and construction Early plans Following Grand Central Terminal's completion, one of the first plans for development on the Helmsley Building's current site took place in 1914, when the Winter Sports Club secured an option from New York Central to build property on the east side of Park Avenue between 45th and 46th Streets. The development of Terminal City had included the construction of the Park Avenue Viaduct, surrounding Grand Central Terminal. The first part of the viaduct had opened in 1919, carrying traffic from Park Avenue and 40th Street to Vanderbilt Avenue and 45th Street. Initially, only the western leg of the present-day viaduct was open to traffic, and there was a severe bottleneck at Vanderbilt Avenue and 45th Street. As such, the city government refused to issue construction permits for buildings on Park Avenue between 45th and 46th Streets until the bottleneck was resolved. The city started negotiating with New York Central to open the eastern leg of the viaduct, although the railroad was holding out unless it was granted property on Park Avenue. At the time, New York Central had planned to build two buildings, one on either side of Park Avenue. New York Central proposed a single 16-story building over Park Avenue in 1922. Two years later, New York Central and the city reached an agreement to build a single building over Park Avenue, in exchange for an extension of Vanderbilt Avenue from 45th to 47th Streets, and the completion of the viaduct through the new building over Park Avenue. The project to complete the Park Avenue Viaduct proceeded after the proposal was certified by Charles L. Craig, the city controller, in 1925. The final plan for the New York Central Building above Park Avenue was not completed until February 1927. As part of the plan, the viaduct's roadways would cross over 45th Street without intersection, descending to ground level within the building. The plan also included provisions for the extension of Park Avenue's sidewalks from 46th to 45th Streets through the building. Construction New York Central was responsible for all of the component projects of construction, including the viaduct ramps and the pedestrian walkways, while the city government provided support. The collaboration was described by The New York Times as "a fine example of the way in which private undertakings, when intelligently coordinated with municipal interests, can bring about a real public improvement". Construction of the foundation started in December 1926. At that time, New York Central opened bids for the procurement of of steel. Warren and Wetmore filed building plans in February 1927, and a contract for of steel was awarded to the McClintic-Marshall Company the next month. James Stewart & Company were hired to place the foundation's piers deep. That July, New York Central awarded the general construction contract to James Stewart & Company. Because the steel beams were so large, they could not be moved through city Streets, so they were delivered by rail. The steelwork had reached the ground level by November 1927. The building topped out on April 5, 1928, though Chauncey Depew, the chairman of the railroad's board of directors, had died several hours before the topping-out ceremony. New York Central use The New York Central Building received a temporary occupancy certificate in December 1928, and its roof was first lit in January 1929. However, the building was not considered completed until September 25, 1929, when all construction was finished. According to later sources, the building was considered to be the last major project erected as part of Terminal City. New York Central moved its administrative headquarters to the 32nd and 33rd floors, while the remaining floors were leased to tenants. The 32nd floor had a boardroom with English wood paneling gifted by the Van Swearingen brothers (who were railroad barons), as well as the president's and chairman's suites. The Railway Express Agency moved all its departments into one floor of the New York Central Building in April 1930. There were other railroad-related tenants such as equipment manufacturer Symington Company, as well as the American Brake Shoe and Foundry Company, and the Delaware and Hudson Railway. In the first decades of the building's history, its other tenants included publisher McCall Company, paper manufacturer Eastern Manufacturing Company, and Colonial Airlines. Salvatore Maranzano, a boss for the American Mafia, had an office on the ninth floor, where he worked for the Eagle Building Corporation. On September 10, 1931, he was killed by hitmen sent by Lucky Luciano and Vito Genovese, ambitious underlings whom Maranzano had hired Vincent "Mad Dog" Coll to kill. The New York Central Building's windows were blacked out as a safety measure during World War II. During the 1950s, New York Central undertook a multi-million-dollar restoration of the building, and in 1958, put the building up for lease. That year, Irving Brodsky of the New York Bank for Savings assumed a 50-year leasehold and renamed it the New York General Building. Upon the New York Central's Building's renaming, the "C" and "T" on the facade's plaque were chiseled into "G" and "E" respectively. The renaming is sometimes credited to Harry Helmsley, a later owner of the building; he said that the change had been made for cost-saving reasons. Subsequent use Helmsley ownership New York Central had merged with the Pennsylvania Railroad in 1968 to form the Penn Central Railroad. That same year, the New York Central Building was sold to the General Tire & Rubber Company. After Penn Central went bankrupt in 1970, it sought to sell its properties. By the next year, Penn Central trustees had signed contracts to sell the New York General Building. The proceedings were delayed for several years, as federal judge John P. Fullam refused to approve the sale of the New York General Building, while approving four of Penn Central's other sales. In December 1975, the trustees petitioned Fullam to sell the building to the New York Bank for Savings for $7 million in cash and $19 million in a 33.5-year mortgage. The sale was finalized early the next year. The major ownership stake was sold to Harry Helmsley's company Helmsley-Spear Management in 1977. After Helmsley's purchase, both the exterior and interior of the New York General Building were restored. The green rusted-copper roof, which suffered from leaks, was gilded and waterproofed. The facade was also extensively cleaned. The clock and other ornaments on the facade were also gilded, floodlights were activated at the top and bottom, and the letters were installed on the facade. The building became known as the Helmsley Building in December 1978, following the refurbishment project's completion. According to Harry Helmsley, the renaming was suggested by his wife Leona. Despite the name, the Helmsleys were only one of several stakeholders in 230 Park Avenue Associates, which owned the building. The New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the Helmsley Building and its first-floor interior as official city landmarks in 1987. The first-floor interior designation included the lobby, seven of the eight elevator banks, and the entrance vestibules. The New York Times reported in 2011 that the building's interior landmark designation was difficult to maintain. The lobbies had to be cleaned every month, and restoration of the building's landmarked elevators required an artist to repaint the elevators' ceiling frescoes by hand. A connection from the Grand Central North passageways to the building's pedestrian arcades was announced in 1994 and opened in 1999. After Harry Helmsley died in early 1996, Leona transferred the building's management to the Helmsley-Noyes Company. Leona Helmsley maintained her offices in the Helmsley Building. Further sales The Helmsley Building was owned by Helmsley-Spear until August 1998, when it was sold to the Max Capital Management Corporation for $225 million. The terms of the sale stipulated that the building would not be renamed again. Max Capital subsequently hired Skidmore, Owings & Merrill to design the building's $50 million renovation. Starting in 2000, the building's arcades were shut down one at a time for renovation. The advertising boards in the arcades were removed, and the mezzanine floors in the arcades were demolished to double the ceiling height. Light shafts, TV screens, and bronze storefronts were installed as well. The gilding was removed during the renovation as well. In 2002, the owners stopped lighting certain rooms inside the Helmsley Building during nights in December. When the room-lighting had occurred in previous years, the rooms would be lit so the pattern on the facade resembled a cross; it was controversial among Jewish residents of Park Avenue, but according to Max Capital, the lighting pattern was stopped for security reasons. In 2005, the Helmsley Building was sold again to Istithmar, an investment firm owned by the royal family of Dubai, for $705 million. Two years later, it was sold to Goldman Sachs in 2007 for over $1 billion. Following a 2010 renovation, the Helmsley Building became the first building erected prior to World War II to receive a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design certification for green buildings. Monday Properties and Invesco paid $740 million for the building in 2011. The Helmsley Building was sold once again in May 2015 to property firm RXR Realty for $1.2 billion. Tenants , tenants at the Helmsley Building include 5W Public Relations (5WPR), Cornell University, Comerica Bank, Elsevier, Encyclopædia Britannica, HSH Nordbank AG, LexisNexis, the New York Court of Appeals, Novartis, Powermat, Simon Property Group, Six Flags, Stanley Hand Tools, Tokio Marine Management, and Voya Financial. In addition, a food hall called Urban Space opened in within the Helmsley Building in 2014. Its tenants have been cited as a notable example of the decreased tax burden on the wealthy. IRS zip code records in 2007 revealed that while the average tax filer residing in the Helmsley building had an adjusted gross income of $1.2 million, they paid only a 14.7% effective tax rate. Meanwhile, an average NYC janitor had an AGI of $33,000 and paid an effective tax rate of 24.9%. Reception Early critics had mixed reviews of the building. George Shepard Chappell, writing for The New Yorker in 1928 and 1929, called it "a dramatic stop sign at the end of the thoroughfare", and described the lobby's styles as ranging "from Pullman to Paramount". Harry F. Cunningham reviewed the building much more harshly in a 1928 issue of The American Yearbook, calling the building "one of the greatest steps in the present backward tendency shown in American architecture" for its rejection of modernist styles In a book published in 1932, W. Parker Chase called the Helmsley Building "the most remarkable office building in the world", saying that the construction of the George Washington Bridge—then the world's longest suspension bridge—was about as complex as the Helmsley Building's construction. Later reviews were more positive. Nathan Silver wrote in his 1967 book Lost New York: "With its outline and decoration, [the Helmsley Building] was able to indicate clearly its relationship to the height of a man." John Tauranac, in a guidebook published in 1978, said that the design was "absolutely glorious". Paul Goldberger of The New York Times wrote in 1978 that the Helmsley Building "picks up on the architectural elements of Park Avenue, but transforms them into something more exuberant". Christopher Gray, writing for the same newspaper, stated in 1996: "The middle section is handsome, but the top explodes like a Caribbean coral formation." A partner at Kohn Pederson Fox said in 1984 that the gilding of the Helmsley Building "is rather excessive, and not architecturally appropriate". The author Dirk Stichweh said the Helmsley Building remained "a striking landmark on the New York skyline". The building's clock also received critical attention. Architecture critic Royal Cortissoz called the clock "one of the most conspicuous sculptural decorations ever erected in the city". The New York Daily News editorial team expressed disappointment that the clock was not more prominent and that there was no clock tower. See also List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets References Notes Citations Sources External links in-Arch.net: The Helmsley Building 1929 establishments in New York City Beaux-Arts architecture in New York City Commercial buildings completed in 1929 Grand Central Terminal New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan New York City interior landmarks Park Avenue Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan Warren and Wetmore buildings
5180426	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deportes%20Tolima	Deportes Tolima	Club Deportes Tolima S.A., commonly known as Deportes Tolima, or simply as Tolima, is a Colombian professional football club based in Ibagué, Tolima Department, that competes in the Categoría Primera A. Founded in 1954, the club has won the Colombian top tier thrice: in the 2003–II, 2018–I, and 2021–I tournaments, one Copa Colombia in 2014 and one Superliga Colombiana in 2022. They play their home games at Estadio Manuel Murillo Toro. History Foundation and early history Club Deportes Tolima was founded by Manuel Rubio Chávez on 18 December 1954, when he gave Juan Barbieri (an Argentinian living in Ibagué, Colombia) a sum of $5,000 Colombian pesos in order to hire football players from his native country. Barbieri came back to Colombia with a mix of Argentine and Colombian players such as Jorge Gandulfo, José Jamardo and Enrique Laino. This team competed for the first time in the Colombian football league in 1955, using the uniform of Argentine club Racing Club. In Tolima's league debut, they finished 7th in the league competing with 9 other teams. In 1957, the club finished runner-up in the league. 1980s and 90s Senator Gabriel Camargo Salamanca was given the opportunity to work for the team in the 1980s. He accepted, becoming the biggest stock holder of the team. He bought important players such as Francisco Maturana, Óscar Héctor Quintabani, Osvaldo Redondo, Arnoldo Iguarán, Óscar López, and Janio Cabezas. With this team Deportes Tolima finished as league runner-up in 1981 and 1982. Tolima participated for the first time in an international tournament in the 1982 Copa Libertadores, where the club reached the semi-finals after topping their group consisting of Atlético Nacional, Estudiantes de Mérida, and Deportivo Táchira. The team also played the Copa Libertadores the following year, in 1983, where the team was eliminated in the first round after placing second in their group. In 1993, the club was relegated to Primera B, or the second division, because of poor results. Tolima played for one year in the second division but won the title, which allowed them to make an immediate return to the top tier for the 1995 season. The first star: 2003 Deportes Tolima had a very interesting group of players for the second half of 2003. These players included Ricardo Ciciliano, Henry Zambrano, Yulián Anchico, Oscar Briceño, Jhon Charría, Jorge Artigas, Nelson Rivas, and Diego Gómez among others. Deportes Tolima finished in sixth place in the league and qualified to the playoffs. The club was placed in a group with against Atlético Nacional, Junior, and Independiente Medellín. When everyone predicted Junior would top the group and advance to the final, Deportes Tolima beat Atlético Nacional 2–0 in Ibagué and Junior lost 1–0 to Independiente Medellín in Medellín. With these results, Deportes Tolima qualified to the final against Deportivo Cali on away goals scored after tying Junior on points and goals scored. Tolima won the first leg of the finals 2–0 in Ibagué with an exceptional performance of Rogeiro Pereira, who scored both goals. In the second leg Tolima lost 3–1 in Cali, which forced penalty kicks as the aggregate score was 3–3. In the penalty shootout, Deportes Tolima only missed one penalty and goalkeeper Diego Gómez saved two penalties, which helped the club win the league title for the first time in history. As league champion, Tolima qualified for the 2004 Copa Libertadores, where they were eliminated in the group stage after placing third in their group, comprising River Plate, Deportivo Táchira from Venezuela, and Paraguayan side Libertad. 2006 runners-up 2006 was a great year for Tolima. The team was second on the overall table (points added up over the Apertura and Finalización tournaments), scored the most goals in the year (over 80), and were runners up in the league for 2006–II. At the beginning of 2006, Deportes Tolima did not seem like a very strong team for the season as it did not sign any new players. The coach was Jorge Luis Bernal, who had been the reserve team coach for many years. However, the team performed well in both home and away games, with victories against Envigado 7–3, Atlético Nacional 5–1, Millonarios 3–0 away and Huila 4–1 away. They reached the semi-finals of the 2006 Apertura and were placed in a group with Deportivo Pereira, Deportivo Cali, and Once Caldas, and were en route to making the finals until they lost an important game against Pereira, who finished last in the group. Tolima won their last game, but eventually finished in second, three points behind Cali. The Finalización campaign was even better than the first one. Tolima ended first in the first stage of the league, and played the semi-finals against Atlético Nacional, Deportivo Pasto, and Boyacá Chicó. Atlético Nacional led the group most of the time, while Deportes Tolima remained a point behind. A dramatic 2–1 away win over Nacional made them leaders, and they advanced to the final against Cúcuta Deportivo after beating Boyacá Chicó 2–0 on the final matchday of the group. The first game was away in Cúcuta and Tolima lost 1–0; the return leg in Ibagué ended tied 1–1, with Yulián Anchico scoring Tolima's goal, but it was not enough to win the league title. Since Tolima finished fifth in the 2005 overall table, they were able to play the 2006 Copa Sudamericana. The team began the competition in the first stage, where they beat Independiente Medellín 4–2 on aggregate. In the next stage, Tolima tied against Mineros de Guayana on aggregate, but passed to the next round on the away goals rule. In the third round, the club was matched up with Pachuca. Tolima won the first leg 2–1 at home, but in the second leg in Mexico they lost 5–1, and Tolima was eliminated from the competition, while Pachuca went on to win the competition. At the end of the year, Bernal left the club. 2007–2009 For the 2007 season Deportes Tolima signed important players like defenders Nicolás Ayr and Javier Arizala, strikers Gustavo Savoia and Jorge Perlaza, and midfielder Jésus Sinisterra. Tolima also got a new coach, Jaime de la Pava. Since Tolima finished second in the 2006 overall table, they qualified for the 2007 Copa Libertadores. They began their campaign in the tournament by defeating Deportivo Táchira on aggregate in the first stage, which qualified the club to the group stage with Grêmio, Cerro Porteño and the team that beat Tolima in the 2006 Finalización finals, Cúcuta Deportivo. Tolima finished third in the group stage and was eliminated after losing to Cúcuta Deportivo at home on the final matchday. In the Apertura tournament, Tolima finished in 12th position, missing out on the playoffs. Shortly after, Jaime de la Pava left his post, citing the failure to qualify to the Libertadores knockout stages and missing out on the playoffs as his reasoning. For the 2007 Finalización, Jaime de la Pava was replaced by long-time assistant manager Hernán Torres. Tolima qualified to the playoffs as the fourth seed, but failed to reach the finals, finishing third in the group. In the 2008 Apertura, Tolima had a terrible campaign, finishing last in the table, which included heavy losses to Boyaca Chico (7–2) and Independiente Medellin (4–1). This was mainly due to the departures of forwards Jorge Horacio Serna and Darwin Quintero. Despite the terrible campaign, the board decided to keep Torres for the 2008 Finalización, where they had a much better campaign, finishing as the first seed in the regular season and qualifying for the playoffs. In the playoffs, Deportes Tolima struggled in their group, getting seven points in their first four matches, and reaching the fifth game with the need to beat La Equidad in order to retain a chance to advance to the finals. However, a 2–0 loss in Bogotá effectively crushed the Pijao's hopes of making the finals, since Medellín and Nacional had tied in their match, result that qualified the former side for the finals with one match in hand. Although Tolima later beat finalists Independiente Medellín 4–1 on the last matchday, it was useless but still gave the Tolima fans a chance to celebrate a big victory over one of the best teams in the league, and more support for manager Torres as the beginning of a new era. For the 2009 Apertura, Tolima finished first in the table again and qualified for the playoffs. In the playoffs however, the team was inconsistent and struggled to score, eventually missing out on the finals again. In the 2009 Finalización Tolima finished fifth and qualified for the playoffs, but finished last in their group. In the overall table of the season Tolima finished second, but only qualified for the Copa Sudamericana since the Finalización champions were Independiente Medellín, who had placed third and took the last Libertadores spot by winning the league title. 2010s In the 2010 Apertura, Tolima finished first in the regular season, this being the third time they did so in the last four tournaments. In the playoffs, there was a new format, with only the top four qualifying for a knockout stage with home-and-away games. Tolima played against La Equidad in their semi-final tie, who eliminated them in a penalty shootout after a 3–3 draw on aggregate. For the 2010 Finalización the team once again topped the regular season table, qualifying for the playoffs, and won their playoff group to make the finals. In the finals, they played Once Caldas: in the first leg at Estadio Manuel Murillo Toro, Tolima won 2–1. However, Once Caldas won the second leg 3–1 and claimed the title with a 4–3 aggregate score, leaving Tolima and their fans in disappointment after having such an excellent campaign but missing out on the championship. The team began their 2010 Copa Sudamericana campaign in the second stage, beating Bolivian club Oriente Petrolero. In the round of 16, Tolima was matched up with Banfield; a 2–0 loss in Argentina left Tolima close to elimination, but in the second leg in Ibagué they produced a great comeback and won 3–0 to advance to the next stage of the competition. In the quarter-finals, Tolima was paired with Independiente, with the first leg in Ibagué finishing in a 2–2 draw. The second leg in Avellaneda finished in a 0–0 draw with Tolima having a controversial goal disallowed, but the draw meant Independiente progressed to the semi-finals on away goals. Independiente went on to win the competition, which gave the sensation that Tolima had a great campaign since they were close to eliminate the eventual champions. The club finished first in the 2010 aggregate table, and qualified for the first stage of the 2011 Copa Libertadores. In the first stage, Tolima produced a massive upset by beating Ronaldo's Corinthians 2–0. In the next few days after the match, Ronaldo announced his retirement, with the match against Tolima being the last of his professional career. The Colombian club progressed to the group stage with high expectations after the win against Corinthians, but finished third and was eliminated, including a humiliating 6–1 defeat to Cruzeiro. In 2014, Tolima won the Copa Colombia for the first time in the club's history, beating Independiente Santa Fe in the finals 3–2 on aggregate. In June 2018, Tolima won its second league title, beating Atlético Nacional in the 2018 Apertura finals. The first leg played in Ibagué ended with Atlético Nacional winning 1–0. During the second leg in Medellín, Tolima were down 2–1 on aggregate in the 90th minute, but while the local fans were getting ready for the trophy celebration, Danovis Banguero scored in the last play of the game at the 94th minute to equalize the aggregate score and send the game into a penalty shootout, which Tolima won 4–2, ending Nacional's 35 game unbeaten streak and a 15-year drought between titles. In the 2018 Finalización, they finished first in the regular season table, but were eliminated by finalists Independiente Medellín 4–2 on aggregate in the semi-finals. 2020s Deportes Tolima won their third league title in the 2021 Apertura tournament, three years after their last Primera A title. The team managed by Hernán Torres reached the finals after placing fifth in the first stage and knocking out Deportivo Cali and La Equidad in the tournament's knockout stages. They faced Millonarios in the final series, with the first leg played in Ibagué ending in a 1–1 draw. The second leg in Bogotá saw Millonarios take the lead with a goal by Daniel Ruiz in the 23rd minute, only for the Pijao side to stage a comeback in the second half with a brace by Juan Fernando Caicedo, winning the series 3–2 on aggregate. Deportes Tolima also reached the final series of the 2021 Finalización, but were defeated by Deportivo Cali 3–2 on aggregate. The 2021 Apertura title qualified Deportes Tolima for the 2022 Superliga Colombiana, in which they once again faced the 2021 Finalización champions, Deportivo Cali. Tolima won their first Superliga title after drawing 1–1 in the first leg played at Estadio Deportivo Cali and winning 1–0 in the second leg played at home. Stadium Honours Categoría Primera A Winners (3): 2003–II, 2018–I, 2021–I Runners-up (8): 1957, 1981, 1982, 2006–II, 2010–II, 2016–II, 2021–II, 2022–I Copa Colombia Winners (1): 2014 Runners-up (1): 2020 Superliga Colombiana Winners (1): 2022 Runners-up (1): 2019 Categoría Primera B Winners (1): 1994 Performance in CONMEBOL competitions Copa Libertadores: 9 appearances 1982: Semifinals 1983: Group stage 2004: Group stage 2007: Second stage 2011: Second stage 2013: Second stage 2019: Group stage 2020: Third stage 2022: Round of 16 Copa Sudamericana: 10 appearances 2006: Third round 2010: Quarterfinals 2012: Second stage 2015: Round of 16 2016: First stage 2017: First stage 2019: Second stage 2020: Second stage 2021: Group stage 2023: Group stage Copa CONMEBOL: 2 appearances 1996: First Round 1997: Quarter-finals Players Current squad World Cup players The following players were chosen to represent their country at the FIFA World Cup while contracted to Deportes Tolima. Aníbal Alzate (1962) Luis Antonio Moreno (1998) Notable players José Jamardo (1955–1960), (1965–1967) German Castellanos (1961–1974) Tito Ramón Correa (1979–1981) Cristino Centurión (1980–1982) Víctor del Río (1980–1982), (1984) Óscar López (1981) Américo Quiñonez (1981–1982) Arnoldo Iguarán (1982) Evaristo Isasi (1982) Freddy Clavijo (1982–1983) José Luis Russo (1983–1984) Hebert Revetria (1984) Teodor Kovač (1986) Albeiro Usuriaga (1987) Fabio Giménez (1991–1992) Álex Fernández (1993) Leonardo Fabio Moreno (1994–1995) Julio César Yegros (1994–1995) Orlando Maturana (1995–1997), (1999) Luis Antonio Moreno (1995–2001) Luis Carlos Perea (1996) Felix Ademola (1996) Gerardo Bedoya (1996–1997) Luis Quiñónes (1996–1999) Roy Myers (1997) Walter Avalos (1997) Luis Barbat (1997–1999) Álex Orrego (1997–2000), (2002) Wilmer López (1998) Gustavo Matosas (1998) Arley Dinas (1998–2000), (2003–2005) Gonzalo Martínez (1998–2001), (2005) Elson Becerra (1998–2002) Wilmer Cabrera (1999–2000) Oscar Passo (1999–2005) Jhon Charría (2000), (2002–2008) Luis Tejada (2003–2004) Jorge Artigas (2003) Rogerio Pereira (2003) Diego Gómez (2003–04), (2006) Yulián Anchico (2003–2007) Gerardo Vallejo (2004), (2005–2012) Agustín Julio (2004–2007) Javier Arizala (2004–2007) Juan Carlos Escobar (2004–2007), (2012) Silvio Garay (2005) Víctor Bonilla (2005) Carlos Quintero (2005–2007) Gauchinho (2006) Alex da Rosa (2006) Gilberto García (2006–2007), (2008) Gustavo Savoia (2007) Jésus Sinisterra (2007) Carlos González (2007–2008) Jorge Perlaza (2007–2010) Gustavo Bolívar (2007–2012) Fernando Oliveira (2007–2008) David Villalba (2008) Bréiner Castillo (2008–2010) Cristian Marrugo (2008–2012) Wilder Medina (2008–2011) José Cáceres (2009) Hugo Centurión (2010) Julio Ortellado (2010) Rodrigo Marangoni (2010) Diego Chará (2010–2011) Yimmi Chará (2010–2014) Antony Silva (2010–2014) Luis Closa (2011) Roberto Gamarra (2011) Pablo Giménez (2011) Diego Cabrera (2011) Robin Ramírez (2012) Manuel Maciel (2012) David Macalister Silva (2012–2014) Andrés Andrade (2012–2013) Jhon Valencia (2013–2016) Rogerio Leichtweis (2013) Sergio Otálvaro (2013) Roberto Merino (2013) Marco Pérez (2014–2019) Sebastián Villa (2014–2018) Mateus Uribe (2015–2016) Joel Silva (2015–2018) Gabriel Gómez (2016) Santiago Montoya (2016–2017) Ángelo Rodríguez (2016–2018) Danovis Banguero (2017–2020) Luis Ovalle (2017) Álvaro Montero (2018–2021) Yohandry Orozco (2018), (2021–2023) Managers References External links Guerreros Pijaos – La Web de los verdaderos hinchas Furia Pijao – La verdad sobre el Vinotinto y Oro Deportes Tolima– Official Website Revoluvion Vinotinto Deportes Tolima Football clubs in Colombia Association football clubs established in 1954 1954 establishments in Colombia Categoría Primera A clubs Categoría Primera B clubs
5181008	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paolo%20Gentiloni	Paolo Gentiloni	Paolo Gentiloni Silveri (; born 22 November 1954) is an Italian politician who has served as European Commissioner for Economy in the von der Leyen Commission since 1 December 2019. He previously served as prime minister of Italy from December 2016 to June 2018. After a lengthy career in local politics, Gentiloni was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 2001. He served in the Cabinet under Romano Prodi as Minister of Communications from 2006 to 2008. In 2007, he was one of the senior founding members of the Democratic Party, and went on to become Party President from 2019 to 2020. Gentiloni later served as Minister of Foreign Affairs from 2014 to 2016 in the Cabinet of Matteo Renzi. Following Renzi's resignation in the wake of a failed constitutional referendum, the Democratic Party held discussions on his replacement. Eventually, Gentiloni won support from his colleagues, and President Sergio Mattarella appointed him Prime Minister on 12 December 2016. Despite being considered a caretaker Prime Minister upon his appointment, during his time in office Gentiloni successfully delivered major reforms that had been delayed for many years, including the implementation of the advance healthcare directive and the passage of a new electoral law. He also introduced stricter rules on immigration and social security, in an attempt to counteract the European migration crisis. In foreign policy, Gentiloni built on his time as Foreign Minister by projecting a strong Europeanist stance, whilst at the same time building close relations with the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, and notably overseeing a normalisation of Italian relations with India after years of tensions. Gentiloni resigned as Prime Minister following the 2018 election. In September 2019, he was nominated by the Conte Government to become Italy's new European Commissioner, and was given the key portfolio of overseeing the European Union Economy. Early life and family A descendant of Count Gentiloni Silveri, Paolo Gentiloni is related to the Italian politician Vincenzo Ottorino Gentiloni, chamberlain of Pope Pius X, who was the leader of the conservative Catholic Electoral Union and a key ally of the long-time prime minister Giovanni Giolitti. If the Kingdom of Italy still existed, Gentiloni would have the titles of Nobile of Filottrano, Nobile of Cingoli, and Nobile of Macerata. Gentiloni was born in Rome in 1954, during his childhood he attended a Montessori institute, where he became a friend of Agnese Moro, the daughter of Aldo Moro, a Christian democratic leader and Prime Minister. During the early 1970s he attended the Classical Lyceum Torquato Tasso in Rome; he graduated in political sciences at the Sapienza University of Rome. Gentiloni was a professional journalist before entering politics. In 1989 he married Emanuela Mauro, an architect; they have no children. Gentiloni speaks fluent English, French and German. Early political career During the 1970s, Paolo Gentiloni was a member of the Student Movement (Movimento Studentesco), a far-left youth organization led by Mario Capanna; when Capanna founded the Proletarian Democracy party, Gentiloni did not follow him, and joined the Workers' Movement for Socialism (Movimento Lavoratori per il Socialismo; MLS), a far-left Maoist group, of which he became the regional secretary for Lazio. In 1981 Gentiloni followed the MLS into the Proletarian Unity Party (Partito di Unità Proletaria; PdUP), remaining a member until its dissolution three years later. Gentiloni slowly abandoned far-left ideals, sharing more moderate views and becoming particularly involved in green politics and ecologism. During those years he became a close friend of Chicco Testa who helped Gentiloni to become director of La Nuova Ecologia ("The New Ecology"), the official newspaper of Legambiente. As director of this ecologist newspaper he met the young leader of Federation of the Greens, Francesco Rutelli and became, along with Roberto Giachetti, Michele Anzaldi and Filippo Sensi, a member of the so-called "Rutelli boys", a group formed by Rutelli's closest advisors and supporters. Rome City Council In 1993 he became Rutelli's spokesman during his campaign to become Mayor of Rome; after the election, which saw a strong victory by Rutelli against Gianfranco Fini, leader of the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement, Gentiloni was appointed Great Jubilee and Tourism Councillor in the Rome City Council. Rutelli was reelected in 1997, with 985,000 popular votes, the highest share in the history of the city. Gentiloni held his office until January 2001, when Rutelli resigned to become the centre-left candidate to the premiership in the 2001 general election. However Rutelli was soundly defeated by former prime minister Silvio Berlusconi with 35.1% of votes against 49.6%. Member of Parliament and Minister In the 2001 general election, Gentiloni was elected as a Member of Parliament and started his national political career. In 2002 he was a founding member of the Christian leftist The Daisy party, being the party's communications spokesman for five years. From 2005 until 2006, he was Chairman of the Broadcasting Services Watchdog Committee; the committee oversees the activity of state broadcaster RAI, which is publicly funded. He was reelected in the 2006 election as a member of The Olive Tree, the political coalition led by the Bolognese economist Romano Prodi. After the centre-left's victory, Gentiloni served as Minister for Communications in Prodi's second government from 2006 until 2008. As minister Gentiloni planned to reform the Italian television system, with the defeat of the Gasparri Law, the previous reform proposed by the centre-right lawmaker Maurizio Gasparri. The reform provided, between other things, the reduction of advertising. However, in 2007, the government suffered a crisis and lost its majority, so the reform had never been approved. The "Gentiloni Reform" bill of 12 October 2006, established the existence of a market dominance where a subject exceeded 45% of advertising sales and abolished the "integrated communication system" (SIC) introduced by the Gasparri Law. The law also lowered the maximum advertising threshold for TV from 18% to 16%, to encourage redistribution, and provided for the transfer to digital of one network each for RAI and Mediaset by 2009, thus freeing up frequencies and imposing the obligation to sell (Europa 7 affair). However, the bill will not be approved. In May 2007 a second reform text was launched that concerns only the RAI (Senate Act no. 1588/2007). Among the main aspects, the property should have passed from the Ministry of Economy to a Foundation; there would also have been a separation between TV financed by the fee and TV financed by advertising, and the rules for appointing the board of directors would have changed. However, the reform will not be approved. He was one of the 45 members of the national founding committee of the Democratic Party in 2007, formed by the union of the social democrats Democrats of the Left and the Christian leftist The Daisy. Gentiloni was re-elected in the 2008 general election, which saw the victory of the conservative coalition led by Silvio Berlusconi. In this legislature, he was a member of the Committee regarding Transport and Telecommunications. On 6 April 2013 he ran in the primary election to select the center-left candidate for Mayor of Rome, placing third, with 14% of votes, after Ignazio Marino (51%), who became Mayor, and the journalist David Sassoli, who gained 28%. After the defeat in the primary election, many political commentators believed that Gentiloni's career as a prominent member of the centre-left was over. However, Gentiloni was elected again to the Chamber of Deputies in the 2013 general election, as part of the centre-left coalition Italy. Common Good led by Pier Luigi Bersani, Secretary of the PD. In 2013, after Bersani's resignation as Secretary, Gentiloni supported the Mayor of Florence, Matteo Renzi, in the Democratic Party leadership election. Minister of Foreign Affairs On 31 October 2014 Gentiloni was appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs by Prime Minister Matteo Renzi; Gentiloni succeeded Federica Mogherini, who became High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. He took office two months before Italy's rotating presidency of the Council of the European Union ended in December 2014. At the time of his appointment, Gentiloni had not been mentioned in political circles as a candidate. Renzi had reportedly wanted to replace Mogherini with another woman, to preserve gender parity in his 16-member cabinet. Moreover, Gentiloni was not known as a specialist in international diplomacy. As foreign minister, Gentiloni tried to trace an intermediate path for Italy in the scenario of multiple crises that surrounds it, from the wars in Libya and Syria to tensions with Russia. Gentiloni showed a strong closeness to his US counterpart John Kerry and kept open a channel of dialogue with the Russian Sergei Lavrov. On 13 February 2015, during an interview on Sky TG24, Gentiloni stated that "if needed, Italy will be ready to fight in Libya against the Islamic State, because the Italian government can not accept the idea that there is an active terrorist threat only a few hours from Italy by boat." The following day Gentiloni was threatened by ISIL, which accused him of being a crusader, minister of an enemy country. In March 2015 Gentiloni visited Mexico and Cuba and met Cuban President Raúl Castro, ensuring the Italian support for the normalization of relations between Cuba and the United States. On 11 July 2015, a car bomb exploded outside the Italian consulate in the Egyptian capital Cairo, resulting in at least one death and four people injured; the Islamic State claimed responsibility. On the same day Gentiloni stated that "Italy will not be intimidated" and would continue the fight against terrorism. In December 2015, Gentiloni hosted a peace conference in Rome with the representatives from both governments of Libya involved in the civil war, but also from the United Nations, the United States and Russia. As Foreign Minister, Gentiloni had to confront various abductions of Italian citizens. In January 2015, he negotiated the release of Vanessa Marzullo and Greta Ramelli, two Italian students and activists who had been held hostage by Syrian terrorists for 168 days. Another high-profile case was the murder of Giulio Regeni, an Italian Cambridge University graduate student killed in Cairo following his abduction on January 25, 2016; He was a Ph.D. student researching Egypt's independent trade unions. Regeni's mutilated and half-naked corpse was found in a ditch alongside the Cairo-Alexandria highway on the outskirts of Cairo on February 3, 2016. His recovered body showed signs of extreme torture like contusions and abrasions, extensive bruising from kicks, punches, and assault with a stick, more than two dozen bone fractures, a brain hemorrhage and a broken cervical vertebra, which ultimately caused death. The Egyptian police was strongly suspected of involvement in his murder in Europe, although Egypt's media and government deny this, alleging secret undercover agents belonging to the Muslim Brotherhood in Egypt carried out the crime in order to embarrass the Egyptian government and destabilize relations between Italy and Egypt. In the 2016 United Nations Security Council election, Gentiloni and his Dutch counterpart Bert Koenders agreed on splitting a two-year term on the United Nations Security Council after the United Nations General Assembly was deadlocked on whether to choose Italy or the Netherlands following five rounds of voting for the last remaining 2017–18 seat. Such arrangements were relatively common in deadlocked elections starting in the late 1950s until 1966, when the Security Council was enlarged. This however would be the first time in over five decades that two members agreed to split a term; intractable deadlocks have instead usually been resolved by the candidate countries withdrawing in favour of a third member state. Prime Minister of Italy On 7 December 2016, Prime Minister Matteo Renzi announced his resignation, following the rejection of his proposals to overhaul the Senate in the 2016 Italian constitutional referendum. On 11 December, Gentiloni was asked by President Mattarella to form a new government. On 12 December, Gentiloni was officially sworn in as the new head of the government. Gentiloni led a coalition government supported by the Democratic Party (PD) and the Christian democratic Popular Area, composed of the New Centre-Right (NCD) and the Centrists for Italy. This was the same majority that had supported Renzi's government for almost three years. Meanwhile, the centrist Liberal Popular Alliance (ALA), led by Denis Verdini, did not support the new cabinet because no member of the ALA was appointed as a minister. On 13 December, Gentiloni's cabinet won a confidence vote in the Chamber of Deputies, with 368 votes for and 105 against, while the deputies of the Five Star Movement (M5S) and Lega Nord left the chamber. On the following day, the government also won a confidence vote in the Senate, with 169 votes for and 99 against. On 29 December, deputy ministers of the PD, NCD, the Italian Socialist Party, and Solidary Democracy, were appointed. After the split of Article One from the PD, that party was presented by one deputy minister in the government. On 19 July 2017, Gentiloni became Minister of Regional Affairs ad interim after the resignation of Enrico Costa, member of Popular Alternative, who often criticized Gentiloni's views and ideas, especially regarding immigration and the jus soli. On 24 March 2018, following the elections of the presidents of the two houses of the Italian Parliament, Roberto Fico (M5S) and Maria Elisabetta Alberti Casellati (FI), Gentiloni resigned his post to President Mattarella; however, he remained in office until 1 June, when Giuseppe Conte was sworn in as the new Prime Minister at the head of a populist coalition composed by the M5S and the League. Social policies On 19 May 2017, the Council of Ministers, on the proposal of Prime Minister Gentiloni and Health Minister Beatrice Lorenzin, approved a decree law containing urgent vaccine prevention measures that reintroduced the mandatory vaccination, bringing the number of mandatory vaccines from 4 to 12 and not allowing those who have not been vaccinated to attend school. On 14 December 2017, the Parliament officially approved a law concerning the advance healthcare directive, better known as "living will", a legal document in which a person specifies what actions should be taken for their health if they are no longer able to make decisions for themselves because of illness or incapacity. With this law, living will has become legal in Italy. The law also provided the refusal of end-of-life cares. The bill was harshly opposed by many Christian democratic and social conservative politicians of Forza Italia, Lega Nord, Brothers of Italy and even PD's ally Popular Alternative, while it was supported by PD, Five Star Movement, Article One and Italian Left. The Catholic Church, led by Pope Francis, did not put up major objections to the living will law, saying that a balance needed to be struck with the prevention of excessive treatment or therapeutic obstinacy. Labour policies In March 2017 the government abolished the use of labour vouchers, bonds of the redeemable transaction type which are worth a certain monetary value and which may be spent only for specific reasons or on specific goods, commonly one-off labour services. The government decided to promote this law after a referendum that was called by Italy's main trade union CGIL. Gentiloni stated that he decided to abolish them, because he did not want to split the country in another referendum, after the December 2016 constitutional one. In March 2018, the unemployment rate was around 11%, lower than the previous years, and the percentage of unemployed young people was the lowest since 2011, at 31.7%. This data were seeing by many as the proof of a robust economic recovery started in 2013, after the financial crisis that affected Italy in 2011. Immigration A major problem faced by Gentiloni upon becoming Prime Minister in 2016 was the high levels of illegal immigration to Italy. On 2 February 2017, Gentiloni reached a deal in Rome with Libyan Chairman of the Presidential Council Fayez al-Sarraj on halting migration. Libya agreed to try to stop migrants from setting out to cross the Mediterranean Sea. On 9 February, Gentiloni signed a similar deal with President of Tunisia Beji Caid Essebsi, to prevent the migration across the Mediterranean. During his premiership, Gentiloni and his Interior Minister, Marco Minniti, promoted stricter policies regarding immigration and public security, to reduce the number of immigrants toward Italy and to counteract the populist propaganda promoted by the far-right Northern League. In July 2017 the government promoted the so-called "Minniti Code", which must be subscribed by the NGOs that are involved in rescuing asylum seekers in the Mediterranean. Among other things, the code forbids NGO vessels from entering Libyan territorial waters. Minniti and Gentiloni warned those NGOs who did not sign the pact that they have set themselves "outside of the organised system for rescue at sea". Some NGOs refused to sign the new code of conduct; Médecins Sans Frontières was the first charity to officially announce its 'no' to the code, saying that there were no conditions under which to sign. Facing growing public discontent and scrutiny by the Italian, Libyan, and EU authorities, MSF had to suspend its activities in the Mediterranean sea. The German NGO, Sea Watch, said that the code was "largely illegal" and "will not save lives but will have the opposite effect". In December 2017, the Gentiloni announced the peacekeeping mission which consists in the sending of 450 soldiers in Niger, to help the local forces in the fight against migrants' traffickers and Islamic terrorism. The deal was reached along with French President Emmanuel Macron, who stated that French troops, which were already in the area, will cooperate with Italian ones. Electoral law After the rejection of the constitutional reform, the Parliament had to change the electoral law proposed by Renzi's government; in fact the so-called Italicum regulates only the election of the Chamber of Deputies, and not the one of the Senate, which, if the reform passed, would be indirectly elected by citizens. The PD proposed a new electoral law called Mattarellum bis, better known as Rosatellum, from the name of his main proponent Ettore Rosato, Democratic leader in the Chamber of Deputies. This electoral law was similar to the one which was applied in Italy from 1993 to 2005. The Rosatellum used an additional member system, which act as a mixed system, with 37% of seats allocated using a first past the post electoral system, 61% using a proportional method, with one round of voting and 2% elected in the overseas constituencies. The Senate and the Chamber of Deputies did not differ in the way they allocated the proportional seats, both using the D'Hondt method of allocating seats. The new electoral law was supported by PD and his government ally Popular Alternative, but also by the opposition parties Forza Italia and Lega Nord. Despite many protests from the Five Star Movement and Article One, which accused Renzi and Gentiloni to have used the confidence vote in order to approve the law, on 12 October the electoral law was approved by the Chamber of Deputies with 375 votes in favor and 215 against. Foreign policy Paolo Gentiloni strongly supports European integration and a multi-speed Europe. During his premiership, Gentiloni faced several challenging foreign policy situations, such as the European debt crisis, the civil war in Libya, the insurgency of the Islamic State (IS) in the Middle East. Gentiloni set up good relations with Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, UK Prime Minister Theresa May, German Chancellor Angela Merkel and French President Emmanuel Macron. In April 2017, he was invited to the White House by President Trump, where the two leaders discussed the serious crisis caused by the civil wars in Libya and Syria, the tensions with Vladimir Putin's Russia and their key partnership against the Islamic terrorism. As Prime Minister, he hosted the 43rd G7 summit in Taormina, Sicily. This summit was the first one for him and also for U.S. President Donald Trump, Prime Minister May, and President Macron. It was the first time since 1987 that the G7 summit in Italy was not hosted by Silvio Berlusconi. While in office, Gentiloni built up a series of close relations with the Arab countries of the Persian Gulf, based especially on commercial agreements regarding oil and offshore producing concessions. Gentiloni visited the Arab peninsula three times thought his premiership. On 1 May 2017, he went to Kuwait, where he had bilateral meetings with the Emir Sabah al-Ahmad and the crown prince Nawaf Al-Ahmad; later the premier visited the Italian soldiers stationed in Kuwait as part of the anti-ISIL coalition. On 31 October 2017, the Prime Minister met in Riyadh, King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud and the crown prince Mohammed bin Salman. Gentiloni, later visited Qatar, where he met with the Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani and visited the National Library of Qatar with Emir's consort, Moza bint Nasser. Gentiloni visited the United Arab Emirates twice; the first one in November 2017 and the second one in March 2018, when he met in Abu Dhabi the crown prince Mohammed bin Zayed Al Nahyan. During his visit he participated in the signing ceremony of a commercial agreement between Eni and Abu Dhabi National Oil Company. In May 2017, he had an official trip to China to meet President Xi Jinping and Prime Minister Li Keqiang, to discuss about the One Belt One Road Initiative, a development strategy proposed by the Chinese government that focuses on connectivity and cooperation between Eurasian countries. Gentiloni stated that "Italy can be a key protagonist in this great operation: it is a great opportunity for us and my presence here means how much we consider it important." On 16 and 17 May, Paolo Gentiloni went to Sochi, where he met Russian President Vladimir Putin. The two leaders stressed their hope for a loosening of international sanctions against Russia and for a re-opening of a dialogue between Russia and NATO. They also signed six economic deals between the Italian Eni and the Russian Rosneft. On 20 September, Prime Minister Gentiloni spoke at the United Nations General Assembly during the UN annual summit in New York City. Gentiloni focused his speech on the problem of climatic change, the facing of migrant crisis and the fight against Islamic terrorism. On 29 and 30 October, Gentiloni went to India, where he met Prime Minister Narendra Modi. After some years of tensions due to the 2012 Enrica Lexie case, in which two Italian marines were arrested for killing two fishermen in Kerala, the two countries revived normal relations. The two leaders signed some economic treaties and discussed the recognition of the Hare Krishnas, who still are not recognized in Italy as a religious minority. Gentiloni was the first Italian leader to visit India since Romano Prodi in 2007; Gentiloni and Modi described the visit as a "new beginning" and a great opportunity for both countries. During his term as foreign affairs minister and especially during his premiership, Gentiloni started a policy review which led to the creation of the Italy–Africa initiative, which includes renewable energy co-operation and a new package of development aid in fields stretching from health care to culture; counterterrorism has been a key part of his agenda, but the West Africa region is also important to stop the migration flows from there to Italy through North Africa, especially Libya. In November 2017 he started one of the most important foreign mission of his tenure. On 24 November, Gentiloni visited Tunisia, where he met President Beji Caid Essebsi and Prime Minister Youssef Chahed, with whom he discussed the migrant crisis, the fight against terrorism and the Libyan Civil War. He also had a meeting with the Italian community in Tunis. On 26 November he moved to Angola, where he had a bilateral meeting with President João Lourenço; the two leaders signed many economic deals between Eni and the Angolan Sonangol Group. On the following days Gentiloni went to Ghana to meet President Nana Akufo-Addo and visit Eni's plant named "John Agyekum Kufuor". On 28 November he moved to Ivory Coast to participate at the EU–African Union summit. 2018 general election On 28 December 2017, after meeting with Gentiloni, President Sergio Mattarella dissolved the Parliament and called new elections for 4 March 2018. Gentiloni remained in office during this period as a caretaker Prime Minister. During the 2018 Italian general election campaign, many prominent members of the Democratic Party, including Romano Prodi, Walter Veltroni, and Carlo Calenda, publicly asked Matteo Renzi to renounce his candidacy for Prime Minister and promote Gentiloni as the party's candidate. Gentiloni refused to endorse the view of his colleagues, and Renzi remained within the party leadership . The election resulted in the centre-right alliance, led by Matteo Salvini's League, winning a plurality of seats in the Chamber of Deputies and in the Senate, while the anti-establishment Five Star Movement, led by Luigi Di Maio, became the party with the largest individual number of votes; the centre-left coalition, led by Renzi and the Democratic Party, finished third. After negotiations lasting several months, the League and the Five Star Movement agreed a programme for a coalition government led by the independent Giuseppe Conte; Gentiloni resigned as Prime Minister on 1 June 2018. Gentiloni chose not to contest the leadership of the Democratic Party, instead remaining on the backbench within the Chamber of Deputies, where he frequently attacked the policies of Matteo Salvini as Interior Minister, particularly on immigration, Romani people and gun laws. On 28 June 2018, during an interview with Lilli Gruber's Otto e mezzo, Gentiloni announced his intention to play a role in the formation of a broad centre-left coalition, which was seen by many as an intention to become the candidate for Prime Minister of the centre-left at the next election. Nothing came of these plans; in October 2018, Gentiloni endorsed Nicola Zingaretti in the election for the new PD Secretary. After Zingaretti won the election in March 2019, he appointed Gentiloni as the President of the Democratic Party. European Commissioner for Economy In August 2019, tensions between the League and Five Star Movement (5SM) became public, leading to a motion of no-confidence in Giuseppe Conte as Prime Minister. Conte initially offered his resignation, but in a surprise move, Gentiloni led the national executive of the Democratic Party in announcing it would be open to the possibility of forming a new coalition with the M5S, based on pro-Europeanism, green economy, sustainable development, the fight against economic inequality and a new immigration policy, and while keeping Conte as Prime Minister. On 29 August 2019, President Sergio Mattarella invited Conte to form a new coalition government between 5SM and the PD, with several PD politicians entering the Cabinet. On 5 September 2019, the new Cabinet was sworn in; later that afternoon, following the first meeting of the new Cabinet, Conte announced that the Government had decided to nominate Gentiloni as the new Italian European Commissioner within the Von der Leyen Commission. On 10 September, Ursula von der Leyen announced that she would hand Gentiloni the role of Commissioner for Economy if he was successfully approved by the European Parliament. On 3 October, the Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs approved Gentiloni's nomination for the role. On 30 November, Gentiloni announced his retirement from the Chamber of Deputies, after almost 19 years of service. The resignation became effective on 2 December. During his final speech to the Chamber, he said: "I make a solemn commitment to hold together the national and European interests. I am an Italian man in love with Italy, I am a patriot, and I will try to make it clear that the best way to protect the national interest is to do so in the European dimension." On 1 December 2019, he formally began his new role within the European Commission. In early March 2020, Gentiloni was appointed by President von der Leyen to serve on the commission's special task force to coordinate their response to the COVID-19 pandemic, which severely affected the European Union. The task force's plan consisted in the Next Generation EU program, an economic recovery package to support member states adversely impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Agreed to by the European Council on 21 July 2020, the fund is worth . The NGEU fund will operate from 2021 to 2023, and will be tied to the regular 2021–2027 budget of the EU's Multiannual Financial Framework (MFF). The comprehensive NGEU and MFF packages are projected to reach €1824.3 billion. Political views and public image Paolo Gentiloni is widely considered a liberal Christian and progressive politician. Despite having started his political career within the extra-parliamentary far-left movements, Gentiloni later assumed more Christian democratic and social liberal views. Gentiloni is in favour of the recognition of civil unions for same-sex couples and stepchild adoptions, a situation which occurs when at least one parent has children, from a previous relationship, that are not genetically related to the other parent. He also supports the advance healthcare directive. While traditionally supporting the social integration of immigrants, since 2017 Paolo Gentiloni has adopted a more critical approach on the issue. Inspired by Marco Minniti, his Interior Minister, the government promoted stricter policies regarding immigration and public security. These policies resulted in broad criticism from the left-wing Article One, PD's partners in the cabinet which later left the government's majority, as well as left-leaning intellectuals like Roberto Saviano and Gad Lerner. In August Lerner, who was among the founding members of the Democratic Party, left the party altogether, due to the government's new immigration policies. Gentiloni is considered by many journalists, politicians and commentators a skilled political mediator and well-wisher of a collective leadership, based on consociationalism and power-sharing, very different from the overflowing political style of his predecessor and party mate, Matteo Renzi. Due to his nature and political views, Gentiloni was sometimes compared to Romano Prodi, former prime minister and founder of the centre-left coalition. According to public opinion surveys in December 2017, after one year of government, Gentiloni's approval rating was 44%, the second highest rating after that of President Sergio Mattarella, and far higher than the other prominent politicians; moreover his approval rating has increased since he came into office. After the 2018 general election, Gentiloni's approval rating rose to 52%, higher than every other political leader and followed by League's leader Matteo Salvini. Health On 10 January 2017, after an official trip in Paris to meet President François Hollande, Gentiloni suffered an obstructed coronary artery and received an emergency angioplasty. On the following day Gentiloni tweeted that he felt well and would be back at work soon. On the same day he also received well wishes from President Sergio Mattarella, former prime ministers Matteo Renzi and Silvio Berlusconi, and Canadian prime minister Justin Trudeau. Electoral history First-past-the-post elections References External links Presidente del Consiglio dei Ministri Official page at the Italian Chamber of Deputies \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- \|- 1954 births Living people Democracy is Freedom – The Daisy politicians Democratic Party (Italy) politicians Deputies of Legislature XIV of Italy Deputies of Legislature XV of Italy Deputies of Legislature XVI of Italy Deputies of Legislature XVII of Italy Deputies of Legislature XVIII of Italy Foreign ministers of Italy Italian nobility Politicians from Rome Prime Ministers of Italy Rainbow Greens politicians European Commissioners 2019–2024
5181032	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%20Agnes%2C%20Cornwall	St Agnes, Cornwall	St Agnes () is a civil parish and a large village on the north coast of Cornwall, England, United Kingdom. The village is about five miles (8 km) north of Redruth and ten miles (16 km) southwest of Newquay. An electoral ward exists stretching as far south as Blackwater. The population at the 2011 census was 7,565. The village of St Agnes, a popular coastal tourist spot, lies on a main road between Redruth and Perranporth. It was a prehistoric and modern centre for mining of copper, tin and arsenic until the 1920s. Local industry has also included farming, fishing and quarrying, and more recently tourism. The St Agnes district has a heritage of industrial archaeology and much of the landscape is of considerable geological interest. There are also stone-age remains in the parish. The manor of Tywarnhaile was one of the 17 Antiqua maneria of the Duchy of Cornwall. Geography St Agnes, on Cornwall's north coast along the Atlantic Ocean, is in the Pydar hundred and rural deanery. St Agnes is situated along the St Agnes Heritage Coast. The St Agnes Heritage Coast has been a nationally designated protected area since 1986. The marine site protects 40 species of mammals and amphibians. Interesting features along the coast include Trevaunance Cove, Trevellas Porth, Crams, Chapel Porth, Hanover Cove, and Porthtowan. Some of these have beaches, and there are also two beaches at Perranporth. The Godrevy Head to St Agnes site, is situated along the north Cornwall coast of the Celtic Sea in the Atlantic Ocean. It starts at Godrevy Head (with the Godrevy Towans) in the west and continues for to the north east, through Portreath, Porthtowan and ends just past St Agnes Head, north of the village of St Agnes. St Agnes Beacon overlooks the Atlantic Ocean and is considered "the most prominent feature" of the Heritage coastline, with coastal and inland views that may be enjoyed during hillside walks. The National Trust landmark's name comes from the Cornish name "Bryanick". "Beacon" is a word of Anglo-Saxon origin referring to the use of a hill summit for a warning signal fire. During the Napoleonic Wars a guard was stationed on the hill to look out for French ships and light a warning fire on seeing any. Geology To the northwest foot of the St Agnes Beacon is Cameron Quarry and St Agnes Beacon Pits, Sites of Special Scientific Interest noted for their geological interest. Trevaunance Cove is also a Site of Special Scientific Interest and a Geological Conservation Review site of national importance for "... the two principal ore-bearing mineral veins associated with the Hercynian St. Agnes-Cligga granite". Toponymy The original name of St Agnes was "Bryanick", a Cornish name which may mean pointed hill (i.e. St Agnes Beacon). Craig Weatherhill suggests it was a compound of brea (hill) and Anek (Agnes) and gives the first recorded form as "Breanek" (1420–99). Neither Bryanick nor St Agnes, though, were established at the time of the Domesday Survey, 1086; the area was included in Perran Sand (Perranzabuloe). The St Agnes Chapel was named after the Roman martyr Agnes of Rome who refused to marry a son of Sempronius, a governor of Rome and member of the Sempronia family. She was killed in 304 AD. According to Arthur G. Langdon, writing in the 1890s, the inhabitants of St Agnes pronounced its name as if it were "St Anne's" to distinguish it from St Agnes in the Isles of Scilly. History and antiquities Antiquities There are a number of ancient archaeological sites in the St Agnes parish. The earliest found to date are mesolithic fragments which are dated from 10,000 to 4,000 BC. They were found near New Downs and West Polberro. During the Bronze Age, barrows were created in many places in the area, which was probably because its rich supply of bronze-making raw materials: copper and tin. During the Iron Age there were more forts and evidence of mining. A noteworthy Iron Age site is the Caer Dane hillfort, 2.2 mi southeast of Perranporth. It had three concentric defensive walls surrounding the inner, topmost ring. St Piran's enclosed round was wide and may have been a "playing place" (performance area). During the Middle Ages it was converted to a "Plain-an-gwarry (theatre)". It is still used sometimes as a theatre. There are other prehistoric geographic features, but the specific age or time period is unclear. The Bolster Bank, or Bolster & Chapel Bulwark, at Porth, is an univallate earthen boundary about long. It was likely used for defensive purposes, protecting the heath and valuable tin resources. Located on the "land side" of St Agnes Beacon, evidence of the bulwark can be seen sporadically from Bolster Farm to Goonvrea Farm, down to Wheal Freedom and then to Chapel Coombes. Although much of the boundary has been levelled, it is presently at its highest by Bolster Farm and Goonvrea where it is about high. It could have been constructed as early as the Iron Age or some time in the Dark Ages. Some Iron Age buildings and features were used during the Roman period from 43 to 410 AD. Middle Ages The first chapel or church in St Agnes was believed to have been built as an early Celtic church sometime between 410 and 1066 AD; At that time it also had an enclosure. The Church of St Agnes was built on the same location around 1482. A medieval chapel with an enclosure stood at Chapel Porth, about 570 metres north west of Wheal Freedom. There was a holy well and a post-medieval (1540 to 1901) storehouse or shelter on the site. The chapel was destroyed in 1780, and the holy well remained until 1820. There still remains some ruins of the medieval enclosure and the small building. During the Middle Ages there was tin working at a St Agnes Head tin works site with an extractive pit for openworks and lode back workings. There are also ancient signs of tin works at Wheal Coates, near the Chapel Porth area cliffs. The site includes an adit, which is a tunnel or access to the mine; dam; dressing floor where the ore was processed for smelting; and an open cut where excavation occurred in a ravine on the surface. There were also prospecting pits to locate ore below the surface and a wheel pit for a water wheel. A bothy provided lodging for the miners. A manor was built in St Agnes during the Middle Ages. Between 1700 and 1800 a house was built on the site of the previous manor. It is now a convalescent home. A Trevellas country house was built during this period. Sometime between 1540 and 1901 a new house was erected where the country house once stood. 16th and 17th century A chapel created between 1540 and the 1800s was located just north of Mawla. In its latter years the building was a shed for cows. By 1847 it was in ruins. The St John the Baptist church in Mount Hawke received the font from this church, although its original "Medieval" carvings were lost when the font was resculpted. It was during this period that the Gill family were first recorded to be living in the area. The Gill family have traced their origins to St Agnes from as early as 1565, where it is believed that they were one of the more influential yeoman families. The area saw an emergence of a variety of industries, such as public houses. The Miners Arms Public House was constructed in Mithian in the 17th century. It saw additions and renovations in the following two centuries. The building exterior is made of granite, killas rubble, brick and elvan. It is roofed in Delabole slate. Trevaunance Cove had a post medieval lime kiln that operated sometime between 1540 and 1901. 18th and 19th century Medieval mining locations began to take on modern methods of mining in the 19th century, like that at Wheal Coates. Wheal Lushington is thought to have been the biggest tin mining operation in the area. Operational by 1808, smelting was also performed at Wheal Lushington. Modern mining practices were employed at Blue Hills Mine about 1810 and until 1897. There had been prior mining activities in that area before 1780. A number of copper, tin and arsenic mines operated during the 18th, 19th and some into the 20th century. Allen's Corn Mill operated at Porthtowan between 1752 and 1816. 20th century From 1903 until 1963 a railway station on the Perranporth line operated in St Agnes. After the railway station closed, the dismantled railway was used for the mining industry. Between 1939 and 1940, Cameron Camp, also known as the 10th Light Anti-Aircraft Practice Camp, Royal Artillery, was built on the site of a Napoleonic Wars target. The camp was named after an area landowner and served as an army camp, slit trench and anti-aircraft battery. After the war the camp was used for housing. It was levelled in 1971. Religion There are churches and chapels in the district for three Christian denominations: Anglican, Methodist and Roman Catholic. Anglican St Agnes Parish Church The Church of St Agnes is believed to have been built as a chapel of ease about 1482, on the foundation of what is possibly an ancient Celtic church (410 to 1066 AD). The records of the Diocese of Exeter refer to a chapel of St Agnes in the parish of Perranzabuloe in 1374. In medieval and early modern times St Agnes was part of the parish of Perranzabuloe. In 1846 it was made into a parish church and two years later the building itself, exclusive of the spire and tower, was restored by Piers St Aubyn. In 1905 the spire was rebuilt. It is a Grade II listed building. On the southwest side of the church by the churchyard gate is a granite wayside cross from the Middle Ages. The stone is the remains of a lych stone used for holding coffins. Arthur G. Langdon notes that John Thomas Blight recorded its former use as a lych stone. The head of the stone is incomplete; both part of one side of the head and the uppermost part of the head have been cut off. Mount Hawke Parish Church In 1846 the Mount Hawke chapel-of-ease, dedicated to St John the Baptist, was formed from church members who had been meeting in a small building in the village; it became the parish church of the new ecclesiastical parish of Mount Hawke in 1847. The Bishop of Exeter consecrated the stone Perpendicular style building on 5 August 1878. Mithian Parish Church Another Anglican chapel-of-ease was St Peter's Church in Mithian. The Decorated style church was built between Mithian and Blackwater at Chiverton Cross in 1847 and dedicated to St Peter. There had been two or more chapels in Mithian prior to this church. One was at Mawla (subsequently used to shelter cows). The Mithian church closed in 2008. Methodist There are several Methodist churches in St Agnes: the former Wesleyan Methodist church, the former United Methodist chapel and a former Primitive Methodist chapel. Mithian previously had a Wesleyan Methodist chapel. Mawla, Mount Hawke, Skinner's Bottom and Porthtowan all also had Wesleyan chapels. Skinner's Bottom also had a Primitive Methodist chapel. Wheal Rose had a Bible Christian chapel. Roman Catholic A Roman Catholic chapel was built in 1882 on Trevellas Downs. In 1958 the church of Our Lady, Star of the Sea (illustrated above), was built in St Agnes to the designs of Cowell, Drewitt & Wheatly, architects. Education Schools for children ages five to eleven include St Agnes ACE Academy, Mithian Primary School, Blackwater Community Primary School], and Mount Hawke Academy. Young people from the village and wider parish usually attend secondary and post-16 education at school and colleges in Truro (Richard Lander School, Penair School and Truro and Penwith College), Redruth (Redruth School and Pool Academy) or Camborne (Camborne Science and International Academy and Cornwall College). Near Blackwater is the Three Bridges Special School for children ages 11 to 19. John Passmore Edwards in 1893 had built and donated the Miners and Mechanics Institute in the village of St Agnes. Individuals could attend lectures or access the library. This one story building was designed by W. J. Willis and its exterior was made of killas and granite. The gabled roof was covered with Delabole slate. Within the building there were two main rooms and other smaller rooms. Culture Outdoor activities include beach side walks, swimming, and surfing. The area has a number of paths for coastal walks or cycling. There are also art shows, craft fayres, tea parties and coffee mornings. Music and dancing can be found in the public houses. Annual events are Carnival week, Lifeboat day, Summer plays by the St Agnes Players, Victorian Fair Day and the Bolster the Giant pageant. The Blue Hills area hosts the Motor Cycling Club's Lands End Trial for cars and bikes. The first run being held in 1908. There are several sports clubs including rugby union, football, boxing and netball. The St Agnes Parish Museum provides information about the history of the St Agnes area. Mining and the coastal history figure prominently, including a leatherback turtle. Cornish wrestling St Agnes has held Cornish wrestling tournaments, for prizes, for centuries. Venues for tournaments included the Peterville Inn at Peterville. James Harris, from St Agnes, was a noted wrestler from the 1600s and was commonly called "Skinner". He "beat all and sundry" and was the court wrestler of Charles II. Note that Skinner's Bottom in St Agnes may be named after him. William Delbridge (1823-1886) was originally from St Agnes and was lightweight champion of Cornwall in 1857. He then emigrated to Australia, where he was a respected stickler (umpire at a Cornish wrestling tournament) at many tournaments. Economy Historically, St Agnes and the surrounding area relied on fishing, farming and mining for copper and tin. There were also iron foundries and an iron works, stamps and crazing mills, a smelter, blowing houses and clay extraction. By the 1930s mining and related industries had nearly ceased and by the 1950s the area had very little industrial commerce. Instead, the area became a bedroom community for workers in the surrounding towns and cities like Newquay and Truro, a desired retirement community and a favoured holiday spot. The mining history is part of the draw for tourists, like the Blue Hills Tin Streams where tourists can see tin work demonstrations. St Agnes village is relatively self-sufficient with local shops and business enterprises that support the village itself and the surrounding farming country. Agriculture Prior to the mid-19th century, the moors and waste land would not support a great agricultural industry. Although after the land was agriculturly improved, there was an increase in the number of farms. In 1878 after the enclosure of heath, cultivation had almost reached the summit of St Agnes Beacon. By the late 19th century it was the "largest single trade in the locality and parish". Maltings, a related industry operated in Peterville in the 19th century. Harbour Since the 17th century there have been many attempts to create a harbour for St Agnes. Between 1632 and 1709 the Tonkins, lords of the manor of Trevaunance, expended the family legacy as they tried to build a harbour. Three attempts were made, the last of which was assisted by Henry Winstanley, but that harbour was washed away in 1705. The harbour built in 1710 by an unrelated party was levelled in 1730 by the crashing Atlantic Ocean waves. A new harbour constructed in 1798 supported a fishing industry and allowed for the export of copper ore and the import of coal from South Wales for the smelters at the mines. St Agnes remained a busy port until the collapse of the harbour wall in a storm in 1915/16. There are only remains of the old harbour in existence. In 1802, a pilchard fishing industry was established from the harbour, reaching its peak in 1829 and 1830 before declining. Mining Cornwall, along with its neighbouring county of Devon, was an important source of tin for Europe and the Mediterranean throughout ancient times, but began dominating the market during late Roman times in the 3rd century AD with the exhaustion of many Spanish tin mines. Cornwall maintained its importance as a source of tin throughout medieval times and into the modern period. At their height about 100 mines employed 1000 miners. Mining came to an end in the 1920s and many of these mines are still on view for tourists. United Hills mine produced 86,500 tons of copper ore, 1826–1906; and Wheal Towan 54,610 tons, 1800–31. Lesser quantities of black tin were produced from these mines: West Wheal Kitty 10,070 tons (1881–1915); Wheal Kitty 9,510 tons (1853–1918); Polberro 4,300 tons (1837–95); Penhalls 3,610 tons (1834–96); and Blue Hills 2,120 tons (1858–97). Much of the Cornwall and West Devon Mining Landscape, a World Heritage Site, is in the parish. Tin production is still worked at the Blue Hills Tin Streams Wheal Coates was the site of medieval mining between 1066 and 1540, and it was a modern mining producer from 1802 and into the 20th century. The visible remains of Wheal Coates are the engine houses built in the 1870s to crush ore, run a Calciner, or pump water. The sites, owned by the National Trust, include the Whim Engine House, Towanroath Pumping Engine House and the Calciner. Before that the Jericho valley, where Blue Hills Tin Streams operated, had supported mining operations for centuries. At Chapel Coombe a set of old Cornish stamps has been re-erected by the Trevithick Society. Stippy Stappy is a row of 18th century cottages on a very steep incline. Tourism St Agnes is a popular tourist destination. The coastal area is maintained by the National Trust and is designated part of the Cornwall Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB). Beaches in the St Agnes Parish include Trevaunance Cove, near the village of St Agnes. It is a small sandy beach with lifeguards and adequate parking. Porthtowan village also has a sandy beach. Trevellas Porth is popular with divers and fishermen, but because it is quite rocky it is not recommended for swimming. Chapel Porth is another area beach. Demographics The population of the St Agnes Parish is made up of the people in two St Agnes groupings, Blackwater, Mount Hawke, Porthtowan and Wheal Rose. In 2010, the population was 1,440 in St Agnes Central and 2,480 in St Agnes Fringe, Mithian and Trevellas for a total of 3,920 people. In Blackwater and Mount Hawke there were 2,130 people and in Porthtowan and Wheal Rose there were an additional 1,580 people. The total of the numbers from the Neighbourhood profiles is 7,630. The statistics above were compiled from individual municipality information. The following is an aggregate statistic of the Community Network Area that St Agnes shares with Perranporth for managing local governmental activities with Cornwall Council: This represents a 6% growth since 2001. With a total network area of 12,453 hectares, the population density is 1.40 acres/person. Government and politics The St Agnes Parish wards include Blackwater, Mithian, Mount Hawke, St Agnes, and Porthtowan. Council members make decisions on parish business through the Environment, Planning, Property & Devolved Services, and Human Resources committees and via Full Council meetings in accordance with established policies and procedures. Parish Council staff run the Parish Council on behalf of Councillors and the community. Since 1 July 1837 St Agnes has been continuously registered in the Truro Registration district. In 1974, local districts were created to manage local government as the result of the Local Government Act 1972. Under The District of Carrick (Electoral Changes) Order 2002, Carrick District, which had managed the parish of St Agnes and other wards, would be dissolved and St Agnes would manage its own local government with three parish councillors. Since June 2009 it has been part of the St. Agnes and Perranporth Community Network of the Cornwall Council. Transport There is bus service within Cornwall by a number of operators. The major operator in the Cornwall area is Kernow. Service runs through the village of St Agnes and other towns. Rail service is offered out of Newquay railway station, Redruth railway station, Truro railway station and other western Cornwall municipalities, which is connected with bus service through the Ride Cornwall and Plusbus programmes. Ferry service is available to the Isles of Scilly from Penzance; Padstow to Rock; and other locations. Air travel is available through Newquay Airport. Notable people John Passmore Edwards, philanthropist John Opie, notable painter, born at Trevellas Thomas Tonkin (1678–1742), Cornish landowner and historian. George Smiley fictional intelligence officer Louise Cooper, writer See also Mimetite St Agnes Mining District Notes References Further reading Foster, R. J. (1964) St Agnes Methodist Church. External links and references World Heritage Listing for St. Agnes Cornwall Record Office Online Catalogue for St Agnes Civil parishes in Cornwall Villages in Cornwall Populated coastal places in Cornwall National Trust properties in Cornwall Surfing locations in Cornwall Beaches of Cornwall Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Cornwall
5181094	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleocrater	Teleocrater	Teleocrater (meaning "completed basin", in reference to its closed acetabulum) is a genus of avemetatarsalian archosaur from the Middle Triassic Manda Formation of Tanzania. The name was coined by English paleontologist Alan Charig in his 1956 doctoral dissertation, but was only formally published in 2017 by Sterling Nesbitt and colleagues. The genus contains the type and only species T. rhadinus. Uncertainty over the affinities of Teleocrater have persisted since Charig's initial publication; they were not resolved until Nesbitt et al. performed a phylogenetic analysis. They found that Teleocrater is most closely related to the similarly enigmatic Yarasuchus, Dongusuchus, and Spondylosoma in a group that was named the Aphanosauria. Aphanosauria was found to be the sister group of the Ornithodira, the group containing dinosaurs and pterosaurs. A carnivorous quadruped measuring long, Teleocrater is notable for its unusually long neck vertebrae. The neural canals in its neck vertebrae gradually become taller towards the back of the neck, which may be a distinguishing trait. Unlike the Lagerpetidae or Ornithodira, the hindlimbs of Teleocrater are not adapted for running; the metatarsal bones are not particularly elongated. Also unlike lagerpetids and ornithodirans, Teleocrater inherited the more flexible ankle configuration present ancestrally among archosaurs, suggesting that the same configuration was also ancestral to Avemetatarsalia but was lost independently by several lineages. Histology of the long bones of Teleocrater indicates that it had moderately fast growth rates, closer to ornithodirans than crocodilians and other pseudosuchians. Description In life, Teleocrater would have been a long-necked and carnivorous quadruped that measured some in length. Skull Carnivory can be inferred for Teleocrater from the single tooth that was preserved, which is compressed, recurved, and bears serrations on both edges. Like other members of the Archosauria, the recess in the maxilla in front of the antorbital fenestra (the antorbital fossa) extends onto the backward-projecting process of the bone, and the palatal projection of the two maxillae contacted each other. Additionally, like early dinosaurs, there is a depression on the frontal bone in front of the supratemporal fenestra (the supratemporal fossa). Axial skeleton The cervical vertebrae of Teleocrater from the front half of the neck are quite long, up to 3.5 times as long as they are high; they are among the longest of Triassic avemetatarsalians. Proportionally, they are longer than either the rest of the cervical vertebrae or any of the vertebrae from the front of the trunk. On the cervical vertebrae, the tops of the neural spines are blade-like, but are accompanied by rounded and roughened projections; the front portions of the neural spines strongly overhang the preceding vertebrae; and the cervical vertebrae from the back of the neck have an additional projection above the parapophysis, previously identified by Nesbitt as part of a "divided parapophysis". These are shared characteristics of the Aphanosauria. In contrast to most other archosauriforms, the openings of the cervical neural canals in Teleocrater are large, subelliptical, and transition from being wider than they are tall at the front of the neck to being taller than they are wide at the back of the neck; this may be unique to the genus. The epipophyses from the front and middle cervical vertebrae project backwards, and, as in Yarasuchus and some pseudosuchians, the back cervical vertebrae appear to have supported three-headed ribs. On the dorsal vertebrae, the accessory articulations known as the hyposphene-hypantrum articulations are well-developed. Like other aphanosaurians, there are pits located on the side of the base of the dorsal vertebrae. Two vertebrae are associated with the sacrum in Teleocrater; there are three such vertebrae in Nyasasaurus. The ribs associated with the latter sacral vertebra bear processes that project backward and outward, which is only otherwise seen in Yarasuchus, Spondylosoma, and members of the dinosauriforms. There were no bony osteoderms preserved in association with the specimen, which indicates that Teleocrater probably lacked osteoderms, unlike pseudosuchians. Appendicular skeleton Like other archosaurs as well as the proterosuchids, Teleocrater has a distinct acromion process on the scapula, and like silesaurids there is a thin ridge on the back of the bone. The socket of the scapula is oriented downwards and backwards, more so than that of Yarasuchus. On the humerus, there is a long deltopectoral crest that stretches for about 30% of the bone's length, as with other aphanosaurians; such a long crest is also seen in Nyasasaurus and dinosaurs, but not pterosaurs or silesaurids. Another aphanosaurian characteristic is the wide bottom end of the humerus, which is about 30% of the bone's length. The hand was apparently quite small. Teleocrater is named after its mostly-closed acetabulum, or hip socket (the eponymous "basin"). There is a small and concave notch on the bottom edge of the part of the ilium that extends to meet the ischium, which suggests a small perforation within the acetabulum. This is not a unique characteristic; Asilisaurus and Silesaurus both also possess it. The inner surface of the ilium in front of the acetabulum curves inwards, forming a pocket. Like both Asilisaurus and Marasuchus, the front portion of the ilium is separated from the rest of the bone by a ridge that rises vertically from the top rim of the acetabulum. As in other aphanosaurians, the ischia contact each other extensively along the midline, but less so near the tops of the bones; the bottom back portion of each ischium is rounded, and the top of the shaft of each ischium bears a longitudinal groove. Hindlimb In terms of hindlimb proportions, Teleocrater is more similar to silesaurids, pseudosuchians, and early archosaurs than lagerpetids or ornithodirans, in that the metatarsus is not particularly lengthened with respect to the femur and tibia. The lengthening of the metatarsus in the latter groups probably represent adaptations to running. The femur of Teleocrater shows a combination of diverse characteristics. Like other aphanosaurians, the top end of the femur bears a transverse groove, and also bears a scar for the attachment of the iliofemoralis externus muscle that is connected to the intermuscular line; the same condition is seen with the anterior trochanter in dinosaurmorphs, yet the scar is clearly separated from that of the iliotrochantericus caudalis as it is in Dongusuchus, Yarasuchus, and early archosaurs. An additional aphanosaurian trait is that the bottom articulating surface of the femur is concave. On this articulating surface, the back of the medial condyle bears a vertical scar, also seen in dinosauromorphs. The femur is overall quite similar to that of Dongusuchus; however, in Teleocrater, the sides of the top end are more rounded and the inner surface is concave, the posteromedial tuber on the top end is convex instead of flat, and the length relative to midshaft width is shorter. Unlike either proterochampsids or dinosauromorphs, the tibia of Teleocrater does not bear a cnemial crest. The fibula bears a long, twisted crest for the attachment of the iliofibularis, and the front edge of the top of the bone is expanded outwards. Additional features shared by aphanosaurians, silesaurids (namely Asilisaurus and Lewisuchus), and pseudosuchians occur in the calcaneum. It has a convex-concave joint with the astragalus that allows for free movement, a tuber on its surface that is tall, broad, and directed backwards, and its articulation with the fibula is distinctly rounded. Meanwhile, lagerpetids and pterosaurs both lack the tuber (lagerpetids also lack the rounded fibular articulation), and dinosaurs lack the convex-concave joint. Discovery and naming The holotype specimen of Teleocrater, NHMUK PV R6795, was found by Francis Rex Parrington in 1933. It consists of a partial, disarticulated skeleton that includes four vertebrae from the neck, seven from the trunk, and seventeen from the tail; parts of one neck and one trunk rib; part of a scapula and coracoid; the radius and ulna from the right forelimb; part of the left ilium; both femora and tibiae, as well as the left fibula; and isolated fragments from metatarsals and phalanges. Parts of the trunk vertebrae and humerus, likely originating from another individual, were referred to the same animal under the specimen number NHMUK PV R6796. Although the exact locality is unknown, Parrington recorded the specimen as originating from near the village of Mkongoleko, "south of river Mkongoleko", in the Ruhuhu Basin of southern Tanzania. These specimens were stored at the Natural History Museum, London. Alan J. Charig described the remains of Teleocrater in his 1956 PhD thesis for the University of Cambridge. He was the first to apply the name Teleocrater, derived from Greek teleos ("finished", "complete") and krater ("bowl", "basin"), in reference to the closed acetabulum of the animal. His initial thesis listed tanyura as the specific name of Teleocrater; later, in a 1967 overview of reptiles, he revised it to rhadinus, from Greek rhadinos ("slender", in reference to the bodyplan of the animal). However, given that it was never formally published, it remained an invalid nomen nudum. In 2015, a bonebed designated as Z183 was discovered within of the approximate location described by Parrington. This bonebed contained at least three individuals of different sizes, represented by 27 bones, all of which were mixed in with the remains of an allokotosaurian; new elements not known previously included the maxilla, quadrate, braincase, axis, sacral vertebrae, humeri, ischia, and calcaneum. They were stored at the National Museum of Tanzania. It is quite possible, given the proximity, that this bonebed represents the same site that the original specimens were recovered from. In 2017, these remains, along with the holotype, were described by a study published in Nature, co-authored by Sterling Nesbitt and others. They formally named the genus Teleocrater, and the type and only species T. rhadinus. The late Charig was honoured as a co-author on this study. Bonebed Z183 belongs to the lower portion of the Lifua Member of the Manda Formation. The bonebed is located in a gully, and is surrounded by pinkish-grey cross-bedded sandstone containing well-rounded quartz pebbles. The sandstone is overlain near the top by reddish-brown and olive-grey siltstone in a digit-like pattern characteristic of point bars; most of the vertebrate remains are concentrated within a section of this overlap. Discontinuous veins, or stringers, of brown claystone are also present. This layer has been biostratigraphically correlated to Subzone B of the South African Cynognathus Assemblage Zone, which is situated in the Anisian epoch of the Triassic period. This makes Teleocrater the oldest known bird-line archosaur, preceding the previous record-holder Asilisaurus. Classification Prior to the formalization of the definitions of these groups by Jacques Gauthier in 1986, Teleocrater was variously considered as a rauisuchian, an ornithosuchian (Ornithosuchia being in fact synonymous with Avemetatarsalia), or a thecodont. The position of Teleocrater remained enigmatic due to the absence of additional remains and the lack of a phylogenetic analysis incorporating the taxon. A 2008 histological study of early archosauriforms by Armand de Ricqlès and colleagues tentatively identified Teleocrater as an archosauriform of uncertain phylogenetic placement, but possibly closely related to Eucrocopoda. Nesbitt et al. utilized two phylogenetic datasets to analyze the affinities of Teleocrater: one published by Nesbitt himself in 2011, and another published by Martín D. Ezcurra in 2016. In addition to Teleocrater, the similarly problematic Yonghesuchus, Dongusuchus, Spondylosoma, and Scleromochlus were also added to the dataset in order to test their relationships. Analyses based on both datasets consistently recovered a monophyletic group containing Teleocrater, Yarasuchus, Dongusuchus, and Spondylosoma, with Spondylosoma forming the sister group to a polytomy containing the other three. This group is differentiated from other archosauriforms by fifteen shared characters, one of them an unambiguous synapomorphy (the overhang of the cervical neural spines). Nesbitt et al. named this group the Aphanosauria, defined as the most inclusive clade containing Teleocrater rhadinus and Yarasuchus deccanensis but not Passer domesticus or Crocodylus niloticus. The results of the analyses are reproduced below, based primarily on the Ezcurra dataset but incorporating the avemetatarsalian topology of the Nesbitt dataset. The inclusion of Scleromochlus altered the topology obtained to varying extents, although both analyses recovered it as an avemetatarsalian. In the Nesbitt dataset, Scleromochlus collapsed Avemetatarsalia into a polytomy containing itself, Spondylosoma, the other aphanosaurians, pterosaurs, lagerpetids, and dinosauriforms. Meanwhile, in the Ezcurra dataset, Scleromochlus formed a polytomy with lagerpetids and dinosauriforms. Nesbitt et al. emphasized that characteristics of pelvic and leg anatomy could not be assessed for Scleromochlus due to conflicting descriptions and poor quality of skeletal casts; these characteristics play a substantial role in the topology of basal avemetatarsalians. Traditionally, the "crocodile-normal" and "advanced mesotarsal" ankle arrangements have been considered as a dichotomy among archosaurs: early archosaurs and pseudosuchians possess the more mobile "crocodile-normal" configuration, while pterosaurs and dinosauromorphs (including birds) possess the stiffer "advanced mesotarsal" configuration. The presence of the "crocodile-normal" ankle in Teleocrater (convex joint with the astragalus, presence of a tuber, and the convexity of the fibular facet on the calcaneum) indicates that this configuration was probably plesiomorphic for archosaurs, including avemetatarsalians, supported by reconstructions of character state evolution using the two datasets. At the same time, features associated with the "advanced mesotarsal" ankle (lack of a tuber and the concavity of the fibular facet on the calcaneum) were reconstructed as having appeared at least two different times among ornithodirans, with basal dinosaurs also possessing a mixture of "crocodile-normal" and "advanced mesotarsal" characteristics. This demonstrates that the evolution of ankle morphology in avemetatarsalians is more complex than previously thought, and led Nesbitt et al. to conclude that the strict "crocodile-normal"/"advanced mesotarsal" dichotomy is reductionist. Paleobiology Histology and growth Nesbitt et al. examined cross-sections from the fibula of Teleocrater. The cortical bone was thin, measuring about thick. Primary woven-fibered bone with no signs of remodeling comprises the entirety of the cortex, and the vascular canals are all longitudinal primary osteons, arranged in some parts as concentric bands within the cortex; parallel-fibered bone and radial osteons are present locally. Disorganized osteocytes were abundant in the cortex. The outer cortex contains lines of arrested growth, but does not contain an external fundamental system (an indicator of maturity). The humerus was similar, albeit with many of the longitudinal osteons being anastomotically linked. Similar results were reached by Ricqlès et al., who analyzed a cross-section from a metatarsal. The cortex likewise consists entirely of the primary layer, with the vascular canals consisting of longitudinal osteons that are less dense in the peripheries of the cortex. The interior medullary cavity of the bone is occupied by dense spongy endosteum; the trabecula is missing. Overall, histology suggests that specimens of Teleocrater were rapidly growing at time of death. The dense vasularization, anastomosis in the humerus, and disorganization of osteocytes indicates a growth rate higher than more basal archosaurs and comparable to silesaurids, but less than that of Nyasasaurus, pterosaurs, and dinosaurs. Paleoecology In Bonebed Z183, from where the newer specimens of Teleocrater (and possibly the type specimen) are known, the fauna can generally divided into two types. Larger bones originate from the dicynodont Dolichuranus sp. and the cynodont Cynognathus sp.; they tend to be closely associated and semi-articulated, suggesting minimal transportation by water after death. Smaller bones originate from Teleocrater rhadinus, the temnospondyl "Stanocephalosaurus" pronus, an unnamed allokotosaurian, and another unnamed small reptile; they tend to be more fragmented, suggesting that they were worn and transported by several floods before they were finally deposited. Overall, the preservational environment is consistent with the crevasse splay of a floodplain, where the animals were killed and transported by sheetfloods before being buried by the crevasse splay complex. Elsewhere in the assemblage of the lower Lifua Member, the ctenosauriscid Hypselorhachis mirabilis is also present. References Middle Triassic archosaurs Anisian life Middle Triassic reptiles of Africa Triassic Tanzania Fossils of Tanzania Fossil taxa described in 2017 Prehistoric avemetatarsalians
5181286	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batman%20Black%20and%20White	Batman Black and White	Batman Black and White refers to the comic book limited series published by DC Comics featuring 8-page black and white Batman stories. Volumes 1, 4 and 5 of the series feature all-new stories (published in 1996, 2013–14, and 2020–21, respectively), while Vol. 2 and 3 contain stories from the back-up feature of the Batman: Gotham Knights comic book. The series represents the first DC Comics work for future co-publisher Jim Lee, who drew the debut issue's cover, and the final DC work for Alex Toth, who drew the fourth issue's cover. Publication history The origin of the series is told by editor Mark Chiarello in his introduction to the first collection, in which he writes about a dinner table-discussion with "a few famous comic-book artists", at which they pondered the "desert island" question in terms of a single complete run of comics one would be happy to be stranded with. Ultimately, with "half a minute"'s thought, they "amazingly... all agreed, pound for pound, page for page" that the unequivocal choice was Warren Publishing's Creepy, a high point unmatched since "there has never been such a collection of stellar artists assembled under one banner publication" as in Creepy, whose pages were host to (among others) "Toth, Frazetta, Williamson, Torres, Colan, Ditko, Wrightson, Corben etc." Chiarello notes that "most of those stories" were written by one man: Archie Goodwin, described as "probably the very best editor ever to work in comics, probably the very best writer ever to work in comics" (and early mentor to Chiarello when the two worked at Marvel), whose Warren work was itself an "homage to the favorite comics of his youth, the E.C. line". When Chiarello became a Batman editor "a whole bunch of years" later, he naturally "pitch[ed] the idea of a black and white anthology". Told by many colleagues that it would not sell - both because it was an anthology and because it was a black-and-white title, neither of which were purportedly widely liked by comics readers - the idea was green-lit, and Mike Carlin and Scott Peterson joined Chiarello to "make sure [he] didn't destroy the integrity of [Batman]". Chiarello's initial thought, which was "to hire the very best artists in the business" led him and Peterson to assemble a wish list of creators to contact. The series ultimately became "a creative and financial success" when the first four-issue volume was published between June and September 1996. There was also a free preview issued in 1996. Each of the four issues featured several self-contained short-stories, all written and drawn by a diverse group of comic artists and writers, most of whom had previously worked on Batman comics. Each story varied in theme, setting, and tone (depending on the creative team involved), offering multiple interpretations of Batman - and, in some cases, his supporting characters - usually by exploring their inner pathos and relationships. The series was the first DC Comics work for future Co-Publisher Jim Lee, who drew the debut issue's cover, and the final DC work for Alex Toth, who drew the fourth issue's cover. Contents and synopses Volume 1 This contains all-new material. Issue #1 - June 1996 "Perpetual Mourning" - by Ted McKeever (this story was nominated for an Eisner Award) Batman conducts an autopsy on a murder victim to help find her killer. "Two of a Kind" - by Bruce Timm A Gotham news anchor comments on the biggest story of the year: a brilliant reconstructive surgeon, Marilyn Crane, has been able to repair the damage done to Two-Face, which cures him of his insanity and restores his Harvey Dent identity. Dent plans to marry Marilyn, but becomes nervous when he discovers that she has a twin sister named Madeline who is mentally unbalanced herself (Marilyn explains that she kept the information from him to prevent Two-Face's obsession with duality from resurfacing). Madeline and Harvey begin an affair, but when Dent decides to end the relationship and return to his wife-to-be, she is driven insane with rage and murders Marilyn. Harvey's therapy and surgery prevent him from tapping into his darker side, so he deliberately scars his face with hot coals, travels to Gotham's docks, and kills Madeline. He then waits for Batman to come and take him back to Arkham "with the rest of the crazy people", bitterly resigning himself to a life of madness as Two-Face. "The Hunt" - by Joe Kubert A surreal take on Batman. "Petty Crimes" - by Howard Chaykin Batman investigates a series of murders that are apparently motivated by rudeness and lack of respect for rules; among the victims are a supermarket cashier who let someone with more than ten items into the express lane and a security guard who locked a bank door at 2:57 as opposed to 3:00 PM. The Caped Crusader eventually tracks down the culprit—a nondescript Gothamite who believes that he is doing the world a service by forcing people to pay closer attention to their behavior. After Batman apprehends the criminal, he assures the Dark Knight that the two of them are actually performing the same work to save the city, and even offers to be a "sidekick" to the hero when he gets out of jail. "The Devil's Trumpet" - written by Archie Goodwin, art by José Antonio Muñoz A jazz musician's search for a legendary trumpet leads him into the path of Batman. Issue #2 - July 1996 "Legend" - by Walter Simonson A mother tucking her son into bed tells the child an exciting story about a time long ago, when a masked man dressed as a bat fought criminals, villains, and all forms of evil to defend Gotham City. As her boy drifts off to sleep, the woman murmurs that the mysterious Batman swore to always be Gotham's protector, and hopes that he might resurface soon. It is then revealed that the story takes place in an Orwellian dystopia, with Gotham transformed into a police state—but the final panel depicts a familiar, bat-shaped shadow descending on an officer, suggesting that Batman has not abandoned his quest to save Gotham. "Monster Maker" - written by Jan Strnad, art by Richard Corben Batman has a violent run-in with several 11-year-old black children, who he deems "monsters", before launching into an extended criticism of urban society. "Dead Boys Eyes" - by Kent Williams Batman reaches out to the soul of Gotham during a near-death experience. "The Devil's Children" - written by Chuck Dixon, art by Jorge Zaffino Batman investigates a series of mysterious gangland murders. "A Black & White World" - written by Neil Gaiman, art by Simon Bisley Batman arrives at a strange office building, where a secretary tells him that they are "running behind" on scenes. It is revealed that all of Batman's comic book adventures are a staged affair much like a film, and that the characters are simply actors. The Caped Crusader enters the green room to prepare for his own work that day, where he chats with the Joker about the low quality of the writing. After finishing shooting for the day, Batman and the Joker head off to get lunch together, proving that their endless rivalry is simply an act for the audience. Issue #3 - August 1996 "Good Evening, Midnight" - by Klaus Janson Alfred reads a note Thomas Wayne had written long ago for his son. "In Dreams" - written by Andrew Helfer, art by Tanino Liberatore A woman seeks help for her recurring nightmares involving Batman. "Heist" - by Matt Wagner A gang of thieves are hunted by Batman during a botched home robbery. "Bent Twigs" - by Bill Sienkiewicz Batman tries to mend the relationship between a single dad and his son. "A Slaying Song Tonight" - written by Dennis O'Neil, art by Teddy Kristiansen Batman must protect a family from an unknown assassin during the holidays. Issue #4 - September 1996 "An Innocent Guy" - by Brian Bolland A young man in Gotham records a video describing his seemingly mundane life. However, he explains that in order to know he is truly a good person, he needs to perform a single horrific act and thus prove that he does not want to pursue a life of evil. The young man has decided that the only appropriate crime is murdering Batman, and outlines his plot to do so, explaining that, rather than Batman's many themed villains and rogues, he will simply shoot Batman in the head and vanish. After asserting his status as an "innocent guy", the young man swears that the Caped Crusader's murder will be his only villainous deed, and imagines his life going to back to its regular banality (this story would later be packaged with the 2008 re-release of Batman: The Killing Joke, with full coloring). "Monsters in the Closet" - written by Jan Strnad, art by Kevin Nowlan Batman uncovers a mad scientist in Gotham and his abominable creations. "Heroes" - written by Archie Goodwin, art by Gary Gianni (this story won an Eisner Award) A boy in World War II-era Gotham has a run-in with Batman and learns something about his own father in the process. "Leavetaking" - written by Dennis O'Neil, art by Brian Stelfreeze During a near-death experience, Batman relives the night his family was murdered. "The Third Mask" - by Katsuhiro Otomo Batman hunts a killer with multiple personalities and finds himself questioning his own identity. Pin-ups The first volume also included single-page pin-up renditions of the Caped Crusader by: Michael Allred Moebius Michael Wm. Kaluta Tony Salmons P. Craig Russell Marc Silvestri and Batt Alex Ross Neal Adams Volume 2 Collects back-up stories from Batman: Gotham Knights #1-16 with five new stories. Contents "Case Study" - written by Paul Dini, art by Alex Ross (new material) When the Joker is once again captured and sent back to Arkham Asylum, a doctor laments that all of his work has not pierced the Clown Prince of Crime's insanity. Another doctor offers up a report written years ago, which suggests that the Joker cannot be cured because he is not insane. The report outlines the Joker's history before his accident, and suggests that his "revenge" against Gotham for ruining him is to commit perfectly sane crimes under the guise of madness. The doctors are at first convinced, but Harleen Quinzel is then escorted past, commenting that she was the one who wrote the report prior to her personal sessions with the Joker. The doctors then wearily put the document away, realizing that though it is plausible, its origin renders it worthless - it is just another one of the Joker's sadistic jokes, left where it would someday be found, examined, and ultimately dismissed; a spot of hope that is crushed just as it shines brightest. "Batsman: Swarming Scourge of the Underworld" - written by Marie Severin, art by Ty Templeton (new material) A parody. "A Matter of Trust" - written by Chris Claremont, art by Steve Rude and Mark Buckingham "Night After Night" - written by Kelley Puckett, art by Tim Sale (new material) Bruce recalls the murder of his parents every night, and uses it as his drive for Batman to stop the Joker. "Fortunes" - written by Steven T. Seagle, art by Daniel Torres (new material) "To Become the Bat" - written by Warren Ellis, art by Jim Lee (originally published in Gotham Knights #1) A great many experiences prepared Batman for his role as Gotham's protector: he has learned what sort of wounds different bullets make, he knows the distinctive aroma of every brand of aftershave, and he has discovered how every gadget he came in contact with in his youth works. All of it is essential to some cases, such as tracking down a pregnant prostitute's murderer - a political candidate. Untitled - by John Byrne (originally published in Gotham Knights #2) Batman and Robin capture Thick and Thin Lyman and their gang, but neither they nor the police can get them to reveal any further information about a major shipment of drugs due in the city. The Lymans suddenly get bailed surprisingly easily, but find their every move dogged by either Batman or Robin, night and day. When they finally find themselves alone, Thick and Thin get to a meeting place as quickly as possible. However, once there, Thick reveals himself as Batman, but refuses to tell Thin when the switch took place. "Broken Nose" - by Paul Pope (originally published in Gotham Knights #3) Alfred treats Bruce Wayne for the first broken nose he has sustained in his career as a crimefighter. It was given him by Mabuse, a criminal who designed a metallic suit of armor for himself (the Dark Knight derisively calls Mabuse a "geek in a trashcan"). After Alfred reassures him that a broken nose is something of a rite of passage for people who fight, Batman tracks Mabuse down to the scene of his next crime, fights him, and emerges victorious. Though Mabuse surrenders, Batman makes sure to provide a final bit of revenge against the villain by breaking his nose. "Greetings from Gotham City" - written by John Arcudi, art by Tony Salmons (originally published in Gotham Knights #4) Ivan writes a postcard to his mother from Gotham City, detailing the amazing exploits of Batman in breaking up a gang of bank robbers. What he does not tell her is that he is one of the robbers and is writing from behind bars. "Hide and Seek" - written by Paul Levitz, art by Paul Rivoche (originally published in Gotham Knights #5) At the scene of a train wreck which may well be the result of malice rather than an accident, Batman seizes on the smallest of clues to follow someone's trail through the train system and up into the light. Here he finds a small boy and reassures him that he is now safe, telling him that he knows what it is like to be young and lost. "The Riddle" - written by Walter Simonson, art by John Paul Leon (originally published in Gotham Knights #6) A wealthy Gothamite with a huge collection of Lewis Carroll memorabilia has died. It is rumoured that in his possession he has Carroll's answer to the riddle "Why is a raven like a writing desk?"; This proves an irresistible target for the Riddler. He breaks into the house and negotiates his way through a maze of Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass-related animatronics, until he finds himself at the Mad Hatter's Tea Party, where the answer is tucked into the Hatter's hatband. The Riddler declares his triumph, but Batman then appears; to add insult to injury, he tells the Riddler that the "solution" he found is one that the Caped Crusader himself made up after discovering the real answer and taking it. "A Game of Bat and Rat" - written by John Arcudi, art by John Buscema (originally published in Gotham Knights #7) A bunch of low-lifes think they witness the death of Batman, but a derelict claims that he saw Batman climb out of Gotham River and make his way to a warehouse, badly injured. They decide to make his death a reality, and find themselves under attack from an uninjured Batman. When their leader confronts the derelict, claiming that he deliberately set them up, the derelict admits that this is true - he is Batman in disguise, after all. "Untitled" - written by Brian Azzarello, art by Eduardo Risso (originally published in Gotham Knights #8) Batman confronts the serial killer Mr. Zsasz at the scene of his latest massacre, and the two exchange their views on power before Batman trusses Zsasz up and leaves him for the police. "Blackout" - written by Howard Chaykin, art by Jordi Bernet (an Elseworlds tale, occurring in 1943) (originally published in Gotham Knights #9) Batman encounters Catwoman stealing from Albion Price, who, she claims, is a Nazi spy. Incredulous, Batman stakes Price out and discovers that she was telling the truth. They take him down together, but Batman still does not allow her to get away with the Nazi's stash of diamonds. "Guardian" - written by Alan Brennert, art by José Luis García-López (originally published in Gotham Knights #10) While pursuing some arsonists, Batman encounters Green Lantern, who protected Gotham City during the 1940s and 1950s. He expresses concern at Batman's violent methods, warning him that he could go the way of the Reaper, but recognises the good he is doing. Batman is angry with Green Lantern for having turned his back on Gotham, but Green Lantern explains it is because he is afraid of the seemingly limitless potential of his power ring. The two of them come to a semi-understanding, and Green Lantern leaves Gotham in Batman's care. "Snow Job" - written by Bob Kanigher, art by Kyle Baker (originally published in Gotham Knights #11) Batman dreams of going skiing with his son and rescuing a rich girl from her evil twin sister and assorted hired assassins. "The Black and White Bandit" - by Dave Gibbons (originally published in Gotham Knights #12) A painter who has lost his sense of colour due to toxic paint fumes exacts his revenge in a series of black-and-white themed crimes. However, he is soon fooled by Batman and the police who set up the possibility of stealing the Milan Shroud. Despite disguising himself as a nun, he is apprehended and taken away in a panda car, a concept which reduces him to helpless laughter. "Funny Money" - written by Harlan Ellison, art by Gene Ha (originally published in Gotham Knights #13) Commissioner Gordon asks Batman to have a few words in his office. Here he meets U.S. Treasury agents who inform him that not only has a consignment of "the paper from Dalton" (used to manufacture U.S. currency) been stolen, but a master engraver from Switzerland has just been arrested at Gotham Airport. Batman pays the engraver, Kaes Poppinger, a visit in his cell, and persuades him to assist the police. Some time later, Batman, disguised as engraver's assistant Dirks Baekert, accompanies Poppinger and the plates necessary to create money to the arranged meeting point, and from here watches the progress of the plates until they have been used to print the money. He, the police and the treasury crash the scene, but the counterfeiters are confident that as the money they have printed is indistinguishable from the real thing, there is no actual evidence that a crime has been committed. Batman then places one of the bills under a microscope, revealing that Poppinger secretly engraved an error in the plates, a miniature Batman and the words, "YOUARESOBUSTED". "The Bet" - written by Paul Dini, art by Ronnie Del Carmen (originally published in Gotham Knights #14) Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn, incarcerated in adjoining cells in Arkham Asylum, challenge each other to a friendly $1.00 wager: which of them can get a kiss from every man in the building first? The competition starts with each kissing a passing guard, who Ivy infects with her pheromones; as the guard wanders the building, every man who smells the chemicals is entranced, and lines up outside of Ivy's cell for a kiss. Things look grim for Harley, and she becomes hysterical when the Joker enters, seemingly under Ivy's spell; however, as the Clown Prince of Crime kisses Ivy, he murmurs under his breath about how much he loves Harley. Ivy decides that Harley has won the bet, and pays her $1.00 - which Harley quickly gives, along with her own cash, to the Ventriloquist, the real power behind the Joker's sweet nothings. "Stormy Nether" - written by Tom Peyer, art by Gene Colan and Tom Palmer (originally published in Gotham Knights #15) Batman and Prave (a child kidnapper) battle atop the Gotham rooftops. After falling, Prave finds himself relentlessly pursued by supernaturally invulnerable Batmen everywhere he goes. Elsewhere, Batman and a policeman contemplate Prave's dead body and wonder whether he got what he deserved. "The Bat no More...?" - written by Alan Grant, art by Enrique Breccia (originally published in Gotham Knights #16) A derelict tells a tale of Batman in a Gotham City bar. He saw the vigilante confront the Scarecrow and then become increasingly paranoid at the sight of any of his equipment, somehow having developed a fear of bats. The Scarecrow then talks to this man, wanting to know all the details, but is himself sprayed with a gas that gives him a fear of his own books - it is Batman. The two of them then face each other, to see who will give in first in revealing their own anti-toxin - will Batman cave in to a fear of the dark, or the Scarecrow to a fear of words. Volume 3 Collects back-up stories from Batman: Gotham Knights #17-49 (mostly edited by Mark Chiarello, Bob Schreck and Michael Wright). Contents "A Moment in the Light" - written by Joe Kelly, art by Aaron Wiesenfeld (originally published in Gotham Knights #17) Batman encounters Mr. Zsasz in a junkyard, where the serial killer has imprisoned several kidnapped children. As the two battle, the scene begins to fade, revealing it to be a memory that Bruce Wayne is using during a meditation session. Though he claims that these sessions are simply to help him relax, he uses the techniques he learns as Batman to help increase his focus, and puts his skills to the test by analyzing evidence while listening to the laughter of children, driving himself to stop Zsasz and all other criminals. "Fat City" - plot and script by Mick McMahon and Dave Gibbons, art by Mick McMahon (originally published in Gotham Knights #18) A monster made of grease is brought to life in a freak accident in Gotham's sewers, and begins to kill people by sucking all of the fat from their bodies. Gotham's citizens begin a fitness craze in an attempt to protect themselves, but the beast is not thwarted, and even the mayor is murdered. Eventually, Batman calls upon an odd ally to help him defeat the monster—Chloe Willow, "Gotham's fattest woman", whose noble self-sacrifice proves that heroes come in all shapes and sizes. "The Call" - written by Mark Schultz, art by Claudio Castellini (originally published in Gotham Knights #19) Batman meticulously prepares for a raid on a party being held by a group of Mafia criminals, analyzing every detail and possibility in advance. However, his careful planning is all for naught when a small-time crook reveals a hidden gun, which he blindly fires; the bullet strikes an innocent young woman in the throat, and Batman must halt his crime-stopping to save her. With no time to bring the woman to a hospital, the Caped Crusader uses a special signal to summon Superman. As the Man of Steel uses his incredible powers to save the girl's life, he and Bruce have a discussion about their respective methods of heroism. They eventually realize that while incredibly different, they are both dedicated to helping as many people as possible, and that the world desperately needs each of them. "The Lesson" - plot and script by Julius Schwartz and Dan Raspler, art by Christian Alamy (originally published in Gotham Knights #20) Cleverly juxtaposing the stories of Dick Grayson and young Bruce Wayne, the youthful central figure is reassured by the theory of Batman and led to conquer his fears, mask his pain and project a face for the rest of the world to see for the first - but never the last - time. "Day & Night in Black & White" - written by Mike Carlin, art by Dan DeCarlo and Terry Austin (originally published in Gotham Knights #21) Day contrasts starkly with night in Gotham City as Barbara Gordon and Pamela Isley's daytime routine is mirrored in twisted fashion by their respective nighttime pursuits as Batgirl defeating Poison Ivy. Note: Listed on the contents page of Black and White Volume 2 as "Day & Nite" in "Black & White". The Bottom Line" - written by Michael Golden, art by Jason Pearson (originally published in Gotham Knights #22) In this almost wordless comic, a group of thugs employed by the Joker has been tasked with stealing a small suitcase. Batman pursues them and snatches the bag for himself, leading to an intense game of cat-and-mouse. The struggle ends with Batman throwing the suitcase into the air—where it explodes, revealing that the apparent loot was actually a bomb which the Joker planned to use to kill both his henchmen and the Caped Crusader. "Here Be Monsters" - written by Paul Grist, art by Darwyn Cooke (originally published in Gotham Knights #23) A mysterious villain named Madame X attempts to poison Gotham City's water supply with a powerful hallucinogen. When Batman arrives to stop her, she douses him with the toxin, which leads him to have horrific visions and doubt that he is not just as monstrous as the villains he pursues. But his powerful will manages to shake off the accusation that he himself created the evil he fights, and the Caped Crusader apprehends Madame X while asserting his heroic nature. "Urban Legend" - written by Todd Dezago, art by Mike Wieringo (originally published in Gotham Knights #24) A reporter attempts to purchase definite photographic proof of the rumoured vigilante and shed some light on the creature of the night. Batman explains that the mystery is far more powerful than the truth, and convinces the reporter that he is merely an urban legend - and functions better for being in that mysterious grey area. For the opposite suggestion on Batman's status as an urban legend, there is Brian Azzarello's "Cornered". For a less scrupulous journalist's attempts to photograph Batman, there is John Ostrander's "Snap". "Last Call at McSurley's" - written by Mike W. Barr, art by Alan Davis and Mark Farmer (originally published in Gotham Knights #25) Matches Malone's local bar McSurley's is threatened with closure due to unpaid debts. This is bad news for Bruce Wayne, who uses various disguises to eavesdrop on the criminals who frequent the bar and thus solve a crime a night. He eventually devises a solution, which he puts into action when Matches passes a hat to collect cash to save McSurley's; to the bartender's surprise, someone places $10,000 into the collection, ensuring the bar's continued existence. Back in the Batcave, Alfred asks about a large sum of money—specifically, $10,000—that seems to have mysteriously gone missing. "Bruce Wayne is Batman!" - written by Cyrus Voris, art by Chris Bachalo (originally published in Gotham Knights #26) An Arkham Asylum inmate conjures a demon and discovers that Batman is Bruce Wayne. Two cleaners discuss her story, and conclude that this "fact" is not worthy of further thought, coming from such a deranged and damaged mind. The more compassionate of the cleaners does a disappearing act, secure in the knowledge that his secret remains safe. "Never Say Die" - written by Dwayne McDuffie, art by Denys Cowan (originally published in Gotham Knights #27) A small-time crook nicknamed "Do-Boy", who is in the employ of the Penguin, is determined to prove his worth by standing up to the Batman or die trying. While "just a man", Batman proves he can thwart all manner of plans - even last-ditch, desperate attempts at criminal glory. "Thin Edge of a Dime" - written by Don McGregor, art by Dick Giordano (originally published in Gotham Knights #28) The Batman's work is never done, and trying to talk a non-descript Gothamite out of his suicidal tendencies is every bit as important as his regular duties. "No Escape" - written by Paul Kupperberg, art by John Watkiss (originally published in Gotham Knights #29) Batman is captured by the Riddler and placed in an amazingly well-constructed death trap. As he struggles to escape the trap, he reflects on his training in the art of escapology, which he received from Max Dodge, a master escape artist. It is then revealed that Dodge himself, now in desperate need of money, designed the mechanism which now holds Batman. As he watches the Caped Crusader try to free himself, Dodge realizes the identity of the man behind the mask, and decides to fight back against the Riddler to help his former student. Though this heroism leads to a fatal heart attack, he is able to die knowing that he refused to give into villainy—a fact which Batman acknowledges as he talks to his old friend in his final moments. "Punchline" - written by Doug Alexander, art by Rob Haynes (originally published in Gotham Knights #30) This dialogue-free story opens with a criminal running along the rooftops, carrying bags of cash from a bank heist. He eventually stumbles across some directional signs and the Bat-Signal, and drops the loot in terror to save himself. Harley Quinn then emerges from the shadows, giggling and clutching a flashlight with a miniature Bat-Signal, which she has used to frighten off her accomplice and take all of his ill-gotten gains for herself. However, the flashlight appears to be malfunctioning, as it continues to show a signal on the wall even after Harley turns it off. When she investigates, she discovers that the "signal" is actually the insignia on Batman's costume—he has been watching from the shadows as well, and spoils Harley's joke. "Hands" - written by Scott Peterson, art by Danijel Zezelj (originally published in Gotham Knights #31) This story highlights two underexplored sides of Batman, those of forensic investigator and granter of absolution. Batman discovers an old death, and has to decide the path of least heartache when conveying the results of his investigation into the death of a young child to her surviving family. "Toyride" - written by Mark Askwith, art by Michael William Kaluta (originally published in Gotham Knights #32) Three little girls write a letter to Bruce Wayne in which they tell a story about their strange classmate, who has a genius-level intellect and a knack for invention. Recently, the boy tried to destroy Batman by planting computer technology in a gigantic dinosaur statue; the boy used a remote control to steer the beast as the Caped Crusader struggled to contain it. The three girls saved the day by attacking their classmate and stealing his remote, defeating him. The letter ends with a "thank you", as Wayne has had the dinosaur filled with concrete and turned into the centerpiece for a playground for Gotham's children, including three small but brave heroes. "The Monument" - written by Darwyn Cooke, art by Bill Wray (originally published in Gotham Knights #33) A wealthy philanthropist erects a tribute statue of Gotham's Guardian in Robinson Park. Mixed reactions see the silent statue act as a shrine, a deterrent, a homeless shelter and a graffiti-covered wall. Acting as a focal point for the pro-/anti-Batman camps, Professor Hugo Strange decides to destroy it in a symbolic gesture that emphasises his belief that Batman represents the worst of humanity. While Batman must apprehend Strange, he has more mixed feelings about saving the statue, declaring his aversion to a fan-club. "The Delusions of Alfred Pennyworth" - written by Danielle Dwyer, art by Scott Morse (originally published in Gotham Knights #34) Alfred becomes convinced that the benevolent ghost of an old friend is haunting Wayne Manor, but decides not to tell Bruce Wayne, thinking that his master has enough delusions of his own, although Batman knows all about it. "Cornered" - written by Brian Azzarello, art by Jim Mahfood (originally published in Gotham Knights #35) A world-weary Gothamite living in a crime-riddled area of the city witnesses Batman's just-too-late attempts to stop street hoods engaging in a gunfight, and questions Batman's methods, putting a question about whether a real threat will more likely to inspire the younger generation to be law-abiding than an urban legend. For the opposite suggestion, there is Todd Dezago's story "Urban Legend". "Fear is the Key" - written by Mike Carey, art by Steve Mannion and Hilary Barta (originally published in Gotham Knights #37) A medieval sorcerer conjures a Bat-demon, but is revealed to be the Scarecrow, who has inadvertently absorbed a high dosage of an experimental hallucinogen and his own fear toxin. Triumphing over impossible odds, Batman returns the Scarecrow to Arkham Asylum, where he ponders the incredible resilience of Batman, who must similarly have been hallucinating wildly, and yet managed to maintain a grip on reality. 'Untitled' - written by Ann Nocenti, art by John Bolton (originally published in Gotham Knights #38) The seedy underbelly of the Gotham underworld includes a large number of criminals who need the vicarious thrill of seeing Batman - and Catwoman - trussed, tortured and killed. One man runs a small 'business' to provide just such a thrill. "Sunrise" - written by Alex Garland, art by Sean Phillips (originally published in Gotham Knights #39) An elderly Gothamite awakens early to capture the sunrise on film, only to tire herself out while climbing the stairs to her tenement's roof and decide that she is too old to spend her time trying to capture life. While musing about her age, she is surprised to discover Batman recovering from his nightly patrol; when he brusquely refuses to answer her questions about what happened, the woman scolds him, and he admits that he injured his shoulder during a raid on a building. The tables turn when Batman asks the woman about her camera, and she also stubbornly refuses to talk about what changed her mind. The Dark Knight smiles as he realizes the two are not so different and makes his exit—but not before taking a picture with his new friend, proving that it is never too late to create lasting memories. "Neighbourhood" - written by Robert Rodi, art by Jon Proctor (originally published in Gotham Knights #40) Petty criminal Rico Tagliani lives in perpetual fear of Batman for decades, getting increasingly more paranoid as time passes. Ultimately his paranoiaic delusions lead him to larger crimes, even as it is revealed that there is always truth behind the fears of the Dark Knight Detective. There is also Ed Brubaker's title "I'll Be Watching", a similar story with different actions and results. "I'll Be Watching" - written by Ed Brubaker, art by Ryan Sook (originally published in Gotham Knights #41) The janitor at Sprang Hall, Gotham's juvenile correctional facility, recalls the event that set him on his path to redemption and sees the guiding presence of Batman as a perpetual and comforting reminder of his new life. Meanwhile, Batman's inspirational second-chance offer is shown to be neither unique nor forgotten. "Gargoyles of Gotham" - by Dean Motter (originally published in Gotham Knights #42) An art exhibition featuring photographs of some of Gotham's gargoyles allows art patron Bruce Wayne to recall his own memories of such omnipresent parts of the city's landscape, including their structural integrity and the secrets some of them hide, including one nicknamed "Clark", who secretly guards the garb of one Bruce Wayne when his alter-ego is on patrol. "Snap" - written by John Ostrander, art by Philip Bond (originally published in Gotham Knights #43) A down-on-his-luck photojournalist attempts to get photographic proof of Batman's existence. Attempts to bribe Commissioner Gordon fail, and a staged crime scene makes the photographer into a criminal himself. Both Gordon - and Batman himself - reiterate the importance of the unreality of the urban legend. For a more understanding photographer's take on the rights and wrongs of photographing Batman, there is Todd Dezago's story "Urban Legend". For the opposite suggestion on Batman's status as an urban legend, there is Brian Azzarello's story "Cornered". "The Best of Gotham" - by Jill Thompson (originally published in Gotham Knights #44) A newspaper-style text and 'photos' guide to some of Gotham's "must-see" highlights, including mentions of the philanthropy of Gotham's most famous son, as well as the inspirational activities of the city's protector, which can be seen in the theaters, stand-up clubs, clothes shops, night clubs and a tailored museum: "Hideout" showcasing some of the items confiscated from Batman's rogues gallery, and funded by the Martha Wayne Outreach program. "Sidekick" - written by Kimo Temperance, art by Nathan Fox (originally published in Gotham Knights #45) Batman has to carry out his patrol while babysitting a child who has been abandoned on the Batmobile by someone eager for fame. "Urban Renewal" - written by Will Pfeifer, art by Brent Anderson (originally published in Gotham Knights #46) Writer/photographer Daniel McKinley notes the changing face of Gotham - and the world - from the kitsch architecture of "buildings shaped like cash registers" to the faceless conformity of the modern era. Turned down by publisher after publisher, he has almost resigned himself to writing a book about "gargoyle-covered skyscrapers", when his proposal is accepted by Signal Publishing, a division of Wayne Enterprises. Bruce Wayne, like McKinley, has a keen sense of nostalgia. A related story - Dean Motter's "Gargoyles of Gotham" - explains more on these iconic structures. "Riddle Me This" - written by Judd Winick, art by Whilce Portacio (originally published in Gotham Knights #47) The Riddler, in a series of highlights from across his career, runs through a series of riddles before settling on one which describes his nemesis, as well as indulging in a spot of soul-searching, concluding that he wants to be caught. "The Mob is Dead, Long Live the Mob" - by Eric Cherry (originally published in Gotham Knights #48) A former snitch tries to set himself up as a new mob boss, using Batman as a cover by feeding him information about minor drug deals while the major ones are carried out with impunity. The new "boss" is ultimately brought low by another snitch who fears that Batman is now in the employ of the gangs. "Fear is the Key" - written by Geoff Johns, art by Tommy Castillo and Rodney Ramos (originally published in Gotham Knights #49) The Scarecrow runs through a litany of phobias, and regrets that his own addiction to fear has been compromised by an increasing immunity to his toxins. There is always something to fear, however, and for the Scarecrow, Batman is both the ultimate fear and the ultimate thrill. "The Gasworks" - written by Mike Mignola, art by Troy Nixey (originally published in Gotham Knights #36) Two villains attempt to use a powerful hallucinogenic compound to incapacitate Batman and kill him. In an ironic twist of events, they manage to disable him enough that he cannot subsequently come to their rescue. Note: "The Gasworks" is the only Black and White story to include color - red permeates the story, the color of both the hallucinogen and the blood. This is likely the reason this story was moved to the end of the volume. DC Direct Gallery - showcasing the first dozen DC Direct-produced statues in the Batman: Black and White series. Eduardo Risso's statue (sculpted by Tony Cipriano) and Simon Bisley's statue (sculpted by William Paquet). Sketches by Alex Ross. Sketches by Paul Pope (designs for his Batman: Year 100 Batman). Brian Bolland's statue (sculpted by Jack Mathews). Small rough sketches and statue by Tim Sale (statue sculpted by Jonathan Matthews). Steve Rude's statue (sculpted by Jonathan Matthews). Sketches by Steve Rude. Rough sketches by Jim Lee. Sketch and statue by Jim Lee (statue sculpted by Erick Sosa). Individual cowl and close-up sketches by Kelley Jones. Kelley Jones' statue (sculpted by Ray Villafane). Matt Wagner's statue and sketches (statue sculpted by Paul Harding). Volume 4 This contains all-new material. Issue #1 - November 2013 "Don't Know Where, Don't Know When" - written by Chip Kidd, art by Michael Cho "Batman Zombie" - by Neal Adams The Caped Crusader has seemingly been turned into a ghoulish zombie, but still attempts to pursue his rogues gallery. As he does, he encounters various Gotham citizens who are suffering from unjust laws and cruel practices, including a woman being evicted from her home because of a bank's miscommunication and a man serving a life sentence for breaking a "three strikes" policy. The story's events are then revealed to be a nightmare Batman is having; when he awakens, he decides that is time to use his Bruce Wayne identity to help in the fight against a less dramatic, but still oppressive, evil. "Justice is Served" - written by Maris Wicks, art by Joe Quinones Harley Quinn robs Gotham Burger, a new fast food restaurant, only to discover that anyone who eats its products bloats into a spherical ball covered in leaves. Harley suspects Poison Ivy of tainting the meals, but Ivy claims innocence and realizes that Max Glyson, a rival scientist who studied with her under Jason Woodrue, is trying to frame her. The women team up to defeat Glyson and expose his crimes, with Batman providing support and a means for Ivy to cure the citizens suffering from Gotham Burger's effects—including the Joker, who inadvertently ate some of the food that Harley brought to his lair. "Driven" - written by John Arcudi, art by Sean Murphy Batman works on repairing the Batmobile after a chase with Roxy Rocket, a daredevil stuntwoman-turned-supervillain. As he works on the car's amazing technology, he recalls the intense pursuit—which surprisingly ended in the Batmobile not breaking down. Eager for the chance to work on the vehicle further, Batman deliberately sabotaged the engine and claimed that Roxy's actions were to blame; a sharp-eyed Alfred sees through the ruse, but decides to let Bruce have his fun regardless. "Head Games" - written by Howard Mackie, art by Chris Samnee Issue #2 - December 2013 "Manbat Out of Hell" - written by Dan Didio, art by J. G. Jones Batman pursues Dr. Kirk Langstrom, who has broken out of Arkham Asylum to attack an orphanage. The Caped Crusader fears that Man-Bat is after the children staying in the building, but discovers them unharmed in a bedroom upstairs. Closer investigation reveals that the orphans are being abused by their caretaker, who is Man-Bat's actual target. Batman helps Dr. Langstrom apprehend the criminal, and Man-Bat takes a few moments to spend time with two of the orphans, who are revealed to be his own children that, despite his monstrous transformation, he remembers and swears to protect. "Into the Circle" - by Rafael Grampá "A Place in Between" - by Rafael Albuquerque Batman finds himself in a boat with Charon, crossing the River Styx. Charon tells him that he has died; to determine where he spends the afterlife, he must stay in the boat while witnessing horrific scenes from his own past. Batman struggles to contain himself and eventually breaks the rule by rushing to rescue Jason Todd. As he succumbs to grief, Charon inadvertently mentions that the Caped Crusader now understands fear—at which point Batman realizes that he is in another of the Scarecrow's toxin-induced hallucinations. He overpowers Scarecrow and congratulates him on a nearly-perfect ruse. "Winter's End" - written by Jeff Lemire, art by Alex Nino "Silent Knight…Unholy Knight!" - written by Michael Uslan, art by Dave Bullock Issue #3 - January 2014 "Rule Number One" - by Lee Bermejo "Hall of Mirrors" - by Damion Scott "An Innocent Man" - written by Marv Wolfman, art by Riccardo Burchielli A criminal condemned for murder is set to be executed in twenty-four hours, but new evidence makes Batman believe that he might be innocent. He works against the clock to explore the new leads and discovers that the true killer was the victim's wife, who discovered her husband's infidelity and murdered him in a rage. Batman returns to release the condemned man, who is revealed to be none other than the Joker. The Caped Crusader further remarks that he knows the entire situation is one of the Clown Prince of Crime's trademark jokes—he arranged everything, including telling the victim's wife about her husband's affair, just to force Batman to rescue him. The Joker gloats that his release means that Batman shares culpability for his future crimes, but the Dark Knight responds that the villain now owes him his life, and that when he does defeat him, it will be in the name of justice, not revenge. "Namtab: Babel Comes to Gotham" - by Rian Hughes "Role Models" - written by Paul Dini, art by Stéphane Roux Batman and Commissioner Gordon receive a note from "Playground", a child abuser and kidnapper who targets prepubescent girls. Meanwhile, Playground's latest victim manages to escape her bonds and flees to Gotham's streets, hoping to find a superheroine to save her. Instead, the girl stumbles across Poison Ivy and Harley Quinn, who are preparing to rob a bank. Despite their criminal pasts, Ivy and Harley realize the girl's distress and work to defeat Playground, who even they find reprehensible. When Batman arrives on the scene to arrest the kidnapper, he is forced to let Ivy and Harley go at the child's request. The girl praises them as heroes, and Batman cannot help but smile as he agrees that for tonight, at least, the women are on the side of the angels. Issue #4 - February 2014 "Ghost of Gotham" - written by Nathan Edmondson, art by Kenneth Rocafort "Tea-Minus Party" - written by Michael Allred and Lee Allred, art by Michael Allred "Long Day" - by Dustin Nguyen "Even In The Darknest Moments" - written by David Macho, art by Rubén Pellejero "Missing in Action" - by Sean Galloway Issue #5 - March 2014 "Hell Night" - written by Ivan Brandon, art by Paolo Rivera "Cat and Mouse" - written by Keith Giffen, art by Javier Pulido "I Killed the Bat" - written by Blair Butler, art by Chris Weston "Flip Side!" - written by Len Wein, art by Víctor Ibáñez "Hope" - written by Jimmy Palmiotti, art by Andrew Robinson Issue #6 - April 2014 "Clay" - by Cliff Chiang "Bruce" - written by Olly Moss and Becky Cloonan "The Batman: Hiding in Plain Sight" - by Dave Taylor "She Lies at Midnite" - by Adam Hughes "To Beat the Bat" - by Dave Johnson Volume 5 This contains all-new material. Issue #1 - December 2020 "The Demon's Fist" - written by James Tynion IV, art by Tradd Moore "Weight" - by JH Williams III "Metamorphosis" - written by G Willow Wilson, art by Greg Smallwood "Sisyphus" - by Emma Rios "First Flight" - written by Paul Dini, art by Andy Kubert Issue #2 - January 2021 "The Unjust Judge" - written by Tom King, art by Mitch Gerads "All Cats are Grey" - by Sophie Campbell "The Spill" - written by Gabriel Hardman and Corinna Bechko, art by Gabriel Hardman "Dual" - by Dustin Weaver "The Devil is in the Detail" - by David Aja Issue #3 - February 2021 "The Cavalry" - written by John Ridley, art by Olivier Coipel "A Kingdom of Thorns" - by Bilquis Evely "I am the Bat" - by Bengal "Unquiet Knight" - written by Tim Seeley, art by Kelley Jones "Legacy" - by Nick Dragotta Issue #4 - March 2021 "A Night in the Life of a Bat in Gotham" - written by Joshua Williamson, art by Riley Rossmo "Davenport House" - by Karl Kerschl "The Green Deal" - written by Chip Zdarsky, art by Nick Bradshaw "Checkmate" - by Daniel Warren Johnson Issue #5 - April 2021 "A Father and Son Outing" - by Jorge Jiminez "Signals" - by Lee Weeks "Blue" - written by Mariko Tamaki, art by Emanuela Lupacchino and Wade Von Grawbadger "The Riddle" - written by Kieron Gillen, art by Jamie McKelvie "The Man Who Flies" - by Jamal Campbell Issue #6 - May 2021 "The Second Signal" - written by Brandon Thomas, art by Khary Randolph "The Abyss" - written by Pierrick Colinet and Elsa Charretier, art by Elsa Charretier "Opening Moves" - by Nick Derington "Like Monsters of the Deep" - written by John Arcudi, art by James Harren "A Thousand Words" - written by Scott Snyder, art by John Romita Jr. and Klaus Janson Pin-ups The fifth volume also includes single-page pin-up renditions of Batman by: Max Fiumara Dexter Soy Stjepan Šejić Ramon Villalobos Ariela Kristantina Andie Tong Simone Di Meo Jen Bartel James Stokoe Amy Reeder Jesus Merino Babs Tarr Collected editions Motion comics Warner Premiere, Warner Bros Digital Distribution, and DC Comics produced semi-animated adaptations of several of the Black and White short stories and released them as motion comics. The motion comics were produced and directed by Ian Kirby and feature an original musical score by composer Adam Fulton and voice-actors, such as Michael Dobson as the voice(s) of Batman, the Joker, Thomas Wayne and Alfred Pennyworth, John Fitzgerald as Commissioner Gordon and Two-Face, Janyse Jaud as Harley Quinn, Catwoman and Martha Wayne and Joseph May as Superman. Currently 10 episodes divided into two seasons are available via online streaming off of TheWB's website. The episodes are also available for purchase online via Apple's iTunes Store and other distribution channels, such as Amazon's Video On Demand for $0.99/two-episodes. Season 1 Episode List (debuted on 12/8/2008): 1 - Here Be Monsters 2 - Broken Nose 3 - Two of a Kind 4 - Case Study 5 - Black and White Bandit 6 - Punchline 7 - Good Evening Midnight 8 - Hide and Seek 9 - Night After Night 10 - Perpetual Mourning Season 2 Episode List (debuted on 7/23/2009): 1 - I'll Be Watching 2 - The Call 3 - Monsters in the Closet 4 - A Game of Bat and Rat 5 - Hands 6 - Sunrise 7 - In Dreams 8 - Heroes 9 - Legend 10 - Blackout Critical reaction IGN Comics ranked Volume 1 of Batman: Black and White #13 on a list of the 25 greatest Batman graphic novels, saying: "Though having just eight pages to tell a story can certainly be confining, it also proves to be liberating. Forced to scrap complex plots but create something indelible, these tales are often parables, send-ups or unforgettable vignettes surrounding the Batman". Merchandise Statues Several Batman: Black and White statues have been released by DC Collectibles. Some of these are based on designs used by various artists for their contributions to the three volumes of Black and White stories, but the line has expanded to include artwork from other titles as well as other characters. Action figures Starting in June 2018, some Batman action figures were re-released as black-and-white variants. They come with base stands that are similar to the ones used for the statues. Mini PVC sets Starting in May 2019, DC released mini PVC versions of some of the statues. These PVC versions were released in grouped box sets of seven at comics shops and in blind bags/boxes elsewhere. Awards 1997: Won "Best Short Story" Eisner Award, for "Heroes" Won "Best Anthology" Eisner Award Nominated for "Best Limited Series" Eisner Award Nominated for "Best Short Story" Eisner Award, for "Perpetual Mourning" Scott Peterson/Mark Chiarello nominated for "Best Editor" Eisner Award 2003: Won "Best Graphic Album--Reprint" Eisner Award, for Batman: Black and White Volume 2 Notes References External links DC page: BB&W2013 IGN reviews the first two volumes Digitalmotioncomics reviews of the two collections of motion comics Comics anthologies Comics by Alan Grant (writer) Comics by Archie Goodwin (comics) Comics by Brian Azzarello Comics by Chris Claremont Comics by Dave Gibbons Comics by Dennis O'Neil Comics by Don McGregor Comics by Ed Brubaker Comics by Geoff Johns Comics by Howard Chaykin Comics by Jim Lee Comics by Joe Kelly (comics writer) Comics by John Byrne (comics) Comics by John Ostrander Comics by Keith Giffen Comics by Len Wein Comics by Marv Wolfman Comics by Matt Wagner Comics by Mike Mignola Comics by Neal Adams Comics by Neil Gaiman Comics by Paul Dini Comics by Paul Kupperberg Comics by Robert Kanigher Comics by Warren Ellis Eisner Award winners for Best Anthology Katsuhiro Otomo
5181524	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaricom	Safaricom	Safaricom PLC is a listed Kenyan mobile network operator headquartered at Safaricom House in Nairobi, Kenya. It is the largest telecommunications provider in Kenya, and one of the most profitable companies in the East and Central Africa region. The company offers mobile telephony, mobile money transfer, consumer electronics, ecommerce, cloud computing, data, music streaming, and fibre optic services. It is most renowned as the home of M-PESA, a mobile banking SMS-based service. Safaricom controls approximately 64.5% percent of the Kenyan market as of 2020 with a subscriber base estimated at approximately 35.6 million. In terms of voice market and SMS market share Safaricom controls 69.2% and 92.2% respectively. Safaricom was formed in 1997 as a fully owned subsidiary of Telkom Kenya. In May 2000, Vodafone Group PLC of the United Kingdom acquired a 40% stake and management responsibility for the company. In 2008, the government offered 25% of its shares to the public through the Nairobi Securities Exchange. Safaricom was ranked as Africa's Best Employer, 67th in the World by the Forbes Global 200 list of the World's Best Employers. In March 2018, Safaricom was ranked as the #1 company to work for in the annual BrighterMonday Best 100 Companies to Work for in Kenya according to career professionals and job seekers. As of 2020, Safaricom employed over 4,500 people permanently and over 1,900 people on contract. 75 percent of the company's employees were based in Nairobi, the Headquarters, with the remainder based in other big cities like Mombasa, Kisumu, Nakuru and Eldoret, in which it operates retail outlets. It has nationwide dealerships to ensure customers across the country have access to its products and services. In November 2012, Safaricom partnered NCBA Bank and came up with a "revolutionary" banking product, M-Shwari, which allows M-Pesa customers to save and borrow money through mobile phone while earning interest on money saved tapping into an underdeveloped financial services market. Michael Joseph served as the founding CEO between July 2000 and November 2010. He transformed the telecom from a subscriber base of less than 20,000 to over 16.71 million during his previous tenure. In his last full year as CEO, Safaricom posted a 37 percent rise in pretax profit. Bob Collymore took over at Safaricom in November 2010, replacing Michael Joseph who went on to serve in the telco giant’s board as the Chairman. Collymore oversaw the introduction into the market of various mobile money products that have given the company leverage among its competitors. Collymore was also been at the forefront in leading the charge against regulatory efforts to clip the company’s wings due to its size and dominance. After a two-year battle with cancer, Bob, the longest-serving executive died on July 1, 2019, leaving behind a company with doubled user base and profits increased by 380%. Michael was appointed as interim chief. Peter Ndegwa was appointed as CEO effective April 1, 2020. In January 2023, Safaricom made Adil Khawaja its of chairman of the board of directors. History 2G service on 900 MHz and 1800 MHz. 3G DC-HSPA+ service on 900 MHz & 2100 MHz. Safaricom later launched LTE-A (4G service with carrier aggregation) service in Nairobi and Mombasa on band 20 (800 MHz) and band 3 (1800 MHz) in December 2014 and has expanded to other cities. Safaricom's competitors, Airtel Kenya and Telkom Kenya have expressed dissatisfaction with the way the regulatory body Communications Authority of Kenya, awarded Safaricom its LTE (long Term Evolution) license to operate at 800 MHz. Safaricom was the first company in Kenya to possess 3G Internet technology with the recent success of 4G / LTE connectivity currently in all major Kenyan cities. In March 2021, Safaricom became the second network operator in Africa after Vodacom to launch a live 5G network, initially available in Nairobi, Kisumu, Kakamega and Kisii. Flashback service (Please Call Me) Most of Safaricom's network congestion emerges from a practice called 'flashing'. Flashing is the practice of calling another mobile user, but disconnecting before the connected call is answered. It provides a method for mobile users to alert someone that they wish to be called, but either can't, or won't, pay for the call. The method is cost-free for the users; but costly in network bandwidth. That is why Safaricom introduced a flashback service that gave every subscriber five free SMS messages with a single predefined message stating "Please call me. Thank you". Although the messages can be annoying when sent just for fun they can prove useful when one is in trouble and has no airtime. It also gives parents more of a reason to get mobile phones for their children without the real need for getting them airtime. Kipokezi service Safaricom launched the Kipokezi service in May 2000 that enabled its subscribers to send and receive email and online chat through standard mobile phones. The service did not require users to have an Internet connection as it used ForgetMeNot Africa’s Handset Initiation technology. Prior to the service fewer than one in ten Kenyans had accessed the Internet but the Kipokezi launch allowed more than a third of the population to exchange email and online chat messages. Lipa Mdogo Mdogo In Partnership with Google, Safaricom introduced Lipa Mdogo Mdogo, a product targeting individuals with 2G phones by upgrading them to 4 G-enabled devices while paying daily installments of Ksh.20 over a period of one year. Ndegwa, who is the CEO of the company pointed out that they were targeting 1 million customers with plans of rolling the service to other countries depending on its initial success. M-PESA History An M-PESA-enabled mobile phone can also function as an electronic wallet and can hold up to KSh.500,000/= (approx. US$3500). Safaricom has announced that it intends to roll out M-PESA to other countries. M-PESA (M for mobile, pesa is Swahili for money) is a mobile phone-based money transfer, financing and micro financing service, launched in 2007 by Vodafone for Safaricom and Vodacom. M-PESA was originally designed as a system to allow microfinance-loan repayments to be made by phone, reducing the costs associated with handling cash. After the pilot testing it was broadened to become a general money-transfer scheme. Since then safaricom M-PESA brand has reached 12 countries in Africa and three countries outside the continent. How it works Once a user registers for M-PESA, they pay money into the system by handing cash at an M-Pesa agent, who then credits the money to the user's M-Pesa account. The user then gets an SMS notifying them of the transaction. A user withdraws money by visiting an agent, who checks that the user has sufficient funds before debiting the user's account and handing over the cash. An M-Pesa user can also transfer money to others using a menu on their phone. Cash can thus be sent one place to another instantly, safely and easily. This is in contrast to the preferred system before where money was sent by a porter, usually a friend, relative or bus crew, to the intended recipient. M-PESA was first launched by the Kenyan mobile network operator Safaricom, where Vodafone was technically a minority shareholder (40%), in March 2007. M-PESA quickly captured a significant market share for cash transfers and grew to 17 million subscribers by December 2011 in Kenya alone. The growth of the service forced formal banking institutions to take note of the new venture. In December 2008, a group of banks reportedly lobbied the Kenyan finance minister to audit M-PESA, in an effort to at least slow the growth of the service. This ploy failed, as the audit found that the service was robust. At this time, The Banking Act did not provide the basis to regulate products offered by non-banks, of which M-PESA was one such very successful product. As at November 2014, M-PESA transactions for the 11 months of 2014 were valued at KSh.2.1 trillion/=, a 28% increase from 2013, and almost half the value of the country's GDP. On November 19, 2014, Safaricom launched a companion android app Safaricom M-Ledger for its M-PESA users. The application, currently available only on Android, gives M-PESA users a historical view of all their transactions. M-Pesa’s usage and success in Kenya M-Pesa has been particularly successful in Kenya, compared to mobile money platforms in other countries. Contributing factors here include the exceptionally high cost of sending money by other methods; the dominant market position of Safaricom; the regulator's initial decision to allow the scheme to proceed on an experimental basis, without formal approval; a clear and effective marketing campaign (“Send money home”); an efficient system to move cash around behind the scenes; and, the post-election violence in the country in early 2008. During the post-election violence, M-Pesa was used to transfer money to people trapped in Nairobi's slums at the time. Some Kenyans regarded M-Pesa as a safer place to store their money than the banks, which were entangled in ethnic disputes. Having established a base of initial users, M-Pesa then benefited from network effects: the more people who used it, the more it made sense for others to sign up for it. M-Pesa has since been extended to offer loans and savings products, and can also be used to disburse salaries or pay bills, which saves users further time and money as compared to doing so from banks. M-Pesa has a wide range of financial services including Person to Person, ATM withdrawal, Payments, Bulk Payments and Bank to M-Pesa. As of January 2016, M-Pesa is used by 21.8 million Kenyans, with over 1.5 million of M-Pesa users using the bill payment feature. At the time M-Pesa had a network of over 90,000 agent outlets. Average value of monthly person to person transfers on M-Pesa was KSh.106 billion/= while Person to Business transfers were at KSh.23.5 billion/= and Business to Person at KSh 27.8 billion/= per month. M-Pesa is in partnership with a number of banks. M-Shwari and KCB M-Pesa are two such services, which provide access to savings and loans to users. M-Shwari was launched in November 2012 in partnership with Commercial Bank Of Africa. Safaricom and Visa partnership Safaricom and VISA in June 2022 launched an M-PESA Visa virtual card that allows Kenyan users to shop for products and pay for services worldwide, facilitating safe cashless payments at merchant locations in over 200 countries via Visa’s global network. South Africa In September 2010 Vodacom and Ned bank announced the launch of the service in South Africa, where there were estimated to be more than 13 million "economically active" people without a bank account. M-Pesa has been slow to gain a toehold in the South African market compared to Vodacom's projections that it would sign up 10 million users in the following three years. By May 2011, it had registered approximately 100,000 customers. The gap between expectations for M-Pesa's performance and its actual performance can be partly attributed to differences between the Kenyan and South African markets, including the banking regulations at the time of M-Pesa's launch in each country. According to Money Web, a South African investment website, "A tough regulatory environment with regards to customer registration and the acquisition of outlets also compounded the company's troubles, as the local regulations are more stringent in comparison to our African counterparts. Lack of education and product understanding also hindered efforts in the initial roll out of the product." In June 2011, Vodacom and Nedbank launched a campaign to re-position M-Pesa, targeting the product to potential customers who have a higher Living Standard Measures (LSM) index than were first targeted.] Despite efforts, as at March 2015, M-Pesa still struggled to grow its customer base. This comes as no surprise as South Africa is well known for being ahead of financial institutions globally in terms of maturity and technological innovation. According to Genesis Analytics, 70% of South Africans are "banked", meaning that they have at least one bank account with an established financial institution which have their own banking products which directly compete with the M-Pesa offering. Tanzania M-Pesa was launched in Tanzania by Vodacom in 2008 but its initial ability to attract customers fell short of expectations. In 2010, the International Finance Corporation released a report which explored many of these issues in greater depth and analyzed the strategic changes that Vodacom has implemented to improve their market position.[23] As of September 2021, M-Pesa in Tanzania has 12.66 million subscribers India M-Pesa, was launched in India as a close partnership between Vodafone India and ICICI bank in November 2011 under the leadership of Mr Suresh Sethi. The service today operates in all telecom circles where Vodafone India is present. Users (of any telecom operator) can activate the M-Pesa service by downloading the Vodafone M-Pesa app (available on all app stores) on to their phones and registering themselves or by visiting any Vodafone store, Vodafone mini-store or M-Pesa agent point across the country. Customers of Vodafone can also activate the M-Pesa service by dialing 400# from their mobiles and completing the registration process. Using the 400# (USSD) facility allows Vodafone customers to avail of the benefits of M-Pesa without having a smartphone or a data connection. Registration is entirely free of charge. A customer who activates his M-pesa wallet by only providing his basic demographic details and not sharing any proof of identity is enabled as a minimum KYC customer on M-Pesa. A minimum KYC customer of M-Pesa can not do money transfer (P2B, P2P) from his wallet account but can avail services like recharges (Prepaid mobile/DTH), bill payments, merchant payments, EMI payments, utility payments, insurance payments etc. They also have a monthly /daily/per transaction limit of ₨.10,000/-. If a minimum KYC M-Pesa customer wants to avail of bank transfer facility/increase his or her monthly transaction limit, then he or she can do so by doing their KYC using their Aadhar at any Vodafone store or M-Pesa agent point. M-Pesa in India operates under two licenses, the PPI (Prepaid Payment Instruments) license issued by the Reserve Bank of India and the business correspondent license issued by ICICI bank. M-Pesa has also received in -principle nod of the regulator to set up a payments bank in India. Vodafone M-Pesa is the largest business correspondent channel in India with 1.5 lac+ M-Pesa agents who are enabled to provide cash-in, cash-out and assisted payments facility to M-Pesa customers. Shareholding In 2008, reports appearing in the cross section of the press indicated that Vodafone Plc of UK only owned 35% while the remaining 5% was owned by a little-known company, Mobitelea Ventures Limited. The reports caused a stir which led to the summoning of its CEO Michael Joseph to appear before the PIC "Public Investment Committee", where he denied knowing who the other shareholder is. A spokesman for Vodafone said "the PIC has no powers to investigate M&A activity (see Mergers and Acquisitions), only to ask to view company accounts of Vodafone Kenya Limited, a company registered in Kenya. Mobitelea Ventures Limited were granted an option to purchase 25% of Vodafone's shares which they completed in 2002, Vodafone bought back half of the stake in 2003 for $10 million, and in the financial year ending 31 March 2009 purchased the remaining indirect equity stake of 5%, thus returning Vodafone to its original 40% stake-holding. Vodafone said that whilst it would like to disclose who owns Mobitelea it is unable to because of a confidentiality agreement. , the company's stock was owned by the following public and private entities. The stock of the company is listed on the Nairobi Stock Exchange, where it trades under the symbol: SCOM. See also Safaricom Telecommunications Ethiopia Global Partnership for Ethiopia Mobitelea Ventures Limited List of mobile network operators in Kenya List of telecommunications regulatory bodies References Telecommunications companies of Kenya Companies based in Nairobi Companies listed on the Nairobi Securities Exchange 1997 establishments in Kenya Telecommunications companies established in 1997 Kenyan brands Vodafone Mobile phone companies of Kenya
5181657	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikunau	Nikunau	Nikunau is a low coral atoll in the Gilbert Islands that forms a council district of the Republic of Kiribati. It consists of two parts, with the larger in the northwest, joined by an isthmus about wide. There are several landlocked hypersaline lagoons within the island, covering about . The island is surrounded by a narrow fringing reef. Its vegetation is moderately dense and consists largely of coconut palms and pandanus. The island's population includes 1,789 Kain Nikunau I-Kiribati people (at the most recent census). Typically, there are also a few other I-Kiribati, working for the Republic Government or the Nikunau Island Council. From time to time the United States Peace Corps and other I-Matang volunteers have been stationed there. Other residents over the years have included castaways and beachcombers in the days of whaling and itinerant trading, Protestant Samoan pastors, traders and agents running the island's trade stores and cooperatives (e.g. Andrew Turner, Tom Day, Frank Even, Kum Kee, Kwong), and Roman Catholic clergy. Surf on Nikunau depends on location, but averages 2 ft to 8 ft in height. The tip of the island, close to the airstrip, is where two tides meet, creating the largest waves, and strong tides and currents. History Nikunau's history comprises oral accounts passed down through the generations, primarily from unimane to unimane (the elderly men of each family in each generation), and committed to writings by I-Matang (pale-skinned people of European descent) since the 19th century. Significant contributors among these I-Matang are Sir Arthur Grimble and H.E. Maude, who were longtime officials of the British Colony of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands; Barrie MacDonald, a professor of history who has specialised in the history of that colony and the Republic of Kiribati that was created out of it; and Jean-Paul Latouche, who wrote down the stories of unimane of the 1960s in te taetae ni Kiribati (Gilbertese language) and translated them into French. Another significant contributor is Anne Di Piazza, who carried out some archaeological digs near Rungata in the 1990s. From these we know that the island has been inhabited since time immemorial (at least 2000 BP); that it was significant in Gilbertese political and cultural history in the extension of the mwaneaba system in about the 16th century; that it received its first recorded British visitors on 2 July 1765, namely Commodore John Byron and the English ships and crew under his command HMS Dolphin on their circumnavigation of the world (the island was referred to on European maps for a while as Byron Island in his honour.; and that it was the centre of I-Matang whaling operations in the 1820s to 1840s at the On-the-Line grounds (the Line referring to the Equator). Kain Nikunau resided in multi-dwelling dispersed settlements centred on probably six mwaneaba, which were the hub of social, political, religious, economic and cultural activities. They were organised along lines of blood, adoption and marriage into boti (tribal polity) and utu (extended family). Various laws, customs and beliefs applied political, economic and social roles and conduct, including birth, marriage, death and after-life/death, and regarding land, reef and ocean resources, and similar. While each mwaneaba district had much in common with neighbouring ones, and the same on neighbouring islands such as Beru, they were politically independent. The whalers, then the oil/copra traders, then the missionaries (the London Missionary Society and the Roman Catholic mission) and then British Colonial officials caused much change to the ways of life on the island. Trade in tobacco, tools and weapons, foodstuffs and cloth developed. Tobacco and then copra became the form of currency, with cash not really being any more significant than copra until as recently as the 1980s. Existing religious beliefs were challenged by Protestant Christianity. The gerontocracy of bygone days was challenged by Protestant theocracy. Dispersed settlements were replaced with the clustered model villages that continue today, each replete with a church and a building that resembles a mwaneaba but usually has a church connection (only one of the pre-Christian mwaneaba still stands on the entire island). Identification with boti gradually waned until it seems now redundant. However, identification with utu is still strong, as is individual holdings of rights to land use. Protestant-Catholic sectarianism has been rife but is now less in evidence, although very much still present. Pre-Christian beliefs continue. Subsistence living is still the norm but cash and trade goods can still be obtained by producing copra. The other sources of cash on the island have been and still are spending by the Colony and Republic government and its officials and public employees stationed on the island, including at the "government station" or, as it is now, the Nikunau Island Council settlement (the Council receives a grant from the Government of Kiribati to cover 80+% of its recurrent spending); and remittances received by Kain Nikunau from utu working (and increasingly living permanently) overseas, elsewhere in the colony/republic and in Pacific Ocean and Rim countries and on foreign ships. These absent utu are part of a trend begun in the days of whaling, when some Kain Nikunau joined ships' crews and would be seen in various parts of the world, Atlantic as well as Pacific. Kain Nikunau featured in the Pacific labour trade throughout the rest of the 19th century, going to Samoa, Fiji, New South Wales, Queensland, Central America and so on, but typically returning to their island. In the 20th century that working away continued notably on the phosphate islands of Banaba (Ocean Island) and Nauru, and then on Tarawa, where government and some commerce grew slowly and then more quickly from the 1950s up to the present. Tarawa was also the main or only centre for secondary education and other highly centralised "social and economic development" and still is. While Nikunau's population has varied little from the 1,500 to 2,200 estimated or recorded at various times since the 1800s, Tarawa's population has increased from the 3,000 - 4,000 of the 1800s first half of the 20th century to around 50,000 today. There are more Kain Nikunau living on Tarawa today than on Nikunau, and many Kain Nikunau living on Tarawa have yet to set foot on Nikunau. The history of this migration is associated with the aforesaid "social and economic development", notably in education, hospitals, amenities and cash employment, started by British officials such as Michael Bernacchi and V.J. Andersen, with grants from London from the Colonial Development and Welfare Fund and carried on since Kiribati independence by the Asian Development Bank and the aid arms of various foreign governments, including Australia, Japan, Korea, New Zealand, Britain, the European Union, the UNDP, the People's Republic of China and Nationalist China. This aid is continuing to have a backwash effect on Nikunau, while giving rise to increasingly undesirable environmental and social conditions for Kain Nikunau living on Tarawa. Nikunau Post Office opened around 1912, helping form the government station and now being part of the Nikunau Island Council settlement. Transportation Air Nikunau Airport is served by Air Kiribati from Beru Airport on Beru Island (from which the same airline flies to Tabiteuea North Airport, Tabiteuea, and from there, next to Beru, to Arorae (with the way back via Tamana), Nonouti, Tabiteuea South, Tamana (way there via Arorae) and Bonriki International Airport, Tarawa) on Mondays. Bibliography Asian Development Bank. (2009b). Kiribati’s political economy and capacity development [Online]. Available: http://www.adb.org/documents/reports/KIR-Political-Economy-Capacity-Development/KIR-Economic-Development.pdf (accessed 6 February 2012). Bedford, R., Macdonald, B., & Munro, D. (1980). Population estimates for Kiribati and Tuvalu, 1850-1900: Review and speculation. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 89, 199-246. Borovnik, M. (2006). Working overseas: Seafarers' remittances and their distribution in Kiribati. Asian Pacific Viewpoint, 47, 151-161. Burnett, G. (2005). Language games and schooling: Discourses of colonialism in Kiribati education. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 25(1), 93-106. Cochrane, G. (1970). The Administration of Wagina Resettlement Scheme. Human Organization, 29(2), 123-132. Correspondent. (1913, 5 June). Modern buccaneers in the West Pacific. New Age, pp. 136–140 (Online). Available: http://dl.lib.brown.edu/pdfs/1140814207532014.pdf (accessed 6 February 2012). Couper, AD. The island trade: an analysis of the environment and operation of seaborne trade among three islands in the Pacific. Canberra: Australian National University, Department of Geography; 1967. Couper, AD. Protest movements and proto-cooperatives in the Pacific Islands. Journal of the Polynesian Society 1968; 77: 263-74. Davis, E. H. M., Captain RN. (1892). Proceedings of H.M.S. Royalist [Online]. Available: http://www.janeresture.com/davisdiaries/captaindavis.html and http://www.janeresture.com/nikunau/index.htm (accessed 6 February 2012). Di Piazza, A. (1999). Te Bakoa site. Two old earth ovens from Nikunau Island (Republic of Kiribati). Archaeology in Oceania, 34(1), 40-42. Di Piazza, A. (2001). Terre d’abondance ou terre de misère: Représentation de la sécheresse à Nikunau (République de Kiribati, Pacifique central) (Land of abundance or land of scarcity? Ideas about drought on Nikunau (Republic of Kiribati, Central Pacific)). L’Homme, 157, 35-58. Geddes, W. H. (1977). Social individualisation on Tabiteuea Atoll. Journal of the Polynesian Society, 86, 371-393. Geddes, W. H., Chambers, A., Sewell, B., Lawrence, R., & Watters, R. (1982), Islands on the Line, team report. Atoll economy: Social change in Kiribati and Tuvalu, No. 1, Canberra: Australian National University, Development Studies Centre. Goodall, N. (1954). A history of the London Missionary Society 1895-1945. London: Oxford University Press. Goodenough, W. H. (1955). A problem in Malayo-Polynesian social organization. American Anthropologist, 57, 71-83. Grimble, A. (1921). From birth to death in the Gilbert Islands. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute, 51, 25-54. Grimble, A. F. (1952). A Pattern of Islands, John Murray, London. Grimble, A. F. (1957). Return to the Islands: Life and Legend in the Gilberts. John Murray, London Grimble, A. F. (1989). Tungaru traditions: Writings on the atoll culture of the Gilberts, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. Grimble, A. F., & Clarke, S. G. (1929). Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony: Instructions and Hints to District Officers, Deputy Commissioners and Sub-accountants, His Britannic Majesty's High Commission for the Western Pacific, Suva, Fiji. Ieremia T. (1993). The first twelve years, in: H. Van Trease, (Ed) Atoll Politics: The Republic of Kiribati, pp. 309–320 (Christchurch: University of Canterbury, Macmillan Brown Centre for Pacific Studies). Kazama, K. (2001). Reorganized meeting house system: The focus of social life in a contemporary village in Tabiteuea South, Kiribati. People and Culture in Oceania, 17, 83-113. Kiribati National Statistics Office. (2009). Keystats workbook (Online). Available: http://www.spc.int/prism/Country/KI/Stats/Economic/GFS/Revenue-Current.htm (accessed 11 September 2011). Kiribati National Statistics Office. (2009). Statistics (Online). Available: http://www.spc.int/prism/Country/KI/Stats/index.htm (accessed 14 November 2009). Koch, G. E. (translated by G. Slatter), (1986). The Material Culture of Kiribati, Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji. Land (Copra) Tax Register 1910-1916. Available in Kiribati National Archives, Tarawa, GEIC 4(11)/II 18. Latouche, J-P. (1983). Mythistoire Tungaru: Cosmologies et genealogies aux Iles Gilbert. Paris: Societe d'Etudes Linguistiques et Anthropologiques de France. Lawrence, R. (1992). Kiribati: change and context in an atoll world”, in Robillard, A. B. (Ed.), Social Change in the Pacific Islands, Kegan Paul International, London, pp. 264–99. Lundsgaarde, H. P. (1966). Cultural Adaptation in the Southern Gilbert Islands, University of Oregon, Oregon. Lundsgaarde, H. P. (1974). The evolution of tenure principles on Tamana Island, Gilbert Islands. In H. P. Lundsgaarde (Ed), Land tenure in Oceania (pp. 179–214). Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. Lundsgaarde, H. P. (1978). Post-contact changes in Gilbertese maneaba organization. In N. Gunson (Ed.) The Changing Pacific: Essays in Honour of H. E. Maude (pp. 67–79). Melbourne: Oxford University Press Lundsgaarde, H. P., & Silverman, M. G. (1972). Category and group in Gilbertese kinship: An updating of Goodenough's analysis. Ethnology, 11, 95-110. Macdonald, B. (1971). Local government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892-1969 - part 1. Journal of Administration Overseas, 10, 280-293. Macdonald, B. (1972). Local government in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands 1892-1969 - part 2. Journal of Administration Overseas, 11, 11-27. Macdonald, B. K. (1982). Cinderellas of the Empire: Towards a History of Kiribati and Tuvalu, Australian National University Press, Canberra. Macdonald, B. (1996a). Governance and Political Process in Kiribati (Economics Division Working Papers 96/2), Canberra: Australian National University, National Centre for Development Studies. Macdonald, B. (1996b). ‘Now an island is too big’ limits and limitations of Pacific Islands history. Journal of Pacific Studies, 20, 23–44. Macdonald, B. (1998). Pacific Islands stakeholder participation in development: Kiribati. (Pacific Islands Discussion Paper Series No. 5). Washington, DC: World Bank, East Asia and Pacific Region, Papua New Guinea and Pacific Islands Country Management Unit. Mason, L. (Ed.). (1985). Kiribati: A Changing Atoll Culture, University of the South Pacific, Institute of Pacific Studies, Suva, Fiji. Maude, H. C., & Maude, H. E. (Eds.). (1994). An anthology of Gilbertese oral tradition. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific. Maude, H. E. (1949). The Co-operative Movement in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands (Technical Paper No. 1), South Pacific Commission, Sydney. Maude, H. E. (1952). The colonisation of the Phoenix Islands, Journal of the Polynesian Society, Vol. 61 Nos. 1-2, pp. 62–89. Maude, H. E. (1963). The Evolution of the Gilbertese Boti: An Ethnohistorical Interpretation, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 72 (Supplement), pp. 1–68. Maude, H. E. (1964). Beachcombers and Castaways, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 73, pp. 254–293. Maude, H. E. (1977a). Foreword, in Sabatier, E. (translated by U. Nixon), Astride the Equator: An Account of the Gilbert Islands, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp. v-viii. Maude, H. E. (1977b). Notes, in Sabatier, E. (translated by U. Nixon), Astride the Equator: An Account of the Gilbert Islands, Oxford University Press, Melbourne, pp. 353–373. Maude, H. E. (ed.). (1991). The story of Karongoa. Suva, Fiji: Institute of Pacific Studies of the University of the South Pacific. Maude, H. E., & Doran, E., Jr. (1966). The precedence of Tarawa Atoll. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 56, 269-289. Maude, H. E., & Leeson, I. (1965). The Coconut Oil Trade of the Gilbert Island, Journal of the Polynesian Society, 74, pp. 396–437. McCreery, D., & Munro, D. (1993). The cargo of the Montserrat: Gilbertese labor in Guatemalan coffee, 1890-1908 . The Americas 49, 271-295. Munro, D, Firth, S. Towards colonial protectorates: the case of the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. Australian Journal of Politics and History 1986; 32: 63-71. Munro, D, Firth, S. From company rule to consular control: Gilbert Island labourers on German plantations in Samoa. Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 1987; 16: 24-43. Officer on Board the Said Ship. (1767). A voyage round the world in His Majesty’s Ship the ‘Dolphin’, commanded by the honourable commodore Byron. London: J. Newbery and F. Newbery. Sabatier, E. (translated by U. Nixon), (1977). Astride the Equator: An account of the Gilbert Islands, Oxford University Press, Melbourne. Ward, J. M. (1946). British policy in the South Pacific (1786-1893). Sydney: Australasian Publishing. Weeramantry, C. Nauru: environmental damage under international trusteeship. Melbourne: Oxford University Press; 1992 Williams, M., & Macdonald, B. K. (1985). The phosphateers: A history of the British Phosphate Commissioners and the Christmas Island Phosphate Commission. Melbourne University Press, Carlton, Vic. Willmott, B. (2007). The Chinese communities in the smaller countries of the South Pacific: Kiribati, Nauru Tonga and the Cook Islands (Macmillan Brown Working Paper Series) [Online]. Available: https://web.archive.org/web/20130504194103/http://www.pacs.canterbury.ac.nz/documents/Microsoft%20Word%20-%20Willmott_WP17.pdf (accessed 6 February 2012). References Exhibit: The Alfred Agate Collection: The United States Exploring Expedition, 1838-1842 from the Navy Art Gallery Gilbert Islands Atolls of Kiribati
5181815	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Pakistan	Cinema of Pakistan	Cinema of Pakistan, popularly known as Lollywood (), refers to the filmmaking industry in Pakistan. Pakistan is home to several film studios centres, primarily located in its three largest cities – Karachi, Lahore. Pakistani cinema has played an important part in Pakistani culture, and in recent years, has begun flourishing again after years of decline, delivering entertainment to audiences in Pakistan and expatriates abroad. Several film industries are based in Pakistan, which tend to be regional and niche in nature. Joyland, the first Pakistani film to be screened at the Cannes Film Festival 2022, . It was selected as the Pakistani entry by Pakistani film Ferternity for Best International Feature Film at 95th Academy Awards. Over 14,000 Urdu feature films have been produced in Pakistan since 1948, as well as over 10,000+ Punjabi, 8,000+ Pashto, 4,000+ Sindhi and 1,000+ Balochi feature-length films. The first film ever produced was Husn Ka Daku in 1929, directed by Abdur Rashid Kardar in Lahore. The first Pakistani-film produced was Teri Yaad, directed by Daud Chand in 1948. Between 1947 and 2007, Pakistani cinema was predominantly based in Lahore, home to the nation's largest film industry (nicknamed Lollywood). Pakistani films during this period attracted large audiences and had a strong cult following, was part of the cultural mainstream, widely available and imitated by the masses. During the early 1970s, Pakistan was the world's fourth-largest producer of feature films. However, between 1977 and 2007, the film industry of Pakistan went into decline due to martial laws, strengthening of censorship laws, and an overall lack of quality. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, the film industry went through several periods of ups and downs, a reflection of its dependency on state funding and incentives. By 2000, the film industry in Lahore had collapsed and saw a gradual shift of Pakistani actors, actresses, producers and filmmakers from Lahore to Karachi. By 2007, the wounds of Pakistan's collapsed film industry began to heal and Karachi had cemented itself as the center of Pakistani cinema. This was the time new generation producers stepped into the industry with short films with quality story line and new technology led to an explosion of alternative form of Pakistani cinema. The shift has been seen by many as the leading cause for the "resurgence of Pakistani cinema". Despite the industry crisis starting in the mid-1980s, Pakistani films have retained much of their distinctive identity. Since the shift to Karachi, Pakistani films have once again began attracting a strong cult following. History Silent Era (1929–1946) The history of cinema in Pakistan began in 1929, when Abdur Rashid Kardar set up a studio and production company under the name of United Players Corporation (later renamed to Playart Phototone), which would become the foundation stone for the Lahore film industry. After scouting for locations, he settled for their offices to be established at Ravi Road. The dimly-lit area presented difficulties as shootings were only possible in daylight, but nevertheless, the area had some very important landmarks like the Ravi Forest and the tombs of Mughal emperor Jahangir and his wife Nur Jahan. It is reported that the team working at the studios would commute on tangas and even lost equipment once while traveling on the bumpy roads on the horse-drawn carriage. However basic and crude their working conditions, Kardar believed in his work and in 1929 he produced the first silent film in Lahore Husn Ka Daku (Mysterious Eagle), under his studio's banner. The film had mild success at cinemas, but prominently established Lahore as a functioning film industry. Kardar vowed on not acting in any other film and instead focusing on direction. Immediately afterwards, the studio released the film Sarfarosh (Brave Heart) in 1930 and Farebi Daku in 1931, with Gul Hamid playing the lead role with more or less the same cast as in the previous film. Also in 1931, the film Khooni Katar was released. This production proved equally appealing, but was able to stir noise about the Lahore film industry. Roop Lal Shori, who was a resident of Brandreth Road in Lahore, upon hearing of Lahore's growing film industry, returned to his hometown and produced Qismat Ke Haer Pher (Life After Death) in 1932, which would firmly ground the film industry in Lahore. In 1946, Sajjad Gul set up Evernew Studios in on Multan Road. The following year, Eveready Pictures was established by J.C. Anand, which would go on to become the largest film production and distribution company in Pakistan. Independence and growth (1947–1959) In 1947, after Pakistan was created out of British India, Lahore became the hub of cinema in Pakistan. By 1947 there were around 80 cinemas in East Bengal. In March 1948, when the Governor-General of Pakistan Mohammad Ali Jinnah came to visit East Bengal, the radio broadcaster and filmmaker Nazir Ahmed was commissioned to create the informational film In Our Midst with the help of Calcutta-based film technicians. It was the first informational film of the province (now Bangladesh). Upon independence, there was a shortage of funds and filming equipment, which initially paralysed the film industry. With hardships faced, the first Pakistani feature film, Teri Yaad released on 7 August 1948, premiering at the Parbhat Theatre in Lahore. Over the next few years, films that were released reached mediocre success until the release of Do Ansoo on 7 April 1950. Do Ansoo became the first film to attain a 25-week viewing making it the first film to reach silver jubilee status. Recovery was evident with Noor Jehan's directorial debut Chanwey releasing on 29 April 1951. The film became the first to be directed by a female director. Syed Faqir Ahmad Shah produced his first film with a heavy budget in 1955. Saqlain Rizvi and Murtaza Jillani were the directors. Syed Faqir Ahmad produced his second film Jagga in 1958 directed by his son Saqlain Rizvi. The film remained mediocre in the cinema. As cinema viewership increased, Sassi released on 3 June 1954 by Eveready Pictures reached golden jubilee status staying on screens for 50 weeks. Legendary playback singer Ahmed Rushdi started his career in April 1955 after singing his first song in Pakistan "Bander Road Se Kemari". Umar Marvi, released on 12 March 1956, became the first Pakistani film to be made in the Sindhi language. To celebrate the success of these endeavours, film journalist Ilyas Rashidi launched an annual awarding event on 17 July 1957. Named Nigar Awards, the event is since then considered Pakistan's premier awards event celebrating outstanding performance in various categories of filmmaking. The Golden Era (1959–1977) The 1960s is often cited as being the golden era of Pakistani cinema. Many stars were introduced during this period who would go on to become cinema legends on the silver screen. As black and white form became obsolete, Pakistan saw the introduction of its first colour films. Some that share the status of being firsts are Munshi Dil's Azra in the early 1960s, Zahir Raihan's Sangam (first full-length coloured film) released on 23 April 1964, and Mala (first coloured cinema scope film). In 1962, Shaheed was released which introduced the Palestine conflict to Pakistanis in cinemas and became an instant hit. In 1962, Pakistan's most versatile actor Mohammad Ali debuted in Charagh Jalta Raha. It was premiered by Fatima Jinnah on 9 March 1962 at Nishat Cinema in Karachi. In September 1965, following the war between Pakistan and India, all Indian films were completely banned. A light ban had existed since 1952 in West Pakistan and since 1962 in East Pakistan, but was exercised rigorously after the War of 1965. Pakistani cinemas did not suffer much from the decision to remove the films and instead received better attendances. Realising the potential, Waheed Murad stepped into the industry. His persona led people to call him the "chocolate hero" and in essence, he became the Marlon Brando and Elvis Presley of Pakistan. In 1966, Armaan was released and became one of the most cherished Urdu films to ever be released. The film is said to have given birth to Pakistani pop music, by introducing playback singing legends like composer Sohail Rana and singer Ahmed Rushdi. The film became the first to complete a 75-week screening at cinemas throughout the country, thus attaining a platinum jubilee status. Waheed Murad was picturised in a song for the first time ever in director Saqlain Rizvi's Mamta released in 1963. Another rising star during this period was Nadeem Baig, who received instant stardom with his debut film Chakori in 1967. The same year, he would act in another film of a different genre. Horror films were introduced with the release of Zinda Laash, making it the first Pakistani film to display an R rating tag on its posters. Meanwhile, Eastern Films Magazine, a tabloid edited by Said Haroon, became the most popular magazine for film buffs in Pakistan. The magazine had a question and answer section titled "Yours Impishly" which the sub-editor Asif Noorani took inspiration for from I. S. Johar's page in India's Filmfare magazine. Tabloids like these got their first controversial covers with the release of Neela Parbat on 3 January 1969, which became Pakistan's first feature-film with an adults-only tag. It ran for only three-to-four days at the box office. More controversial yet would be the offering of distribution rights in the Middle East to the Palestinian guerrilla organisation, Al Fatah, by the writer, producer, and director Riaz Shahid for his film Zarqa released on 17 October 1969. It depicted the activities of the organisation. Towards the late 1960s and early 1970s, political turmoil once again returned with the East Pakistan conflict brewing. Amidst concerns, the film Dosti, released on 7 February 1971 and turned out to be the first indigenous Urdu film to complete 101 weeks of success at the box office, dubbing it the first recipient of a diamond jubilee. As political uncertainty took charge of the entertainment industry, filmmakers were asked to consider sociopolitical impacts of their films as evident by the fact that the makers of Tehzeeb, released on 20 November 1971, were asked to change the lyrics with a reference to Misr, Urdu for Egypt, that might have proved detrimental to the diplomatic relations between Egypt and Pakistan. So vulnerable was the film industry to the changing political landscape that in 1976, an angry mob set fire to a cinema in Quetta just before the release of the first Balochi film, Hammal O Mahganj. Javed Jabbar's Beyond the Last Mountain, released on 2 December 1976, was Pakistan's first venture into English film-making. The Urdu version Musafir did not do well at the box office. Signs of trouble slowly began in the cinema industry as VCRs and piracy became an issue. Decline (1977–1990) Pakistani cinema entered into a decline during the regime of Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq (1978–1988), who began his Islamization process across the country. One of the first victims of this sociopolitical change was Pakistani cinema. Imposition of new registration laws for film producers requiring filmmakers to be degree holders, where not many were, led to a steep decline in the workings of the industry. The government forcibly closed most of the cinemas in Lahore. New tax rates were introduced, further decreasing cinema attendances. Other factors such as VCRs and film piracy had a negative effect on the growth of the industry. Aina, released on 18 March 1977, marked a distinct symbolic break between the so-called liberal Zulfikar Ali Bhutto years and the increasingly conservative cum revolutionary Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq regime. The film stayed in cinemas for over 400 weeks, with its last screening at the Scala in Karachi, where it ran for more than four years. It is considered the most popular Pakistan film ever. Films dropped from a total output of 98 in 1979, of which 42 were in Urdu, to only 58 films of which 26 were in Urdu in 1980.. The film industry by now was on the verge of collapse as people began turning away from cinema. The filmmakers that remained in the industry, produced super hits like Punjabi cult classic Maula Jatt in 1979, telling the story of a gandasa-carrying protagonist waging a blood-feud with a local gangster. While Maula Jatt paved the way for films based on rural and violent anti-hero, in terms of dress, conduct, speech, and values, Maula was at odds with previous presentations of heroes and ideals of nation-building. Similarly, Aurat Raj, released in 1979, is another film, which is hailed for its feminist narrative. Growing censorship policies against displays of affection, rather than violence, came as a blow to the industry. As a result, violence-ridden Punjabi films prevailed and overshadowed Urdu cinema. The middle class neglected the 'increasingly dilapidated and rowdy cinemas'. This film sub-culture came to be known as the gandasa culture. In Punjabi cinema, Sultan Rahi and Anjuman became iconic figures of this culture. In Pashto cinema, filmmakers were able to get around the censor policies and filled their films with soft-core pornography to increase viewership. This was done by the backing of powerful politicians. The once romantic and lovable image of Pakistani cinema in the 1960s and 1970s had transformed into a culture of violence and vulgarity by the 1980s. This ironically came while the government under Zia-ul-Haq's regime was attempting to "Islamise" the country. Being an actress associated with the current crop of productions became an understandable taboo and many middle-class people began shunning these films. Nevertheless, the influx of refugees from Afghanistan, who were denied entertainment in their own country, kept Pashto cinema alive, while Punjabi cinema was fueled by young single men from the rural areas of Punjab. In 1983, legendary actor Waheed Murad died, which was yet another blow to the cinema industry. Some claim he committed suicide while the media attributed his death to his disheartened view in the wake of Pakistani cinema's collapse. The director of his unfinished film Hero, employed 'cheat shots' to complete the film and released to sold out cinemas across the country. This enthusiasm soon disappeared and not even Pakistan's first science fiction film, Shaani, in 1989, directed by Saeed Rizvi employing elaborate special effects, could save the industry. It received awards at the Moscow Film Festival, in Egypt, and in Korea, but was shelved in Pakistan. Collapse (1990–2002) At the start of the 1990s, Pakistan's film industry was gripped with certain doom. Of the several dozen studios across the country, only 11 were operational producing around 100 films annually. By now the annual output dropped to around 40 films, all produced by a single studio. Other productions would be independent of any studio usually financed by the filmmakers themselves. This number would lower further as studios went towards producing short-plays and television commercials. The death of Waheed Murad in 1983 was only the start of the demise of iconic cinema stars of the 60s which further led to decreased interest. Anjuman quit from playback signing, Sultan Rahi was murdered in 1996, director Sangeeta put her career on hold to attended to family life while Nazrul Islam died. Controversy raged over the 1998 film Jinnah, produced by Akbar Salahuddin Ahmed and directed by Jamil Dehlavi. Objections were raised over the choice of actor Christopher Lee as the protagonist depicting Muhammad Ali Jinnah and inclusion of Indian Shashi Kapoor as archangel Gabriel in the cast combined with the experimental nature of the script. Imran Aslam, editor of The News International, said the author wrote the script in a "haze of hashish". By 1999, a surge of new films began releasing. Haathi Meray Saathi produced and distributed by Eveready Pictures celebrated its Golden Jubilee bringing audience back to the cinema for 66 weeks. Other hits were Syed Noor's 1995 film Jeeva, Saeed Rizvi's Sarkata Insaan and his 1997 film Tilismih Jazira. 1998 saw the release of Noor's Choorian, a Punjabi film that grossed Rs180 million rupees. In 1999, a Russian-Pakistani joint venture was produced and Samina Peerzada's Inteha. Other notable productions of the late 90s included Deewane Tere Pyar Ke, Mujhe Chand Chahiye, Sangam, Tere Pyar Mein, and Ghar Kab Aao Gay, which attempted to get away from formulaic and violent story lines. It was predicted that Pakistani cinema would have a revival. However, the public did not respond and low attendance at cinemas were recorded as the lower middle class shunned these films. The industry was pronounced dead by the start of the new millennium. By the early 2000s "an industry that once produced an average of 80 films annually was now struggling to even churn out more than two films a year". Partial successes were recorded with Larki Panjaban and Javed Sheikh's Yeh Dil Aap Ka Huwa grossing over Rs200 million rupees. Revival and resurgence (2003–2011) By 2003, young filmmakers in Karachi began experimenting with film and released low budget films to demonstrate that high quality content could be produced in Pakistan using limited resources. Cinema houses were declining in all major cities and a revival of cinema was being echoed throughout the media. With privatization of television stations in full swing, a new channel Filmazia began airing old Pakistani films as well as newer low budget productions. During this period Mahesh Bhatt, a celebrated Indian director, visited Pakistan looking for talent - particularly singers who could lend their voices to his upcoming films in India. His visit to Pakistan was to coincide with the third Kara Film Festival where he screened his film Paap in Karachi. Bhatt would later hire Atif Aslam for the soundtrack of his film Zeher and Pakistani actress Meera to play a lead-role in one of his films. By 2005, a gradual shift had begun whereby Karachi was replacing Lahore as the Urdu film hub of the country. Before 2005, Lahore was a film hub for both Punjabi and Urdu films. Many film makers, producers, directors shifted to Karachi to avail new opportunities. In August 2007, Shoaib Mansoor directed and released Khuda Ke Liye - it became a surprise instant success at the box office and brought the middle class back to the cinemas due to its controversial theme of addressing Pakistan's social problems. The film was also released internationally, including India, where it became the first Pakistani film released there after four decades. The release of Khuda Kay Liye is seen by many as the revival of cinema in Pakistan and the cementing of Karachi as the Pakistani film and showbiz capital. Despite optimism of a solid revival, progress continued to be slow. Alongside Geo Films, the "Pakistan New Cinema Movement" was launched in 2009 with around 1400 members which facilitated networking to stimulate newer film productions. Several films were released after Khuda Kay Liye which saw limited success including Shaan Shahid's directorial project Chup, Syed Noor's Price of Honor, Iqbal Kashmiri's Devdas, Son of Pakistan, Syed Faisal Bukhari's Saltanat, Reema Khan's Love Mein Ghum., 'Bhai Log' and Mehreen Jabbar's Ramchand Pakistani. However it was Shoaib Mansoor to the rescue again with his 2011 film Bol which broke box office records in Pakistan. New wave (2011–present) Shoaib Mansoor's Bol seemed to have officially "revived" the cinema of Pakistan. 2013 brought with it seven Pakistani films that were theatrically released in Pakistan, and led commentators to ponder whether it was time to announce the heralding of a 'new wave' of Pakistani cinema. Since 2011 from the digital scene two films have stood out with box office success as highest grossing Pakistani films; Waar followed by Main Hoon Shahid Afridi. Shoaib Mansoor's Khuda Kay Liye (2007) and Bol (2011) seemed to have ushered in the revival of Pakistani cinema. By 2013, several Pakistani films were theatrically released - the first time in over a decade. It led commentators to speculate whether it was time to announce the heralding of a 'new wave' of Pakistani cinema. 2013 proved to be a great year for Pakistani cinema. In March, Siyaah (meaning Pitch black) was the first horror thriller film to be released in Pakistan in over 20 years. Directed by Azfar Jafri and written by Osman Khalid Butt, the film starred Hareem Farooq, Qazi Jabbar, Mahnoor Usman and Ahmed Ali Akbar. The film was about a dissociative identity disorder patient who uses black magic against unsuspecting relatives. The film collected over ₨2.65 crore (US$260,000) at the box office. The following month Chambaili, an Urdu-language political thriller film directed by Ismail Jilani, was released starring Salmaan Peerzada, Khalid Ahmed, Mohammed Ehteshamuddin, Maira Khan, Shafqat Cheema and Ghulam Mohiuddin also made a special appearance. The film was a political drama exploring the subject of political corruption in Pakistan. Since the flower 'Chambaili' (lily flower) is the national flower of Pakistan, the film-makers' intentions were to encourage patriotism and nationalism in Pakistan. The film made at the box office. Waar (; , meaning "The Strike") was the winner of 2013. The action-thriller film directed by Bilal Lashari and written and produced by Hassan Rana featured Shaan Shahid, Meesha Shafi, Ali Azmat, Shamoon Abbasi, Ayesha Khan and Kamran Lashari. At the time of its release, it became the highest-grossing Pakistani film ever. This was broken by 2015 release of Jawani Phir Nahi Ani. The film depicts events surrounding the war on terror in Pakistan, including the attack on a Police Academy in Lahore in 2009. Several other films were also released between April and October including Ishq Khuda directed by Shahzad Rafique, Josh: Independence Through Unity directed by Iram Parveen Bilal, Main Hoon Shahid Afridi directed by Syed Ali Raza Usama, Zinda Bhaag by Meenu Gaur and Seedlings by Mansoor Mujahid. Main Hoon Shahid Afridi was an action-drama film directed by Syed Ali Raza Usama and produced by Humayun Saeed and Shahzad Nasib. The film starred Humayun Saeed, Javed Shaikh and Noman Habib in the lead roles. Nadeem Baig, Shafqat Cheema, Ismail Tara, Ainy Jaffri, Hamza Ali Abbasi and Shehzad Sheikh also played important roles in the film, whilst Shahid Afridi and Ayesha Omar made special appearances. The film earned in its first week of release. However, as some commentators cautioned, declaring a film a 'hit' or a 'flop' is determined by the relationship of the budget spent and box office returns of a film and therefore several of the top-grossing films of Pakistan were technically not a 'hit'. Nonetheless, the lack of box office returns of a Pakistani film has less to do with the film itself but more to do with the severely limited number of screens in Pakistan. Zinda Bhaag (Run For Your Life) has been critically acclaimed with reviewers calling it 'the best film to have come out of modern-day Pakistani cinema' and a "new metaphor for Pakistani cinema" that "bode(d) well for the possibility of noteworthy Pakistani imports in years to come". Zinda Bhaag went on to be Pakistan's official submission to the Oscars, the first after a gap of fifty years but did not make the final shortlist nominees. The resurgence of new Pakistani film productions centres around the use of digital equipment and makes use of cheaper distribution with DCP compliant cinemas which started to convert around 2011, increasing rapidly to 2014 with around 30 cinemas nationwide. 2014 proved to be an equally great year, with Na Maloom Afraad (Unidentified Persons) taking the 2014 box office. The Pakistani comedy thriller film was co-written and directed by Nabeel Qureshi as his directorial debut. The film starred Javed Sheikh, Fahad Mustafa, Mohsin Abbas Haider with supporting cast of Urwa Hocane, Kubra Khan and Salman Shahid. The story follows Shakeel (Sheikh), Farhaan (Mustafa) and Moon (Haider), three poor struggling individuals who chase every possible means of becoming rich, all getting into trouble as they struggle to fulfill their desires and ambitions through questionably moral ways. Other films released in 2014 included Tamanna directed by Steven Moore, Sultanat directed by Syed Faisal Bukhari, Dukhtar directed by Afia Nathaniel, and O21 directed by Jami. 2015 picked off from the momentum of 2014 and 2013. Jalaibee (meaning twist) was a caper action thriller film directed and written by Yasir Jaswal, produced by Eman Syed. Jalaibee was a joint production of ARY Films and Redrum Films in association with Sermad Films and Jaswal Films. The film starred prominent TV actors Danish Taimoor and Ali Safina in lead roles along with Adnan Jaffar, Sajid Hasan, Uzair Jaswal, Wiqar Ali Khan, Sabeeka Imam and Zhalay Sarhadi. Jalaibee was the first Pakistani film to be shot with the Arri Alexa camera. and was about the intertwined stories of numerous characters who are all struggling with their problems, and who somehow connect on a unifying level. The film collected before its release as Malik Riaz had bought 10,000 tickets in advance. The film had a good number of public previews came out well on them collecting which is biggest preview collections ever in Pakistan. In total, the film collected at domestic box office and around overseas, taking lifetime gross to at the end of April. In May, Pakistan's first 3D computer animated adventure film was released. 3 Bahadur () was produced and directed by Sharmeen Obaid Chinoy. It was the first instalment in the franchise 3 Bahadur (film series) and was co-produced by Waadi Animations (a joint-venture of SOC films) and ARY Films. 3 Bahadur became Pakistan's first computer-animated feature-length film. The film focuses on three eleven-year-old friends, who rise from the unlikeliest of places to save their community from the evils that plague it. The film is set in a fictional town called Roshan Basti (town of light). Equipped with courage and super powers, they battle against the odds and stand up to injustice to restore peace and harmony in their once thriving community and live a very happy life. The film was theatrically released ARY Films. It became the highest-grossing animated film at the local box office breaking the previous record of Rio 2. It grossed after 50 days of successful run in cinemas and became 7th highest-grossing film in Pakistani cinema history. Between July and September, a number of films were released beginning with Bin Roye (Without Crying). The romantic drama film directed by Momina Duraid and Shahzad Kashmiri starred Mahira Khan, Humayun Saeed, Armeena Khan, Zeba Bakhtiar, and Javed Sheikh. One of the movie's songs is directed by Haissam Hussain. The film was based on the original novel Bin Roye Ansoo by Farhat Ishtiaq and released worldwide on 18 July 18, 2015, the day of Eid-ul-Fitr. Bin Roye was praised by the critics. It broke all records on international markets becoming one of the highest grossing Pakistani films. The film Bin Roye was later adapted into a television series with the same name, that premiered on Hum TV on October 2, 2016. Its success was followed by Jawani Phir Nahi Ani which became the highest-grossing film of 2015 and breaking all box office records on domestic markets. The year saw some of the most critical acclaimed Pakistani films including Moor and Manto. Thes film raised the standards for Pakistani films. 2016 continued the momentum of new age Pakistani cinema. Ho Mann Jahaan was released on 1 January starring Adeel Hussain, Mahira Khan, Sheheryar Munawar, and Sonya Jehan, along with veteran Bushra Ansari. The film opened to a highly successful box office weekend and went on to run for several weeks, making it the third-highest-grossing film of 2016, earning Rs.22.50 crores in total. Janaan and Actor In Law both opened on Eid weekend, becoming the highest and second-highest-grossing films of 2016, respectively, earning Rs.24 crores and Rs.17.5 crores at the local box office and Rs.30 crores at the international box office. Cinema by language Film festivals Kara Film Festival LUMS International Film Festival (FiLUMS) Pakistan Film Festival - New York Pakistan International Film Festival Lahore Eurasia Film Festival – University of Lahore Awards Nigar Awards PTV Awards Lux Style Awards ARY Film Awards Pakistan Media Awards Hum Awards Pakistan International Screen Awards IPPA Awards (International Pakistan Prestige Awards) See also List of cinema of the world Lists of Pakistani films List of highest-grossing Pakistani films List of Pakistani male actors List of Pakistani actresses Shahnoor Studios – One of the oldest film studios in Lahore References Further reading Cultural history of Pakistan
5181858	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinema%20of%20Sri%20Lanka	Cinema of Sri Lanka	Sri Lankan cinema encompasses the Sri Lankan film industry. It is a fledgling industry that has struggled to find a footing since its inauguration in 1947 with Kadawunu Poronduwa produced by S. M. Nayagam of Chitra Kala Movietone. Sri Lankan films are usually made in Sinhala and Tamil languages, the dominant languages of the country. Cinema of Sri Lanka is also referred to as Follywood as many famous Sri Lankan actors had surnames starting with an "F." In the first nine years, most films were made in neighboring Southern India and closely followed the conventions of Indian cinema. Studio shooting was the norm, with Indian style sets erected in film studios. It is widely believed that Rekava, made in 1956 by pioneer director Lester James Peries, was the first Sinhala film to be shot completely out of studio, however, it was the film "Gambada Sundari", starring Kingsley Jayasekera and Sheela Peiris in 1950, which was the first film shot outside studios instead. It was also the first Sri Lankan film where, like in "Rekava", the dialog was recorded on the spot. This was because the film was shot on 16mm, using an Auricon sound-on-film camera which recorded the sound on the 16mm film optically, unlike in the case of where the sound was recorded on a Kinevox 35mm magnetic recorder. The film was later 'blown-up' to 35mm and was screened in Colombo in 1950. Though "Rekava" was acclaimed by local and international critics, the film failed to find an audience in the country and was a box office failure. Films continued to follow formulaic storylines borrowed from India up through the early 1960s despite such efforts as Sandesaya and Kurulu Bedda. In 1964, Lester James Peries again contributed to the development of Sri Lankan cinema with Gamperaliya which was the first Sinhala film to feature no songs and like Rekava shot completely outside the studio. It garnered massive praise for portraying Sinhalese culture in a realistic manner and was hailed by critics and audiences alike. The producer Anton Wicremasinghe was awarded the Silver Peacock at the New Delhi International Film Festival for Gamperaliya. Following this breakthrough, several artistic Sinhala films were made in the late-1960s including Sath Samudura by professor Siri Gunasinghe, supported by cinematography by Dr.D.B. Nihalsinghe. During the 1970s several talents came to the forefront while commercial cinema continued to lift storylines and plots from Indian films. These include Dr. D.B. Nihalsingha with "Weilkatara"- Sri Lanka's first film in Cinemascope ratio wide screen in 1972; Vasantha Obeysekera who followed up his well-received debut Ves Gatho with a slew of successful films culminating with Palangetiyo in 1979. Another major director who stepped forward during this time is Dharmasena Pathiraja who examined the tensions of city youth in such works as Bambaru Awith and Ahas Gauwa. Artist and poet Mahagama Sekera's sole film Thun Man Handiya is also an important film in Sri Lankan cinema released in 1970. Sumitra Peries, the wife of Lester James Peries, also struck out during the 1970s with work that looked at the conflicting roles of women in society. Her work include Gehenu Lamai and Ganga Addara. Over the next few decades, artists such as Tissa Abeysekara, Chandran Rutnam, Dr. D.B. Nihalsingha, Udayakantha Warnasooriya, H.D.Premaratne, Ashoka Handagama, Prasanna Vithanage and Vimukthi Jayasundara have attempted to breathe new life into the industry. Nihalsingha was an accomplished cinematographer as well as an editor: so his films has an input which was special and brought a viewpoint to all his films, most of which focused on the exploited women. Vithanage's film Purahanda Kaluwara is widely considered one of the best movies made in Sri Lanka as is Jayasundara's Sulanga Enu Pinisa which won the coveted Camera d'Or for best first film at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival. During the Sri Lankan Civil War, several films began to tackle gritty subjects such as family relationships, abortion, and results of the conflict between the military and Tamil Tigers in the north. Director Asoka Handagama especially has drawn criticism for pursuing such material in his work. In the recent years high budget films like Aloko Udapadi, Aba (film) and Maharaja Gemunu based on Sinhalese epic historical stories gain huge success. Furthermore, following the drastic impact on the film industry by the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, Adaraneeya Prarthana has emerged as one of the highest grossing films of 2022. History A 1997 government committee identified the following 13 films as the best of the first 50 years of Sri Lankan cinema: Early development (1901–1947) 1901 marked the introduction of film to Sri Lanka (then called Ceylon) when a film was shown for the first time in the country at a private screening for the British governor West Ridgeway and prisoners of the Second Boer War. It was a short film that documented the British victory in the Boer War, the burial of Queen Victoria and the coronation of Edward VII. More English screenings followed and attracted British settlers and Anglicized Sinhalese. Cinema in Sri Lanka became a public affair due to the efforts of Warwick Major, an Englishman who developed "bioscope" showings. These were films screened out in open areas and makeshift tents. The first permanent theaters were built by Madan Theaters in 1903. The company showed Indian films and achieved success, prompting the development of theaters by the rival Olympia. In 1925 Rajakeeya Wickremaya (English:Royal Adventure) became the first film to be made in Sri Lanka. Dr. N.M. Perera played the lead in the film which was shown in India and Singapore. However, this film reels got burnt before they were shown in Sri Lanka. In 1933 the film Paliganeema was screened in Colombo. During the 1920s and 1930s films with American stars like Charlie Chaplin, Greta Garbo, John Barrymore, Rudolph Valentino, and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. were popular in Sri Lanka. The Sheik and The Thief of Bagdad were especially popular. in 1932, the first sound film to be screened was shown at the Regal Cinema, titled "The Dream." By the 1930s Indian films started to surpass English films in popularity. Bilwa Mangal set an early record for Sri Lankan box office earning. The beginnings of cinema's spread was seen when the Indian Madan circuit established Elphinstone cinema in Colombo as a part of his extensive cinema chain in Asia. Empire cinema, which became the longest functioning cinema in Sri Lanka was established in 1915 and continued to function till 2003 when it was demolished to make way for a commercial building in Colombo. Inauguration (1947) South Indian producer S. M. Nayagam played an important role in the development of the first Sri Lankan film. In 1945, Nayagam founded a company named Chitrakala Movietone and constructed a studio in Madurai, India for the purpose of making a Sinhalese film. After considering several options, he decided to build the film around the historical love story of Saliya and Asokamala and held a contest to find a suitable screenplay; the winner was budding artist Shanthi Kumar. Due to disagreements however, this project fell through and Nayagam broke a deal with dramatist B. A. W. Jayamanne to film his popular play Kadawunu Poronduwa. Kumar determined to film his script left Nayagam's company and convinced the Ceylon Theaters group to fund his film. Faced with a more daunting task of putting together the film from scratch, the Ashokamala project began filming in Coimbatore about two months after the production of Kadawunu Poronduwa had initiated. Naygam's film would win out screening at the Mylan Theater on January 21, 1947. Ashokamala was screened three months later in April 1947 at the Elphinstone Theater. Both films were popular with audiences but derided by critics who found them to be derivative of South Indian cinema. Primitive stage (1947–1955) Following the success of Kadawunu Poronduwa, B. A. W. Jayamanne produced a string of popular movies based on his plays. These were Peralena Iranama, Kapati Arakshakaya, Weradunu Kurumanama (1948), Hadisi Vinischaya (1950, first film directed by Jayamanne; he handled the post on all his subsequent films), Sangavunu Pilithura (1951), Umathu Wishwasaya (1952), Kele Handa (1953), Iranganie (1954), Mathabedaya (1954), Daiva Wipakaya (1956), Wanaliya (1958), Hadisi Vivahaya (1959), Kawata Andare (1960), Jeewithe Pujawa (1961), Mangalika (1963) and Magul Poruwa (1967; completed after his death by another director). Jayamanne mostly adhered to a formula derived from South Indian cinema and didn't contribute to the development of artistic film. Most of his films featured the couple Rukmani Devi and Eddie Jayamanne (though never as lovers on screen) which allowed them to become the first stars of Sri Lankan cinema. Following the dawn of independence, Sri Lanka instituted restrictions on travel to and from India causing Nayagam to move his business into the island to cut costs. He purchased land outside of Kandana and built the Sri Murugan Navakala studios (later known as the S. P. M. studios) which would for a time be the most developed studio in the country. His first production was Banda Nagarayata Pamine (1952) which was successful among local audiences. It was the first locally produced Sinhalese film though in technique it still remained South Indian. Nayagam followed the film with Prema Tharangaya (1953) and Ahankara Sthree (1954). Due to the low quality of the studio (Nayagam resisted buying high tech equipment), these films failed to match the standards of Bollywood imports. They were also highly formulaic based extensively on South Indian cinema (the technicians were all from India) featuring a combination of exaggerated melodrama, lowbrow comedy, scuffles and dance numbers. Of the few filmmakers interested in pursuing a truly indigenous art form in these early years, Sirisena Wimalaweera was the most prominent. In his work, Wimalaweera researched Sri Lankan history when depicting historical characters like King Asoka, who oversaw the introduction of Buddhism to the island and Saradiel, a Robin Hood-like character. K. Gunaratnam was another major producer in this period breaking into the scene with the technically skilled Sujatha made at the state of the art Modern Theaters studio in Salem, India. It was highly successful and influenced popular cinema over the following decade. It was revolutionary in its high production values and incorporation of North Indian cinema into the accepted South Indian model. Still, it failed to capture the true nature of Sinhalese life or create anything uniquely Sri Lankan. Rekava (1956) In 1956 documentary filmmaker Lester James Peries and his fellow film technicians William Blake and Titus Thotawatte broke away from the Government Film Unit to produce what they hoped would be a truly Sinhalese film that would revolutionize Sri Lankan cinema. In all facets of the creation of Rekava, the trio strayed from tradition shooting completely outside of the studio, creating an original story with no basis in literary or historical material and utilizing a mostly inexperienced cast (with a few exceptions i.e. D. R. Nanayakkara). The story paid great attention to Sinhalese village life giving equal time to marriage traditions, village customs and folk beliefs in a non obstructive documentary-esque manner. The main plot revolved around a young boy named Sena who becomes touted as a miracle worker after he is said to cure the blindness of his friend Anula. Though some viewed the plot as a bit naive due to the filmmakers being from the city and the attribution of superstition belief in an exaggerated manner to village folk, it was a critical success and was shown at the Cannes International Film Festival drawing praise from foreign critics. It is widely considered in Sri Lanka to be the birth of true Sinhalese cinema. Audiences at the time were unresponsive however and the film was a box office failure. They were unaccustomed to the documentary-like nature of the film and its avoidance of common melodramatic features common in cinema of the time. The lack of a major romantic plot, for example, was a grievance to some. Following in the path of Rekava (1957–1963) Popular film continued in the Indian mould. There was great interest in the cinema. The Sinhalese daily, "Lankadipa" launched the first Film Festival where "Deepasika" awards were given out. Though Rekava failed to influence popular cinema which continued to imitate Indian cinema, it did draw out the efforts of some small independent filmmakers who coalesced into units. The most important group in this period, Kurulu Rana, was led by screenwriter P. K. D. Seneviratne, producer John Amaratunga and actress Punya Heendeniya. Amaratunga in his pursuit to follow up Rekava came across Seneviratne's radio drama Kurulubedde and enlisted him to adapt it into a film. Though it maintained certain formulaic elements, the film was free of overt Indian influence and contained various elements of Sinhalese culture. Actress Punya Heendeniya broke ground in her role portraying a truly Sinhalese character in contrast with the female roles of popular films modeled after Indian actresses. It was a critical success within Sri Lanka and was praised for its realistic portrayal of Sinhalese village life. The group followed up with the thematically similar Sikuru Tharuwa in 1963. At this time, the Government Film Unit productions were making their mark, particularly, Pragnasoma Hettiarchi's "Makers, Material and Motiffs" which won the Gold Medal at Venice International Film Festival in 1952. Hettiarchi was to repeat this feat again in 1972 with "Centenary of Ceylon Tea". Gamperaliya (1963) In 1963, Lester James Peries with the help of producer Anton Wickremasinghe made and released Gamperaliya based on a novel by critically acclaimed writer Martin Wickramasinghe. Starring Punya Heendeniya, Henry Jayasena and Gamini Fonseka. It was a turning point in Sri Lankan cinema doing away with all formulaic elements (songs, dance, comic relief and fights) present in popular cinema and achieving commercial success. It proved the viability of artistic cinema in the country and gave Sri Lankan cinema a before absent sense of prestige when Producer Anton Wicremasinghe was awarded the Golden Peacock Award and the Critics' Prize at the Third International Film Festival held in New Delhi and the Golden Head of Palanque at the Eighth World Review of Film Festivals held in Acapulco, Mexico. Artistic boom (1964–1970) The success of Gamperaliya changed the course of Sri Lankan cinema significantly. Following its release, many films attempted to adapt the realistic style of the film and took up location shooting previously shunned. Seneviratne again emerged in this period with a script about village life titled Parasathu Mal. This time he had the support of the wealthy producer Chitra Balasooriya who would not fall prey to financial difficulties encountered by Amaratunga. Balasooriya was deeply interested in creating an artistic film in the vein of Gamperaliya and enlisted Lester's wife Sumithra Peries as technical director and gave the budding actor Gamini Fonseka a chance to direct. Fonseka had served in a similar capacity on Rekawa. Also among the crew was cameraman Sumitta Amarsinghe who had trained with the GFU and was adept at outdoor shooting. The film would be a critical and popular success. Serendib Productions responded to the artistic mood in the air in 1965 with Saravita starring a comedic actor, Joe Abeywickrema, for the first time in Sri Lankan cinema. It dealt with slum life and the criminal element within it and was awarded most of the national awards that year for film. Titus Thotawatte who had broken away from Lester James Peries after Sandesaya directed Chandiya the same year avoiding overt crudities prevalent in the action genre made within the country. G. D. L. Perera with his Kala Pela Society headed in a radically different way in this period dealing with rural life with his first film "Sama". Siri Gunasinghe's Sath Samudura released in 1966 was the biggest critical success in the wake of Gamperaliya. The film was praised for its realistic portrayal of a fishing community and acting from a cast that included Denawaka Hamine, Edmund Wijesinghe and Cyril Wickremage. Also drawing acclaim were Gunasinghe's novel film techniques such as his extensive use of close-ups. Working close with Gunasinghe on the script and the direction was Vasantha Obeysekera. The editing and photography was handled by D. B. Nihalsinghe. Both would go on to be major filmmakers on their own. GDL Perera's "Sama" was followed by a film on contemporary city settings in Dahasak Sithuvili. GDL joined up with the D.B. Nihalsingha's famously fluid hand-held camera work of the "Sath Samudura" fame, utilizing subjective camera and a sepiatone filter for the first time in Sri Lankan cinema. Perera and his group had first came to fame with Saama, a stylized but faithful observance of village life. Other major films of this period include the debut directorial efforts of Obeysekera (Vesgatho) and Nihalsinghe landmark film, (Welikathara). "Welikathara" was Tissa Abeysekara's first screenplay- he was billed as "Additional Dialolgue Writer" up to that time. Nihalsingha's recognition of Tissa Abeysekara's superlative writings skills launched him on a career as the foremost screenplay writer in Sri Lanka. "Welikathara" was to become one of the 10 top films of Sri Lankan cinema. Nihalsingha's refreshingly fluid camera work was noted by this time. He combined the facets of Direction, Cinematography and Editing in "Welikathara" to create an epic in CinemaScope for the first time in Sri Lanka."Welikatara" was to become one of the "10 Best" films of Sri Lanka. An independent student production overseen by Ranjith Lal (Nim Wallala), songwriter Mahagama Sekera's autobiographical effort (Tun Man Handiya), the maiden production of Piyasiri Gunaratne (Mokade Une) and Sugathapala Senerath Yapa's Hanthane Kathawa which introduced the to-be-matinee-idol Vijaya Kumaratunga. Apart from that, the movie Soorayangeth Sooraya(English Title:-The River of Love) is a landmark film for the Sri Lankan(Helawood) cinema where a trend of Thriller, Action and Musical films emerged. These commercial movies, although foreign transliterations, discuss the problems of poverty, blind law, injustice & love. Hence, critics are in a zoom lens against these movies. Government-instituted development and individual achievement (1971–1979); unprecedented surge in yearly admissions In 1971, a socialist government which sought to overcome the dominance of screen time in Sri Lanka by Tamil and Hindi films came to power in the country. Foreign film domination had resulted in domestically produced films being relegated to 20% of the screen time while foreign films occupied 80% (60% Tamil, 10% Hindi, 10% English). The government which won power had promised to redress this imbalance. It established the State Film Corporation by Act no 47 of 1971, charged with the promotion of national film and giving and making available a wide variety of films to the public. The State Film Corporation (SFC) established a unique credit scheme for film production. Loans were given on the basis of a script evaluation and those taking part with credit given on the collateral of the negatives. This was at a time when bank lending was very conventional and such a 'collateral' was unheard of in the banking industry. The directors and main technicians had to have prior training to obtain loans via a system of registration. Prior to these measures, films produced domestically were transliterations of Tamil and Hindi films, to the extent that there was no credit for screenplay. The only credit was for dialogues as the "screenplay" was a transliterations of the Hindi or Tamil original. The credit scheme ensured original screen writing for the first time and stories which were copies of Hindi and Tamil were not entitled to receive loans. Thus a professional film production industry was established. The SFC instituted a film distribution system through which all films produced in the country were ensured exhibition according to system of precedence. Quality control of the cinemas was established by a system of inspection and checks on equipment. The cost of imported film was reduced by 75% because of the monopoly buying by the SFC: the same number of Tamil films continued, albeit at greatly reduced prices. The result of the measures was that the film admissions which were 30 million in 1972 grew to 74.4 million by 1979. The domestic film screen time share grew from 20% to 58%. The number of cinemas grew to 365 by 1978 – the highest number. By 2010, this number was down to 147. This was the best evidence that the system prior to the SFC was not market-oriented and that the demand was suppressed. It required the SFC to cater to the suppressed and pent-up demand, resulting in an unprecedented surge in yearly admissions within seven years. After 1979, the Chairman of the SFC, Anton Wicremesinghe, reversed all the measures of the SFC, giving unlimited loans to "anyone to direct films". Some hundreds of films were made by those who had no knowledge of film making. The result was that so many were produced that there was a waiting list of films awaiting release to the cinemas of 5 years, by 1982. The audiences responded to shoddy films by staying away. Admissions began declining alarmingly. Yearly admissions, which peaked in 1979 at 79.4 million, are now (2009) down to a mere 7.2 million admissions. The SFC, a profitable institution till that time, began sliding into bankruptcy and had to be sustained by infusions of funds from the government. Titus Thotawatte and Lester James Peries were the most prominent artists during this period making artistic films. Thotawatte directed such films as Hara Lakshe, Sihasuna, Sagarika and Mangala which united technical skill with themes that appealed to mainstream audiences. Lester James Peries was more successful in his work in this period, creating some of his most important work despite the restrictions instituted by the government. Peries' Nidhanaya, released in 1972, is considered his masterpiece and was adjusted the best Sri Lankan film of the first 50 years in 1997 by a government board. It was praised for its skillful direction by Peries' and the inspired acting by Gamini and Malini Fonseka. It was another international success for Peries' winning the Silver Lion of St. Mark award at the Venice International Film Festival and being selected one of the outstanding films of the year, receiving a Diploma, at the London Film Festival. His subsequent works of the period were also critical successes (Desa Nisa and Madol Duwa). Dharmasena Pathiraja, who had worked on Yapa's Hanthane Kathawa, emerged with his debut directorial effort, Ahas Gauwa, in 1974. It served to capture the spirit of the dissolute urban youth and provided a major artistic venture for actors like Cyril Wickremage to prosper in. Obeysekera pursued a similar theme in his work Valmathvuvo. Beginning of decline (1979–1983) With the 1977 elections a more capitalist party came to power and some of the restrictions instilled earlier were removed. But this removal only in respect of production, which resulted in a flood of shoddily made films under the unrestricted credit given by Anton Wicremasinghe to anyone. Some 100 films were waiting for release as cinemas, in a curious contradiction, was forced to show each and every film so made. As a result, the peak film attendance of 74.4 admissions of 1979, began to drop and has been declining uncontrollably till now. It is popularly held that television was the cause of this decline. But Sri Lanka television broadcaster Rupavahini Corporation commenced transmission only in 1982, by which time island-wide cinema attendance had dropped to 51 million, from the peak of 74.4 million of 1979. The Presidential Committee to Investigate the Film Industry in 1985 established that there was a major drop in attendance for Tamil films in 1980. Since television went islandwide only in 1983, this drop in film admission was due not to television but to new Tamil films not being screened. Sumitra Peries, Lester James Peries' wife, made her directorial debut with Gehenu Lamai in 1978. It examined the effects of societal constraints on a rural girl and secured some critical applause in addition to box office success being selected as an outstanding film of the year to be presented at the London Film Festival and receiving the Jury Award at the Carthage International Film Festival. In her first film appearance, Vasantha Chathurani was praised for her restrained portrayal of the lead role. Peries' next film Ganga Addara (1980) captured the imagination of Sri Lankan audiences becoming a huge box office hit and breaking earning records in the country. Critics were also impressed with the film as it went on to capture many of the national awards given to film in the country and was awarded a diploma at the South Asian Film Festival. Pathiraja was most active in this period directing Eya Dan Loku Lamayek (1977), Bambaru Awith (1978), Ponmani and Soldadu Unnahe (1981). Bambaru Awith is widely held to be his pivotal work dealing with social tensions between fishing folk and city youth. Pathiraja's film Ponmani was made in Tamil intending to contribute to the development of cinema featuring that language in the country. Though well made, the film was ignored by Tamil audiences distrustful of the Sinhalese director. Soldadu Unnahe followed the dreary lives of an old soldier, a prostitute, an alcoholic and a thief intending to cast light on their plight. Pathiraja went into hiatus following the making of the film. Obeysekera made his most highly regarded film Palengetiyo in 1979. It dealt with the difficulties of urban youth. His next film Dadayama (1983) was also well received. The star of Palengetiyo, Dharmasiri Bandaranayake broke out as a director with his highly stylized debut Hansa Vilak in 1980. Decline (1983–1990) With the flooding of films directed by "anyone" under the National Film Corporation Chairman Anton Wicremesighe during which hundreds of films were produced creating a 5-year line of films waiting for release, being no match for the increasing rise of television coupled with the beginning of a civil war, film earnings began to drop as Sri Lankans took to staying at home instead of frequenting the theater. The significant films of the era include Sumitra Peries' Sagara Jalaya Madi Heduwa Oba Sanda, Tissa Abeysekara's Viragaya (1988) and D. B. Nihalsinghe's Ridi Nimnaya (1983), and Producer Vijaya Ramanayake's Maldeniye Simiyon (1986). Maldeniye Simion" won the Silver Peacock for Anoja Weerasinghe at the 11th New Delhi International Film Festival in 1987. Nihalsinghe infused his films with his skillful combination of technical excellence with artistry. Keli Madala (1991) was a creative success winning no less than 14 national film awards- perhaps the highest number ever won by one film to date. Rise of independent filmmakers (1990–2010s) One of the most important filmmakers of Sri Lankan cinema, Prasanna Vithanage directed his first feature film Sisila Gini Ganee in 1992 and his second Anantha Rathriya in 1995. The latter was a large critical hit being shown at several international festival and securing several awards. Vithanage's followed the work two years later with Pawuru Walalu a mature drama that featured a performance by former star Nita Fernando after a long hiatus. It was also lauded by critics. His final feature of the decade was Purahanda Kaluwara that examined how the Sri Lankan civil war affects families of soldiers. Featuring a contemplative performance by Joe Abeywickrema in the main role, the film is considered Vithanage's finest work. Chandran Rutnam is another award-winning film maker directed and edited the film The Road from Elephant Pass, which was a Finalist Award Winner at the New York International Television and Film Awards in 2011 and A Common Man with Academy Award Winner Sir Ben Kingsley and Ben Cross. The film was nominated for the four main awards at the Madrid International Film Festival in 2013. The film won the Best Picture, Best Director and the Best Actor Awards in that year. Modern era (2000-present) Director Vimukthi Jayasundara became the first Sri Lankan to ever win the prestigious Caméra d'Or award for Best First Film at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival for his film Sulanga Enu Pinisa. Controversial filmmaker Asoka Handagama's films are considered by many prestigious names in the Sri Lankan film world to be the best films of honest response to the civil war. Sanda Dadayama Chanda Kinnarie Me mage sandai Tani tatuwen piyabanna Aksharaya Vidu Ini Awan Those films won awards at many international film festivals. He has faced many censorship problems with his creation; his film Aksharaya was banned by the Sri Lankan government. Recent releases include: Sooriya Arana, Aadaraneeya Wassaanaya, Samanala thatu, Aloko Udapadi, Hiripoda wessa, have attracted Sri Lankans to cinemas. Sooriya Arana was replaced by Jackson Anthony's Aba (film) as the highest-grossing film in Sri Lankan cinema history, generating Rs.185 million at the box office. Aba, also became the most expensive film produced in Sri Lanka costing over 60 million Rupees to produce as well as being the first Sri Lankan film to be finished via Digital Intermediate technology. Several other countries such as China, Italy and Australia have shown interest in screening this film after its trailer was released. Among them China has shown special interest by considering dubbing it in Chinese. Aba was released on 8 August 2008. In 2009 Prasanna Vithanage's Akasa Kusum (Flowers in the Sky) ran at 22 screens to packed audiences for over 70 days. The film which premiered at the Pusan International Film Festival in late 2008 also won several awards and was invited to numerous international film festivals. While Sri Lankan films were winning international awards, and while Aba (film) attracted an unprecedented Rs.185 million in income and over 1 million admissions sold, in yearly admissions continued to fall without let. By 2009 it had dwindled to a mere trickle of 7.2 million attendances a year. The number of cinemas which was 365 in 1979 had fallen to a mere 147. By end of 2010, the yearly cinema attendance had fallen to 5.5 million, the lowest in the history of Sri Lankan cinema. A hapless National Film Corporation was seen to be lost, frozen in inaction while the 4 private sector distributors who had taken over the reins to run the film industry since 2001, were waiting for the audience to fall into their laps. Since privatization of film distribution in 2001 among 4 "distributors" without calling for any bids, as is customary when a government gives up a monopoly, by the Chandrika Bandaranayake government, 111 cinemas have closed by July 2010- an average of one per month, signifying a failure of that process. The number of domestically produced films screened for 2009 was 15 according to statistics released by the National Film Corporation. In the recent years several high budget films like Aloko Udapadi, Aba, Pathini, Maharaja Gemunu and Vijayaba Kollaya produced and gain huge success. Most of them are based on Sri Lankan epic historical stories gain huge success. In 2017 Dharmayuddhaya earned 22.4 SL crores (224 million) and became the highest-grossing film in Sri Lanka replacing Aba. Short-film culture In the context of Sri-Lankan cinema, this remembrance of the short film could easily be related to its history. Here, the short film has retained its status only as an exercise for the film-makers who rose to fame with the feature film. Dr.Lester James Peries, the realist film-maker, began his career, first, creating a short film titled “Soliloquy”. Another towering figure in country’s cinema, Dr. Dharmasena Pathiraja, also created a short film titled “Enemies” as his first cinematic experience. The State Film Corporation, which was established in the 1971, instituted a requirement for aspiring cinema-artists to make a short film prior to debut as a feature film-maker, and making them entitled to receive publicly funded production credit. However, the problem was not that one made a short film before his long-length film, but the abandonment of the short-film as cinematic-medium thereafter by Anton Wicremesinghe after 1979 by making public funds available to "anyone" with disastrous results. Young filmmaker Malaka Dewapriya was screened his ‘‘Life Circle’’ Short Film in the international competition in 2004, at the 10th International Student Film Festival in Tel Aviv, Israel. This was the first time a Sri Lankan student's film was chosen in an internationally recognized festival. And the selection was a big step to re-establish short film culture in Sri Lanka. The addition of annual short film festivals to the local cinematic calendar, like the Agenda 14 Short Film Festival conducted by Anoma Rajakaruna, continue to motivate and enable talented young filmmakers to engage in the tradition of short-film making. A number of these programs have acquired support from international sources, like the European Film Academy in the case of Agenda 14, and that a number of short films by emerging filmmakers like Rehan Muddanayake, Hiran Balasuriya and Prabuddha Dihkwaththa have had their short-films receive some international recognition as well. Director Ilango Ramanathan - widely known as Ilango Ram's debut short film 'Mouna Vizhiththuligal' (Silent Tears) in the year 2014 traveled to 27 international film festivals and secured 19 awards including best foreign language film, best director, best screenplay, best cinematography, best child artist to name a few. Silent Tears was also screened in Locarno Open Doors in the year 2017. More recently, the High School Junkies led by filmmaker Akash Sk have gained international recognition for their short film EIDETIC which became the first Sri Lankan film to be screened at the San Diego Comic-Con's International Film Festival. The film has played at various other festivals worldwide including Raindance Film Festival. Their consequent horror short film The Summoning became the second film to be screened at the same festival in 2019. There is a new resurgence in independent filmmaking with short films such as these being released on platforms such as YouTube. Leading actors The stars of the first Sinhalese film Kadavunu Poronduwa, Rukmani Devi and Eddie Jayamanne, were the first to achieve popularity across the country. They had gained a certain fame through their roles in the plays of the Minerva group which contributed to their emergence in the film industry. They continued to star in films through the 1950s and the early 1960s. In 1960, Gamini Fonseka emerged as a star in the historical film Sandesaya. Though the main role of the film was played by Ananda Jayaratne, Fonseka outshone the actor in his first major role. Fonseka had his next hit role in Ran Muthu Duwa where he found a popular co-star in actress Jeevarani Kurukalasooriya. Fonseka's other major films of the 1960s include Deewarayo, Adata Wadiya Heta Hondai and Chandiya. In 1969, Vijaya Kumaratunga emerged as a star with a lead role in Hanthane Kathawa. Over the next decade, he was the most popular leading actor next to Gamini Fonseka. In addition to foreign transliterated commercial films, he also acted in artistic films like Bambaru Awith, Eya Dan Loku Lamayek and Ganga Addara. His death in 1989 had a huge effect on popular cinema. Notable actors Notable filmmakers Asoka Handagama Boodee Keerthisena Chandran Rutnam Daevinda Kongahage D. B. Nihalsinghe Dharmasena Pathiraja Dinesh Priyasad Gamini Fonseka Indika Fernando Ilango Ramanathan Jackson Anthony Jayantha Chandrasiri Lester James Peries Mahagama Sekara Malaka Dewapriya Nalaka Vithanage Prasanna Jayakody Prasanna Vithanage Priyankara Vittanachchi Priyantha Colombage Roy de Silva Sanjeewa Pushpakumara Siri Gunasinghe Somaratne Dissanayake Sudesh Wasantha Pieris Sugath Samarakoon Sumitra Peries Sunil Ariyaratne Surange de Alwis Tissa Abeysekara Udayakantha Warnasuriya Vasantha Obeysekera Vimukthi Jayasundara Saman Weeraman Wishal Sajendra Award ceremonies Sarasaviya Awards Derana Film Awards Hiru Golden Film Award Presidential Film Awards SIGNIS Awards (Sri Lanka) Leading film score composers Veterans living and dead R. Muttusamy Sunil Santha Somadasa Alwitigala Mohomada Sali Premasiri Khemadasa Nimal Mendis W. D. Amaradeva Sarath Dasanayaka Somapala Rathnayaka Dr.Rohana Weerasinghe Gunadasa Kapuge Victor Rathnayaka Sarath De Alwis Lakshman Joseph de Saram Dilup Gabadamaudalige Nawarathna Gamage Harsha Makalanda New age composers Nadeeka Guruge Kasun Kalhara Dinesh Subasinghe Dharshana Ruwan Disanayaka Pradeep Rathnayaka Mahesh Denipitiya Ranga Dasanayaka Gayathree Khemadasa Ajith Kumarasiri Sanka Dineth Charitha Rakshitha Attalage Chitral Somapala Narendra Gunarathna See also List of Sri Lankan films Sri Lankan Tamil Cinema South Asian cinema References 23. Public Enterprise in Film Development- Success and Failure in Sri Lanka"; Trafford Publishing, Vancouver External links Sinhala Cinema Database - Official Website Sri Lankan Movie Database National Film Corporation of Sri Lanka - Official Website Sri Lankan film at the Internet Movie Database Sinhala Movies and Latest information about cinema Micro budget Film Made by Student film makers EAP Films And Theaters
5182005	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Observatory%20of%20Athens	National Observatory of Athens	The National Observatory of Athens (NOA; ) is a research institute in Athens, Greece. Founded in 1842, it is the oldest research foundation in Greece. The Observatory was the first scientific research institute built after Greece became independent in 1829, and one of the oldest research institutes in Southern Europe. It was built around the same period as the United States Naval Observatory. World-renowned Greek-Austrian astronomer Georgios Konstantinos Vouris lobbied to create the National Observatory of Athens in the newly founded state. He persuaded wealthy Greek-Austrian banker Georgios Sinas to pay for the new massive observatory. The Austrian-born Greek King found out the news and awarded Georgios Sinas's son the Order of the Redeemer. The King also selected the architects for the building under Georgios Konstantinos Vouris's supervision. He chose Eduard Schaubert and Theophil Hansen. The Athens observatory since its inception aided astronomers to conduct research in the field starting from Georgios Konstantinos Vouris's catalog for the complete determination of 1000 stars observed from Greece relative to the position of the Athens observatory. The second director Ioannis Papadakis used the facility to observe the Moons of Jupiter and Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt German-born Greek astronomer conducted countless observations and created a Moon map of the lunar surface from the Athens observatory. After Schmidt, Demetrios Kokkidis briefly directed the observatory and expanded the existing weather stations adding Corfu, Zakynthos, and Larissa. By the early 1900s, Astronomer Demetrios Eginitis observed the rare phenomenon known as Halley's Comet from the Athens observatory and wrote about it in his article entitled Sur la Comète de Halley. By the middle of the 20th century Stavros Plakidis continued the legacy of Greek astronomy at the observatory writing countless research papers and continuing his lifelong research on variable stars. Eginitis and Plakidis allowed a young twenty-two-year-old astronomer named Jean Focas to assist them at the observatory. The young astronomer had no education in the field. After many years at the Athens observatory, later in life, he acquired a Ph.D. in the field of astronomy in Paris, and two craters are named after him for his extraordinary contribution to the field, one of the craters is the Focas (lunar crater). Currently, the National Observatory of Athens operates in four distinct locations: the National Observatory of Athens main branch operates in Thiseio, Penteli Astronomical Station is located in Penteli, Kryoneri Astronomical Station is in the Northern Peloponnese region, on the top of Mount Kyllini and finally, the fourth and largest research infrastructure is the Chelmos Observatory located on top of mount Chelmos, near Kalavryta, southern Greece. History 1842: Foundation Greek-Austrian astronomer Georgios Konstantinos Vouris studied astronomy at the Vienna Observatory under the supervision of Joseph Johann von Littrow. Vouris eventually moved to Greece. He became a professor at the newly founded University of Athens. He wanted to build an observatory in Greece. He lobbied Austrian banker Baron Georgios Sinas around 1840 with the help of the Austrian ambassador in Athens Prokesch-Osten. Georgios Sinas was the Greek ambassador in Vienna. Georgios Sinas expressed his intention to make a donation for scientific development in Greece. Vouris became the first director of the Athens Observatory and was also involved in the construction of its first building. He chose the instruments for the new observatory. The first building and instruments The first building, known as Sinas building, was based on a project presented by Eduard Schaubert and designed by the Danish architect Theophil Hansen, it was the first building erected by the world-renowned architect. The cross-like neoclassic building has its sides oriented toward the four directions of the horizon. There is a small dome for a telescope in the center of the construction. The building was completed in 1846. Two years after the United States Naval Observatory was completed. The Observatory of Athens foundation ceremony was on June 26, 1842, the day of a Solar Eclipse, it was a magnificent official event, and the King of Greece, members of the Government, and the Greek Church were all present. A large crowd of people filled up the vicinity of the location selected for the Observatory, a location on the hill of Nymphs at Thiseio, facing the Acropolis. Following the panegyric speech by professor Georgios K. Vouris, the foundation stone was set under musical sounds and cannonade by a Danish frigate anchored at the port of Piraeus. Vouris was responsible for purchasing and selecting the correct instruments for the newly founded Observatory. He chose a refracting telescope 158 mm in diameter which featured 6.2" (15.8-cm, 250cm focal length, f/15) Plößl of Vienna. It was created by Simon Plössl. The second telescope was made by Christoph Starke of Vienna. He worked with optics by Fraunhofer of Munich. The device was a meridional telescope 3.7" large (94mm, f/15, diameter 1m). Vouris also purchased a timer and two pendulums along with five small telescopes and a complete line of meteorological equipment. They were the most advanced scientific instruments of the day. The observatory was fully operational and Georgios was the first director. He conducted scientific work in the field of astrophysics, astronomy, and geodesy publishing articles periodically in Astronomische Nachrichten. He became internationally renowned in the field of astronomy and created a catalog for the complete determination of 1000 stars peculiar to Greece and the position of the Athens Observatory while also determining the geographic coordinates of the Observatory, which formed the basis for the mapping of Greece. Vouris did significant research on the movement of Sirius, Neptune, and Mars. He made specific observations of Mars with the Athens Meridian Circle and his research was used by American astronomer James Melville Gilliss. From Vouris to Ioannis Papadakis and Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt In 1855, Vouris became ill and moved back to retire in Vienna, where he died on January 2, 1860. Prof. Ioannis Papadakis, full Professor of Mathematics, since August 17, 1854, at the University of Athens was chosen as an interim Director. In December 1858 the nomination for the new permanent director took place, on December 4 Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt was nominated, and on December 16 Julius Schmidt became the new director of Athens Observatory. 1858-1884: The "classical" period of J. Schmidt Utilizing the Sina's family donation, Johann Friedrich Julius Schmidt repaired and maintained the instruments. He started to observe the Sun, Moon, planets, comets and variable stars. He enriched the Observatory's library with many scientific books and journals. Some of them were donated by other European observatories. Schmidt also started editing the Publications of the Observatory of Athens. During the 25 years of his work at the Athens Observatory, he performed more than 70,000 observations of variable stars and discovered several periodic variables and two Novae stars. Most of the results were published in the journal Astronomische Nachrichten. For many years, J. Schmidt studied the planets Mars and Jupiter and drew the changes on their surfaces. He observed the bright comet of 1860 and two years later discovered a periodic comet. The clear sky allowed him to make thousands of observations of meteors. He also had the opportunity to observe a number of solar eclipses of the Moon. The Topographical Chart of the Moon (Chaptre der Gebirge des Mondes) published in Berlin, is his main work. In an area of two meters diameter, consisting of 25 parts and representing the visible surface of the Moon, there are about 30,000 craters drawn as observed with the 158 mm Ploessl telescope. He conducted a significant study of the crater Linne showing apparent morphological changes. Julius Schmidt reorganized the meteorological service of the Observatory of Athens. He performed meteorological observations in many places in Greece and regularly sent data to the Observatory of Paris. These results were presented in his work Beiträge zur physikalischen Geographie von Griechenland (1864). Schmidt showed a significant interest in the field of seismology. With the help of volunteers, he recorded more than 3,000 earthquakes and published his work entitled Studien über Erdbeben (1975). He observed the Santorini volcano eruption in 1866 and published the study and three other studies on the volcanos (Etna, Vesuvius, Stromboli) in 1874. Julius Schmidt traveled to the ancient city of Troy and performed geographical and archeological studies. 1884-1890: D. Kokkidis Demetrios Kokkidis undertook the Direction of the Observatory of Athens in 1884. Because of the financial situation of the Observatory (the funds of the Sinas family donation were already exhausted) and the fund from the Sinas family that paid Schmidt's salary was no longer paying the Observatory directory. Regrettably, Kokkidis volunteered his time for no payment but had very limited possibilities for administrative and scientific activity. The astronomer was able to write articles in the field of astronomy and expand the existing weather stations adding ones in Corfu, Zakynthos, and Larissa. He continued regular meridian circle observations for the purpose of recording time and observed solar spots. 1890-1934: The Observatory's "renaissance" under D. Eginitis The Greek Greek Parliament passed a special law on June 19, 1890, making the Athens Observatory a government research facility. The name was changed to National Observatory of Athens abbreviated NOA. Because of the special law, Demetrios Eginitis was appointed Director of the NOA. In addition to the Astronomical Institute, two others Institutes were created, the Meteorological and the Seismological Institutes. Eginitis worked diligently to find funding for the new institute. He received credit from the University and restored the observatory building and updated the equipment. Because of the economic situation in Greece, government aid was very limited but Eginitis organized a national committee that collected considerable funding and donations from the local Greek community. The Thiseio site of the Observatory was expanded, a neighboring area was purchased and three new buildings were erected with the newly raised funding. State-of-the-art new instruments were ordered and installed at NOA, a 16 cm meridian circle and a 40 cm refractor. Another telescope, a 20 cm reflector was donated by K. Ionidis. Eginitis reorganized the meteorological network, adding about a hundred new stations and creating a seismological service. He also organized the addition of a catalog entitled Annales de l'Observatoire National d’Athènes. Eginitis played a significant role in the political and academic life in Greece. He was Minister of Education in 1917 and in 1926. Eginitis introduced the Eastern European Time Zone in Greece and replaced the Julian calendar with the Gregorian calendar making it the country's new standard. He founded the Academy of Athens and organized the University of Thessaloniki. 1935-1964: The astrophysics in NOA - S. Plakidis Stavros Plakidis attended the School of Physics and Mathematics at the University of Athens and graduated in 1915 one of his professors included Demetrios Eginitis. Plakidis became an assistant at the Observatory in 1915. After over a decade at the institution, he was promoted to assistant astronomer in 1927. One year later in 1928 with the recommendation of Professor Eginitis Plakidis continued his studies for two years in Greenwich, Cambridge, Paris, Strasbourg, and Heidelberg. While in Cambridge he collaborated with professor Sir Arthur Eddington on a paper in 1929 entitled Irregularities of the Period of Long-Period Variable Stars . He became well known for his work on long-period variable stars and frequently collaborated with professor Sir Arthur Eddington throughout his life. Plakidis became a well-known astronomer and continued his work in the field of observational astrophysics. He published many papers in famous astronomical journals. In 1931, he was proclaimed Doctor of Mathematics and was nominated regular astronomer of NOA. Around this period, Jean Focas became an assistant at the observatory after Plakidis' recommendation. In 1935, after the death of Eginitis, Plakidis was elected Professor at the University of Athens and at the same time was nominated Supervisor of the Astronomical Department of NOA. In two years the NOA changed two Directors, firstly professor Nikolaos Kritikos was nominated, then Elias Mariolopoulos. In 1937, the Director of NOA Georgios Chors was nominated. Stavros Plakidis made many efforts to move the observations far from the city center. In 1936, he begin lobbying to move the astronomical station to Penteli and in 1937 it began to function but because of World War II, the equipment including three refractors, Bardou 6 in., Secretan 4.4 in., Zeiss 3 in., the Watts theodolite, the photo-visual refractor, Zeiss 4.4 in. with solar and lunar cameras, Herschel and Colzi prisms, were moved to the laboratory of astronomy belonging to the university or to the national observatory hidden from the Nazis. After the war, the Astronomical Observatory was divided into three departments: the Astronomical, the Meteorological, and the Geodynamical. The large 25 in. (63 cm) Newall refractor, Thomas Cooke, made for Robert Stirling Newall in 1869, was donated in 1890, by his son Hugh Newall, to the University Observatory of Cambridge enabling Hugh Newall to make observations at the university. In 1955, because of Professor Plakidis's long collaboration on long-period variable stars with Sir Arthur Eddington the instrument was donated to the Penteli National Observatory. In 1999 the names of the four institutes of NOA were updated as follows: Institute of Astronomy and Astrophysics Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development Institute of Geodynamics Institute for Space Applications and Remote Sensing In 2003 the Institute of Astroparticle Physics "NESTOR" became the fifth institute of NOA. After a major reform in the structure of all research institutes in Greece in 2012, two of the institutes of NOA were merged and one (NESTOR) moved under another administrative unit. Currently NOA has the following three institutes: Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications and Remote Sensing Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development Institute of Geodynamics Premises The National Observatory of Athens operates in four locations: The central premises of the National Observatory of Athens are situated at the historic site on top of Hill of the Nymphs (in Greek: Λόφος Νυμφών) at Thiseio. Nymphon Hill borders with Philopappou Hill and is opposite to the Acropolis and the Athenian Agora. They house the central administration as well as the Institute of Geodynamics. The Penteli Astronomical Station is situated on a hill known as "Koufou" (Lofos Koufou in Greek), which is located in the municipality of Penteli, () at the northern suburbs of Athens. It is best known as the site of the historic 62.5 cm Newall refractor (built by British instrument maker Thomas Cooke in 1869), which was installed there in 1955, and it is now used for public outreach. The Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications, and Remote Sensing as well as the Institute for Environmental Research and Sustainable Development are now located on the premises. The Kryoneri Astronomical Station was established in 1972. It is located in Northern Peloponnese, on the top of mountain Kilini () at an altitude of 930 m. It is equipped with a 1.2 m Cassegrain reflector telescope manufactured and installed in 1975 by the British company Grubb Parsons Co., Newcastle. It is one of the largest telescopes in Greece, with many successful scientific observations during its long operation (scientific observations started in 1975). Currently, the telescope is being upgraded following the framework of the ESA program NELIOTA, which will monitor the lunar surface for impacts of meteoroids. Chelmos Observatory in the northwestern part of Peloponnese, which is the site of the Aristarchos 2.3 m Telescope operated by the Institute for Astronomy, Astrophysics, Space Applications, and Remote Sensing. The N.O.A Meteorological Station The National Observatory of Athens handles the most antique meteorological station in Greece and one of the oldest in Southern Europe. The station is located at the center of Athens, in the Thiseio neighbourhood (Hill of Nymphs). The A class Meteorological station has been located at the same position from the 11th of September 1890; while it started its operation in 1858 at a different location in Thiseio. Additional Observatories in Greece Corfu Observatory (Defunct) Skinakas Observatory Thessaloniki Observatory Aristotle University Stephani Observatory (Mount Trachonion, Corinth) Gerostathopoulio University of Athens Observatory The Hellenic Radiotelescope See also List of astronomical observatories UFO sightings in Greece References Bibliography Sources The National Observatory of Athens External links The official site of the National Observatory of Athens (in Greek) The official site of the National Observatory of Athens (in English) The Central Premises in Google Maps The Penteli's Astronomical Station in Google Maps A short history of the National Observatory of Athens and its instruments (in Greek) Buildings and structures in Athens Athens Science and technology in Greece Research institutes in Greece 1842 establishments in Greece Theophil Hansen buildings Neoclassical architecture in Greece Research institutes established in 1842
5182088	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20Witness	Global Witness	Global Witness is an international NGO established in 1993 that works to break the links between natural resource exploitation, conflict, poverty, corruption, and human rights abuses worldwide. The organisation has offices in London and Washington, D.C. Global Witness states that it does not have any political affiliation. Mike Davis has been the organisation's CEO since 2020. Profile Global Witness states that its goals are to expose the corrupt exploitation of natural resources and international trade systems, to drive campaigns that end impunity, resource linked conflict, and human rights and environmental abuses. The organisation explores how diamonds and other natural resources can fund conflict or fuel corruption. It carries out investigations into the involvement of specific individuals and business entities in activities such as illegal and unsustainable forest exploitation, and corruption in oil, gas and mining industries. Global Witness’ methodology combines investigative research, publishing reports and conducting advocacy campaigns. Reports are disseminated to governments, intergovernmental organizations, civil society and the media. This is intended to shape global policy and change international thinking about the extraction and trading of natural resources and the impacts that corrupt and unsustainable exploitation can have upon development, human rights and geopolitical and economic stability. Projects Global Witness has worked on diamonds, oil, timber, cocoa, gas, gold and other minerals. It has undertaken investigations and case studies in Cambodia, Angola, Liberia, DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Kazakhstan, Burma, Indonesia, Zimbabwe, Turkmenistan and Ivory Coast. It has also helped to set up international initiatives such as the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, the Kimberley Process, and the Publish What You Pay coalition. (Global Witness withdrew from the Kimberley Process in 2011, saying it is no longer working.) The organization's first campaign involved work against the trade of illegal timber between Cambodia and Thailand which was funding the Khmer Rouge guerrillas. Global Witness argues that natural resources can be, and have been, exploited to fund armies and militias who murder, rape, and commit other human rights abuses against civilians. It says that "natural resources can potentially be used to negotiate and maintain peace" and "could be the key to ending Africa's poverty". The organisation campaigns to protect human rights defenders targeted because of their work to prevent natural resource exploitation. An investigation by Global Witness in April 2014 revealed there were nearly three times as many environmental defenders killed in 2012 than 10 years previously. Global Witness documented 147 deaths in 2012, compared to 51 in 2002. In Brazil, 448 activists defending natural resources were killed between 2002 and 2013, in Honduras 109, Peru 58, the Philippines 67, and Thailand 16. Many of those facing threats are ordinary people opposing land grabs, mining operations and the industrial timber trade, often forced from their homes and severely threatened by environmental devastation. Others have been killed for protests over hydroelectric dams, pollution and wildlife conservation. By 2019, Global Witness were documenting 212 such deaths in the year. Cambodia Global Witness’s first campaign was in Cambodia in the 1990s where the Khmer Rouge was smuggling timber into Thailand. The Observer newspaper attributed the cessation to Global Witness's "detailed and accurate reporting". After a report implicating relatives of Prime Minister Hun Sen and other senior government officials, the prime minister's brother, Hun Neng, a provincial governor, was quoted in a Cambodian newspaper as saying if anyone from Global Witness returned to Cambodia, he would "hit them until their heads are broken." In 2009, Global Witness released Country for Sale, a report on corruption in the allocation of Cambodia's natural resource licenses. In 2010 the report, Shifting Sand, was published. It examined sand dredging for export to Singapore. The report claimed that the trade was "monopolised by two prominent Cambodian senators with close ties to Prime Minister Hun Sen". Conflict diamonds and Sierra Leone In 1998 Global Witness released the report, A Rough Trade: The Role of Companies and Governments in the Angolan Conflict, describing the role of the international diamond trade in funding the Angolan Civil War. As part of its campaign against conflict diamonds, Global Witness helped establish the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (KCPS). The international governmental certification scheme was set up to stop to trade in blood diamonds, requiring governments to certify that shipments of rough diamonds are conflict-free. Like many other Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, Sierra Leone is endowed with oil and mineral resources amid social inequality, high prevalence of poverty, and conflict. Under rebel movements headed by Charles Taylor, who dominated the diamond industry, diamonds were being traded for guns with the Revolutionary United Front (RUF). This rebel group alone earned as much as US$125 m. In 1998, Global Witness stated that diamonds were spurring those conflicts. Backed by investigation done by the UN in 2000, it was then verified that the gems were being smuggled out of eastern Sierra Leone through Liberia, and subsequently into the international market. Sanctions were later imposed by the UN on Liberian diamonds in March 2001. On July 19, 2000, the World Diamond Congress adopted at Antwerp a resolution to reinforce the diamond industry's ability to block sales of conflict diamonds. Thereafter, with growing international pressure from Global Witness and other NGOs, meetings were hosted with diamond-producing countries over three years, concluding in the establishment of an international diamond certification scheme in January 2003. The certification system on the export and import of diamonds, known as the KCPS, was called by the resolution, imposing legislation in all countries to accept shipment of only officially sealed packages of diamonds accompanied by a KP certificate guaranteeing that they were conflict-free. Anyone found trafficking conflict diamonds will be indicted of criminal charges, while bans were to be imposed on individuals found trading those stones from diamond bourses under the World Federation of Diamond Bourses. The Kimberley Process (KP) in Sierra Leone was efficient in limiting the flow of conflict diamonds. More importantly, the KP assisted in restoring peace and security in the lives of these people, and, by creating stability in these environments, it spurred their development. It was successful at channelling larger amounts of diamonds into the international market, boosting government revenues, and consequently aiding in tackling development concerns. In 2006, an estimated US$125 m worth of diamonds were legally exported from Sierra Leone, compared to almost none in the 1990s. Despite its success, nine years later, on 5 December 2011, Global Witness announced that it has left the KP, stating that the scheme's main flaws have not been mended as governments no longer continue to show interest in reform. Oil, gas, and mining Global Witness campaigns for greater transparency in the oil, gas, and mining sectors. It is a founding member of the Publish What You Pay (PWYP) coalition, which advocates "the mandatory disclosure of company payments and government revenues from the oil, gas, and mining sector". Over 300 civil society groups worldwide are member of PWYP. Other PWYP founders include CAFOD, Oxfam, Save the Children UK, Transparency International UK, and George Soros, Chairman of the Open Society Institute. Global Witness helped establish the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), which was announced by then UK Prime Minister Tony Blair at the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg in September 2002 and formally endorsed by the World Bank in December 2003. The EITI is a result of the efforts of the PWYP campaigners. It is now supported by a majority of the world's oil, mining and gas companies and institutional investors, in total worth US$8.3 trillion. Global Witness is a member of the EITI International Advisory Group and sits on the EITI board. Democratic Republic of Congo Global Witness is active on a range of issues in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Their website section on DRC reads, "Politicians, military and militia groups have plundered the country's natural wealth and used it to enrich themselves at the detriment of the population." Global Witness has lobbied the UK government and the UN Security Council to stop the trade in minerals fuelling war in eastern Congo. Global Witness defines conflict resources as "natural resources whose systematic exploitation and trade in a context of conflict contribute to, benefit from or result in the commission of serious violations of human rights, violations of international humanitarian law or violations amounting to crimes under international law." Forests Global Witness has produced reports on how timber helped to fund the civil war in Liberia and also looked at timber smuggling from Burma into China. In 2010, Global Witness launched a court case in France against DLH, a company that they allege bought timber from Liberian companies during the civil war between 2001 and 2003, thereby providing support to Charles Taylor's regime. Global Witness describes forests as the "last bastion against climate change", with deforestation accounting for 18 percent of total global carbon dioxide emissions. On UN efforts to broker a deal on "Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation" (REDD) Global Witness said: "REDD carries considerable risks for forests and local communities and will only succeed if civil society is engaged as an independent watchdog to ensure that the money is used in accordance with national laws and international guidelines." Global Witness criticized the World Bank-endorsed approach of encouraging industrial export-based logging as a means to economic growth in developing countries, which, it argues, has been repeatedly shown to fail. Instead, Global Witness advocates management strategies that benefit the communities that are dependent on forests, their home countries, the environment, and treats forests as an "international asset". Recent Anonymous companies Global Witness campaigns against anonymous companies and for registers of beneficial ownership. Anonymous companies are a legal business practice but can be used for purposes such as laundering money from criminal activity, financing terrorism, or evading taxes. Banks In 2009 Global Witness launched a campaign on the role of banks in facilitating corruption. Its report, Undue Diligence, names some of the major banks that have done business with corrupt regimes. It argues that "by accepting these customers, banks are assisting those who are using state assets to enrich themselves or brutalise their own people" and that "this corruption denies the world's poorest people the chance to lift themselves out of poverty and leaves them dependent on aid." Global Witness is on the Coordinating Committee of Taskforce on Financial Integrity and Economic Development, and is a member of BankTrack, and the UNCAC Coalition of Civil Society Organisations. In May 2009, Global Witness employee, Anthea Lawson, testified before the U.S. House Financial Services Committee on "Capital Loss, Corruption and the Role of Western Financial Institutions". In a letter to The Guardian dated 9 February 2010, Ms Lawson accused UK banks of "demonstrated complicity" in corruption. Sudan Global Witness has campaigned for transparency in Sudan's oil industry. Global Witness published Fuelling Mistrust in June 2009, a report that detailed discrepancies of up to 26 percent between the production figures published by the Sudanese government and those published by the main oil company operating in the region, CNPC. A peace deal between the north and the south was predicated on an agreement to share the revenues from oil. Zimbabwe diamonds In June 2010, Global Witness criticized Zimbabwe for large-scale human rights abuses committed in the Marange diamond fields. It published a report Return of the Blood Diamond which criticised the Kimberley Process Certification Scheme for repeatedly failing to react effectively to the crisis in Zimbabwe. In July 2010 Tendai Midzi, writing in The Zimbabwe Guardian, accused Global Witness and Partnership Africa Canada of being "but a figment of the western governments they represent". Malaysia Global Witness exposed corruption in land deals within the administration of Taib Mahmud, the chief minister of the state of Sarawak in Malaysia through the video titled "Inside Malaysia's Shadow State." The video featured footage of conversations with relatives of Taib and their lawyer where Global Witness agents posed as potential investors. 2020: 227 environmental activists killed worldwide In 2019, Global Witness recorded the murders of 212 environmental activists, making it the worst year since this recording process began, in 2012. This was up from the number of 197 killed in 2018. 2020 saw a further rise in cases, with 227 killed. Honors and awards Global Witness and Partnership Africa Canada were jointly nominated by U.S. House of Representatives and Senate members for the 2003 Nobel Peace Prize for work on links between conflict and diamonds in several African countries. Winner of the Gleitsman Foundation prize for international activism (2005) Winner of the Center for Global Development/Foreign Policy Magazine Commitment to Development Ideas in Action Award (2007) Recipient of the Allard Prize for International Integrity (2013 Honourable Mention) Charmian Gooch, one of the three founding Directors of Global Witness, was awarded the Ted Prize in 2014. Her stated Wish was 'for us to know who owns and controls companies, so that they can no longer be used anonymously against the public good. Let's ignite world opinion, change the law, and together launch a new era of openness in business.' Winner of the Skoll Award for Social Entrepreneurship 2014 Co-winner of the Sheila McKechnie Foundation's 2021 David and Goliath Award, for the successful campaign to stop the UK Government's multi-billion financing for fossil fuels overseas. Global Witness campaigner Adam McGibbon coordinated the campaign. Income The majority of Global Witness funding comes from grants made by foundations, governments, and charities. One of their main benefactors is the Open Society Institute, which also funds Human Rights Watch. Global Witness also receives money from the Norwegian and British governments, the Adessium Foundation, and Oxfam Novib. In the UK, Global Witness Trust is a registered charity supporting the work of Global Witness. In an interview in The Guardian in 2007, Patrick Alley, one of the founding directors, rejected the claim that receiving money from governments could bias their campaigns: "Being campaign-led, rather than funding-led, means that our independence is never comprised," he argued. "The Department for Trade and Industry did once ask if we'd like to sign a confidentiality clause. We said we wouldn't take the funding under those conditions. No other government has ever tried to impose any restrictions." From December 2008 to November 2009 Global Witness's income was £3,831,831. Of this, approximately 61 percent came in the form of grants from private trusts and foundations, 33 percent from governments, three percent from multi-lateral and non governmental organisations, and three percent from bank interest and other sources. Global Witness says it spends 75 percent of its funds on campaigns, seven percent on communication and fundraising, and 18 percent on support and governance. GW's annual report for 2021 showed the NGO's annual income falling from £11.4 to £10.1 million from 2020-2021. See also Asset forfeiture Group of States Against Corruption International Anti-Corruption Academy International Anti-Corruption Day ISO 37001 Anti-bribery management systems OECD Anti-Bribery Convention Transparency International United Nations Convention against Corruption References External links Anti-corruption non-governmental organizations Blood diamonds International environmental organizations International human rights organizations International organisations based in London Resource extraction Organizations established in 1993 1993 establishments in England
5182153	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian%20royal%20symbols	Canadian royal symbols	Canadian royal symbols are the visual and auditory identifiers of the Canadian monarchy, including the viceroys, in the country's federal and provincial jurisdictions. These may specifically distinguish organizations that derive their authority from the Crown (such as parliament or police forces), establishments with royal associations, or merely be ways of expressing loyal or patriotic sentiment. Most royal symbols in Canada are based on inherited predecessors from France, England, and Scotland, the evidence of which is still visible today, though, over time, adaptations have been made to include uniquely Canadian elements. Some representations were discarded during and after the 1970s, within an evolving Canadian identity, while others were created over the same time and continue to be up to the present. Today, symbols of the monarchy can be seen in military badges, provincial and national coats of arms, royal prefixes, monuments, and eponymous names of geographical locations and structures. Purpose The use of royal symbols developed from the first royal emblems and images of French, English, Scottish, and, later, British monarchs that were brought by colonists to New France and British North America to represent the authority of the sovereign back in Europe. The first verifiable use of a royal symbol in Canada was when Jacques Cartier raised the Royal Arms of France on the Gaspé Peninsula in 1534. Since then, some icons were created for use uniquely in the Canadas—mostly coats of arms. But, only after the First World War did growing Canadian nationalism lead to changes in the appearance and meaning to Canadians of royal symbols. Since Canada gained full legislative independence from the United Kingdom in 1931, images of the reigning monarch have been employed to signify either Canada's membership in the Commonwealth of Nations, the Crown's authority, loyalty to Canada, or Canada's full statehood. Sean Palmer asserted in the 2018 book, The Canadian Kingdom: 150 Years of Constitutional Monarchy, that Canada and New Zealand are the two Commonwealth realms that have given the greatest attention to "the nationalization" of the visual symbols of their respective monarchies, particularly, in Canada, since the creation of the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 1988. Images The main symbol of the monarchy is the sovereign him or herself, being described as "the personal expression of the Crown in Canada" and the personification of the Canadian state. Thus, the image of the sovereign acts as an indication of that individual's authority and therefore appears on objects created by order of the Crown-in-Council, such as coins, postage stamps, and the Great Seal of Canada. The images of English monarchs were first stuck onto coins 1,000 years ago. Through the 1800s, effigies and pictures of the monarch—Queen Victoria, especially—came to be symbolic of the wider British Empire, to which Canada belonged. As with other royal symbols, though, the general domestic meaning of the sovereign's portrait altered through the 20th century. The royal cypher is also regarded as a personal logo of the monarch, generally consisting of at least his or her initials. In Canada, the cypher has come to be indicative of the country's full sovereignty. Many of the depictions of the sovereign and other members of the royal family, as well as some of their clothing, are part of the Crown Collection, a carried compilation of paintings, prints, sculptures, objets d'art, and furniture. Coinage, banknotes, and postage Coins were one of the first objects to bear the image of the reigning sovereign in what is today Canada. After 1640, French colonists employed the Louis d'or ("gold Louis", which first bore the effigy of King Louis XIII and then all subsequent French monarchs) until the transfer of New France to the British in 1763. After, British sovereigns and coppers were used, sometimes long after the end of the reign of the monarch appearing on the coin. As a result of decimalisation, the Province of Canada replaced the Canadian pound with the dollar in 1858, minting new coins whose obverse side featured an effigy of Queen Victoria; a trend that continued with the first coins issued in Canada after confederation. Since its establishment in 1908, coins minted by the Royal Canadian Mint featured an effigy of the reigning monarch. The effigies used on Canadian coins remained consistent with the effigies used in other Commonwealth realms until 1990, when the Royal Canadian Mint choose to use an effigy of the Queen designed by Dora de Pédery-Hunt. Pédery-Hunt was the first Canadian to sculpt an effigy of Elizabeth II on coinage. The effigy of Queen Elizabeth II on Canadian coins minted since 2003 was rendered by Susanna Blunt. Images of the reigning monarch and his or her family have also traditionally been printed on Canadian postage stamps since 1851, when Queen Victoria and her consort, Prince Albert, were shown on 12- and 6-pence stamps, respectively, for mail in the Province of Canada. Stamps previously issued in other British North American colonies showed images of crowns and, into the late 1800s, bore some variation of the Queen's cypher. Starting in 1939, when she was still Princess Elizabeth of York, Queen Elizabeth II was depicted in 59 successive stamp designs in Canada, continuing on to the Queen Elizabeth II definitive stamps released in the 2000s. Artworks The monarchs of Canada have been portrayed by Canadian and European artists in paint, sculpture, and photography. Formal likenesses of the monarch are commissioned by relevant official bodies, such as crowns-in-council or parliaments, and are often found inside or outside government buildings, military installations, many schools, and Canada's high commissions and embassies abroad, as well as in parks and other public places. A full collection of official portraits of sovereigns of Canada and its predecessor territories going back to King Francis I was amassed by Senator Serge Joyal and are on display in the Senate foyer and Salon de la Francophonie in the parliament buildings' Centre Block. One of these is the portrait of Queen Victoria painted by John Partridge, which was created in the United Kingdom and shipped to Canada in the early 1840s. It was rescued from four fires, including the burning of the parliament of the Province of Canada in 1849 and the great fire that destroyed the Centre Block in 1916. During the latter event, parliamentary staff, desperately trying to save as much artwork as they could, found the portrait of Victoria was too large to fit through the door. They, thus, quickly cut it out of its frame and rolled it up. As a consequence, a cut through the crown can be seen today in the painting, which hangs in the Senate foyer. An official painted portrait of Queen Elizabeth II was created in 1976, and another by Scarborough, Ontario, artist Phil Richards was completed in 2012 mark the monarch's Diamond Jubilee. The latter image depicts Elizabeth wearing her insignia as Sovereign of the Order of Canada and Order of Military Merit and standing in Rideau Hall beside a desk upon which is a copy of the Constitution Act, 1867 (granted royal assent by Queen Victoria and patriated by Queen Elizabeth), and a vase embossed with the Canadian Diamond Jubilee emblem; behind the Queen is the Canadian national flag and George Hayter's 1837 state portrait of Victoria. The creation of this portrait is the subject of a National Film Board of Canada (NFB) documentary directed by Hubert Davis, which was released in fall 2012 as part of the NFB's Queen's Diamond Jubilee Collector's Edition. The painting was on 25 June installed in the ballroom at Rideau Hall. Elizabeth II was also the subject of Canadian painters, including Jean Paul Lemieux, whose 1979 work affectionate memory images combines "the familiar and the constitutional" by portraying the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh in a meadow in front of the Canadian parliament buildings. More formal and enduring are the sculptures of some of Canada's monarchs, such as Louis-Philippe Hébert's bronze statue of Queen Victoria that was in 1901 unveiled on Parliament Hill in Ottawa. Jack Harmon of British Columbia created in 1992 the equestrian statue of Queen Elizabeth II that also stands on Parliament Hill, and sculptor Susan Velder fashioned in June 2003 another such statue for the grounds of the Saskatchewan Legislative Building. Queen Elizabeth II posed for a number of Canada's prominent photographers, the first being Yousuf Karsh, who made a formal portrait of Elizabeth when she was a 17-year-old princess and, later, took a series of official pictures of the princess, in formal and informal poses, just months before she acceded to the throne. Karsh was commissioned on two subsequent occasions to create series of pictures of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh, once prior to Elizabeth's 1967 tour of Canada for the centenary of Canada's confederation, when he photographed the royal couple at Buckingham Palace, and again in 1984, creating a set of portraits that included a shot of the Queen with her corgi, Shadow. Prior to her second tour of Canada as queen in 1959, Elizabeth requested that a Canadian photographer take her pre-tour pictures and Donald McKeague of Toronto was selected. Then, in 1973, Onnig Cavoukian, also from Toronto, made a photographic portrait that was dubbed "The Citizen Queen" because of the informal way in which Elizabeth was depicted. Rideau Hall photographer John Evans captured the sovereign on film in 1977, during her Silver Jubilee stay in Ottawa; Evans portrayed the Queen following her return from opening parliament. More recently, photographic portraits of Queen Elizabeth II were made in 2002, as part of her Golden Jubilee celebrations, and in 2005, when she marked the centenaries of Alberta and Saskatchewan. The Queen's Beasts were created by James Woodford for the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 and based on the King's Beasts, originally made for Hampton Court Palace, near London, on the order of King Henry VIII. Though comssioned by the British Ministry of Works, the Queen's Beasts are now in the collection of the Canadian Museum of History in Ottawa, having been given to the Canadian Crown-in-Council in 1958. Clothing and jewellery In the role of the state personified, the monarch has worn clothing symbolic of the country and his or her distinct role in it. For instance, the gown worn by Queen Elizabeth II at both her coronation in London and the opening of the Canadian parliament in 1957 was decorated with the floral emblems of her realms, including maple leaves for Canada. During the same 1957 visit to Ottawa, the Queen also wore to a banquet held at Rideau Hall the Maple-Leaf-of-Canada dress; it was a pale green satin gown, edged with a garland consisting of deep green velvet maple leaves appliquéd with crystals and emeralds. Afterwards, the dress was donated to the Crown Collection and is now held at the Canadian Museum of History. Similarly, for a dinner held in July 2010 in Toronto, Elizabeth wore a white gown with silver maple leaves appliquéd on the right sleeve and shoulder. Occasionally, she wore clothing designed with Aboriginal motifs or materials made by some of the First Nations peoples. For the opening of parliament in 1977, the Queen wore a gown with gold fringes that was suggestive of an aboriginal princess and, in 2010, wore in Nova Scotia a coat trimmed with beads made by women of the Mi'kmaq nation. The monarch also owns various jewellery pieces that are distinctively Canadian, such as two maple leaf brooches. The diamond Maple Leaf Brooch was originally owned by Queen Elizabeth, given to her by her husband, King George VI, in advance of their tour of Canada in 1939. The Queen subsequently lent it to her daughter, Princess Elizabeth, Duchess of Edinburgh, for her 1951 tour of Canada. The younger Elizabeth inherited the brooch upon becoming queen in 1952 and continued to wear it while in Canada or, for instance, sitting for an official Canadian portrait. She also lent the jewllery piece to the Duchess of Cornwall (now the Queen) and the Duchess of Cambridge (now the Princess of Wales) for their tours of Canada. To mark Queen Elizabeth II's 65th year as Queen of Canada and the 150th anniversary of Canadian Confederation, Governor General David Johnston presented the Queen, at Canada House, with the Sapphire Jubilee Snowflake Brooch. Designed as a companion to the diamond Maple Leaf Brooch, the piece was made by Hillberg and Berk of Saskatchewan and consists of sapphires from a cache found in 2002 on Baffin Island by brothers Seemeega and Nowdluk Aqpik. The Saskatchewan Tourmaline Brooch was also made by Hillberg and Berk and gifted to the Queen in 2013 by the Lieutenant Governor of Saskatchewan, Vaughn Solomon Schofield. It has an asymmetrical geometric floral design and is made of white gold set with Madagascar tourmalines, diamonds, and a single freshwater pearl. The government of the Northwest Territories had the Polar Bear Brooch made for the then-Duchess of Cambridge and matching cufflinks for the then-Duke of Cambridge, in 2011. Created by Harry Winston, the brooch features of pavé-set diamonds in platinum; 302 diamonds in total, all mined at the local Diavik Diamond Mine. The cufflinks consist of 390 diamonds, weighing total. Crown Canada does not have its own physical crown. When King George VI gave royal assent in parliament, he wore a cocked hat and, when Queen Elizabeth II opened parliament, she wore one of her tiaras: the Vladimir Tiara in 1957 and the Queen Mary Fringe Tiara in 1977. Between 2007 and 2011, efforts were made to have a unique Canadian crown created in time for Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee in 2012. This would have been manufactured using Canadian precious metals (platinum, gold, and silver) and encrusted with gems and semi-precious stones sourced from Canada and other Commonwealth countries, all donated and gifted to the monarch. Heraldic renderings were produced by Gordon Macpherson showing three proposed designs and the process reached the stage of rough technical drawings for a jeweller. However, after Canadian officials consulted again with the Queen, she halted the project. As a heraldic device, the crown is prevalent across Canada, being incorporated into a multitude of other emblems and insignia. On the most basic level, the crown itself is a visual reminder of the monarchy, its central place as the fuse between all branches of government, and its embodiment of the continuity of the state. As Canada is a constitutional monarchy with responsible government, the crown can also symbolise "the sovereignty (or authority) of the people." It can be found on, amongst others, the Royal Cypher; the Royal Arms of Canada; some of the provincial and territorial coats of arms; the badges of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police; and those of the Canadian Forces, the Canadian Coast Guard, and several other badges of federal departments. A crown may also be found atop signs in Ontario for the King's Highways and the Queen Elizabeth Way. A crown is also present on various Canadian decorations and medals, as well as the insignia for all the country's orders, reflecting the monarch's place as the fount of honour. The crown may exist on a medallion as a part of the Royal Cypher and/or on the sovereign's head in effigy, though it can also be placed atop the medal of badge of an order. Use of the royal crowns in any design requires the consent of the monarch; sought through the office of the governor general. A two-dimensional representation of St. Edward's Crown has been used in a variety of designs since the 1950s; as directed by Queen Elizabeth II when she acceded to the throne. Prior to the adoption of St. Edward's Crown, a two-dimensional representation of the Tudor Crown was used throughout a number of designs to represent royal authority. The physical St Edward's Crown remains the property of the Queen in Right of the United Kingdom; although its two-dimensional representation has been adopted for use to represent royal authority in various Commonwealth realms, including Canada. Canadian Royal Crown The Canadian Royal Crown is an emblem devised by the Canadian Heraldic Authority and approved by King Charles III on the advice of the Prime Minister of Canada, Justin Trudeau, in April 2023 and publicly unveiled to mark Charles' coronation on 6 May of the same year. It is a symbol of the Canadian monarchy and the authority of the King and the state acting in his name. Designed by Cathy Bursey-Sabourin, Fraser Herald and Principal Artist of the CHA, it is based on the heraldic depiction of the Tudor crown and incorporates symbols of the Canadian monarchy. It consists of a gold rim and two intersecting arches set with pearls, at the bases of which are maple leaves and within which is a red cap lined with ermine fur. At the apex of the arches is a stylized snowflake resembling the insignia of the Order of Canada, of which the monarch is the Sovereign. On the band is a blue, wavy line symbolizing the country's waterways and ocean borders, emphasizing the importance of the environment to Canadians, as well as Indigenous teachings that water is the lifeblood of the land, and, on the ring's upper edge, are triangular peaks and dips recalling Canada's rugged landscape. The crown is a "restricted emblem", the use of which requires the permission of the King. It is a "paper crown", meaning it has no physical form and is intended to be used as a symbol only, on the Royal Coat of Arms of Canada, the coats of arms of provinces, the royal cypher, badges and rank insignia of the Canadian Armed Forces and law enforcement agencies, as well as by private organizations significantly associated with the monarchy and on plaques, stamps, stained glass windows, and other commemorations. Christopher McCreery, who authored numerous books on Canadian honours, heraldry, and the monarchy, noted that this was the first time in the history of any Commonwealth realm that the head of government had chosen the symbol by which the monarch would represent himself and his authority, as Charles was "forced" to accept the binding advice of his Prime Minister. This, McCreery felt, was an over-step by Trudeau into the royal prerogative, removing another of the few remaining areas in which a constitutional monarch still has a direct role, and the process brought the "symbol of the crown as an object, the institution of constitutional monarchy, and the person of the head of state into the political realm", "[leaving] us with a symbol of authority void of history, authority, or presence; a source of ridicule and derision." Snowflake Diadem In the 21st century, several Canadian decorations and medals were introduced that featured the Snowflake Diadem on the head of Queen Elizabeth II's effigy. Designed in 2008 and approved by the Queen the same year, the diadem is made up of alternating snowflakes and maple leaves. However, the diadem does not physically exist; it is considered to be a "heraldic invention" for the purposes of "nationalizing the sovereign," and to symbolize her status as the Queen of Canada. Decorations and medals that have used the Snowflake Diadem on effigies include the Operational Service Medal, Polar Medal, Sacrifice Medal, and Sovereign's Medal for Volunteers. The diadem is also depicted in the Diamond Jubilee Window in the Canadian Senate foyer. A variation of the Snowflake Diadem, composed of only snowflakes instead of alternating snowflakes and maple leaves, is also used as a heraldic crown for the coat of arms of institutions like the Tax Court of Canada. As with the original Snowflake Diadem design, the snowflake-only design serves as a reference to Canada being a northern realm. Coronets Similar to, but older than, the Snowflake Diadem, the United Empire Loyalist coronets are heraldic devices available to Canadian descendants of the Loyalists—refugees to Canada of European, African, and Indigenous heritage who were loyal to the Crown and, as such, during and after the American Revolutionary War, forced to leave their homes in what became the United States. The Canadian Heraldic Authority can grant these coronets—either a military or civil version—in an individual's coats of arms, according to the regulations of the United Empire Loyalists' Association, regardless of race, gender, or religion. These consist of gold maple leaves above a gold band, with either oak leaves (civil) or swords (military) in between each leaf. Individuals of French Canadian ancestry may be granted a coronet consisting of gold fleur-de-lis and maple leaves above a gold band. Mace In the federal, provincial, and territorial parliaments, maces represent the authority of the monarch in the legislature. At the apex of each mace is a crown, substituting for the deadly bulge of the prehistoric club and the spiked ball of the medieval battle mace. Members of parliament, the legislative assembly, or national assembly cannot pass bills until the relevant mace has been placed before the speaker of the chamber. This acknowledges that parliament's power to legislate stems from the Crown. Flags Similar to coats of arms, flags are utilized to represent royal authority and specific royal and viceroyal offices. The standards of the kings of France were the first royal flags to be used in what is now Canada, a flag bearing the arms of King Louis XIV being used as the symbol of New France after the colony was in 1663 reformed as a royal province of France. The current sovereign's royal standard is the shield of the monarch's Canadian arms in banner form undifferentiated. It was created by the Canadian Heraldic Authority in 2023 for the sovereign's use in Canada or when acting on behalf of the country abroad, the flag being flown from any building or vehicle occupied by the monarch. There are six additional royal standards for other members of the royal family devised by the CHA between 2011 and 2015 and follow in precedence that of the viceroy of the relevant jurisdiction. The flag of the governor general displays the crest of the Canadian royal arms—a crowned lion holding a maple leaf—and is used in a fashion akin to the sovereign's flag. Each of the provincial viceroys also has a representative flag, most being a blue field on which is displayed the shield of the province's arms surmounted by a crown. The Union Flag was formerly used as a national flag of Canada, prior to the adoption of the National Flag of Canada (the "maple leaf flag") in 1965. It was thereafter retained as an official flag of Canada and renamed the Royal Union Flag by parliamentary resolution, intended as a marker of Canada's loyalty to the Crown and membership in the Commonwealth of Nations. This flag continued to be used by the Canadian military as a personal flag of the sovereign until the Minister of National Defence in 1965, Paul Hellyer, ordered that the new National Flag would be the flag of the then-still-to-be-unified Canadian Armed Forces, leading to the replacement of the Naval Ensign and Royal Canadian Air Force Ensign. Both the Royal Union Flag and the standard of royal France have a prominent place in the Royal Arms of Canada. The former sits in the canton of the flags of Ontario and Manitoba and, as an abstraction, is the basis of the flag of Newfoundland and Labrador. Verbal and musical symbols Music and song are used in various ways as reminders and identifiers of the sovereign or viceroys. By tradition, the tune "God Save the King" (or "God Save the Queen" in the reign of a female monarch) was heard in the Canadian colonies since the late 18th century and continued to be played after Confederation in 1867. In 1980, "O Canada" was adopted as the national anthem and "God Save the Queen" became, by convention, the Royal Anthem, for use as a musical salute to the sovereign in person or as a display of loyalty in any circumstance. It was also incorporated into the Canadian Royal Salute, which is used upon the arrival of the governor general or a lieutenant governor and consists of the first six bars of the Royal Anthem followed by the first and last four bars of "O Canada". At official functions, regardless of whether or not the monarch is personally present, the Loyal Toast may be recited; it consists of a toast to the health of the sovereign and is generally led by the host of or guest of honour at a ceremony, aside from the monarch him or herself. In English, the toast is: "Ladies and Gentlemen, the King of Canada," and in French: "" In the mess of regiments in which the monarch holds an honorary appointment, the toast is modified slightly to be read as: "Ladies and Gentlemen, the King of Canada, our Colonel-in-Chief," and in French: "" Where a band is present, the Royal Anthem is played following the recital of the Loyal Toast. The monarch also acts as the locus of fealty in the Oath of Allegiance, which also forms a part of the Oath of Citizenship. This giving of allegiance to the sovereign has been described as the expression of "a solemn intention to adhere to the symbolic keystone of the Canadian Constitution as it has been and is, thus pledging an acceptance of the whole of our constitution and national life." The word royal itself is frequently used as a prefix to the name of an organization that has gained the monarch's favour or patronage. The granting of this distinction falls within the royal prerogative and thus is conferred by the monarch through the office of his or her viceroy, with input from the Ceremonial and Canadian Symbols Promotion Programme within the Department of Canadian Heritage on whether or not the institution meets the designated criteria: The organization must have been in existence for at least 25 years, be financially secure, and be non-profit, amongst others. Any organization that has been so honoured may receive appropriate royal insignia when petitioning the Canadian Heraldic Authority for a grant of armorial bearings or other emblem. Similarly, crown is commonly used in language related to governance or law enforcement. Terms include Crown ward, Crown land, Crown-held property, Crown corporations, Crown copyright, and the Crown can refer to the government's lawyers in courts of law. Crown is used as the general term expressing the legal personality of the executive of government. Calendar dates Certain dates are of royal significance in Canada. Victoria Day has been since 1834 a holiday to mark the birthday of Queen Victoria. After 1957, the same date was designated as the reigning monarch's official birthday. At military sites, on navy vessels, and on government property, flags will also be flown to mark specific royal occasions, including Accession Day (8 September), the actual birthday of the monarch (14 November), the official birthday of the monarch (Monday before 25 May), and the birthday of the royal consort (17 July). Each year since 1932, the monarch has delivered the Royal Christmas Message to the British Commonwealth (later the Commonwealth of Nations); originally broadcast on the British Broadcasting Corporation Empire Service, it is today shown in Canada on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television and radio. Except for being read at observances by loyal societies, the monarch's Commonwealth Day (second Monday in March) message is ignored by the media in Canada. Geographic names There are hundreds of places named for Canadian monarchs and members of the Royal Family all across Canada. No individual has been more honoured than Queen Victoria in the names of Canada's public buildings, streets, populated places, and physical features. The trend for naming places after the sovereign began after the Queen granted John Ross permission to name a small bay in the Northwest Passage after her. Following this, explorers and mapmakers gave the name Victoria to a multitude of geographical features all over the Canadian map; her name appears more than 300 times. Also, amongst the 280 postal divisions in Canada, more than half have at least one thoroughfare identified by the name Victoria. See also National symbols of Canada Canadian Red Ensign Regional tartans of Canada Royal Swans The Queen's Beasts Notes References Citations Sources Further information External links Royal Symbols and Titles - Government of Canada Monarchy in Canada National symbols of Canada
5182186	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arc%20Light%20%28novel%29	Arc Light (novel)	Arc Light is the debut novel by Eric L. Harry and is a techno-thriller about a limited nuclear war published in September 1994 and written in 1991 and 1992. As China and Russia clash in Siberia, and war brews between the United States and North Korea, a series of accidents and misunderstandings lead to a Russian nuclear strike against the United States. The US retaliates against Russia, and World War III begins. The novel becomes part military techno thriller, part political drama, as heated internal debates concerning the right course of action in the war unfold on both sides, and each government tries to deal with the colossal damage the nuclear strike has done to its country. Moderate voices try to prevent a second nuclear exchange by taming the hawks and working behind the scenes to arrange a ceasefire. Meanwhile, the on-the-ground consequences for both civilians and the military are explored in depth. The novel focuses on three key groups: National Security Advisor Greg Lambert and his immediate political superiors: President Walter Livingston, his successor, as well as the National Security Council. Major David Chandler, US Army Reserve, as he is activated and sent to Europe, where his unit spearheads the allied advance towards Moscow. Chandler's wife, Melissa, as she struggles with the birth of their first child in the midst of a nuclear war. The title refers to the term arclight, which was a code during the Vietnam War for a strike by a B-52. This term is used in the opening pages of the book. Plot summary Prologue Set in the late 1990s against the backdrop of a stalemated Russo-Chinese war for control of Eastern Siberia, North Korea invades the Demilitarized Zone weeks before the planned reunification of Korea Part I In an effort to end the war quickly, the commander of the Russian Siberian Military District, General Yuri Razov, calls the US Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, General Andrew Thomas, to warn the United States of Russia's decision to use tactical nuclear weapons against China. Thomas tries but fails to talk Razov out of the decision. In Moscow, a radical anti-Western Russian general, Zorin, kills the civilian government and STAVKA with a bomb, seizing control of the Kremlin in a swift coup d'etat and taking command of the nuclear communicators. In Washington, DC, US National Security Advisor Greg Lambert has dinner with Russian military attaché Pavel Filipov, a close friend of his and his family's. As a reward for US logistical cooperation in the war against China, Filipov reveals that General Zorin was the one who convinced the North Koreans to invade the Demilitarized Zone to preserve Russia's supply lines across the Korean Peninsula. As the Russian nuclear attack on China unfolds, the US preemptively goes to DEFCON 3 and recalls all its military forces. Lambert is ordered to board Nightwatch with the rest of the Cabinet and the Joint Chiefs, while Filipov is recalled to Moscow. As the White House is evacuated, US President Walter Livingston instructs the Secretary of State to warn the Chinese of the impending strike, lest the US becomes complicit in Russia's heinous actions. Lambert is wary of the ramifications of Livingston's decision, but the chaos of the evacuation prevents the President from hearing his advisor's objections. In Los Angeles, US Army Reserve Major David Chandler is ordered to report to March Air Force Base to take command of his unit, leaving behind his wife Melissa, who is nine months pregnant. As the mobilization continues, Melissa goes into labor and decides to leave the city. In the Kremlin bunker, Zorin watches the US evacuation and bomber takeoffs on cable news. Outside, loyalist government forces cut off the coup plotters' communications and take the complex by force, leaving Zorin unable to contact most of Russia's armed forces, including Razov's nuclear attack in the Russian Far East. After being warned by the US of Russia's impending nuclear attack, China retaliates by launching its own nuclear weapons against Russia. However, the warheads aimed at Moscow are intercepted by the nuclear-tipped anti-ballistic missile system deployed around the capital. Zorin, sleep-deprived and under the influence of amphetamines, is convinced that the US has taken advantage of the confusion and launched a first strike against Russia. Still in control of the nuclear communicators, Zorin orders the ICBM forces in western Russia to launch at their pre-programmed targets. Russia's ballistic missile submarines are not used in the attack, as their missiles are far less accurate than the ICBMs and thus only useful for hitting large targets with large margins of error, such as population centers. The submarines are ordered to maintain their positions in a "bastion" around the Kara Sea, to be used if Russia orders a second strike. Aboard Nightwatch, President Livingston and his staff are informed of the Chinese retaliation against Russia. At the same time, however, they receive a warning that Russian strategic nuclear weapons are attacking the United States. Based on its trajectory, the attack is classified as a "counterforce strike" aimed at American strategic military facilities (such as missile silos, major air and naval bases, and NORAD) rather than civilian infrastructure. The president takes the advice of the Joint Chiefs and orders its own ICBMs to retaliate in kind against Russia's Strategic Rocket Forces before they are destroyed in the incoming attack. At March AFB, Chandler takes command of his assigned battalion and boards a commercial airliner for an unknown destination. Minutes later, the base is obliterated by dozens of Russian nuclear warheads. Other targets such as Cheyenne Mountain, Raven Rock, along with US nuclear silos and major bomber and radar bases, suffer a similar fate. Immediate casualties in the continental United States are estimated to be between 4.5 and 7 million dead, with hundreds of thousands more severely injured or exposed to high doses of radiation. While President Livingston retires to his private cabin aboard Nightwatch to collect his thoughts, JCS Chairman Thomas wonders to the rest of the staff how the Chinese were able to retaliate so quickly since their missile forces are not as advanced as those of Russia or the US and require a long preparation time. Lambert informs Thomas and the rest of the staff of Livingston's order to warn China of Russia's attack. The revelation shakes the staff's confidence in the President's ability to lead the country. Returning to Moscow from the Far East, Razov arrests Zorin and the rest of the coup plotters. Over the hotline, Razov assures Livingston that the nuclear attack on the US was a mistake and promises that there will be no more attacks from Russia. Livingston disgustedly disconnects from Moscow and tells Razov that he had better keep his word about no more attacks, as the US continues its nuclear retaliation against Russia. A reformed STAVKA learns that the submarines in the Kara Sea bastion have received orders from Zorin to launch their nuclear missiles simultaneously in case they are attacked, and to disregard any recall orders. With ground communications lost, Chandler's plane is notified to land at Gander Airport in Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada. Part II Still aboard Nightwatch, President Livingston and his cabinet plan for the aftermath of the nuclear strike. Since the Russian attack did not directly target civilians, casualties are relatively low. To prevent the conflict from escalating further, Livingston orders the US military to stand down and only engage Russian forces if fired upon first, a decision that causes Lambert and the military staff to question the President's judgment. The stress takes its toll on the President, who must approve every emergency decision that reaches his desk, including farming in the midst of radioactive fallout, calling the draft lottery, housing, and disaster management. Meanwhile, at the Congressional Bunker in Greenbrier, West Virginia, the surviving members of the US Congress meet in an emergency session to pass a declaration of war, instructing the President to prosecute the war until all of Russia's nuclear forces are disarmed or destroyed. From Mount Weather, Vice President Paul Constanzo makes a televised address calling for a massive military response against Russia in retaliation for its attack on the US. Constanzo's words are diametrically opposed to Livingston's strategy, who believes that a land invasion of Russian territory and/or an attempt at forced nuclear disarmament will lead to a second nuclear exchange, this time directed at each other's cities: a mutually assured destruction scenario leading to a nuclear winter. President Livingston lands in Philadelphia to set up his cabinet on land and resolve the issues with the Vice President and Congress. On the way back to Los Angeles, Melissa Chandler goes into labor. She gives birth to a baby boy in an overcrowded hospital in Palm Springs. In the aftermath of the nuclear attack, drinking water and food have become scarce across the United States. Congress orders an investigation into the causes of the war and calls a number of witnesses, including National Security Advisor Greg Lambert, to the Greenbrier facilities to testify before the select committee. On his way out of the bunker, Lambert asks the military for help in locating his wife and in-laws, as he has not heard from them since boarding Nightwatch. On the irradiated outskirts of Washington DC, Lambert hitches a ride on an Army helicopter and spots his wife's abandoned car on a highway. A few miles down the road, he finds his in-laws' minivan: inside are the bodies of Lambert's wife, his relatives, and Filipov's wife, long dead from exposure to radioactive fallout. In the Kremlin, General Razov is overruled by the STAVKA staff and agrees to take a more proactive role in defending Russia, ordering an invasion of Iceland, a strategic deployment to western Ukraine to counter US forces on the border with Slovakia, and aborting the Russian incursion into northeastern China, so that Russia's best forces and materiel can be redeployed to the European theater. Part III Lambert refuses to answer the congressional committee's questions, arguing that the information is classified for national security purposes. Although Livingston desperately tries to prevent an all-out war between the US and Russia, skirmishes between the two countries continue in and around Russia. After the governments of Germany and France refuse to support the US as part of NATO, his cabinet begins negotiating a new "Treaty on Euro-American Military Security" (TEAMS) involving the US, the UK, Italy, Canada, Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Iceland, Greece, and Turkey, with Finland as a secret partner. Despite the restraint toward Russia, Livingston orders the detonation of a high-altitude nuclear warhead over Pyongyang as a warning shot to force North Korea out of its ongoing invasion. The ploy works, with North Korea notifying the United Nations of their immediate military withdrawal from the South. The US Supreme Court, now based in Mount Weather, rules that Secretary Lambert must answer all questions put to him by the congressional committee. Again before Congress, he reveals Livingston's order to warn China of Russia's impending nuclear attack. This, along with the President's refusal to follow through on Congress' declaration of war, triggers calls for his immediate impeachment. In Russia, STAVKA decides to make any further attacks on US or allied targets contingent on Livingston's continuity as president. With his options running out, President Livingston is notified of a secret straw vote to be held by Congress before the actual impeachment vote. If the resolution against him passes, he will order the US armed forces to a full war footing against Russia. The straw vote is a landslide for impeachment. As promised, Livingston's final act in office is to declare free-fire rules against all Russian military targets, with the notable exception of the submarines in the Kara Sea bastion. In his final moments as president, Livingston begs Lambert to stay in the cabinet to moderate Constanzo's aggression toward Russia, urging him to avoid a second nuclear exchange at all costs. Part IV After Constanzo is sworn in as President, the US and its allies move to invade Russia. At the same time, General Razov orders an amphibious assault on Iceland to keep a number of elite US and Canadian units from joining the main invasion force. With most of the Russian army still on the Siberian front, the western border is left lightly defended. STAVKA orders the use of nerve gas and the conscription of provisional troops to assist in the defense of the Russian homeland. Constanzo abrogates Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty and admonishes former NATO members France, Germany, and Norway to respect American supply lines and military facilities. As Russia's satellites are shot down by ASAT-armed F-15s, its main submarine bases in the North Sea are destroyed in a conventional bombing campaign. Russia retaliates by using Tu-22M and Tu-160 bombers to knock out power plants in the western United States, plunging cities like Los Angeles into darkness. Major Chandler's plane lands at an air base in Prešov, Slovakia, near the border with Ukraine. On his first day in a war zone, Chandler manages to kill two of his men in an unmarked minefield. After surviving a Russian chemical bombardment, he is ordered by Colonel Harkness, the regional commander of US forces, to take command of an armored battalion, despite Chandler's protests to be transferred to an intelligence unit. With Washington, DC, contaminated by nuclear fallout, the US government organizes a provisional capital in Philadelphia, formally transferring most functions and personnel from the bunkers and Nightwatch. National Security Advisor Gregory Lambert becomes famous among a wary civilian population for his congressional testimony against Livingston and the loss of his family in the nuclear attack. In the Kremlin, Filipov is ordered by Razov to travel to the United States and meet with his friend Lambert (under the pretext of looking for his wife) to warn him of the orders received by the ballistic missile submarines in the Kara Sea bastion. After a debriefing at a CIA safe house in Philadelphia, Lambert tells Filipov that his wife died in the attack. In a meeting with the Principals Committee, President Constanzo reviews Filipov's taped statement. The Joint Chiefs, along with the Directors of the CIA and NSA, believe that the so-called "Kara Sea Submarine Bastion Threat" is a bluff, arguing that a dead-hand order order is inconsistent with both Russia's top-down military doctrine and game theory scenarios. The US and its allies rapidly advance in two prongs from their staging areas in Central Europe into the heart of European Russia. Despite the surrender of forces in Ukraine and Belarus, and the Polish-led northern prong advancing as planned, the southern prong stalls near Prešov due to heavy resistance from the Russian 8th Guards Army. The potential for a protracted land war prompt the Federal Reserve and Treasury to warn President Constanzo that there is a very high probability that large portions of the civilian population abandoning the major cities in fear of a second nuclear exchange will cause an economic depression of unprecedented proportions in the coming months unless civilian economic activity is normalized. As such, Constanzo signs an executive order to force all civilian employees back to their jobs. Lambert also proposes a previously rejected plan to open a third front in northwestern Russia, with amphibious landings in Karelia that could reach Moscow before the end of the year. Supported by Finnish forces, the amphibious assault is successful, as Russian forces in the area are unable to respond in time to prevent a possible Allied encirclement of Saint Petersburg. In the Russian Far East, US Marines stage a landing on Primorye, forcing the Russian troops still in transit (deployed around China to meet this new invasion) to transfer to European Russia instead. Despite heavy losses, the US takes Vladivostok and destroy several sections of the Trans-Siberian Railway. After the Japanese Self-Defense Forces occupy the Kuril Islands, Sakhalin and other Siberian regions declare their secession from Moscow's control. General Razov calls the US television networks to address the United States directly, warning its citizens that if allied forces break through Moscow's ring motorway, Russia's ballistic missile submarines will be ordered to attack all major US population centers. The announcement sparks panic across the United States, with cities deserted at a critical economic moment. In Los Angeles, Melissa Chandler decides to evacuate the city, fearing for her life and that of her newborn son. In addition to the televised speech and Filipov's debriefing in Philadelphia, the CIA received the same information from a well-placed HUMINT source with ties to the Russian leadership, codenamed "Damocles," whom Lambert suspects is Filipov. The CIA and NSA analysts maintain their argument to President Constanzo that everything they have received from Russia about "Bastion" is a planned maskirovka operation by STAVKA to maintain its nuclear counterforce capability. However, the military officers are becoming more aware of the potential risk that the conflict escalates further. As US and allied forces approach Moscow, the "Damocles" source continues to feed information to the US, including reports that Russian forces are preparing for a long and protracted nuclear war of attrition against the occupying forces. President Constanzo, searching for a way to end the war, orders Lambert to meet personally with Razov in Moscow to offer him a peace treaty. Russia would surrender its nuclear arsenal in exchange for a five-year period (renewable based on political conditions) under the American "nuclear umbrella," respect for Russia's pre-war borders, the rearmament of its conventional forces, and the scheduled withdrawal of American and allied troops from European Russia. Lambert would have two hours to come to an agreement. If, after the deadline, he goes incommunicado or is deemed to be under duress, US forces will receive orders to attack both Moscow and the Kara Sea submarine bastion, followed by the destruction of all major metropolitan areas in Russia with nuclear demolition munitions. Part V While Lambert crosses the Moscow front line under a white flag to meet with Filipov, the other members of STAVKA depose General Razov. After Lambert and Filipov are informed of the impromptu coup, the latter sets out to rescue Razov. Filipov's vehicles intercept the convoy carrying Razov and his entourage outside Lefortovo Prison. Lambert offers Razov the US terms for a cease-fire, and Razov personally agrees. As Lambert's deadline passes, President Constanzo orders the attack on Moscow and the Kara Sea Bastion to begin immediately. A newly promoted Lieutenant Colonel Chandler orders his armored task force to breach the Moscow perimeter. His tank is disabled by a Russian missile and he is forced to continue on foot. When he reaches an enemy foxhole, he finds the bodies of hundreds of conscripted Russian soldiers killed by American-fired chemical weapons. Bombs and artillery cover Moscow, and Razov, Filipov, and Lambert race back to the Kremlin. As they fight their way into the bunker, Razov takes control of the nuclear communicators and enters a code. Lambert calls President Constanzo to tell him that General Razov has agreed to the terms of the truce. Razov explains to Constanzo that the code he entered into the communicator disabled the detonators on the nuclear warheads on the Bastion's submarines, a fail-safe measure put in place by Gorbachev after the attempted coup in 1991 in order to prevent a nuclear civil war. Constanzo sends orders to abort the naval attack on the Kara Sea. Most of the abort orders are acknowledged, but the cruiser USS Anzio is engaged in battle with one of the submarines and its communications are knocked out. The destroyer USS John S. McCain is ordered to sink the Anzio; the order arrives too late, however, and the Anzio fires its ASROC batteries at the Russian submarine, triggering the override orders for all of the Bastion's forces to launch their missiles. Razov assures Constanzo that the warheads will not detonate, but Constanzo does not believe him, despite Lambert's pleas. In response to the launches, Constanzo orders the US Navy's SSBNs to launch their missiles against Russia on their own orders: the detection of an electromagnetic pulse consistent with a nuclear attack against US soil. The Russian missiles hit their targets all over the United States; true to Razov's word, no nuclear warheads are detonated. As American and Russian forces agree to a cease-fire and pull back from the fighting, Lambert, Filipov, and Razov climb out of the Kremlin bunker and onto a badly damaged Red Square. Still angry, Filipov bids farewell to his former friend Lambert, and Razov hints that he was the "Damocles" source all along. Epilogue Three months after the formal cessation of hostilities, the security situation in Russia worsens for the American occupation forces as anarchist protests erupt in major cities, sparked by winter food shortages. In Los Angeles, Chandler says goodbye to his wife and child as his two-week leave of absence comes to an end and returns to Europe to take command of his armored task force. References External links Tally of nuclear detonations, yields, and locations Map of nuclear detonation general locations Reader reviews at Library Thing 1994 American novels Fiction set in 1999 American post-apocalyptic novels American war novels American thriller novels Novels by Eric L. Harry Novels about the United States Marine Corps Techno-thriller novels Novels set during World War III Novels set in Russia Novels set in Moscow Novels set in Saint Petersburg Novels set in Siberia Novels set in the United States Novels set in Washington, D.C. Novels set in Los Angeles Novels set in Philadelphia Novels set in China Fiction about invasions 1994 debut novels Novels about nuclear war and weapons Simon & Schuster books
5182370	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime%20in%20Mexico	Crime in Mexico	Crime is one of the most urgent concerns facing Mexico, as Mexican drug trafficking rings play a major role in the flow of cocaine, methamphetamine, fentanyl, heroin, and marijuana transiting between Latin America and the United States. Drug trafficking has led to corruption, which has had a deleterious effect on Mexico's Federal Representative Republic. Drug trafficking and organized crime have been a major source of violent crime. Drug cartels and gangs have also branched out to conduct alternative illegal activities for profit, including sex trafficking in Mexico. Some of the most increasingly violent states in Mexico in 2020 included Guanajuato, Zacatecas, Michoacán, Jalisco, and Querétaro. Some of the world's most violent cities are reportedly within the state of Guanajuato with extortion from criminal groups (such as CSRL and CJNG) now being commonplace. The state of Zacatecas is said to be valuable to multiple organized crime groups (including the Sinaloa Cartel and CJNG) for drug trafficking, specifically methamphetamine to the United States. As of 2021, Michoacán is experiencing increased instances of extortion and kidnapping due to a growing presence and escalation in the armed conflicts between CJNG and Cárteles Unidos on regions bordering the neighboring state of Jalisco. CJNG is also currently battling the Los Chapitos faction of the Sinaloa Cartel in the North Mexican region of Sonora. Mexico has experienced increasingly high crime rates, especially in major urban centers. The country's great economic polarization has stimulated criminal activity mainly in the lower socioeconomic strata, which include the majority of the country's population. Crime is increasing at high levels, and is repeatedly marked by violence, especially in the cities of Tijuana and Ciudad Juárez, and the states of Baja California, Durango, Sinaloa, Guerrero, Chihuahua, Michoacán, Tamaulipas, and Nuevo León. Other metropolitan areas have lower, yet still serious, levels of crime. Low apprehension and conviction rates contribute to the high crime rate. Since many crimes go unreported, the rates may be much higher than reported by the government. The murder rate in 2015 was 14 per 100,000. Most of the crime is committed by a small proportion of the population involved in the drug trade with about half of murders drug related. Assault and theft make up the vast majority of crimes. While urban areas tend to have higher crime rates, as is typical in most countries, the United States–Mexico border has also been a problematic area. In 2017, Mexico witnessed a record number of murders with 29,158 homicides recorded. Mexico is Latin America's most dangerous country for journalists according to the Global Criminality Index 2016. Many of these crimes go unpunished, which has led to campaigns in the press and demonstrations highlighting the supposed 'impunity' of those responsible for murdering investigative journalists. Crime by type Murder In 2012, Mexico had a murder rate of 21.5 per 100,000 population. There were a total of 26,037 murders in Mexico in 2012. Between 2000 and 2013, 215,000 people in Mexico were murdered. By 2013 there were only 30,800 people incarcerated for murder, showing that many murders go unsolved. In October 2017, Mexico suffered its deadliest month since it started keeping such data in 1997, with 2,371 murder investigations. 2017 was Mexico's deadliest year on record, with 31,174 murders recorded, leading to a murder rate of 25 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2017, compared with 19.4 in 2011. In May 2018, Mexico broke the previous deadliest month on record set in October with 2,530 reported cases of intentional homicides during the month, or 93 per day. In 2018, Mexico broke the previous deadliest year record, with Mexican authorities opened 33,341 murder investigations in 2018, the highest number ever. However in 2019, homicides were on track to reach 35,000 in 2019 which is even higher than the 2018 year record. By states The state of Chihuahua ranked number one with the most homicide in the country, the least was Baja California Sur. Drug trafficking The United States is a lucrative market for illegal drugs. The United Nations estimates that nearly 90% of cocaine sold in the United States originates in South America and is smuggled through Mexico. Mexico is the largest foreign supplier of marijuana and the largest source of heroin for the U.S. market. The majority of methamphetamine sold in the United States is made in Mexico, and Mexican-run methamphetamine labs that operate north of the border account for much of the remainder. Drug cartels Mexican drug cartels play a major role in the flow of cocaine, heroin, and marijuana transiting between Latin America and the United States. These drug cartels often use Mexican-American and other Latino gangs to distribute their narcotics in United States. Mexican drug cartels also have ties to Colombian drug traffickers, and other international organized crime. A sharp spike in drug-related violence has some analysts worrying about the 'Colombianization' of Mexico. Domestic production of illegal drugs Some illegal drugs are also produced in Mexico, including significant amounts of opium poppy, and marijuana in the western Sierra Madre Mountains region. Mexico has increasingly become a major producer of amphetamines and other synthetic drugs in the North American market (e.g. crystal), especially in the states of Guerrero, Michoacán, Jalisco and the Distrito Federal. Since early 2007, the export of manufactured drugs has been controlled by the Beltran-Leyva brothers (Sonora-Sinaloa-DF) and "la Familia de Michoacán". These two crime groups have controlled the corridors from the deep sea port of Lázaro Cárdenas in Michoacán, where precursor products to manufacture synthetic drugs are imported from Asia. Domestic consumption of illegal drugs Marijuana, crack cocaine, methamphetamine, and other drugs are increasingly consumed in Mexico, especially by youths in urban areas and northern parts of the country. Corruption High levels of corruption in the police, judiciary, and government in general have contributed greatly to the crime problem. Corruption is a significant obstacle to Mexico's achieving a stable democracy. Mexico is ranked the 138th least corrupt country in the world which makes them less corrupt than Papua New Guinea but more corrupt than Lebanon. This is according to the Corruption Perceptions Index, which is based on 13 different surveys and includes police, business, and political corruption. Corruption in law enforcement The war was characterized by a backlash against the active student movement of the late 1960s which ended in the Tlatelolco massacre at a 1968 student rally in Mexico City. The organization of police forces in Mexico is complex; each police force has a different level of jurisdiction and authority, and those levels often overlap. The Procuraduría General de la República (Federal Attorney General's office) along with the law enforcement agencies Policia Federal Preventiva and Agencia Federal de Investigación, has responsibility for overseeing law enforcements across the entire country. In addition, there are several police organizations at the state, district, and city level. Since pay is generally poor (U.S.$285–$400 per month), police officers are more likely to accept bribes to protect criminals or ignore crime entirely. Law enforcement personnel are often presented with the option of choosing "Plata o Plomo"; meaning they can either accept a bribe (plata, for silver) or they will be killed (plomo, for lead). Corruption plagues the various levels of police, and is frequently difficult to track down and prosecute since police officers may be protected by district attorneys and other members of the judiciary. The problem is especially pronounced in northern border areas such as Tijuana, where police are engaged by drug traffickers to protect and enforce their illicit interests. The Mexican police force often do not investigate crimes, will generally randomly select someone to be the guilty party then fabricate the evidence. This issue is a major problem throughout Mexico as many of the actual police force are the ones involved in the crimes or are trying to cover up their poor police work. Corruption in the judiciary A United Nations Special Rapporteur undertook a mission to Mexico in 2002 to investigate reports by the United Nations Commission on Human Rights that the country's judiciary and administration of law was not independent. During the course of his visit to a number of cities, the rapporteur observed that corruption in the judiciary had not been reduced significantly. One of the principal issues is that, because the federal courts operate at a relatively high level, most citizens are compelled to seek justice in the inadequate state courts. Additionally, the rapporteur expressed concerns about such issues as disorganization in the legal profession, difficulties and harassment faced by lawyers, poor trial procedures, poor access to the justice system for indigenous peoples and minors, and lacklustre investigation of many crimes. Violent crime against journalists A significant increase in violent crime against journalists has been encountered in the country in recent years. Although the problem has existed since at least 1970, the amount of violence against journalist has intensified since the beginning of the Mexican Drug War, with at least 90 journalists murdered or disappeared in Mexico since 2006. Few of the perpetrators have been brought to justice. One of the more prominent cases was that of syndicated columnist Francisco Arratia Saldierna, a prominent and well-known journalist who wrote a column called Portavoz (or "Spokesman"). The column featured topics such as corruption, organized crime, and drug trafficking. Arratia's murder, which was particularly brutal, and others like it, sparked demands from other journalists that then-President Vicente Fox do more to enforce security and bring those responsible for the murders to justice. In 2004, a group of 215 reporters and editors sent an urgent letter to President Fox and other federal authorities, demanding that they address these concerns. The letter represented a massive communication effort coming from professionals from 19 of the nation's 31 states. The key demand was that violent crimes against journalists be made federal crimes, so they would be investigated and prosecuted by federal officers and not by local officials whom the letter claims could be the same people who commit the crimes. The effect of these crimes has been the self-censorship of many journalists, due to fears of retribution from criminals. The situation has earned attention from prominent global organizations such as the office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) and the Center for Journalism and Public Ethics (CEPET). Amerigo Incalcaterra of the OHCHR advocated the protection of journalists and the preservation of freedom of speech, calling it "essential for the consolidation of democracy and the rule of law in this country". Forced disappearance Over 30,000 people in Mexico have been reported missing in 2016. Sex trafficking and slavery Mexican citizens and foreigners have been victims of sex trafficking in Mexico. Drug cartels and gangs fighting in the Mexican War on Drugs have relied on trafficking as an alternative source of profit to fund their operations. The cartels and gangs also abduct women and girls to use as their personal sex slaves. Violence against women As of 2014, Mexico has the 16th highest rate of homicides committed against women in the world. This rate has been on the rise since 2007. According to the 2013 Human Rights Watch, many women do not seek out legal redress after being victims of domestic violence and sexual assault because "the severity of punishments for some sexual offenses contingent on the "chastity" of the victim" and "those who do report them are generally met with suspicion, apathy, and disrespect." According to a 1997 study by Kaja Finkler, domestic abuse "is embedded in gender and marital relations fostered in Mexican women's dependence on their spouses for subsistence and for self-esteem, sustained by ideologies of romantic love, by family structure and residential arrangements." Gender violence is more prevalent in regions along the Mexico-US border and in areas of high drug trading activity and drug violence. The phenomenon of the female homicides in Ciudad Juárez involves the violent deaths of hundreds of women and girls since 1993 in the northern Mexican region of Ciudad Juárez, Chihuahua, a border city across the Rio Grande from the U.S. city of El Paso, Texas. As of February 2005, the number of murdered women in Ciudad Juarez since 1993 is estimated to be more than 370. In 2005, journalist Lydia Cacho published a book, Demons of Eden, exposing Mexican politicians and business leaders' large roles in a child sex trade spanning Mexico. She was abducted and harassed by police officers in response. Women in the Mexican Drug War (2006–present) have been raped, tortured, and murdered in the conflict. By location Mexico City Between 2000 and 2004 an average of 478 crimes were reported each day in Mexico City. The actual crime rate is thought to be much higher "since most people are reluctant to report crime." Under policies enacted by Mayor Marcelo Ebrard between 2009 and 2011, Mexico City underwent a major security upgrade with violent and petty crime rates both falling significantly despite the rise in violent crime in other parts of the country. Some of the policies enacted included the installation of 11,000 security cameras around the city and a very large expansion of the city police force. Mexico City currently has one of the highest police officer to resident ratios in the world, with one uniformed police officer per every 100 citizens. The murder rate in 2009 was 8.4 per 100,000 — by comparison, higher than the 5.6 in New York City but much less than the 14.8 in Atlanta. In Mexico City, the area of Iztapalapa has the highest rates of rape, violence against women, and domestic violence in the capital. Crime reporting and sentencing rate According to the CNDH, only one out of every ten crimes is reported in Mexico; this is due to lack of trust from citizens to the authorities. Furthermore, only one out of 100 reported crimes actually goes to sentencing. Effects on tourism Mexico is a major tourist destination, with 42 million people traveling there in 2018; US citizens alone usually make up 15–16 million annually. Because cartel-related violence in Mexico is highly geographically limited, the US State department has issued "do not travel" advisories for only five states as of November 2021: Colima, Guerrero, Michoacán, Sinaloa and Tamaulipas. Even in areas with high levels of violent crime, tourists are rarely targeted as conflicts are usually between rival gangs and/or the police. Pickpocketing and other forms of petty theft are generally the main concerns for travelers to Mexico. Before the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, tourist numbers were increasing. In 2015, Verdugo-Yepes, Pedroni and Hu applied a panel structural vector autoregression model to model the effects of crime on GDP growth and foreign direct investment (FDI) at the state and national level. Chela Rivas, a Mexican singer and performer, stated in 2020 that "because of the war with drug cartels, each day it becomes more and more dangerous to ... travel to remote towns and sing. It is not only frustrating, it is scary." Efforts to combat crime Law enforcement initiatives Mexican law enforcement is divided between federal, state, and municipal entities. Estimates range between 1,600 and 3,000 different police forces in total. There are over 350,000 police agents in Mexico. At all levels, policing in Mexico tends to maintain separate forces for patrol/response (preventive) policing on the one hand and investigative (judicial) policing on the other. Federal forces at the border In June 2005, the government deployed federal forces to three states to contain surging violence linked to organized crime. At a news conference in Mexico City, presidential spokesman Rubén Aguilar told reporters that the new deployment was the result of evidence that organized crime has penetrated some local police departments. Technology in Tijuana In response to a rise in violent crime in the region of Tijuana, considered one of the five most violent areas of the country by the U.S. State Department, mayor Jorge Hank Rhon deployed a massive technology update to the city's police force in February 2006. The technology includes surveillance equipment, handheld computers, and alarm systems. Since tourism is a staple of the economy in Tijuana, the mayor has tried to make reforms to highlight the safety of tourist areas.Tijuana has installed a sophisticated public-security system, but city officials don't seem to know details about how it is funded or the background of the company that supplied it. Political initiatives President Vicente Fox took power in December 2000 promising to crack down on crime and improve a judicial system rife with corruption and ineptitude. Upon taking office, he established a new ministry of Security and Police, doubled the pay for police officers, and committed to other ethics reforms. President Fox also cited drug trafficking and drug consumption as the top cross-border priority issue. During the first three years of Fox's government, the official number of reported kidnappings showed a slight decrease, from 505 in 2001 to 438 in 2003. The new Federal Investigation Agency (Procuraduria de Justicia) reported dismantling 48 kidnapping rings and saving 419 victims. Cooperation with the United States In 1996, Mexico changed its policy to allow extradition of its citizens to the United States to face trial. Previously, the Constitution had forbidden its citizens to be extradited. In 2005, the U.S. State Department defended efforts by the two countries to reduce violence and drug trafficking on the border following decisions by governors in the U.S. states of Arizona and New Mexico to declare an emergency in their border counties. The two governors stated, "the federal government's inability to control crime and violence related to illegal immigration had forced them to take matters into their own hands". The Mexican government criticized the emergency declarations. The U.S. state of Texas and Mexican police officials held a conference in San Antonio to discuss ways of coordinating efforts to stop crime but there are questions about how successful the program will be. Many Mexican police officials in border towns have been targets of assassination by drug cartels, who have even threatened local law enforcement in the United States. In January 2003, the security consulting company of former New York City Mayor Rudolph Giuliani was hired by business leaders to come up with a plan to clean up Mexico City, which has the second-highest crime rate in Latin America. Social initiatives Protest march against crime In June 2004, at least a million people marched through the Mexican capital and other cities to protest the failure of federal and local governments to control crime in one of the world's most crime-ridden countries. In 2008, a second civilian protest was made after independent NGOs exhorted the public, again, at least one million people attended over Mexico City and other major cities all across Mexico. On this second march candles were lit and the national anthem was played. The protest generated more public attention perhaps because in this same year, a 12-year-old son of the Marti family, owners of a prominent well-known sports gear business, was abducted and murdered. In the same year, a similar situation occurred to the 19-year-old daughter of Nelson Vargas, a businessman and former government representative. These two cases brought great public attention since the scale of crime and violence was very rare to hit over certain social groups, being these amongst the most remarkable exemptions. Human rights violations In its effort to combat crime, the Mexican army was accused of crimes against humanity by several NGOs. In September 2014, several Mexican human rights groups and International Federation for Human Rights, had filed a complaint with the office of the prosecutor of the International Criminal Court, asking it to investigate the “systematic and widespread” abuse of thousands of civilians by the army and the police in their fight against organized crime. See also Gun politics in Mexico International child abduction in Mexico Presumed Guilty, a 2009 Mexican documentary film Mexican Drug War: List of Mexico's 37 most-wanted drug lords Miguel Ángel Félix Gallardo Guadalajara Cartel Sinaloa Cartel Jalisco New Generation Cartel Gulf Cartel Juárez Cartel Los Zetas Tijuana Cartel El Narco: Inside Mexico's Criminal Insurgency References Other references External links Mexico Black Markets Havocscope Black Markets Mexico: An Embattled Country from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives Mexico page on InSight Crime Ongoing reporting on Mexico's drug war and involved cartels. Mexican Crime Stats NationMaster Mexican Crime Statistics and Analysis Center for Economic Research and Education (CIDE) Organized Crime and Terrorist Activity in Mexico, 1999–2002 Library of Congress Potent Mexican Meth Floods In as States Curb Domestic Variety New York Times The Best Page about Mexican Crime Statistics Actualized to 2011 in some cases
5182865	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrus%20Alphonsi	Petrus Alphonsi	Petrus Alphonsi (died after 1116) was a Jewish Spanish physician, writer, astronomer and polemicist who converted to Christianity in 1106. He is also known just as Alphonsi, and as Peter Alfonsi or Peter Alphonso, and was born Moses Sephardi. Born in Islamic Spain, he mostly lived in England and France after his conversion. Life He was born at an unknown date and place in the 11th century in Spain, and educated in al-Andalus, or Islamic Spain. As he describes himself, he was baptised at Huesca, capital of the Kingdom of Aragon, on St. Peter's Day, 29 June 1106, when he was probably approaching middle age; this is the first clear date we have in his biography. In honor of the saint Peter, and of his royal patron and godfather, the Aragonese King Alfonso I he took the name of Petrus Alfonsi (Alfonso's Peter). By 1116 at the latest he had emigrated to England, where he seems to have remained some years, before moving to northern France. The date of his death is as unclear as that of his birth. He was famous as a writer during his lifetime, and remained so for the rest of the Middle Ages, with over 160 surviving medieval manuscripts containing works of his. The most common are his Dialogi contra Iudaeos (Dialogue Against the Jews), an imaginary conversation between a Jew and a Christian, and Disciplina Clericalis (A Training-school for the Clergy), in fact a collection of Eastern fables. Petrus was born a Jew while living in al-Andalus, and after he rose to prominence, he converted to Christianity. This environment gave him an advantageous knowledge of Christianity, Judaism and Islam that would later prove useful in his polemics. John Tolan mentioned in his book Petrus Alfonsi and His Medieval Readers that "Alfonsi's texts were received enthusiastically—he became an auctor, an authority to be quoted. His success was due in large part to his ability to bridge several cultures: a Jew from the [Muslim] world of al-Andalus." His knowledge of these different religions is what makes Alfonsi unique and why he is essential to be studied when looking at anti-Judaic polemics. Petrus' upbringing placed him in an atmosphere that provided a significant impetus to launch him as one of the most important figures in anti-Judaic polemics. According to Tolan, Petrus Alfonsi was reared in a society in turmoil: a place of chaos and political instability, where Judaism was in conflict with science, and Islam and Christianity were becoming a larger influence. His background was conveniently placed in the centre of contention between religions and circumstances that surrounded his upbringing, and provided the framework for polemics that would shape Medieval Judaic perception. In the Dialogus Alphonsi relates that he traveled to England as magister in liberal arts. He spent several years there as court physician of Henry I of England (reigned 1100–1135). The presence of Alfonsi in the West Country in the years before that date may have contributed to the flowering of Arabic science in that region from the 1120s onwards. He discussed astronomy with Walcher of Malvern. Petrus passed on the Arabic system of astronomical graduation. They may have collaborated on a work on eclipses. Works Disciplina Clericalis Alfonsi's fame rests chiefly on a collection of 33 tales, composed in Latin at the beginning of the 12th century. This work is a collection of oriental tales of moralizing character, translated from Arabic. Some of the tales he drew on were from tales later incorporated into Arabian Nights, including the "Sindibad the Wise" story cycle (not to be confused with Sindbad the Sailor) and "The Tale of Attaf". It established some didactic models that would be followed by other medieval authors. The collection enjoyed remarkable popularity, and is an interesting study in comparative literature. It is entitled Disciplina Clericalis (A Training-school for the Clergy), and was often used by clergymen in their discourses, notwithstanding the questionable moral tone of some of the stories. The work is important as throwing light on the migration of fables, and is almost indispensable to the student of medieval folk-lore. Translations of it into French, Spanish, German, and English are extant. At the beginning of the 13th century an anonymous versifier rendered some sentences and tales from the Disciplina Clericalis by Petrus Alphonsi (1110 circa) into the elegiac metre. This was the origin of the Alphunsus de Arabicis eventibus. Joseph Jacobs discovered some of the stories at the end of Caxton's translation of the fables of Æsop, where thirteen apologues of "Alfonce" are taken in fact from the Disciplina Clericalis. An outline of the tales, by Douce, is prefixed to Ellis' "Early English Metrical Romances." Nearly all the stories are adopted in the Gesta Romanorum. Chapters ii and iii were done into Hebrew and issued under the title, Book of Enoch,. An early French translation of this Hebrew language extract was made prior to 1698 by Piques, and August Pichard published another version in Paris, 1838. Friedrich Wilhelm Valentin Schmidt produced a scholarly edition in 1827. Dialogi contra Iudaeos Like many converts of his time, Alfonsi was accused of bad faith by the Jewish community and to counter this, as well as to show his zeal for his new faith he wrote a work attacking Judaism and defending the truths of the Christian faith. It became one of the most widely read and used anti-Jewish polemical texts of the Middle Ages, as Tolan shows. Alfonsi wrote the Dialogues in 1110; he presents them as a disputation between his former Jewish self (Moses) and his current Christian self (Peter). He divides the work into twelve "Dialogues" or chapters: and the first four attack Judaism, the fifth attacks Islam, and the last seven defend Christianity. Up until the Dialogi contra Iudaeos, the Augustinian tradition was followed in Christendom which allowed relative tolerance to the Jewish people, and for the most part up until this point the attacks on the Jewish people were localized and more importantly, not organized. There was no literature before Petrus Alfonsi's Dialogi condemning Judaism as a whole. There was no document for people to latch on to and group up against the Jewish people. Alfonsi attempted to prove Christianity by disproving Judaism. For Alfonsi, there existed a difficulty in proving Christianity through the invalidity of Judaism since the basic tenets of Christianity originate in the Old Testament. At the time, some believed if a polemicist proves the nullification of binding of the Mosaic ("Old") Law, then ipso facto he or she also proves the invalidity of Christianity. He attempted to avoid this problem by challenging the Talmud and rabbis. This work presented a point of view contrary to previous Christian philosophy because Christians claimed that the Jews were blindly practicing the Old Law. Petrus Alfonsi initiated a differing idea that “the Jews no longer followed the Old Law; they follow a new and heretical law, that of the Talmud.” Petrus’ belief was that the Jewish leaders were knowingly and willfully leading their flock astray. He believed that they purposely lied in order to conceal their sin of killing Jesus, in spite of the fact that they knew that he was the Son of God. Petrus Alfonsi also claimed that the Talmud was written to keep the Jewish people from seeing that Jesus was the Son of God; he called the Talmud “a fabric of lies” and a “heretical book.” What makes this doctrine so radically different from some previous Christian polemics of the time is that they tried to prove the validity of Christianity by pointing out scriptures in the Old Law that confirmed that Jesus was the Son of God. With this belief, it portrayed the Jews as a people who would eventually see the truth and would ultimately convert to Christianity. Petrus’ new concept claimed that the Jewish leaders were blatantly lying and had attempted to cover up the truth. This new concept obviously would create a new type of tension between Christians and Jews, and Alfonsi inadvertently affected Anti Semites to rebring [deicide] as a charge against all Jews. The Augustinian tradition afforded Jews in Europe a tolerance throughout the Latin West that was not shared among other religions. This tradition did not place any emphasis on Judaism being heretical, but rather pointed to the fact that the Jews had a pivotal part to play in the spreading of Christianity. This doctrine was originally written to explain why Jews were not converting to Christianity. Since the Jews were the ones who had kept the law, it would seem logical that they would know whether the savior had come, and this seemed to present a problem within Christian society. Daniel J. Lasker said of Petrus' ideology that “These innovations signaled the beginning of the end of the relative Christian tolerance of Jews and Judaism inspired by the writings of Augustine.” Other authors before Petrus had used harsher rhetoric; there was seldom any deviation from the Augustinian tradition. The Augustinian tradition assumed that, once the Jews’ purpose was served, they would convert to Christianity, but Jews in general were not converting and people were looking for a new explanation. Alfonsi attempted to explain this discrepancy by stating that Judaism is heretical, and that the Jewish leaders have knowingly covered up the truth. He made his claim specific to the religion and Jewish leaders, but not to the people as a whole. He did this through pointing out scientific inconsistencies in the belief of Judaism. Alfonsi's polemical work did not signify that the twelfth century was filled with violence between religions, or that many who professed to be Christians were actively crusading against the Jews for conversion. At this time, the Augustinian tradition remained and Christians assumed that the Jews would just progress towards becoming Christians. During Alfonsi's life, his work set the stage and afforded the language that would enable later persecutions, rather than his polemics developing out of Jewish persecution. Although Alfonsi may not have been the man who was forcibly converting Jews, his writings did enable later polemicist to fabricate even bolder claims of the Talmud including that it was satanic. These new writings and ideals influenced the thought of many others in the Latin West for years to come. Petrus Alfonsi's Dialogi contra Iudaeos was not an entirely new polemical concept; he used the same arguments and cited the same Old Testament prophecies that polemicists before him had been using. Before Alfonsi's Dialogi contra Iudaeos, Medieval Latin knew very little about the religious beliefs and practices of the Jews living within their own city. Most Christians did not know the contents of the Talmud, and some did not even know of its existence. This lack of knowledge provided a problem for Christians who were trying to prove the superiority of Christianity over Judaism, and they were doing this without even knowing the basics of Judaism. What made Petrus Alfonsi's work unique and gave him a level of influence that was unmatched by any of the preceding polemicists was his knowledge of Judaism combined with his new concept on how to perceive it. As stated earlier, Petrus’ unique upbringing gave him a particular advantage to be an authority on polemics. Because Petrus came from Iberia, a place where polemics were initiated from actual dialogue and actual knowledge of rival religions, he was able to bring his Andalusian polemic with his firsthand knowledge of Judaism out of Iberia to Latin Europe, and transform the Latin polemical tradition. The Dialogi contra Iudaeos represented a turning point in not only polemical strategy, but also the perception of Judaism. In the Dialogi, Alfonsi argued with himself as his old Jewish self (Moses) and his new converted Christian self (Peter). What made this particular strategy of polemics so influential was the ability to control the argument legitimately without the need of a second party. Since the argument was between Judaism and Christianity, and Alfonsi was once a Jew and then a Christian, he was able to argue both sides with accuracy. By arguing against himself in the Dialogi, he was able to set the parameters of the argument without any unforeseen issues from a second party. Petrus was able to make each side say what he wanted; because of this, it was authoritative, and became a damaging piece to the perception of the Jews. The polemics between Moses and Peter seemed to have a friendly tone in their voices, but the arguments that the Dialogi presented were a radically new way to attack Judaism. It was far more negative than any of the Latin works influenced by the Augustinian tradition. Alfonsi viewed Judaism as a conspiratorial, anti-Christian sect. Although he claimed that Judaism did follow the Old Law, he said that it is “only in part, and that part is not pleasing to God.” He also challenged the general idea that the Jews unknowingly killed the son of God, and said that they killed Jesus out of envy. He said that, “God revealed to their priests the Temple would be destroyed and the Jews scattered as punishment for the Crucifixion; the priests, out of malice and envy, hid this revelation from their people.” This was a clear deviation from the Augustinian tradition, and was only successful because of the unique position as a Jewish convert that Petrus Alfonsi occupied. Because of his knowledge of the Talmud and Judaism, that until then was unprecedented by Christian polemicists, it validated his anti-Judaic position. This knowledge made him an authority, and allowed some people to begin to question the longstanding Augustinian tradition of tolerance, which was problematic for the Jews on many different levels. This not only became a threat to Jewish communities in creating new contentions between Jews and Christians that had not previously existed, but also Jews had to worry about the possibility of losing their position of tolerance with Christendom. With these new polemical works came the issue of what was the purpose of the Jew. If the Jews’ position no longer fell in line with acceptance within Christendom, then they would be forced into a new role, that of intolerance. Various Arguments of the Dialogi contra Iudaeos Alfonsi's claim that was the most deleterious to Jewish-Christian relations was that the Jews knew that Christ was the Son of God and still killed him. John Tolan says that “Alfonsi was the first Latin writer of anti-Jewish polemic to assert that the Jews were guilty of deicide .” In the tenth titulus of the Dialogi contra Iudaeos, Alfonsi declares “that Christ was crucified and killed by the Jews of their own spontaneous will.” He claimed that the Jewish leaders were a deceitful people that should not be trusted, and since he used to be a Jew whom followed Rabbinical Judaism, he was qualified to reveal their thinking process. When the Jews were accused of killing the Son of God, there were three responses given in an attempt to justify why this action was done. The first response was that the Crucifixion was necessary, according to Moses, for it “fulfilled his will.” The second point that Moses makes is that many of the Jews’ ancestors were not a part of the Crucifixion and were already living elsewhere in the world; Judah killed Christ, not Israel. The last point Moses makes is that the Jews had a right to kill him because they had a just judgment of Jesus being a magician. Peter retaliates with valid counterpoints that are clearly better constructed than Moses’ points. This is not to say that Moses’ arguments were not well thought out; it is merely that Peter puts together a better articulated argument. Once Moses conceded that Peter was making valid points, he questioned then why the Jews would kill Jesus, because there were many Jews that were known for their wisdom. Peter then says that “since they denied him and slew him from envy, this is why they are guilty of such a great crime". He said they decided to kill Christ “not in order to fulfill his will, but from the poison of hatred and envy.” Previous polemicists have claimed that the exile of the Jews was due to the Crucifixion, but what was new was the idea that at least a small number of rabbis knew that Jesus was the Son of God before they killed him and that the rabbis also knew this was the reason they were in exile. Petrus’ attack, although directed at Judaism, does not attempt to challenge the Jewish people; he reserves his polemics for the rabbis and rabbinical Jewish writings. This is particularly interesting because his polemics demonstrate that the Jewish people were not impenitently heretical but rather misguided by envious rabbis who wanted to retain power over the Jews. If this was the case, then there was hope for the Christians that the Jews could convert. This perception of the Jews being capable of conversion if they were just enlightened of the truth about the deceitful rabbis was not injurious to the Jews in the immediate future, but rather to Judaism as a whole over a long period of time. These concepts that flipped the Augustinian tradition upside-down laid the groundwork and afforded the language that would enable Christians to persecute the Jews for the purpose of conversion. According to Christians, once the Jews had discovered the truth that Alfonsi had, they would convert because the truth was self-evident. However, this was not the case and it gave Christians and later polemicist the impetus for developing a culture that would require a new position for the Jews. When Alfonsi used the Talmud in his arguments, his goal was to expose it as “devoid of divine inspiration” and he did this through proving the Talmud was “contrary to logical and scientific fact.” The way that Alfonsi used the Talmud was completely different from how Christians in the past had used it. Previously Christians would merely peruse the Talmud for inflammatory references to Jesus in order to invoke Christian disdain towards the Jews. When Petrus Alfonsi quoted from the Talmud, he ignored any such slanderous language, and focused on references that would contradict philosophical logic or scientific fact. He proved philosophical fact in his polemics by discussing how the corporeality of God could not exist because it contradicted the dominant Aristotelian theory, and that the Talmudic rabbis saw such scriptures as “God created man in his own image,” as literal. In the Dialogi contra Iudaeos Petrus attacked the mystical tradition called Shi’ur Qomah. He showed how science of his day clearly contradicted the Talmudic claim in hopes of discrediting the validity of it being divinely inspired. The Fifth Titulus As stated earlier, what made Alfonsi's polemics unique is that he was born a Jew in al-Andalus and converted to Christianity. He not only had an immense knowledge of Christianity and Judaism, but he was also very well versed in Islam. He was the first Christian polemicist to have a well-rounded knowledge of the Islamic faith. Some Iberian scholars like Daniel Blackman have made ground breaking arguments that Alfonsi's polemical work against Islam was not primarily meant to disprove it, but rather to use Islam as a means for disproving Judaism to Christians through association. This is not a claim that Alfonsi's only goal in his Islamic polemics was to oppose Judaism, but rather that it was a strong underlining goal. Petrus established in the beginning of the fifth titulus that he was very knowledgeable in Islam, and it is evident that he wanted his readers to know that he had the authority to write about Islam. Since there was no real polemics about Islam at this time, it was important to make it known to his readers that he had the authority to write about Islam. To accomplish this, Petrus so arrogantly says that he “is not less convincing than if Mohammad himself were present...” This confidence in his knowledge of the Islamic faith allows the opportunity for the Dialogi to make a difference in the perception of Christians in Latin Europe. The fifth titulus in the Dialogi contra Iudaeos dealt specifically with polemics against Islam, and out of all twelve tituli, the fifth titulus was the only one that mentioned anything of Islam. Tolan argued that the fifth titulus was shorter and less developed than the other anti-Judaic tituli because he was just trying to convince a Jew of the invalidity of Islam; so there was no need to fully develop this titulus. Blackman argues differently about the fifth titulus, that it was written to associate Judaism with Islam. The fact that Petrus associated Moses with defending the Islamic faith makes this an argument against Judaism. Petrus does not directly say that this is his reason, but the Dialogi was written for Christians to read, not Jews. This document was one of the most important polemics written for Christians’ perception of Judaism. The Dialogi portrayed Judaism as defending Islam, so if Petrus could show Islam as invalid, then he could, through association, expose the invalidity of Judaism. Although Blackman believes that Petrus was motivated in part to write the Dialogi to help explain to Christians why Islam is false, if he really wanted to articulate a complete argument against Islam, he could have written a separate work that was against a Muslim and not a Jew. It seems very illogical for Petrus to write such an extensive work against Judaism, and then write one of the twelve titulus about Islam in the middle of the Dialogi. If the purpose of the fifth titulus is to be against Islam, it does not coincide with anything else in the Dialogi, and it is placed in the middle of it. If Petrus’ true intention of the fifth titulus was to prove the invalidity of Islam then he most certainly would have written an entirely different polemic and included the fifth titulus in that work. When one contrasts Alfonsi's Judaic polemics to his Islamic polemics, there is much revealed about his thoughts on each religion. Petrus’ polemics against Judaism did not focus on how the religion was created or the people that were the original followers of the religion, but that is exactly how Alfonsi sought to defame Islam. He would use a different method of attack against Judaism by associating Judaism with Islam to the Christians. In the start of the fifth titulus, Moses conceded that Peter did not agree with Judaism, but then made the insinuation that Islam is a just religion, and that it is preferred over Christianity. Moses says that “Indeed [their] law is generous. It contains many commands concerning the pleasures of this present life, by which fact divine love is shown to have been greatest toward them... If you should investigate the basis of this law, you will find that it is grounded on an unshakable foundation of reason.” What Petrus attempted to do here is have Moses defend Islam. This was particularly important because he wanted a strong association in his readers’ minds between Judaism and Islam. His goal was to create a link in the minds of his readers so that they perceived Judaism and Islam to be synergistically working together against Christianity. Alfonsi never directly made this claim, but rather wanted his readers to think that Christianity was correct, and that opposing religions would work together before ever conceding that Christianity was the valid choice. He wanted the readers to believe that Judaism is interested only in disproving Christianity and would even defend Islam if necessary. This was an effective method because the readers of the Dialogi were Christians, and they would assume that, since Christianity was correct, all other “false” religions would work together for the downfall of Christianity. By equating Judaism with Islam, Alfonsi helped strengthen his argument that Judaism is heretical. As stated earlier, Judaism had enjoyed the benefit of the Augustinian tradition, but by placing Judaism on the same level as Islam, it made Judaism as heretical as Islam. This association of Judaism with Islam may not have been as directly condemning as Alfonsi's claims that Judaism was heretical, but this does in fact damage the perception of Judaism. Alfonsi's purpose was to degrade the character of the Arabs and the origins of the Islamic faith to order to dismiss it as invalid. Petrus said of the Arabs that “the greater portion of the Arabs at that time were common soldiers and farmers, and almost all were idolaters, except for some who embraced the law of Moses in a heretical way...” He also said of Muhammad that, “Once he was transformed from the humblest pauper into a very rich man by this wealth, he burst forth into such arrogance that he expected that the kingdom of the Arabs would be offered to him...” This insinuation of the Arab people being idolaters and Muhammad being an arrogant man due to his wealth was meant to debunk the Islamic faith. Petrus was able to come out against Islam in a different way than Judaism because Christianity in no way bases its faith on Islam, so going after its history was the simplest task to accomplish. This was to show the Christian readers that there was no reason to defend Islam, and that anyone who did defend it must be doing so only to attempt to dismantle the validity of Christianity. Although it is not possible to prove with empirical evidence, Blackman believes that Petrus Alfonsi converted to Christianity because he honestly believed that it was right and the most logical choice to make. His surroundings suggested that his conversion was merely the product of opportunism and chaos, but when one begins to delve into the Dialogi contra Iudaeos it becomes apparent that he deeply believed what he wrote. Funkenstein agrees saying that he believes that Petrus’ motives for the writing of the Dialogi were fairly sincere. It is my belief that Petrus supposed that all Jews simply needed to see the truth and that the rabbis were lying out of envy to keep the populace subordinated. He saw himself in the Jews, and as long as they were being led by deceitful rabbis, they had no reason to convert. It was this ubiquitous ideal that was his greatest weakness when writing the Dialogi. Although this document was written for Christians, he intended it to help the Christians understand why the Jewish people were not converting. According to Alfonsi, as long as the rabbis of the present day remained in power, they were able to keep the Jewish people from seeing the truth. Alfonsi's Dialogi was the single most important work in polemics for shifting the perspective of the Christians, and he assumed that his work would be able to convert the Jews. This was not the case. Although he was successful in changing the mindsets of the Christians toward the Jews, there was not the desired result of conversion but rather something he was against, a greater persecution of the Jews. A manuscript from the 12th century containing the work can be found at the Cambridge Historic Parker Library. Other works De dracone, in which he calculates movements of the stars De Astronomia, contains an astronomical grid according to the Arab, Persian and Latin calendars. With them and the aid of an astrolabe it was possible to find out, with accuracy, the ascending positions of the sun, moon, and the five known planets. Carta a los peripatéticos franceses See also Jacob ben Reuben (rabbi) Notes References Studies Paolo Divizia, Novita per il volgarizzamento della Disciplina Clericalis, Milan: Unicopli, 2007. David A. Wacks, Framing Iberia: Maqamat and Frametales in Medieval Spain, Leiden: Brill, 2007. pp. 17–40. Ryan Szpiech, Conversion and Narrative: Reading and Religious Authority in Medieval Polemic, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2012. pp. 61–90. http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15053.html Editions Petri Alfonsi Dialogus. Kritische Edition mit deutscher Übersetzung. Carmen Cardelle de Hartmann, Darko Senekovic, Thomas Ziegler (eds.), Peter Stotz (transl.), Firenze : SISMEL - Edizioni del Galluzzo 2018. A. HILKA-W. SÖDERHJELM (edd.), Petrus Alfonsi, Disciplina Clericalis, Heidelberg 1911. The scholar's guide. A translation of the twelfth-century Disciplina Clericalis of Pedro Alfonso, by Joseph Ramon Jones and John Esten Keller, Toronto, Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval Studies, 1969. Pietro Alfonsi, "Disciplina clericalis. Sapienza orientale e scuola delle novelle", Cristiano LEONE (ed.), Laura MINERVINI (pref.), Roma: Salerno Editrice, 2010. Cristiano Leone (fr), "Alphunsus de Arabicis eventibus. Studio ed edizione critica", Roma, Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, 2011 (Atti della Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei. Anno CDVIII - Classe di Scienze morali, storiche e filologiche. Memorie. Serie IX - Volume XXVIII - Fascicolo 2). . External links Dialogus contra Judaeos, at the National Library of Portugal 12th-century English medical doctors Medieval Jewish physicians of Spain Medieval Jewish physicians of England Converts to Roman Catholicism from Judaism 12th-century Jews from al-Andalus Medieval Jewish astronomers Astronomers from al-Andalus 11th-century births 12th-century deaths 11th-century Jews from al-Andalus 11th-century astronomers 12th-century astronomers 11th-century physicians Christians from al-Andalus Christian critics of Islam Critics of Judaism
5182951	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1991%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom	1991 in the United Kingdom	Events from the year 1991 in the United Kingdom. Incumbents Monarch – Elizabeth II Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative) Parliament – 50th Events January January – Tax-exempt special savings accounts (TESSAs) introduced as a government concession to promote personal savings. 3 January – The UK expels all Iraqi diplomats from the country due to the Iraqi government's illegal annexation of Kuwait five months earlier. 5 January – 27 people die as a result of gale-force winds across Britain. 8 January – A train crash at Cannon Street station in London kills one person and injures over 500. 11 January – As the recession deepens, 335 employees at the Peugeot car factory in Coventry are made redundant, while Ford is looking for up to 1,000 voluntary redundancies at its British factories. Thousands of jobs in the financial services factor are reportedly at threat, as the total UK unemployment figure is currently standing at nearly 1,800,000, but is expected to rise to well over 2,000,000 by the end of the year. 14 January – Donald Coleman, Labour MP for Neath in South Wales, dies aged 65. 16 January – The final phase of the M40 motorway through Oxfordshire is opened, giving the West Midlands conurbation its first direct motorway link with London. 17 January – The Gulf War begins, as the Royal Air Force joins Allied aircraft in bombing raids on Iraq. 18 January – In spite of the deepening recession, the Conservatives have climbed back to the top of the opinion polls, a MORI poll placing them five points ahead of Labour on 46%. 19 January – It is announced that unemployment has reached more than 1.8 million, and experts warn that the figure will exceed 2 million later this year. 29 January – John Major resists calls from the Labour Party for interest rates to be cut, in a bid to combat the recession. February 7 February – The Provisional Irish Republican Army launch a mortar attack against 10 Downing Street, blowing in all the windows of the cabinet room, during a session of the War Cabinet, but there are no injuries. 8 February – Heavy snow disrupts the country for a second time during the winter 1990–1991 season as Britain experiences a prolonged cold snap. 17 February – Barclays Bank is reported to be on the verge of axing more than 13,000 employees. 18 February – A man is killed in the Victoria station and Paddington station bombings. 21 February – Ballet legend Dame Margot Fonteyn dies of cancer aged 71 in Panama City. 25 February – Alan Green, Director of Public Prosecution, announces that the Birmingham Six could soon be free from prison after seventeen years as their convictions for terrorism and mass murder are no longer considered safe and satisfactory. 26 February – British scientist Tim Berners-Lee introduces WorldWideWeb, the first web browser, while working at CERN in Geneva, the first website goes online on 6 August. 27 February – The National Institute of Economic and Social Research predicts that the recession will end this summer. 28 February – Iraq accepts a provisional ceasefire, and British troops halt their advance on Baghdad. March 3 March – An Ipsos MORI poll shows that John Major is more popular with his voters than his Conservative government. 8 March – Ribble Valley, the tenth safest Conservative constituency in Britain, is won by the Liberal Democrats in a by-election. 10 March – The UK reportedly has the fastest pace in rising unemployment of all the European Community countries. 14 March – The Birmingham Six are freed after the Court of Appeal quashes their convictions over the 1974 pub bombings in Birmingham which killed 21 people and injured more than 160 others. 15 March – Unemployment is now above 2,000,000 for the first time in two years. The number of British workers employed in the manufacturing industry has fallen below 5,000,000 for the first time since records began. 19 March – Norman Lamont predicts 2% economic contraction for this year. 21 March – Education Secretary Kenneth Clarke announces plans to remove further education and sixth form colleges from local authority control. 23 March The Government launches its Citizen's Charter campaign. John Major announces the abolition of the Community Charge. 28 March – An inquest in Sheffield into the Hillsborough disaster records a verdict of accidental death on the 95 people who died as a result of the tragedy in 1989. Many of the victims' families criticise the verdict in open court, as many of them had been hoping for a verdict of unlawful killing, or an open verdict, and for criminal charges to be brought against the police officers who patrolled the game. 29 March – Sir John Stradling Thomas, Conservative MP for Monmouth, dies aged 65. April 3 April – Author Graham Greene dies aged 86 at his home in Vevey, Switzerland. 4 April Social services in the Orkney Islands are criticised for their handling of more than 100 children who have returned to their families after being taken away over allegations of child abuse. Labour retains the Neath constituency at a by-election with the LabourParty candidate Peter Hain, receiving more than half of the vote. 8 April – The Football Association announces plans for a new "super league" of eighteen clubs to replace the Football League First Division as the highest division of English football. The move is attacked by smaller Football League clubs, who fear that they could go out of business if TV revenue was confined to the proposed super league. 18 April – Despite the continuing recession, the Conservatives are still top of the opinion polls as the latest MORI poll puts them two points ahead of Labour on 42%. The Liberal Democrats have trebled their showing in the last fifteen months, now gaining 15% of the vote. 19 April – George Carey is enthroned as Archbishop of Canterbury. 23 April – The government confirms that the unpopular Community Charge is to be replaced by a new Council Tax in 1993. May 5 May – Hopes for a quick end to the recession are boosted by CBI predictions that a sharp recovery in business profits will begin shortly. 6 May - Arsenal are crowned champions of the Football League. 15 May – Manchester United win the European Cup Winners' Cup with a 2–1 win over FC Barcelona of Spain in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Mark Hughes scores both of their goals to give English clubs a winning return to European competitions after their five-year ban was lifted last year. 16 May – Unemployment is now at 2,175,000 – the highest figure since late-1988. It is also above the European average for the first time since 1987. 17 May – The Conservatives are defeated at another by-election, when Labour gain the Monmouth seat in Wales. 18 May Helen Sharman becomes the first British person in space, flying with the Soyuz TM-12 mission. Tottenham Hotspur win the FA Cup for a record eighth time with a 2–1 win over Nottingham Forest. Midfielder Paul Gascoigne, a multimillion-pound transfer target for Italian side Lazio, suffers cruciate knee ligament damage early in the game and is not expected to play again in 1991. 21 May – South Wales, which has some of the worst unemployment rates in Britain, receives a boost when the go-ahead is given for Japanese electrical company Sony to build a new factory in Bridgend that will create 1,400 jobs when it opens in 1993. 22 May – Nearly six months after the breakthrough in the Channel Tunnel service tunnel, the breakthrough in the North rail tunnel is achieved. On the same day, road links to the British terminal are improved when the final section of the M20 motorway is opened between Maidstone and Ashford, meaning that the tunnel's unbroken motorway link with London has already been completed an estimated three years before the first trains move between Britain and France. 24 May Labour tops a MORI poll for the first time this year, as they stand six points ahead of the Conservatives on 43%. Sutton Manor Colliery at Bold in the Lancashire Coalfield closes, the last in Britain to use a steam winding engine. 27 May – Eric Heffer, Labour MP for Liverpool Walton, dies after a long battle against cancer. 29 May – Economists warn that the economy is still in an "exceptionally steep" recession and that it could be another year before the first real signs of recovery become visible. June June – Kia, the Korean car company, begin importing cars to the United Kingdom for the first time, initially it will only import the Pride (a rebadged version of the Japanese Mazda 121), but at least one further model is expected to join it by 1994. 3 June – The British Army kill three IRA gunmen in Northern Ireland. 6 June – Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock condemns John Major for high interest rates, as much as 17%, being charged on small businesses by banks. 10 June – The National Gallery (London) opens its new Sainsbury Wing to the public. 13 June – Unemployment reaches 2.25million, the lowest monthly rise reported this year. 14 June Two long-serving actors both die aged 83 on the same day: Dame Peggy Ashcroft in London, and Lord Miles in Knaresborough. Julie Ann Gibson becomes the first woman to qualify as a pilot with the Royal Air Force. 19 June – Secretary of State for Employment Michael Howard announces a £230,000,000 plan to tackle rising unemployment. 25 June – Nissan, the Japanese carmaker with a plant at Sunderland, starts "price wars" by reducing the cost of its cars in order to boost flagging sales brought on by the recession. 28 June Seven months after her resignation as Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher announces that she will stand down as a Member of parliament at the next general election, which has to be held within the next twelve months. The final breakthrough in the Channel Tunnel is achieved when the last section of clay in the South rail tunnel is bored away. July July South African-produced cars are imported to Britain for the first time, with the launch of the Sao Penza, a rebadged version of the Mazda 323. However, the brand and the car is not a success and imports end just 2 years later. Production of the Vauxhall Belmont compact saloon ends ahead of the launch of the third generation Astra range of hatchbacks and estates which goes the sale in the Autumn with saloon and convertible models arriving later. 3 July – Michael Shorey is convicted at the Old Bailey of the July 1990 murders of Elaine Forsyth and Patricia Morrison, two estate agents with whom he shared a basement flat in north London. He is sentenced to two terms of life imprisonment. The former EastEnders actress Sandy Ratcliff, who provided Shorey with an alibi on the night of the murders, is subsequently convicted of perjury. 4 July – Labour retains the Walton seat at a by-election, with new MP Peter Kilfoyle gaining more than half of the vote. 5 July – The Bank of England closes down the Bank of Credit and Commerce International amid fraud allegations. Several local authorities in the UK lose millions of pounds in investments held with the bank. 8 July – Two suspected IRA terrorists shoot their way out of Brixton Prison in London. 11 July – Labour MP, Terry Fields, joins the list of people jailed for refusal to pay the poll tax after he receives a sixty-day prison sentence. He is the first MP to be jailed for refusing to pay the controversial tax which was introduced early last year. 15 July – 17th G7 summit held in London. 16 July – A government survey of children's school reading reveals that Roald Dahl, who died eight months earlier, has now overtaken Enid Blyton as the most popular author of children's books. 17 July – The Ultimate steel roller coaster, Europe's longest, opens at Lightwater Valley theme park in North Yorkshire. 18 July – Economists warn that unemployment will reach 3,000,000 people (a level not seen since early-1987) by the end of next year. 19 July – Dean Saunders becomes the most expensive footballer to be signed by an English club when he joins Liverpool in a £2.9million transfer from Derby County. 21 July – Motor racing driver Paul Warwick, 21, is killed when his car crashes into a barrier during the fifth Formula 3000 race at Oulton Park. 23 July – The Ministry of Defence proposes the merge of 22 army regiments as part of a general reform programme. 24 July – Chancellor Norman Lamont assures the House of Commons that the economic recovery will begin before the end of this year. August 8 August – John McCarthy, a British hostage held in Lebanon for over five years is freed. 12 August – The Times reports that every job vacancy is being chased by 22 applicants. 16 August – The Bank of England declares that the worst of the current recession is now over. 23 August – Growing confidence over economic recovery has helped boost the Conservative government's popularity, as they return to the top of the MORI poll with a two-point lead over Labour putting them on 42%. 30 August Scottish runner Liz McColgan becomes the first British gold medalist at the World Athletics Championships in Tokyo, Japan. Rioting breaks out on the Ely council estate in Cardiff. September September – Gordon Roddick and A. John Bird launch The Big Issue, a then-monthly magazine to be sold by homeless people in response to growing number of rough sleepers on the streets of London. 3 September – Following the recent outbreaks of violence in Leeds and Cardiff, rioting breaks out at Handsworth in Birmingham, Kates Hill in Dudley and Blackbird Leys in Oxford. 9 September – Rioting breaks out on the Meadow Well council estate on Tyneside, with local youths attacking police officers following the recent death of two local teenagers in a police pursuit. Racially motivated attacks on Asian owned shops also involve looting and arson. 12 September – Unemployment has hit 2,400,000 – the highest level since the spring of 1988 – completing a 50% rise in just over a year. However, the rate of rising unemployment is slowing down and retail sales are improving. 13 September – Further rioting breaks out in Tyneside. 14 September – George Buckley, Labour MP for Hemsworth in West Yorkshire, dies aged 56. 15 September – A poll shows that Labour Party leader Neil Kinnock is a liability to his party, who are now behind John Major's Conservative Party in the opinion polls. 17 September – Neil Kinnock hits out at claims that he is to blame for his party falling behind in the opinion polls, sparking speculation that John Major will call a general election within the next two months. 19 September – Robin Leigh-Pemberton, governor of the Bank of England, says that he is confident the recession is now over in Britain. 20 September – Richard Holt, Conservative MP for Langbaurgh in Cleveland, dies suddenly aged 60. 25 September – Kidnappers in Beirut release elderly hostage Jackie Mann after over two years in captivity. October October – Vauxhall launches the third generation of its popular Astra with hatchback and estate models with the saloon and convertible models arriving later. 2 October – Just over two weeks after Neil Kinnock was damned by a poll as a "liability" to the Labour Party, the leader and his MPs are celebrating after they overtake the Conservatives by two points in the opinion polls. 9 October – The first Sumo tournament to be held outside Japan is hosted at the Royal Albert Hall in London. 11 October – John Major outlines his vision of a "classless" Britain at a Conservative Party conference at Blackpool, where his predecessor Margaret Thatcher voices her support for him. 16 October – The ITV franchise auction results are announced and many notable names will go off the air, including Thames Television, TVS, TSW, TV-am and ORACLE Teletext. The changes will take effect at midnight on 1 January 1993. 17 October – The smallest monthly rise in unemployment since last November is cited by the government as an "unmistakable" sign that the recession is drawing to a close. 18 October – Labour's hopes of election success are boosted by the latest MORI poll, which shows them six points ahead of the Conservatives on 45%. 19 October – Canadian singer Bryan Adams makes history when his hit single (Everything I Do) I Do It for You, which features in the film Robin Hood:Prince of Thieves (released on 14 June this year, and starring Kevin Costner) enters its fifteenth successive week at #1 in the UK singles charts. 22 October – Leonora Knatchbull, the five-year-old daughter of Norton Knatchbull, 8th Baron Brabourne and his wife Penelope, dies after a one-year battle with kidney cancer. She was also a great-grandchild of Lord Louis Mountbatten, who was murdered by the IRA in 1979. She is buried at Romsey Abbey on 26 October. 23 October – In the legal case of R v R decided on appeal, the Law Lords unanimously decide that spousal rape is a crime in England and Wales, overturning the principle established by Chief Justice Hale in 1736. 27 October – (Everything I Do) I Do It For You, the power ballad performed by Canadian singer Bryan Adams, loses its position at #1 on the singles charts after a record sixteen consecutive weeks, displaced by U2's The Fly. 29 October – Hopes that the recession is drawing to a close are boosted by CBI findings, which show that manufacturers are now more optimistic than at any time in the past three years. November November Computer retailer PC World opens its first branch in Croydon, Surrey. Alan Sked forms the Anti-Federalist League, a political party aiming to field election candidates opposed to the Maastricht Treaty. 5 November – Robert Maxwell, owner of numerous business interests including the Daily Mirror newspaper, is found dead off the coast of Tenerife; his cause of death is unconfirmed, but reports suggest that he has committed suicide. 7 November – Labour retains control of Hemsworth at the by-election, with new MP Derek Enright, while the Liberal Democrats gain Kincardine and Deeside from the Conservatives at another by-election. A third by-election sees the Conservatives lose the Langbaurgh constituency to Labour, with 35-year-old Indian-born candidate Ashok Kumar becoming the new MP. 9 November – First ever controlled and substantial production of fusion energy achieved at the Joint European Torus in Oxford. 15 November – Britain's hopes of economic recovery are dealt with a major blow when shares on the Wall Street Stock Exchange fall by 120 points. 16 November – Two IRA bombers die in St Albans, Hertfordshire, when a bomb explodes prematurely. 18 November – Terry Waite, a British hostage held in Lebanon, is freed after four-and-a-half years in captivity. 22–23 November – The Communist Party of Great Britain votes to abandon its Marxist-Leninist constitution and reform itself as Democratic Left. 23 November – Freddie Mercury, the lead singer of rock band Queen, announces that he is suffering from AIDS, following lengthy media speculation about his health. 24 November – Freddie Mercury dies aged 45 at his home in London, just 24 hours after going public with the news that he was suffering from AIDS. 25 November – The Court of Appeal quashes the convictions of Winston Silcott, Engin Raghip and Mark Braithwaite, for the murder of PC Keith Blakelock in the Broadwater Farm riot at Tottenham, North London, six years ago. Raghip and Braithwaite are released from prison, but Silcott remains imprisoned for a separate murder. 26 November – Julin Bristol, the last UK nuclear test, takes place at the Nevada Test Site. 27 November Freddie Mercury is cremated after a funeral service held at West London Crematorium. The government announces that joyriders who are found guilty should face a maximum penalty of five years imprisonment as well as unlimited fines and unlimited automatic driving bans. Joyriding has recently surged across Britain, with almost all of those involved being children and teenagers. 28 November – First performance of Alan Bennett's play The Madness of George III in London. December 1 December – Thousands of British shops, including retail giants Asda and Tesco, defy trading laws, and open their doors on a Sunday in a bid to boost trade that has been badly hit by the ongoing recession. 5 December – The Robert Maxwell business empire goes into receivership with debts in excess of £1,000,000,000, exactly one month after Robert Maxwell's death. The Daily Mirror reports that Maxwell had wrongly removed £350,000,000 from its pension fund shortly before he died. 10 December – Ronald Coase wins the Nobel Prize in Economics "for his discovery and clarification of the significance of transaction costs and property rights for the institutional structure and functioning of the economy". 12–15 December – Concentration of vehicle exhausts in London causes an estimated 160 deaths. 16 December – Stella Rimington announced as the first female director general of MI5. 19 December – Unemployment is now above 2,500,000 for the first time since early-1988. 23 December – Bohemian Rhapsody returns to the top of the British singles charts after sixteen years, with the proceeds from the rerelease being donated to the Terence Higgins Trust. 27 December – The last MORI poll of 1991 shows that Labour are six points ahead of the Conservatives with 44% of the vote. 29 December – A quarterly opinion poll shows that Neil Kinnock and Labour are three points ahead of John Major and the Conservatives, sparking hope for Labour that they will win the next general election (which has to be held within five months) or at least the election will result in a hung parliament for the first time since 1974. Undated The economy remains rooted in the recession which began last year. Despite the deepening recession, inflation has been substantially decreased to 5.9%. The National Curriculum assessment ("standard attainment tests" or SATs) is first carried out, at Key Stage 1 in primary schools in England. One Canada Square at Canary Wharf in London becomes the tallest building in the UK. Scout Groups may admit girls to all their sections. Despite the onset of the recession and a sharp fall in new car sales (with fewer than 1,600,000 new cars being sold in 1991 compared to the record of more than 2,300,000 in 1989), Nissan Motor Manufacturing UK's car plant at Sunderland returns a profit for the first time, making £18,400,000 this year. It currently only makes the Primera family saloon and hatchbacks there, but from August next year it will be joined by the new version of the smaller Micra. Sea defences at Mappleton in Holderness are built. Publications Martin Amis's novel Time's Arrow. Beryl Bainbridge's novel The Birthday Boys. Iain M. Banks' short story collection The State of the Art. Pat Barker's novel Regeneration. Louis de Bernières' novel Señor Vivo and the Coca Lord. Brian Keenan's autobiographical account of more than four years as a hostage in Lebanon An Evil Cradling Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Reaper Man and Witches Abroad. Births January 2 January Ben Hardy, actor Danny Miller, actor 12 January – Pixie Lott, singer 13 January – Genevieve Gaunt, actress 15 January – Danny Addy, professional footballer 18 January – Matthew Kane, actor 19 January – Tommy Fleetwood, professional golfer 20 January Tom Cairney, professional footballer Jolyon Palmer, professional racing driver, motorsport commentator, and columnist 21 January – Ben Bowns, professional hockey player 22 January – Alex MacDowall, professional racing driver 24 January – Nadene Caldwell, professional footballer 25 January – Fergus Bell, professional footballer 26 January – Nico Mirallegro, actor 29 January – Hugh Grosvenor, aristocrat, billionaire and businessman February 2 February Lloyd Ashley, footballer Chris Baker, high jumper 5 February – Sam Corcoran, footballer 7 February – Holly Clyburn, golfer 11 February – Georgia May Foote, actress 17 February Ed Sheeran, singer/songwriter Bonnie Wright, actress 18 February – Henry Surtees, racing driver (died 2009) 20 February – Jocelyn Rae, English-Scottish tennis player 21 February – Joe Alwyn, actor and model 24 February – Hannah Clowes, gymnast 26 February – Calum Butcher, footballer March 6 March – Matthew Briggs, English-born Guyanese professional footballer 10 March Kadeena Cox, Paralympic Sprinter and Cyclist Usman Khan, Islamic terrorist and perpetrator of the 2019 London Bridge stabbing (died 2019) 11 March Tammy Beaumont, professional cricketer Jack Rodwell, professional footballer 14 March – Jake Ball, professional cricketer 17 March – Daisy Head, actress 22 March – Ashley Eastham, professional footballer 26 March – Andrea Atzeni, Italian-born jockey 27 March – Chloe Marshall, Model April 3 April – Mitch Austin, American Football player 5 April – Nathaniel Clyne, footballer 7 April – Anne-Marie, singer 8 April – Liam Boyce, footballer 9 April – Liam Williams, rugby union player 19 April – Steve Cook, footballer 20 April – Marissa King, gymnast 21 April Frank Dillane, actor Max Chilton, racing driver 23 April – Nathan Baker, footballer 26 April Nathan Buck, cricketer Will Heard, singer/songwriter 27 April – Rebecca Ryan, actress 29 April – Adam Smith, footballer 30 April – Moses Boyd, jazz drummer May 3 May – Carlo Acutis, England-born Italian Catholic computer programmer, beatified (died 2006 in Italy) 6 May – Siobhan Williams, actress 13 May Jen Beattie, footballer Jack Brereton, politician 14 May – Chantelle Cameron, boxer 17 May – Ashley Bryant, decathlete 22 May – Kyle Bartley, footballer 26 May – Samuel Ross, fashion designer, creative director and artist 30 May Elijah Baker, actor, writer and director Callum Booth, footballer June 3 June – Nicky Clark, footballer 8 June – Qasim Akhtar, actor 11 June – Dan Howell, YouTuber, radio presenter 13 June Lyndon Arthur, boxer Ryan Mason, football player and manager 14 June – Jesy Nelson, singer/songwriter 15 June – Sam Billings, cricketer 16 June – Joe McElderry, singer 17 June – Staz Nair, actor and singer 21 June Jake Ball, rugby player Georgina Hagen, actress and singer 22 June – Katie Jarvis, actress 24 June – Yasmin Paige, actress 26 June – Josh Charnley, footballer 27 June Dan Osborne, television personality Oliver Stark, actor 28 June Will Stevens, racing driver George Webster, actor 30 June – David Witts, actor July 2 July – Jordan Bowery, professional footballer 6 July – Ashley Lloyd, actor and dancer 8 July – Jamie Blackley, Manx-born actor 13 July – Martin Joseph Ward, professional boxer 15 July Nathan Aspinall, professional darts player Lennox Clarke, professional boxer Josh Cook, professional racing driver 16 July – Andros Townsend, professional footballer 21 July – Blanco White, singer/songwriter 24 July – Jacob Banks, Nigerian-born singer/songwriter 30 July – Diana Vickers, singer August 4 August – Lucinda Dryzek, actress 8 August – Tony Clay, actor 9 August – Alice Barlow, actress and singer 10 August – Michael Dapaah, rapper and comedian 15 August – Ellen Gandy, swimmer 16 August – Tom Bristow, professional rugby player 18 August – George Atkins, professional cyclist 22 August – Joe Arundel, professional footballer 24 August – Chris Brookes, professional wrestler 25 August – Luke Ayling, professional footballer 26 August – Tommy Bastow, actor and musician 29 August – Ryan J. Brown, screenwriter September 1 September – Rhys Bennett, professional footballer 2 September Lucy Armstrong, composer Damson Idris, actor and producer 5 September – Skandar Keynes, actor 6 September – Drew Cheshire, professional footballer 8 September – Joe Sugg, YouTuber 11 September – Luke Hubbins, professional footballer 13 September – Sonny Bradley, professional footballer 20 September – Izzy Christiansen, professional footballer 24 September – Owen Farrell, professional rugby player 26 September – Charlotte Spencer, actress October 1 October – Gus Kenworthy, British-born, American Olympic freestyle skier, actor, and YouTuber 2 October – Gordon Reid, Scottish wheelchair tennis player 4 October – Leigh-Anne Pinnock, singer/songwriter 9 October – Danny Ansell, professional footballer 10 October – Kate Avery, professional long-distance runner 14 October Andrew Butchart, Olympic runner Shona McGarty, actress 25 October – Omar Beckles, professional footballer 28 October – Lucy Bronze, professional footballer 29 October Grant Hall, professional footballer Toby Tarrant, radio broadcaster November 2 November – Holly Bradshaw, Olympic pole vaulter 4 November – Michael Jacobs, professional footballer 6 November – George Bowerman, professional footballer 8 November Elinor Crawley, actress Daniel Middleton, YouTuber 11 November – Emma Blackery, singer/songwriter, Youtube Vlogger, record producer, and author 21 November Nathan Cameron, professional footballer Lewis Dunk, professional footballer 22 November – Kadeen Corbin, professional netball player 28 November – Scott Allan, professional footballer 30 November – Ryan Bowman, professional footballer December 4 December – Aiden Grimshaw, singer 6 December – Rachel Daly, footballer 11 December – Rebecca Chin, Paralympic rower 15 December – Joe Collister, professional footballer 16 December – Charlie Clare, professional rugby player 18 December – Marcus Butler, model and YouTuber 19 December – Declan Galbraith, singer 24 December – Louis Tomlinson, singer and member of One Direction 30 December – Eddie Battye, professional footballer Full date unknown Sheila Atim, Ugandan-born actress, singer, composer, and playwright Elliot Barnes-Worrell, actor Deaths January 2 January – Sydney Caine, educator and economist (born 1902) 3 January – Doris Zinkeisen, theatrical designer (born 1898) 8 January Steve Clark, guitarist (Def Leppard) (born 1960) Henry Rainsford Hulme, nuclear physicist (born 1908) 10 January – Bob Wallis, jazz musician (born 1934) 11 January Charles Mozley, artist (born 1914) Sir Alec Rose, sailor (born 1908) 14 January Duncan Black, economist (born 1908) Donald Coleman, politician (born 1925) 15 January – Bob Stirling, rugby union player (born 1919) 16 January – Nicholas Mansergh, historian (born 1910) 20 January – Alfred Wainwright, author and illustrator (born 1907) 21 January – John Bicknell Auden, geologist (born 1903) 23 January – Herbert Fröhlich, physicist (born 1905, German Empire) 30 January – Rhys Lloyd, Baron Lloyd of Kilgerran, politician (born 1907) February 5 February – Sir Lawrence Gowing, artist (born 1918) 8 February Daphne Jackson, nuclear physicist (born 1936) Evan Luard, politician (born 1926) 13 February – Ron Pickering, sports commentator (born 1930) 17 February – Sir Francis Pearson, politician and colonial administrator (born 1911) 18 February – Fulke Walwyn, jockey (born 1910) 20 February – Sir George Clark, 3rd Baronet, Northern Irish politician (born 1914) 21 February Dorothy Auchterlonie, poet and academic (born 1915) Dame Margot Fonteyn, ballet dancer (born 1919) 22 February – Eric Hosking, photographer (born 1909) 24 February – Stewart Morris, Olympic sailor (born 1909) March 1 March – Katharine Blake, actress (born 1921) 2 March – Mary Howard, novelist (born 1907) 3 March – William Penney, Baron Penney, mathematician (born 1909) 4 March Michael Hardwick, author (born 1924) Kenneth Lindsay, politician (born 1897) 5 March Sir Brian Batsford, politician (born 1910) Ian McLellan Hunter, screenwriter (born 1915) 7 March – John Harris, novelist (born 1916) 9 March – Jack Meyer, cricketer and educationalist (born 1905) 10 March – Mildred Eldridge, artist (born 1909) 12 March – R. H. C. Davis, historian (born 1918) 13 March – Donald Kaberry, Baron Kaberry of Adel, politician (injuries received in Carlton Club bombing) (born 1907) 14 March – Margery Sharp, novelist and playwright (born 1905) 15 March – Robin Hill, biochemist, discoverer of the Hill reaction (born 1899) 16 March – Rowland Baring, 3rd Earl of Cromer, central banker and diplomat (born 1918) 17 March – Carl Aarvold, lawyer (born 1907) 19 March – Sunday Wilshin, actress and radio presenter (born 1905) 20 March – David Marshall Lang, historian (born 1924) 24 March – Maudie Edwards, actress and singer (born 1906) 27 March Ralph Bates, actor (born 1940) Alfredo Campoli, violinist (born 1906, Italy) 31 March – A. W. Lawrence, archaeologist (born 1900) April 3 April Graham Greene, author (born 1904); died in Switzerland Sir Alan Stewart Orr, barrister (born 1911) 5 April Gerald Blake, television director (born 1928) Eve Garnett, writer and illustrator (born 1900) William Sidney, 1st Viscount De L'Isle, Army officer, politician and VC recipient (born 1909) 11 April – Bernard Taylor, Baron Taylor of Mansfield, politician (born 1895) 16 April – David Lean, film director and producer (born 1908) 17 April – Michael Pertwee, screenwriter (born 1916) 18 April Martin Hannett, record producer (born 1948) Sir Austin Bradford Hill, epidemiologist and statistician, creator of the Bradford Hill criteria (born 1897) 19 April – Judy Gunn, actress (born 1915) 20 April – Steve Marriott, singer, musician (Small Faces and Humble Pie) (born 1947); house fire 22 April – Jack Kid Berg, boxer (born 1909) 26 April – Henry Lipson, physicist (born 1910) 28 April – Stan Turner, English footballer (born 1926) May 1 May – Charles Sutherland Elton, zoologist and animal ecologist (born 1900) 2 May – Susan Fassbender, singer (born 1959); suicide 4 May – Bernie Winters, actor and comedian (Mike and Bernie Winters) (born 1930) 6 May – Wilfred Hyde-White, actor (born 1903) 8 May – Ronnie Brody, actor (born 1918) 14 May – Joy Batchelor, animator, screenwriter, director and producer (born 1914) 15 May – Ronald Lacey, actor (born 1935) 17 May G. Evelyn Hutchinson, economist (born 1903) Harry Rée, academic (born 1914) 18 May – Muriel Box, film director and screenwriter (born 1905) 22 May – Stan Mortensen, footballer (born 1921) 25 May – Lorne MacLaine Campbell, Army brigadier-general (born 1902) 26 May – Wilfred Roberts, politician (born 1900) 27 May – Eric Heffer, politician (born 1922) 29 May – Henry Walston, Baron Walston, politician (born 1912) 31 May Robert Schlapp, physicist (born 1899) Angus Wilson, novelist and short story writer (born 1913) June 5 June – Evelyn Boucher, actress (born 1902) 8 June – Bertice Reading, actress and singer (born 1933, United States) 11 June John Vallier, pianist (born 1920) Michael Wall, playwright (born 1946) 12 June – Alexander Baring, 6th Baron Ashburton, businessman and politician (born 1898) 14 June Dame Peggy Ashcroft, actress (born 1907) Bernard Miles, Baron Miles, actor and director (born 1907) 15 June – Arthur Lewis, economist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1915) 16 June – Vicki Brown, singer (born 1940) 18 June Ronald Allen, actor (born 1930) Bill Douglas, film director (born 1934) 20 June Gerald Priestland, broadcaster (born 1927) Sir Isaac Wolfson, 1st Baronet, businessman and philanthropist (born 1897) 21 June – Ivor Salter, actor (born 1925) 23 June – Cyril Aldred, historian (born 1914) 24 June – Sir James Fawcett, barrister and maternal grandfather of Boris Johnson (born 1913) 25 June – Colin Atkinson, cricketer and schoolmaster (born 1931) 27 June – George MacLeod, soldier and Presbyterian minister (born 1895) 30 June – Pamela Stanley, actress (born 1909) July 2 July Don Houghton, television screenwriter and producer (born 1930) David Howarth, author and boat builder (born 1912) 3 July – Sir Bernard Waley-Cohen, businessman and Lord Mayor of London (1960–1961) (born 1914) 6 July – Thorley Walters, character actor (born 1913) 8 July – Geoff Love, composer (born 1917) 9 July – Frank Carr, sailor and founder of the Maritime Trust (born 1903) 17 July – Harold Butler, English cricketer (born 1913) 21 July Jasmine Bligh, television presenter (born 1913) Paul Warwick, racing driver (born 1969); killed while racing 23 July – Peter Kane, flyweight boxer (born 1918) 24 July – Freddie Brown, English cricketer (born 1910) 27 July – Martin Attlee, 2nd Earl Attlee, politician and son of Clement Attlee (born 1927) 30 July Tom Bridger, racing driver (born 1934) Arthur Rook, dermatologist (born 1918) August 6 August Arthur Pentelow, actor (born 1924) Max Rostal, violinist (born 1905, Austria-Hungary) 10 August – Jessie Robins, actress (born 1905) 11 August – Alan Spenner, bass player (born 1948) 12 August – Edward George Bowen, CBE, physicist (born 1911) 13 August – John Sommerfield, writer and left-wing activist (born 1908) 17 August – Lorna Hill, children's author (born 1902) 18 August – David Gale, actor (born 1936) 19 August – Xan Fielding, author, journalist and traveller (born 1918) 23 August – Innes Lloyd, television producer (born 1925) 26 August – John Petts, artist (born 1914) 28 August – Vince Taylor, rock singer (born 1939) 29 August – Dallas Adams, actor (born 1947) 30 August Cyril Knowles, English footballer (born 1944) Alan Wheatley, actor (born 1907) 31 August – Gerry Davis, television scriptwriter (born 1930) September 12 September – Sir Ewan Forbes, 11th Baronet, nobleman, doctor and farmer (born 1912) 13 September – Robert Irving, orchestral conductor (born 1913) 16 September Ernest Davies, politician and journalist (born 1902) Carol White, actress (born 1943) 17 September – John Tocher, trade unionist and communist activist (born 1925) 18 September – Harry Sandbach, academic (born 1903) 19 September – Sir Theodore McEvoy, RAF air marshal (born 1904) 21 September – Gordon Bashford, car designer (born 1916) 24 September – Peter Bellamy, singer (born 1944); suicide 27 September Roy Fuller, poet (born 1912) Joe Hulme, former footballer and cricketer (born 1904) 28 September – Ellic Howe, author (born 1910) October 2 October – Peter Heyworth, music critic and biographer (born 1921, United States) 5 October – Martin Ennals, human rights activist (born 1927) 6 October – Elaine Burton, Baroness Burton of Coventry, politician (born 1904) 12 October – Taso Mathieson, racing driver and author (born 1908) 13 October Donald Houston, actor (born 1923) Hugh Molson, Baron Molson, politician (born 1903) 17 October – J. G. Devlin, actor (born 1907) 20 October – Clifford Last, English-born Australian sculptor (born 1918) 22 October – Joy Harington, actress, writer, producer and director (born 1914) 23 October – Job Stewart, actor (born 1934) 25 October – John Stratton, actor (born 1925) 27 October George Barker, poet (born 1913) Sir Andrzej Panufnik, composer and musician (born 1914, Poland) 29 October Sir Cyril Black, politician (born 1902) Donald Churchill, actor and playwright (born 1930) Sir Nigel Poett, Army general (born 1907) November 3 November – Raymond Blackburn, politician (born 1915) 5 November – Robert Maxwell, media proprietor (born 1923, Czechoslovakia) 8 November – Dave Rowbotham, singer (born 1958); murdered by unknown hand 10 November – Marjorie Abbatt, toy-maker and businesswoman (born 1899) 11 November – Nellie Halstead, athlete (born 1910) 14 November – Tony Richardson, film director (born 1928) 17 November – Eileen Agar, painter and photographer (born 1899, Argentina) 18 November Reg Parlett, artist (born 1904) J. P. Stern, literary scholar (born 1920, Austria) 24 November Anton Furst, production designer (born 1944); suicide in the United States Freddie Mercury, singer (Queen) (born 1946) December 3 December – Alex Graham, cartoonist (born 1918) 4 December – Cliff Bastin, English footballer (born 1912) 5 December – Jack Trevor Story, novelist (born 1917) 6 December Rodney Ackland, actor, playwright and screenwriter (born 1908) Mimi Smith, nurse, secretary and aunt of John Lennon (born 1906) Richard Stone, economist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1913) 7 December Dame Judith Hart, politician, first woman Paymaster General (born 1924) Gordon Pirie, long-distance runner (born 1931) 12 December – Ronnie Ross, jazz saxophonist (born 1933) 14 December John Arlott, journalist, author and cricket commentator (born 1914) Robert Eddison, actor (born 1908) 15 December – Ray Smith, actor (born 1936) 16 December – H. C. Casserley, railway photographer (born 1903) 18 December – George Abecassis, racing driver (born 1913) 19 December – Paul Maxwell, actor (born 1921) 20 December John Brian Harley, cartographer (born 1932) Samuel Rabin, artist and Olympic wrestler (born 1903) 21 December – Colin Douglas, actor (born 1912) 28 December – Sir Alfred Dudley Ward, Army general (born 1905) 29 December – Dora Gordine, sculptor (born 1895, Russian Empire) 31 December – Christopher Steel, composer (born 1938) See also 1991 in British music 1991 in British television List of British films of 1991 References Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom United Kingdom
5183633	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central%20Intelligence%20Agency	Central Intelligence Agency	The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA; ), known informally as the Agency and historically as the Company, is a civilian foreign intelligence service of the federal government of the United States, officially tasked with gathering, processing, and analyzing national security information from around the world, primarily through the use of human intelligence (HUMINT) and conducting covert action through its Directorate of Operations. As a principal member of the United States Intelligence Community (IC), the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence and is primarily focused on providing intelligence for the President and Cabinet of the United States. Following the dissolution of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) at the end of World War II, President Harry S. Truman created the Central Intelligence Group under the direction of a Director of Central Intelligence by presidential directive on January 22, 1946, and this group was transformed into the Central Intelligence Agency by implementation of the National Security Act of 1947. Unlike the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), which is a domestic security service, the CIA has no law enforcement function and is mainly focused on overseas intelligence gathering, with only limited domestic intelligence collection. The CIA serves as the national manager for HUMINT, coordinating activities across the IC. It also carries out covert action at the behest of the President. It exerts foreign political influence through its paramilitary operations units, such as the Special Activities Center. The CIA was instrumental in establishing intelligence services in many countries, such as Germany's BND. It has also provided support to several foreign political groups and governments, including planning, coordinating, training in torture, and technical support. It was involved in many regime changes and carrying out terrorist attacks and planned assassinations of foreign leaders. Since 2004, the CIA is organized under the Office of the Director of National Intelligence (ODNI). Despite having had some of its powers transferred to the DNI, the CIA has grown in size as a response to the September 11 attacks. In 2013, The Washington Post reported that in the fiscal year 2010, the CIA had the largest budget of all IC agencies, exceeding previous estimates. The CIA has increasingly expanded its role, including covert paramilitary operations. One of its largest divisions, the Information Operations Center (IOC), has officially shifted focus from counterterrorism to offensive cyber operations. The agency has been the subject of many controversies, including human rights violations, domestic wiretapping, propaganda, and allegations of drug trafficking. Purpose When the CIA was created, its purpose was to create a clearinghouse for foreign policy intelligence and analysis. Today, its primary purpose is to collect, analyze, evaluate, and disseminate foreign intelligence, and to carry out covert operations. According to its fiscal 2013 budget, the CIA has five priorities: Counterterrorism Nonproliferation of weapons of mass destruction Indications and warnings for senior policymakers Counterintelligence Cyber intelligence Organizational structure The CIA has an executive office and five major directorates: The Directorate of Digital Innovation The Directorate of Analysis The Directorate of Operations The Directorate of Support The Directorate of Science and Technology Executive Office The Director of the Central Intelligence Agency (D/CIA) is appointed by the President with Senate confirmation and reports directly to the Director of National Intelligence (DNI); in practice, the CIA director interfaces with the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), Congress, and the White House, while the deputy director (DD/CIA) is the internal executive of the CIA and the Chief Operating Officer (COO/CIA), known as executive director until 2017, leads the day-to-day work as the third highest post of the CIA. The deputy director is formally appointed by the director without Senate confirmation, but as the president's opinion plays a great role in the decision, the deputy director is generally considered a political position, making the chief operating officer the most senior non-political position for CIA career officers. The Executive Office also supports the U.S. military by providing it with information it gathers, receiving information from military intelligence organizations, and cooperates with field activities. The Associate Deputy Director of the CIA is in charge of the day-to-day operations of the agency. Each branch of the agency has its own director. The Office of Military Affairs (OMA), subordinate to the Associate Deputy Director, manages the relationship between the CIA and the Unified Combatant Commands, who produce and deliver to the CIA regional/operational intelligence and consume national intelligence produced by the CIA. Directorate of Analysis The Directorate of Analysis, through much of its history known as the Directorate of Intelligence (DI), is tasked with helping "the President and other policymakers make informed decisions about our country's national security" by looking "at all the available information on an issue and organiz[ing] it for policymakers". The Directorate has four regional analytic groups, six groups for transnational issues, and three that focus on policy, collection, and staff support. There are regional analytical offices covering the Near East and South Asia, Russia and Europe; and the Asian Pacific, Latin American, and Africa. Directorate of Operations The Directorate of Operations is responsible for collecting foreign intelligence (mainly from clandestine HUMINT sources), and for covert action. The name reflects its role as the coordinator of human intelligence activities between other elements of the wider U.S. intelligence community with their HUMINT operations. This Directorate was created in an attempt to end years of rivalry over influence, philosophy, and budget between the United States Department of Defense (DOD) and the CIA. In spite of this, the Department of Defense recently organized its own global clandestine intelligence service, the Defense Clandestine Service (DCS), under the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA). This Directorate is known to be organized by geographic regions and issues, but its precise organization is classified. Directorate of Science & Technology The Directorate of Science & Technology was established to research, create, and manage technical collection disciplines and equipment. Many of its innovations were transferred to other intelligence organizations, or, as they became more overt, to the military services. For example, the development of the U-2 high-altitude reconnaissance aircraft was done in cooperation with the United States Air Force. The U-2's original mission was clandestine imagery intelligence over denied areas such as the Soviet Union. It was subsequently provided with signals intelligence and measurement and signature intelligence capabilities and is now operated by the Air Force. A DS&T organization analyzed imagery intelligence collected by the U-2 and reconnaissance satellites called the National Photointerpretation Center (NPIC), which had analysts from both the CIA and the military services. Subsequently, NPIC was transferred to the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency (NGA). Directorate of Support The Directorate of Support has organizational and administrative functions to significant units including: The Office of Security The Office of Communications The Office of Information Technology Directorate of Digital Innovation The Directorate of Digital Innovation (DDI) focuses on accelerating innovation across the Agency's mission activities. It is the Agency's newest directorate. The Langley, Virginia-based office's mission is to streamline and integrate digital and cybersecurity capabilities into the CIA's espionage, counterintelligence, all-source analysis, open-source intelligence collection, and covert action operations. It provides operations personnel with tools and techniques to use in cyber operations. It works with information technology infrastructure and practices cyber tradecraft. This means retrofitting the CIA for cyberwarfare. DDI officers help accelerate the integration of innovative methods and tools to enhance the CIA's cyber and digital capabilities on a global scale and ultimately help safeguard the United States. They also apply technical expertise to exploit clandestine and publicly available information (also known as open-source data) using specialized methodologies and digital tools to plan, initiate and support the technical and human-based operations of the CIA. Before the establishment of the new digital directorate, offensive cyber operations were undertaken by the CIA's Information Operations Center. Little is known about how the office specifically functions or if it deploys offensive cyber capabilities. The directorate had been covertly operating since approximately March 2015 but formally began operations on October 1, 2015. According to classified budget documents, the CIA's computer network operations budget for fiscal year 2013 was $685.4 million. The NSA's budget was roughly $1 billion at the time. Rep. Adam Schiff, the California Democrat who served as the ranking member of the House Intelligence Committee, endorsed the reorganization. "The director has challenged his workforce, the rest of the intelligence community, and the nation to consider how we conduct the business of intelligence in a world that is profoundly different from 1947 when the CIA was founded," Schiff said. Training The CIA established its first training facility, the Office of Training and Education, in 1950. Following the end of the Cold War, the CIA's training budget was slashed, which had a negative effect on employee retention. In response, Director of Central Intelligence George Tenet established CIA University in 2002. CIA University holds between 200 and 300 courses each year, training both new hires and experienced intelligence officers, as well as CIA support staff. The facility works in partnership with the National Intelligence University, and includes the Sherman Kent School for Intelligence Analysis, the Directorate of Analysis' component of the university. For later stage training of student operations officers, there is at least one classified training area at Camp Peary, near Williamsburg, Virginia. Students are selected, and their progress evaluated, in ways derived from the OSS, published as the book Assessment of Men, Selection of Personnel for the Office of Strategic Services. Additional mission training is conducted at Harvey Point, North Carolina. The primary training facility for the Office of Communications is Warrenton Training Center, located near Warrenton, Virginia. The facility was established in 1951 and has been used by the CIA since at least 1955. Budget Details of the overall United States intelligence budget are classified. Under the Central Intelligence Agency Act of 1949, the Director of Central Intelligence is the only federal government employee who can spend "un-vouchered" government money. The government showed its 1997 budget was $26.6 billion for the fiscal year. The government has disclosed a total figure for all non-military intelligence spending since 2007; the fiscal 2013 figure is $52.6 billion. According to the 2013 mass surveillance disclosures, the CIA's fiscal 2013 budget is $14.7 billion, 28% of the total and almost 50% more than the budget of the National Security Agency. CIA's HUMINT budget is $2.3 billion, the SIGINT budget is $1.7 billion, and spending for security and logistics of CIA missions is $2.5 billion. "Covert action programs," including a variety of activities such as the CIA's drone fleet and anti-Iranian nuclear program activities, accounts for $2.6 billion. There were numerous previous attempts to obtain general information about the budget. As a result, reports revealed that CIA's annual budget in Fiscal Year 1963 was $550 million (inflation-adjusted US$ billion in ), and the overall intelligence budget in FY 1997 was US$26.6 billion (inflation-adjusted US$ billion in ). There have been accidental disclosures; for instance, Mary Margaret Graham, a former CIA official and deputy director of national intelligence for collection in 2005, said that the annual intelligence budget was $44 billion, and in 1994 Congress accidentally published a budget of $43.4 billion (in 2012 dollars) in 1994 for the non-military National Intelligence Program, including $4.8 billion for the CIA. After the Marshall Plan was approved, appropriating $13.7 billion over five years, 5% of those funds or $685 million were secretly made available to the CIA. A portion of the enormous M-fund, established by the U.S. government during the post-war period for reconstruction of Japan, was secretly steered to the CIA. Relationship with other intelligence agencies Foreign intelligence services The role and functions of the CIA are roughly equivalent to those of Germany's Federal Intelligence Service (BND), the United Kingdom's Secret Intelligence Service (the SIS or MI6), the Australian Secret Intelligence Service (ASIS), the French foreign intelligence service (DGSE), the Russian Foreign Intelligence Service (, SVR), the Chinese Ministry of State Security (MSS), the Indian Research and Analysis Wing (RAW), the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), the Egyptian General Intelligence Service, Israel's Mossad, and South Korea's National Intelligence Service (NIS). The CIA was instrumental in the establishment of intelligence services in several U.S. allied countries, including Germany's BND. The closest links of the U.S. IC to other foreign intelligence agencies are to Anglophone countries: Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. Special communications signals that intelligence-related messages can be shared with these four countries. An indication of the United States' close operational cooperation is the creation of a new message distribution label within the main U.S. military communications network. Previously, the marking of NOFORN (i.e., No Foreign Nationals) required the originator to specify which, if any, non-U.S. countries could receive the information. A new handling caveat, USA/AUS/CAN/GBR/NZL Five Eyes, used primarily on intelligence messages, gives an easier way to indicate that the material can be shared with Australia, Canada, United Kingdom, and New Zealand. The task of the division called "" of the German is keeping contact to the CIA office in Wiesbaden. History The Central Intelligence Agency was created on July 26, 1947, when Harry S. Truman signed the National Security Act into law. A major impetus for the creation of the agency was growing tensions with the USSR following the end of World War II. Immediate predecessors The success of the British Commandos during World War II prompted U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt to authorize the creation of an intelligence service modeled after the British Secret Intelligence Service (MI6), and Special Operations Executive. This led to the creation of the Office of Strategic Services (OSS) established by a Presidential military order issued by President Roosevelt on June 13, 1942. On September 20, 1945, shortly after the end of World War II, Harry S. Truman signed an executive order dissolving the OSS, and by October 1945 its functions had been divided between the Departments of State and War. The division lasted only a few months. The first public mention of the "Central Intelligence Agency" appeared on a command-restructuring proposal presented by Jim Forrestal and Arthur Radford to the U.S. Senate Military Affairs Committee at the end of 1945. Army Intelligence agent Colonel Sidney Mashbir and Commander Ellis Zacharias worked together for four months at the direction of Fleet Admiral Joseph Ernest King, and prepared the first draft and implementing directives for the creation of what would become the Central Intelligence Agency. Despite opposition from the military establishment, the United States Department of State and the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Truman established the National Intelligence Authority in January 1946. Its operational extension was known as the Central Intelligence Group (CIG), which was the direct predecessor of the CIA. National Security Act Lawrence Houston, head counsel of the SSU, CIG, and, later CIA, was principal draftsman of the National Security Act of 1947, which dissolved the NIA and the CIG, and established both the National Security Council and the Central Intelligence Agency. In 1949 Houston helped to draft the Central Intelligence Agency Act (), which authorized the agency to use confidential fiscal and administrative procedures, and exempted it from most limitations on the use of Federal funds. It also exempted the CIA from having to disclose its "organization, functions, officials, titles, salaries, or numbers of personnel employed." It created the program "PL-110" to handle defectors and other "essential aliens" who fell outside normal immigration procedures. Intelligence vs. action At the outset of the Korean War the CIA still only had a few thousand employees, around one thousand of whom worked in analysis. Intelligence primarily came from the Office of Reports and Estimates, which drew its reports from a daily take of State Department telegrams, military dispatches, and other public documents. The CIA still lacked its intelligence-gathering abilities. On August 21, 1950, shortly after, Truman announced Walter Bedell Smith as the new Director of the CIA. The change in leadership took place shortly after the invasion of South Korea, as the lack of a clear warning to the President and National Security Council about the impending North Korean invasion was seen as a grave failure of Intelligence. The CIA had different demands placed on it by the various bodies overseeing it. Truman wanted a centralized group to organize the information that reached him, the Department of Defense wanted military intelligence and covert action, and the State Department wanted to create global political change favorable to the US. Thus the two areas of responsibility for the CIA were covert action and covert intelligence. One of the main targets for intelligence gathering was the Soviet Union, which had also been a priority of the CIA's predecessors. The United States Air Force general Hoyt Vandenberg, the CIG's second director, created the Office of Special Operations (OSO), as well as the Office of Reports and Estimates (ORE). Initially the OSO was tasked with spying and subversion overseas with a budget of $15 million, the largesse of a small number of patrons in Congress. Vandenberg's goals were much like the ones set out by his predecessor; finding out "everything about the Soviet forces in Eastern and Central Europe – their movements, their capabilities, and their intentions." On June 18, 1948, the National Security Council issued Directive 10/2 calling for covert action against the USSR, and granting the authority to carry out covert operations against "hostile foreign states or groups" that could, if needed, be denied by the U.S. government. To this end, the Office of Policy Coordination (OPC) was created inside the new CIA. The OPC was unique; Frank Wisner, the head of the OPC, answered not to the CIA Director, but to the secretaries of defense, state, and the NSC and the OPC's actions were a secret even from the head of the CIA. Most CIA stations had two station chiefs, one working for the OSO, and one working for the OPC. The early track record of the CIA was poor, with the agency unable to provide sufficient intelligence about the Soviet takeovers of Romania and Czechoslovakia, the Soviet blockade of Berlin, and the Soviet atomic bomb project. In particular, the agency failed to predict the Chinese entry into the Korean War with 300,000 troops. The famous double agent Kim Philby was the British liaison to American Central Intelligence. Through him, the CIA coordinated hundreds of airdrops inside the iron curtain, all compromised by Philby. Arlington Hall, the nerve center of CIA cryptanalysis, was compromised by Bill Weisband, a Russian translator and Soviet spy. However, the CIA was successful in influencing the 1948 Italian election in favor of the Christian Democrats. The $200 million Exchange Stabilization Fund, earmarked for the reconstruction of Europe, was used to pay wealthy Americans of Italian heritage. Cash was then distributed to Catholic Action, the Vatican's political arm, and directly to Italian politicians. This tactic of using its large fund to purchase elections was frequently repeated in the subsequent years. Korean War At the beginning of the Korean War, CIA officer Hans Tofte claimed to have turned a thousand North Korean expatriates into a guerrilla force tasked with infiltration, guerrilla warfare, and pilot rescue. In 1952 the CIA sent 1,500 more expatriate agents north. Seoul station chief Albert Haney would openly celebrate the capabilities of those agents, and the information they sent. In September 1952 Haney was replaced by John Limond Hart, a Europe veteran with a vivid memory for bitter experiences of misinformation. Hart was suspicious of the parade of successes reported by Tofte and Haney and launched an investigation which determined that the entirety of the information supplied by the Korean sources was false or misleading. After the war, internal reviews by the CIA would corroborate Hart's findings. The CIA's Seoul station had 200 officers, but not a single speaker of Korean. Hart reported to Washington that Seoul station was hopeless, and could not be salvaged. Loftus Becker, deputy director of intelligence, was sent personally to tell Hart that the CIA had to keep the station open to save face. Becker returned to Washington, pronounced the situation to be "hopeless," and that, after touring the CIA's Far East operations, the CIA's ability to gather intelligence in the far east was "almost negligible". He then resigned. Air Force Colonel James Kallis stated that CIA director Allen Dulles continued to praise the CIA's Korean force, despite knowing that they were under enemy control. When China entered the war in 1950, the CIA attempted a number of subversive operations in the country, all of which failed due to the presence of double agents. Millions of dollars were spent in these efforts. These included a team of young CIA officers airdropped into China who were ambushed, and CIA funds being used to set up a global heroin empire in Burma's Golden Triangle following a betrayal by another double agent. 1953 Iranian coup d'état In 1951, Mohammad Mosaddegh, a member of the National Front, was elected Iranian prime-minister. As prime minister, he nationalized the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company which his predecessor had supported. The nationalization of the British-funded Iranian oil industry, including the largest oil refinery in the world, was disastrous for Mosaddegh. A British naval embargo closed the British oil facilities, which Iran had no skilled workers to operate. In 1952, Mosaddegh resisted the royal refusal to approve his Minister of War and resigned in protest. The National Front took to the streets in protest. Fearing a loss of control, the military pulled its troops back five days later, and Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi gave in to Mosaddegh's demands. Mosaddegh quickly replaced military leaders loyal to the Shah with those loyal to him, giving him personal control over the military. Given six months of emergency powers, Mosaddegh unilaterally passed legislation. When that six months expired, his powers were extended for another year. In 1953, Mossadegh dismissed parliament and assumed dictatorial powers. This power grab triggered the Shah to exercise his constitutional right to dismiss Mosaddegh. Mosaddegh launched a military coup as the Shah fled the country. Under CIA Director Allen Dulles, Operation Ajax was put into motion. Its goal was to overthrow Mossadegh with military support from General Fazlollah Zahedi and install a pro-western regime headed by the Shah of Iran. Kermit Roosevelt Jr. oversaw the operation in Iran. On August 16, his new inner military circle protected a CIA paid mob led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini would spark what a US embassy officer called "an almost spontaneous revolution" but Mosaddegh, and the CIA had been unable to gain influence within the Iranian military. Their chosen man, former general Fazlollah Zahedi, had no troops to call on. After the failure of the first coup, Roosevelt paid demonstrators to pose as communists and deface public symbols associated with the Shah. This August 19 incident helped foster public support of the Shah and led gangs of citizens on a spree of violence intent on destroying Mossadegh. An attack on his house would force Mossadegh to flee. He surrendered the next day, and his coup came to an end. 1954 Guatemalan coup d'état The return of the Shah to power, and the impression, cultivated by Allen Dulles, that an effective CIA had been able to guide that nation to friendly and stable relations with the West triggered planning for Operation PBSuccess, a plan to overthrow Guatemalan President Jacobo Arbenz. The plan was exposed in major newspapers before it happened after a CIA agent left plans for the coup in his Guatemala City hotel room. The Guatemalan Revolution of 1944–54 overthrew the U.S. backed dictator Jorge Ubico and brought a democratically elected government to power. The government began an ambitious agrarian reform program attempting to grant land to millions of landless peasants. This program threatened the land holdings of the United Fruit Company, who lobbied for a coup by portraying these reforms as communist. On June 18, 1954, Carlos Castillo Armas led 480 CIA-trained men across the border from Honduras into Guatemala. The weapons had also come from the CIA. The CIA also mounted a psychological campaign to convince the Guatemalan people and government that Armas' victory was a fait accompli, the largest part of which was a radio broadcast entitled "The Voice of Liberation" which announced that Guatemalan exiles led by Castillo Armas were shortly about to liberate the country. On June 25, a CIA plane bombed Guatemala City, destroying the government's main oil reserves. Árbenz ordered the army to distribute weapons to local peasants and workers. The army refused, forcing Jacobo Árbenz's resignation on June 27, 1954. Árbenz handed over power to Colonel Carlos Enrique Diaz. The CIA then orchestrated a series of power transfers that ended with the confirmation of Castillo Armas as president in July 1954. Armas was the first in a series of military dictators that would rule the country, leading to the brutal Guatemalan Civil War from 1960 to 1996, which some 200,000 people were killed, mostly by the U.S.-backed military. Syria In 1949, Colonel Adib Shishakli rose to power in Syria in a CIA-backed coup. Four years later, he would be overthrown by the military, Ba'athists, and communists. The CIA and MI6 started funding right-wing members of the military but suffered a huge setback in the aftermath of the Suez Crisis. CIA Agent Rocky Stone, who had played a minor role in the 1953 Iranian coup d'état, was working at the Damascus embassy as a diplomat but was the station chief. Syrian officers on the CIA dole quickly appeared on television stating that they had received money from "corrupt and sinister Americans" "in an attempt to overthrow the legitimate government of Syria." Syrian forces surrounded the embassy and rousted Agent Stone, who confessed and subsequently made history as the first American diplomat expelled from an Arab nation. This strengthened ties between Syria and Egypt, helping establish the United Arab Republic, and poisoning the well for the US for the foreseeable future. Indonesia The charismatic leader of Indonesia was President Sukarno. His declaration of neutrality in the Cold War put the suspicions of the CIA on him. After Sukarno hosted Bandung Conference, promoting the Non-Aligned Movement, the Eisenhower White House responded with NSC 5518 authorizing "all feasible covert means" to move Indonesia into the Western sphere. The US had no clear policy on Indonesia. Eisenhower sent his special assistant for security operations, F. M. Dearborn Jr., to Jakarta. His report that there was high instability, and that the US lacked stable allies, reinforced the domino theory. Indonesia suffered from what he described as "subversion by democracy". The CIA decided to attempt another military coup in Indonesia, where the Indonesian military was trained by the US, had a strong professional relationship with the US military, had a pro-American officer corps that strongly supported their government, and a strong belief in civilian control of the military, instilled partly by its close association with the US military. On September 25, 1957, Eisenhower ordered the CIA to start a revolution in Indonesia with the goal of regime change. Three days later, Blitz, a Soviet-controlled weekly in India, reported that the US was plotting to overthrow Sukarno. The story was picked up by the media in Indonesia. One of the first parts of the operation was an 11,500-ton US Navy ship landing at Sumatra, delivering weapons for as many as 8,000 potential revolutionaries. In support of the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia-Permesta Movement, formed by dissident military commanders in Central Sumatera and North Sulawesi with the aim of overthrowing the Sukarno regime, a B-26 piloted by CIA agent Allen Lawrence Pope attacked Indonesian military targets in April and May 1958. The CIA described the airstrikes to the President as attacks by "dissident planes." Pope's B-26 was shot down over Ambon, Indonesia on May 18, 1958, and he bailed out. When he was captured, the Indonesian military found his personnel records, after-action reports, and his membership card for the officer's club at Clark Field. On March 9, Foster Dulles, the Secretary of State, and brother of DCI Allen Dulles made a public statement calling for a revolt against communist despotism under Sukarno. Three days later, the CIA reported to the White House that the Indonesian Army's actions against the CIA-supported revolution were suppressing communism. After Indonesia, Eisenhower displayed mistrust of both the CIA and its Director, Allen Dulles. Dulles too displayed mistrust of the CIA itself. Abbot Smith, a CIA analyst who later became chief of the Office of National Estimates, said, "We had constructed for ourselves a picture of the USSR, and whatever happened had to be made to fit into this picture. Intelligence estimators can hardly commit a more abominable sin." On December 16, Eisenhower received a report from his intelligence board of consultants that said the agency was "incapable of making objective appraisals of its own intelligence information as well as its own operations." Democratic Republic of the Congo In the election of Patrice Lumumba as Prime minister, and his acceptance of Soviet support during the Congo Crisis, the CIA saw another possible Cuba. This view swayed the White House. Eisenhower ordered that Lumumba be "eliminated." In September 1960, President Joseph Kasa-Vubu ordered the dismissal of Lumumba and his cabinet. The CIA delivered a quarter of a million dollars to Joseph Mobutu in October, their favored Congolese political figure. Lumumba was imprisoned by Mobutu in December and then handed over to Katangan authorities who, with the aid of Belgium, executed him by firing squad in January 1961. Gary Powers U-2 shootdown After the bomber gap came the missile gap. Eisenhower wanted to use the U-2 to disprove the Missile Gap, but he had banned U-2 overflights of the USSR after meeting Secretary Khrushchev at Camp David. Another reason the President objected to the use of the U-2 was that, in the nuclear age, the intelligence he needed most was on their intentions, without which, the US would face a paralysis of intelligence. He was particularly worried that U-2 flights could be seen as preparations for first-strike attacks. He had high hopes for an upcoming meeting with Khrushchev in Paris. Eisenhower finally gave in to CIA pressure to authorize a 16-day window for flights, which was extended an additional six days because of poor weather. On May 1, 1960, the USSR shot down a U-2 flying over the Soviet territory. To Eisenhower, the ensuing coverup destroyed his perceived honesty and his hope of leaving a legacy of thawing relations with Khrushchev. Eisenhower later said that the U-2 coverup was the greatest regret of his presidency. Dominican Republic The human rights abuses of Generalissimo Rafael Trujillo lasted more than three decades before the United States severed diplomatic relations with the Dominican Republic in August 1960. The CIA's Special group armed Dominicans to assassinate Trujillo, but Kennedy paused the plan when he became president. Kennedy allowed the distribution of four additional machine guns, and Trujillo died from gunshot wounds two weeks later, on May 30, 1961. In the aftermath, Robert Kennedy wrote that the CIA had succeeded where it had failed many times in the past, but in the face of that success, it was caught flatfooted, having failed to plan what to do next. Bay of Pigs The CIA welcomed Fidel Castro on his visit to DC and gave him a face-to-face briefing. The CIA hoped that Castro would bring about a friendly democratic government and planned to curry his favor with money and guns. On December 11, 1959, a memo reached the DCI's desk recommending Castro's "elimination." Dulles replaced the word "elimination" with "removal," and set the scheme into action. By mid-August 1960, Dick Bissell would seek, with the blessing of the CIA, to hire the Mafia to assassinate Castro. The Bay of Pigs Invasion was a failed military invasion of Cuba undertaken by the CIA-sponsored paramilitary group Brigade 2506 on April 17, 1961. A counter-revolutionary military, trained and funded by the CIA, Brigade 2506 fronted the armed wing of the Democratic Revolutionary Front (DRF) and intended to overthrow the increasingly communist government of Fidel Castro. Launched from Guatemala, the invading force was defeated within three days by the Cuban Revolutionary Armed Forces, under the direct command of Prime Minister Fidel Castro. US President Dwight D. Eisenhower was concerned at the direction Castro's government was taking, and in March 1960, Eisenhower allocated $13.1 million to the CIA to plan Castro's overthrow. The CIA proceeded to organize the operation with the aid of various Cuban counter-revolutionary forces, training Brigade 2506 in Guatemala. Over 1,400 paramilitaries set out for Cuba by boat on April 13. Two days later on April 15, eight CIA-supplied B-26 bombers attacked Cuban airfields. On the night of April 16, the main invasion landed in the Bay of Pigs, but by April 20, the invaders finally surrendered. The failed invasion strengthened the position of Castro's leadership as well as his ties with the USSR. This led eventually to the events of the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962. The invasion was a major embarrassment for US foreign policy. The Taylor Board was commissioned to determine what went wrong in Cuba. The Board came to the same conclusion that the Jan '61 President's Board of Consultants on Foreign Intelligence Activities had concluded, and many other reviews prior, and to come, that Covert Action had to be completely isolated from intelligence and analysis. The Inspector General of the CIA investigated the Bay of Pigs. He concluded that there was a need to improve the organization and management of the CIA drastically. Cuba: Terrorism and sabotage After the failure of the attempted invasion at the Bay of Pigs, the CIA proposed a program of sabotage and terrorist attacks against civilian and military targets in Cuba, with the stated intent to bring down the Cuban administration and institute a new government. It was authorized by the president in November 1961. The operation saw the CIA engage in an extensive campaign of terrorist attacks against civilians and economic targets, killing significant numbers of civilians, and carry out covert operations against the Cuban government. The CIA established a base for the operation, with the cryptonym JMWAVE, at a disused naval facility on the University of Miami campus. The operation was so extensive that it housed the largest number of CIA officers outside of Langley, eventually numbering some four hundred. It was a major employer in Florida, with several thousand agents in clandestine pay of the agency. The terrorist activities carried out by agents armed, organized and sponsored by the CIA were a further source of tension between the U.S. and Cuban governments. They were a major factor contributing to the Soviet decision to place missiles in Cuba, leading to the Cuban Missile Crisis. The attacks continued through 1965. Though the level of terrorist activity directed by the CIA lessened in the second half of the 1960s, in 1969 the CIA was directed to intensify its operations against Cuba. Exile terrorists were still in the employ of the CIA in the mid-1970s, including Luis Posada Carriles. He remained on the CIA's payroll until mid-1976, and contact continued through at least June of that year. Posada is widely believed to be responsible for the October 1976 Cubana 455 flight bombing, killing 73 people – the deadliest instance of airline terrorism in the western hemisphere prior to the attacks of September 2001 in New York. Despite the damage done and civilians killed in the CIA's terrorist attacks, by the measure of its stated objective the project was a complete failure. Early Cold War, 1953–1966 The CIA was involved in anti-Communist activities in Burma, Congo, Guatemala, and Laos. Operations in Laos continued well into the 1970s. There have been suggestions that the Soviet attempt to put missiles into Cuba came, indirectly, when they realized how badly they had been compromised by a US–UK defector in place, Oleg Penkovsky. One of the most significant operations ever undertaken by the CIA was directed at Zaïre in support of general-turned-dictator Mobutu Sese Seko. Brazil The CIA and the United States government were involved in the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état. The coup occurred from March 31 to April 1, which resulted in the Brazilian Armed Forces ousting President João Goulart. The United States saw Goulart as a left-wing threat in Latin America. Secret cables written by the US Ambassador to Brazil, Lincoln Gordon, confirmed that the CIA was involved in covert action in Brazil. The CIA encouraged "pro-democracy street rallies" in Brazil, for instance, to create dissent against Goulart. Indochina, Tibet, and the Vietnam War (1954–1975) The OSS Patti mission arrived in Vietnam near the end of World War II and had significant interaction with the leaders of many Vietnamese factions, including Ho Chi Minh. The CIA Tibetan program consisted of political plots, propaganda distribution, and paramilitary and intelligence gathering based on U.S. commitments made to the Dalai Lama in 1951 and 1956. During the period of U.S. combat involvement in the Vietnam War, there was considerable argument about progress among the Department of Defense under Robert McNamara, the CIA, and, to some extent, the intelligence staff of Military Assistance Command Vietnam. Sometime between 1959 and 1961, the CIA started Project Tiger, a program of dropping South Vietnamese agents into North Vietnam to gather intelligence. These were failures; the Deputy Chief for Project Tiger, Captain Do Van Tien, admitted that he was an agent for Hanoi. Johnson In the face of the failure of Project Tiger, the Pentagon wanted CIA paramilitary forces to participate in their Op Plan 64A. This resulted in the CIA's foreign paramilitaries being put under the command of the DOD, a move seen as a slippery slope inside the CIA, a slide from covert action towards militarization. The antiwar movement rapidly expanded across the United States during the Johnson presidency. Johnson wanted CIA Director Richard Helms to substantiate Johnson's hunch that Moscow and Beijing were financing and influencing the American antiwar movement. Thus, in the fall of 1967, the CIA launched a domestic surveillance program code-named Chaos that would linger for a total of seven years. Police departments across the country cooperated in tandem with the agency, amassing a "computer index of 300,000 names of American people and organizations, and extensive files on 7,200 citizens." Helms hatched a "Special Operations Group" in which "[eleven] CIA officers grew long hair, learned the jargon of the New Left, and went off to infiltrate peace groups in the United States and Europe." A CIA analyst's assessment of Vietnam was that the US was "becoming progressively divorced from reality... [and] proceeding with far more courage than wisdom". Nixon In 1971, the NSA and CIA were engaged in domestic spying. The DOD was eavesdropping on Kissinger. The White House and Camp David were wired for sound. Nixon and Kissinger were eavesdropping on their aides, as well as reporters. Famously, Nixon's Plumbers had in their number many former CIA officers, including Howard Hunt, Jim McCord, and Eugenio Martinez. On July 7, 1971, John Ehrlichman, Nixon's domestic policy chief, told DCI Cushman, Nixon's hatchet-man in the CIA, to let Cushman "know that [Hunt] was, in fact, doing some things for the President... you should consider he has pretty much carte blanche" On June 17, Nixon's Plumbers were caught burglarizing the DNC offices in the Watergate. On June 23, DCI Helms was ordered by the White House to wave the FBI off using national security as a pretext. The new DCI, Walters, another Nixon hack, called the acting director of the FBI and told him to drop the investigation as ordered. On June 26, Nixon's counsel John Dean ordered DCI Walters to pay the plumbers untraceable hush money. The CIA was the only part of the government that had the power to make off the book payments, but it could only be done on the orders of the CI, or, if he was out of the country, the DCI. The acting director of the FBI started breaking ranks. He demanded the CIA produce a signed document attesting to the national security threat of the investigation. Jim McCord's lawyer contacted the CIA informing them that McCord had been offered a Presidential pardon if he fingered the CIA, testifying that the break-in had been an operation of the CIA. Nixon had long been frustrated by what he saw as a liberal infection inside the CIA and had been trying for years to tear the CIA out by its roots. McCord wrote "If [DCI] Helms goes (takes the fall) and the Watergate operation is laid at the CIA's feet, where it does not belong, every tree in the forest will fall. It will be a scorched desert." On November 13, after Nixon's landslide re-election, Nixon told Kissinger "[I intend] to ruin the Foreign Service. I mean ruin it – the old Foreign Service – and to build a new one." He had similar designs for the CIA and intended to replace Helms with James Schlesinger. Nixon had told Helms that he was on the way out, and promised that Helms could stay on until his 60th birthday, the mandatory retirement age. On February 2, Nixon broke that promise, carrying through with his intention to "remove the deadwood" from the CIA. "Get rid of the clowns" was his order to the incoming CI. Kissinger had been running the CIA since the beginning of Nixon's presidency, but Nixon impressed on Schlesinger that he must appear to Congress to be in charge, averting their suspicion of Kissinger's involvement. Nixon also hoped that Schlesinger could push through broader changes in the intelligence community that he had been working towards for years, the creation of a Director of National Intelligence, and spinning off the covert action part of the CIA into a separate organ. Before Helms would leave office, he would destroy every tape he had secretly made of meetings in his office, and many of the papers on Project MKUltra. In Schlesinger's 17-week tenure, in his assertion to President Nixon that it was "imperative to cut back on 'the prominence of CIA operations' around the world," the director fired more than 1,500 employees. As Watergate threw the spotlight on the CIA, Schlesinger, who had been kept in the dark about the CIA's involvement, decided he needed to know what skeletons were in the closet. This became the Family Jewels. It included information linking the CIA to the assassination of foreign leaders, the illegal surveillance of some 7,000 U.S. citizens involved in the antiwar movement (Operation CHAOS), the CIA had also experimented on U.S. and Canadian citizens without their knowledge, secretly giving them LSD (among other things) and observing the results. This prompted Congress to create the Church Committee in the Senate, and the Pike Committee in the House. President Gerald Ford created the Rockefeller Commission, and issued an executive order prohibiting the assassination of foreign leaders. DCI Colby leaked the papers to the press, later he stated that he believed that providing Congress with this information was the correct thing to do, and ultimately in the CIA's interests. Congressional investigations Acting Attorney General Laurence Silberman learned of the existence of the Family Jewels and issued a subpoena for them, prompting eight congressional investigations on the domestic spying activities of the CIA. Bill Colby's short tenure as DCI would end with the Halloween Massacre. His replacement was George H. W. Bush. At the time, the DOD had control of 80% of the intelligence budget. Communication and coordination between the CIA and the DOD would suffer greatly under Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld. The CIA's budget for hiring clandestine officers had been squeezed out by the paramilitary operations in Southeast Asia, and the government's poor popularity further strained hiring. This left the agency bloated with middle management, and anemic in younger officers. With employee training taking five years, the agency's only hope would be on the trickle of new officers coming to fruition years in the future. The CIA would see another setback as communists would take Angola. William J. Casey, a member of Ford's Intelligence Advisory Board, obtained Bush's approval to allow a team from outside the CIA to produce Soviet military estimates as a "Team B". The "B" team was composed of hawks. Their estimates were the highest that could be justified, and they painted a picture of a growing Soviet military when the Soviet military was indeed shrinking. Many of their reports found their way to the press. Chad Chad's neighbor Libya was a major source of weaponry to communist rebel forces. The CIA seized the opportunity to arm and finance Chad's Prime Minister, Hissène Habré, after he created a breakaway government in western Sudan, even giving him Stinger missiles. Afghanistan In Afghanistan, the CIA funneled several billion dollars' worth of weapons, including FIM-92 Stinger surface-to-air missiles, to Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI), which funneled them to tens of thousands of Afghan mujahideen resistance fighters—a portion of which bled to foreign "Afghan Arabs" from forty Muslim countries. In total, the CIA sent approximately 2,300 Stingers to Afghanistan, creating a substantial black market for the weapons throughout the Middle East, Central Asia, and even parts of Africa that persisted well into the 1990s. Perhaps 100 Stingers were acquired by Iran. The CIA later operated a program to recover the Stingers through cash buybacks. Iran/Contra Under President Jimmy Carter, the CIA was conducting covertly funded pro-American opposition against the Sandinista. In March 1981, Reagan told Congress that the CIA would protect El Salvador by preventing the shipment of Nicaraguan arms into the country to arm Communist rebels. This was a ruse. The CIA was arming and training Nicaraguans Contras in Honduras in hopes that they could depose the Sandinistas in Nicaragua. DCI William J. Casey formed the Central American Task Force, staffed with yes men from Covert Action. Lebanon The CIA's prime source in Lebanon was Bashir Gemayel, a member of the Christian Maronite sect. The uprising against the Maronite minority blindsided the CIA. Israel invaded Lebanon, and, along with the CIA, propped up Gemayel. This secured Gemayel's assurance that Americans would be protected in Lebanon. Thirteen days later he was assassinated. Imad Mughniyah, a Hezbollah assassin, targeted Americans in retaliation for the Israeli invasion, the Sabra and Shatila massacre, and the US Marines of the Multi-National Force for their role in opposing the PLO in Lebanon. On April 18, 1983, a 2,000 lb car bomb exploded in the lobby of the American embassy in Beirut, killing 63 people, including 17 Americans and 7 CIA officers, including Robert Ames, one of the CIA's Middle East experts. America's fortunes in Lebanon suffered more as America's poorly directed retaliation for the bombing was interpreted by many as support for the Maronite minority. On October 23, 1983, two bombs (1983 Beirut Bombing) were set off in Beirut, including a 10-ton bomb at a US military barracks that killed 242 people. The Embassy bombing killed the CIA's Beirut Station Chief, Ken Haas. Bill Buckley was sent in to replace him. Eighteen days after the US Marines left Lebanon, Buckley was kidnapped. On March 7, 1984, Jeremy Levin, CNN Bureau Chief in Beirut, was kidnapped. Twelve more Americans were captured in Beirut during the Reagan Administration. Manucher Ghorbanifar, a former Savak agent, was an information seller, and was discredited over his record of misinformation. He reached out to the agency offering a back channel to Iran, suggesting a trade of missiles that would be lucrative to the intermediaries. Pakistan It has been alleged by such authors as Ahmed Rashid that the CIA and ISI have been waging a clandestine war. India–Pakistan geopolitical tensions On May 11, 1998, CIA Director George Tenet and his agency were taken aback by India's second nuclear test. The test prompted concerns from its nuclear-capable adversary, Pakistan, and, furthermore, "remade the balance of power in the world." The nuclear test was New Delhi's calculated response to Pakistan previously testing new missiles in its expanding arsenal. This series of events subsequently revealed the CIA's "failure of espionage, a failure to read photographs, a failure to comprehend reports, a failure to think, and a failure to see." Poland, 1980–1989 Unlike the Carter Administration, the Reagan Administration supported the Solidarity movement in Poland, andbased on CIA intelligencewaged a public relations campaign to deter what the Carter administration felt was "an imminent move by large Soviet military forces into Poland." Colonel Ryszard Kukliński, a senior officer on the Polish General Staff, was secretly sending reports to the CIA. The CIA transferred around $2 million yearly in cash to Solidarity, which suggests that $10 million total is a reasonable estimate for the five-year total. There were no direct links between the CIA and Solidarność, and all money was channeled through third parties. CIA officers were barred from meeting Solidarity leaders, and the CIA's contacts with Solidarność activists were weaker than those of the AFL–CIO, which raised 300 thousand dollars from its members, which were used to provide material and cash directly to Solidarity, with no control of Solidarity's use of it. The U.S. Congress authorized the National Endowment for Democracy to promote democracy, and the NED allocated $10 million to Solidarity. When the Polish government launched a crackdown in December 1981, Solidarity was not alerted. Explanations for this vary; some believe the CIA was caught off guard, while others suggest that American policymakers viewed an internal crackdown as preferable to an "inevitable Soviet intervention." CIA support for Solidarity included money, equipment and training, which was coordinated by Special Operations CIA division. Henry Hyde, U.S. House intelligence committee member, said that the U.S. provided "supplies and technical assistance in terms of clandestine newspapers, broadcasting, propaganda, money, organizational help and advice". Michael Reisman of Yale Law School named operations in Poland as one of the CIA's Cold War covert operations. Initial funds for covert actions by the CIA were $2 million, but authorization was soon increased and by 1985 the CIA had successfully infiltrated Poland. Rainer Thiel, in Nested Games of External Democracy Promotion: The United States and the Polish Liberalization 1980–1989, mentions how covert operations by the CIA, and spy games, among others, allowed the U.S. to proceed with successful regime change. Operation Gladio During the Cold War, the CIA along with NATO, was involved in Operation Gladio,. As part of Operation Gladio, the CIA supported the Italian Government, as well as allegedly supporting Neo-Fascist organisations such as National Vanguard, New Order and the Nuclei Armati Rivoluzionari during the Years of Lead in Italy. In Turkey, Gladio was called Counter-Guerrilla. CIA efforts strengthened the Pan-Turkist movement through the founding member of the Counter-Guerrilla; Alparslan Türkeş. Other Far-Right individuals employed by the CIA as part of Counter-Guerilla included Ruzi Nazar, a former SS officer and Pan-Turkist. Operation Desert Storm During the Iran–Iraq War, the CIA had backed both sides. The CIA had maintained a network of spies in Iran, but in 1989 a CIA mistake compromised every agent they had in there, and the CIA had no agents in Iraq. In the weeks before the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the CIA downplayed the military buildup. During the war, CIA estimates of Iraqi abilities and intentions flip-flopped and were rarely accurate. In one particular case, the DOD had asked the CIA to identify military targets to bomb. One target the CIA identified was an underground shelter. The CIA did not know that it was a civilian bomb shelter. In a rare instance, the CIA correctly determined that the coalition forces efforts were coming up short in their efforts to destroy SCUD missiles. Congress took away the CIA's role in interpreting spy-satellite photos, putting the CIA's satellite intelligence operations under the auspices of the military. The CIA created its office of military affairs, which operated as "second-echelon support for the Pentagon. .. answering ... questions from military men [like] 'how wide is this road?'" Fall of the USSR Gorbachev's announcement of the unilateral reduction of 500,000 Soviet troops took the CIA by surprise. Moreover, Doug MacEachin, the CIA's Chief of Soviet analysis, said that even if the CIA had told the President, the NSC, and Congress about the cuts beforehand, it would have been ignored. "We never would have been able to publish it." All the CIA numbers on the USSR's economy were wrong. Too often the CIA relied on inexperienced people supposedly deemed experts. Bob Gates had preceded Doug MacEachin as Chief of Soviet analysis, and he had never visited Russia. Few officers, even those stationed in the country, spoke the language of the people on whom they spied. And the CIA could not send agents to respond to developing situations. The CIA analysis of Russia during the Cold War was either driven by ideology, or by politics. William J. Crowe, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, noted that the CIA "talked about the Soviet Union as if they weren't reading the newspapers, much less developed clandestine intelligence." President Clinton On January 25, 1993, Mir Qazi opened fire at the CIA headquarters in Langley, Virginia, killing two officers and wounding three others. On February 26, Al-Qaeda terrorists led by Ramzi Yousef bombed the parking garage below the North Tower of the World Trade Center in New York City, killing six people and injuring 1,402 others. During the Bosnian War, the CIA ignored signs within and without of the Srebrenica massacre. On July 13, 1995, when the press report about the massacre came out, the CIA received pictures from spy satellite of prisoners guarded by men with guns in Srebrenica. The CIA had no agents on the ground to verify the report. Two weeks after news reports of the slaughter, the CIA sent a U-2 to photograph it. A week later the CIA completed its report on the matter. The final report came to the Oval Office on August 4, 1995. In short, it took three weeks for the agency to confirm that one of the largest mass murders in Europe since the Second World War had occurred. Another CIA mistake which occurred in the Balkans during the Clinton presidency was the NATO bombing of Serbia. To force Slobodan Milošević to withdraw his troops from Kosovo, the CIA had been invited to provide military targets for bombings, wherein the agency's analysts used tourist maps to determine the location. However, the agency incorrectly provided the coordinates of the Chinese Embassy as a target resulting in its bombing. The CIA had misread the target as Slobodan Milosevic's military depot. In Guatemala, the CIA produced the Murphy Memo, based on audio recordings made by covert listening devices planted by Guatemalan intelligence in the bedroom of Ambassador Marilyn McAfee. In the recording, Ambassador McAfee verbally entreated "Murphy." The CIA circulated a memo in the highest Washington circles accusing Ambassador McAfee of having an extramarital lesbian affair with her secretary, Carol Murphy. There was no affair. Ambassador McAfee was calling to Murphy, her poodle. Harold James Nicholson would burn several serving officers and three years of trainees before he was caught spying for Russia. In 1997 the House would pen another report, which said that CIA officers know little about the language or politics of the people they spy on; the conclusion was that the CIA lacked the "depth, breadth, and expertise to monitor political, military, and economic developments worldwide." Russ Travers said in the CIA in-house journal that in five years "intelligence failure is inevitable". In 1997 the CIA's new director George Tenet would promise a new working agency by 2002. The CIA's surprise at India's detonation of an atom bomb was a failure at almost every level. After the 1998 embassy bombings by Al Qaeda, the CIA offered two targets to be hit in retaliation. One of them was the Al-Shifa pharmaceutical factory, where traces of chemical weapon precursors had been detected. In the aftermath, it was concluded that "the decision to target al Shifa continues a tradition of operating on inadequate intelligence about Sudan." It triggered the CIA to make "substantial and sweeping changes" to prevent "a catastrophic systemic intelligence failure." Aldrich Ames Between 1985 and 1986, the CIA lost every spy it had in Eastern Europe. The details of the investigation into the cause were obscured from the new Director, and the investigation had little success and has been widely criticized. On February 21, 1994, FBI agents pulled Aldrich Ames out of his Jaguar. In the investigation that ensued, the CIA discovered that many of the sources for its most important analyses of the USSR were based on Soviet disinformation fed to the CIA by controlled agents. On top of that, it was discovered that, in some cases, the CIA suspected at the time that the sources were compromised, but the information was sent up the chain as genuine. Osama bin Laden Agency files show that it is believed Osama bin Laden was funding the Afghan rebels against the USSR in the 1980s. In 1991, bin Laden returned to his native Saudi Arabia protesting the presence of troops, and Operation Desert Storm. He was expelled from the country. In 1996, the CIA created a team to hunt bin Laden. They were trading information with the Sudanese until, on the word of a source that would later be found to be a fabricator, the CIA closed its Sudan station later that year. In 1998, bin Laden would declare war on America, and, on August 7, strike in Tanzania and Nairobi. On October 12, 2000, Al Qaeda bombed the USS Cole. In the first days of George W. Bush's presidency, Al Qaeda threats were ubiquitous in daily presidential CIA briefings, but it may have become a case of false alarm. The agency's predictions were dire but carried little weight, and the focus of the president and his defense staff were elsewhere. The CIA arranged the arrests of suspected Al Qaeda members through cooperation with foreign agencies, but the CIA could not definitively say what effect these arrests have had, and it could not gain hard intelligence from those captured. The President had asked the CIA if Al Qaeda could plan attacks in the US. On August 6, Bush received a daily briefing with the headline, not based on current, solid intelligence, "Al Qaeda determined to strike inside the US." The US had been hunting bin Laden since 1996 and had had several opportunities, but neither Clinton, nor Bush had wanted to risk taking an active role in a murky assassination plot, and the perfect opportunity had never materialized for a DCI that would have given him the reassurances he needed to take the plunge. That day, Richard A. Clarke sent National Security Advisor Condoleezza Rice warning of the risks, and decrying the inaction of the CIA. Al-Qaeda and the Global War on Terrorism In January 1996, the CIA created an experimental "virtual station," the Bin Laden Issue Station, under the Counterterrorist Center, to track bin Laden's developing activities. Al-Fadl, who defected to the CIA in spring 1996, began to provide the Station with a new image of the Al Qaeda leader: he was not only a terrorist financier but a terrorist organizer as well. FBI Special Agent Dan Coleman (who together with his partner Jack Cloonan had been "seconded" to the bin Laden Station) called him Qaeda's "Rosetta Stone". In 1999, CIA chief George Tenet launched a plan to deal with al-Qaeda. The Counterterrorist Center, its new chief, Cofer Black, and the center's bin Laden unit were the plan's developers and executors. Once it was prepared, Tenet assigned CIA intelligence chief Charles E. Allen to set up a "Qaeda cell" to oversee its tactical execution. In 2000, the CIA and USAF jointly ran a series of flights over Afghanistan with a small remote-controlled reconnaissance drone, the Predator; they obtained probable photos of bin Laden. Cofer Black and others became advocates of arming the Predator with missiles to try to assassinate bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders. September 11 attacks and its aftermath On September 11, 2001, 19 Al-Qaeda members hijacked four passenger jets within the Northeastern United States in a series of coordinated terrorist attacks. Two planes crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center in New York City, the third into the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia, and the fourth inadvertently into a field near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. The attacks cost the lives of 2,996 people (including the 19 hijackers), caused the destruction of the Twin Towers, and damaged the western side of the Pentagon. Soon after 9/11, The New York Times released a story stating that the CIA's New York field office was destroyed in the wake of the attacks. According to unnamed CIA sources, while first responders, military personnel and volunteers were conducting rescue efforts at the World Trade Center site, a special CIA team was searching the rubble for both digital and paper copies of classified documents. This was done according to well-rehearsed document recovery procedures put in place after the Iranian takeover of the United States Embassy in Tehran in 1979. While the CIA insists that those who conducted the attacks on 9/11 were not aware that the agency was operating at 7 World Trade Center under the guise of another (unidentified) federal agency, this center was the headquarters for many notable criminal terrorism investigations. Though the New York field offices' main responsibilities were to monitor and recruit foreign officials stationed at the United Nations, the field office also handled the investigations of the August 1998 bombings of United States Embassies in East Africa and the October 2000 bombing of the USS Cole. Despite the fact that the 9/11 attacks may have damaged the CIA's New York branch, and they had to loan office space from the US Mission to the United Nations and other federal agencies, there was an upside for the CIA. In the months immediately following 9/11, there was a huge increase in the number of applications for CIA positions. According to CIA representatives that spoke with The New York Times, pre-9/11 the agency received approximately 500 to 600 applications a week, in the months following 9/11 the agency received that number daily. The intelligence community as a whole, and especially the CIA, were involved in presidential planning immediately after the 9/11 attacks. In his address to the nation at 8:30pm on September 11, 2001, George W. Bush mentioned the intelligence community: "The search is underway for those who are behind these evil acts, I've directed the full resource of our intelligence and law enforcement communities to find those responsible and bring them to justice." The involvement of the CIA in the newly coined "War on Terror" was further increased on September 15, 2001. During a meeting at Camp David George W. Bush agreed to adopt a plan proposed by CIA director George Tenet. This plan consisted of conducting a covert war in which CIA paramilitary officers would cooperate with anti-Taliban guerillas inside Afghanistan. They would later be joined by small special operations forces teams which would call in precision airstrikes on Taliban and Al Qaeda fighters. This plan was codified on September 16, 2001, with Bush's signature of an official Memorandum of Notification that allowed the plan to proceed. On November 25–27, 2001, Taliban prisoners revolted at the Qala Jangi prison west of Mazar-e-Sharif. Though several days of struggle occurred between the Taliban prisoners and the Northern Alliance members present, the prisoners gained the upper hand and obtained North Alliance weapons. At some point during this period Johnny "Mike" Spann, a CIA officer sent to question the prisoners, was beaten to death. He became the first American to die in combat in the war in Afghanistan. After 9/11, the CIA came under criticism for not having done enough to prevent the attacks. Tenet rejected the criticism, citing the agency's planning efforts especially over the preceding two years. He also considered that the CIA's efforts had put the agency in a position to respond rapidly and effectively to the attacks, both in the "Afghan sanctuary" and in "ninety-two countries around the world". The new strategy was called the "Worldwide Attack Matrix". Anwar al-Awlaki, a Yemeni American U.S. citizen and al-Qaeda member, was killed on September 30, 2011, by an airstrike conducted by the Joint Special Operations Command. After several days of surveillance of Awlaki by the Central Intelligence Agency, armed drones took off from a new, secret American base in the Arabian Peninsula, crossed into northern Yemen, and fired several Hellfire missiles at al-Awlaki's vehicle. Samir Khan, a Pakistani American al-Qaeda member and editor of the jihadist Inspire magazine, also reportedly died in the attack. The combined CIA/JSOC drone strike was the first in Yemen since 2002 – there have been others by the military's Special Operations forces – and was part of an effort by the spy agency to duplicate in Yemen the covert war which has been running in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Failures in intelligence analysis A major criticism is a failure to forestall the September 11 attacks. The 9/11 Commission Report identified failures in the IC as a whole. One problem, for example, was the FBI failing to "connect the dots" by sharing information among its decentralized field offices. The report concluded that former DCI George Tenet failed to adequately prepare the agency to deal with the danger posed by al-Qaeda prior to the attacks of September 11, 2001. The report was finished in June 2005 and was partially released to the public in an agreement with Congress, over the objections of current DCI General Michael Hayden. Hayden said its publication would "consume time and attention revisiting ground that is already well plowed." Tenet disagreed with the report's conclusions, citing his planning efforts vis-à-vis al-Qaeda, particularly from 1999. Assistant Secretary of State for Intelligence, Carl W. Ford Jr. remarked, "As long as we rate intelligence more for its volume than its quality, we will continue to turn out the $40 billion pile of crap we have become famous for." He further stated, "[The CIA is] broken. It's so broken that nobody wants to believe it." Abuses of CIA authority, 1970s–1990s Conditions worsened in the mid-1970s, around the time of Watergate. A dominant feature of political life during that period were the attempts of Congress to assert oversight of the U.S. presidency and the executive branch of the U.S. government. Revelations about past CIA activities, such as assassinations and attempted assassinations of foreign leaders (most notably Fidel Castro and Rafael Trujillo) and illegal domestic spying on U.S. citizens, provided the opportunities to increase Congressional oversight of U.S. intelligence operations. CIA involvement in Contra cocaine trafficking in Nicaragua and complicity in the actions of the death squads in El Salvador and Honduras also came to light. Hastening the CIA's fall from grace was the burglary of the Watergate headquarters of the Democratic Party by former CIA officers, and President Richard Nixon's subsequent attempt to use the CIA to impede the FBI's investigation of the burglary. In the famous "smoking gun" recording that led to President Nixon's resignation, Nixon ordered his chief of staff, H. R. Haldeman, to tell the CIA that further investigation of Watergate would "open the whole can of worms about the Bay of Pigs". In this way Nixon and Haldeman ensured that the CIA's No. 1 and No. 2 ranking officials, Richard Helms and Vernon Walters, communicated to FBI Director L. Patrick Gray that the FBI should not follow the money trail from the burglars to the Committee to Re-elect the President, as it would uncover CIA informants in Mexico. The FBI initially agreed to this due to a long-standing agreement between the FBI and CIA not to uncover each other's sources of information, though within a couple of weeks the FBI demanded this request in writing, and when no such formal request came, the FBI resumed its investigation into the money trail. Nonetheless, when the smoking gun tapes were made public, damage to the public's perception of CIA's top officials, and thus to the CIA as a whole, could not be avoided. Repercussions from the Iran–Contra affair arms smuggling scandal included the creation of the Intelligence Authorization Act in 1991. It defined covert operations as secret missions in geopolitical areas where the U.S. is neither openly nor engaged. This also required an authorizing chain of command, including an official, presidential finding report and the informing of the House and Senate Intelligence Committees, which, in emergencies, requires only "timely notification." Iraq War Seventy-two days after the 9/11 attacks, President Bush told Secretary of Defense Rumsfeld to update the US plan for an invasion of Iraq, but not to tell anyone. Rumsfeld asked Bush if he could bring DCI Tenet into the loop, to which Bush agreed. The CIA had put out feelers to Iraq in the form of eight of their best officers in Kurdish territory in Northern Iraq. These officers hit a goldmine, unprecedented in the famously closed Hussein government. By December 2002, the CIA had close to a dozen functional networks in Iraq and would penetrate Iraq's SSO, tap the encrypted communications of the Deputy Prime Minister, and recruit the bodyguard of Hussein's son as an agent. As time passed, the CIA would become more and more frantic about the possibility of their networks being compromised. To the CIA, the invasion had to occur before the end of February 2003 if their sources inside Hussein's government were to survive. The rollup would happen as predicted; 37 CIA sources recognized by their Thuraya satellite telephones provided for them by the CIA. The case Colin Powell presented before the United Nations (purportedly proving an Iraqi WMD program) was inaccurate. DDCI John E. McLaughlin was part of a long discussion in the CIA about equivocation. McLaughlin, who would make, among others, the "slam dunk" presentation to the President, "felt that they had to dare to be wrong to be clearer in their judgments". The Al Qaeda connection, for instance, was from a single source, extracted through torture, and was later denied. Curveball was a known liar, and the sole source for the mobile chemical weapons factories. A postmortem of the intelligence failures in the lead up to Iraq led by former DDCI Richard Kerr would conclude that the CIA had been a casualty of the Cold War, wiped out in a way "analogous to the effect of the meteor strikes on the dinosaurs." The opening days of the invasion of Iraq would see successes and defeats for the CIA. With its Iraq networks compromised, and its strategic and tactical information shallow, and often wrong, the intelligence side of the invasion itself would be a black eye for the agency. The CIA would see some success with its "Scorpion" paramilitary teams composed of CIA Special Activities Division paramilitary officers, along with friendly Iraqi partisans. CIA SAD officers would also help the US 10th Special Forces. The occupation of Iraq would be a low point in the history of the CIA. At the largest CIA station in the world, officers would rotate through 1–3-month tours. In Iraq, almost 500 transient officers would be trapped inside the Green Zone while Iraq station chiefs would rotate with only a little less frequency. 2004, DNI takes over CIA top-level functions The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act of 2004 created the office of the Director of National Intelligence (DNI), who took over some of the government and intelligence community (IC)-wide functions that had previously been the CIA's. The DNI manages the United States Intelligence Community and in so doing it manages the intelligence cycle. Among the functions that moved to the DNI were the preparation of estimates reflecting the consolidated opinion of the 16 IC agencies, and preparation of briefings for the president. On July 30, 2008, President Bush issued Executive Order 13470 amending Executive Order 12333 to strengthen the role of the DNI. Previously, the Director of Central Intelligence (DCI) oversaw the Intelligence Community, serving as the president's principal intelligence advisor, additionally serving as head of the CIA. The DCI's title now is "Director of the Central Intelligence Agency" (D/CIA), serving as head of the CIA. Currently, the CIA reports to the Director of National Intelligence. Before the establishment of the DNI, the CIA reported to the President, with informational briefings to congressional committees. The National Security Advisor is a permanent member of the National Security Council, responsible for briefing the President with pertinent information collected by all U.S. intelligence agencies, including the National Security Agency, the Drug Enforcement Administration, etc. All 16 Intelligence Community agencies are under the authority of the Director of National Intelligence. Operation Neptune Spear On May 1, 2011, President Barack Obama announced that Osama bin Laden was killed earlier that day by "a small team of Americans" operating in Abbottabad, Pakistan, during a CIA operation. The raid was executed from a CIA forward base in Afghanistan by elements of the U.S. Navy's Naval Special Warfare Development Group and CIA paramilitary operatives. The operation was a result of years of intelligence work that included the CIA's capture and interrogation of Khalid Sheik Mohammad, which led to the identity of a courier of bin Laden's, the tracking of the courier to the compound by Special Activities Division paramilitary operatives and the establishing of a CIA safe house to provide critical tactical intelligence for the operation. The CIA ran a fake vaccination clinic in an attempt to locate Osama bin Laden. This was revealed after bin Laden's death and may have negatively affected the campaign against Polio in Pakistan and Afghanistan. In some rural areas, vaccination workers were banned by the Taliban or chased away by locals. There have been many deadly attacks by militants against vaccination workers in Pakistan. Efforts to eradicate polio have furthermore been disrupted by American drone strikes. Syrian Civil War Under the aegis of operation Timber Sycamore and other clandestine activities, CIA operatives and U.S. special operations troops have trained and armed nearly 10,000 rebel fighters at a cost of $1 billion a year. The CIA has been sending weapons to anti-government rebels in Syria since at least 2012. These weapons have been reportedly falling into hands of extremists, such as al-Nusra Front and ISIL. Around February 2017, the CIA was instructed to halt military aid to Syrian rebels (Free Syrian Army or FSA), which also included training, ammunition, guided missiles, and salaries. Sources state that the hold on aid was not related to the transitions from Obama's administration to Trump's, but rather due to issues faced by the FSA. Based on responses by rebel officials, they believe that the aid freeze is related to concerns that weapons and funds will fall into the hands of ISIL. Based on information obtained by Reuters, five FSA groups have confirmed that they received funding and military support from a source called "MOM operations room." On April 6, 2017, Al-Jazeera reported that funding to the FSA was partially restored. Based on the information provided by two FSA sources, the new military operation room will receive its funds from the coalition "Friends of Syria." The coalition consists of members from the U.S., Turkey, Western Europe, and Gulf states, which previously supported the military operation known as MOM. It was reported in July 2017 that President Donald Trump had ordered a "phasing out" of the CIA's support for anti-Assad rebels. Reorganization On March 6, 2015, the office of the D/CIA issued an unclassified edition of a statement by the Director, titled "Our Agency's Blueprint for the Future", as a press release for public consumption. The press release announced sweeping plans for the reorganization and reform of the CIA, which the Director believes will bring the CIA more in line with the agency doctrine called the 'Strategic Direction.' Among the key changes disclosed include the establishment of a new directorate, the Directorate of Digital Innovation, which is responsible for designing and crafting the digital technology to be used by the agency, to keep the CIA always ahead of its enemies. The Directorate of Digital Innovation will also train CIA staff in the use of this technology, to prepare the CIA for the future, and it will also use the technological revolution to deal with cyber-terrorism and other perceived threats. The new directorate will be the chief cyber-espionage arm of the agency going forward. Other changes which were announced include the formation of a Talent Development Center of Excellence, the enhancement and expansion of the CIA University and the creation of the office of the Chancellor to head the CIA University to consolidate and unify recruitment and training efforts. The office of the executive director will be empowered and expanded, and the secretarial offices serving the executive director will be streamlined. The restructuring of the entire Agency is to be revamped according to a new model whereby governance is modeled after the structure and hierarchy of corporations, said to increase the efficiency of workflow and to enable the executive director to manage day-to-day activity significantly. As well, another stated intention was to establish 'Mission Centers', each one to deal with a specific geographic region of the world, which will bring the full collaboration and joint efforts of the five Directorates together under one roof. While the Directorate heads will still retain ultimate authority over their respective Directorate, the Mission Centers will be led by an assistant director who will work with the capabilities and talents of all five Directorates on mission-specific goals for the parts of the world which they are given responsibility for. The unclassified version of the document ends with the announcement that the National Clandestine Service (NCS) will be reverting to its original Directorate name, the Directorate of Operations. The Directorate of Intelligence is also being renamed. It will now be the Directorate of Analysis. Drones A new policy introduced by President Barack Obama removed the authority of the CIA to launch drone attacks and allowed these attacks only under Department of Defense command. This change was reversed by President Donald Trump, who authorized CIA drone strikes on suspected terrorists. Encryption devices sold through front company For decades until 2018, the CIA secretly owned Crypto AG, a small Swiss company that made encryption devices, in association with West German intelligence. The company sold compromised encryption devices to over 120 countries, allowing Western intelligence to eavesdrop on communications that the users believed to be secure. Open-source intelligence Until the 2004 reorganization of the intelligence community, one of the "services of common concern" that the CIA provided was open-source intelligence from the Foreign Broadcast Information Service (FBIS). FBIS, which had absorbed the Joint Publication Research Service, a military organization that translated documents, moved into the National Open Source Enterprise under the Director of National Intelligence. During the Reagan administration, Michael Sekora (assigned to the DIA), worked with agencies across the intelligence community, including the CIA, to develop and deploy a technology-based competitive strategy system called Project Socrates. Project Socrates was designed to utilize open-source intelligence gathering almost exclusively. The technology-focused Socrates system supported such programs as the Strategic Defense Initiative in addition to private sector projects. As part of its mandate to gather intelligence, the CIA is looking increasingly online for information, and has become a major consumer of social media. "We're looking at YouTube, which carries some unique and honest-to-goodness intelligence," said Doug Naquin, director of the DNI Open Source Center (OSC) at CIA headquarters. "We're looking at chat rooms and things that didn't exist five years ago, and trying to stay ahead." CIA launched a Twitter account in June 2014. CIA also launched its own .onion website to collect anonymous feedback. Outsourcing and privatization Many of the duties and functions of Intelligence Community activities, not the CIA alone, are being outsourced and privatized. Mike McConnell, former Director of National Intelligence, was about to publicize an investigation report of outsourcing by U.S. intelligence agencies, as required by Congress. However, this report was then classified. Hillhouse speculates that this report includes requirements for the CIA to report: different standards for government employees and contractors; contractors providing similar services to government workers; analysis of costs of contractors vs. employees; an assessment of the appropriateness of outsourced activities; an estimate of the number of contracts and contractors; comparison of compensation for contractors and government employees; attrition analysis of government employees; descriptions of positions to be converted back to the employee model; an evaluation of accountability mechanisms; an evaluation of procedures for "conducting oversight of contractors to ensure identification and prosecution of criminal violations, financial waste, fraud, or other abuses committed by contractors or contract personnel"; and an "identification of best practices of accountability mechanisms within service contracts." According to investigative journalist Tim Shorrock: Congress had required an outsourcing report by March 30, 2008: The problem is two-fold. Part of the problem, according to Author Tim Weiner, is that political appointees designated by recent presidential administrations have sometimes been under-qualified or over-zealous politically. Large scale purges have taken place in the upper echelons of the CIA, and when those talented individuals are pushed out the door, they have frequently gone on to found new independent intelligence companies which can suck up CIA talent. Another part of the contracting problem comes from Congressional restrictions on the number of employees within the IC. According to Hillhouse, this resulted in 70% of the de facto workforce of the CIA's National Clandestine Service being made up of contractors. "After years of contributing to the increasing reliance upon contractors, Congress is now providing a framework for the conversion of contractors into federal government employeesmore or less." The number of independent contractors hired by the Federal government across the intelligence community has skyrocketed. So, not only does the CIA have trouble hiring, but those hires will frequently leave their permanent employ for shorter term contract gigs which have much higher pay and allow for more career mobility. As with most government agencies, building equipment often is contracted. The National Reconnaissance Office (NRO), responsible for the development and operation of airborne and spaceborne sensors, long was a joint operation of the CIA and the United States Department of Defense. The NRO had been significantly involved in the design of such sensors, but the NRO, then under DCI authority, contracted more of the design that had been their tradition, and to a contractor without extensive reconnaissance experience, Boeing. The next-generation satellite Future Imagery Architecture project "how does heaven look," which missed objectives after $4 billion in cost overruns, was the result of this contract. Some of the cost problems associated with intelligence come from one agency, or even a group within an agency, not accepting the compartmented security practices for individual projects, requiring expensive duplication. Controversies Throughout its history, the CIA has been the subject of many controversies, both at home and abroad. One source of controversy has been the CIA's role in Operation Condor, which was a United States-backed campaign of repression and state terrorism involving intelligence operations, CIA-backed coup d'états and assassinations against left-wing socialist leaders in South America from 1968 to 1989. By the Operation's end in 1989, up to 80,000 people had been killed. See also Abu Omar case Blue sky memo CIA's relationship with the United States Military Classified information in the United States Enhanced interrogation techniques Freedom of Information Act (United States) Intellipedia Kryptos National Intelligence Board Operation Peter Pan Reagan Doctrine Title 32 of the Code of Federal Regulations U.S. Army and CIA interrogation manuals United States and state-sponsored terrorism United States bombing of the Chinese embassy in Belgrade, target chosen by CIA, claimed by accident United States involvement in regime change United States Department of Homeland Security United States Intelligence Community Vault 7 The World Factbook, published by the CIA Notes References Further reading Hilsman, Roger. To Move a Nation: The Politics of Foreign Policy in the Administration of John F. Kennedy (1967) pp 63–88. Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. American Espionage: From Secret Service to CIA (Free Press, 1977) . Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. The CIA and American Democracy (Yale University Press, 1989) . Ranelagh, John. CIA: A History (1992) very favorable review Prados, John. Presidents' Secret Wars: CIA and Pentagon Covert Operations from World War II Through the Persian Gulf War (1996) Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. Cloak and Dollar: A History of American Secret Intelligence (Yale University Press, 2002) . Dujmovic, Nicholas, "Drastic Actions Short of War: The Origins and Application of CIA's Covert Paramilitary Function in the Early Cold War," Journal of Military History, 76 (July 2012), 775–808 Jeffreys-Jones, Rhodri. "Antecedents and Memory as Factors in the Creation of the CIA", Diplomatic History, 40/1 (January 2016): 140–54. Sorkin, Amy Davidson, "Spooked: What's wrong with the C.I.A.?", The New Yorker, 10 October 2022, pp. 60–65. "The paramilitary pursuits of the C.I.A. – including assassination attempts, coup plots, and drone strikes – seldom end well." (p. 61.) Perlez, Jane, "Behind Enemy Lines: The CIA's Cold War in China" (review of John Delury, Agents of Subversion: The Fate of John T. Downey and the CIA's Covert War in China, Cornell University Press, 2022, 408 pp.; and John T. Downey, Thomas J. Christensen, and Jack Lee Downey, Lost in the Cold War: The Story of Jack Downey, America's Longest-Held POW, Columbia University Press, 2022, 344 pp.), Foreign Affairs, vol. 102, no. 2 (March/April 2023), pp. 162–167. "[T]he misguided policies Americans hatched some 70 years ago provide a warning of what not to do in a moment of deteriorating U.S.-Chinese relations." (p. 167.) External links CIA Freedom of Information Act Electronic Reading Room Landscapes of Secrecy: The CIA in History, Fiction and Memory (2011) Central Intelligence Collection at Internet Archive 1947 establishments in Virginia Government agencies established in 1947 United States intelligence agencies Intelligence analysis agencies Anti-communist organizations in the United States Cold War in popular culture Secret police McLean, Virginia Articles containing video clips
5183703	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huang%20Chao	Huang Chao	Huang Chao (835 – July 13, 884) was a Chinese rebel, best known for leading a major rebellion that severely weakened the Tang dynasty. Huang was a salt smuggler before joining Wang Xianzhi's rebellion in 875. After splitting with Wang in 876, Huang turned south and conquered the port of Guangzhou in 879. His army then marched back north and in 881 sacked the Tang capital Chang'an, forcing Emperor Xizong to flee. Huang subsequently proclaimed himself emperor of the new state of Qi, but was defeated by the Tang army led by the Shatuo chieftain Li Keyong in 883, forcing him to abandon the capital. He fled east but was met with further defeats, with his former subordinates Zhu Wen and Shang Rang surrendering to Tang. In 884, Huang was killed in Shandong by his nephew Lin Yan, bringing an end to his rebellion. Background The Tang dynasty, established in 618 A.D., had already passed its golden age and entered its long decline beginning with the An Lushan Rebellion by general An Lushan. The Tang dynasty recovered its power decades after the An Lushan rebellion and was still able to launch offensive conquests and campaigns like its destruction of the Uyghur Khaganate in Mongolia in 840–847. It was the Huang Chao rebellion in 874–884 by the native Han rebel Huang Chao that permanently destroyed the power of the Tang dynasty. The power of the jiedushi or provincial military governors increased greatly after imperial troops crushed the rebels. The discipline of these generals also decayed as their power increased, the resentment of common people against the incapacity of the government grew, and their grievances exploded into several rebellions during the mid-9th century. Many impoverished farmers, tax-burdened landowners and merchants, as well as many large salt smuggling operations, formed the base of the anti-government rebellions of this period. Wang Xianzhi and Huang Chao were two of the important rebel leaders during this era. It is not known when Huang was born, but it is known that he was from Yuanqu (within the present-day Mudan District of Heze, Shandong). His family had been salt privateers for generations (with the salt trade officially monopolized by the state ever since the Anshi Rebellion), and the Huang family became wealthy from smuggling. It was said that Huang was capable in swordsmanship, riding, and archery, and was somewhat capable in writing and rhetoric. He used his wealth to take in desperate men who then served under him. He had at least one older brother, Huang Cun (), and at least six younger brothers, Huang Ye () or Huang Siye (), Huang Kui (), Huang Qin (), Huang Bing (), Huang Wantong (), and Huang Sihou (). He repeatedly participated in the imperial examinations, but was not able to pass them, and thereafter resolved to rebel against Tang rule. Rebellion Joining forces with Wang Xianzhi Late in the Xiantong era (860–874) of Emperor Yizong, there were severe droughts and floods that caused terrible famine. Despite this, the Tang imperial government largely ignored the victims of these natural disasters—instead of granting tax exemptions for effected areas, taxes were increased to fund Emperor Yizong's luxurious lifestyle and military campaigns. As a result, survivors grouped themselves into bands and rose to resist Tang rule. In 874, Wang Xianzhi (who, like Huang Chao, was a salt privateer) and Shang Junzhang () raised an army at Changyuan (長垣, in modern Xinxiang, Henan). By 875, he had repeatedly defeated Xue Chong (), the military governor of Tianping Circuit (天平, headquartered in modern Tai'an, Shandong), in battle. Huang had by this point also raised several thousand men, and joined forces with Wang's now veteran troops. By this time Emperor Yizong had died and his young son Emperor Xizong ruled. Late in 876, Wang was sought to parlay his victories into a peaceful submission to Tang authority, in which he would be generously treated by the throne. This was being mediated by Tang official Wang Liao (), a close relation to chancellor Wang Duo, and Pei Wo () the prefect of Qi Prefecture (蘄州, in modern Huanggang, Hubei). Under Wang Duo's insistence, Emperor Xizong commissioned Wang Xianzhi as an officer of the imperial Left Shence Army () and delivered the commission to Qi Prefecture. However, Huang, who did not receive a commission as part of this arrangement, angrily stated: He battered Wang Xianzhi on the head, and the rebel soldiers also clamored against the arrangement. Wang Xianzhi, fearing the wrath of his own army, turned against Pei and pillaged Qi Prefecture. However, afterwards, the rebel army broke up into two groups, with one group following Wang Xianzhi and Shang Junzhang, and one group following Huang. Subsequent departure from Wang Huang Chao subsequently roamed throughout central China, and his campaign took him into many engagements with Tang forces: In the spring of 877, Huang captured Tianping's capital Yun Prefecture (), killing Xue Chong, and then captured Yi Prefecture (沂州, in modern Linyi, Shandong). In the summer of 877, he joined forces with Shang Junzhang's brother Shang Rang at Mount Chaya (查牙山, in modern Zhumadian, Henan). He and Wang Xianzhi then briefly joined forces again and put the Tang general Song Wei () under siege at Song Prefecture (宋州, in modern Shangqiu, Henan). However, the Tang general Zhang Zimian () then arrived and defeated them, and they lifted the siege on Song Prefecture and scattered. In winter 877, he pillaged Qi and Huang (黃州, in modern Wuhan, Hubei) Prefectures. The Tang general Zeng Yuanyu () defeated him, however, and he fled. He soon captured Kuangcheng (匡城, in modern Xinxiang) and Pu Prefecture (濮州, in modern Heze). In the spring of 878, Huang was besieging Bo Prefecture (亳州, in modern Bozhou, Anhui), when Wang Xianzhi was crushed by Zeng at Huangmei (黃梅, in modern Huanggang, Hubei) and killed. Shang Rang took the remnants of Wang's army and joined Huang at Bo Prefecture, and he offered the title of king to Huang. Huang, instead, claimed the title of Chongtian Dajiangjun (衝天大將軍, "Generalissimo Who Charges to the Heavens") and changed the era name to Wangba, to show independence from the Tang regime. He then captured Yi and Pu Prefectures again, but then suffered several defeats by Tang forces. He thus wrote the new military governor of Tianping, Zhang Xi (), asking Zhang to ask for a Tang commission on his behalf. At Zhang's request, Emperor Xizong commissioned Huang as a general of the imperial guards, but ordered him to report to Yun Prefecture to disarm before he would report to the capital Chang'an. Faced with those conditions, Huang refused the offer. Instead, he attacked Song and Bian (汴州, in modern Kaifeng, Henan) Prefectures, and then attacked Weinan (衞南, in modern Puyang, Henan), and then Ye (葉縣, in modern Pingdingshan, Henan) and Yangzhai (陽翟, in modern Xuchang, Henan). Emperor Xizong thus commissioned troops from three circuits to defend the eastern capital Luoyang, and further ordered Zeng to head to Luoyang as well. With the Tang forces concentrating on defending Luoyang, Huang marched south instead. March to Lingnan Huang Chao crossed the Yangzi River southwards and captured several prefectures south of the Yangzi—Qian (虔州, in modern Ganzhou, Jiangxi), Ji (吉州, in modern Ji'an, Jiangxi), Rao (饒州, in modern Shangrao, Jiangxi), and Xin (信州, in modern Shangrao). In fall 878, he then headed northeast and attacked Xuan Prefecture (宣州, in modern Xuancheng, Anhui), defeating Wang Ning (), the governor of Xuanshe Circuit (宣歙, headquartered at Xuan Prefecture), at Nanling (南陵, in modern Wuhu, Anhui), but could not capture Xuan Prefecture, and therefore further headed southeast to attack Zhedong Circuit (浙東, headquartered in modern Shaoxing, Zhejiang), and then, via a mountainous route, Fujian Circuit (福建, headquartered in modern Fuzhou, Fujian) in winter 878. However, during this march, he was attacked by the Tang officers Zhang Lin () and Liang Zuan (), who were subordinates of Gao Pian, the military governor of Zhenhai Circuit (, headquartered in modern Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), and was defeated several times. As a result of these battles, a number of Huang's followers, including Qin Yan, Bi Shiduo, Li Hanzhi, and Xu Qing (), surrendered to the Zhenhai troops. As a result, Huang decided to turn further south, toward the Lingnan region. By this point, Wang Duo had volunteered to oversee the operations against Huang, and Wang was thus made the overall commander of the operations as well as the military governor of Jingnan Circuit (荊南, headquartered in modern Jingzhou, Hubei). In reaction to Huang's movement, he commissioned Li Xi () to be his deputy commander, as well as the governor of Hunan Circuit (湖南, headquartered in modern Changsha, Hunan), in order to block a potential northerly return route for Huang. Meanwhile, Huang wrote Cui Qiu (), the governor of Zhedong Circuit, and Li Tiao (), the military governor of Lingnan East Circuit (嶺南東道, headquartered in modern Guangzhou, Guangdong), to ask them to intercede for him, offering to submit to Tang imperial authority if he were made the military governor of Tianping. Cui and Li Tiao relayed his request, but Emperor Xizong refused. Huang then directly made an offer to Emperor Xizong, requesting to be the military governor of Lingnan East. Under the opposition of the senior official Yu Cong, however, Emperor Xizong also refused. Instead, at the chancellors' advice, he offered to make Huang an imperial guard general. Huang, receiving the offer, was incensed by what he perceived to be an insult. In fall 879, he attacked Lingnan East's capital Guang Prefecture, capturing it after a one-day siege and taking Li Tiao captive. He ordered Li Tiao to submit a petition to Emperor Xizong on his behalf again, but this time, Li Tiao refused, so he executed Li Tiao. Arab and Persian pirates had previously sacked Guangzhou; the port was subsequently closed for fifty years. As subsequent relations were rather strained, their presence came to an end during Huang Chao's revenge. Arab sources claim that the foreigm Arab and Persian Muslim, Zoroastrian, Jewish, and Christian victims numbered tens of thousands. However, Chinese sources do not mention the event at all. Mulberry groves in south China were ruined by his army, leading to a decline in silk exports along the Maritime Silk Road. Return to the North However, as Huang Chao's army was in the Lingnan region, his soldiers were stricken by illnesses, and some 3–40% died. His key subordinates suggested that he march back north, and he agreed. He thus made rafts at Gui Prefecture (桂州, in modern Guilin, Guangxi) and took them down the Xiang River, reaching Hunan's capital Tan Prefecture (in modern Changsha, Hunan) in winter 879. He attacked Tan Prefecture and captured it in a day, and Li Xi fled to Lang Prefecture (朗州, in modern Changde, Hunan). Shang Rang then attacked Jingnan's capital Jiangling Municipality, where Wang Duo was. Wang panicked and fled as well, leaving the city to be defended by his officer Liu Hanhong, but as soon as Wang left the city, Liu mutinied, pillaged the city, and took his soldiers to become bandits. Huang himself followed Xiang's advance and went through Jiangling to attack Xiangyang, the capital of Shannan East Circuit (). He was, however, defeated by the joint forces of Shannan East's military governor Liu Jurong () and the imperial general Cao Quanzhen (), who further pursued him all the way to Jiangling. However, Liu, concerned that if he captured Huang, the imperial government would no longer value him, called off the pursuit, and Cao also broke off his pursuit. Huang then headed east and attacked E Prefecture (鄂州, in modern Wuhan), and pillaged the 15 surrounding prefectures. As he did so, however, he was repeatedly repelled by Zhang Lin. As a result of Zhang's successes, the imperial government put Zhang's superior Gao Pian, who had by that point been transferred to Huainan Circuit (淮南, headquartered in modern Yangzhou, Jiangsu), in charge of the overall operations against Huang, replacing Wang. Many circuits thus sent troops to Huainan With his forces repeatedly defeated by Zhang and also suffering from plagues, Huang, then stationed at Xin Prefecture (信州, in modern Shangrao), decided to try to bribe his way out of his predicament. He thus submitted much gold to Zhang and wrote letters to plead with Gao, offering to submit to Tang imperial authority. Gao, who also wanted to use trickery himself to capture Huang, offered to recommend Huang as a military governor. Further, Gao, in order to monopolize the achievement, decided to return the supplementary troops from Zhaoyi (昭義, headquartered in modern Changzhi, Shanxi), Ganhua (感化, headquartered in modern Xuzhou, Jiangsu), and Yiwu (義武, headquartered in modern Baoding, Hebei) Circuits. As soon as he returned those troops, however, Huang broke off negotiations and challenged Zhang to a battle. Gao, in anger, ordered Zhang to engage, but this time, Huang decisively defeated Zhang in spring 880 and killed him in battle, throwing Gao into a panic. Huang, after defeating Zhang, then captured Xuan Prefecture, then, in summer 880, crossed the Yangtze River north at Caishi (采石, in modern Ma'anshan, Anhui), and put the Huainan defense outposts Tianchang (天長, in modern Chuzhou, Anhui) and Liuhe (六合, in modern Nanjing, Jiangsu) under siege, not far from Gao's headquarters at Yang Prefecture (). Bi Shiduo, who was then serving as an officer under Gao, suggested that Gao engage Huang, but Gao was terrified of engaging Huang after Zhang's death, and instead sent urgent requests for aid to the imperial government. The imperial government, which had hoped that Gao would be successful in stopping Huang, was very disappointed and thrown into a panic itself. Emperor Xizong ordered the circuits south of the Yellow River to send troops to Yin River (溵水, a major branch of the Shaying River) to block off Huang's further advance, and also sent Cao and Qi Kerang, the military governor of Taining Circuit (泰寧, headquartered in modern Jining, Shandong), to intercept Huang. However, Cao was only given 6,000 men, and although he fought hard, he was ultimately unable to stop Huang's 150,000 men. At this point, a mutiny among the imperial armies further ended any imperial resistance at Yin River. This occurred as some 3,000 Ganhua soldiers were heading to Yin River to participate in the defense operations there, and they went through Xu Prefecture (許州, in modern Xuchang), the capital of Zhongwu Circuit (). Despite the Ganhua soldiers' reputation for lack of discipline, Xue Neng () the military governor of Zhongwu, because he had been Ganhua's military governor before, believed that they would be obedient to him, so he allowed them to stay in the city. But that night, the Ganhua soldiers rioted over what they perceived to be the lack of supplies given to them. Xue met them and calmed them down, but this in turn caused the Zhongwu soldiers and the populace of Xu Prefecture to be angry at his lenient treatment of them. The Zhongwu officer Zhou Ji, himself then taking Zhongwu soldiers toward Yin River, thus turned his army around and attacked and slaughtered the Ganhua soldiers. His soldiers also killed Xue and Xue's family. Zhou then declared himself military governor. Qi, concerned that Zhou would attack him, withdrew from the area and returned to Taining Circuit. In response, the troops that other circuits had stationed at Yin River scattered, leaving the path wide open for Huang. Huang thus crossed the Huai River north, and it was said that starting from this point, Huang's army stopped pillaging for wealth, but forced more young men into the army to increase its strength. Capture of Luoyang and Chang'an As winter 880 began, Huang Chao headed toward Luoyang and Chang'an, and issued a declaration that his aim was to capture Emperor Xizong to make Emperor Xizong answer for his crimes. Qi Kerang was put in charge of making a final attempt to stop Huang from reaching Luoyang. Meanwhile, though, the chancellors Doulu Zhuan and Cui Hang, believing that imperial forces would not be able to stop Huang from reaching Luoyang and Chang'an, suggested that Emperor Xizong prepare to flee to Xichuan Circuit (西川, headquartered in modern Chengdu, Sichuan), where Chen Jingxuan, the brother of the powerful eunuch Tian Lingzi, was military governor. Emperor Xizong, however, wanted to also make one last attempt to defend Tong Pass, between Luoyang and Chang'an, and therefore sent the imperial Shence Army () officers Zhang Chengfan (), Wang Shihui (), and Zhao Ke ()—whose soldiers were ill-trained and ill-equipped, as the Shence Army soldiers' families were largely wealthy and were able to pay the poor and the sick to fill in for them—to try to defend it. Meanwhile, Luoyang fell quickly, and Qi withdrew to Tong Pass as well, and submitted an emergency petition stating that his troops were fatigued, hungry, and without supplies, with no apparent imperial response. Huang then attacked Tong Pass. Qi and Zhang initially resisted his forces for more than a day, but thereafter, Qi's troops, hungry and tired, scattered and fled. Zhang's final attempts to defend Tong Pass were futile, and it fell. Meanwhile, Tian had recruited some new soldiers, who were also ill-trained but relatively well-equipped, and sent them to the front, but by the time they reached there, Tong Pass had already fallen, and the troops from Boye Army () and Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), also sent to the front to try to aid Zhang, became angry at the good equipment (including warm clothes) that Tian's new soldiers had, and mutinied, instead serving as guides for Huang's forces. Emperor Xizong and Tian abandoned Chang'an and fled toward Xichuan Circuit on January 8, 881. Later that day, Huang's forward commander Chai Cun () entered Chang'an, and the Tang general Zhang Zhifang welcomed Huang into the capital. Shang Rang issued a declaration proclaiming Huang's love for the people and urged the people to carry on their daily affairs, but despite Shang's assurance that the people's properties would be respected, Huang's soldiers were pillaging the capital repeatedly. Huang himself, briefly, lived at Tian's mansion, moving into the Tang palace several days later. He also ordered that Tang's imperial clan members be slaughtered. As Emperor of Qi In and around Chang'an Huang Chao then moved into the Tang palace and declared himself the emperor of a new state of Qi. He made his wife, Lady Cao, empress, while making Shang Rang, Zhao Zhang (), and the Tang officials Cui Qiu () and Yang Xigu () chancellors. Huang initially tried to simply take over the Tang imperial mandate, as he ordered that the Tang imperial officials of the fourth rank or lower (in Tang's nine-rank system) continue to remain in office, as long as they showed submission by registering with Zhao, removing only the third-rank or above officials. The Tang officials who would not submit were executed en masse. Huang also tried to persuade Tang generals throughout the circuits to submit to him, and a good number of them did, including Zhuge Shuang () (whom he made the military governor of Heyang Circuit (河陽, headquartered in modern Jiaozuo, Henan)), Wang Jingwu the military governor of Pinglu Circuit (平盧, headquartered in modern Weifang, Shandong), Wang Chongrong (whom he made the military governor of Hezhong Circuit (河中, headquartered in modern Yuncheng, Shanxi), and Zhou Ji (whom he made the military governor of Zhongwu Circuit) — although each of those generals eventually redeclared loyalty to Tang and disavowed Qi allegiances. He also tried to persuade the former Tang chancellor Zheng Tian, the military governor of nearby Fengxiang Circuit (鳳翔, headquartered in modern Baoji, Shaanxi), to submit, but Zheng resisted, and when he sent Shang and Wang Bo () to try to capture Fengxiang, Zheng defeated Qi forces that he sent in spring 881. In light of Zheng's victory over Qi forces, Tang forces from various circuits, including Zheng and his ally Tang Hongfu (), Wang Chongrong (who had turned against Qi by this point and redeclared his loyalty to Tang), Wang Chucun, the military governor of Yiwu Circuit, and Tuoba Sigong, the military governor of Xiasui Circuit (夏綏, headquartered in modern Yulin, Shaanxi), converged on Chang'an in summer 881, hoping to quickly capture it. With the people of Chang'an waging street warfare against Qi forces as well, Huang withdrew from the city — but as Tang forces entered Chang'an, they lost discipline and became bogged down in pillaging the city. Qi forces then counterattacked and defeated them, killing Cheng Zongchu () the military governor of Jingyuan Circuit (涇原, headquartered in modern Pingliang, Gansu) and Tang Hongfu, and forcing the other Tang generals to withdraw from the city. Huang reentered Chang'an and, angry at the people of Chang'an for aiding Tang forces, carried out massacres against the population. With Zheng subsequently forced to flee Fengxiang due to a mutiny by his officer Li Changyan, Tang forces in the region became uncoordinated and did not make another attempt to recapture Chang'an for some time. In spring 882, Emperor Xizong, then at Chengdu, commissioned Wang Duo to oversee the operations against Qi, and Wang positioned himself at LInggan Temple (靈感寺, in modern Weinan, Shaanxi). With Wang overseeing the operations, Tang forces began to converge again in Chang'an's perimeter area, and the areas controlled by Qi forces became limited to Chang'an and its immediate surroundings, as well as Tong () and Hua () Prefectures (both in modern Weinan). With farming completely disrupted by the warfare, a famine developed in the region, such that both Tang and Qi forces resorted to cannibalism. By fall 882, the Qi general Zhu Wen, in charge of Tong Prefecture, had become unable to stand to Tang pressure and surrendered to Tang. By winter 882, Hua Prefecture also surrendered to Tang under the leadership of the officer Wang Yu (), limiting Qi territory to Chang'an. However, Tang forces were still not making a true attempt to recapture Chang'an by this point. However, the ethnic Shatuo general Li Keyong — who had been a Tang renegade for years but who had recently resubmitted to Tang and offered to attack Qi on Tang's behalf, arrived at Tong Prefecture in winter 882 to join the other Tang forces. In spring 883, Li Keyong and the other Tang generals defeated a major Qi force (150,000 men) commanded by Shang and approached Chang'an. In summer 883, Li Keyong entered Chang'an, and Huang was unable to resist him, and so abandoned Chang'an to flee east. With Tang forces again boggled down in pillaging the city, they were unable to chase Huang, and Huang was able to flee east without being stopped. March back east and death Huang Chao headed toward Fengguo Circuit (奉國, headquartered in modern Zhumadian) and had his general Meng Kai () attack Fengguo's capital Cai Prefecture. The military governor of Fengguo, Qin Zongquan, was defeated by Meng, and reacted by opening the city gates, submitting to Huang, and joining Huang's forces. Meng, after defeating Qin, attacked Chen Prefecture (陳州, in modern Zhoukou, Henan), but was surprised by a counterattack by Zhao Chou, the prefect of Chen Prefecture, and was killed in battle. Angered by Meng's death, Huang led his and Qin's forces and put Chen Prefecture under siege, but could not capture it despite a nearly 300-day siege. With his army low on food supplies, he allowed them to roam the nearby countryside, seizing humans and using them for food. Meanwhile, in spring 884, fearing that they would become Huang's next target, Zhou Ji, Shi Pu, the military governor of Ganhua Circuit, and Zhu Wen (whose name had been changed to Zhu Quanzhong by that point), the Tang military governor of Xuanwu Circuit (宣武, headquartered in modern Kaifeng, Henan), jointly sought aid from Li Keyong, who had been made the military governor of Hedong Circuit (河東, headquartered in modern Taiyuan, Shanxi). Li Keyong thus headed south to aid them. After Li Keyong joined forces with those sent by Zhou, Zhu, Shi, and Qi Kerang, they attacked and defeated Shang Rang at Taikang (太康, in modern Zhoukou) and Huang Siye at Xihua (西華, in modern Zhoukou as well). Huang Chao, in fear, lifted the siege on Chen and withdrew. With his encampments being destroyed in a flood, Huang Chao decided to head toward Xuanwu's capital Bian Prefecture. While Zhu was able to repel Huang's initial attacks, he sought emergency aid from Li Keyong. Li Keyong, catching Huang when he was about to cross the Yellow River north, launched an attack at Wangman Crossing (王滿渡, in modern Zhengzhou, Henan) and crushed his army. Shang surrendered to Shi, while a large number of other generals surrendered to Zhu. Li Keyong gave chase, and Huang fled to the east. During the chase, Huang's youngest son was captured by Li Keyong. Li Keyong's army became worn out during the chase, however, and he broke off the chase and returned to Bian Prefecture. Huang headed toward Taining's capital Yan Prefecture. Shi Pu's officer Li Shiyue (), along with Shang, engaged Huang at Yan Prefecture and defeated him, annihilating nearly the remainder of his army, and he fled into Langhu Valley (狼虎谷, in modern Laiwu, Shandong). On July 13, 884, Huang's nephew Lin Yan () killed Huang, his brothers, his wife, and his children, and took their heads to prepare to surrender to Shi. On his way to Shi's camp, however, he encountered Shatuo and Boye Army irregulars, who killed him as well and took the heads to present to Shi. (However, according to an alternative account in the New Book of Tang, Huang, believing that it was the only way that any of his army could be saved, committed suicide after instructing Lin to surrender with his head.) Legend of possible escape Some speculate that Lin Yan bringing the alleged heads of Huang Chao and others to Shi Pu was only a decoy to allow the real Huang Chao to escape. It was noted that Langhu Valley was over 500 li or 3–4 days away on a horseback from Shi's camp in Xu Prefecture, and decomposition would have already kicked in during the hot summer to make the faces unrecognizable. Moreover, Huang Chao had a number of brothers following him and the siblings likely resembled each other. Legends popular during the ensuing Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period claim that Huang became a Buddhist monk following his escape. The Song dynasty scholar Wang Mingqing (), for example, alleged in his book Huizhu Lu: "When Zhang Quanyi was the mayor (留守) of the Western Capital (i.e. Luoyang), he recognized Huang Chao from among the monks." Poetry He wrote a few poems that were lyrical even when expressing anger and violence. One such line reads: The capital's full of golden armored soldiers () This poem was used to describe his preparations for rebellion in an angry spirit. Later, this phrase was used for the Chinese name of the 2006 film Curse of the Golden Flower. The Hongwu Emperor, founder of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), wrote a similar poem. Legacy Although Huang Chao was one of many rebel leaders in Chinese history, the impact of his rebellion can be compared to that of the Taiping Rebellion or the Yellow Turbans. Huang Chao's rebellion greatly weakened Tang and it eventually led to the demise of the Tang dynasty in 907, by Huang Chao's former follower Zhu Wen, when he usurped the throne from Emperor Ai of Tang and initiated several decades of civil war called the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. Political scientist Yuhua Wang argues that the Huang Chao rebellion marks a turning point not just in the Tang dynasty but in Chinese imperial history, as the carnage in the capital region wiped out most of the great aristocratic families which had dominated politics since the Han dynasty. The Song and subsequent dynasties relied on more dispersed regional families who rose to prominence through the examination system. See also Empress Cao (Huang Chao's wife) Shang Rang References Further reading 835 births 884 deaths 9th-century Chinese monarchs Chinese emperors Chinese smugglers Generals from Shandong Writers from Heze Tang dynasty poets Jewish Chinese history Poets from Shandong Tang dynasty rebels 9th-century businesspeople Founding monarchs
5184131	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invasion%20of%20Yugoslavia	Invasion of Yugoslavia	The invasion of Yugoslavia, also known as the April War or Operation 25, was a German-led attack on the Kingdom of Yugoslavia by the Axis powers which began on 6 April 1941 during World War II. The order for the invasion was put forward in "Führer Directive No. 25", which Adolf Hitler issued on 27 March 1941, following a Yugoslav coup d'état that overthrew the pro-Axis government. The invasion commenced with an overwhelming air attack on Belgrade and facilities of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force (VVKJ) by the Luftwaffe (German Air Force) and attacks by German land forces from southwestern Bulgaria. These attacks were followed by German thrusts from Romania, Hungary and the Ostmark (modern-day Austria, then part of Germany). Italian forces were limited to air and artillery attacks until 11 April, when the Italian army attacked towards Ljubljana (in modern-day Slovenia) and through Istria and Lika and down the Dalmatian coast. On the same day, Hungarian forces entered Yugoslav Bačka and Baranya, but like the Italians they faced practically no resistance. A Yugoslav attack into the northern parts of the Italian protectorate of Albania met with initial success, but was inconsequential due to the collapse of the rest of the Yugoslav forces. Scholars have proposed several theories for the Royal Yugoslav Army's sudden collapse, including poor training and equipment, generals eager to secure a quick cessation of hostilities, and Croatian, Slovenian, and ethnic German fifth column activities. The latter has been questioned by scholars who have suggested that the fifth column had little effect on the ultimate outcome. The invasion ended when an armistice was signed on 17 April 1941, based on the unconditional surrender of the Yugoslav army, which came into effect at noon on 18 April. The Kingdom of Yugoslavia was then occupied and partitioned by the Axis powers. Most of Serbia and the Banat became a German zone of occupation while other areas of Yugoslavia were annexed by neighboring Axis countries, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Albania and Bulgaria. Croatia became the Independent State of Croatia (, or NDH), an Axis puppet state created during the invasion comprising the Srem, Bosnia and Herzegovina as well as the Croatian lands. Along with Italy's stalled invasion of Greece on 28 October 1940, and the German-led invasion of Greece (Operation Marita) and invasion of Crete (Operation Merkur), the invasion of Yugoslavia was part of the German Balkan Campaign (). Background In October 1940, Fascist Italy had attacked the Kingdom of Greece only to be forced back into Albania. German dictator Adolf Hitler recognised the need to go to the aid of his ally, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. Hitler did this not only to restore diminished Axis prestige, but also to prevent Britain from bombing the Romanian Ploiești oilfields from which Nazi Germany obtained most of its oil. In 1940 and early 1941, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria all agreed to adhere to the Tripartite Pact and thus join the Axis. Hitler then pressured Yugoslavia to join as well. The Regent, Prince Paul, yielded to this pressure, and declared Yugoslavia's accession to the Pact on 25 March 1941. This move was highly unpopular with the Serb-dominated officer corps of the military, Serbian organizations such as National Defense and the Chetniks Association, the Serbian Orthodox Church, a large part of the Serbian population as well as liberals and Communists. Military officers (predominantly Serbs) executed a coup d'état on 27 March 1941, forced the Regent to resign, and declared 17-year-old King Peter II to be of age. Preparation Upon hearing news of the coup in Yugoslavia, Hitler called his military advisers to Berlin on 27 March. On the same day as the coup he issued Führer Directive 25, which called for Yugoslavia to be treated as a hostile state. Hitler took the coup as a personal insult, and was so angered that he was determined, in his words, "to destroy Yugoslavia militarily and as a state" (Jugoslawien militärisch und als Staatsgebilde zu zerschlagen) and to do so "with pitiless harshness" and "without waiting for possible declarations of loyalty of the new government". Hungary had joined the Tripartite Pact on 20 November 1940. On 12 December, it also concluded a treaty with Yugoslavia calling for "permanent peace and eternal friendship". The Hungarian leadership was split after Germany's War Directive 25 was delivered on 27 March 1941. Regent Miklós Horthy and the military favoured taking part in the invasion of Yugoslavia and mobilized the following day. Prime Minister Pál Teleki sought to prevent German troops passing through Hungary and cited the peace treaty with Yugoslavia as an impediment to co-operation with the Germans. On 1 April, Yugoslavia redesignated its Assault Command as the Chetnik Command, named after the Serb guerrilla forces from World War I, which had resisted the Central Powers. The command was intended to lead a guerrilla war if the country was occupied. Its headquarters was transferred from Novi Sad to Kraljevo in south-central Serbia on 1 April. On 2 April, the German ambassador having already been recalled for "talks", the remaining embassy staff were ordered to leave the capital and to warn the embassies of friendly nations to likewise evacuate. That sent the unmistakable message that Yugoslavia was about to be invaded. On 3 April, Hitler issued War Directive 26 detailing the plan of attack and command structure for the invasion as well as promising Hungary territorial gains. The same day Teleki killed himself. Horthy, seeking a compromise, informed Hitler that evening that Hungary would abide by the treaty, though it would likely cease to apply should Croatia secede and Yugoslavia cease to exist. Upon the proclamation of an Independent State of Croatia in Zagreb on 10 April, this scenario was realized and Hungary joined the invasion, its army crossing into Yugoslavia the following day. Opposing forces Axis order of battle The invasion was spearheaded by the German 2nd Army with elements of the 12th Army, First Panzer Group, and an independent panzer corps combined with overwhelming Luftwaffe support. The 19 German divisions included five panzer divisions, two motorised infantry divisions and two mountain divisions. The German force also included three well-equipped independent motorised infantry regiments and was supported by over 750 aircraft. The Italian 2nd Army and 9th Army committed a total of 22 divisions and 666 aircraft to the operation. The Hungarian 3rd Army also participated in the invasion, with support available from over 500 aircraft. During the April War, the Führer Headquarters (FHQ) was codenamed Frühlingssturm (Spring Storm) and consisted of the Führersonderzug (Special Führer's Train) codenamed "Amerika" stationed in Mönichkirchen alongside the special train "Atlas" of the Armed Forces Operations Staff (Wehrmachtführungsstabes, WFSt). "Atlas" did not arrive at Mönichkirchen until 11 April, well after operations were underway, and "Amerika" only arrived the following day. Mönichkirchen was chosen because a nearby rail tunnel could provide shelter in the event of air attack. Both trains returned to Berlin on 26 April. After the Italian invasion in the northwest began, King Victor Emmanuel III moved to a villa owned by the Pirzio Biroli family at Brazzacco, near Moruzzo, in order to be close to the front. Germany attacked Yugoslavia from bases in three countries besides itself: Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. German troops entered each of these countries under different pretenses and at different times. The first country to receive a German military mission was Romania. Ostensibly to train the Romanian armed forces, its real purpose was to protect Romania's petroleum resources and prepare for an attack on the Soviet Union. The Wehrmacht entered Bulgaria more circumspectly, first with the intention of providing aerial defense against any force attacking Romania's oilfields and later with that of invading Greece in support of Italy. German troops did not enter Hungary until the attack on Yugoslavia was already planned and Hungary's participation had been secured. Deployment in Romania King Carol II of Romania, starting from the cession of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union, proposed in a letter to Adolf Hitler on 2 July 1940 that Germany send a military mission to Romania. The Romanian government asked that a mission be sent urgently on 7 September 1940, the day after Carol's abdication. The decision to aid Romania was taken on 19 September, and Hungary was asked to provide transit to German soldiers on 30 September. The first troops entered Romania on 10 October. They entered Bucharest two days later (12 October) to shouts of Heil! The official explanation for the presence of German troops was that they were there to train the Romanian army. Hitler's directive to the troops on 10 October had stated that "it is necessary to avoid even the slightest semblance of military occupation of Romania." In the second half of October, the Romanian leader, Ion Antonescu, asked that the military mission be expanded. The Germans happily obliged the request, since the oil fields and refineries at Ploiești were vital to their war effort. Romania was also an important launching point for an attack on the Soviet Union, which made the presence of German troops a violation of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact of 23 August 1939. By the middle of November the 13th Motorised Infantry Division had been assembled in Romania, and reinforced by the 4th Panzer Regiment, engineers and signal troops, as well as six fighter and two reconnaissance Luftwaffe squadrons, and some antiaircraft artillery. A total of seventy batteries of artillery were moved into Romania. On 23 November, Romania signed the Tripartite Pact. At the time Germany informed Romania that she would not be expected to participate in an attack on Greece, but that Germany wanted to use Romanian territory to provide a base for a German attack. On 24 November, Antonescu met with Wilhelm Keitel, chief of the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht, to discuss common defense. As a result of this meeting, the 16th Panzer Division was sent to Romania in late December. The 12th Army and First Panzer Group, along with heavy bridging equipment for the planned crossing of the Danube, followed in January 1941. By January 1941 the total number of German effectives in Romania was 170,639. Those elements of the 12th Army that were to invade Yugoslavia from Romania assembled near Timișoara (Temeschwar). Between November 1940 and February 1941 the Luftwaffe gradually moved 135 fighters and reconnaissance aircraft into Romania (in 22–26 squadrons). In early April 1941 they moved a further 600 aircraft from France, Africa, and Sicily into Romania and Bulgaria in a period of ten days. The fighter and reconnaissance craft were sent to fields in Arad, Deva, and Turnu Severin. On 12 February Britain broke off diplomatic relations with Romania on the grounds that it was an enemy-occupied country. Deployment in Bulgaria Two events in early November 1940 convinced Hitler of the need to station troops, especially the Luftwaffe, in Bulgaria. The first was false reports that the British were constructing an airfield on Lemnos, from which they could bomb Ploiești. The second was the beginning of British air raids originating from Greek bases against Italian shipping on 6 November. Planning for the German invasion of Greece from Bulgaria began on 12 November. Already on 13 November, the Soviets were (incorrectly) accusing the Germans of having troops in neutral Bulgaria. On 18 November, Tsar Boris III of Bulgaria met with Hitler and promised to participate in an attack on Greece, but only at the last moment. Shortly thereafter a secret German team under Colonel Kurt Zeitzler entered Bulgaria to establish fuel depots, arrange for troop billeting and scout the terrain. They were soon followed by hundreds of Luftwaffe personnel to establish air observation stations. By the end of December over a thousand German troops in civilian clothing were active in Bulgaria, although the latter's government continued to deny it. Bombers and dive-bombers were also gradually moved into Bulgaria, beginning in November. By the end of March 1941, the Luftwaffe had 355 aircraft in the country. On 17 February 1941, Bulgaria signed a non-aggression pact with Turkey, paving the way for its adherence to the Tripartite Pact, which was signed by Prime Minister Bogdan Filov in Vienna on 1 March. When Ivan V. Petrov, member of the National Assembly from Yablanitsa, asked why the Assembly had not been consulted, Filov pointed out that the constitution only required parliamentary approval prior to ratification. The signing was ratified by a vote in the Assembly of 140 to 20. The first German troops crossed the Danube from Romania on 28 February, a day before Bulgaria joined the pact. The greater part of the 12th Army, augmented by VIII. Fliegerkorps, crossed the Danube on 2 March. They were welcomed by the Russophile population, who believed that Germany and the Soviet Union were allied. The 12th Army was originally deployed solely for an attack on Greece. After receiving Directive No. 25, which projected an invasion of Yugoslavia in the direction of Belgrade on 8 April, the force was redeployed in three groups: one along the Turkish border, one along the Greek border and one along the Yugoslav border. Motorized transport was brought in from Romania to achieve this feat in a few days. Deployment in Hungary Although German troops had been refused the right to transit Hungary for the invasion of Poland in 1939, they were permitted to pass through Hungary as civilians on their way to Romania in 1940. In September 1940 the Hungarian legation in Berlin had granted over 6,500 transit visas to Germans traveling to Romania. On 30 September, shortly after the signing of the Tripartite Pact, Ribbentrop and General Keitel asked the Hungarian foreign minister, István Csáky, who was in Vienna, to grant the Germans use of transit facilities for German military "study groups" to pass through to Romania. They were still awaiting final confirmation on 3 October. The arrangement agreed was that six trains would pass through Hungary at night carrying German soldiers in sealed cars. They would not be allowed out, and they would not have any rail transportation officers (RTOs) or supply officers with them. According to György Barcza, the Hungarian ambassador in London, answering the British government's query, it was Romania that had made the request. In his notes, Barcza indicated that the British had declared that "if Hungary were to permit German troops to pass through Hungarian territory against Yugoslavia, Britain would break off diplomatic relations, indeed might declare war on us." The first German troops began their passage through Hungary on 8 October. Despite some official denials, the troops movements were reported by Reuters and the American ambassador received a full report. According to contemporary British intelligence, three divisions had passed through Hungary to Romania by 2 November. On 20 November, Hungarian Prime Minister Pál Teleki signed the Tripartite Pact after a meeting with Hitler in Berchtesgarden. At the meeting, Hitler spoke of his intention to aid Italy against Greece, thereby preparing the Hungarians for his future demands. On 13 December 1940—the day after the Hungaro-Yugoslav Non-Aggression Pact and the day Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 20—major German troop movements began. The Germans had initially promised to supply 180 locomotives for the transfers, but later the Hungarians were complaining that only 130 had arrived. On 24 December, István Horthy, President of Hungarian State Railways (HSR), demanded negotiations before implementing requested German increases, but Ambassador Otto von Erdmannsdorf informed him that it had all been settled in Vienna by Keitel and Csáky. The German traffic was so large that on 28 December the HSR had to suspend travel on all its trains for several days on account of a shortage of coal. Hungarian officials tried to meet all German demands without going further than the governments had agreed. Even sabotage was used on occasion to prevent having to give the Germans more support than required. On 18 January 1941 an agreement was reached to store German supplies in Hungarian warehouses under Hungarian guard, with only a German officer in Budapest to serve as a liaison. These supplies were to be used in the campaign against Greece. On 27 March 1941, Hitler informed the Hungarian ambassador, Döme Sztójay, and gave an official proposal to Hungary for participation in the attack on Yugoslavia. Hitler confidentially told Miklós Horthy that Germany fully recognizes the Hungarian territorial claims in relation to Yugoslavia and that he can take Bačka and Banat, and added "take as much as you want". Horthy mostly agreed and accepted Hitler's suggestions. A Hungarian response was hammered out in council and delivered the following day (28 March). On 30 March, General Friedrich Paulus arrived in Budapest and met with Henrik Werth, chief of the Hungarian general staff, and Major General László Deseő. The Hungarians proposed they mobilize five divisions for the attack on Yugoslavia. Two were to be held in reserve, while the First, Fifth and Mobile Corps were to conduct the main attack on Subotica (Szabadka), with a secondary operation east of the river Tisza. Because of Romania's request that Hungarian troops not operate in the Banat, Paulus modified the Hungarian plan and kept their troops west of the Tisza. This final plan "was put down in map form", according to Paulus' account, and must have been telephoned to Berlin immediately so as to make into Operational Order No. 25, issued by Walther von Brauchitsch that same day. This final plan committed one Hungarian corps of three brigades west of the Danube from Lake Balaton to Barcs, and twelve brigades (nine on the front and three in reserve) for an offensive in Bačka (Bácska). The Danube Flotilla was to cover the flanks, and the air force was to stand by for orders. The "Carpathian Group", composed of Eighth Corps, the 1st Mountain Brigade and the 8th Border Guard (Chasseur) Brigade, was mobilized on the Soviet border, with the Mobile Corps held in reserve. These arrangements were agreed to by Werth, he later claimed, "on the basis of the authorization received" on 28 April—although this was not the government's view of what had been authorized. Werth applied for permission to mobilize on 1 April, since a mobilization order had to be approved by the cabinet and issued by the regent over the signature of the minister of defense. Werth expected the Germans to begin operations, with the use of Hungarian territory and communications, on 12 April and the Hungarians to complete mobilization by 6 April and begin their offensive on the 15th. A meeting of the Supreme Defense Council was convened for 1 April to discuss Werth's request. After a long debate, it approved his mobilization plan, but refused to place Hungarian troops under German command and restricted Hungarian operations to the occupation of territory abandoned by the Yugoslavs. On 2 April Germany responded that the Paulus–Werth agreement was final, and German staff officers began arriving in Budapest that day. That same day the British informed Hungary that she would be treated as an enemy state if Germany made use of her territory or facilities in an attack on Yugoslavia. On the morning of 3 April, Pál Teleki committed suicide; the regent immediately cancelled the mobilization order already given except for the Border Guard and the Mobile Corps, which prompted Werth to resign. Horthy then authorized the mobilization of the Fourth and Fifth Corps and the Mountain Brigade, and Werth withdrew his resignation. This occurred so late in the day that zero hour for mobilization to begin was given as midnight of 5 April. On the morning of 3 April, German units, including tanks and aircraft, bound for Romania passed openly through Budapest. Deployment in Italy The Italian 2nd Army and 9th Army committed a total of 22 divisions to the operation, comprising around 300,000 troops. The Italian 2nd Army () was commanded by Generale designato d’Armata (acting General) Vittorio Ambrosio, and consisted of one fast () corps (Celere Corps), one motorised corps (Motorised Corps) and three infantry corps (V Corps, VI Corps, and XI Corps), and was assembled in northeastern Italy, attacking from Istria and the Julian March along the border with Slovenia and Croatia. The 2nd Army was supported by a motorised engineer regiment including three bridging battalions, a chemical battalion, fifteen territorial battalions, and two garrison battalions. V Corps support units included three motorised artillery regiments comprising thirteen battalions, four machine gun battalions (two motorised and two pack animal), three Blackshirt legions of battalion size, a motorised anti-aircraft battalion, a sapper assault battalion and a road construction battalion. VI Corps included four motorised artillery regiments with a total of sixteen battalions, two machine gun battalions (one motorised, one pack animal) and a motorised anti-aircraft regiment. XI Corps included one motorised artillery regiment comprising four battalions, three machine gun battalions (one motorised, one pack animal and one static), and six Blackshirt legions of battalion size. The Motorised Corps was supported by a motorised artillery regiment consisting of three battalions, and a motorised engineer battalion. In Albania, the elements of the Italian 9th Army () that were involved in the campaign were commanded by Generale d’Armata (General) Alessandro Pirzio Biroli, and consisted of two infantry corps and some sector troops assembled in northern Albania. XIV Corps was supported by a cavalry regiment, three Border Guard battalions, a Finance Guard battalion and two military police () battalions. The XVII Corps included the Diamanti Blackshirt group which incorporated six Blackshirt regiments comprising two battalions each, the Albanian-raised Skanderbeg Blackshirt regiment of two battalions, another Blackshirt regiment of two battalions, a cavalry regiment, a Bersaglieri motorcycle battalion, three Border Guard battalions, one Finance Guard battalion, a motorised artillery regiment of three battalions, a military police battalion, and a tank company equipped with Fiat M13/40 light tanks. The Librazhd Sector included a motorised artillery regiment of four battalions, a bicycle-mounted Bersaglieri regiment, a cavalry regiment, the Biscaccianti Blackshirt group which incorporated two Blackshirt regiments with a total of five battalions, the regimental-sized Agostini Blackshirt Forest Militia, and the Briscotto group, a regimental-sized formation consisting of one Alpini battalion and two Finance Guard battalions. The Zara garrison numbered about 9,000 men under the overall command of Generale di Brigata (Brigadier) Emilio Giglioli. The garrison consisted of two main groupings and an assortment of supporting units. The two main groupings were the regimental-sized Fronte a Terra (Land Front), which comprised three static machine gun battalions and a bicycle-mounted Bersaglieri battalion, and the battalion-strength Fronte a Mare (Sea Front), which consisted of two machine gun companies, an anti-aircraft battery, a coastal artillery battery and a naval artillery battery. Supporting units consisted of an artillery regiment of three battalions, two independent artillery battalions, a machine gun battalion, a motorised anti-aircraft battalion (less one battery), an engineer battalion, a company of Blackshirts, and a company of L3/35 tankettes. Royal Yugoslav armed forces The Yugoslav forces consisted of more than 33 divisions of the Royal Yugoslav Army (, VKJ), four air brigades of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force (, VVKJ) with more than 400 aircraft, and the small Royal Yugoslav Navy (, KJRM) centred around four destroyers and four submarines based on the Adriatic coast and some river monitors on the Danube. The VKJ was heavily reliant on animal-powered transport, was only partly mobilised at the time of the invasion, and had only 50 tanks that could engage German tanks on an equal basis. The VVKJ was equipped with a range of aircraft of Yugoslav, German, Italian, French and British design, including less than 120 modern fighter aircraft. Equipment and organization Formed after World War I, the VKJ was still largely equipped with weapons and material from that era, although some modernization with Czech equipment and vehicles had begun. Of about 4,000 artillery pieces, many were aged and horse-drawn, but about 1,700 were relatively modern, including 812 Czech 37mm and 47mm anti-tank guns. There were also about 2,300 mortars, including 1600 modern 81mm pieces, as well as twenty-four 220 and 305mm pieces. Of 940 anti-aircraft guns, 360 were 15 mm and 20 mm Czech and Italian models. All of these arms were imported, from different sources; the various models often lacked proper repair and maintenance facilities. The only mechanized units were six motorized infantry battalions in the three cavalry divisions, six motorized artillery regiments, two tank battalions equipped with 110 tanks, one of which had Renault FT models of First World War origin and the other 54 modern French Renault R35 tanks, plus an independent tank company with eight Czech SI-D tank destroyers. Some 1,000 trucks for military purposes had been imported from the United States of America in the months just preceding the invasion. Fully mobilized, the Yugoslav Army fielded 28 infantry divisions, three cavalry divisions, and 35 independent regiments. Of the independent regiments, 16 were in frontier fortifications and 19 were organized as combined regiments, or "Odred", around the size of a reinforced brigade. Each Odred had one to three infantry regiments and one to three artillery battalions, with three organised as "alpine" units. The German attack, however, caught the army still mobilizing, and only some 11 divisions were in their planned defense positions at the start of the invasion. The Yugoslavs had delayed full mobilisation until 3 April in order not to provoke Hitler. The units were filled to between 70 and 90 percent of their strength as mobilization was not completed. The Yugoslav Army was about 1,200,000 in total as the German invasion commenced. The VVKJ had a strength of 1,875 officers and 29,527 other ranks, including some 2,000 pilots, had over 460 front-line aircraft of domestic (notably the IK-3), German, Italian, French, and British origin, of which most were modern types. Organized into 22 bomber squadrons and 19 fighter squadrons, the main aircraft types in operational use included 73 Messerschmitt Bf 109 E, 47 Hawker Hurricane Mk I (with more being built under licence in Yugoslavia), 30 Hawker Fury II, 11 Rogozarski IK-3 fighters (plus more under construction), 10 Ikarus IK-2, 2 Potez 63, one Messerschmitt Bf 110C-4 (captured in early April due to a navigational error) and one Rogozarski R 313 fighters, 69 Dornier Do 17 K (including 40 plus licence-built), 61 Bristol Blenheim Mk I (including some 40 licence-built) and 40 Savoia Marchetti SM-79 K bombers. Army reconnaissance units consisted of seven Groups with 130 obsolete Yugoslav-built Breguet 19 and Potez 25 light bombers. There were also some 400 trainer and auxiliary aircraft. The Naval Aviation units comprised 75 aircraft in eight squadrons equipped with, amongst other auxiliary types, 12 German-built Dornier Do 22 K and 15 Rogozarski SIM-XIV-H locally designed and built maritime patrol float-planes. The aircraft of the Yugoslav airline Aeroput, consisting mainly of six Lockheed Model 10 Electras, three Spartan Cruisers, and one de Havilland Dragon were mobilised to provide transport services to the VVKJ. The KJRM was equipped with one elderly ex-German light cruiser (suitable only for training purposes), one large modern destroyer flotilla leader of British design, three modern destroyers of French design (two built in Yugoslavia plus another still under construction), one seaplane tender, four modern submarines (two older French-built and two British-built) and 10 modern motor torpedo boats (MTBs), of the older vessels, there were six ex-Austrian Navy medium torpedo boats, six mine-layers, four large armoured river monitors and various auxiliary craft. Deployment The Yugoslav Army was organized into three army groups and the coastal defense troops. The 3rd Army Group was the strongest with the 3rd, 3rd Territorial, 5th and 6th Armies defending the borders with Romania, Bulgaria and Albania. The 2nd Army Group with the 1st and 2nd Armies, defended the region between the Iron Gates and the Drava River. The 1st Army Group with the 4th and 7th Armies, composed mainly of Croatian troops, was in Croatia and Slovenia defending the Italian, German (Austrian) and Hungarian frontiers. The strength of each "Army" amounted to little more than a corps, with the Army Groups consisting of the units deployed as follows: 3rd Army Group's 3rd Army consisted of four infantry divisions and one cavalry odred; the 3rd Territorial Army with three infantry divisions and one independent motorized artillery regiment; the 5th Army with four infantry divisions, one cavalry division, two odred and one independent motorized artillery regiment and the 6th Army with three infantry divisions, the two Royal Guards brigades (odred) and three infantry odred. 2nd Army Group's 1st Army had one infantry and one cavalry division, three odred and six frontier defence regiments; the 2nd Army had three infantry divisions and one frontier defence regiment. 1st Army Group consisted of the 4th Army, with three infantry divisions and one odred, whilst the 7th Army had two infantry divisions, one cavalry division, three mountain odred, two infantry odred and nine frontier defence regiments. The Strategic, "Supreme Command" Reserve in Bosnia comprised four infantry divisions, four independent infantry regiments, one tank battalion, two motorized engineer battalions, two motorized heavy artillery regiments, 15 independent artillery battalions and two independent anti-aircraft artillery battalions. Coastal Defence Force, on the Adriatic opposite Zadar comprised one infantry division and two odred, in addition to fortress brigades and anti-aircraft units at Šibenik and Kotor. On the eve of invasion, clothing and footwear were available for only two-thirds or so of the potential front-line troops and only partially for other troops; some other essential supplies were available for only a third of the front-line troops; medical and sanitary supplies were available for only a few weeks, and supplies of food for men and feed for livestock were available for only about two months. In all cases there was little or no possibility of replenishment. Beyond the problems of inadequate equipment and incomplete mobilization, the Yugoslav Army suffered badly from the Serbo-Croat schism in Yugoslav politics. "Yugoslav" resistance to the invasion collapsed overnight. The main reason was that none of the subordinate national groups, including Slovenes and Croats, were prepared to fight in defence of a Serbian Yugoslavia. Also, so that the Slovenes did not feel abandoned, defences were built on Yugoslavia's northern border when the natural line of defence was much further south, based on the rivers Sava and Drina. The only effective opposition to the invasion was from wholly Serbian units within the borders of Serbia itself. The Germans, thrusting north-west from Skopje, were held up at Kacanik Pass and lost several tanks (P39, Buckley C "Greece and Crete 1941" HMSO 1977). In its worst expression, Yugoslavia's defenses were badly compromised on 10 April 1941, when some of the units in the Croatian-manned 4th and 7th Armies mutinied, and a newly formed Croatian government hailed the entry of the Germans into Zagreb the same day. The Serbian General Staff were united on the question of Yugoslavia as a "Greater Serbia", ruled, in one way or another, by Serbia. On the eve of the invasion, there were 165 generals on the Yugoslav active list. Of these, all but four were Serbs. Operations Professor Jozo Tomasevich and others divide the invasion and resultant fighting into two phases. The first phase encompasses the Luftwaffe'''s devastating air assault on Belgrade and airfields of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force of 6 April, and an initial thrust of the German XL Panzer Corps from Bulgaria towards Skopje that commenced the same day. This was followed by the assault of the German XIV Panzer Corps from Bulgaria towards Niš on 8 April. On 10 April, four more thrusts struck the Yugoslav Army; the XLI Panzer Corps from Romania towards Belgrade, the XLVI Panzer Corps from Hungary across the Drava, the LI Infantry Corps from Austria towards Zagreb, and the XLIX Mountain Corps from Austria towards Celje. By the end of that day, the Yugoslav Army was disintegrating, and was in retreat or surrendering right across the country, with the exception of the forces on the Albanian frontier. Italy and Hungary joined the ground offensive on 11 April. The Italian part in the ground offensive began when their 2nd Army attacked from northeastern Italy towards Ljubljana and down the Dalmatian coast, meeting virtually no resistance. On the same day, the Hungarian 3rd Army crossed the Yugoslav border and advanced toward Novi Sad, but like the Italians, they met no serious resistance. On 12 April, German troops captured Belgrade, and Ljubljana fell to the Italians. On 14 and 15 April, King Peter and the government flew out of the country, and the Yugoslav Supreme Command was captured by the Germans near Sarajevo. The surrender was signed on 17 April, and came into effect at noon on 18 April. Air operations Following the Belgrade Coup on 27 March 1941, the Yugoslav armed forces were put on alert, although the army was not fully mobilised for fear of provoking Hitler. The VVKJ command decided to disperse its forces away from their main bases to a system of 50 auxiliary airfields that had previously been prepared. However, many of these airfields lacked facilities and had inadequate drainage which prevented the continued operation of all but the very lightest aircraft in the adverse weather conditions encountered in April 1941. Despite having, on paper at any rate, a substantially stronger force of relatively modern aircraft than the combined British and Greek air forces to the south, the VVKJ could simply not match the overwhelming Luftwaffe and Regia Aeronautica superiority in terms of numbers, tactical deployment and combat experience. The bomber and maritime force hit targets in Italy, Germany (Austria), Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania and Greece, as well as attacking German, Italian and Hungarian troops. Meanwhile, the fighter squadrons inflicted not insignificant losses on escorted Luftwaffe bomber raids on Belgrade and Serbia, as well as upon Regia Aeronautica raids on Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Montenegro. The VVKJ also provided direct air support to the hard pressed Yugoslav Army by strafing attacking troop and mechanized columns in Croatia, Bosnia and Serbia (sometimes taking off and strafing the troops attacking the very base being evacuated). After a combination of air combat losses, losses on the ground to enemy air attack on bases and the overrunning of airfields by enemy troops, after 11 days the VVKJ almost ceased to exist. However, continued domestic aircraft production during the invasion supplied the VVKJ with an additional eight Hurricane Is, six Dornier Do 17Ks, four Blenheim Is, two Ikarus IK 2s, one Rogozarski IK-3 and one Messerschmitt Bf 109 from the local aeronautical industry's aircraft factories and workshops. At the beginning of the April war, the VVKJ was armed with some 60 German designed Do 17Ks, purchased by Yugoslavia in the autumn of 1938, together with a manufacturing licence. The sole operator was 3 vazduhoplovni puk (3rd bomber regiment) composed of two bomber groups; the 63rd Bomber Group stationed at Petrovec airfield near Skopje and the 64th Bomber Group stationed at Milesevo airfield near Priština. Other auxiliary airfields had also been prepared to aid in dispersal. During the course of hostilities, the State Aircraft Factory in Kraljevo managed to produce six more aircraft of this type. Of the final three, two were delivered to the VVKJ on 10 April and one was delivered on 12 April 1941. On 6 April, Luftwaffe dive-bombers and ground-attack fighters destroyed 26 of the Yugoslav Dorniers in the initial assault on their airfields, but the remaining aircraft were able to effectively hit back with numerous attacks on German mechanized columns and upon Bulgarian airfields. By the end of the campaign total Yugoslav losses stood at four destroyed in aerial combat and 45 destroyed on the ground. On 14 and 15 April, the seven remaining Do 17K flew to Nikšić airfield in Montenegro and took part in the evacuation of King Petar II and members of the Yugoslav government to Greece. During this operation, Yugoslav gold reserves were also airlifted to Greece by the seven Do 17s, as well as by SM-79Ks and Lockheed Electra's but after completing their mission, five Do 17Ks were destroyed on the ground when Italian aircraft attacked the Greek-held Paramitia airfield. Only two Do 17Ks escaped destruction in Greece and later joined the British Royal Air Force (RAF) in the Kingdom of Egypt. At 16:00 on 15 April the C-in-C of Luftflotte 4, Generaloberst Alexander Löhr received orders from Hermann Göring to wind down the air-offensive and transfer the bulk of the dive-bomber force to support the campaign in Greece. A total of 18 bomber, transport and maritime patrol aircraft (two Dornier Do 17Ks, four Savoia Marchetti SM-79Ks, three Lockheed Electra's, eight Dornier Do-22Ks and one Rogozarski SIM-XIV-H) succeeded in escaping to the Allied base in Egypt at the end of the campaign. Bombing of BelgradeLuftflotte 4 of the Luftwaffe, with a strength of seven Combat Formations (Kampfgruppen) had been committed to the campaign in the Balkans. At 07:00 on 6 April the Luftwaffe opened the assault on Yugoslavia by conducting a saturation-type bombing raid on the capital, "Operation Retribution" (Unternehmen Strafgericht). Flying in relays from airfields in Austria and Romania, 300 aircraft, of which a quarter were Junkers Ju 87 Stukas, protected by a heavy fighter escort began the attack. The dive-bombers were to silence the Yugoslav anti-aircraft defences while the medium bombers consisting mainly Dornier Do 17s and Junkers Ju 88 attacked the city. The initial raid was carried out at 15-minute intervals in three distinct waves, each lasting for approximately 20 minutes. Thus, the city was subjected to a rain of bombs for almost one and a half hours. The German bombers directed their main effort against the center of the city, where the principal government buildings were located. The medium bomber Kampfgruppen continued their attack on the city for several days while the Stuka dive bomber wings (Stukageschwader) were soon diverted to Yugoslav airfields. When the attack was over, some 4,000 inhabitants lay dead under the debris. This blow virtually destroyed all means of communication between the Yugoslav high command and the forces in the field, although most of the elements of the general staff managed to escape to one of the suburbs. Having thus delivered the knockout blow to the Yugoslavian nerve center, the Luftwaffe was able to devote its maximum effort to military targets such as Yugoslav airfields, routes of communication, and troop concentrations, and to the close support of German ground operations. The VVKJ put up its Belgrade defence interceptors from the six squadrons of the 32nd and 51st Fighter Groups to attack each wave of bombers, although as the day wore on the four squadrons from the 31st and 52nd Fighter Groups, based in central Serbia, also took part. The Messerschmitt 109E, Hurricane Is and Rogozarski IK-3 fighters scored at least twenty "kills" amongst the attacking bombers and their escorting fighters on 6 April and a further dozen shot down on 7 April. The desperate defence by the VVKJ over Belgrade cost it some 20 fighters shot down and 15 damaged. Ground operations Three-pronged drive on Belgrade The British, Greek and Yugoslav high commands intended to use Niš as the lynch-pin in their attempts to wear down German forces in the Balkans and it is for this reason that the locality was important. When the Germans broke through in this sector—a sector which was essential if stability was to be maintained on the front. The Yugoslav Supreme Command committed numerous forces from its strategic reserves, including the 2nd Cavalry Division, but these were harassed by the Luftwaffe during transit to the front and did not get through in any real quantities. Having reached Niš from its initial attacks from Bulgaria and broken the Yugoslav defences, the German 14th Motorised Corps headed north in the direction of Belgrade. The German 46th Panzer Corps had advanced across the Slavonian plain from Austria to attack Belgrade from the west, whilst the 41st Panzer Corps threatened the city from the north after launching its offensive drive from Romania and Hungary. By 11 April, Yugoslavia was criss-crossed by German armoured columns and the only resistance that remained was a large nucleus of the Yugoslav Army around the capital. On 11 April, a German Officer, Fritz Klingenberg with few men, moved into Belgrade to reconnoitre the city. However, after some scattered combat with Yugoslav troops, they entered the centre of the city, whereupon they bluffed about their size and incoming threats of bombardment. The city, represented by the Mayor, surrendered to them at 18:45 hours on 12 April. Later more forces moved to consolidate the position. Italian offensive In the opening days of the invasion, Italian forces on the Slovene border carried out minor actions in the Sava valley and in the Kastav area, capturing some Yugoslav positions on Mount Peč on 7 April, Kranjska Gora, Zavratec and Godz on 8 April, Kastav, the source of the Rječina river, Kalce and Logatec on 9 April, and repelling on 8 April a Yugoslav attack in the Cerkno Hills. On 11 April, the 2nd Army launched its offensive, capturing Ljubljana, Sušak and Kraljevica on the same day. On 12 April the 133rd Armoured Division Littorio and the 52nd Infantry Division Torino took Senj, on 13 April they occupied Otočac and Gradac, while Italian naval forces occupied several Dalmatian islands. A scheduled Yugoslav attack against the Italian enclave of Zara did not materialize, and the city garrison's troops started to advance until they met the "Torino" Division near Knin, which was taken on the same day. Split and Šibenik were taken on 15 and 16 April, respectively, and on 17 April the Motorized Corps took Dubrovnik, after covering 750 kilometers in six days. After repelling the Yugoslav offensive in Albania, the 18th Infantry Division Messina took Cetinje, Dubrovnik and Kotor on 17 April, meeting with the Italian units of the Motorized Corps. Hungarian offensive On 12 April the Hungarian Third Army crossed the border with one cavalry, two motorized and six infantry brigades. The Third Army faced the Yugoslavian First Army. By the time the Hungarians crossed the border, the Germans had been attacking Yugoslavia for over a week. As a result, the Yugoslavian forces confronting them put up little resistance, except for the units in the frontier fortifications, who had held up the Hungarian advance for some time. and inflicted some 350 casualties. Units of the Hungarian Third Army advanced into southern Baranja, located between the rivers Danube and Drava, and occupied the Bačka region in Vojvodina with Hungarian relative majority. The Hungarian forces occupied only those territories which were part of Hungary before the Treaty of Trianon. Yugoslav Albanian offensive In accordance with the Yugoslav Army's war plan, R-41, a strategy was formulated that, in the face of a massive Axis attack, a retreat on all fronts except in the south be performed. Here the 3rd Yugoslav Army, in cooperation with the Greek Army, was to launch an offensive against the Italian forces in Albania. This was in order to secure space to enable the withdrawal of the main Yugoslav Army to the south. This would be via Albanian territory in order to reach Greece and the Allied forces to be based there. The strategy was based on the premise that the Yugoslav Army would, together with the Greek and British Armies, form a new version of the Salonika front of World War I. On 8 April the hard-pressed VVKJ sent a squadron of fourteen Breguet 19 light bombers to the city of Florina in northern Greece to provide assistance to both the Yugoslav and Greek Armies on the Macedonian front. The squadron performed numerous bombing and strafing missions during the course of the campaign. The 3rd Yugoslav Army of the 3rd Army Group was tasked with conducting offensive operations against the Italian army in northern Albania. For this purpose the 3rd Army had concentrated four infantry divisions and one combined regiment (Odred) in the Montenegro and Kosovo regions: 15th Infantry Division "Zetska" 13th Infantry Division "Hercegovačka" 31st Infantry Division "Kosovska" 25th Infantry Division "Vardarska" "Komski" cavalry Odred. The strategic reserve of the 3rd Army Group, the 22nd Infantry Division "Ibarska", was situated around Uroševac in the Kosovo region. In addition, offensive operations against the Italian enclave of Zara (Zadar) on the Dalmatian coast were to be undertaken by the 12th Infantry Division "Jadranska". The first elements of the 3rd Army launched their offensive operations in North Albania on 7 April 1941, with the Komski Odred covering the Gusinje-Prokletije mountains area advancing towards the village of Raja-Puka. The Kosovska Division crossed the border in the Prizren area of Kosovo and was advancing through the Drin River valley. The Vardarska Division gained some local success at Debar, while the rest of the army's units were still assembling. The next day, the 8th, found the Zetska Division steadily advancing along the Podgorica–Shkodër road. The Komski cavalry Odred successfully crossed the dangerous Prokletije mountains and reached the village of Koljegcava in the Valjbone River Valley. South of them the Kosovska Division broke through the Italian defences in the Drin River Valley, but due to the fall of Skopje to the attacks by the German Army, the Vardarska Division was forced to stop its operations in Albania. There was little further progress for the Yugoslavs on 9 April 1941, because although the Zetska Division continued advancing towards Shkodër and the Komski Odred reached the Drin River, the Kosovska Division had to halt all combat activities on the Albanian Front due to the appearance of German troops in Prizren. On 10 April 1941 the Zetska Division was still steadily fighting its way towards Shkodër and had advanced 50 km in some places. These advances had been supported by aircraft of the VVKJ's 66th and 81st Bomber Groups, who attacked airfields and Italian troop concentrations around Shkodër, as well as the port of Durrës. The Komski Odred and the right column of the Kosovska Division advanced along the right bank of the Drin River towards Shkodër in order to link with Zetska Division, but the central and left column of the Kosovska Division were forced to take a defensive perimeter to hold off the increasing pressure by German troops. The Servizio Informazioni Militare contributed to the eventual failure of the Yugoslav offensive in Albania; Italian code breakers had "broken" Yugoslav codes and penetrated Yugoslav radio traffic, transmitting false orders with the correct code key and thus causing confusion and disruption in the movements of the Yugoslav troops. Between 11–13 April 1941, with German and Italian troops advancing on its rear areas, the Zetska Division was forced to retreat back to the Pronisat River by the Italian 131st Armored Division "Centauro", where it remained until the end of the campaign on 16 April. The Centauro then advanced to the Yugoslav fleet base of Kotor in Montenegro, also occupying Cetinje and Podgorica. Local uprisings At the local level infighting by Yugoslav citizens started even prior to the arrival of Axis troops. Croats in the 108th Infantry Regiment of the 40th Infantry Division "Slavonska" rebelled on the evening of 7–8 April near Grubišno Polje, taking command of the regiment from its Serb officers. They were subsequently joined by the 40th Auxiliary Regiment and elements of the 42nd Infantry Regiment (also from the "Slavonska" Division). With the deteriorating situation in the area, the Yugoslav 4th Army's headquarters was moved from Bjelovar to Popovača. The rebellious regiments then entered Bjelovar, with the city's mayor Julije Makanec proclaiming an Independent State of Croatia on 8 April. Vladko Maček and ban Ivan Šubašić sent messages to the city urging the regiments to maintain their positions, but this was disobeyed by the rebel military and civil officials who waited for the arrival of the German army. On 10 April there were clashes between Ustaša supporters and Yugoslav troops in Mostar, the former taking control of the city. Several VVKJ aircraft were damaged and disabled on Jasenica airfield near Mostar, including several Dornier Do 17Ks and Savoia Marchetti SM-79 K bombers. On 11 April domestic Ustaša agents took power in Čapljina. They intercepted Yugoslav troops headed by rail from Mostar to Trebinje and disarmed them. A backup Yugoslav force from Bileća was sent in which retook the town on 14 April, before the arrival of the Germans in the coming days. Naval operations When Germany and Italy attacked Yugoslavia on 6 April 1941, The Yugoslav Royal Navy had available three destroyers, two submarines and 10 MTBs as the most effective units of the fleet. One other destroyer, Ljubljana was in dry-dock at the time of the invasion and she and her anti-aircraft guns were used in defence of the fleet base at Kotor. The remainder of the fleet was useful only for coastal defence and local escort and patrol work. Kotor was close to the Albanian border and the Italo-Greek front there, but Zara (Zadar), an Italian enclave, was to the north-west of the coast and to prevent a bridgehead being established, the destroyer Beograd, four of the old torpedo boats and 6 MTBs were despatched to Šibenik, 80 km to the south of Zara, in preparation for an attack. The attack was to be co-ordinated with the 12th "Jadranska" Infantry Division and two "Odred" (combined regiments) of the Yugoslav Army attacking from the Benkovac area, supported by air attacks by the 81st Bomber Group of the VVKJ. The Yugoslav forces launched their attack on 9 April but by 13 April the Italian forces had counter-attacked and were in Benkovac by 14 April. The naval prong to this attack faltered when the destroyer Beograd was damaged by near misses from Italian aircraft off Šibenik when her starboard engine was put out of action, after which she limped to Kotor, escorted by the remainder of the force, for repair. Italian air raids on Kotor badly damaged the minelayer Kobac, which was beached to prevent sinking. The maritime patrol float-planes of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force flew reconnaissance and attack missions during the campaign, as well as providing air cover for mine-laying operations off Zara. Their operations included attacks on the Albanian port of Durrës, as well as strikes against Italian re-supply convoys to Albania. On 9 April, one Dornier Do 22K floatplane notably took on an Italian convoy of 12 steamers with an escort of eight destroyers crossing the Adriatic during the day, attacking single-handed in the face of intense AA fire. No Italian ships, however, were sunk by Yugoslav forces; an Italian tanker was claimed to have been damaged by a near miss off the Italian coast near Bari. The Royal Yugoslav Navy also had at its disposal four large, heavily armed and armoured river monitors in its riverine flotilla. They were used to patrol the Danube, Drava and Sava rivers in the northern parts of Yugoslavia and its border with Hungary. These monitors, Drava, Sava, Morava and Vardar, had been inherited from the Austrian Navy at the end of World War I. All were of around 400–500t with a main armament of two 120 mm guns, two or three 66 mm guns, 120 mm mortars, 40 mm AA guns and machine guns. At the start of the campaign they had carried out offensive operations by shelling the airfield at Mohács in Hungary on 6 April and again two days later, but had to begin withdrawing towards Novi Sad by 11 April after coming under repeated attack by German dive-bombers. Early in the morning of 12 April, a squadron of German Ju 87 dive-bombers attacked the Yugoslav monitors on the Danube. Drava, commanded by Aleksandar Berić, was hit by several of them but they were unable to penetrate Drava's 300 mm thick deck armour, until, by chance, one put a bomb straight down the funnel, killing 54 of the 67-man crew. During the attack anti-aircraft gunners on the monitors claimed three dive-bombers shot down. The remaining three monitors were scuttled by their crews later on 12 April as German and Hungarian forces had occupied the bases and the river systems upon which they operated. Romanian involvement While Romania did not take part in the actual invasion of Yugoslavia, it did provide artillery support for the German forces invading from its territory. Operating on orders from the 3rd Section of the Romanian General Staff, Romanian artillery opened fire against Yugoslav barges on the Danube on 6 April. Romanian and German units from the Romanian bank of the Danube repeatedly exchanged fire with Yugoslav forces between 6 and 11 April. The main Romanian force was at Liubcova, consisting in a battery of 120 mm/L10 naval howitzers in a fortified position. Nearby, there was also a section (2 pieces) of 120 mm/L35 naval howitzers as well as a section of 47 mm light naval guns. The Yugoslavs retaliated with their Air Force. Two Bristol Blenheims raided Arad, badly damaging one of the German fighters stationed there before both were shot down. For its contribution, Romania was rewarded with six ex-Yugoslav aircraft captured by the Germans. These machines, delivered free of charge, were however inoperative. The Romanians cannibalized three of them in order to make the other three operational. The three operational aircraft were all Hawker Hurricanes. Losses The losses sustained by the German attack forces were unexpectedly light. During the twelve days of combat the total casualty figures came to 558 men: 151 were listed as killed, 392 as wounded, and 15 as missing in action. During the XLI Panzer Corps drive on Belgrade, for example, the only officer killed in action fell victim to a civilian sniper's bullet. The Luftwaffe lost approximately 60 aircraft shot down over Yugoslavia, costing the lives of at least 70 aircrew. The Italian Army took heavier casualties in northern Albania from the Yugoslav offensive there (Italian casualties on all fronts during the invasion amounted to some 800 killed and 2,500 wounded), whilst the Italian Air Force lost approximately 10 aircraft shot down, with a further 22 damaged. The Hungarian Army suffered some 350 casualties (120 killed, 223 wounded and 13 missing in action) from the shelling by Yugoslav riverine forces of its frontier installations and in its attacks upon the Yugoslav frontier forces in Vojvodina, with one quarter of a Hungarian parachute 'battalion' becoming casualties when a transport aircraft filled with 30 troops went down during an abortive drop on 12 April. The Hungarians also lost five Fiat fighters and one Weiss WM-21 Sólyom reconnaissance aircraft during the fighting. The Germans took between 254,000 and 345,000 Yugoslav prisoners (excluding a considerable number of ethnic Germans and Hungarians who had been conscripted into the Yugoslav Army and who were quickly released after screening) and the Italians took 30,000 more. Approximately 1,000 army and several hundred VVKJ personnel (including one mobile-workshop unit of six vehicles) escaped via Greece to Egypt. In their brief fight, the VVKJ suffered the loss of 49 aircraft to Axis fighters and anti-aircraft fire, with many more damaged beyond repair. These losses cost the lives of 27 fighter pilots and 76 bomber aircrew. 85 more aircraft were destroyed on the ground by air attack, while many others were destroyed or disabled by their own crews or crashed during operations or in evacuation flights. Despite these losses, more than 70 Yugoslav aircraft escaped to Allied territory, mostly to Greece, but eight Dornier and Savoia Marchetti bombers set course for the USSR, with four making it safely. Several dozen of the escapee aircraft were destroyed in a devastating strafing attack by the Italian air force on Paramitia airfield in Greece, with nine bombers and transports making it to Egypt. More than 300 operational, auxiliary and training aircraft were captured and passed on to the newly created Air Force of the Independent State of Croatia, Finland, Romania and Bulgaria. According to the provisions of the surrender document, the Italians took possession of most of the Yugoslav Navy (one of its four destroyers, the Ljubljana, had spent the campaign in dry dock). However, in defiance of the said provisions, one destroyer, the Zagreb, was blown up at Kotor by two of its junior officers and one of the British-built submarines and two MTBs escaped to Alexandria in Egypt to continue to serve with the Allied cause. A fourth destroyer was captured while under construction in the Kotor shipyard, the Split, but the was not able to finish her before the armistice in 1943. Eventually, she was recovered after the war by the Yugoslavs and completed under the original name. Ten Yugoslav Navy maritime patrol float-planes escaped to Greece, with nine making it to Egypt, where they formed a squadron under RAF command. Armistice and surrender The Axis victory was swift. As early as 14 April the Yugoslav high command had decided to seek an armistice and authorised the army and army group commanders to negotiate local ceasefires. That day the commanders of the 2nd and 5th Armies asked the Germans for terms, but were rejected. Only unconditional surrender could form the basis for negotiations they were told. That evening, the high command sent an emissary to the headquarters of the 1st Panzer Group to ask for armistice, and in response General von Kleist sent the commander of the 2nd Army, von Weichs, to Belgrade to negotiate terms. He arrived on the afternoon of 15 April and drew up an armistice based on unconditional surrender. On 16 April, a Yugoslav delegate arrived in Belgrade, but as he did not have authority to sign the document, he was given a draft of the agreement and an aircraft was placed at his disposal to bring in authorised representatives of the government. Finally, on 17 April, after only eleven days of fighting, the pre-coup Foreign Minister Aleksandar Cincar-Marković and General Radivoje Janković signed the armistice and unconditionally surrendered all Yugoslav troops. It came into effect the following day (18 April) at noon. At the signing, the Hungarians and Bulgarians were represented by liaison officers, but they did not sign the document because their countries were not officially at war with Yugoslavia. The Italian representative, Colonel Luigi Buonofati, signed the document after noting that "the same terms are valid for the Italian army". Some scholars have proposed a number of theories for the Royal Yugoslav Army's sudden collapse, including poor training and equipment, generals eager to secure a quick cessation of hostilities, and a sizeable Croatian, Slovenian and German fifth column. Others state that the fifth column had little effect on the ultimate outcome of the invasion. According to Tomasevich, the insistence of the Yugoslav Army on defending all the borders assured its failure from the start. Historian Aleksa Djilas states that Croatian desertion is overplayed, as many Croatian units actively fought the Germans and most Croatian officers "remained loyal until 10 April when the NDH was proclaimed" which brought an end to Yugoslavia and in turn, their loyalty to the government. He adds that the army simply reflected the weak Yugoslav political system and the main reasons for the defeat were the lack of leadership, the army's subpar equipment and outdated tactical and strategical techniques. Many Serbian nationalists blamed the loss on "fifth columnist" Croats who stood to gain from Italian and German rule, ignoring the primary failure of the Yugoslav Army and its almost entirely Serbian leadership. Many Croatian nationalists blamed Belgrade politicians and the inadequacy of the Serbian-dominated army. Aftermath After the surrender, Yugoslavia was subsequently divided amongst Germany, Hungary, Italy and Bulgaria. Germany took control of most of Serbia. While Ante Pavelić, leader of the fascist Ustaše, declared an Independent State of Croatia before the invasion was even over, Croatia was actually under the joint control of Germany and Italy. When the Yugoslav Army officially surrendered to the Axis forces on 18 April 1941, Royal Yugoslav Army Colonel Draža Mihailović immediately began to organize a resistance to the occupying force in the mountains of Serbia and Eastern Bosnia. Mihailović was made General of this new guerrilla version of the army and Minister for War by King Peter II and his Yugoslavian government in exile in Britain. Though Mihailović tried to insist that the guerrilla forces under his command, and numbering up to 100,000 active soldiers, continue to be referred to as the "Royal Yugoslav Army", American and British intelligence and media reportage consistently referred to them as "Chetniks". This led to confusion, since both quisling Yugoslav guerrilla forces under General Milan Nedić and Royalist guerrilla forces not under Mihailović's command were also referred to as "Chetniks". Once the Soviets fully entered the war on the side of the Allies on 22 June of 1941, the Yugoslav Partisans under Josip Tito also began to fight the Axis powers, and from then on there was continuous resistance to the occupying armies in Yugoslavia until the end of the war. While in the beginning both Yugoslav Partisans and the Chetniks engaged in resistance, the Partisans became the main resistance force after, following Churchill's lead, at the Tehran Conference in 28 November1 December 1943, British and American governments withdrew all allegiance and support from Mihailović's Royal Yugoslav Army Chetniks, and gave all further assistance to the Communist Partisans who waged a continuous civil war against Mihailović's forces. In the end, devoid of all outside assistance, Mihailović's Royal Yugoslav Army was overcome in Serbia by a combination of well-armed, -supported, and -supplied Partisans and the invading Soviets. Notes See also Yugoslavia and the Allies 1st Army Group (Kingdom of Yugoslavia) List of Yugoslav military equipment of World War II List of German military equipment of World War II List of Italian Army equipment in World War II References Footnotes Books Articles Hadži-Jovančić, Perica. "Losing the Periphery: The British Foreign Office and Policy Towards Yugoslavia, 1935–1938." Diplomacy & Statecraft'' 31.1 (2020): 65–90. Web Further reading Yugoslavia in World War II Yugoslavia Yugoslavia invasion Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Yugoslavia 1941 in Yugoslavia 1941 in Croatia 1941 in Montenegro 1941 in Serbia 1941 in Slovenia Invasions of Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Yugoslavia Germany–Yugoslavia relations Italy–Yugoslavia relations Articles containing video clips April 1941 events Axis powers Wars involving Slovenia
5184366	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/550%20Madison%20Avenue	550 Madison Avenue	550 Madison Avenue (also 550 Madison; formerly known as the Sony Tower, Sony Plaza, and AT&T Building) is a postmodern skyscraper on Madison Avenue between 55th and 56th Streets in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. Designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee with associate architect Simmons Architects, the building is a , 37-story office tower with a facade made of pink granite. It was completed in 1984 as the headquarters of AT&T and later became the American headquarters of Sony. A four-story granite annex to the west was demolished and replaced with a shorter annex in the early 2020s. A large entrance arch at the base of the building faces east toward Madison Avenue, flanked by arcades with smaller flat arches. A pedestrian atrium, running through the middle of the city block between 55th and 56th Streets, was also included in the design; a plaza was built in its place in the 2020s. The presence of the atrium enabled the building to rise higher without the use of setbacks because of a provision in city zoning codes. The ground-level lobby is surrounded by retail shops, which were originally an open arcade. The office stories are accessed from a sky lobby above the base. Atop the building is a broken pediment with a circular opening. Opinion of the building has been mixed ever since its design was first announced in March 1978. The AT&T Building at 550 Madison Avenue was intended to replace 195 Broadway, the company's previous headquarters in Lower Manhattan. Following the breakup of the Bell System in 1982, near the building's completion, AT&T spun off its subsidiary companies. As a result, AT&T never occupied the entire building as it had originally intended. Sony leased the building in 1991, substantially renovated the base and interior, and acquired the structure from AT&T in 2002. Sony sold the building to the Chetrit Group in 2013 and leased back its offices there for three years. The Olayan Group purchased 550 Madison Avenue in 2016 with plans to renovate it, and the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission designated the building's exterior as a landmark in 2018. Olayan redeveloped the building in the late 2010s and early 2020s. Site 550 Madison Avenue is in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City. The rectangular land lot is bounded by Madison Avenue to the east, 56th Street to the north, and 55th Street to the south. The land lot covers approximately , with a frontage of on Madison Avenue and on both 55th and 56th Streets. The building is on the same city block as the Corning Glass Building to the west. Other nearby buildings include St. Regis New York and 689 Fifth Avenue to the southwest, the Minnie E. Young House to the south, the New York Friars Club and Park Avenue Tower to the east, 432 Park Avenue to the northeast, 590 Madison Avenue to the north, and Trump Tower and the Tiffany & Co. flagship store to the northwest. The site was occupied by a stream before being developed in the 1800s. The current building directly replaced fifteen smaller structures, including several four- and five-story residences dating from the late 19th century, which were converted into commercial stores in the mid-20th century. This stretch of Madison Avenue in Midtown was a prominent retail corridor during the 20th century, but new office buildings were developed on the avenue in the two decades after World War II ended. The current site of 550 Madison Avenue was described by New York magazine as "unusually human" compared to Midtown's other office developments due to the neighborhood's relatively low height. Architecture 550 Madison Avenue was designed by Philip Johnson and John Burgee of Johnson/Burgee Architects. Johnson had been an influential figure in modernist architecture during the late 20th century, having helped design the Seagram Building nearby in the 1950s, but he reverted to more classical motifs for 550 Madison Avenue's design. The building was among Johnson and Burgee's most influential works and, according to the New York City Landmarks Preservation Commission (LPC), is sometimes described as the world's first postmodern skyscraper. Alan Ritchie of Johnson/Burgee was named as design manager, while Simmons Architects was the associate architect. Numerous engineers and contractors were involved in the building's construction. These included structural engineer Leslie E. Robertson of Robertson & Fowler Associates; associate engineer Leroy Callender; foundation engineer Mueser, Rutledge, Johnston & DeSimone; mechanical engineer Cosentini Associates; and interior designer ISD Inc. Frank Briscoe was the construction manager, while William Crow Construction and HRH Construction were the general contractors. There were also several material suppliers. 550 Madison Avenue's original tenant, telecommunications firm AT&T, had requested the building use material sourced only from within the United States. Form The primary portion of the building is the 37-story office tower along Madison Avenue, on the eastern section of the land lot. The tower is tall, as measured from sidewalk level to the highest point of the tower's broken pediment. There are no setbacks. Unlike other postmodernist structures with irregular ground-level plans, 550 Madison Avenue was designed as a rectangle at ground level, similar to older International Style buildings. The tower stories have a footprint measuring . There was also a three- and four-story annex at the western end of the site. At the time of 550 Madison Avenue's construction, there was a lease on the adjacent Corning Glass Building that limited the height of any structures near that building to in height. This restriction included the westernmost lots of the AT&T site, so the roof of the annex was exactly 60 feet tall. Following an early-2020s renovation, the annex was demolished and replaced with a single-story annex. Facade 550 Madison's articulation is inspired by that of classical buildings, with three horizontal sections similar to the components of a column: a base, shaft, and capital. The facade is clad with 60,000 pieces of roughly textured pink Stony Creek granite, weighing up to apiece, supplied by Castellucci & Sons from its Connecticut quarry. More than of granite is used, representing over of the material. The stonework cost $25 million in total and required an additional of steel to support it. Varying reasons are given for the use of granite. Johnson considered pink granite as "simply the best" type of stone, and Ritchie said the Stony Creek pink granite had "more character" than granite from other sources. Burgee said the pink color was chosen to contrast with 590 Madison Avenue, the gray-green granite structure built simultaneously by IBM to the north. The granite facade helped to reduce energy consumption compared to the glass curtain walls used on many of the city's contemporary skyscrapers. , during the building's renovation, it received an "A" grade on a citywide energy-efficiency ranking system. About one-third of the facade is clad in glass. When the plans were announced in 1978, Johnson claimed that the glass on the facade would make 550 Madison Avenue the city's "most energy-efficient structure". The windows are recessed into granite surrounds that are up to deep. The architects had wanted deeper windows, but the high cost of the granite made this infeasible. Additionally, the round mullions of the original design were given a more rectangular shape, and the window arrangement was dictated by the interior use. The building also includes more than 1,000 pieces of brass manufactured by the Chicago Extruded Metals Company. Base The main entrance is on Madison Avenue and consists of an archway measuring high by wide, with a recess deep. Within the archway is a arched window, topped by a circular oculus with a radius. Both windows have glazed glass panels and vertical and horizontal bronze mullions. These windows are surrounded by stonework with rhombus tiles. The side walls of the arch have smaller round arches and rectangular stonework, while the top of the arch contains recessed rectangular lights. According to architectural writer Paul Goldberger, the arch may have been influenced by the Basilica of Sant'Andrea, Mantua. AT&T said the arch was supposed to make the building appear dominant and give it "a sense of dignity". To the left and right of the main entrance arch are three flat-arched openings, measuring tall by wide, with voussoirs at their tops. Originally, 550 Madison Avenue had an open-air arcade north and south of the central archway, extending west to the public atrium behind the building. The arcade, conceived as a 100-foot-high space, was downsized to 60 feet "for reasons of scale". The presence of the arcade allowed for what Johnson described as "a more monumental building" with more floor area. There are 45 granite columns within the arcade, weighing apiece. The granite columns, which encase the building's steel frame, are designed to resemble load-bearing columns; they use thicker stone to represent solidity, and they have notches to represent depth. There was no retail space on the Madison Avenue front because, according to critic Nory Miller, "AT&T didn't want a front door sandwiched between a drug store and a lingerie shop." After the AT&T Building's opening, the arcade gained a reputation for being inhospitable, dark, and windy. Following a renovation in the 1990s, the arcade was enclosed with recessed display windows with grids of bronze mullions. When the windows were replaced in the early 2020s, transparent mullions were added. At the extreme ends on Madison Avenue are single-story flat arches surmounted by flagpoles. These lead to recessed passages along 55th and 56th Streets, which act as an extension of the sidewalks on these streets. There are multicolored granite pavement tiles within these passages. The 55th and 56th Street elevations of the facade contain flat arches measuring tall, supported by granite-clad piers at regular intervals. Just above each flat arch is a circular opening with canted profiles, atop which are four vertically aligned rectangular openings. The circular openings were carved in false perspective, making the arcades on either side appear deeper than they actually were. The granite wall of the original annex on 55th Street was windowless and had three garage doors. The granite wall on 56th Street had a tall window bay, a garage door, and a cornice. Shaft On all elevations of the facade, the intermediate stories are divided vertically into several bays, each of which has one single-pane window on each floor. The Madison Avenue (eastern) and western elevations of the facade are identical to each other, as are the 55th and 56th Street elevations. The west and east facades are divided into nine bays each. The center bay is eight windows wide, with three sets of four windows on either side, as well as a wide single window at the extreme north and south ends. Granite spandrel panels separate the windows on different stories, except at the executive offices in the top three stories, which contained bays with glazed curtain walls. The north and south facades are divided into six bays each, separated by granite piers. There are joints, or gaps, where the panels meet. The panels are further divided by shallower false joints, which resemble the real joints. The granite panels are typically thick, while the mullions are square. The granite panels are extremely heavy, with many panels weighing over , so they could not be hung onto the steel frame as with typical skyscrapers. Leslie Robertson determined that each granite panel had to be anchored individually to the steel frame, and the mounting apparatus had to be strong enough to support the weight of two panels. Pediment At the roof is a broken pediment, consisting of a gable that faces west toward Fifth Avenue and east of the Madison Avenue. The center of the pediment features a circular opening that extends the width of the roof. The opening measures across. Within the opening are ribbed slats, which contain vents for the building's HVAC system; according to Johnson, the vents were supposed to create steam puffs when there was a certain amount of moisture in the air. The remainder of the gable is trimmed with a stone coping. The granite slabs are suspended from a steel parapet. The pediment, inspired by classical designs, was included to unify the symmetrical facades. Johnson may have also been inspired by his dissatisfaction with the Citigroup Center's sloped roof, visible from his own office in the Seagram Building. Johnson/Burgee wanted to make the roof recognizable upon the skyline, and they decided upon a pediment because it was well suited for the narrow tower. During the design process, Johnson/Burgee had considered various ornamental designs before deciding on the circular notch. One of the previous buildings on the site, the Delman Building at 558 Madison Avenue, had a similar broken pediment, although Johnson denied claims it influenced 550 Madison Avenue's rooftop. Instead, Johnson claimed to have been inspired by Al-Khazneh in the Jordanian city of Petra. Features 550 Madison Avenue has a gross floor area of . The superstructure is composed of steel tubes, except at the base, where shear walls connect the sky lobby and foundation. The steel beams were constructed by Bethlehem Steel. The colonnade at the base was insufficient to protect against wind shearing. As a result, the core of the tower contains two concrete and steel "shear tubes", each measuring . In addition to its 37 above-ground stories, the building is designed with three basements. One of these basement levels contained a 45-spot parking garage, originally meant for AT&T board members, as well as vehicular elevators for delivery trucks. Lobbies The building's main lobby is just inside the large arch on Madison Avenue. The lobby measures and originally contained a floor made of black-and-white marble, as well as walls made of granite. The floor pattern was inspired by the designs of British architect Edwin Lutyens. The lobby's ceiling was a groin vault. One wall of the main lobby contained an arcade with Byzantine-inspired column capitals, behind which was an elevator lobby with bronze elevator doors. After a 2020s renovation, the lobby was redesigned with large windows at its western end, as well as decorative materials like terrazzo, leather, and bronze mesh. The terrazzo floors incorporate some of the original marble flooring. The lowest portions of the lobby wall are decorated with the mesh, while the rest of the walls are covered in white marble. Solid Sky, a spherical blue sculpture by Alicja Kwade, hangs in the lobby. Spirit of Communication (also Golden Boy), a bronze statue, was relocated to 550 Madison Avenue's main lobby in 1983. Created by Evelyn Beatrice Longman in 1916, it had stood atop AT&T's previous headquarters at 195 Broadway until 1981. The statue depicts a 24-foot-tall (7.3 m) winged male figure on top of a globe, wrapped by cables, clutching bolts of electricity in his left hand. The statue was repainted in gold leaf when it was relocated to 550 Madison Avenue. The statue was placed on a pedestal inside the lobby, with the circular window atop the main entrance arch seeming to form a halo above the statue. It was relocated to AT&T's Basking Ridge, New Jersey, facility in 1992. From the main lobby, elevators led to a sky lobby on the seventh floor, above ground level. The sky lobby was clad with veined Breccia Strazzema marble. The building's security checkpoints were originally in the sky lobby, which, as designed, was sparsely decorated. Between 1992 and 1994, after multimedia conglomerate Sony acquired the building, Dorothea Rockburne was hired to paint two abstract frescoes, and Gwathmey Siegel redesigned the lobby with wooden paneling and black glass. The frescoes, titled "Northern Sky" and "Southern Sky", measure and consist of red and yellow patterns with spheres. When the building was renovated in the 2020s, the Rockwell Group converted the sky lobby into an amenity space. The amenity spaces include a central lounge flanked by Rockburne's paintings, as well as four conference rooms, a small cafe, library, hearth room, pool room, screening room, and fitness center. Atrium and annex Between the annex to the west and the main tower to the east was an atrium measuring wide by tall. The public atrium between the annex and the tower was originally covered by a metal and glass roof, the ceiling of which was a half-barrel vault (shaped as a quarter-circle). The atrium directly faced that of the IBM Building at 590 Madison Avenue, and the presence of 550 Madison Avenue's atrium allowed additional floor area in the building. According to Burgee, he wanted the atrium to have a distinct identity from the office tower. The atrium, designed as an open-air pedestrian pathway, was enclosed in the 1990s when Sony moved to the building. A large television screen was installed with this renovation. In the early 2020s, a new garden called 550 Madison Garden was constructed within the atrium. The garden contains shrubs, trees, bulbs, and perennial plants and is split into several sections. The space is open every day between 7 a.m. and 11 p.m. It is covered by a metal-and-glass canopy, which collects of rainwater every year. The garden's greenery extends onto the roof of the rebuilt annex to the west. The atrium also includes a waterfall, seating areas, and circular floor pavers that demarcate various parts of the space. The design details include poetry inscribed on the pavers, as well as a "steam pit" that is heated during the winter. The parking garage and truck elevators were in the annex, with a ramp to the garage from 56th Street and the elevators from 55th Street. The annex had its own lobby near 56th Street. There was also retail space within the original annex, facing the western wall of the atrium. Infoquest, an AT&T technology exhibit, was initially housed in the annex; it opened in 1986 and operated until about 1993. The annex became the Sony Wonder Technology Lab museum in 1994; it was open on Tuesdays through Saturdays, and Sony described the free exhibits as a "technology and entertainment museum for all ages". Office spaces The office stories cover the fifth through thirty-third stories. 550 Madison Avenue's height is equivalent to that of a 60-story building with ceilings, but the building has higher ceilings and thus fewer stories. At 550 Madison Avenue, ceilings were typically high, and executive suites had ceilings of . At the time, computer hardware required taller ceilings than was usual. As originally designed, the acoustic ceiling panels had air conditioning vents and minimal ceiling lighting, as each worker's desk had task lighting. In addition to offices, the building included a two-story auditorium at the fifth and sixth stories, as well as a CCTV studio at the eighth story. The office stories were generally less ornately decorated than the lobbies, but the executive offices on the thirty-third and thirty-fourth floors had elaborate wood paneling. AT&T had requested that the highest-quality materials be used, although escalating costs during construction led to the substitution of cheaper material in some places. The acoustic ceilings were manufactured by the Industrial Acoustics Company, which fabricated of perforated steel panels clad with vinyl. In addition, AT&T bought $5.5 million worth of honey-colored Burmese teak furnishings such as paneling, trim, and doors from L. Vaughn Company, which hired 75 workers to supply the rare wood. The decorative materials used in the building included Burmese teak document cabinets, Turkish onyx elevator panels, Chinese silk in the employee dining room, and Italian leather in the executive dining room. Italian marble was used for the executive staircases. After Sony moved into the building in 1992, Gwathmey Siegel renovated the interior with additional staircases, as well as doors topped with glass panels. The offices were refitted with sound systems and Sony videocassette recorder systems. The spaces were generally more flexible than under AT&T's occupancy, as they were meant to accommodate record and movie production. A conference center for Sony was also installed on the twenty-eighth floor. The AT&T executive offices on the thirty-fifth floor were retained, and an executives' dining club called the Sony Club was opened within the space. History AT&T was established in 1885 and had been headquartered at 195 Broadway in Lower Manhattan since 1916. In the subsequent decades, AT&T became the world's largest telephone company, and maintenance costs on its headquarters had increased significantly. With its continued growth, AT&T acquired land for a new facility in Basking Ridge, New Jersey, in 1970, although the company denied that it was fleeing to the suburbs. John D. deButts, who became AT&T's CEO in 1972, also wished to construct a new Midtown headquarters as a monument to the company and to boost his own name recognition. The 195 Broadway headquarters had a capacity of only 2,000 workers, but AT&T had 5,800 headquarters workers by the mid-1970s, most of them in New Jersey. Development Site acquisition AT&T began looking for a Midtown site in the early 1970s, hiring James D. Landauer Associates to assist with site selection. It wished to build a site near Grand Central Terminal but eschewed Park Avenue as being too prominent. The western blockfront of Madison Avenue between 56th and 57th Streets was being acquired by IBM, which refused to give up its lot to AT&T. On the block immediately to the south, Stanley Stahl had paid $12 million since 1970 for a lot of . On Stahl's block, AT&T acquired seven buildings in late 1974, followed by two adjacent buildings to the west in 1975, the latter of which were acquired in anticipation of AT&T being allowed to construct extra space. Stanley W. Smith, president of the 195 Broadway Corporation, paid Stahl $18 million for his assemblage in October 1975. The land value appreciated significantly in the following years; by 1982, Stahl's plot alone was worth $70 million. To save time and limit inflation-related costs, AT&T awarded some construction contracts before certain design details were finalized. Demolition permits for the site had been approved by 1976, but, because of subsequent delays, a park or a temporary taxpayer building were considered for the site. The Alpine Wrecking Corporation was hired to dismantle the existing structures. The company removed non-load-bearing walls, salvaged recyclable materials, demolished the structures' upper stories by hand, and finally used machinery to destroy the lower stories. The two buildings nearest the Corning Glass Building were temporarily preserved to allow that building's fire code rating to be retained. Planning and design Around 1977, a committee of three AT&T officials and three officials from Smith's offices mailed questionnaires to twenty-five architects or design firms which the executives deemed "highly qualified". Thirteen of the recipients responded. Johnson and Burgee recalled that they set aside the questionnaire until AT&T called them two weeks afterward. Smith visited eight candidates and picked three finalists: Johnson/Burgee, Roche-Dinkeloo, and Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum. The three finalists were to give presentations to the committee and high ranking officials. Johnson recalled that he did not have an elaborate presentation but instead brought photographs of his past work and came with Burgee. According to AT&T officials, "there was no close second" candidate; Smith subsequently recalled that Johnson/Burgee were open to different design ideas. On June 17, 1977, the day after the presentations, The New York Times reported that AT&T had hired Johnson/Burgee to design a 37-story headquarters on the site. Johnson was quoted as saying that he wanted the new headquarters to be a "landmark" representing the company. The Wall Street Journal reported shortly afterward that Johnson was conducting a "feasibility study" for the headquarters. AT&T mandated that Johnson/Burgee select an associate architect as per the provisions of the Equal Employment Opportunity Act of 1972. Harry Simmons Jr., head of a small African American firm, was selected out of seven interviewees from a field of 28 candidates. Simmons's firm was tasked with designing twenty percent of the overall architectural detail. According to design manager Alan Ritchie, DeButts explained "what he wanted in broad terms" but gave wide latitude to the final design. Johnson and Burgee examined various structures, such as the entries to the Tribune Tower design competition, for inspiration. Judith Grinberg created a sketch of the AT&T Building's facade "to interpret [Johnson's] design intent"; the sketch was sold to London's Victoria and Albert Museum in 2010. In addition, Howard W. Swenson created numerous styrofoam models for the building and helped to refine the design details. The New York City Department of Buildings received blueprints for the new headquarters in January 1978. A Times editorial that month praised the AT&T project, as well as the neighboring IBM development at 590 Madison Avenue, as a "declaration of corporate commitment" to New York City, which had then recently rebounded from its fiscal crisis. AT&T announced its official plans on March 30, 1978, in front of New York City Hall. A rendering of the headquarters was shown on the front page of the next day's Times. Mayor Ed Koch described the project as "a strong vote of confidence" in the city's future, and the news media characterized it as part of a trend of midtown revitalization. AT&T initially expected construction to begin in late 1978 and be complete by 1982 at an estimated cost of $60 million. The design, particularly the broken pediment, received widespread media attention, prompting AT&T to reexamine the plan in detail before deciding to proceed without modifications. In late 1978, the project received several floors' worth of zoning "bonuses" and exemption from setback regulations, in exchange for public space, a three-story communications museum, and a covered arcade on Madison Avenue. The next month, Johnson decided to use Stony Creek pink granite on the AT&T Building's facade. Construction Construction started in December 1978 when workers started excavating foundations; the same month, AT&T received a $20 million tax abatement on the construction cost. The foundation excavation cost $3.1 million and largely consisted of blasting into the underlying bedrock. The detonations used about of Tovex gel. The underlying rock layer was made of mica schist, the composition of which was unpredictable if detonated, so about 8,000 small blasts were used to excavate the foundation. The resulting hole was deep. Excavations were ongoing in February 1979 when deButts was replaced by Charles L. Brown as AT&T CEO. Brown, who was less enthusiastic about a grand headquarters than deButts had been, sought a review of the project, but construction continued nonetheless. Faced with rising construction costs, the architects had to substitute cheaper materials; for example, granite in the elevator cabs was replaced with wood. The construction of the superstructure commenced in March 1980. Before installing the steel beams, workers assembled the shear tubes at the building's core, along with the 50-ton granite columns that supported the base. Since the steelwork began above the sky lobby on top of the base, workers climbed through the shear tubes to complete the sky lobby before installed the steel crane. At the same time, the IBM Building was under construction on 56th Street, limiting access there. Shortly after work started, Local 282—the union whose workers were constructing the building—threatened to strike because of claims that black workers were "invading" job sites. This prompted IBM to hire two additional foremen. In December 1980, Paul Goldberger wrote for The New York Times that "the arch is beginning to take shape". At its peak, the project's three foremen had to balance the requests of about "three dozen powerful prime contractors and 150 subcontractors and suppliers", according to Inc magazine. Workers from more than 70 trades were involved in the construction of the building. The cladding was erected starting in September 1981, several months behind schedule. The workings were so complex that even the facade cladding required the involvement of members of four construction unions. The building topped out on November 18, 1981. Contractors made some mistakes because of the accelerated construction schedule; for instance, electrical ducts had to be carved into the concrete floors after they were built. By late 1982, the work was one year late and $40 million over budget. Completion and early years Throughout nearly the entire development process, AT&T faced an antitrust lawsuit from the United States Department of Justice. The parties reached an agreement in January 1982, with AT&T consenting to divest its Bell System effective January 1, 1984. Shortly after this agreement, AT&T decided to lease out on the 7th through 25th floors, comprising nearly half of the building's space. AT&T wanted to rent out the space for as much as , but few companies were willing to sign a lease. The company had expected to relocate as many as 1,500 employees, but the impending divestiture meant it only needed to move 600 employees into 550 Madison Avenue. In early 1983, AT&T reneged on its rental proposal after city government officials warned AT&T officials that the building's tax exemption could be canceled if AT&T were to receive rental income. The first occupants moved to their offices on July 29, 1983, and the Spirit of Communication statue was dedicated two months later, with full occupancy expected by the time of the Bell System divestiture at the end of the year. Only three of the office stories were occupied by late 1983. With the Bell System divestiture, about 1,200 employees were moved from 195 Broadway to 550 Madison Avenue by January 1984. That month, AT&T's longtime advertising agency, N. W. Ayer & Son, displayed a large welcome message from its own offices nearby. New York magazine reported in February 1984 that the executive offices were not occupied and that full completion was not expected until that May. The completion of 550 Madison Avenue took place sometime in 1984 but was overlooked by the media, which instead publicized the divestiture. The building ultimately cost $200 million, a rate of about , although New York placed the cost as high as $220 million. Despite the high cost of construction, the Bell System divestiture meant that AT&T never fully occupied 550 Madison Avenue. In early 1984, AT&T officials said that, rather than constructing a museum in the annex for bonus zoning, they planned to use the annex for a showroom. The change of plan came following the Bell divestiture and the reduced presence it expected to have at the building. After the city firmly opposed the move, AT&T agreed to construct a three-story exhibition space within the annex. In exchange, AT&T was granted a $42 million, ten-year tax abatement that August. The museum, which was named Infoquest Center, opened in May 1986. That September, AT&T announced it planned to move up to 1,000 of its 1,300 employees to Basking Ridge, placing at least 600,000 square feet on the market. The company was reconsidering leasing out its Madison Avenue headquarters by early 1987. After Koch threatened to rescind the entire tax abatement, AT&T agreed to limit the relocation to 778 employees. The fine dining restaurant The Quilted Giraffe relocated to the building in June 1987. Sony ownership Having substantially decreased in size, AT&T sought to sublet 80 percent of the space at 550 Madison Avenue in January 1991. At the time, AT&T wanted to move most employees to a cheaper space. AT&T had signed a tentative 20-year lease with Sony by that May, although neither company confirmed the rumor at the time. Sony signed a 20-year lease agreement for the entire building that July, including an option to purchase 550 Madison Avenue. AT&T also forfeited $14.5 million of tax abatements to the city government, equivalent to the taxes forgiven since 1987. The refunded tax abatements were used to fund programs at the financially distressed City University of New York for the 1991–1992 academic year. AT&T relocated its headquarters to 32 Avenue of the Americas, its long-distance telephone building in Lower Manhattan, and removed the Spirit of Communication statue. With the sale of the building, Burgee commented, "The period of making image buildings for companies appears to be over." Renovation After Sony leased the building, it became known as the Sony Tower. In early 1992, Gwathmey Siegel designed a renovation of the base, with Philip Johnson as consultant. The arcade space was to be converted into retail space; in exchange, the atrium was to be expanded with new planters and public seating. Edwin Schlossberg was hired to design the new storefronts and redesign the annex. Sony expected that of the arcade could be converted into stores at a rate of . According to Sony, the arcades were "dark, windy and noisy", and a conversion to commercial space would provide "retail continuity" with the remainder of Madison Avenue. Johnson was not overly concerned about the closure of the arcade, saying, "It isn't that my ideas have changed. The period has changed." The plan did face some opposition: the original associate architect Harry Simmons Jr. said that a "valued and useful space" would be razed, while Joseph B. Rose of the local Manhattan Community Board 5 said it would create "a dangerous precedent" for converting public plazas to commercial space. Conversely, David W. Dunlap of The New York Times said the changes were "unquestionably an improvement" both aesthetically and functionally. The New York City Planning Commission had to review and approve the proposal. While the plans resulted in a net loss in public space, they also increased the overall zoning bonus. The commission approved slightly modified plans in September 1992, which retained small portions of the arcade. Sony bought out the Quilted Giraffe's lease, and the restaurant closed at the end of 1992. The Sony Tower was renovated between 1992 and 1994. Windows with bronze gridded frames were installed to close off the atrium, which became Sony stores, and the annex was converted into the Sony Wonder technology museum. The annex was completely gutted because, under guidelines set by the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990, the existing ramps and passageways were too steep. Inside, Dorothea Rockburne was commissioned to paint two fresco murals for the formerly bare sky lobby, and additional staircases, conference centers, and offices were installed on the office stories. Barry Wine, founder of the Quilted Giraffe, was hired as the chef for the building's private dining club. Use The new atrium and retail spaces, known as Sony Plaza, were completed in 1994, and the Sony Wonder museum opened in the annex that May. The company name was prominently displayed in Sony Plaza: its logo was emblazoned on the jackets of the atrium's security guards, and banners with Sony's name were displayed. In its first year, the converted Sony retail space at ground level generated less profit than expected, prompting Sony Plaza Inc. to hire a new general manager in 1995. The atrium was criticized for being inhospitable to the homeless, as private security guards patrolled the space. Sony leased four stories at 555 Madison Avenue immediately to the east in February 1995. By the following year, Sony was renovating its space within 555 Madison Avenue; the company installed fiber-optic cables under Madison Avenue to connect its two buildings, and it installed microwave communications equipment atop 555 Madison Avenue. Sony had consolidated most of the operations for its Sony Music Entertainment division at the Sony Tower on 550 Madison Avenue, for which The New York Times noted that "such high-profile and elaborate space is appropriate and necessary." This was part of a move to consolidate Sony's United States operations away from the Sony Corporation of America, which had overseen Sony Pictures and Sony Music, and give more control over the United States operations to executives in Japan. It was described by The Wall Street Journal as indicative of "a long-term commitment to the area". In 2002, Sony exercised its option to purchase the building from the cash-strapped AT&T for $236 million, or —a relatively low rate given the building's location in Midtown Manhattan. Two years later, Sony contemplated selling the building once its merger with Bertelsmann was completed. Part of the Sony Wonder museum was renovated in 2008 and reopened the following year. An accumulation of ice dislodged from an upper floor after a February 2010 blizzard, breaking the atrium's glass ceiling and injuring several inside. Redevelopment Chetrit purchase By 2012, Sony sought to sell off the Sony Tower, as the company perceived that the costs of keeping its American headquarters in Midtown were too high. Potential buyers started submitting bids for the Sony Tower in December 2012. Sony received over 20 bids, including from Joseph Sitt's Thor Equities, Mitsui Fudosan, and a partnership led by the Brunei Investment Agency. All of the bids included converting at least part of the space to hotel or condominium use. In January 2013, Sony announced it was to sell the building to Joseph Chetrit's Chetrit Group for $1.1 billion, leasing back its offices there. Shortly afterward, Sony filed eviction proceedings against Joseph Allaham, a longtime tenant and Chetrit's friend, who operated a pizzeria and a restaurant in the base. Allaham ultimately decided to relocate his restaurant and retain his pizzeria. The Chetrit Group planned to convert the Sony Tower into condominiums and the first Oetker Collection hotel in the United States. In February 2015, the developers filed a condominium offering that called for 96 residences, which were to be sold at a combined total of $1.8 billion. The offering included what was then considered Manhattan's most expensive residence, a three-story penthouse in the upper stories costing $150 million. Dorothea Rockburne expressed concern that the developers would not adequately preserve two of her frescoes in the sky lobby, which was set to be converted into the hotel's lobby. Sony permanently closed the Sony Wonder Technology Lab in January 2016. Over the following months, Sony moved its headquarters and stores south to 11 Madison Avenue. Olayan redevelopment Following a declining real estate market in the 2010s, Chetrit abandoned its condominium conversion plan. Chetrit sold the building to Olayan Group in April 2016 for $1.4 billion, relinquishing the "Sony Tower" name. Olayan and Chelsfield announced plans to rebrand 550 Madison Avenue and reconfigure the existing space, which was then empty besides Allaham's pizzeria. A group of banks including ING Group, Bank of East Asia, Crédit Agricole, Société Générale, and Natixis provided $570 million in financing to facilitate the redevelopment. The pizzeria closed in September 2017. In late October 2017, the Olayan Group announced plans to renovate the building with designs by Snøhetta. The firm planned to add a glass curtain wall along the base on Madison Avenue, as well as demolish the arcade and annex on the western end of the site, replacing it with a garden. The renovation was anticipated to cost $300 million and raise rents at the building to between $115 and $210 per square foot, some of the highest office rents in New York City. Several architecture critics, architects, and artists voiced their opposition to the plans, and a November protest and petition drew media coverage. Shortly afterward, the LPC voted to calendar the building for consideration as a landmark. Though there were efforts to preserve the significant interiors, demolition of the building's original ground floor lobby began in January 2018. The LPC determined that the lobby's design had changed significantly when Spirit of Communication was removed and the arcades were enclosed, making the space ineligible for interior landmark status. By February, the original lobby had been demolished. On July 31, 2018, the LPC voted unanimously to designate the exterior as a New York City landmark; the commission stated that the building was among the "most important postmodernist buildings" worldwide. Filmmaker and cultural heritage activist Nathan Eddy, who petitioned to preserve the original status, described the designation as "an astonishing and marvelous victory". After the landmark designation, plans for the lobbies were modified so the western end of the ground-floor lobby faced the atrium, and Rockburne's frescoes were to be mounted on the sky lobby. The LPC approved the updated plans in February 2019. The original plan to demolish the annex and atrium was also scrapped. In Snøhetta's updated plan, the atrium was to be planted with greenery and connected to 717 Fifth Avenue, and the atrium's roof and the annex were to be replaced. The New York City Planning Commission approved the modified design for the plaza in January 2020. Olayan executive Erik Horvat said the renovation would help 550 Madison "compete against Hudson Yards, One Vanderbilt and the best buildings in the city". The new lobby was completed in October 2021, at which point 550 Madison Avenue was 45 percent leased. The Chubb Group leased ten floors the next month, becoming the first confirmed tenant within the renovated building. Other major tenants included luxury fashion retailer Hermès, which leased three stories, and private equity company Clayton, Dubilier & Rice, which leased five stories. The atrium opened in November 2022 with three food stalls. The renovated building, known alternatively as 550 Madison, could accommodate 2,000 employees, twice as many as before the renovation. Restaurateur Simon Kim signed a lease in January 2023 for a three-level restaurant covering . Impact Reception Contemporary commentary The AT&T Building received much publicity from architectural critics from the time plans were announced in March 1978. Paul Goldberger called it "post-modernism's major monument" but felt that the broken pediment "suggests that a joke is being played with scale that, may not be quite so funny when the building [...] is complete". Ada Louise Huxtable described the design as "a monumental demonstration of quixotic aesthetic intelligence rather than art" and dubbed it 1978's "non‐building of the year". Michael Sorkin of The Village Voice dismissively characterized the structure as a "Seagram Building with ears". Architects and members of the public wrote sardonic and disapproving letters about the design. Robert Hughes of Time magazine called it "peculiar rather than radical" but said it gave other designers permission "to build their own monuments of the hybrid" postmodernist style. Much controversy surrounded the roof's broken pediment. Goldberger was the first person to publicly characterize the pediment as "Chippendale", after the British manufacturer's furniture, but said the term had been first used by Arthur Drexler of the Museum of Modern Art, who did not want to be associated with the nickname. The pediment gained more notice elsewhere. Chicago Tribune architecture critic Paul Gapp wrote that the pediment had "made instant history" and incited "a natural uproar", and the Atlanta Constitution quoted various architects who said the design "couldn't possibly succeed" and was "a tragedy" if taken seriously. Conversely, The Baltimore Sun expressed optimism that the design would inspire similar structures in Downtown Baltimore. The cynical response to the initial plans led Johnson to publicly defend his plan in 1978, both in a New York Times op-ed and a speech for the American Institute of Architects. Der Scutt, architect of the neighboring Trump Tower, said in 1981 in response to criticism of 550 and 590 Madison Avenue: "I can't find anything oppressively hideous in IBM or AT&T. What is wrong with 'a showcase of superscale' in a city that prides itself as being culturally ecstatic about skyscrapers?" When 550 Madison Avenue was nearly finished, Goldberger re-appraised it as an important structure architecturally, though he said the completion "threatened to be something of an anticlimax". Ellen Posner of The Wall Street Journal said "It is not at all surprising that some of the original negative votes have been recast as positive". After the building was completed, it was received much more positively than during its construction. Susan Doubliet wrote for Progressive Architecture that the building was "more pleasure to passers-by than anyone would have predicted", but she also stated that "more was expected" of the disorganized design. Art historian Vincent Scully said 550 Madison Avenue "takes charge of the street" and that the pediment "has the effect of making us wonder why we ever allowed people to build skyscrapers with flat tops". Conversely, in a 1987 New York magazine poll of "more than 100 prominent New Yorkers", 550 Madison Avenue was one of the ten most disliked structures in New York City. Huxtable disliked the lobby, which she called "an oddly awkward and unsatisfactory space, distorted by its overreaching height and narrow dimensions". Retrospective commentary Sony's redesign of the building's atrium and arcades in the 1990s received mixed criticism. Some onlookers praised the openness of the atrium and retail spaces; one visitor interviewed by The New York Times likened the changes to a commercial sponsorship of the plaza, saying, "If Sony wants to maintain the space, they're using the commercials to pay for it." Others disapproved of the many references to Sony, including Ruth Messinger, Manhattan's borough president at the time, who perceived the atrium as "overly commercial". Progressive Architecture characterized the atrium as "not so bad" aesthetically but said that Sony's commercial amenities were not necessarily a sufficient tradeoff for public space. After the 2020s renovation, architectural critic Justin Davidson wrote that "the link between structure and detail has been snapped. The original lobby and sky lobby are both gone and, with them, Johnson's sense of lugubrious grandeur." Metropolis magazine said of the redesigned plaza: "Snøhetta has succeeded in doing something far greater than giving one historic building a refresh, providing a promising model for putting the public back into" privately owned public spaces. Architectural significance With ornamental additions such as the pediment and ground-level arch, the building challenged architectural modernism's demand for stark functionalism and purely efficient design. Wolf Von Eckardt wrote for The Washington Post in 1978, "I believe Johnson may well unite contemporary architecture again and lead it out of both the glass box and the concrete sculpture to a new ecumenic gentility." Similarly, critic Reyner Banham thought the building had the potential to reshape architecture in New York City and in the postmodern era. The effect on the public at large has been described as legitimizing the postmodern movement globally. Johnson described the building as "a symbolic shift from the flat top" of International Style skyscrapers like the nearby Lever House. In a conversation with LPC researchers, Burgee said he received numerous letters from younger architects who expressed their gratitude that "the previous rules no longer apply". The design also influenced some of Johnson and Burgee's other works during the 1980s. For his design of the AT&T Building, Johnson received the Bronze Medallion from the city government in 1978. Johnson also received the 1978 Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects, and he was the first architect to receive a Pritzker Architecture Prize in 1979. See also List of New York City Designated Landmarks in Manhattan from 14th to 59th Streets List of tallest buildings in New York City Franklin Center (Chicago), formerly the AT&T Corporate Center Sony Building (Tokyo) References Notes Citations Sources External links 1984 establishments in New York City AT&T buildings John Burgee buildings Madison Avenue Midtown Manhattan Modernist architecture in New York City Office buildings completed in 1984 Philip Johnson buildings Postmodern architecture in New York City Skyscraper office buildings in Manhattan Sony
5184719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrovial	Ferrovial	Ferrovial, S.A. (), previously Grupo Ferrovial, is a Spanish multinational company that operates in the infrastructure sector for transportation and mobility with four divisions: Highways, Airports, Construction, and Mobility and Energy Infrastructure. The Highway sector develops, finances, and operates tolls on highways such as the 407 ETR, the North Tarrant Express, the LBJ Express, Euroscut Azores, I-66, I-77, NTE35W, and Ausol I. The Airports sector operates at Heathrow, Glasgow, Aberdeen, and Southampton. The Construction business designs and carries out public and private works such as roads, highways, airports, and buildings. The Mobility and Energy Infrastructure Department is responsible for managing renewable energy, sustainable mobility, and circular economy projects. Ferrovial is present in more than 20 countries where its business lines operate. In 2021, Ferrovial Services' infrastructure services area in Spain was sold to Portobello and the closing of the sale of its Environmental business in Spain and Portugal was signed in an agreement with PreZero, a Schwarz Group company. History 20th century Ferrovial was founded by Rafael del Pino y Moreno in 1952 as a company focused on railway construction. Its first works consisted of the renovation of tracks for Renfe and operating railroad tie sleeper workshops. It receives its first international project in 1954: a railway project in Venezuela, and in 1956, it renovated the railway between Bilbao and Portugalete. In the 1960's, Ferrovial focused on the road market through the Redia Plan11 and the concession of the Bilbao-Behobia Highway, the first toll road tendered with private financing and management in Spain. The company expanded in the early years of the new millennium by acquiring 58.5% of Polish construction company Budimex Dromex S.A. in April 2000.In 1974, it obtained its second concession in Spain, the Burgos-Armiñón highway, which linked Burgos with Bilbao and the French border of Behobia. The 1970s came to a close with the award of a construction project on 700 kilometers of roads in Libya, and its construction was completed in 1986. In 1985, Ferrovial acquired Cadagua, an engineering and construction company for Water Treatment and Purification Plants established in 1971. It was also awarded construction of the High-Speed Train between Madrid and Seville, as well as numerous infrastructure projects for the 1992 Olympic Games in Barcelona and the World Expo of Seville in 1992. That same year saw the appointment of Rafael del Pino Calvo-Sotelo as CEO, who began a strategic reorganization of the company. In 1995, Ferrovial acquired the construction company Agroman founded in 1927, which it returned to record profits three years later. In 1997, construction began on the Guggenheim Museum of Modern and Contemporary Art in Bilbao, where Ferrovial implemented a pioneering Environmental Management System in the European structure. In 1999, Ferrovial went public and integrated all its construction activity into Ferrovial Agroman. Following the founder's retirement in 2000, his son, Rafael del Pino Calvo-Sotelo, became Chair. That same year, Ferrovial took over Budimex, then the leading Polish construction company in terms of turnover and market capitalization. It was also awarded the Ontario Highway 407 407 ETR concession in Toronto, Canada. 21st century By following the internationalization and diversification strategy, Ferrovial acquired a 20% share in the Sydney Airport in the airport sector in 2002. Similarly, it acquired two urban services companies in 2003: the British company Amey and Spanish company Cespa. The concessionaire Cintra went public in 2004, and in 2005, Ferrovial acquired the handling company Swissport and the Texan construction company Webber. In 2006, the company bought the British airport operator BAA and through this operation, it came to manage seven airports in the United Kingdom: Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted, Glasgow, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, and Southampton, and it took ownership of shares and managing the Budapest Airport in Hungary, the Naples Airport in Italy, and the Melbourne airport in Australia. In 2006, Cintra also obtained the concession for operating the Indiana Toll Road turnpike. and signed an agreement with the Texas Department of Transportation to build and manage Segments 5 and 6 of the SH-130 Turnpike, both of which are in the US. In 2007, Ferrovial sold the Budapest airport, as well as its holdings in the Australian airports in Sydney, Melbourne, Launceston, Perth, and three airports in the Northern Territory. It also started to concentrate its airport business in the UK. That year, Cintra signed a contract for the construction and operation of the Central Greece Toll Highway (E65), and Amey was chosen by Network Rail (the UK's rail infrastructure manager) as one of its three exclusive providers for Britain's National Rail track renovation services. In 2008, the Montabliz viaduct, the highest aqueduct in Spain, was inaugurated and connected Cantabria and the plateau by road. A year later, Cintra was awarded the construction, maintenance, and operation of the North Tarrant Express Highway in Texas in the US. At the end of 2009, the company absorbed the highway management company Cintra; it was awarded maintenance and management of the LBJ Express Texan highway; it changed its corporate name to Ferrovial S.A.; and it sold the Gatwick airport for €1.659 billion, according to the British Competition Commission's indications, which opened a file at the end of 2008 for alleged monopoly. In 2009, the company was reunited under a new logo and brand image, with yellow and white establishing its hallmark. Several designs had been used before then, such as black letters on a yellow background which can still be seen on some old signs. In 2010, Ferrovial made several divestments in accordance with its asset rotation policy, which meant its departure from Swissport. Through BAA, it announced the sale of its stake in Airport Property Partnership and the Naples Airport. Likewise, Ferrovial, sold all its shares in Tube Lines (concessionaire of three London Underground lines) through Amey; signed an agreement for the construction of Heathrow Terminal 2 in London; and sold 60% of Cintra Chile. A year later in 2011, it sold 5.88% of BAA. In addition, it announced the sale of the Edinburgh Airport, per the decision of the British Competition Commission. In that same year, the company was also awarded a new construction section of the Crossrail including Farringdon Station, as part of the project to build a fast railway connection passing through the city of London's underground. It had previously been awarded the construction of two tunnels between Royal Oak and Farringdon and the accesses and bays at the Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road stations. The company closed 2011 with a debt of €5.171 billion, one of the lowest in the sector, and it has one of the most international portfolios. In August 2012, Ferrovial announced the sale of 10.6% of BAA to Qatar Holding for €607 million, retaining a 39.37% stake in the UK airports manager following the deal. In October of the same year, 5.2% of Heathrow Airports Holding was sold for €319.3 million to the firm CIC International. In 2014, the international trading company Ferrovial International was created. It was based in Spain and aimed to combine the company's active concessions, services, and construction abroad to participate in bids and thus be awarded new contracts. That same year, the company reduced its stake in Heathrow Airport by up to 25% after selling the pension fund for universities and other British educational institutions; this was 8.65% of its shares in the parent company. With a contract to build an urban road in Saudi Arabia for €145 million, Ferrovial strengthened its presence in the Middle East. In 2015, it purchased 3 British airports (Aberdeen, Glasgow, and Southampton), for about €1.3 billion; it also strengthened its presence in the United Kingdom, where it was already a leader in services. In addition, the central section of the Thames Tideway Tunnel was awarded in consortium with Laing O'Rourke. In 2016, Ferrovial expanded the 407 ETR in Toronto, Canada. In addition, it signed a contract to manage and renovate the largest and fifth busiest airport in the United States: Denver International Airport. It purchased the waste treatment company Biotran, strengthening its presence in the industrial services market. That same year, and for the fifteenth consecutive year, it appeared on the Dow Jones Sustainability Index (DJSI) and was the only Spanish company in the sector in the global and European index. Moreover, Ferrovial acquired Broadspectrum in May 2016. On June 30, 2018, it closed the sale of this company to Ventia. The company earned €376 million in 2016. Sales increased by 11% to €10.759 billion, and the Gross Operating Income (GOI) amounted to €944 million. At the end of the decade, in 2017, Ferrovial entered the urban mobility business by working with Renault to launch the carsharing operator Zity in Madrid. In 2018, the company launched Wondo, a Mobility as a Service start-up to provide residents access to the main urban mobility services in Madrid. In 2021, it finalized the sale of Wondo to the Finnish company MaaS Global. In the town of El Salado, Colombia, the company delivered a new water system as part of the Social Infrastructures program: an aqueduct that is energetically powered by a solar panel facility, making it unique in the country. To spread the word about this project, the company worked with local artists to release a graphic novel as part of the campaign "Water for peace." Ignacio Madridejos was appointed as the new CEO of the company in 2019. The sale of Broad spectrum to Ventia for €303 million of Equity Value was also announced. The RiverLinx consortium, which Ferrovial participates in, was chosen to manage the Silvertown Tunnel in London. The start of the new '20s were marked by the fight against COVID-19. The company established the "Ferrovial Together COVID-19" fund, through which it donated €8.7 million to fight the pandemic through social, health-related, and research spheres. In October 2021, Ferrovial launched its new Energy Infrastructure and Mobility business unit. That year, the divestment of the Services business unit also began with the sale of its Environmental business in Spain and Portugal to PreZero. The company was awarded the construction of a section of the Sydney Metro for €1.240 billion. In the field of innovation, Ferrovial launched the AIVIA initiative for developing the 5G roads of the future; it renewed its agreement with MIT for another five years and with Lilium for developing a network of more than 10 vertiports in the United States. In April 2023, the company announced that it was moving its headquarters from Madrid to Amsterdam. Business Lines Ferrovial operates through four divisions:Highways''' Through its subsidiary Cintra, Ferrovial is dedicated to the promotion and management of more than 20 highways with over 1,500 kilometers in 9 countries. In Spain, it operates the Autema highway concession, A66, and the Autopista del Sol (E15), as well as the SerranoPark car park in Madrid. In Portugal, it owns a share in the Scut Açores highway. In Canada and the United States, it operates highways under a barrier-free toll system, including the 407 ETR, the 407 East Phase 2, and the 407 EDG highways (Toronto), the LBJ Expressway, the North Tarrant Express and NTE Extension (Dallas), and I-77 (North Carolina). In European countries, Ferrovial has a share in the M3 and M4 highways in Ireland, and it's carrying out the M8 improvement project in Scotland. In 2015, the group increased its profit by 80% to €720 million, following the sale and deconsolidation of highways. Airports Ferrovial's first foray into private airport management was with the purchase of a share in the Mexican company Aeropuertos del Sureste in 1998. Since then, Ferrovial has managed different airports around the world. With the acquisition of BAA in 2006, now called Heathrow Airport Holdings (HAH), it went on to manage seven airports in the United Kingdom: Heathrow, Gatwick, Stansted, Southampton, Aberdeen, Glasgow and Edinburgh. It also acquired two airports in Europe in Naples and Budapest, which it would later sell. Following the British Competition Commission's decision, Ferrovial sold Gatwick Airport in 2009, announced the sale of Edinburgh Airport in April 2012, and put the Stansted airport up for sale in August of the same year. Ferrovial currently operates four airports in the United Kingdom: Heathrow, Southampton, Glasgow, and Aberdeen. At the beginning of 2021, Ferrovial Airports announced its foray into the urban air mobility (UAM) and advanced air mobility (AAM) business through the construction and design of vertiports, the infrastructures needed by eVTOLs. Currently, Ferrovial has announced its plans for the development of vertiport networks in Spain, the United Kingdom, and the United States. In 2022, Ferrovial Airports reached an agreement with the Turkish infrastructure company YDA Group for the acquisition of a 60% stake in the company that manages the concession of Dalaman International Airport in Turkey. Construction The company's construction division, which was called Ferrovial Agroman until 2020, is now Ferrovial Construction, and has been involved in the following major projects: the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao in Spain completed in 1997 Terminal 4 at Madrid–Barajas Airport in Spain, completed in 2006 Marqués de Riscal Hotel in Spain, completed in 2006 CaixaForum Madrid in Spain, completed in 2007 Viaducto de Montabliz in Spain, completed in 2008 M3 motorway in Ireland, completed in 2010 Málaga Airport Terminal 3 in Spain, completed in 2010 SCUT Azores Highway in the Azores, completed in 2011 Heathrow T2A Terminal in England, completed in 2014 Farringdon Station in the United Kingdom, completed in 2018 Construction subsidiaries Webber in the USA Budimex in Poland Cadagua Mobility and Energy Infrastructure Ferrovial Mobility and Energy Infrastructures promote the transition to a sustainable and clean economy and are involved in projects such as offshore wind farms. Services In 2021, Ferrovial Services' infrastructure services area in Spain was sold to Portobello, and it came to an agreement with PreZero, a Schwarz Group company, on closing the sale of its Environmental business in Spain and Portugal. This division was in charge of the maintenance and conservation of infrastructures and services, as well as managing urban and environmental services. It has the following international subsidiaries: Broadspectrum in Australia and New Zealand was acquired in May 2016; it is dedicated to services in the area of transportation, urban infrastructure, natural resources, and provisions for public administrations. Amey in the United Kingdom engaged in infrastructure maintenance and facility and waste management. The British subsidiary will manage 370 kilometers of highways in the United Kingdom. Steel Ferrovial Services provides mining services in Chile. Sustainability Ferrovial has been recognized by global entities for its sustainable practices. Dow Jones: Since 2002, it has been listed on the index of the most sustainable companies in the world. FTSE4Good: Ferrovial has been on the FTSE4Good Global Index since 2004. Carbon Disclosure Project: ranked among the companies with the best practices in reducing carbon emissions. MSCI Global Sustainability Index: "A" rating. Through the analysis carried out by its research department, MSCI Research, it uses information to make investments with sustainable criteria. GRESB: rating of 87 out of 100. We're also part of the GLIO/GRESB ESG Index. Criticism The Palau Case As part of the Palau Case investigation, Anti-Corruption discovered "sufficient evidence” of Ferrovial Agroman paying illicit commissions to the Democratic Convergence of Catalonia (CDC) party through the Palau de la Música Catalana to ensure that public works such as the City of Justice and the unfinished line 9 of the Barcelona Metro station would be awarded to them. On January 15, 2018, the Provincial Court of Barcelona issued a judgment in the Palau Case, acquitting the two executives related to Ferrovial Agroman. The prosecution appealed that acquittal, but the appeal was dismissed by the Supreme Court. References External links Official website Official website Spanish brands Real estate companies of Spain Multinational companies headquartered in Spain Companies based in Madrid Conglomerate companies of Spain Construction and civil engineering companies established in 1952 IBEX 35 Companies listed on the Madrid Stock Exchange Spanish companies established in 1952
5185171	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevin%20Mitchell%20%28musician%29	Kevin Mitchell (musician)	Kevin Edward Mitchell (born 1 October 1977), also known by the stage name of Bob Evans, is an Australian singer-songwriter; Mitchell uses the name for his primary solo project. He is also the founding lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist of the alternative rock band Jebediah, which was formed in 1994 and features his older brother Brett Mitchell, who joined on drums before the group's first performance. Jebediah released five studio albums between 1997 and 2011, the first three of which entered the top ten on the ARIA Albums Chart. Mitchell commenced performing as a folk pop artist under the name "Bob Evans" in 1999 to showcase "quieter" songs that were influenced by music that was different from the primary sound of Jebediah, and he deliberately chose a stage name that would distinguish him from his band. His most successful solo album Suburban Songbook, which was released on 10 June 2006, peaked at No. 15, and his next two solo albums Goodnight, Bull Creek! (3 April 2009) and Familiar Stranger (15 March 2013) reached the top 40. He released Car Boot Sale in 2016 and Tomorrowland in 2021. As of October 2023, Mitchell has released seven Bob Evans studio albums, and he launched the Good Evans, It's A Bobcast! podcast in May 2016. Biography Early life Mitchell was born on 1 October 1977. From the age of five to 18 years, he grew up in the outer Perth suburb of Bull Creek. His older brother, Brett, is a musician who played in various Perth-based groups, and both of his parents migrated from England. Mitchell's third studio album, Goodnight, Bull Creek! (3 April 2009) references his hometown, and Mitchell provided the following description at the time: "It's a very ordinary, plain little suburb with a primary school and a shopping centre and a BMX track." Mitchell attended Bull Creek Primary School, where he played Australian rules football, and he also attended dance classes during his early adolescence. It was while he was engaged in theatre classes at Leeming Senior High School that he met Jebediah's lead guitarist Chris Daymond. Following Mitchell's successful completion of the Tertiary Entrance Examination (TEE), he commenced an undergraduate degree at a Western Australian university. After the first year he decided to forgo his course, and as a member of Jebediah, he signed a record deal in 1996. In May 2009, Mitchell revealed that he experienced depression for a brief period at the age of 16 years. The condition then reappeared in 2007, and he explained: I was feeling down with myself. The only time I had ever suffered depression was as a teenager when I was at school and here I was, 31 years old, and the last thing I ever thought was that those feelings would come back. I was confused and angry about it, thinking, "This is ridiculous, I'm an adult for Christ's sake", admonishing myself. The experience eventually inspired the track "Pasha Bulker" on Goodnight Bull Creek. In a series of three blog posts for TheMusic.com.au website, published in March 2013, Mitchell revealed that he had been "a 17 year-old university drop out that was still living with his parents rent free whilst discovering the joys of smoking bucket bongs", and described his "working class, English immigrant parents." Jebediah formation and early years In late-1994, Mitchell formed Jebediah with three school mates: Daymond on lead guitar, Almin Fulurija on drums, and Vanessa Thornton on bass guitar. Thornton had played lead guitar in her previous band Hybrid, but switched to bass guitar. Fulurija was soon replaced on drums by Brett before they played their first gig in May 1995 at Leeming Senior High School. Initially, the group performed cover versions by Pearl Jam, Green Day, Nirvana and The Smashing Pumpkins. As Jebediah's popularity grew they competed in the Australian National Campus Band Competition and, in October, they won the national final in Lismore, New South Wales. This success led to an opening slot on the 1996 Summersault music festival, which was run by the promoter, Steve Pavlovic. Jebediah performed at the Fremantle Oval on 7 January alongside the Beastie Boys, Foo Fighters and Sonic Youth. In the setlist they appeared between The Amps and Pavement: Mitchell told Adam Connors of The West Australian that "[w]e've got an excellent position, I don't know how the hell we got it. I don't know what it's going to be like, I just don't know." He felt that "[j]umping up and down to Jebediah is the easiest thing ... Anyone can do it and you don't have to be a great dancer. That is how to deal with our music." Jebediah signed with Murmur Records (a subsidiary label of Sony Music) in April 1996, "on the strength of their live shows alone. There were no demo recordings." The group won their first WAMi award in May that year for Best Stage Presence. In August they issued their first release, a five-track extended play, Twitch, which peaked at No. 61 on the ARIA Singles Chart. Mitchell and his three band mates co-wrote their original material, with Mitchell supplying most of the lyrics. The band's first single, "Jerks of Attention", appeared in December, which earned a WAMi award, in mid-1997, for Most Popular Song and the group won the Most Popular Band category. Performances at Homebake and the Big Day Out, in addition to support shows for Soundgarden, Everclear, The Presidents of the United States of America, Silverchair and You Am I, further raised the band's profile. On 8 September 1997 the band released their first studio album, Slightly Odway, which peaked at No. 7 on the ARIA Albums Chart and remained in the top 50 for 54 weeks. Slightly Odway was certified double platinum in 1998 by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA). During tours, in 1998, Mitchell "first started playing solo shows", according to Thornton. Jebediah's follow-up album, Of Someday Shambles, was recorded in 1999 and its first single "Animal" peaked at No. 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart, while the album reached No. 2. Of Someday Shambles eventually earned a platinum certification from ARIA. Jebediah then released the single, "Fall Down" in October 2001, ahead of their self-titled album, which appeared on 3 March 2002. "Fall Down" peaked at No. 24, while the album reached No. 8. Their fourth album, Braxton Hicks, followed on 12 July 2004 using the band's own label, Redline Records, which ceased operations in 2011. Following Braxton Hicks, Jebediah embarked on a six-year hiatus, providing Mitchell with time to focus on his solo work. They resumed the band for the release of their fifth studio album, Kosciuszko, on 15 April 2011. 2003–2009: Bob Evans' Suburban trilogy Since 1999 Mitchell performs and releases his solo work under the pseudonym of Bob Evans. He created the name to play low-profile solo shows in Perth, which was chosen "because it was written on a T-shirt I was wearing". Mitchell elaborated, in 2013, "It was just a way to be incognito, to separate myself from Jebediah. I had to create this kind of pseudonym so I could do things without people really knowing about it and having expectations about it." As Bob Evans, he concludes written communication with the sign offs: "XXXBOBXXX" or "XXXbobXXX", akin to SMS language. Bob Evan's debut album, Suburban Kid, was released on 8 September 2003 by Redline Records, Evans co-produced it with Simon Struthers. AllMusic's Jason Ankeny compared the album to his material with Jebediah: it showed a "more intimate, roots-flavored dimension of his songwriting." It was described in a Yourgigs' review as "an album of youthful introspection, love and loss." The album was later acquired by EMI following Mitchell's transfer to that music company. Mitchell recorded Suburban Kid at a home studio owned by Struthers, who was the bass guitarist for Perth band, Adam Said Galore. The song, "The Hermit", was co-written by Mitchell with another Perth musician, Luke Steele (of The Sleepy Jackson and later a member of Empire of the Sun), while Steele's sister, Katy Steele (of Little Birdy) contributed backing vocals. Mitchell revealed in August 2014, as part of Double J's Artist in Residence series, that The Streets' album, A Grand Don't Come for Free (May 2004), was a major influence on his subsequent lyrical work for both Jebediah and as Bob Evans. He felt that it was "one of the smartest albums ever made." Mitchell described The Streets' lyricist, Mike Skinner's work as "folk poetry". The second Bob Evans studio album, Suburban Songbook, was released on 10 June 2006. Mitchell sent the demo version to record producers he was interested in and was surprised by a quick response from an American, Brad Jones (Josh Rouse, Yo La Tengo, Sheryl Crow): "Normally when you send a demo to a producer overseas you are lucky to even hear back. Within a month of him hearing the demos I was on a plane to Nashville to begin recording. The whole process seemed blessed." Jones embraced Mitchell’s vision and suggested a more refined, listener-friendly approach. Suburban Songbook debuted at No. 15 on the ARIA Albums Charts. Its lead single, "Don't You Think It's Time?" (May 2006), was accompanied by a music video in which a mural is painted of Mitchell and his then-girlfriend (later his wife). The single was followed by an EP, Nowhere Without You (September 2006). At the ARIA Music Awards of 2006 Mitchell won his first ARIA Award: for Best Adult Contemporary Album for Suburban Songbook; he was also nominated for Best Male Artist. In 2010 Mitchell recalled: "Everything off Suburban Songbook is very special to me because it documents a watershed moment in my life, both personally and professionally, that will never happen again." For his third Bob Evans album, Goodnight, Bull Creek!, Mitchell recorded in Nashville again, with Jones as producer. He hired singer-songwriter, Melissa Mathers, as a backing vocalist. According to Mitchell, the album is the final instalment in his suburban musical trilogy: "The title is referring to me saying farewells, as I said with the last record that I would only do one more suburban record as part of the trilogy. Ironically, this record isn't very suburban at all though; not nearly as much as the last one. But it is the end of the chapter." Goodnight, Bull Creek! was released on 3 April 2009 and debuted at No. 22. Natalie Salvo of TheDwarf.com.au website felt it was " a pretty patchy effort that at its worst gets dangerously close to Ben Lee’s excruciating blend of twee pop ... I have issues with the fact that I've heard the bulk of the music in some way or shape before because many of the guitar flourishes seem to be borrowed from a batch of fifties/sixties easy-listening nostalgia classics." At the ARIA Awards that year it was nominated for Best Adult Contemporary Album and he was nominated for Best Male Artist. 2009–2012: Basement Birds and Kosciuzko During 2008 Bob Evans' backing band included Steve Parkin as a guitarist and backing vocalist (ex-Vinyl, Autopilot, solo). By mid-2009 the pair were writing songs together and were corresponding with Kavyen Temperley (of Eskimo Joe) and solo singer-songwriter, Josh Pyke. All four wanted to form a side project, Basement Birds, to showcase new material. Their debut single, "Waiting for You", was released in April 2010: it is co-written by Mitchell, Parkin, Pyke and Temperley. The group's self-titled album appeared in July, which peaked at No. 12. Basement Birds supported the album with a national tour, which was followed by members returning to their main projects, they performed a number of "final shows" including a gig in Perth on 7 April 2011. Perth Nows Jay Hanna caught that show, where they played "country tinged acoustic pop without pomp and fanfare, but with plenty of humour and heart." Mitchell reflected on the side project's disbandment "we keep saying this is the last gig then we do another one. It just seems fitting to do the last one in Perth given we are mainly a Perth band. I guess to be perfectly honest with you there is every possibility that if a gig too good to refuse came up again this year there is every chance that we would get the band back together. But there are no plans to." Mitchell had resumed working with Jebediah in 2010 to record their fifth studio album, Kosciuzko (April 2011), and the corresponding tour dates. Mitchell recounted in 2013 about putting his Bob Evans persona aside: I needed a break, I felt like I'd reached the end of the road a bit, with what I was doing with Bob. I felt like I'd gone as far as I could or wanted to go with that style of music that I was making… it had been pretty much a ten-year, three-album road that I'd walked down, I definitely felt like I needed a break so that I could refresh and do something new. Mitchell performed at the Pyramid Rock Festival over the 2010–11 new year holiday season both as a member of Basement Birds and of Jebediah. Jebediah toured domestically during 2011, including further festival appearances at Splendour in the Grass and the Coaster Festival, and a tour with Violent Soho. During that year, Mitchell was asked to list his favourite 10 songs of the year: he included "Bronte" by Gotye, "Perfection" by Adalita, "Broken Songs" by Jim Ward and "Design Desire" by Abbe May in his selection. Jebediah played fewer live shows in 2012 than in the previous year, but included an appearance at the inaugural Breath of Life festival in Tasmania and a hometown show with Eskimo Joe at the Perth Concert Hall. Mitchell participated in a series of mid-2012 events that were organised by 3RRR, a community radio station based in Melbourne. The series, "The Story So Far … ", featured musicians including Mitchell and Tim Rogers (You Am I), who relayed personal experiences from their music careers. Mitchell performed acoustic versions of "Don't You Think It's Time" and "Someone So Much". In a review of the event Natalie Salvo, an online journalist, wrote: Mitchell proved to be a great interviewee. He was open, candid and animated. Showing he’s a real romantic at heart, he offered tender responses (like wishing he’d had the opportunity to have a beer with his late father) plus light and funny anecdotes too. The latter included talk about learning jazz ballet as a child (complete with an impromptu demonstration) and meeting Lily Allen at the Sydney Big Day Out. 2012–2013: Familiar Stranger By mid-2012, following touring in support of Jebediah's Kosciuzko, Mitchell had commenced work for his fourth Bob Evans album, Familiar Stranger (15 March 2013). Mitchell wrote about 40 tracks to select from for the album, he told Kathy McCabe of the Herald Sun newspaper: "This time, for the first time, I put the songs in order before we started recording and kept that order in mind because I wanted to make a soundtrack to the movie in my brain." In August 2012 Mitchell entered the recording studio for that album. On 15 October 2012, Mitchell appeared on national radio station, Triple J, on Breakfast with Tom and Alex, to showcase "Don't Wanna Grow Up Anymore". He revealed that Joey Waronker (of Atoms for Peace, Beck's backing band) had played drums on the album. Evans' website announced a national tour and the release date of a four-track EP, The Double Life (9 November 2012). Dean Reid (Marina and the Diamonds, Mystery Jets) produced both the EP and the album (which was recorded at Sing Sing Studios in Richmond, where Jebediah had made their first two albums), Reid also contributed guitar, keyboards and programming. Mitchell explained during an "Unplugged and Wired" performance for Google+ on 28 November that The Double Life title applied to his concurrent work with Jebediah, as well as his role as father and husband; which was later confirmed in the interview with McCabe. A music video for "Don't Wanna Grow Up Anymore", the album's lead single, was released on 26 October and premiered on the Channel V programme WTF. It was directed by Darcy Prendergast for his Melbourne-based company, Oh Yeah Wow. Mitchell explained that the video was inspired by one made for the Smashing Pumpkins song "1979". For Mitchell, Familiar Stranger is a progression beyond what can be heard in his previous work: "I don't sit and listen to alt-country and folk music all day anymore… if I had made another record with the same sort of musical pallet as the last two I would have been forcing it." Mitchell further explained that Goldfrapp, Santigold, Wilco and Spoon were some of his musical interests during the creation of the fourth album. Triple J announcer, Richard Kingsmill, previewed Familiar Stranger on 3 February 2013. "Go" was the second single and features backing vocals from Scarlett Stevens of the Perth indie band, San Cisco. The music video for "Go" was published on the BobEvansMusic YouTube channel on 7 February 2013. The "Go" music video contains a cameo appearance by Tim Rogers, who portrays the "cool" nemesis of Mitchell's goofy and unlucky character. Following the "Go" music video, Mitchell released a video parody, entitled "Bob Evans' Big Pre-album interview", to promote Familiar Stranger. He explained in a radio interview on 18 February 2013 that, while the previous two albums are "Nashville-sounding", for Familiar Stranger he sought to "make a record that sounded like an awesome version of my garage." Mitchell also announced the participation of guest singer Dune (pseudonym for Jade McRae), In terms of inspiration, Mitchell cryptically stated that the album was about his "recent run ins with the universe, taking away and giving back." In March 2013, Mitchell stated, during an ABC Radio National interview, that his fellow Jebediah members "kind of put up with him [Bob Evans]; they tolerate him. Ahh ... You know, I think they understand why he's around, and why he needs to do what he does ... but sometimes i think they look at him with a sort of sense of bemusement." In relation to their extraneous musical activities, Mitchell explained that "they 'moonlight' in other local Perth outfits." As Bob Evans, he participated in the Townsville and Adelaide heats of the Telstra Road to Discovery competition which encouraged "unsigned musical talent" from within Australia to enter. Mitchell played on 8 August and 17 August 2013 at Adelaide University and the Townsville Cultural Festival, respectively. 2014–present: Jebediah shows and Car Boot Sale Jebediah played a Western Australian new year's show at the Dunsborough Tavern, Dunsborough, at the completion of 2013. Then they completed an Australian regional tour starting in Victoria and New South Wales in January 2014, which culminated in a large winery show in Albany, where they played alongside You Am I and the Hoodoo Gurus. They then supported the Hoodoo Gurus again at the band's November 2014 reunion show, "Be My Guru," in Perth, alongside Ratcat and British India. Mitchell confirmed through social media on 29 October 2014 that he is writing material for his fifth solo album. Mitchell's list of favourite albums of 2014 included those by Ryan Adams, Spoon, Beck and Tweedy. Bob Evans was one of the performers at Geelong's Festival of Sails in January 2015. Jebediah were announced in early February 2015 as one of the band's on the bill of Australia's Big Pineapple Music Festival, alongside Violent Soho and Thundamentals, which was held on 30 May 2015 on the Sunshine Coast. The sixth Bob Evans studio album Car Boot Sale was released through the EMI label on 17 June 2016. Mitchell released the two-part music video "Matterfact/Happy Tears" on YouTube on 24 May 2016 as an introduction to the album. The seventh Bob Evans studio album Tomorrowland was released in 2021. Touring During 2007, as Bob Evans, Mitchell supported Evermore on the band's Welcome to the Real Life Tour of Australia and New Zealand. He followed with festival performances: the 2007 Big Day Out tour, Homebake, the West Coast Blues & Roots Festival and The Great Escape festival. Mitchell also played showcases in New York City and Johannesburg, before undertaking an Australian tour with Machine Translations and South African solo artist, Farryl Purkiss. In April 2009 Mitchell commenced a national tour to promote the release of Goodnight, Bull Creek! and was joined by Malcolm Clark (Sleepy Jackson), Hugh Jennings (End of Fashion), Ben Witt (The Chemist) and Louis Macklin (67 Special), while America's Steve Poltz (The Rugburns) was the support act. Mitchell also returned to Europe and played shows in London, UK and Sweden, with the latter show in support of Melbourne, Australia band Architecture in Helsinki. In July 2009, Mitchell played the Splendour in the Grass festival in Byron Bay and, together with his backing band from 2009, he was then the support act for Eskimo Joe on the Inshalla national tour. During December 2011, prior to Christmas, Mitchell embarked on a tour of the east coast of Australia with fellow Australian musician, Adalita Srsen. The pair had previously toured together as members of their respective bands, Jebediah and Magic Dirt. The Good Evans it's Xmas Tour had the pair performing a rendition of "Must Be Santa", which had also been covered by Bob Dylan in 2009. In October 2012, following the release of "Don't Wanna Grow Up Anymore" from Familiar Stranger, a national tour was announced. The main support act was Thelma Plum, a folk musician from Queensland (Plum was a participant in the 'Unearthed' project that is organised by Triple J). On 14 December 2012, Mitchell announced that he would be performing at the 2013 Tamworth Country Music Festival – that appearance was his third consecutive one at the festival as Bob Evans. He proclaimed "I fricken love going to Tamworth and urge anyone within road trip distance to come along for the weekend." In previous years Mitchell played with a backing band which included Ashley Naylor (Even) and Roderick "Wally Meanie" Kempton (The Meanies). At the 2011 festival, Mitchell performed a duet with Australian country music artist Kirsty Lee Akers who had discovered Mitchell during his supporting tour with Australian country music artist Keith Urban – Akers explained on stage that, prior to the Urban tour, she had often heard a Bob Evans song at a shopping centre without knowing the name of the artist. The pair performed a rendition of John Prine's song, "In Spite of Ourselves". The first national Familiar Stranger Tour commenced on the Sunshine Coast on 11 April 2013 and finished in rural Victoria on 18 May in Meeniyan. Mitchell was supported by a band, Tigertown, which were winners of an Unearthed competition; and by Davey Lane, from You Am I. A second, more extensive national tour, started in April 2013, following the release of the album. Mitchell's backing band comprised Malcolm Clarke, Davey Lane, James Fleming and Tony Buchen (Buchen also assisted with the album's mixing and is a friend of Waronker); Tigertown returned as a supporting band for this tour. As part of an interview on Radio National, Mitchell explained: I still love touring ... I've been doing it constantly for over 15 years now, so it's become one of those things that's familiar to me now, for better or for worse, it's what's normal ... So I do still enjoy it [touring] and I miss it when I'm not doing it. In mid-July 2013 Mitchell revealed plans for a 16-date capital city tour: "I will literally be getting in the car and driving from town to town on my lonesome in good old fashion road trip style which is something I've never really done before, (I pretty much just want to be Jeff Bridges in Crazy Heart for a few weeks)." Mitchell donated A$214.75 to the Australian Red Cross following the tour, using donations that he collected at the merchandise desk throughout the tour. In 2023, Mitchell undertook the 'When Kev Met Bob' Anthology Tour, featuring work from the Bob Evans and Jebediah years. Cover versions Mitchell has recorded numerous cover versions, both in his work with Jebediah and as Bob Evans. Jebediah recorded a version of Midnight Oil's "When the Generals Talk" (October 1984) for the tribute album, The Power & The Passion (2001); a rendition of Something For Kate's "Clint", for the Harpoon EP (June 1998) (Something For Kate also recorded a cover version of "Harpoon" for that EP); a version of Flock of Seagulls' "I Ran", also for the Harpoon EP; and a rendition of "Pace It", a song by Magic Dirt appears on Gleesides and Sparities, a compilation album (October 2003). On 2 December 2006, as a follow-up to his Suburban Songbook album, Mitchell released a five-track EP of cover versions, Stolen Songbook, that solely featured the work of fellow Perth artists, which was only available in a digital download format. Mitchell recorded renditions of Little Birdy's "Beautiful to Me", The Triffids' "Wide Open Road", The Sleepy Jackson's "Come to This", Eskimo Joe's "Liar" and Red Jezebel's "See Through Dress". The cover image with the download was a photo of Mitchell, similar to ones used in its accompanying booklet. Writing for the FasterLouder website, Lilbirdy stated that the EP's results are "by and large pleasing" and it "is a superb retrospective of West Australian music". In June 2007 a Go-Betweens tribute album, Write Your Adventures Down, featured a Bob Evans rendition of "Streets of Your Town" (July 1998) Mitchell subsequently performed the song as part of a tribute concert which was recorded by the TV department of Triple J. He performed at a Bob Dylan tribute concert in 2012, where he co-performed "Tambourine Man" and "If Not for You", At a Paul Kelly tribute event, in November 2009, he delivered solo versions of "From St Kilda to Kings Cross" and "Love Never Runs on Time". The event was recorded for Before Too Long: Triple J's Tribute to Paul Kelly (February 2010) in both CD and DVD formats. Under the Bob Evans moniker, Mitchell has performed for Triple J segment "Like a Version" on several occasions: his Little Birdy cover, from the Stolen Songbook EP, was one of the contributions; Lily Allen's "Not Fair" was performed in 2011 (the rendition was also performed in subsequent live shows); and, on 1 March 2013, for the 'O Week' event run by Australia's universities, Mitchell played a cover version of Santigold's "Disparate Youth". During Bob Evans tours, Mitchell has performed renditions of the Hal David and Burt Bacharach song "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head", He has also attached excerpts from Eric Clapton's song "Tears in Heaven" and Otis Redding's "Dock of the Bay" onto the end of his own songs. Mitchell performed a live version of The Beatles song, "Two of Us", with Josh Pyke during a tour, and paid another tribute to The Beatles with a live rendition of "Taxman" at the Splendour in the Grass festival in 2009. In solo mode, Mitchell has also performed numerous cover versions as a part of his appearances on the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) programme, RocKwiz — the performances feature the support of the show's house band. In 2011 a video was published at YouTube which featured Mitchell and Katy Steele's duet of The Louvin Brothers' "You're Learning". Collaborations For his debut Bob Evans record, Mitchell co-wrote "The Hermit" with Luke Steele, while Steele's sister Katy Steele performed backing vocals on the song "Ode to My Car". In 2008 Mitchell performed with Simon Day, formerly of the Australian band Ratcat, at the Oxford Art Factory venue in Sydney, Australia and later revealed in an interview that the first recording that he ever purchased was Ratcat's Tingles EP. Mitchell was one of the "Friends" who appeared on an edition of Triple J's "Live at the Wireless" segment, in which You Am I collaborated with other artists including Adalita, Tex Perkins and Bernard Fanning — Mitchell provided vocals on the songs, "Berlin Chair" and "If We Can't Get It Together". Mitchell worked with Melissa Mathers on Suburban Songbook — Mathers performed backing vocals on the songs, "Hand Me Downs" and "Wintersong". Mitchell was asked by Australian country musician Kirsty Lee Akers to perform a duet of the John Prine song, "In Spite of Ourselves", at the 2010 Tamworth Country Music Festival, and a music video was provided. Bob Dylan tribute Alongside fellow Australian musicians Temperley, Pyke, Holly Throsby and Patience Hodgson, Mitchell performed a series of tribute shows in commemoration of Bob Dylan's 50th anniversary as a songwriter. The "one-off" group performed shows in Melbourne, Sydney, Brisbane and at the Splendour in the Grass festival. Basement Birds Following his commitments for Goodnight Bull Creek, Mitchell embarked on a recording and touring project with the Basement Birds—a side project with Temperley, Pyke and Steve Parkin. The four musicians recorded and released a self-funded album and completed a national tour in support of the album. The process that was undertaken by the group of friends was unique for the Australian music industry, as explained on the Australian independent music website Soulshine: "In an Australian first, their music will be unveiled in four 3 track bundles fortnightly on iTunes from late June 2010. As well as this, there will be acoustic versions of each track released every alternate fortnight and exclusive content available for fans via the new website ...". The album features the backing vocals of Julia Stone, from Angus & Julia Stone, on a song, "Bus Stop", which was written by Pyke and Mitchell. Internet-based collaborations Mitchell performed Bob Evans songs for a MySpace event that was held in Melbourne, Australia in 2008; Mitchell was joined on stage by drummer Clarke. Following his signing with booking agent, Select Music, Mitchell also signed with Internet music venture Spotify in mid-2012. As part of his collaboration with Spotify, he posted articles, including 'The Music I Love', on the company's website and Spotify were one of the sponsors on the 'Double Life' tour. On 29 November 2012, Mitchell performed for a Google+ event, "Hangout on Air". Following his performance, Mitchell answered live questions from people who had logged into their Google accounts to view the event; the event was also uploaded to YouTube, thereby allowing access to people who were unable to view the performance live. Mitchell's song, "Don't You Think It's Time", from the Suburban Songbook album, was selected for a new Telstra initiative in June 2014 that was primarily conducted on the Internet. The collaboration was a competition in which Australian musicians, who were not signed to a music company at the time of submission, were invited to submit their version of the song to see if the composition can reach the "number one" position on the Australian singles chart; hence, the title "2nd Chance Song". EMI, the music company that Mitchell remains signed with, was responsible for recording and distributing the winning entry. Four other Australian artists — Sheppard, Megan Washington, Luke and Katy Steele, and Illy — recorded versions of the song for the competition, which can all be seen on YouTube. When the song was originally released, it reached the 22nd position on the Australian singles chart and was responsible for launching Mitchell's solo career. Media appearances Mitchell has appeared on the Australian television programs The Glasshouse, The Merrick & Rosso Show, Spicks and Specks and RocKwiz. Mitchell has also undertaken live performances on RockWiz and a solo performance of "Hand Me Downs" appears in an episode that was published onto YouTube in March 2011. In March 2010, Mitchell was a guest presenter on triple j as a substitute for Morning Shows host Zan Rowe, who was attending the South by Southwest (SXSW) Music Conference. Mitchell was selected as a musician-presenter for triple j's Dig Music initiative, launched in late 2013 — his first broadcast was aired on 5 November 2013 and included his top five live music experiences. Mitchell wrote a three-part series of articles for TheMusic.com.au website in March 2013 as "The Life & Times of Bob Evans". They are whimsical reflections by Mitchell, who shares insights into life from the perspective of a musician. Also that month Mitchell appeared, with a backing band, to perform the Bob Evans song, "Go", on TV programme, Weekend Sunrise, on the Seven Network. Alongside Srsen, Mitchell was selected by Australia's Double J radio station for the August 2014 "Artist in Residence" role. Mitchell and Srsen presented two Sunday episodes individually throughout August, and then co-presented the final episode, "Unforgettable Opening Lines", on 31 August. The "Artist in Residence" episodes aired on Sundays and Mitchell's individual episodes are titled "Love & Lust" and "The End". National Office for Live Music Kevin Rudd, Australian Prime Minister, announce in early July 2013 the formation of the National Office for Live Music on the day after attending a fund raiser for the SLAM (Save Live Australia's Music) campaign. Rudd explained that "ambassadors" would represent live music in their respective states, with Mitchell appointed as the Victorian representative. Mitchell stated, as part of the announcement: "When I first started playing music with Jebediah in Perth in 1995 we never talked about making records, we just dreamed of playing gigs at all our favourite venues that we'd gone to see our favourite bands play in before us." Mitchell further explained the initiative in an October 2013 radio interview, in which he stated that his duties in the role will be "pretty basic": It will do a number of things, but one of the things it will do is help small venues with all these ridiculous laws and things that they've been struggling with for years, and why so many venues have been closing down ... This just kind of pulls everything into focus, I think—it will tackle things nationally and, I think, will protect the arts and live performance community in Australia Artistry Songwriting In an interview with the AU review website, published on 7 March 2013, Mitchell provided insight into his songwriting: It’s important to not underestimate your listeners, the worst thing a band or musician can do is to think that their audience is less capable off themselves, because than you always write to the lowest common denominator and that is how you write shit music. But if you consider your audience to be highly intelligent, and highly capable of taking to musical journeys, than you’re always trying to write something above yourself and reach further. I think that’s really important. Expect the unexpected. In terms of the recording process, Mitchell said in March 2013: "The recording side of things, I've grown to love. When I first started making records, I ... had no idea what I was doing, basically, and it's something that I've had to learn ... I think I'm only just starting to get good at it, after, you know, many, many attempts." Identity Mitchell has explained his pseudonym: "I think Bob Evans is more me than Kevin Mitchell from Jebediah is! In that way it’s like a reverse alter-ego. It just allows me to push things a bit. Bob’s been enough under the radar to give me, creatively, a lot more freedom than I might otherwise have." When asked later for the meaning of the term "reverse alter-ego", he said: "I've no idea, that's one of those quotes that I've been haunted by." Mitchell's original intention for the Bob Evans persona was to record a trilogy of suburban-themed solo albums and, following the completion of that objective, he admitted that an era of his life had ended: I'll run Bob into the ground on this record and do as much work as I can, and do as many tours and as many festivals as I can into next year. Then I'm going to give him a break and do another Jebediah record and do some collaborative stuff with other people. Then after doing a few different things, I'll come back and see what I do next. I do like the idea of it just being a three album journey. I don't have any sort of fear of just starting all over again under a different name, or in a different... whatever. Influences In a radio interview with Julian Morrow on Australia's Radio National station, Mitchell revealed his admiration for Yoko Ono. As the show was broadcast on 8 March 2013, International Women's Day, Morrow asked Mitchell about a favoured female musician and Ono was presented as a selection that came to mind at the time of the interview. Mitchell stated that he respected the manner in which Ono has maintained John Lennon's legacy and referred to her "credibility". Accolades and awards Suburban Songbook won the 2006 ARIA Music Award for Best Adult Contemporary Album and Mitchell/Evans received a nomination for Best Male Artist. The album was also nominated for the 2006 Australian Music Prize and the 2006 J Award. At the 2007 WAMi awards, Mitchell was nominated for two awards—'Most Popular Album' and 'Best Commercial Pop Act'—while participants in the 2007 Rolling Stone annual readers poll selected Mitchell as 'Best Male Artist'. "Pasha Bulker", the second song that was released from Goodnight Bull Creek, won in the 'Best Pop/Top 40 Artist' category in the 2007 International Songwriting Award competition (the judging panel consisted of artists such as Brian Wilson (The Beach Boys), Frank Black (Pixies), Robert Smith (The Cure) and Tom Waits)—other winners for that year were The Living End and Sarah Blasko. Together with Akers, Mitchell won the 'Best Video Clip' award at the 2010 Australian Country Music People's Choice Awards—the video featured puppet representations of the two musicians that were in the style of The Muppets. In mid-August 2013, Mitchell was a 'First Longlist' finalist for the 9th Coopers AMP, alongside artists such as Nick Cave and the Bad Seeds and The Drones. The Australian music prize, worth A$30,000, went to Big Scary, for their album Not Art. Familiar Stranger received an ARIA Award nomination in the Best Adult Contemporary category on 15 October 2013. Personal life Mitchell's father was diagnosed with bowel cancer in 1995 and died by February 1998, which was a shorter time frame than what was outlined in the prognosis. Mitchell and his bandmate brother, Brett, co-wrote the lyrics for Jebediah's single, "Feet Touch the Ground" (November 1999), which conveys Mitchell's sense of feeling "let down" by the early death of his father. Mitchell married long-term girlfriend, Kristen in November 2006 and in December 2008 they moved from Perth to Melbourne, later living in the western Melbourne suburb of Deer Park. In 2014, Mitchell and his family left Melbourne to relocate to Ocean Grove on the Victorian Bellarine Peninsula. Mitchell explained the coastal relocation on social media in late May 2014: "I've left the Melbourne suburbs and moved to the coast so I can re enact all my favourite scenes from the ABC [television] show SeaChange and write an album full of earnest beach funk tunes", a tongue-in-cheek quote that was taken seriously some future interviewers. Mitchell and his wife are the parents of two children, Ella who was born in 2011 and Ivy who was born in 2013. Speaking on his personal life in 2013, prior to the release of Familiar Stranger, Mitchell jokingly revealed that "I have zero social life. I have no hobbies, I have nothing else except making music and being a father". During an appearance on the TV programme, The Merrick & Rosso Show, Mitchell was surprised by the topic of the 'Cosby Dance' due its personal nature. He eventually performed the dance for the audience, but reiterated in a subsequent interview that he could not believe that the topic had moved beyond his inner friendship circle. Following an "Unplugged and Wired" performance for Google+ on 28 November 2012, Mitchell revealed that his ideal dinner guests would be Ricky Gervais, for laughter; Barack Obama, for intellectual discussion; and his wife, so that he could share the moment with a loved one. Mitchell has admitted to cutting his own hair but is unsure why he does this. In a March 2013 radio interview, Mitchell explained that, although his wife joined him during the Bob Evans touring process for a while, his family does not typically accompany him on tours. He expounded: "If I was more popular and I toured with a certain level of comfort, then it might be an option." Discography All releases are under the pseudonym, Bob Evans, for work with his bands see Jebediah discography and Basement Birds discography. Studio albums Compilation albums Extended plays Singles References External links 1977 births Living people Musicians from Perth, Western Australia ARIA Award winners Australian indie pop musicians Australian indie rock musicians Australian rock guitarists Australian pop singers Australian rock singers Australian people of English descent Rhythm guitarists Acoustic guitarists Australian harmonica players 21st-century Australian singers 21st-century guitarists 21st-century Australian male singers Basement Birds members Australian male guitarists Australian male singer-songwriters Australian singer-songwriters
5185874	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20State%20Route%2038	New York State Route 38	New York State Route 38 (NY 38) is a north–south state highway in the Finger Lakes region of New York in the United States. Its southern terminus is at an intersection with NY 96 in the town of Owego in Tioga County. The northern terminus is at a junction with NY 104A in the town of Sterling in Cayuga County. NY 38 is a two-lane local road for most of its length. The route is the main access road to parts of Auburn, Dryden, Newark Valley and Port Byron. It passes through mountainous terrain in Tioga and Cortland counties, but the terrain levels out as it heads through the Finger Lakes area and Cayuga County. The route intersects several long-distance highways, including NY 13 in Dryden, U.S. Route 20 (US 20) and NY 5 in Auburn, and NY 31 in Port Byron. It passes over the New York State Thruway (Interstate 90 or I-90) north of Port Byron; however, there is no connection between the two. NY 38 has two suffixed routes. The first, NY 38A is an alternate route of NY 38 between Moravia and Auburn, while the other, NY 38B, is a simple east–west connector in the Southern Tier. While NY 38 runs along the western shore of Owasco Lake, NY 38A travels to Auburn along a routing east of the lake. NY 38 passes along or near waterbodies for much of its length. From its southern end in Owego to the town of Harford, the route parallels Owego Creek or a branch of said creek. Between Groton and Mentz, it runs along the aforementioned Owasco Lake and its inlet (south of the lake) and outlet (north of the lake). It also comes within of Lake Ontario at its northern end. In the 1920s, the portion of NY 38 between Owego and Freeville was designated as New York State Route 42 while the segment from Freeville to Moravia was the southern part of New York State Route 26, a highway that continued north from Moravia to Syracuse. NY 38 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, utilizing all of pre-1930 NY 42, the Freeville–Moravia portion of NY 26, and a previously unnumbered highway north to Sterling. Originally, NY 38 extended south into the village of Owego by way of an overlap with NY 96. It was truncated to its current southern terminus by 1994. Route description All of NY 38—save for two sections within the city of Auburn—is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). In Auburn, the route is city-maintained to the north and south of where the route meets US 20 and NY 5 in downtown Auburn. The portion of NY 38 that runs between and overlaps with those two routes is state-maintained. Tioga and Cortland counties NY 38 begins at an intersection with NY 96 about north of the Owego village limits in the town of Owego. The road heads northeastward as a two-lane highway, paralleling Owego Creek as it proceeds along the base of a valley surrounding the waterway. The Tioga County portion of NY 38 passes through mostly rural, forested areas with only small, scattered pockets of development. The route continues toward the hamlet of Flemingville, where the Owego Creek splits into western and eastern branches. NY 38 does not enter the community; instead, it bypasses it to the southeast and follows the eastern branch of Owego Creek into the town of Newark Valley. The number of homes along the route begins to increase as NY 38 approaches the village of Newark Valley. Just south of the village limits, NY 38 intersects NY 38B, a spur leading to NY 26 in Maine. The route continues into the small village as South Main Street and passes by several blocks of homes and commercial buildings. At Water Street, NY 38 becomes North Main Street; however, from this point north, most of the village is situated on the opposite bank of Owego Creek. As a result, NY 38 continues through the village limits but passes very few buildings before seamlessly exiting the community and entering another rural area. The route continues on, crossing over Owego Creek and passing the Newark Valley Country Club about north of Newark Valley village before entering the town of Berkshire. In Berkshire, NY 38 serves the hamlet of Berkshire, a small community situated directly on the highway. The route continues on through the narrowing creek valley into the town of Richford and the hamlet of the same name, where it meets NY 79 in the community's center. After Richford, the valley continues to narrow for just under before reversing course as the route heads into Cortland County and the town of Harford. NY 38 clips the extreme southwestern corner of Cortland County; as a result, only of the route is located within the county. Just north of the county line, the route meets NY 200 in the hamlet of Harford Mills. NY 200 is little more than an alternate route to NY 221, which NY 38 meets in the hamlet of Harford to the northeast. In between Harford Mills and Harford, the east branch of Owego Creek separates from NY 38 and heads north to follow NY 221 instead. NY 38 continues northwest out of Harford hamlet and into Tompkins County. Tompkins County Upon entering the border town of Dryden, NY 38 emerges from the valley and becomes Dryden–Harford Road as it heads northwestward through a more low-lying but still undeveloped area. The highway gradually curves to the north toward the village of Dryden, where the route changes names to South Street upon entering the village limits. It continues north across Virgil Creek and past three blocks of homes to the commercial village center, where it intersects both NY 13 and NY 392. The latter begins here and heads off to the east while the former joins NY 38 along North Street. The overlap between NY 13 and NY 38 ends at the northern village line. At this point, NY 13 continues north while NY 38 forks to the west, running along the village limits on Freeville Road for about through an area with only a handful of homes. While doing so, the route passes to the south of the Dryden Middle and High School complex. NY 38 heads onward through an open, undeveloped area, curving to the northwest and eventually to the north as it approaches the village of Freeville, where it serves the William George Agency for Children's Services at the southern village line. It remains on Freeville Road until Railroad Street, where it turns west and proceeds into the densely populated village center. Here, it intersects the eastern terminus of NY 366 at a junction situated adjacent to Fall Creek. NY 38 proceeds out of Freeville, passing over Fall Creek and heading north along Groton Road through a lightly populated area of the town of Dryden. The route passes by a mixture of open fields, forests, and isolated homes on its way to the Dryden–Groton town line, where it meets the southern terminus of NY 34B southeast of the hamlet of Peruville. NY 38 parallels the Owasco Inlet into Groton and the village of the same name, becoming Peru Road at the southern village line. It continues north, following South and Main Streets through the densely populated village to an intersection with NY 222's western terminus at Cortland Street. At this point, NY 38 becomes Cayuga Street and winds its way northward along the Owasco Inlet and out of the village. Now known as Locke Road, NY 38 heads the northwest through another rural, largely undeveloped area into Cayuga County. Cayuga County Cayuga County, located in the Finger Lakes region of New York, has a highly unorthodox shape. Most of the county is only about wide from its western border to its eastern edge. From north to south, however, it extends from Locke north to the Lake Ontario shoreline—a distance of about . NY 38 passes through much of the county, ending about south of the shoreline in Sterling. As a result, over half of NY 38's routing is located in the county, with the midpoint located near the city of Auburn. County line to Auburn The route heads northwest from the county line, following the Owasco Inlet through open fields and past small patches of trees to the large hamlet of Locke. NY 38 heads north–south through the residential community as Main Street and intersects NY 90 at the center of the hamlet. North of the community, the highway crosses over the Owasco Inlet and enters another rural area dominated by fields situated amongst forests. Upon crossing into the town of Moravia, the amount of development along the highway increases as it passes Fillmore Glen State Park and approaches the village of Moravia. In Moravia, a highly developed village comprising several blocks of homes and businesses, NY 38 is known as Main Street as it heads north into the village center. At Cayuga Street, NY 38 intersects NY 38A, the second of its two suffixed routes. NY 38A heads eastward from this point while NY 38 turns to follow West Cayuga Street across Owasco Inlet and out of the village. Past the inlet, NY 38 curves to the north and runs along the western edge of the Owasco Flats, a wide, flat-bottomed, undeveloped valley at the foot of Owasco Lake. The flats give way to the lake in Cascade, a hamlet in the town of Venice, at which point NY 38 begins to climb up the western edge of the lake valley. It reaches the lip of the valley later in the town of Scipio. For the next , the route passes by open fields as it overlooks the lake to the east. The route gradually descends back into the valley as it heads further northward into the town of Fleming. Once in Fleming, NY 38 runs along the lakeshore and serves a long line of lakeside homes as it passes by a series of fields to the west. The amount of development along the route begins to increase at the northern end of the lake in the hamlet of Melrose Park, where NY 38 meets NY 437 by way of a traffic circle. At this point, NY 437 becomes the primary lakeside highway while NY 38 becomes a four-lane divided highway and heads northwest as Lake Avenue toward the city of Auburn. As NY 38 enters Auburn, it passes by Auburn High School before heading north through densely populated blocks filled with homes. The divided highway ends abruptly at Swift Street, where NY 38 turns west to follow the two-lane undivided Swift Street west for seven blocks to NY 34 (South Street). Here, NY 38 leaves Swift Street and joins NY 34 on South Street. The two routes follow South Street past the William H. Seward House into downtown Auburn, where the homes are replaced with businesses at Lincoln Street. Three blocks later, South Street intersects with the East Arterial (eastbound US 20 and NY 5). The overlap between NY 34 and NY 38 ends one block later at the West Arterial (westbound US 20 and NY 5), where NY 38 turns to follow the Arterial for a block to the west. At State Street, NY 38 leaves US 20 and NY 5 and heads north through the city's north side, crossing the Owasco Outlet and serving the Auburn Correctional Facility. The route passes through several blocks of commercial and residential development up to Grant Street, where it begins to taper off. It ceases almost entirely near the northern city line at York Street, where the homes along the highway become more sporadic and spaced apart. North of Auburn Now in the town of Throop, NY 38 follows the Owasco Outlet through open, mostly flat areas dotted with houses amongst fields and trees. Within Throop, it serves the small hamlet of Sawyers Corners, where NY 38 meets Turnpike Road (County Route 10B or CR 10B). North of this junction, the houses give way to dense forests as the route continues along the waterway into the town of Mentz and the village of Port Byron a short distance north of the town line. It follows Main Street through a mostly commercial and industrial portion of the village to the village center, where it intersects NY 31 at Rochester and Utica Streets. NY 38 turns west, overlapping NY 31 along Rochester Street. The two routes cross the Owasco Outlet and enter a more residential area of the community, where NY 38 splits from NY 31 and continues north along Canal Street. The route crosses over the New York State Thruway (I-90) as it leaves the village limits and heads north into a largely undeveloped area of forests and fields. At North Port Byron, a sparsely populated hamlet north of Port Byron, NY 38 passes over the CSX Transportation-owned Rochester Subdivision railroad line. The highway continues on, becoming Conquest Road and crossing the Seneca River (Erie Canal) at Mosquito Point, near where Owasco Outlet flows into the river. NY 38 enters the town of Conquest upon traversing the waterway. NY 38 continues north as an unnamed highway to the hamlet of Conquest, a small community built up around the intersection of NY 38 and Fuller and Slayton Roads. It continues on into the town of Victory, where the undeveloped fields give way to cultivated fields used as farmland. The route heads through mostly desolate surroundings to the hamlet of Victory, a slightly larger community centered on NY 38. The route proceeds through the hamlet, passing by several homes on its way to a junction with NY 370 just north of the community. Past this point, the homes cease again as NY 38 presses on through more fields and forests to the town of Sterling. Just north of the town line in the small hamlet of North Victory, NY 38 intersects NY 104. Past this point, the route heads through mostly undeveloped, forested areas on its way to the hamlet of Finches Corners. North of here, the forests cede slightly as the number of fields along the highway increases. The highway continues on to the hamlet of Sterling, where it ends at an intersection with NY 104A (the Seaway Trail) just south of the hamlet's center and south of the Lake Ontario shoreline. History Old roads Several portions of modern NY 38 were originally part of turnpikes and plank roads during the 1800s. On April 13, 1819, the New York State Legislature passed a law incorporating the Cortland and Owego Turnpike Company. The company was tasked with building a highway—the Cortland and Owego Turnpike—from Owego north to the then-village of Cortland. This route roughly followed what is now NY 38 north from Owego to the vicinity of Harford, where it would have turned north to access Virgil, then continued to Cortland by way of modern NY 215. A property dispute case in 1965 showed no evidence of this turnpike having been built. On April 13, 1825, the legislature chartered the Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike Company. The Auburn and Port Byron Turnpike began at the Auburn State Prison in Auburn and proceeded northward along the routing of NY 38 to meet the north branch of the Seneca Turnpike in the town of Brutus (now Throop). From there, the turnpike continued on NY 38 through Port Byron to the Seneca River, where it ended at a bridge crossing the river at Mosquito Point. In 1851, the Auburn and Moravia Plank Road Company was incorporated. They were tasked with connecting Moravia to Auburn by way of a plank road along the western side of Owasco Lake (now NY 38). Designation When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924, the portion of what is now NY 38 from Freeville to Moravia became part of NY 26, a north–south highway extending from Freeville to Syracuse via Skaneateles. By 1926, the segment of current NY 38 between Freeville and Owego was designated as NY 42. In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York, the entirety of NY 42 and the portion of NY 26 south of Moravia was incorporated into the new NY 38, which extended north from Moravia to NY 3 (modern NY 104A) in Sterling. The section of the route adjacent to Owasco Lake was still being constructed at the time of NY 38's assignment; it was completed . NY 38 originally overlapped with NY 96 (designated as NY 15 in 1930) through Owego to a terminus at the modern junction of NY 96 and NY 434 south of the village. The overlap was extended slightly along Southside Drive to NY 17 exit 64 in the 1960s following the construction of the Southern Tier Expressway through the area. It was removed altogether when NY 38 was truncated to the northern end of the overlap by 1994. Suffixed routes NY 38 has two suffixed spur routes: NY 38A () runs from Moravia to NY 359, near Mandana and NY 41A in southwestern Onondaga County, and then towards Auburn. It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York. NY 38B () is a short spur in Broome and Tioga counties connecting NY 38 in Newark Valley in the west to NY 26 in Maine in the east. It was assigned in 1948. Major intersections See also References External links 038 Transportation in Cayuga County, New York Transportation in Cortland County, New York Transportation in Tioga County, New York Transportation in Tompkins County, New York
5185881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20statutes%20of%20New%20Zealand%20%282008%E2%80%932017%29	List of statutes of New Zealand (2008–2017)	This is a list of statutes from 2008 to 2017. For lists of earlier and more recent statutes, see Lists of Statutes of New Zealand. This is a list of Statutes of New Zealand for the period of the Fifth National Government of New Zealand. 2008 Taxation (Urgent Measures and Annual Rates) Act 2008 Amendments Bail Amendment Act 2008 (Bail Act 2000) Education (National Standards) Amendment Act 2008 (Education Act 1989) Electricity (Renewable Preference) Repeal Act 2008 (Electricity Act 1992) Employment Relations Amendment Act 2008 (Employment Relations Act 2000) Energy (Fuels, Levies, and References) Biofuel Obligation Repeal Act 2008 (Energy (Fuels, Levies, and References) Act 1989) Sentencing (Offences Against Children) Amendment Act 2008 (Sentencing Act 2002) 2009 Anti-Money Laundering and Countering Financing of Terrorism Act 2009 Appropriation (2007/08 Financial Review) Act 2009 Appropriation (2008/09 Supplementary Estimates) Act 2009 Appropriation (2009/10 Estimates) Act 2009 Cluster Munitions Prohibition Act 2009 Criminal Proceeds (Recovery) Act 2009 Crown Retail Deposit Guarantee Scheme Act 2009 Immigration Act 2009 Imprest Supply (First for 2009/10) Act 2009 Imprest Supply (Second for 2009/10) Act 2009 Local Government (Auckland Council) Act 2009 Local Government (Tamaki Makaurau Reorganisation) Act 2009 Methodist Church of New Zealand Trusts Act 2009 Port Nicholson Block (Taranaki Whānui ki Te Upoko o Te Ika) Claims Settlement Act 2009 Subordinate Legislation (Confirmation and Validation) Act 2009 Taxation (Budget Tax Measures) Act 2009 Taxation (Business Tax Measures) Act 2009 Taxation (Consequential Rate Alignment and Remedial Matters) Act 2009 Taxation (International Taxation, Life Insurance, and Remedial Matters) Act 2009 Wanganui District Council (Prohibition of Gang Insignia) Act 2009 Whakarewarewa and Roto-a-Tamaheke Vesting Act 2009 2010 Appropriation (2008/09 Financial Review) Act 2010 Appropriation (2009/10 Supplementary Estimates) Act 2010 Appropriation (2010/11 Estimates) Act 2010 Canterbury Earthquake Response and Recovery Act 2010 Courts (Remote Participation) Act 2010 Electoral Referendum Act 2010 Electricity Industry Act 2010 Environment Canterbury (Temporary Commissioners and Improved Water Management) Act 2010 Governor-General Act 2010 Insurance (Prudential Supervision) Act 2010 Limitation Act 2010 Local Government (Auckland Transitional Provisions) Act 2010 New Zealand Productivity Commission Act 2010 Ngāti Apa (North Island) Claims Settlement Act 2010 Ngati Tuwharetoa, Raukawa, and Te Arawa River Iwi Waikato River Act 2010 Private Security Personnel and Private Investigators Act 2010 Research, Science, and Technology Act 2010 Rugby World Cup 2011 (Empowering) Act 2010 Sentencing and Parole Reform Act 2010 Subordinate Legislation (Confirmation and Validation) Act 2010 Trans-Tasman Proceedings Act 2010 Unit Titles Act 2010 Utilities Access Act 2010 Waikato-Tainui Raupatu Claims (Waikato River) Settlement Act 2010 2011 Appropriation (2009/10 Financial Review) Act 2011 Appropriation (2010/11 Supplementary Estimates) Act 2011 Appropriation (2011/12 Estimates) Act 2011 Auditor Regulation Act 2011 Canterbury Earthquake Commemoration Day Act 2011 Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Act 2011 Criminal Procedure Act 2011 Duties of Statutory Officers (Census and Other Remedial Provisions) Act 2011 Environmental Protection Authority Act 2011 Financial Markets Authority Act 2011 Freedom Camping Act 2011 Hamilton City Council (Parana Park) Land Vesting Act 2011 Imprest Supply (First for 2011/12) Act 2011 Imprest Supply (Second for 2011/12) Act 2011 Legal Services Act 2011 Local Government Borrowing Act 2011 Māori Purposes Act 2011 Marine and Coastal Area (Takutai Moana) Act 2011 Securities Trustees and Statutory Supervisors Act 2011 Sleepover Wages (Settlement) Act 2011 Student Loan Scheme Act 2011 Subordinate Legislation (Confirmation and Validation) Act 2011 Taxation (Annual Rates and Budget Measures) Act 2011 Taxation (Canterbury Earthquake Measures) Act 2011 Taxation (Tax Administration and Remedial Matters) Act 2011 Video Camera Surveillance (Temporary Measures) Act 2011 Westpac New Zealand Act 2011 Whanganui Iwi (Whanganui (Kaitoke) Prison and Northern Part of Whanganui Forest) On-account Settlement Act 2011 Amendments Adoption Amendment Act 2011 (Adoption Act 1955) Aquaculture Reform (Repeals and Transitional Provisions) Amendment Act 2011 (Aquaculture Reform (Repeals and Transitional Provisions) Act 2004) Bail Amendment Act 2011 (Bail Act 2000) Care of Children Amendment Act 2011 (Care of Children Act 2004) Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Amendment Act 2011 (Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989) Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Act 1989) Climate Change Response Amendment Act 2011 (Climate Change Response Act 2002) Copyright Amendment Act 2011 (Copyright Act 1994) Copyright (Infringing File Sharing) Amendment Act 2011 (Copyright Act 1994) Corrections Amendment Act 2011 (Corrections Act 2004) Crimes Amendment Act 2011 (Crimes Act 1961) Crimes Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Crimes Act 1961) Crimes Amendment Act (No 3) 2011 (Crimes Act 1961) Crimes Amendment Act (No 4) 2011 (Crimes Act 1961) Criminal Disclosure Amendment Act 2011 (Criminal Disclosure Act 2008) Criminal Procedure (Mentally Impaired Persons) Amendment Act 2011 (Criminal Procedure (Mentally Impaired Persons) Act 2003) Criminal Proceeds (Recovery) Amendment Act 2011 (Criminal Proceeds (Recovery) Act 2009) Customs and Excise Amendment Act 2011 (Customs and Excise Act 1996) Dairy Industry Restructuring (New Sunset Provisions) Amendment Act 2011 (Dairy Industry Restructuring Act 2001) Disputes Tribunals Amendment Act 2011 (Disputes Tribunals Act 1988) District Courts Amendment Act 2011 (District Courts Act 1947) District Courts Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (District Courts Act 1947) Domestic Violence Amendment Act 2011 (Domestic Violence Act 1995) Education Amendment Act 2011 (Education Act 1989) Education (Freedom of Association) Amendment Act 2011 (Education Act 1989) Electoral (Administration) Amendment Act 2011 (Electoral Act 1993) Evidence Amendment Act 2011 (Evidence Act 2006) Family Courts Amendment Act 2011 (Family Courts Act 1980) Financial Advisers Amendment Act 2011 (Financial Advisers Act 2008) Financial Reporting Amendment Act 2011 (Financial Reporting Act 1993) Fisheries Amendment Act 2011 (Fisheries Act 1996) Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Amendment Act 2011 (Hazardous Substances and New Organisms Act 1996) Immigration Amendment Act 2011 (Immigration Act 2009) Imports and Exports (Restrictions) Amendment Act 2011 (Imports and Exports (Restrictions) Act 1988) Juries Amendment Act 2011 (Juries Act 1981) Justices of the Peace Amendment Act 2011 (Justices of the Peace Act 1957) KiwiSaver Amendment Act 2011 (KiwiSaver Act 2006) Land Transport Amendment Act 2011 (Land Transport Act 1998) Land Transport (Road Safety and Other Matters) Amendment Act 2011 (Land Transport Act 1998) Local Government (Auckland Council) Amendment Act 2011 (Local Government (Auckland Council) Act 2009) Maori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Amendment Act 2011 (Maori Commercial Aquaculture Claims Settlement Act 2004) Maori Fisheries Amendment Act 2011 (Maori Fisheries Act 2004) Maori Trust Boards Amendment Act 2011 (Maori Trust Boards Act 1955) Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2011 (Misuse of Drugs Act 1975) Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Misuse of Drugs Act 1975) Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 1978 Amendment Act 2011 (Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 1978) New Zealand Bill of Rights Amendment Act 2011 (New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990) New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Amendment Act 2011 (New Zealand Security Intelligence Service Act 1969) Ozone Layer Protection Amendment Act 2011 (Ozone Layer Protection Act 1996) Personal Property Securities Amendment Act 2011 (Personal Property Securities Act 1999) Policing (Storage of Youth Identifying Particulars) Amendment Act 2011 (Policing Act 2008) Prisoners' and Victims' Claims Amendment Act 2011 (Prisoners' and Victims' Claims Act 2005) Privacy Amendment Act 2011 (Privacy Act 1993) Railways Amendment Act 2011 (Railways Act 2005) Residential Tenancies Amendment Act 2011 (Residential Tenancies Act 1986) Resource Management Amendment Act 2011 (Resource Management Act 1991) Resource Management Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Resource Management Act 1991) Securities Amendment Act 2011 (Securities Act 1978) Securities Markets Amendment Act 2011(Securities Markets Act 1988) Sentencing Amendment Act 2011 (Sentencing Act 2002) Sentencing Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Sentencing Act 2002) Smoke-free Environments (Controls and Enforcement) Amendment Act 2011 (Smoke-free Environments Act 1990) Social Security Amendment Act 2011 (Social Security Act 1964) Summary Proceedings Amendment Act 2011 (Summary Proceedings Act 1957) Summary Proceedings Amendment Act (No 2) 2011 (Summary Proceedings Act 1957) Tax Administration Amendment Act 2011 (Tax Administration Act 1994) Te Ture Whenua Maori Amendment Act 2011 (Te Ture Whenua Maori Act 1993) Telecommunications (TSO, Broadband, and Other Matters) Amendment Act 2011 (Telecommunications Act 2001) Television New Zealand Amendment Act 2011 (Television New Zealand Act 2003) Trade Marks Amendment Act 2011 (Trade Marks Act 2002) Victims' Rights Amendment Act 2011 (Victims' Rights Act 2002) Weathertight Homes Resolution Services (Financial Assistance Package) Amendment Act 2011 (Weathertight Homes Resolution Services Act 2006) 2012 Antarctica (Environmental Protection: Liability Annex) Amendment Act 2012 Callaghan Innovation Act 2012 Cultural Property (Protection in Armed Conflict) Act 2012 Electronic Identity Verification Act 2012 Exclusive Economic Zone and Continental Shelf (Environmental Effects) Act 2012 Hutt City Council (Graffiti Removal) Act 2012 Identity Information Confirmation Act 2012 Legislation Act 2012 Maraeroa A and B Blocks Claims Settlement Act 2012 Maraeroa A and B Blocks Incorporation Act 2012 Military Manoeuvres Act Repeal Act 2012 National Animal Identification and Tracing Act 2012 National War Memorial Park (Pukeahu) Empowering Act 2012 Nga Wai o Maniapoto (Waipa River) Act 2012 Ngai Tāmanuhiri Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Mākino Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Manawa Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Manuhiri Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Pāhauwera Treaty Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngati Porou Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Whare Claims Settlement Act 2012 Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei Claims Settlement Act 2012 Road User Charges Act 2012 Rongowhakaata Claims Settlement Act 2012 Sale and Supply of Alcohol Act 2012 Search and Surveillance Act 2012 Southland District Council (Stewart Island/Rakiura Visitor Levy) Empowering Act 2012 2013 Auctioneers Act 2013 Family Dispute Resolution Act 2013 Financial Markets Conduct Act 2013 Financial Reporting Act 2013 Game Animal Council Act 2013 Housing Accords and Special Housing Areas Act 2013 Inquiries Act 2013 Kaipara District Council (Validation of Rates and Other Matters) Act 2013 Members of Parliament (Remuneration and Services) Act 2013 Mines Rescue Act 2013 Mokomoko (Restoration of Character, Mana, and Reputation) Act 2013 / Te Ture mō Mokomoko (Hei Whakahoki i te Ihi, te Mana, me te Rangatiratanga) 2013 New Zealand International Convention Centre Act 2013 Ngāti Whātua o Kaipara Claims Settlement Act 2013 Non-bank Deposit Takers Act 2013 Patents Act 2013 Prohibition of Gang Insignia in Government Premises Act 2013 Psychoactive Substances Act 2013 Royal Succession Act 2013 South Taranaki District Council (Cold Creek Rural Water Supply) Act 2013 Waitaha Claims Settlement Act 2013 Waitaki District Council Reserves and Other Land Empowering Act 2013 WorkSafe New Zealand Act 2013 2014 Airports (Cost Recovery for Processing of International Travellers) Act 2014 Arts Council of New Zealand Toi Aotearoa Act 2014 Food Act 2014 Haka Ka Mate Attribution Act 2014 Heritage New Zealand Pouhere Taonga Act 2014 Kaikōura (Te Tai o Marokura) Marine Management Act 2014 Maungaharuru-Tangitū Hapū Claims Settlement Act 2014 New Zealand Mission Trust Board (Otamataha) Empowering Act 2014 Ngā Mana Whenua o Tāmaki Makaurau Collective Redress Act 2014 Ngāti Apa ki te Rā Tō, Ngāti Kuia, and Rangitāne o Wairau Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngāti Hauā Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngāti Kōata, Ngāti Rārua, Ngāti Tama ki Te Tau Ihu, and Te Ātiawa o Te Waka-a-Māui Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngāti Koroki Kahukura Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngāti Rangiteaorere Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngāti Rangiwewehi Claims Settlement Act 2014 Ngati Toa Rangatira Claims Settlement Act 2014 Parliamentary Privilege Act 2014 Public Safety (Public Protection Orders) Act 2014 Raukawa Claims Settlement Act 2014 Subantarctic Islands Marine Reserves Act 2014 Sullivan Birth Registration Act 2014 Tapuika Claims Settlement Act 2014 Tasman District Council (Validation and Recovery of Certain Rates) Act 2014 Te Urewera Act 2014 Trade (Safeguard Measures) Act 2014 Tūhoe Claims Settlement Act 2014 Veterans' Support Act 2014 Victims' Orders Against Violent Offenders Act 2014 Vulnerable Children Act 2014 West Coast Wind-blown Timber (Conservation Lands) Act 2014 2015 Arts Centre of Christchurch Trust Act 2015 Christchurch City Council (Rates Validation) Act 2015 Environmental Reporting Act 2015 Harmful Digital Communications Act 2015 Hawke's Bay Regional Planning Committee Act 2015 Health and Safety at Work Act 2015 Land Transport (Speed Limits Validation and Other Matters) Act 2015 New Zealand Flag Referendums Act 2015 Ngāi Takoto Claims Settlement Act 2015 Ngāti Kahu Accumulated Rentals Trust Act 2015 Ngāti Kuri Claims Settlement Act 2015 Reserves and Other Lands Disposal Act 2015 Returning Offenders (Management and Information) Act 2015 Social Security (Clothing Allowances for Orphans and Unsupported Children) Amendment Act 2015 Standards and Accreditation Act 2015 Te Aupouri Claims Settlement Act 2015 Te Kawerau ā Maki Claims Settlement Act 2015 Te Rarawa Claims Settlement Act 2015 2016 Accident Compensation Amendment Act 2016 Burial and Cremation Amendment Act 2016 Canterbury Property Boundaries and Related Matters Act 2016 Child Protection (Child Sex Offender Government Agency Registration) Act 2016 Children, Young Persons, and Their Families Amendment Act (No 2) 2016 Christian Churches New Zealand Property Trust Board Empowering Act 2016 Compensation for Live Organ Donors Act 2016 Copyright Amendment Act 2016 District Court Act 2016 Electronic Courts and Tribunals Act 2016 Environment Canterbury (Transitional Governance Arrangements) Act 2016 Greater Christchurch Regeneration Act 2016 Hineuru Claims Settlement Act 2016 Holidays Amendment Act (No 2) 2016 Home and Community Support (Payment for Travel Between Clients) Settlement Act 2016 Hurunui/Kaikōura Earthquakes Emergency Relief Act 2016 Hurunui/Kaikōura Earthquakes Recovery Act 2016 Interest on Money Claims Act 2016 Judicial Review Procedure Act 2016 Land Transport Amendment Act 2016 Māori Language Act 2016 / Te Ture mō Te Reo Māori 2016 Medicines Amendment Act 2016 Mental Health (Compulsory Assessment and Treatment) Amendment Act 2016 Misuse of Drugs Amendment Act 2016 New Zealand Business Number Act 2016 New Zealand Public Health and Disability (Southern DHB) Elections Act 2016 Ngāruahine Claims Settlement Act 2016 Radiation Safety Act 2016 Rangitāne o Manawatu Claims Settlement Act 2016 Riccarton Racecourse Act 2016 Riccarton Racecourse Development Enabling Act 2016 Senior Courts Act 2016 Smoke-free Environments (Tobacco Standardised Packaging) Amendment Act 2016 Subordinate Legislation Confirmation Act 2016 Taranaki Iwi Claims Settlement Act 2016 Te Atiawa Claims Settlement Act 2016 Trans-Pacific Partnership Agreement Amendment Act 2016 Wellington Town Belt Act 2016 2017 XXXX Energy Resources Levy (1976–1991) Act By Parliamentary Counsel Hospitals Act 1957–1993 (by Parliamentary Counsel) Act War Funds Act (1915 to 1995) by Parliamentary Counsel Act References External links The above list may not be current and will contain errors and omissions. For more accurate information see: New Zealand Legislation, Parliamentary Counsel Office Lists of Acts of the New Zealand Parliament
5186050	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%3A%20Freedom%20to%20Fascism	America: Freedom to Fascism	America: Freedom to Fascism is a 2006 American film by filmmaker and activist Aaron Russo, covering a variety of subjects that Russo contends are detrimental to Americans. Topics include the Internal Revenue Service (IRS), the income tax, Federal Reserve System, national ID cards (REAL ID Act), human-implanted RFID tags, Diebold electronic voting machines, globalization, Big Brother, taser weapons abuse, and the use of terrorism by the government as a means to diminish the citizens' rights. The film has been criticized for its promotion of conspiracy theories, its copious factual errors, and its repeated misrepresentations of the individuals and views it purports to criticize. Federal Reserve System issues and interviews in the film The film examines the genesis and functions of the Federal Reserve System. The film asserts that the Federal Reserve System is a system of privately held, for profit corporations, not a government agency, and that the Fed was commissioned to print fiat money on behalf of the federal government, at a fee ultimately paid for by the personal income tax (through service on bond interest). The film also refers to the fact that the United States dollar is not backed by gold, and states that this means the dollar has no real backing other than future income tax payments. Consequently, the film states that Federal Reserve Notes represent debt instead of wealth. The film argues that the Federal Reserve System manipulates what is sometimes referred to as the business cycle of economic expansion and retraction by putting new notes into circulation to increase the ease of obtaining credit, which devalues the currency, then compounds inflation by increasing interest (prime) rates. The movie argues that this manipulation is responsible for a 96% devaluation of American currency, since it was made possible to increasingly sever the link with gold backing by the Federal Reserve Act of 1913. The film says that this process of creating new money and adding it to the money supply is known as debasement and is a cause of inflation. In this way, the film concludes that the Federal Reserve System simultaneously controls the supply of money and its value. The central thesis of the film may be that this monetary policy is the strongest form of governance that has ever existed, and is central to the unconstitutional, global power ambitions of the interests that supposedly control the Federal Reserve System. The film also asserts that the private interests are controlling the Federal Reserve System, and have been for generations. The film proposes that most Americans are kept ignorant of how the Federal Reserve operates through actions of corrupt politicians and an increasingly centralized media. By using what the film calls legalistic and economic "mumbo-jumbo” terms such as 'monetizing the debt' or ‘adjusting monetary policy for increased fluidity of credit’, these interests, according to the film, conceal the true actions of the Fed behind veils of legitimacy. Interviews are conducted with several organizations and elected legislators who support these views. An argument made in the film is that there is no reason why the Federal Reserve System should have a monopoly on the U.S. money supply. The film asserts that "America got along just fine before the Federal Reserve came into existence." This leads the film to the question of why the Federal Reserve System was created. The film contends that the U.S. Congress has no control or oversight over the Fed, and hence has no control over the value of U.S. money. The film argues that Congressional control over the value of money is required by Article 1, Section 8 of the United States Constitution. The phrase in question (clause 5) states that the United States Congress shall have the power "To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin..." The film includes a call to action to abolish the Federal Reserve. In 2007, The Boston Globe stated that Congressman Ron Paul, "says he doesn't agree with all the film's arguments, but he says the film had 'a huge impact' on the support his campaign is drawing", a reference to Paul's presidential bid in 2007 and 2008. Federal income tax issues and interviews in the film Through interviews with various individuals including former IRS agents, Russo sets forth the tax protester argument that, "there is no law requiring an income tax", and that the personal income tax is illegally enforced to support the activities of the Federal Reserve System. One of the listed stars of the film, Irwin Schiff, was sentenced on February 24, 2006 to 13 years and 7 months in prison for tax evasion and ordered to pay over $4.2 million in restitution. In pre-sentencing documents filed with the court, Schiff's lawyers had argued that he had a mental disorder related to his beliefs about taxation. Initially, the film portrays Schiff as a tax expert, though his qualifications and those of many other individuals in the film are not mentioned. Later in the film, Russo reveals that Schiff has been imprisoned. Schiff appears in the film for another reason as well. The filmmaker lampoons Judge Kent Dawson's reaction to Schiff's defense. The film alleges that the judge "denied Irwin the ability to prove to a jury that there was no law requiring Americans to file an income tax return. He denied Irwin the right to attempt to prove to a jury there was no law ... by stating, 'I will not allow the law in my courtroom.'" At 0:48:28 of the film, Russo introduces the judge and his statement. Under the U.S. legal system, the general rule is that neither side in a civil or criminal case is allowed to try to prove to the jury what the law is. For example, in a murder case the defendant is not generally allowed to persuade the jury that there is no law against murder, or to try to interpret the law for the jury. Likewise, the prosecution is not allowed to try to persuade the jury about what the law is, or how it should be interpreted. Disagreements about what the law is; are argued by both sides before the judge, who then makes a ruling. Prior to jury deliberations, the judge, and only the judge, instructs the jury on the law. Another listed star, Vernice Kuglin, was acquitted in her criminal trial for tax evasion in August 2003. This means she was not found guilty of a willful intent to evade income taxes. (A conviction for tax evasion requires, among other things, proof by the government that the defendant engaged in one or more affirmative acts of misleading the government or of hiding income.) Kuglin's acquittal did not relieve her of liability for the taxes. Kuglin entered a settlement with the government in 2004 in which she agreed to pay over $500,000 in taxes and penalties. On April 30, 2007, the Memphis Daily News reported that Kuglin's Federal tax problems continued with the filing of a notice of Federal tax lien in the amount of $188,025. The Memphis newspaper also stated that Kuglin has "given up her fight against paying taxes, according to a Sept. 10, 2004, Commercial Appeal story." The preview clip for the film includes assertions contradicted by official government publications regarding the activities and nature of such institutions as the Internal Revenue Service and the Federal Reserve System. Constitutional arguments Fifth Amendment Russo's argument using the Fifth Amendment goes as follows: Premise 1: The government can criminally prosecute someone and put one in jail for information one puts on one's 1040 tax form. Premise 2: The fifth amendment says no one can be compelled to incriminate oneself. Conclusion: Since filing a 1040 incriminates oneself, filing a 1040 therefore violates one's fifth amendment rights. Though the second premise is not completely correct, the main source of error lies in the first premise. If one truthfully reports the amount of one's income, one does not incriminate oneself in the commission of a crime. However, falsely reporting one's income is itself the commission of a crime. Put another way, the fifth amendment protects one from incriminating oneself if testifying truthfully will incriminate oneself in the commission of a crime. It does not offer a provision for lying. The fifth amendment does, however, allow oneself to avoid disclosing the source of the income if doing so would incriminate oneself in the commission of a crime. While that may be the case, a person is still required to report the amount of all income on his or her federal tax return. Sixteenth Amendment The film refers to both article 1 section 8 of the U.S. Constitution, which grants Congress the authority to impose taxes, and disputes the legitimacy of the Sixteenth Amendment (see Tax protester Sixteenth Amendment arguments), which removes any apportionment requirement. Other issues related to taxes Some of the premises of the film include: The Federal Reserve System is unconstitutional and has maxed out the national debt and bankrupted the United States government. Federal income taxes were imposed in response to, or as part of, the plan implementing the Federal Reserve System. Federal income taxes are unconstitutional or otherwise legally invalid. The use of the Federal income tax to counter the economic effects of the Federal Reserve System is futile. The filmmaker's personal views on taxes As of late July 2006, Aaron Russo's biography on his website for the film stated: "The film is an exposé of the Internal Revenue Service, and proves conclusively there is no law requiring an American citizen to pay a direct unapportioned Tax on their labor." The New York Times article of July 31, 2006, states that when Russo asked IRS spokesman Anthony Burke for the law requiring payment of income taxes on wages and was provided a link to various documents including title 26 of the United States Code (the Internal Revenue Code), filmmaker Russo denied that title 26 was the law, contending that it consisted only of IRS "regulations" and had not been enacted by Congress. The article reports that in an interview in late July 2006, Russo claimed he was confident on this point. In the United States, statutes are enacted by Congress, and regulations are promulgated by the executive branch of government to implement the statutes. Statutes are found in the United States Code and regulations are found in the Code of Federal Regulations. The Treasury regulations to which Russo may have been referring are found at title 26 ("Internal Revenue") of the Code of Federal Regulations, not title 26 of the United States Code. The argument that the Internal Revenue Code is not law, the argument that the Internal Revenue Code is not "positive law," and variations of these arguments, have been officially identified as legally frivolous Federal tax return positions for purposes of the $5,000 frivolous tax return penalty imposed under Internal Revenue Code section 6702(a). The article also discloses that Russo had over $2 million of tax liens filed against him by the Internal Revenue Service, the state of California, and the state of New York for unpaid taxes. In an interview with The New York Times; however, Russo refused to discuss the liens, saying they were not relevant to his film. Inaccuracies, distortions, and misrepresentations Quotation of U.S. District Judge James C. Fox Aaron Russo reads a quote attributed to U.S. District Judge James C. Fox: If you ... examined [The 16th Amendment] carefully, you would find that a sufficient number of states never ratified that amendment. The film does not mention the specific court case, which is Sullivan v. United States in the United States District Court for the Eastern District of North Carolina, case no. 03-CV-39 (2003). In the case, the plaintiffs attempted unsuccessfully to prevent the deployment of troops to Iraq. The comments with respect to the Sixteenth Amendment did not constitute a ruling in the case (see Stare decisis) and were mentioned only in passing (see Obiter dictum). The transcript reads (in part): I will say I think, you know, colonel, I have to tell you that there are cases where a long course of history in fact does change the Constitution, and I can think of one instance. I believe I'm correct on this. I think if you were to go back and try to find and review the ratification of the 16th amendment, which was the internal revenue, income tax, I think if you went back and examined that carefully, you would find that a sufficient number of states never ratified that amendment ... And nonetheless, I think it's fair to say that it is part of the Constitution of the United States, and I don't think any court would ever...set it aside. Quotation of President Wilson Aaron Russo reads a quote widely attributed to Woodrow Wilson: I am a most unhappy man. I have unwittingly ruined my country. A great industrial nation is now controlled by its system of credit. We are no longer a government by free opinion, no longer a government by conviction and the vote of the majority, but a government by the opinion and duress of a small group of dominant men. This is a well-known conflation of several quotes, only two of which can actually be attributed to Woodrow Wilson. The source of the first two sentences is unknown, and nowhere on record can be found to be said by Wilson. The third sentence (although slightly altered in this version) is found in the eighth chapter of Wilson's 1913 book, The New Freedom, and originally reads: A great industrial nation is controlled by its system of credit. Our system of credit is privately concentrated. The growth of the nation, therefore, and all our activities are in the hands of a few men who, even if their action be honest and intended for the public interest, are necessarily concentrated upon the great undertakings in which their own money is involved and who necessarily, by very reason of their own limitations, chill and check and destroy genuine economic freedom. The final sentence (beginning with "We are no longer..."), although again slightly altered from its original version, can also be found in The New Freedom (ninth chapter), and in its original context, reads: We have restricted credit, we have restricted opportunity, we have controlled development, and we have come to be one of the worst ruled, one of the most completely controlled and dominated, governments in the civilized world—no longer a government by free opinion, no longer a government by conviction and the vote of the majority, but a government by the opinion and the duress of small groups of dominant men. That quotation, in this 1913-published book, was referring not at all to the Federal Reserve System, as this film alleges, but instead to the situation that preceded it and that Wilson was attacking: the "trusts" and "monopolies." Quotation of Mussolini Similarly, Russo uses a quotation that has for some time been attributed to Benito Mussolini: Fascism should more properly be called corporatism because it is the merger of state and corporate power. Probably, the complete quote in Italian is: "il corporativismo è la pietra angolare dello Stato fascista, anzi lo Stato fascista o è corporativo o non è fascista" Translation: "corporatism is the corner stone of the Fascist nation, or better still, the Fascist nation is corporative or it is not fascist" Quotation from President Bill Clinton The film displays a quote: "We can't be so fixated on our desire to preserve the rights of ordinary Americans." Bill Clinton, March 11, 1993 What Clinton actually said (on March 1, 1993) was: We can't be so fixated on our desire to preserve the rights of ordinary Americans to legitimately own handguns and rifles—it's something I strongly support—we can't be so fixated on that that we are unable to think about the reality of life that millions of Americans face on streets that are unsafe, under conditions that no other nation—no other nations—has permitted to exist. Quotation from Judge Kent Dawson Russo includes in text the following from a case against tax protester Irwin Schiff: Irwin Schiff: "But the Supreme Court said ..." Judge Dawson: "Irrelevant! Denied!" Irwin Schiff: "The Supreme Court is irrelevant???[sic]" Judge Dawson: "Irrelevant! Denied!" This is followed by Russo's verbal statement: "Here we have a federal judge railroading an American citizen by saying Supreme Court decisions are irrelevant." The first line of Schiff's statement in full is "But the Supreme Court said in the Cheek decision". In what follows, Dawson was stating that the Cheek v. United States decision was irrelevant to the particular argument that Schiff was trying to make at the time and not that Supreme Court decisions in general are irrelevant. First Amendment In the film, it is stated: On August 31, 2005 federal judge Emmet Sullivan ruled the government does not have to answer the American people's questions, even though it is guaranteed in the First Amendment. The text of the first amendment is as follows: "Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances." Claim that the film was shown at Cannes Russo's promotional materials state that the film was shown at Cannes in France, implying that it was screened as part of the prestigious Cannes Film Festival. The film's web site states: America: Freedom to Fascism Opens to Standing Ovations at Cannes! The international audience at Cannes as well as the European media has been fascinated by Russo’s fiery diatribe against the direction America is heading. According to a New York Times article by David Cay Johnston on July 31, 2006, however, the film was not "on the program" at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival itself; Russo actually rented an inflatable screen and showed the film on the beach at the town of Cannes during the time of the film festival. The New York Times article states: "Photographs posted at one of Russo's Web sites depict an audience of fewer than 50 people spread out on a platform on the sand." Subsequently, it was exhibited in theaters in select U.S. cities. Reception A review by The New York Times stated that "examination of the assertions in Russo’s documentary, which purports to expose 'two frauds' perpetrated by the federal government, taxing wages and creating the Federal Reserve to coin money, shows that they too collapse under the weight of fact." See also Tax protester conspiracy arguments We the People Foundation References External links Income Tax: Voluntary or Mandatory? A law professor comments on the issues discussed in Russo's film Refutations of tax protester arguments from the Internal Revenue Service 2006 films Documentary films about American politics Documentary films about conspiracy theories 2006 documentary films 2000s English-language films 2000s American films
5186233	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Necrophilia%20in%20popular%20culture	Necrophilia in popular culture	Necrophilia has been a topic in popular culture. Necrophilia in fiction Romantic connections between love and death are a frequent theme in Western artistic expression. In the Greek legend of the Trojan War, the Greek hero Achilles slays the Amazon queen Penthesilea in a duel. Upon removing her helmet and seeing her face, Achilles falls in love with her and mourns her death. The soldier Thersites openly ridicules Achilles and accuses him of necrophilia. Achilles responds by promptly killing Thersites with a single blow. (In some traditions, Thersites' accusation is not unfounded — Achilles was so stricken by Penthesilea's beauty that he could not control his lust for her, even after her death.) In Gabrielle Wittkop's first novel Le Necrophile (1972), the protagonist is a bisexual antiques shop owner who has sex exclusively with corpses (of all ages and genders), which he digs up from the Montparnasse Cemetery and then throws into the river. In Cormac McCarthy's Child of God (1973), protagonist Lester Ballard finds a dead couple in a car, and carries the female corpse back to his cabin to have sex with it. After losing the corpse in a fire, he begins murdering women to create dead female sex partners for himself. In Stephen King's novel Under the Dome, Junior Rennie murders a woman whom he hates and has intercourse with her dead body. Georges Bataille's novella Story of the Eye ends with the main characters performing perverse and sacrilegious sexual acts on a passive priest, who is raped and strangled to death as he climaxes. After murdering him, the characters continue to perform sexual acts with his dismembered eyeball. Algernon Swinburne wrote a frankly necrophilic poem, "The Leper", in which a man keeps the body of his former lover in his house: "Love bites and stings me through, to see/Her keen face made of sunken bones./Her worn-off eyelids madden me,/That were shot through with purple once." Oscar Wilde's play, Salome, is based on the Biblical story of a Judean princess who performs the Dance of the Seven Veils for the Tetrarch, Herod, in exchange for the head of John the Baptist. When Salome finally receives the Christian prophet's head, she addresses it in an erotic monologue that has highly suggestive necrophiliac overtones. Various artistic depictions of the story, particularly in the work of Gustave Moreau and Aubrey Beardsley, also hint at this subtext. In Christopher Moore's novel, Bloodsucking Fiends, when the police find the vampire Jody in Tommy's freezer, they think it's a dead body he's hiding so they send her to the morgue. The man working there is a necrophile and nearly molests her before she wakes up, giving him a heart attack that leads to his death. (She tucks his erection away so when he's found no one will suspect his dirty secret.) In Edgar Allan Poe's poem "Annabel Lee", there is a hint of the narrator's romantic necrophiliac desires, as suggested by his sleeping in his beloved's tomb all night. In C. M. Eddy, Jr.'s short story "The Loved Dead", the protagonist's actions revolve around his misunderstood feelings towards dead people. It starts with his own grandfather and progresses on toward necrophilia and becoming a serial killer to satisfy his desires. In Poppy Z. Brite's novel, Exquisite Corpse, the protagonist is a necrophile and serial killer. He explains his behavior as a compensation for loneliness. Richard Brautigan's novel Dreaming of Babylon: A Private Eye Novel 1942 features a coroner who speaks openly of his attraction to female corpses, though he denies having intercourse with them. In The Secret Texts trilogy by Holly Lisle, Andrew Sabir of the Hellspawn Trinity often rapes the corpses of the dead before his cousin, Crispin, buries them in his famous garden. Crispin and Anwyn, who are the other members of the Trinity, find this habit of his disgusting, and make that known even in their introduction. Often, Andrew's victims are children, as the energy of children, especially little girls, is considered by those who practice both Wolf and Dragon magic to be the purest. In the video game The Elder Scrolls III: Morrowind, there is a mission in which the player must anger a creature called a Dremora into attacking. When the creature finally snaps, it threatens to rape the player's remains, mockingly promising that it will "be gentle." In the sequel, The Elder Scrolls IV: Oblivion, there is a Dunmer named Falanu Hlaalu, an alchemist in the city of Skingrad who rather suspiciously asks if you know the fine for necrophilia in Cyrodiil. If you choose to tell her the fine, which is 500 gold, she says enthusiastically: "That's nothing compared to Morrowind. Thanks." Other characters living in the city note that they have seen her in the graveyard with an odd smile on her face. In Grand Theft Auto IV the player meets a character named "Eddie Low", who is a serial killer, cannibal and necrophiliac, twice. The first time, he asks for a ride to the docks, where he disposes of a victim. The second time, the player character insults him, and Eddie attacks with a knife, intending to have sex with the player character's remains. The player is forced to kill Eddie. In Hideo Yamamoto's original manga of Ichi the Killer, the crime scene cleaner Inoue is depicted as a necrophile, and shown in silhouette having sex with the corpse of a 17-year-old girl whilst his coworkers prepare to bury her. Samuel Delany's 1969 novel, Hogg, is replete with detailed descriptions of erotic necrophilia. Patrick Bateman, the protagonist of the novel and film American Psycho, is depicted as engaging in acts of necrophilia, with bodies and parts of his victims. In Neil Gaiman's short story "Snow, Glass, Apples", the prince of Snow White is reimagined as having necrophiliac-like sexual tastes, preferring that his partners lie still and virtually unmoving while they have sex, to the extent that he is seduced by the vampire-esque Snow White. In Japanese manga and anime, the topic is many times present in the Ero guro subgenre. In the first chapter of Kaori Yuki's manga, Ludwig Revolution, Blanche discovers Prince Ludwig is a necrophile when she finds all the corpses in his bedroom. In Barbara Gowdy's short story "We Seldom Look on Love", a main character is depicted as a necrophile. Her lover is forced to take his life to be involved with her. Under writer Geoff Johns, Green Lantern villain Black Hand was reimagined as a necrophile. In Angela Carter's short story "The Snow Child" (published in The Bloody Chamber), the Count rapes the corpse of the girl. The 2011 video game L.A. Noire features a fictional necrophiliac named John Ferdinand Jamison. In the case "The Studio Secretary Murder," Ferdinand confesses to kissing and putting lipstick on the corpse of murder victim Evelyn Summers, much to the disgust of the player, Cole Phelps', partner, Rusty Galloway, who punches Jamison in the face two separate times. The sixth chapter of Derek Pell's Doktor Bey's Book of the Dead includes a listing of the "7 Joys of Necrophilia". In Tamsyn Muir's novel Gideon the Ninth, the character Harrowhark Nonagesimus is shown to have fallen in love with the corpse of Alecto the First, referred to as "the Body". In the sequel novel, Harrow the Ninth, the Lyctor Gideon the First (potentially possessed by the spirit of his cavalier, Pyrrha Dve) is shown kissing the corpse of fellow Lyctor Cytherea the First (potentially possessed by the spirit of Pyrrha's lover Commander Wake); another character suggests that he may have also engaged in necrophilia with the corpse. In Supervert's collection, Necrophilia Variations, the stories "appear to be drawn straight from Aggrawal's ten-tier classification of necrophilia, but reimagined by Bataille or the Marquis de Sade." Necrophilia in film and television In The Strange World of Coffin Joe (1968), a short story titled "Tara" revolves around a lead character who breaks into the mausoleum containing the coffin of a beautiful woman, who he saw passing daily. He removes her burial wedding dress, has sex with the body and performs foot fetishism. The B movie Sweet Kill (1973) revolves around a lead character who becomes aroused only by dead bodies. The 1976 film In the Realm of the Senses fictionalizes the case of Sada Abe. Sada, a former prostitute who now works as a maid in a hotel begins an intense affair with its owner, Kichizo Ishida, that consists of sexual experiments and various self-indulgences. Ishida leaves his wife to pursue his affair with Sada. Sada becomes increasingly possessive and jealous of him, and he more eager to please her. Their mutual obsession escalates to the point where Ishida finds she is most excited by strangling him during lovemaking, and he is killed in this fashion. Sada then severs his penis and writes, "Sada Kichi the two of us forever," in blood on his chest. The 1977 John Waters film Desperate Living contains a scene where Princess Coo-Coo (Mary Vivian Pearce) is seen in bed with her recently deceased boyfriend. In 1980, artist John Duncan produced Blind Date, a film in which he reportedly had sex with a human cadaver. The protagonist in Dominique Deruddere's 1987 film Crazy Love, based on various writings by author and poet Charles Bukowski, has sex with a dead woman in the third and final act. The 1987 and 1991 controversial German underground films Nekromantik and its sequel (both directed by Jörg Buttgereit) offer a graphic portrayal of sexual necrophilia. In a scene in the film Leatherface: The Texas Chainsaw Massacre III, the character Alfredo Sawyer is depicted as passionately kissing a severed and heavily decayed head as he disposes of body parts in a swamp. In the 1990 film Singapore Sling, a daughter is shown having sex with her late father, who is now a mummified corpse. A 1991 Taggart episode, "Nest of Vipers", featured a plotline where a necrophiliac used venomous animals to commit murders. The 1994 film Aftermath directed by Nacho Cerdà deals with necrophilia in a morgue. The 1996 Canadian film Kissed, starring Molly Parker, centers around a young woman's increasingly romantic fascination with corpses. In the Family Guy episode "Death is a Bitch", Death (represented by the Grim Reaper) continues to have intercourse with a woman after he kills her with his touch. In the later episode "I Take Thee Quagmire", Glen Quagmire asks Death if he can have the corpse of his deceased ex-wife "for a few minutes", implying that, among other things, Quagmire could be a necrophile. This was proved in the episode "And Then There Were Fewer" when Quagmire leaves with Stephanie's dead body. The 2000 film Quills depicts a dream where the Abbé in charge of the Marquis de Sade's asylum fondles and fornicates with a dead laundress. In it, she comes back to life during sex, then returns to a corpse once he realizes his actions. Takashi Miike's 2001 film Visitor Q contains a scene where a man rapes and accidentally kills a woman, and then decides to have sex with her before chopping her body into pieces. While having sex, the body goes into rigor mortis and his penis gets stuck. In the 2001 film Mortel Transfert, a psychoanalyst thwarts an attempt by the ground keeper to engage sexual activity with the body of his recently deceased client he was attempting to dispose of. In the 2002 independent horror film I'll Bury You Tomorrow, the protagonist, a necrophiliac, pursues employment at a mortuary for access to cadavers. In the television series Sons of Anarchy, a club member named Tig Trager admits to the club president that he engages in sexual activities with corpses. In Haute Tension, the antagonist performs fellatio on himself with a severed head. The 2004 film Murder-Set-Pieces features the main character (Sven Garrett) performing fellatio on himself with what is later revealed to be a severed head. The Season 2 episode of Puppets Who Kill, "Dan and the Necrophiliac", features a female necrophiliac who is caught having sex with her dead uncle at his funeral. Later in the episode the character of Dan Barlow (Dan Redican), who is attracted to her, fakes his own death so that she will violate his corpse. In Rob Zombie's House of 1000 Corpses and The Devil's Rejects, Otis B. Driftwood is a rapist and a necrophiliac. He is seen in one scene sleeping with a dead body of a woman he presumably killed, and when shown a picture of a dead cheerleader and told that "she isn't so fuckable now", Otis responds that she is. The film Freddy vs. Jason depicts a scene where Freddy Krueger has sex with the body of a dead girl; also, in Wildstorm's Nightmare on Elm Street comics, Freddy is implicated as having molested the dead bodies of children. The Season 3 episode of Nip/Tuck titled "Frankenlaura" features a necrophiliac mortician who preserves the body of his dead sister in order to make love to it. In the animated TV series Drawn Together, Captain Hero has experienced attraction to corpses on multiple occasions, and at one point throws a tantrum due to being unable to find a dead body he was told about. The Criminal Minds episode "Cold Comfort" features a necrophiliac serial killer who kills women so he can have sex with the bodies, believing them to be his dead au pair Abbey. Also, in the episode "Sex, Birth, Death", Dr. Reid is sought out by Nathan Harris (Anton Yelchin), a teenage boy who is having necrophiliac urges, much to his disturbance. Nathan is then psychoanalyzed, where he admits that the sight of the cadavers that his mother (a college professor) works with sexually arouses him. The character Theodore "T-Bag" Bagwell in Prison Break "raped and killed children, and not always in that order". In the 2009 film Necromentia, the character Hagen is accused of having engaged in necrophilia on multiple occasions with his dead lover. In Season 2 of the TV series The Following, identical twin Luke Gray appears to have an interest in necrophilia. In the 2012 film 3AM, segment A Funeral Home, the story centers on junior mortician Tod, who develops an intimate relationship with Cherry's corpse. In the 2012 Japanese animated series Psycho-Pass, one of the sub-antagonists Rikako Ouryou is involved in acts of necrophilia before performing plastination on them. In the 2014 film The Midnight After, a segment depicts a certain character briefly occupied with necrophiliac activity on another previous passenger. In the 2015 film The Corpse of Anna Fritz, an orderly at a hospital and his friend have sex with Anna's corpse and begins raping it. In the 2016 film The Neon Demon, a female character has sex with the deceased body of another woman in a morgue, leading the media to call it 'lesbian necrophilia'. In the 2020 film Her Name Was Christa, the main character has sex with his dead girlfriend after she overdoses on drugs. In the Solar Opposites episode "The Unstable Grey Hole", Korvo mentions that he often digs up human corpses from a cemetery and has sex with them. In an episode of the original Charmed, one of the sisters makes a joke about Piper being a necrophiliac. Necrophilia in music In the music video for the song "Velvet", Norwegian band A-ha portrays the band as murder victims, opening with Morten Harket as a dead man in a bathtub: a girl killed him by electrocution, dropping a plugged hairdryer in the tub. Throughout the video he is taken to the morgue, tagged, etc., all the while singing the lyrics. Paul Waaktaar-Savoy plays his guitar while apparently dead from a gunshot to the head (shot by a girl who looks very similar to the girl who killed Morten), and Magne Furuholmen's body is found in a freezer. All three continue singing and playing while being brought to the morgue, and within it. Some scenes in the morgue controversially suggest necrophilia. The director of this video was Harald Zwart, who also directs Hollywood movies. Zwart, a fellow Norwegian, chose this song to be a part of his new film at the time, One Night at McCool's. The so-called "licking version" of this video appears on the international DVD release of One Night at McCool's, as well as on the DVD enclosed with the deluxe edition of 25, where it is labeled as "European Cut". The "licking version" got its name because it features the older nurse seen near the end of the video licking Morten's lips instead of kissing him. A-ha was criticized by some for playing with necrophilia in this music video, even though that was not the band’s intent and they felt it was more of a fun piece. In the videoclip "Meaningless" by Pain of Salvation a girl has a sexual intercourse with Daniel Gildenlow's corpse. English punk rock group Charged G.B.H recorded a song titled "Necrophilia". Satirical songwriter Tom Lehrer, whose 1950s recordings mentioned many topics not normally openly discussed in those days, referenced a friend of his who "wrote a heartwarming story about a young necrophiliac who finally achieved his lifelong ambition by becoming Coroner!" Lehrer gave the audience a few seconds to murmur in bewilderment, and then said, "The rest of you can look it up when you get home!" Jimmy Cross's song "I Want My Baby Back" is a parody of the morbid teenage tragedy song genre that was popular in the late 1950s and early 1960s. The Geto Boys' song "Mind of a Lunatic" (from the 1989 album Grip It! On That Other Level and the 1990 Def American release) has a lyric where Bushwick Bill as a serial rapist kills a woman and has sex with a corpse; the remake of the song "Skitso" (1992) on his album Little Big Man has this reference. Notorious transgressive punk rocker GG Allin performed two songs dealing with necrophilia. The first, entitled "Fuck the Dead", appears on (among others) the album Dirty Love Songs. The second, entitled "Anal Cunt" and appearing on the album Brutality and Bloodshed for All, is specifically about anal sex with a corpse and contains such lyrics as "You're my beast, your soul has gone away/But your dead anal cunt will be my fuck of fucks today." One of the main themes in The Doug Anthony All Stars CD/video release Dead & Alive is necrophilia. "Necrophilia comes from the Latin 'necros' meaning 'dead' and 'philia,' the verb, 'to fill.' And I notice when I say that word 'necrophilia,' a lot of the younger people up the front visibly stiffen. The older mob up the back begin to look a bit scared. And quite rightly so." of Montreal's song "Chrissy Kiss The Corpse" features a titular woman whose "vile hobby" is "fondling the dead". The song "Corpse in my Bed" by Creature Feature concerns a protagonist whom keeps the corpse of a woman within his home after unearthing her. The singer "could never think of leaving her side, even though it's been years since she died." Progressive metal outfit Savatage wrote a song titled "Necrophilia" which was released on the album Power of the Night. A Midnite Choir's "Amelia" is a love song by an admirer of the titular person, who is a necrophile. In the 1970s, shock rocker Alice Cooper recorded four songs about necrophilia: "I Love the Dead", "Blue Turk," "Refrigerator Heaven", and "Cold Ethyl". Rammstein wrote a song called "Heirate mich" (Marry me) in which a man digs up his dead girlfriend and "takes what's still there". Horror punk band Murderdolls, led by Wednesday 13, has created a life style out of singing about necrophilia and sexual acts with the dead. Punk rock band T.S.O.L. had a minor hit with "Code Blue", a song that justifies necrophilia by claiming (among other things) that the singer can, "Do what I want and [she] won't complain." The song "Nekrofelia" by Danish psychobilly band Nekromantix is about necrophilia. American deathcore band Whitechapel's album The Somatic Defilement includes a great deal of nercrophilic themes throughout. In 1993, a music video for Tom Petty's hit song "Mary Jane's Last Dance" featured the singer simulating various romantic poses with a dead woman (Kim Basinger). In 2000, comedian Stephen Lynch released a song called "A Month Dead" about a necrophile whose lover is beginning to smell on his album A Little Bit Special. British metal band Cradle of Filth released a poster with vocalist Dani Filth standing in a cemetery, with the words "Dead Girls Don't Say 'No'". British grindcore band Raging Speedhorn wrote a song called "Necrophiliac Glue-Sniffer". Thrash metal band Slayer have many songs concerning necrophilia. They released "Necrophiliac" on Hell Awaits, "Dead Skin Mask" (about Ed Gein) on Seasons in the Abyss and yet another track on Divine Intervention about Jeffrey Dahmer called "213". Brotha Lynch Hung, a hardcore rapper from Sacramento is one of the most gruesome and explicitally violent lyricists with songs graphically chronicling a life filled by drug use and sale, promiscuity, ultra-violence, rape, infanticide, necrophilia, and cannibalism. Horrorcore rap group Wolfpac released a song called "Death Becomes Her", about having sex with a dead girl and eventually having to hide the body from the police. Black metal band Mayhem released a song "Necrolust" on their 1987 Deathcrush EP. Swedish Death metal band Tribulation released a song "Crypt of Thanatophilia" on their 2009 debut 'The Horror'. Killing Miranda released a song "Burn Sinister". Choice lyrics snippets: "away from prying eyes", "my cold dead flesh", "romance this rotting meat", "the smell of formaldehyde and perfume".... Voltaire wrote a song on his album Almost Human called "Dead Girls", about a man being convicted for fornicating with the deceased in a morgue. Another song, on the album Ooky Spooky, is titled "Zombie Prostitute". Cannibal Corpse has many songs about necrophilia and corpse defiling, such as "I Cum Blood", "Necropedophile", "Dismembered and Molested" and "Gallery of Suicide". Ironically they also have songs about the dead coming back to life and raping the living, like "Necrosadistic Warning" and "Post Mortem Ejaculation" and even songs about zombies having sex, like "Unite the Dead." Vocalist George "Corpsegrinder" Fisher says that "the songs are all in good faith, and are not meant to offend real necrophiles, despite offending everyone else." Cradle of Filth's song "Lord Abortion" is thought to be about necrophilia, based on lyrics and a female voice at the introduction that says "Care for a little necrophilia, hm?". This line was borrowed from a line spoken by Kim Greist in the film Brazil. Noise musician Atrax Morgue's work revolves heavily around necrophilia; track titles include "Necrosadism", "Esthetik of a Corpse", "Cold Pleasure", "Necrophile Lust", and the "Necrophiliac Experience" series. The song "A Little Piece of Heaven" on the self-titled album by Avenged Sevenfold describes his necrophilic act. "Cause I really always knew that my little crime would be cold/that's why I got a heater for your thighs" "She was never this good in bed even when she was sleeping/now she's just so perfect I've never been so fucking deep in." In the song, it is about a man who kills his girlfriend when she laughs at him, when he proposes. She comes back to life and kills him, then they both come back from the grave, get married and go on a murder spree. In the video, this is all shown as a cartoon and the man has sex with the corpse of his girlfriend after he kills her. The song "Last Kiss Goodbye" by Lordi talks about hiding a girl's body, and being in love with her. Norwegian Black Metal band Ancient's song "Willothewisp" is about a man's love story with his dead lover, which is depicted in the video clip. The Black Dahlia Murder released the song "A Vulgar Picture". It tells the story of a man going into a grave to dig up his dead wife. They also released a song titled "Deathmask Divine" featuring the lyrics "I could never let you go my darling cold and blue / I wonder are you dreaming still spread eagle blood removed / I weave the sucking trocar beneath your bruising skin / tonight I'll lay beside you darling in necromantic sin". The Rob Zombie song "Demonoid Phenomenon" features samples from the 1971 film Daughters of Darkness (Les Lèvres Rouges), one of which is "You actually enjoyed seeing that dead girl's body". The Mars Volta released a song in 2009 called "Halo of Nembutals" containing the lyrics "They send in the necrophiliacs". The song Cemetery by the Canadian rock band Headstones is about a girlfriend "from the wrong side of town", featuring the lyrics "Went down to the cemetery looking for love / Got there and my baby was buried - I had to dig her up". Rapper DMX referred to being a necrophiliac in the song "Bring Your Whole Crew" on his 1998 album Flesh of My Flesh, Blood of My Blood when he rapped "...got blood on my dick 'cause I fucked a corpse". The aggrotech artist Suicide Commando released a song called "Necrophilia" on his debut album Critical Stage released in 1994. The horrorcore rapper King Gordy talks about raping and licking a young girl who has been dead for weeks on the song "Mr 187" in 2009. Shock rock band The Murder Groupies occasionally performed a song live titled N.D.Q (Necrophiliac Drag Queens). OFWGKTA member and rapper Tyler, The Creator talks about having sex with the corpse of a girl who wouldn't go to prom with him in the song "Sarah" from his first album Bastard. He also raps about having sex with the corpse of a girl who rejected him in a forest in the song "She" with Frank Ocean from his second album Goblin. Half Man Half Biscuit's song "Excavating Rita" from their album 90 Bisodol (Crimond) concerns a bereaved Betterware salesman who engages in necrophilia and is sectioned as a result. In Canadian comedian Jon Lajoie's "WTF Collective 3", one of the MC's name is "MC Necrophiliac". Gothic metalcore band Motionless in White released a song named "Whatever You Do...Don't Push the Red Button" on their 2009 EP, When Love Met Destruction. The song tells a story of a man who unburies his deceased lover and has sex with her body and is most notorious for its ending breakdown where Chris Cerulli screams "I bet that I fucked more dead girls than you." Rapper Kanye West includes the lyric "Have you ever had sex with a pharaoh? Uh, put the pussy in a sarcophagus" on his song "Monster". Drag Queen Sharon Needles recorded the song "Dead Girls Never Say No" for her debut album PG-13, inspired by the relationship between Carl Tanzler and the corpse of Elena Milagro "Helen" de Hoyos. Horror folk band Harley Poe includes themes of necrophilia in their music, especially the song "Corpse Grindin' Man." Finnish singer-songwriter Mirel Wagner included the song "No Death" on her self-titled 2011 debut album. The song was released as a single in August, 2011. In the song the narrator describes the appearance of their deceased and rotting lover and the acts they perform on them before the corpse eventually disintegrates. "Necromancer", from the Gnarls Barkley album "St. Elsewhere (album)", contains themes of necrophilia. The song "Rotten", by Missouri Surf Club, describes a man who "pulls (the subject) straight from the coffin" and proceeds to have sex with them. References Popular culture Sexuality in popular culture Topics in popular culture
5186411	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Born%20coordinates	Born coordinates	In relativistic physics, the Born coordinate chart is a coordinate chart for (part of) Minkowski spacetime, the flat spacetime of special relativity. It is often used to analyze the physical experience of observers who ride on a ring or disk rigidly rotating at relativistic speeds, so called Langevin observers. This chart is often attributed to Max Born, due to his 1909 work on the relativistic physics of a rotating body. For overview of the application of accelerations in flat spacetime, see Acceleration (special relativity) and proper reference frame (flat spacetime). From experience by inertial scenarios (i.e. measurements in inertial frames), Langevin observers synchronize their clocks by standard Einstein convention or by slow clock synchronization, respectively (both internal synchronizations). For a certain Langevin observer this method works perfectly. Within its immediate vicinity clocks are synchronized and light propagates isotropic in space. But the experience when the observers try to synchronize their clocks along a closed path in space is puzzling: there are always at least two neighboring clocks which have different times. To remedy the situation, the observers agree on an external synchronization procedure (coordinate time t — or for ring-riding observers, a proper coordinate time for a fixed radius r). By this agreement, Langevin observers riding on a rigidly rotating disk will conclude from measurements of small distances between themselves that the geometry of the disk is non-Euclidean. Regardless of which method they use, they will conclude that the geometry is well approximated by a certain Riemannian metric, namely the Langevin–Landau–Lifschitz metric. This is in turn very well approximated by the geometry of the hyperbolic plane (with the negative curvatures –3 ω2 and –3 ω2 r2, respectively). But if these observers measure larger distances, they will obtain different results, depending upon which method of measurement they use! In all such cases, however, they will most likely obtain results which are inconsistent with any Riemannian metric. In particular, if they use the simplest notion of distance, radar distance, owing to various effects such as the asymmetry already noted, they will conclude that the "geometry" of the disk is not only non-Euclidean, it is non-Riemannian. The rotating disk is not a paradox. Whatever method the observers use to analyze the situation: at the end they find themselves analyzing a rotating disk and not an inertial frame. Langevin observers in the cylindrical chart To motivate the Born chart, we first consider the family of Langevin observers represented in an ordinary cylindrical coordinate chart for Minkowski spacetime. The world lines of these observers form a timelike congruence which is rigid in the sense of having a vanishing expansion tensor. They represent observers who rotate rigidly around an axis of cylindrical symmetry. From the line element we can immediately read off a frame field representing the local Lorentz frames of stationary (inertial) observers Here, is a timelike unit vector field while the others are spacelike unit vector fields; at each event, all four are mutually orthogonal and determine the infinitesimal Lorentz frame of the static observer whose world line passes through that event. Simultaneously boosting these frame fields in the direction, we obtain the desired frame field describing the physical experience of the Langevin observers, namely This frame was apparently first introduced (implicitly) by Paul Langevin in 1935; its first explicit use appears to have been by T. A. Weber, as recently as 1997! It is defined on the region 0 < R < 1/ω; this limitation is fundamental, since near the outer boundary, the velocity of the Langevin observers approaches the speed of light. Each integral curve of the timelike unit vector field appears in the cylindrical chart as a helix with constant radius (such as the red curve in Fig. 1). Suppose we choose one Langevin observer and consider the other observers who ride on a ring of radius R which is rigidly rotating with angular velocity ω. Then if we take an integral curve (blue helical curve in Fig. 1) of the spacelike basis vector , we obtain a curve which we might hope can be interpreted as a "line of simultaneity" for the ring-riding observers. But as we see from Fig. 1, ideal clocks carried by these ring-riding observers cannot be synchronized. This is our first hint that it is not as easy as one might expect to define a satisfactory notion of spatial geometry even for a rotating ring, much less a rotating disk! Computing the kinematic decomposition of the Langevin congruence, we find that the acceleration vector is This points radially inward and it depends only on the (constant) radius of each helical world line. The expansion tensor vanishes identically, which means that nearby Langevin observers maintain constant distance from each other. The vorticity vector is which is parallel to the axis of symmetry. This means that the world lines of the nearest neighbors of each Langevin observer are twisting about its own world line, as suggested by Fig. 2. This is a kind of local notion of "swirling" or vorticity. In contrast, note that projecting the helices onto any one of the spatial hyperslices orthogonal to the world lines of the static observers gives a circle, which is of course a closed curve. Even better, the coordinate basis vector is a spacelike Killing vector field whose integral curves are closed spacelike curves (circles, in fact), which moreover degenerate to zero length closed curves on the axis R = 0. This expresses the fact that our spacetime exhibits cylindrical symmetry, and also exhibits a kind of global notion of the rotation of our Langevin observers. In Fig. 2, the magenta curve shows how the spatial vectors are spinning about (which is suppressed in the figure since the Z coordinate is inessential). That is, the vectors are not Fermi–Walker transported along the world line, so the Langevin frame is spinning as well as non-inertial. In other words, in our straightforward derivation of the Langevin frame, we kept the frame aligned with the radial coordinate basis vector . By introducing a constant rate rotation of the frame carried by each Langevin observer about , we could, if we wished "despin" our frame to obtain a gyrostabilized version. Transforming to the Born chart To obtain the Born chart, we straighten out the helical world lines of the Langevin observers using the simple coordinate transformation The new line element is Notice the "cross-terms" involving , which show that the Born chart is not an orthogonal coordinate chart. The Born coordinates are also sometimes referred to as rotating cylindrical coordinates. In the new chart, the world lines of the Langevin observers appear as vertical straight lines. Indeed, we can easily transform the four vector fields making up the Langevin frame into the new chart. We obtain These are exactly the same vector fields as before – they are now simply represented in a different coordinate chart! Needless to say, in the process of "unwinding" the world lines of the Langevin observers, which appear as helices in the cylindrical chart, we "wound up" the world lines of the static observers, which now appear as helices in the Born chart! Note too that, like the Langevin frame, the Born chart is only defined on the region 0 < r < 1/ω. If we recompute the kinematic decomposition of the Langevin observers, that is of the timelike congruence , we will of course obtain the same answer that we did before, only expressed in terms of the new chart. Specifically, the acceleration vector is the expansion tensor vanishes, and the vorticity vector is The dual covector field of the timelike unit vector field in any frame field represents infinitesimal spatial hyperslices. However, the Frobenius integrability theorem gives a strong restriction on whether or not these spatial hyperplane elements can be "knit together" to form a family of spatial hypersurfaces which are everywhere orthogonal to the world lines of the congruence. Indeed, it turns out that this is possible, in which case we say the congruence is hypersurface orthogonal, if and only if the vorticity vector vanishes identically. Thus, while the static observers in the cylindrical chart admits a unique family of orthogonal hyperslices , the Langevin observers admit no such hyperslices. In particular, the spatial surfaces in the Born chart are orthogonal to the static observers, not to the Langevin observers. This is our second (and much more pointed) indication that defining "the spatial geometry of a rotating disk" is not as simple as one might expect. To better understand this crucial point, consider integral curves of the third Langevin frame vector which pass through the radius . (For convenience, we will suppress the inessential coordinate z from our discussion.) These curves lie in the surface shown in Fig. 3. We would like to regard this as a "space at a time" for our Langevin observers. But two things go wrong. First, the Frobenius theorem tells us that are tangent to no spatial hyperslice whatever. Indeed, except on the initial radius, the vectors do not lie in our slice. Thus, while we found a spatial hypersurface, it is orthogonal to the world lines of only some our Langevin observers. Because the obstruction from the Frobenius theorem can be understood in terms of the failure of the vector fields to form a Lie algebra, this obstruction is differential, in fact Lie theoretic. That is, it is a kind of infinitesimal obstruction to the existence of a satisfactory notion of spatial hyperslices for our rotating observers. Second, as Fig. 3 shows, our attempted hyperslice would lead to a discontinuous notion of "time" due to the "jumps" in the integral curves (shown as a blue colored grid discontinuity). Alternatively, we could try to use a multivalued time. Neither of these alternatives seems very attractive! This is evidently a global obstruction. It is of course a consequence of our inability to synchronize the clocks of the Langevin observers riding even a single ring – say the rim of a disk – much less an entire disk. The Sagnac effect Imagine that we have fastened a fiber-optic cable around the circumference of a ring of radius which is rotating with steady angular velocity ω. We wish to compute the round trip travel time, as measured by a ring-riding observer, for a laser pulse sent clockwise and counterclockwise around the cable. For simplicity, we will ignore the fact that light travels through a fiber optic cable at somewhat less than the speed of light in vacuum, and will pretend that the world line of our laser pulse is a null curve (but certainly not a null geodesic!). In the Born line element, let us put . This gives or We obtain for the round trip travel time Putting , we find (positive ω means counter-clockwise rotation, negative ω means clockwise rotation) so that the ring-riding observers can determine the angular velocity of the ring (as measured by a static observer) from the difference between clockwise and counterclockwise travel times. This is known as the Sagnac effect. It is evidently a global effect. Null geodesics We wish to compare the appearance of null geodesics in the cylindrical chart and the Born chart. In the cylindrical chart, the geodesic equations read We immediately obtain the first integrals Plugging these into the expression obtained from the line element by setting , we obtain from which we see that the minimal radius of a null geodesic is given by i.e., hence We can now solve to obtain the null geodesics as curves parameterized by an affine parameter, as follows: More useful for our purposes is the observation that the trajectory of a null geodesic (its projection into any spatial hyperslice ) is of course a straight line, given by To obtain the minimal radius of the line through two points (on the same side of the point of closest approach to the origin), we solve which gives Now consider the simplest case, the radial null geodesics (Rmin = L = 0, E = 1, P = 0). An outward bound radial null geodesic may be written in the form with the radius R0 of the ring riding Langevin observer (see Fig. 4). Transforming to the Born chart, we find that the trajectory can be written as The tracks turn out to appear slightly bent in the Born chart (see green curve in Fig. 4). From section Transforming to the Born chart we see, that in the Born chart we cannot properly refer to these "tracks" as "projections" as for the Langevin observer an orthogonal hyperslice for t = t0 does not exist (see Fig. 3). Similarly for inward bound radial null geodesics we get depicted as red curve in Fig. 4. Notice that to send a laser pulse toward the stationary observer S at R = 0, the Langevin observer L has to aim slightly behind to correct for its own motion. Turning things around, just as a duck hunter would expect, to send a laser pulse toward the Langevin observer riding a counterclockwise rotating ring, the central observer has to aim, not at this observer's current position, but at the position at which he will arrive just in time to intercept the signal. These families of inward and outward bound radial null geodesics represent very different curves in spacetime and their projections do not agree for ω > 0. Similarly, null geodesics between ring-riding Langevin observers appear slightly bent inward in the Born chart, if the geodesics propagate with the direction of the rotation (see green curve in Fig. 5). To see this, write the equation of a null geodesic in the cylindrical chart in the form Transforming to Born coordinates, we obtain the equations Eliminating ϕ gives which shows that the geodesic does indeed appear to bend inward (see Fig. 6). We also find that For null geodesics propagating against the rotation (red curve in Fig. 5) we get and the geodesic bends slightly outward. This completes the description of the appearance of null geodesics in the Born chart, since every null geodesic is either radial or else has some point of closest approach to the axis of cylindrical symmetry. Note (see Fig. 5) that a ring-riding observer trying to send a laser pulse to another ring-riding observer must aim slightly ahead or behind of his angular coordinate as given in the Born chart, in order to compensate for the rotational motion of the target. Note too that the picture presented here is fully compatible with our expectation (see appearance of the night sky) that a moving observer will see the apparent position of other objects on his celestial sphere to be displaced toward the direction of his motion. Radar distance in the large Even in flat spacetime, it turns out that accelerating observers (even linearly accelerating observers; see Rindler coordinates) can employ various distinct but operationally significant notions of distance. Perhaps the simplest of these is radar distance. Consider how a static observer at R=0 might determine his distance to a ring riding observer at R = R0. At event C he sends a radar pulse toward the ring, which strikes the world line of a ring-riding observer at A′ and then returns to the central observer at event C″. (See the right hand diagram in Fig. 7.) He then divides the elapsed time (as measured by an ideal clock he carries) by two. It is not hard to see that he obtains for this distance simply R0 (in the cylindrical chart), or r0 (in the Born chart). Similarly, a ring-riding observer can determine his distance to the central observer by sending a radar pulse, at event A toward the central observer, which strikes his world line at event C′ and returns to the ring-riding observer at event A″. (See the left hand diagram in Fig. 7.) It is not hard to see that he obtains for this distance (in the cylindrical chart) or (in the Born chart), a result which is somewhat smaller than the one obtained by the central observer. This is a consequence of time dilation: the elapsed time for a ring riding observer is smaller by the factor than the time for the central observer. Thus, while radar distance has a simple operational significance, it is not even symmetric. To drive home this crucial point, compare the radar distances obtained by two ring-riding observers with radial coordinate R = R0. In the left hand diagram at Fig. 8, we can write the coordinates of event A as and we can write the coordinates of event B′ as Writing the unknown elapsed proper time as , we now write the coordinates of event A″ as By requiring that the line segments connecting these events be null, we obtain an equation which in principle we can solve for Δ s. It turns out that this procedure gives a rather complicated nonlinear equation, so we simply present some representative numerical results. With R0 = 1, Φ = π/2, and ω = 1/10, we find that the radar distance from A to B is about 1.311, while the distance from B to A is about 1.510. As ω tends to zero, both results tend toward = 1.414 (see also Fig. 5). Despite these possibly discouraging discrepancies, it is by no means impossible to devise a coordinate chart which is adapted to describing the physical experience of a single Langevin observer, or even a single arbitrarily accelerating observer in Minkowski spacetime. Pauri and Vallisneri have adapted the Märzke-Wheeler clock synchronization procedure to devise adapted coordinates they call Märzke-Wheeler coordinates (see the paper cited below). In the case of steady circular motion, this chart is in fact very closely related to the notion of radar distance "in the large" from a given Langevin observer. Radar distance in the small As was mentioned above, for various reasons the family of Langevin observers admits no family of orthogonal hyperslices. Therefore, these observers simply cannot be associated with any slicing of spacetime into a family of successive "constant time slices". However, because the Langevin congruence is stationary, we can imagine replacing each world line in this congruence by a point. That is, we can consider the quotient space of Minkowski spacetime (or rather, the region 0 < R < 1/ω) by the Langevin congruence, which is a three-dimensional topological manifold. Even better, we can place a Riemannian metric on this quotient manifold, turning it into a three-dimensional Riemannian manifold, in such a way that the metric has a simple operational significance. To see this, consider the Born line element Setting ds2 = 0 and solving for dt we obtain The elapsed proper time for a roundtrip radar blip emitted by a Langevin observer is then Therefore, in our quotient manifold, the Riemannian line element corresponds to distance between infinitesimally nearby Langevin observers. We will call it the Langevin-Landau-Lifschitz metric, and we can call this notion of distance radar distance "in the small". This metric was first given by Langevin, but the interpretation in terms of radar distance "in the small" is due to Lev Landau and Evgeny Lifshitz, who generalized the construction to work for the quotient of any Lorentzian manifold by a stationary timelike congruence. If we adopt the coframe we can easily compute the Riemannian curvature tensor of our three-dimensional quotient manifold. It has only two independent nontrivial components, Thus, in some sense, the geometry of a rotating disk is curved, as Theodor Kaluza claimed (without proof) as early as 1910. In fact, to second order in ω it has the geometry of the hyperbolic plane, just as Kaluza claimed. Warning: as we have seen, there are many possible notions of distance which can be employed by Langevin observers riding on a rigidly rotating disk, so statements referring to "the geometry of a rotating disk" always require careful qualification. To drive home this important point, let us use the Landau-Lifschitz metric to compute the distance between a Langevin observer riding a ring with radius R0 and a central static observer. To do this, we need only integrate our line element over the appropriate null geodesic track. From our earlier work, we see that we must plug into our line element and integrate This gives Because we are now dealing with a Riemannian metric, this notion of distance is of course symmetric under interchanging the two observers, unlike radar distance "in the large". The values given by this notion are in contradiction to the radar distances "in the large" computed in the previous section. Also, because up to second order the Landau-Lifschitz metric agrees with the Einstein synchronization convention, we see that the curvature tensor we just computed does have operational significance: while radar distance "in the large" between pairs of Langevin observers is certainly not a Riemannian notion of distance, the distance between pairs of nearby Langevin observers does correspond to a Riemannian distance, given by the Langevin-Landau-Lifschitz metric. (In the felicitous phrase of Howard Percy Robertson, this is kinematics im Kleinen.) One way to see that all reasonable notions of spatial distance for our Langevin observers agree for nearby observers is to show, following Nathan Rosen, that for any one Langevin observer, an instantaneously co-moving inertial observer will also obtain the distances given by the Langevin-Landau-Lifschitz metric, for very small distances. See also Ehrenfest paradox, for a sometimes controversial topic often studied using the Born chart. Fibre optic gyroscope Rindler coordinates, for another useful coordinate chart adapted to another important family of accelerated observers in Minkowski spacetime; this article also emphasizes the existence of distinct notions of distance which may be employed by such observers. Sagnac effect References A few papers of historical interest: Wikisource translation: The Theory of the Rigid Electron in the Kinematics of the Principle of Relativity Wikisource translation: Uniform Rotation of Rigid Bodies and the Theory of Relativity A few classic references: See Section 84 for the Landau-Lifschitz metric on the quotient of a Lorentzian manifold by a stationary congruence; see the problem at the end of Section 89 for the application to Langevin observers. Selected recent sources: This book contains a valuable historical survey by Øyvind Grøn and some other papers on the Ehrenfest paradox and related controversies and a paper by Lluis Bel discussing the Langevin congruence. Hundreds of additional references may be found in this book. Studies a coordinate chart constructed using radar distance "in the large" from a single Langevin observer. See also the eprint version. External links The Rigid Rotating Disk in Relativity, by Michael Weiss (1995), from the sci.physics FAQ. Coordinate charts in general relativity Max Born
5186823	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joe%20Turner%27s%20Come%20and%20Gone	Joe Turner's Come and Gone	Joe Turner's Come and Gone is a play by American playwright August Wilson. It is the second installment of his decade-by-decade chronicle of the African-American experience, The Pittsburgh Cycle. The play was first staged 1984 at the Eugene O'Neill Theater Center in Waterford, Connecticut, and opened on Broadway on March 27, 1988, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre—running for 105 performances. Directed by Lloyd Richards, the cast included Delroy Lindo as Herald Loomis and television and movie star Angela Bassett, as Loomis's wife, Martha. A Broadway revival directed by Bartlett Sher opened at the Belasco Theatre on March 19, 2009 in previews and officially on April 16, closing June 14 after 69 performances. Title The original working title of the play was Mill Hand's Lunch Bucket, the title of a painting by Romare Bearden. The title Joe Turner's Come and Gone is a line from the refrain of "Joe Turner", an early blues song. Contextual information Joe Turner's Come and Gone is the second in a series of August Wilson's The Century Cycle, which chronicled the struggles and lives of African Americans in the 20th century. Joe Turner's Come and Gone is set in the second decade of the 20th century and chronicles the lives of a few freed former enslaved African Americans in the North and deals with the conflicts of racism and discrimination. Plot synopsis Act One Scene one: Set in the 1910s, the audience is introduced to Seth Holly's boardinghouse, where Seth and his wife Bertha are in the kitchen watching Bynum in the backyard. Seth is complaining to Bertha about Bynum's strange spiritual activities. Bertha tells Seth to let him be as he isn't bothering anyone. They also talk about Jeremy, a young man staying in the boardinghouse, getting arrested the night before for supposedly being drunk in public. Seth then has a monologue about the poor situation that the freed slaves are in after traveling up North. He worries that the African Americans are too naïve and that all the promises of jobs in the North will be taken by the poor white Americans. Then Rutherford Selig, the People Finder, comes to order dustpans from Seth, a maker of pots and pans. Then Bynum talks about an adventure that he once took up river where he found the "shiny man", a man he found on the road that offered to explain to him the Secret of Life. He had a spiritual encounter with the man, and sees the ghost of his father, telling him to find his song in life. His song, he later explains, is the Binding Song, which he uses to bind people to one another. Selig leaves and Jeremy enters, and after getting a scolding from Seth, he tells him that the white cops came and picked him up for no reason and that he was, in fact, not drunk at all. Then Herald Loomis and his daughter Zonia enter, looking for a place to stay for the week. They reveal that he is looking for his wife, Martha. After Seth shows them to their room, Jeremy relates a story about his guitar-playing abilities and how he is wary of playing for white men or money because of a bad experience. Bynum convinces Jeremy to go down to a bar to play for some money. Seth confides in Bynum and Bertha his lack of confidence in Loomis, and thinks that he is a "mean looking" man and he doesn't want to help him find his wife because of it. After this Mattie Campbell enters, looking for Bynum because she has heard that he can "fix things". Her man, Jack, has up and left her, but she wants him to come back. Bynum tells her that he can only bind people that wish to be bound; that she is better off just letting him find his own path in life. Jeremy intervenes and suggests that Mattie stays with him as to cure both of their loneliness. The scene ends with Zonia and Reuben, the little boy from next door. Reuben discloses Bynum's odd tendencies to Zonia and tells her a story about his friend Eugene that used to sell pigeons to Bynum so he could use their blood in his rituals. Scene two: It is a week later and the audience again finds Seth and Bertha eating breakfast in the kitchen. Seth is still worried about Loomis's intentions and doesn't like the look of the man. He suspects that he knows who Loomis's wife is but won't tell him because he is worried about what he will do once he finds her. Selig returns to the house to pick up the dustpans that Seth has made for him and Loomis pays him to try to find his wife because Bynum tells him that Selig is the People Finder. Scene three: It is the next day and yet again we find Seth and Bertha in the kitchen. Seth is upset because he can't find anyone to front him the money to make a new factory for making pots and pans. Then Bynum and Jeremy talk about the importance of being in love with a woman and how being with a woman is all a man needs in life. Then the last boarder enters, Molly Cunningham. She is also looking for a place to stay because she missed her train to Cincinnati. Jeremy takes a liking to Molly's appearance. Scene four: Again they are in the kitchen of the boardinghouse when the scene opens. The group has just finished eating dinner when Seth suggests they "juba"- an African-style call-and-response song and dance. Herald Loomis enters and demands that they stop the singing. He goes into an episode where he talks in tongues and falls to the floor. He starts recalling a religious hallucination and Bynum has to calm him down and take him upstairs. Act Two Scene one: Seth informs Loomis that he has to leave the boardinghouse because he thinks that Loomis was drunk when he had his episode. Seth tells him that he runs a respectable house and won't put up with any shenanigans. Loomis and Zonia have until the next Saturday to leave the house. Bynum, Molly and Mattie are left in the kitchen where they talk about how children often follow in their parents' footsteps. Molly asserts that she will never follow her father's path and that she will always be a strong, independent woman. Mattie leaves for Doc Goldblum's, where she cleans and irons for work. Jeremy returns to the house from work and reveals to Seth that he would not give a white foreman 50 cents to keep his job so he was fired. Seth thinks it was an idiotic choice because now he is out of a job and no longer makes $8 a week. Molly tells Jeremy that he could easily get his job back by simply returning to work. Jeremy then asks Molly to travel around with him because he needs a woman that is independent and knows what she wants. Molly agrees but refuses to return to the South. Scene two: Bynum and Seth are playing a game of dominoes and Bynum is singing a song about Joe Turner. Loomis asks Bynum to stop because he is uncomfortable with the song. Bynum reveals that he knew all along that Loomis was taken away by Joe Turner and that he needs to find his song in order to start his life again. Loomis relates his story to Bynum and Seth, telling them that he was taken by Joe Turner's men while trying to preach to some gambling African Americans. He spent seven years on Turner's chain gang and only survived by the thought of his wife and daughter. He tells them that after seven years he returned home to find that his wife had left and his daughter was living with her grandmother. The scene ends with Loomis being skeptical of Bynum and his voodoo abilities. Scene three: The scene opens with Bertha reassuring Mattie that she will find everything that she wants and needs in life and that she just has to be patient. The scene ends with Loomis telling Mattie that he's noticed her watching him and that he finds her attractive. He goes to touch her, however, but feels awkward and says "I done forgot how to touch". Scene four: It is the next morning and Zonia and Reuben are in the yard. Reuben tells Zonia that he has seen the ghost of Seth's mother earlier that morning and she made him keep his promise to Eugene and release the pigeons. They marvel at the idea that people could come back to life in the form of spirits. Reuben then asks Zonia if he can kiss her on the lips and she agrees. They decide that later in life they will find each other to get married. Scene five: In the final scene Loomis and Zonia leave the boardinghouse as it is Saturday. Bertha tells Mattie that all she needs in life is love and laughing- which they all start to do. Then Martha Pentecost [Loomis] enters with Selig looking for Loomis and Zonia. Loomis reenters with Zonia and he recounts the last decade of his life; his search for her and the heartache it has caused him. Martha tells him that she has moved on with her life because she couldn't wait for him any longer. Martha also reveals that she had Bynum put a binding spell on her and Zonia and that is why they have come to find each other. Loomis goes into a rage and pulls out a knife. He denounces his Christian background and slashes his chest. The stage directions read "Having found his song, the song of self-sufficiency, fully resurrected, cleansed and given breath, free from any encumbrance other than the workings of his own heart and the bonds of the flesh, having accepted the responsibility for his own presence in the world, he is free to soar above the environs that weighed and pushed his spirit into terrifying contractions." He leaves and the play ends with Bynum yelling: "Herald Loomis, you shining! You shining like new money!" Character guide Seth Holly - In his early fifties, Seth is owner of the boardinghouse and works as a craftsman. Bertha Holly - Seth's wife of 25 years and five years his junior, Bertha runs the boardinghouse. She does all the cooking and cleaning, later with the aid of Zonia. Bynum Walker - A "conjure" man staying with the Holly's at the boardinghouse, Bynum is in his sixties and is a freed slave from the south. Rutherford Selig - The only white character in the play, Selig is a peddler who sells Seth's goods. Known as the "People Finder", Selig is from a family that first brought Africans across the Atlantic to become slaves. But now he unites people by recording the names and places of all the people he peddles to. Jeremy Furlow - Another resident of the boardinghouse, Jeremy is a guitar-playing 25-year-old. He came to the North looking for a job and a way in life. He works construction, putting in the new road outside of town. Herald Loomis - An odd man who dons an overcoat and hat in mid-August, Loomis is 32 and a displaced man searching for his wife. He was forced to work for Joe Turner for seven years, which separated him from his wife and daughter. He works as a deacon for the Abundant Life Church and at times was possessed by spiritual beings. Zonia Loomis - Herald's daughter, Zonia is described as a tall and skinny 11-year-old. Mattie Campbell - Mattie is a 25-year-old woman who is disappointed with her position in life and is looking for love. Reuben Mercer - Reuben is the Hollys' next-door neighbor and about Zonia's age. Molly Cunningham - Molly is a good looking young woman of 26 who is strong and independent. Martha Pentecost - Loomis' wife, Martha is about 28 and very religious and a member of the Evangelical church. She left the South and her daughter behind. Joe Turner - While Turner does not make an actual appearance in the play, he is often referred to with the expectation that the audience is aware of who he is. Joe Turner, the brother of the governor of Tennessee, would kidnap black men and force them into labor on his chain gang for seven years. Character analysis Seth Holly - Born of free African-American parents in the North, he is set in his ways; never losing his composure and always running a respectable house. He even condemns other African Americans that do not follow this kind of lifestyle. He is economically very capitalistic and does whatever is necessary to stay afloat; including working night shifts and odd craftsman jobs he can pick up from Selig. He understands his world on a very literal level, and doesn't aspire to become more than he is. Bertha Holly - As Seth's wife, She knows her place in the hierarchy of the boardinghouse, yet still has some say in the decision making and will often voice her opinion. A very loving mother to the boardinghouse family. In the end, she tells Mattie that the only two things you need in your life are love and laughter; the things that she has had faith in and have helped her get by. Bynum Walker - Also comfortable with his identity as an African conjurer, Bynum is one of few characters that understand their own identity. Convinced of the fact that everyone has their own song, Bynum perpetuates the theme of identity and our constant search for it. Rutherford Selig - This suspicion of a white peddler perpetuates the mistrust between the races in the North and histories repetition. Selig's identity is well enforced with the history of his ancestors and the professions that he and they chose. Jeremy Furlow - A generation younger than the Hollys, Jeremy represents a young generation without a purpose and trying to find its own identity as the first liberated slaves. Jeremy's "blues playing" character is classified as a suave, artist young man looking to make a quick buck and travel the nation. He is constantly seeking the attention of the women in his vicinity and tries to find the perfect girl for himself. Herald Loomis - Having been enslaved by Joe Turner for seven years, Loomis has completely lost his way in life. In the end, he finds his song, an independent, self-sufficient song that he can sing proudly. Zonia Loomis - Like Reuben, Zonia represents the next innocent, malleable generation. There is a sense that history will repeat itself if the proceeding generation is not taught differently. Mattie Campbell - Originally seeking out Bynum at Seth's boardinghouse, Mattie ends up living there after Jeremy invites her to stay with him after her boyfriend, Jack, left her. In her desperate search for love, Mattie represents a naïve, inexperienced group of young freed slaves that have moved North in search of prosperity. Mattie requires a man to complete her identity, she is weak and subservient; what she would be used to as a Southern slave. Rueben Mercer - Reuben represents the repetitiveness of history. Even as an adolescent, Reuben is aware of his place in society, notices the spiritual differences of people around him, and decides at a very early age that he needs a woman that he can find in end to settle down with and marry. Many of the ideals that are seen in the adult characters of this play are instilled in Reuben and will repeat, the good and the bad, as he grows into adulthood. Molly Cunningham - Molly represents the opposite of Mattie. Molly is young, attractive, and independent. Unwilling to let herself be told what to do anymore, by anyone, Molly is convinced that she will never return to the South and refuses to be associated with anything that her old life entailed. Martha Pentecost - Like Molly, Martha is an independent African-American woman. She attempted to escape the racial persecution but still finds it In the North. For strength, she rejects her African identity and turns to Christianity. She does what it takes to ensure her self-preservation and remains a strong, self-sufficient woman until the end. Joe Turner - Joe Turner is more of a representational character in this play than a literal character. By illegally kidnapping Black men, Turner represents the evil of the Southern, racist white man. He is based on the person of Joe Turney, brother of Tennessee governor Peter Turney. See pages 53ff. in Conversations with August Wilson: "Joe Turner was the brother of Pete Turner, who was the governor of Tennessee, who would press Negroes in peonage." Also, see W. C. Handy's autobiography, p. 145: "It goes back to Joe Turney (also called Turner), brother of Pete Turney, one-time governor of Tennessee. Joe had the responsibility of taking Negro prisoners from Memphis to the penitentiary at Nashville. Sometimes he took them to the "farms" along the Mississippi. Their crimes when indeed there were any crimes, were usually very minor, the object of the arrests being to provide needed labor for spots along the river. As usual, the method was to set a stool-pigeon where he could start a game of craps. The bones would roll blissfully till the required number of laborers had been drawn into the circle. At that point the law would fall upon the poor devils, arrest as many as were needed for work, try them for gambling in a kangaroo court and then turn the culprits over to Joe Turney. That night, perhaps, there would be weeping and wailing among the dusky belles. If one of them chanced to ask a neighbor what had become of the sweet good man, she was likely to receive the pat reply, 'They tell me Joe Turner's come and gone.'" Style In a review of the Ethel Barrymore staging of the play, Clive Barnes comments on the language, idiom, and mix of naturalism and symbolism are beautifully staged and the cast is excellent at depicting the realistic play and develop it a heartrending climax. Language Much like the style of the play, the language used in Joe Turner is realistic in nature and depicts that of the dialogue of the day. Each of the characters has a specific rhythm and speech pattern. The dialogue of the characters also reflects the accents that the characters would have had; like Seth's Pennsylvanian twang and Loomis's Southern drawl. And according to Anne Fleche, there is a lack of suspense or surprise in the dialogue and the comfort of the language of the characters encourages the theme of reoccurring, oppressing experiences. Theme/ideas The major themes in Joe Turner's Come and Gone are identity, migration, and racial discrimination. These core themes are ones August Wilson tends to use in many of his plays. one Identity: The most prominent theme in Joe Turner is the idea of identity. Each of the characters, whether or not they realize it, is looking for his or her identity as an American, African, man, woman, businessman, and/or artist. As Alen Nadel describes, "For each of the characters, that quest for humanity is for a form of completeness which their circumstances, and history, has denied them. It may be economic security or fair employment practices, or a mate, or a family." (96) Just because the Civil War decided the emancipation of slaves did not mean that human rights for the freed slaves were guaranteed. African Americans had to fight to find an identity in a strange, hostile environment while trying to hold on to their African roots. Migration: The shuffling of people after the emancipation of the slaves caused many social and cultural issues throughout the nation. Along with the freedom to move about came the idea that no matter your background, there would be somewhere in the country that you could get by economically, if not be successful. Racial Discrimination: Even though there seems to be a promise of jobs and freedom in the North, it often seems as racially divided as the South. Jeremy runs into the most discrimination, although all of the characters feel the effects of intolerance. Not only does discrimination affect the residents of the boardinghouse, but there is an even deeper level of exploitation seen throughout the play. Selig gets paid to find people that he relocates, white police officers take Jeremy's money, as does the foreman at his job building the road, and Selig is always trying to get a better price out of Seth for his labor. Even though the Civil War has ended, the African Americans were still being treated as objects rather than human beings. Spectacle Most of the spectacle in Joe Turner's Come and Gone is related to the spirituality and religious qualities of the characters. Bynum is often performing what characters in the play refer to as voodoo activities. In the beginning of the play he is referred to as spilling the blood of the pigeons and has interesting, different good luck charms and untraditional remedies. Also when Loomis becomes possessed by the Holy Spirit at the end of act one requires some spectacular situations and portrayals. Along with this "possession" is the juba song that requires the singing and dancing that is "as African as possible" with Seth playing harmonica, Bynum singing and drumming, and Jeremy playing guitar. However, most of the play isn't much spectacle at all. Mostly it chronicles the everyday lives of the residents of the boardinghouse. Some critics of the play even criticize the length of the play and say the play had "little action and but scenes with people yelling at each other". In this way the play structure follows the realism genre in that it depicts real life on stage, with everyday activities being performed; like cooking, cleaning, etc. Music Music within this community seems to be a pivotal social catalyst. Many of the character either play an instrument or sing; Seth plays the harmonica, Jeremy plays the guitar, and Zonia and Bynum both sing within the play. Zonia is heard at the end of the first scene of act one "singing and playing a game." This playground song is completely innocent in manner and talks about a young girl that often makes mistakes. This song is used to further Zonia's characterization by showing her as the most innocent character in the play. Jeremy plays the guitar, which also has a typical connotation connected with the character Jeremy portrays. He is the naïve, young character that is fresh to the world. Like his guitar, Jeremy is hip and often represents popular, youthful culture. Seth plays the harmonica during the juba that is performed onstage. The juba is described as: The Juba is reminiscent of the ring shouts of the African slaves. It is a call and response dance. Bynum sits at the table and drums. He calls the dance as other clap hands, shuffle, and stomp around the table. It should be as African as possible, with the performers working themselves up into a near frenzy. The words can be improvised, but should include some mention of the Holy Ghost. This song is a way for the African Americans to relate with one another and continue their relationship with their heritage. Finally, Bynum is often seen and heard singing throughout the show. The first time he sings is to lighten the mood from the work they are doing. Then later he sings about Joe Turner kidnapping slaves and forcing them to work on his chain gang. Bynum's singing is a characterization of his wisdom and age. He seems to know a song for all occasions and characters. Not only does he physically sing on stage, Bynum's character also refers to "finding your song". Music is so important to this man that each person's soul and purpose in life is characterized by their song. Wilson has also been known to be greatly influenced by the blues music period. The title of the play, for instance, is a line from a blues song and the idea of stealing one's song is a great tragedy. Also, music also perpetuates the racial issues of the day as Jeremy is often shot down by white men for musical abilities. Sample production history Joe Turner's Come and Gone was first produced in 1986 Yale Repertory Theatre. Later, for its press review, it opened on March 26, 1988, at the Ethel Barrymore Theatre on Broadway in New York City, with the following cast: Seth Holly: Mel Winkler Bertha Holly: L. Scott Caldwell Bynum Walker: Ed Hall Rutherford Selig: Raynor Scheine Jeremy Furlow: Bo Rucker Herald Loomis: Delroy Lindo Zonia Loomis: Jamila Perry Mattie Campbell: Kimberleigh Aarn Reuben Mercer: Richard Parnell Habersham Molly Cunningham: Kimberly Scott Martha Pentecost: Angela Bassett The director was Lloyd Richards. The production featured work by set designer Scott Bradley, costume designer Pamela Peterson, lighting designer Michael Giannitti, musical director Dwight Andrews, production stage manager Karen L. Carpenter, stage manager Elliott Woodruff, and casting consultants Meg Simon and Fran Kumin. Awards and nominations Awards 1988 New York Drama Critics' Circle Award for Best Play 1988 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress in a Play (L. Scott Caldwell) 2009 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor in a Play (Roger Robinson) 2009 Tony Award for Best Lighting Design for a Play (Brian MacDevitt) 2009 Theatre World Award Nominations 1988 Drama Desk Award for Best Play 1988 Tony Award for Best Play 1988 Tony Award for Best Direction of a Play (Lloyd Richards) 1988 Tony Award for Best Featured Actor (Delroy Lindo) 1988 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress (Kimberleigh Aarn) 1988 Tony Award for Best Featured Actress (Kimberly Scott) 2009 Tony Award for Best Revival of a Play 2009 Tony Award for Best Direction Of A Play 2009 Tony Award for Best Scenic Design Of A Play 2009 Tony Award for Best Sound Design Of A Play References Further reading External links 1984 plays Broadway plays New York Drama Critics' Circle Award winners The Pittsburgh Cycle Plays set in the 1910s Plays set in Pittsburgh Plays about American slavery African-American plays
5187017	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red%20Crown%20Tourist%20Court	Red Crown Tourist Court	The Red Crown Tavern and Red Crown Tourist Court in Platte County, Missouri was the site of the July 20, 1933 gun battle between lawmen and outlaws Bonnie and Clyde and three members of their gang. The outlaws made their escape, and were tracked down and cornered four days later near Dexter, Iowa and engaged by another posse. The shootout was depicted in Arthur Penn's 1967 film Bonnie and Clyde, though the sign on the motel in the movie reads "Platte City, Iowa," not Missouri. Built in 1931 by Parkville, Missouri banker and developer Emmett Breen at the junction of US 71 and US 71 Bypass, now Missouri Route 291, the red brick and tile Tavern included a popular restaurant and ballroom. Back behind the Tavern was the Tourist Court— two small cabins connected by two garages. The site is just northeast of the main Kansas City International Airport exit off I-29. Today it is within the city limits of Kansas City. An Interstate entrance ramp runs almost squarely through the property. The gang seeks refuge Clyde Barrow was uncharacteristically looking for a place for the gang to hole up in for several nights. It was his usual practice to keep moving and never spend more than one night in any given spot, but the previous weeks had been difficult. On June 10, a one-car wreck at Wellington, Texas had left Bonnie Parker critically burned and near death. While the gang hid and tried to nurse Parker in a Ft. Smith, Arkansas tourist court, Buck Barrow and W.D. Jones were sent to raise funds. They bungled the robbery and killed the town marshal of Alma, Arkansas. The resultant police attention forced the gang to move on despite Parker's dire condition, and by mid-July, Barrow hoped they could put their feet up for several days in the same place. To bankroll their stay, on July 18 the outlaws staged a freewheeling—if rather minor-league—crime rampage through the quiet streets of Fort Dodge, Iowa, stopping at one gas station after another, ransacking the cash registers and robbing and kidnapping the attendants, shoving them onto the backseat. They broke open the vending and gumball machines and scooped out all the change, a move which had unexpected consequences for them several days later. After three such robberies in fifteen minutes they realized they had no more room for hostages, released everybody, and with another $150 headed for Kansas City. It was distant over 1933 roads, yet they were there in under four hours. Buck agreed in principle with the idea of a long rest, but disagreed with the choice of Kansas City because the bloody Kansas City Massacre of some weeks earlier meant that numerous federal, state, and local police officers were seeking gangsters in the area. The brothers fought bitterly about the plan before lapsing into a toxic silence that enveloped the car. Late that night they pulled in to refuel at Slim's Castle, a service station, café, and convenience store at the busy Platte City intersection known locally as "The Junction," and the Red Crown Tourist Court across the street caught Clyde Barrow's eye. What attracted him initially was the sturdy brick construction of the place, which made him feel secure, he told his family later. He told his hot, dirty, agitated passengers, "This is where we stay the rest of the night, even if we all get killed before morning." At the Red Crown The Slim's Castle attendant directed Barrow to the Red Crown office in the Tavern building. Before they drove over, they covered Buck and Jones with blankets in the backseat so that when Blanche Barrow went in to book the room, she could claim they were a party of three. This was not to save money off the room tab, but Clyde's attempt to disguise the size and makeup of the party if any prying officers inquired about them. What he didn't know was that the Red Crown was a favorite gathering spot of the Missouri Highway Patrol, in the days before two-way radio in Patrol cars, when "officers and supervisors would often meet somewhere at mealtimes to exchange messages and receive orders." The Red Crown manager Neal Houser was immediately suspicious when Blanche entered the office in tight, provocative jodhpurs riding breeches, an outfit unheard of in Platte City and one much discussed at the time and still remembered by eyewitnesses forty years later. She booked both rooms out back for three guests, one night, then paid the $4 with a fistful of small change. Houser watched out his rear window as the driver of the car carefully backed it—nose out, "gangster style"—into the left garage and closed up the doors. A short time later, the young woman reappeared at the Tavern's restaurant and bought five chicken dinners and five beers for the party of three. She paid for them with more small change. Houser insisted on following Blanche back to the cabins to record the car's license plate number, but had to content himself with just peering into the garage for it when Clyde wouldn't let him into the cabin. After he left, the five settled in for supper. Since the two brothers were still not speaking to each other, it was a silent, somber repast. The gang slept late the following morning. Overnight, Clyde had taped newspapers up inside the windows of the left cabin, revealing another flaw in his selection of the Red Crown: with only two units, there were no other guests with whom to blend in. This was apparent to everyone but the outlaws: even The Platte County Landmark noted "Windows curtained with newspapers, continually peeping out of windows by the gang, refusing to admit any of the station [tavern] employees to the cabins, hiding from view all of the members except one woman, created a suspicion on the part of Neal Houser ..." Blanche appeared again, again in her jodhpurs, again buying five meals for her party of three, and once again paying in small change. This time, she felt the air of suspicion around her and when later she learned his identity, realized it had been the eyes of Platte County Sheriff Holt Coffey boring into her as she completed her transaction. Clyde had instructed her to pay for another night's stay, but "to see how the people acted and what I thought about them, if I thought it would be safe to stay there another night." Blanche got a bad vibe off Houser as she handed more coins into his hands, but when she apprised Barrow of her fears, "Clyde said it was just my imagination, that everything would be all right. So I said no more." It was not just her imagination. Red Crown manager Houser had lawman restaurant patrons other than Sheriff Coffey—namely Captain William Baxter of the state patrol. Houser had a word with Baxter about his suspicions concerning his motel guests, and Baxter spoke with Coffey. When the hotelier mentioned the Oklahoma plates on their car, the officers began wondering who might be in the cabins with the taped-over windows, which limited visibility in both directions. Later that afternoon, Sheriff Coffey got a call from Louis Bernstein, the druggist at Platte City Drugs, about a stranger who had just left his store: "a good-looking gal in a slinky riding habit," the eager pharmacist reported. Both drug stores and law enforcement agencies had been alerted by Oklahoma, Texas, and Arkansas officials to be on the lookout for strangers seeking certain medical supplies. The stranger was Blanche, buying bandages and atropine sulfate to treat Bonnie's leg burns. For Coffey and Baxter, Bernstein's call pushed the situation to high alert: if the guests had bought burn wound supplies, it may well be the scorched Bonnie Parker and the Barrows within the brick cabins. Although "[m]ost of the general public had never heard of them" that afternoon, Coffey's son Clarence was on the scene as it dawned on his dad whom he would be going up against: "The look on my father's face," he told the papers then and later, "I'll never forget that!" Coffey's was just a county sheriff's operation—"no protective gear, no radios, no weapons to speak of other than 'squirrel rifles and a few pistols'." Even with Baxter's help, both men knew they were seriously outgunned. Platte County prosecutor David Clevenger suggested they confer with Jackson County Sheriff Tom Bash in nearby Kansas City, a big-city jurisdiction "whose available armaments included machine guns, steel bulletproof shields, tear gas launchers, and armored cars." Coffey headed over to Bash's Kansas City office, but did not get the response he had hoped for. "I'm getting pretty damn tired of every hick sheriff in the country coming in here and telling me they have a bunch of desperadoes holed up and wanting help. I'm afraid there's nothing I can do for you," Bash said. Coffey was tenacious and eventually got Bash to agree to supply some men, some weaponry, bulletproof shields, and "a bulletproof car." Word was getting around town that there might be a replay of the "Kansas City Depot job" out at The Junction. Participants and spectators began gravitating to the Tavern and to Slim's Castle across the road as the sweltering July day led to a muggy July night. The assault force numbered Twelve: five from Platte County (Sheriff Holt Coffey, Constable Byron Fisher, Constable Thomas Hullet, Deputy James Thorpe, and Deputy Clarence Coffey), four from Jackson County (Sheriff Thomas B. "Tom" Bash, Deputy George Highfill, Deputy George Borden, and Deputy Lincoln Baker), and three from the state patrol (Capt. William Baxter, Sgt. Thomas Whitecotton, Jr., and Trooper Leonard "L. A." Ellis). Coffey and Baxter thought it best to wait until later to make their move, after the traffic of the intersection and its two busy establishments had thinned out. Everyone seemed to sense the impending action—except the outlaws, shrouded by their newspaper curtains. After dark, Blanche emerged and covered the short distance to the Tavern to get more soap and some fresh towels. As she entered, I noticed everyone in the place was doing a lot of talking. I could hear them and see several of them sitting around a table. But when I walked in everyone stopped talking. The place was so quiet you could hear a pin drop. It was just as quiet as a death chamber. I knew something must be wrong. ... Everyone acted as though I might pull out a machine gun and turn it on them at any minute. As soon as I stepped outside, the talking started again. ... " She told her husband about the ominous behavior of the crowd in the Tavern, and he told her to go to the other cabin and tell Clyde. They apparently still were not speaking. Clyde, despite his often-cited "sixth sense" about impending danger, was unconcerned and told her not to worry about it. "'Okay,' I said. 'If we all get killed here tonight, you can't say I didn't warn you.'" She returned to her own cabin, followed shortly by Jones with a message from Clyde: he wanted her to fetch more food. This angered Blanche and she told Jones to tell Clyde that she wasn't going out any more that night, which angered Clyde. The lawmen watching the cabins were surprised when, at about 10:30 pm, one of the doors opened and a young man emerged. Up to this point, it had been the slender woman in the riding breeches who had done all the errand-running. Seventeen-year-old W.D. Jones crossed the road, went into Slim's Castle and ordered five sandwiches and five bottles of soda pop. Clerk Kermit Crawford noticed the young man seemed nervous and kept peering over at the people milling about in the Red Crown parking lot. It could not have seemed too out-of-the-ordinary to the young outlaw - he did not mention it to his boss. The gun battle All the preparations, reinforcements, and armaments made the Red Crown firefight something no other Barrow Gang gunbattle to date had been: a fairer fight. At Stringtown, Joplin and Alma, officers had wandered into encounters with the Barrows totally unaware that they were about to go up against gunmen with vastly superior weaponry—and with no compunction about using it quickly and ferociously. "The poorly armed cops expected to confront small-timers whose firepower was equally limited," writes Jeff Guinn of the earlier confrontations, but tonight's encounter would be "a coordinated assault by well-prepared, well-armed officers aware of exactly who they were up against." By 1 a.m., the revellers had mostly departed the Red Crown Tavern. Sheriff Coffey, Captain Baxter and eleven patrolmen, county cops and Jackson County officers began their operation. Accounts differ in details, but Coffey certainly advanced on the cabins. He may have been accompanied by Baxter and possibly others, carrying one or more massive shields made out of thick boilerplate, "like medieval knights." The two Jackson County officers pulled the armored car up to block the cabins' garage doors—so the gang was completely hemmed in. Coffey rapped sharply on the door of Buck and Blanche's cabin. Blanche called out that she wasn't dressed, to which Coffey replied, "Well put your trousers on and come out yourself." He then asked where the men were, and she told him, as loudly as she could so Clyde would hear it, that they were in the other cabin. Clyde heard it—and he and Jones unleashed a mighty torrent of fire, joined almost immediately by Buck, all three shooting their BARs right through the windows and doors of the cabins. Coffey's nineteen-year-old son Clarence was watching from behind and later said his father "was pushed back like he was hit by a high-pressure hose." The boilerplate shield stood up to actual penetration, but the BARs' impact was literally staggering to the sturdily-built sheriff. The flying glass and wood chip debris abraded the officers, but they were able to fall back, miraculously without being hit by any outlaw gunfire. They returned the fire, but even their substantial, .45-caliber Thompson guns were no match for the bandits' thundering Browning output: one BAR slug exiting the cabin penetrated the rear wall of the kitchen in the Tavern, passed through both walls of a stove and wound up lodged in Coffey, Jr's arm. Others penetrated Tavern walls at both ends of the place, and several ricocheted off the pavement of the Slim's Castle parking lot. People for miles around heard the gunfire on the quiet night air. Inside their cabin, Clyde and Jones dashed through the internal door to the garage and prepared to get the car loaded and started. When they peeked out the garage door, they saw the armored car blocking their exit. The vehicle outside was not a military or Brinks-truck style armored car, but a normal-appearing automobile with bulletproof glass and extra boilerplate embedded in its body for protection. The armored car was not all that bulletproof. The outlaws opened fire on it immediately and the armor-piercing rounds from their BARs found their way inside. Driver George Highfill was hit in both knees and either the horn button or the horn itself was hit and it began blaring in an unyielding wail. The posse assumed this was a cease-fire signal and they did just that. Many fell back. One headlight had been shot askew into a straight-up beam, and Highfill decided his machine was just not up to this particular challenge, so he backed it away from the action, and the cabins' garages were no longer barricaded. To add to the confusion, an officer back behind the cabins fired off a tear gas rocket that overshot the cabins considerably, and came down across the road in the Slim's Castle parking lot—with the gas then blowing back over the officers on the Red Crown side. Clyde Barrow recognized a stroke of luck when he saw one—the main impediment to his escape just backed away—and he bundled Jones and Parker into the car, easily accomplished through the internal door. Buck and Blanche were not so lucky. There was no door between their cabin and the garage—they had to come out into the open to get to the car. When they made their dash, the officers opened up again with their large caliber Tommy guns, and a bullet fired by Baxter hit Buck in the left temple and exited out his forehead. He was firing his BAR at waist level when he was hit, and it continued to fire in an arc skyward as he was knocked off his feet. Eighty-one pound Blanche and her brother-in-law manhandled her limp husband into the car while Jones laid down cover fire. His party all aboard, Clyde roared past Holt Coffey and the others, straight out of the Red Crown parking lot and onto Highway 71. The police posse fired one final, blistering volley at the car, many slugs finding their marks. One Thompson burst raked over the rear window and sent slivers of shattered glass into both eyes of Blanche Barrow, and a fragment of bullet into her head, right at the hairline. The car disappeared into the night. One posseman, patrolman L. A. Ellis, tried to muster support for an expedition of pursuit, but got no takers. As the smoke—and the tear gas—cleared, the lawmen took stock of their assault. Despite the large number of rounds expended by the outlaws, by far the most of any of their gunbattles, injuries to the officers were minimal. Sheriff Coffey had two scratches on his neck from buckshot, but he was so proud and "bragged about being shot by the Barrow Gang and living to tell about it, that officers Whitecotton and Ellis decided not to ruin the Platte County sheriff's story by revealing that he had been hit by friendly fire, Ellis's, in the darkness." Coffey's son Clarence was abraded by debris dislodged by a bullet that penetrated the Tavern's kitchen. Deputy Highfill had wounds in each knee from his duty as armored car driver. In the cabin occupied by Parker, Jones and Clyde Barrow, they found all five of the sandwiches fetched by Jones from Slim's Castle uneaten, but all five soda bottles empty. There was a syringe kit for giving injections, leading to short-lived speculation that the Barrow Gang were all junkies, but the kit was just a remnant of the medical bag they stole from Dr. Fields several weeks before in Enid when they stole his car. More impressive was the arsenal the gang was forced to leave behind: as many as six BARs, forty-seven Colt .45 automatic pistols—it had been a successful burglary at the Enid armory on July 7—and the personal sidearm Buck and Jones had taken off the body of Marshall Humphrey, who Buck had killed in Alma, Arkansas on June 23. The following day, people came to the Red Crown from all over. In its July 21 issue, The Platte County Landmark described the day-after scene as "a large crowd of sightseers" converged to get a look: The cabins presented a torn up appearance Thursday morning, bearing many evidences of the terrible battle. Bullet holes were everywhere, through doors and windows, some from outside, some fired from inside. Mirrors and other articles in the cabins were shattered. Several bullets found their way through the station [tavern] proper but failed to hit any of the many visitors who had been warned of possible trouble and made to stay indoors." Aftermath The gang's flight from the Red Crown was a slow, grim affair, a wounded car filled with wounded fugitives. It ended in Iowa, at rural Dexfield Park, a recently abandoned amusement park outside Dexter, some 170 miles due north of the tourist court. For days, local citizens were running across bloody clothes and bandages carelessly jettisoned by the gang. On July 24, 1933, the Barrows found themselves under fire once again, surrounded by local lawmen and approximately one hundred spectators. Parker, Jones and Clyde Barrow all sustained significant injuries but escaped on foot. Buck was shot again and died five days later at Kings Daughters Hospital in Perry, Iowa of pneumonia after surgery. Blanche was captured and taken first to Adel, Iowa, and then on to Des Moines. Coffey brought Blanche back to Platte City where she was held in the jail and questioned by law officers and FBI agents. Her selection of wardrobe was still under discussion upon her return. The Platte County Landmark asserted that she "gives evidence of careful rearing, being refined in speech and manner. ... Properly attired and groomed she would be attractive. ... " Though she had not fired a weapon during the Platte City gunfight, she was charged with assault with intent to kill Sheriff Coffey. She pleaded guilty and was sentenced to 10 years in the Missouri State Penitentiary for Women. Her sentence was commuted in 1939 and she was released. She died in 1988. The Red Crown Tavern had been a popular attraction to locals because of its food quality, and the place became even more popular after the shootout. The Landmark'''s unusual take on the carnage was: The bandit battle was a great celebration for the Red Crown and came upon its second anniversary, being just two years ago that day the tavern opened for business. The cabins, with their bullet marks and shot-up interiors have been visited by thousands. In 1945, the Red Crown complex was purchased by former sheriff Coffey, who operated it successfully until 1950. "It was a honky tonk place," recalled George Ann Coffey, a cousin. "The women would get all dressed up and wear pretty dresses and white gloves. The men would drink beer; the women would not!" After being in the hospitality business, Coffey went on to be elected a presiding judge of Platte County in 1956. Today, that office is referred to as county commissioner. He died in 1964 at age 72, during his first elected term. In 1957, an accident knocked down the forecourt awning and damaged the gasoline pumps. Ten years later a fire started in the kitchen and destroyed most of the Tavern. What was left standing at the site was stripped and carried off by souvenir hounds. Fueled by the renewed interest in the Barrows from the 1967 movie, merchants in Weston sold bricks from the building for $1 apiece on the street during the late 1960s. Changing highways ultimately ended the business, as the construction of access roads for the nearby interstate demanded the demolition of the Red Crown and Slim's Castle. Demolition of the buildings occurred in 1968. As recently as 2003, After The Battle Books'' investigator Marty Black was able to find chunks of brickwork from unidentifiable buildings deep in the thatch on the site. The area was annexed by the city of Kansas City in 1967 when Kansas City International Airport became the city's main airport. In 1999, Farmland Industries built its headquarters slightly northeast of the Red Crown site, in a spot that would have been back behind both the Tavern and the Tourist Court cabins. Currently that building is occupied by National Beef Packing Company, LLC. In 2011, the Platte County Historical Society installed a historical marker near the site east of where the Red Crown once stood. The marker, which is dedicated to the lawmen who participated in the shootout, stands in the far southeastern corner of the WireCo WorldGroup parking lot. See also Bonnie & Clyde Garage Apartment References External links Platte County Newspaper article Photos and memorabilia History of The Platte County Sheriff's Office History of Kansas City, Missouri Crime in Kansas City, Missouri Bonnie and Clyde Buildings and structures in Kansas City, Missouri Restaurants in Kansas City, Missouri Dance venues in the United States Commercial buildings completed in 1931 1933 crimes in the United States 1933 in Missouri Buildings and structures in Platte County, Missouri Restaurants established in 1931 Retail buildings in Missouri Motels in the United States 1931 establishments in Missouri
5187078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allerleirauh	Allerleirauh	"Allerleirauh" () is a fairy tale recorded by the Brothers Grimm. Since the second edition published in 1819, it has been recorded as Tale no. 65. Andrew Lang included it in The Green Fairy Book. It is Aarne–Thompson folktale type 510B, unnatural love. Others of this type include "Cap O' Rushes", "Donkeyskin", "Catskin", "Little Cat Skin", "The King who Wished to Marry His Daughter", "The She-Bear", "Mossycoat", "Tattercoats", "The Princess That Wore A Rabbit-Skin Dress", "Katie Woodencloak", "The Bear" and "The Princess in the Suit of Leather". Indeed, some English translators of "Allerleirauh" titled that story "Catskin" despite the differences between the German and English tales. Synopsis A king promised his dying wife that he would not re-marry unless it was to a woman who was as beautiful as she was, and when he looked for a new wife, he realized that the only woman that could match her beauty was his own daughter. The daughter tried to make the wedding impossible by asking for three dresses, one as golden as the sun, one as silver as the moon, and one as dazzling as the stars, and a mantle made from the fur of every kind of bird and animal in the kingdom. When her father provided them, she took them, with a gold ring, a gold spindle, and a gold reel, and ran from the castle the night before the wedding. She ran far away to another kingdom, and slept in a great forest there, but the young king of that place and his dogs found her while he was hunting. She asked the king to have pity on her and received a place in the kitchen, where she worked, and because she gave no name she was called "All-Kinds-of-Fur." When the king held a ball, she snuck out and went to it in her golden dress. The next morning, the cook set her to make soup for the king, and she put her golden ring in it. The king found it and questioned the cook and then All-Kinds-of-Fur, but she revealed nothing. The next ball, she went dressed in her silver dress and put the golden spindle in the soup, and the king again could discover nothing. The third ball, she went in the star dress, and the king slipped a golden ring on her finger without her noticing it and ordered that the last dance go longer than usual. She was not able to get away in time to change; she was able only to throw her fur mantle over her clothing before she had to cook the soup. When the king questioned her, he caught her hand, seeing the ring, and when she tried to pull it away, her mantle slipped, revealing the dress of stars. The king pulled off the mantle, revealing her, and they married. Commentary Among variants of this tale, the threat of enforced marriage to her own father, as here, is the usual motive for the heroine's flight, as in "The She-Bear", "Donkeyskin", and "The King who Wished to Marry His Daughter", or the legend of Saint Dymphna, but others are possible. Catskin fled because her father, who wanted a son, was marrying her off to the first prospect. Cap O' Rushes was thrown out because her father interpreted her words to mean she did not love him. The Child who came from an Egg fled because her (apparent) father had been conquered by another army. "The Bear" flees because her father is too fond of her and keeps her prisoner to keep her safe. In other variants, the princess asks for the extravagant dresses to buy time to escape from an unwanted suitor. The motif of a father who tries to marry his own daughter is overwhelmingly found in fairy tales of this variety, ending with the three balls, but it also appears in variants of "The Girl Without Hands". The oldest known variant is the medieval Vitae Duorum Offarum; it appears in chivalric romance in Nicholas Trivet's Chronique Anglo-Normane, the source of both Chaucer's The Man of Law's Tale and John Gower's variant in Confessio Amantis, and in Emaré. It also became attached to Henry the Fowler. When the motive is the enforced marriage, many modern tales soften it, by representing the daughter as adopted (as in Andrew Lang's version of "Donkeyskin" for The Grey Fairy Book), the marriage as put forth and urged by the king's councillors rather than the king himself, or the entire notion being a fit of madness from which he recovers in time to attend the wedding. Alternately, the undesired marriage may be to an ogre or monster. Variants of "Cinderella", in which the heroine is persecuted by her stepmother, include "Katie Woodencloak", where the heroine is driven off by the persecutions and must, like Allerleirauh, seek service in a kitchen. The heroine does not always have to flee persecution; Tattercoats is denied permission to go to the ball because her grandfather had sworn never to look at her, but he has not driven her off. The manner by which the king notices his daughter's beauty tends to vary among the variants: the princess can try her late mother's ring or dresses, and this sparks the notion of marriage in the king's mind. Variants Europe Austria Germanist and folklorist collected an Austrian tale titled Besenwurf, Bürstenwurf, Kammwurf ("Besom-cast, Brush-cast, Comb-cast"). In this tale, a count named Rudolf has a wife and a daughter named Adelheid, both with a golden cross on their forehead. After his wife dies, he tells his daughter he plans to travel around the world to find a woman with a similar birthmark, but, failing that, he will go back and marry her. After he leaves, Adelheid realizes that, apart from her and her mother, there is no other woman with a golden cross, and decides leave, taking her dresses, some possessions and a loyal servant named Gotthold with her. She smears her face with black powder, hides the golden cross under a rag, and finds work in another kingdom, as prince Adolf's kitchen maid. One day, prince Adolf holds a grand ball at the castle, and Adelheid goes to his chambers to take off his boots, but he throws a besom at her. Later, with Gotthold's help, she goes to the ball in a beautiful dress and introduces herself as Adelheid, from "Besom-cast". Two other balls are held at the castle; Prince Adolf throws a brush at Adelheid on the morning of the second ball, and a comb in the morning of the third. Adelheid attends the next two balls, and introduces herself as hailing from "Brush-cast" in the second, and as from "Comb-cast" in the third. Later, the prince falls ill, and Adelheid prepared him a broth, letting his ring drop inside it. The prince eats the broth and, finding the ring, sends for the kitchen maid to come. He recognizes her as Adelheid, the woman from the three balls, and marries her. Switzerland In a Swiss tale collected by Johannes Jegerlehner with the title Der Drächengrudel, a man lives with his daughter Seline next to a neighbouring couple. Some time after the neighbour's wife dies, the man notices Seline has fine golden hair like his deceased wife, and decides to marry her. Seline laughs at the proposal, but, realizing he is serious, and her own father seems inclined to agree, she tries to delay the wedding by asking for three dresses: one shining like the midday sun, one like a full moon, and the third like the stars in the sky. After he produces the three dresses, the girl asks for a self-moving carriage. She gets the carriage and, on her wedding day, rides the carriage away from home, until she reaches another kingdom. She trades clothes with a beggar woman, and goes to find work as a king's servant in the kitchen, where she is given the mocking name Drächengrudel. Later, the king goes to mass on three consecutive Sundays; Drächengrudel takes off the beggar clothes, and wears the three dresses for the mass. On the second Sunday, the king slips his ring on her finger before she escapes, and on the third Sunday, she loses a shoe. The king finds the shoe and decides to look for its owner, by inviting all maidens to a banquet, where they are to try it on. All maidens do during the feast, but none fit it. Meanwhile, Drächengrudel asks the head cook to bake some cakes for the king. Begrudgingly, the head cook lets her bake one; she does and places the king's ring inside it. When the monarch is served the cake, he opens it and sees the ring. He then orders the cook to send for Drächengrudel, and she must come with the dresses she wore for Sunday mass. Sweden In an addendum to her 1893 study on Cinderella, folklorist Marian Roalfe Cox located a manuscript version from Sweden with the title Rupels ("Shaggy-Cloak"): after his wife dies, the king promises to marry one that resembles his dead wife and can fit in her dress. The princess is the one, and asks her father for three dresses (one trimmed with silk roses, one with golden flowers and one with diamonds) and a cloak made of the fur of every animal. The princess escapes to another kingdom and finds work as a king's servant. She goes to church (where she meets the prince) three times, each time wearing one of her dresses, then rushes back to the kitchen. Later, the prince falls ill, and his mother prepares him a dish, that Rupels throws some sand into. The queen prepares a soup, and Rupels drops her ring into it - the same ring she got from him while in church. The king invites people to a dinner party; Rupels comes later and is unmasked by the prince. Cox summarized another Swedish manuscript version titled Kråknäbbäkappan ("The Crowbill-cloak"): to delay her father's wedding plans to marry her, the princess asks for three dresses (star, moon and sun) and a cloak of crow skins and bills; she then escapes to another kingdom, where she works for a king in the kitchen. An old woman advises her to go to church every Sunday, wearing one of her dresses; he third time, she lets a shoe loose so that the king may find her. The king summons every maiden to try on the shoe, and lastly Crowbill-cloak. In a third Sweden manuscript version summarized by Cox, Pelsarubb ("Fur-cloak"), after his wife dies, the king promises to marry one that can fit the dead queen's dress, and his grown up daughter fits. The princess runs away in tears. Her dead mother appears to her and advises her to ask for three dresses (one like the stars, one like the moon and one like the sun), and for a cloak made of every possible fur. The princess flees the kingdom to another country and finds work as a king's chambermaid. The princess wears the dresses to go to church for three Sundays. Later, the king asks for his chambermaid to come to his room and delouse him. He notices the dress of the sun beneath her furry cloak, and discovers the chambermaid is the lady who came to church. They marry. In a fourth Sweden version, archived in manuscript form at Uppsala, Kråk-Pelsen ("The Crow-Cloak"), the princess asks her father for three dresses (sun, moon and stars), and her faithful servants kill and skin crows to fashion a cloak for her. An old hag directs the princess to a castle where she can find work as a lamb-girl. The princess dons her three dresses to attend a meeting between the king and a lord. Later, the princess loses her shoe; the king summons every maiden to try on the shoe. The birds indicate the crow-cloaked girl is the true owner of the shoe, and she becomes his queen. In another Sweden variant, titled Tusen-pelsen ("Thousand-cloak"), the king plans to marry his own daughter, but the heroine asks him for a cloak made of a thousand patches, then for three dresses (star, moon, sun), and a ship that sails on land and water. She embarks on the ship and flees to another kingdom, where she finds work as a king's servant. When the king rides away to court some maiden (on three occasions), the princess wears one of the dresses and sails her ship to the king's destination. Each time, she impresses the king, who gives her a ring. The heroine goes back to her lowly station and puts on the thousand-patch cloak. The king returns to the castle and the princess gives brings him a soup with the three rings in it. The king recognizes the rings and summons Thousand-cloak to his room. She takes off the patchy cloak, and reveals she is wearing the sun dress under it. They marry. In a Swedish variant published by J. Sundelad (also summarized by Roalfe Cox), Pelsarubb, after the queen dies, the king decides to marry his own daughter. She tries to buy herself some time by asking him to provide three dresses (a silver, a gold, and one with stars). She then flees home and takes shelter with an old woman who lives in a cave, and finds work as a hen-girl in the palace. Some time later, she wears one of the dresses and attends mass at church, where the attendees notice her beauty. After three masses, the prince has a dream about summoning the girls in order to find the maiden from church. Pelsarubb comes last. The prince notices a glowing garment underneath the ragged gown. By taking off her gown, he discovers her identity. Finnish folklorist Oskar Hackman summarized a Finnish-Swedish variant in his publication Finlands svenska folkdiktning. In this tale, sourced from Nyland, a king woos a lady of his court, but she does not reciprocate his feelings. She then asks for a bronze garment, a golden garment and a coat made of crows' skins, feathers and feet. The king produces the dresses and kills enough crows to make the crowskin coat. The lady wears the crowskin cloak, takes the dresses and flees to another kingdom, where she works for a queen and her son. The son mocks her strange appearance and calls her "Kråksnäckan" ("Crow-nose"). One day, the queen and the prince attend a ball; Kråksnäckan takes off the crow cloak, puts on the bronze dress and goes to the ball. The prince sees her and gives her a ring. Later, in a second ball, Kråksnäckan wears the golden dress and is given another ring by the prince. Some time later, Kråksnäckan prepares some pastries for the prince and hides the two rings inside it. The prince finds the rings and sends for Kråksnäckan. He takes off her crow cloak and discovers she is the lady at the ball. They marry. United States American folklorist Marie Campbell collected an American variant from informant "Aunt" Lizbeth Fields. In this tale, titled The Queen With Golden Hair, a king's golden-haired wife dies, and he promises to marry one with hair as golden as hers. Time passes, and he notices that his own daughter is the spitting image of her mother, so he decides to marry her. To avoid marrying her father, the princess asks him to give her a cloak with the furs of every animal. He produces the cloak, the princess takes it and escapes to the woods. A group of hunters find her and take her a servant to the king's castle. One time, when she is cracking nuts, she finds a beautiful dress inside one, a silver dress with little golden stars. One day, the king holds a ball at the castle, and the girl wears the silver dress to attend it, and the prince notices her. After the ball, the king falls ill and the girl prepares a food, and drops a golden hair inside it. Next, she prepares another soup and drops a toy golden spinning wheel inside it. Literary versions The tale was adapted as The Princess in Disguise, in the work The True Annals of Fairy-Land in The Reign of King Cole. In this tale, a king is married to a golden-haired queen. In her deathbed, she makes him promise to marry another woman as beautiful and golden-haired as she was. After she dies, the king begins to notice his own daughter looks like her dead mother, and decides to marry her. The princess tries to delay her father's mad plan by asking three dresses: one as golden as the sun, the other as shining silver as the moon, and the third dazzling as the stars, and for a fourth outfit, made by a thousand furs provided by the animals of the kingdom. She leaves home and finds work in another kingdom, where she is mockingly called "Cat-skin". The goes to the three balls with three dresses, and prepares soup for the king, each time dropping an object in the food: first, her golden ring; second, a golden necklace; thirdly, a golden brooch. The king recognizes her after he slips a ring on her finger and, in a rush, she does not have time to dirty her face with soot. Adaptations Robin McKinley adapted this in her novel Deerskin, in which the princess is raped by the king before she can escape. In Jane Yolen's version, also entitled "Allerleirauh", the king marries his daughter, who has been emotionally neglected by her father and misunderstands the king's intentions toward her. The daughter dies in childbirth like her mother. The end of the story suggests that the daughter's daughter will suffer the same fate when she comes of age. Allerleirauh was featured in Grimm's Fairy Tale Classics under the title, "The Coat of Many Colors". First, the Princess is named Aleia (a simplified version of the tale's original name) and her love interest is named Alexander. Second, Aleia's relationship with her father is shown as a normal father/daughter one until the King came down with an illness that caused him mental damage; he then torched his own castle while chasing after a terrified Aleia, and died in the fire. Third, Alexander and Aleia are shown interacting several times, his kindness makes him fall in love with her and he falls for her before learning who she is. Finally, Aleia manages to leave the last dance and the incident with the golden ring takes place few later, officially revealing her identity. The last scene has the Royal Couple comically lecturing the royal chef as "punishment" for him being cold to her. An episode of Jim Henson's television series The Storyteller is based on this tale, with several changes. Namely the Princess being the youngest and most beautiful of the King's three daughters, and nicknamed "Sapsorrow" by her cruel sisters. Rather than the king desiring to marry her, the marriage is enforced by the court as a law decrees the king must marry whoever's finger fits the late queen's ring, and since Sapsorrow put the ring on, she is forced to marry her father, against both her and her father's wishes. The video game The Wolf Among Us, based on the Fables comic, uses the daughter, named Faith here, and the prince, her husband Lawrence, from "Allerleirauh" as characters within the game and as major drivers for a modern-day New York City murder plot. The character represents a slightly variant form of this story, Donkeyskin. Allerleirauh is one of the Grimm fairy tales featured in the play The Secret in the Wings by Mary Zimmerman. The ending of this version is rather ambiguous, as the narrators of the story frequently contradict both one another and the actions of the characters onstage. A German TV movie titled Allerleirauh (de) was produced by NDR in 2012. This version stays close to the Grimm fairy tale while expanding on it. The princess is named Lotte, and the movie focuses on her friendship with a kindly, paternal cook named Mathis, and her romance with the young King Jacob. Chantal Gadoury wrote a retelling of the fairy tale, titled under the same name "Allerleirauh", where at the end the Princess faces her father and the sexual abuse she endured by him. Folklorist and poet Margaret Yocom wrote a full-length book of erasure poetry, ''All Kinds of fur'', published by Deerbrook Editions in 2018. In Elizabeth Lim's 2019 novel Spin the Dawn, the protagonist Maia must sew three dresses, made from the laughter of the sun, the tears of the moon, and the blood of the stars, in order become the emperor's master tailor. In the Nelson Doubleday’s Grimm’s Complete Fairy Tales “Allerleirauh” is under the name of “The Princess in Disguise” The children's book "Princess Furball" is a retelling of Allerleirauh. The main difference is that the princess runs away due to a deal her father makes with an unseen ogre: fifty wagons full of silver in exchange for the princess's hand in marriage. In the graphic novel The magic fish by Trung Le Nguyen, "Allerleirauh" serves as a source of inspiration for one of the fairytales in the book. References External links Grimms' Fairy Tales Female characters in fairy tales Fictional princesses ATU 500-559
5187550	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law%20enforcement%20in%20Bolivia	Law enforcement in Bolivia	Law enforcement in Bolivia is reliant on the 40,000-member Cuerpo de Policía Nacional (National Police Corps) responsible for internal security and maintaining law and order. Unlike many South American countries, the Bolivian police force always has been accountable to the national government rather than to state or local officials. The 1950 Organic Law of Police and Carabiniers officially separated the police from the military. Frequently, however, the national police call upon the military for assistance in quelling riots and civil protests. The countrywide emergency number for the police, including the highway patrol, is 110. Historical background Although the Marshal of Ayacucho, Antonio José de Sucre, had organized the first Bolivian police force on June 24, 1826, the National Police (Policía Nacional) was not established officially until 1886. The Bolivian police became institutionalized on the national level in 1937 with the creation of the National Corps of Carabineers (Cuerpo Nacional de Carabineros) and its professional training school, the Police School (Escuela de Policía), later renamed the National Police Academy (Academia Nacional de Policías). The carabineers constituted a post-Chaco War merger of the military police, the Gendarmerie Corps (Cuerpo de Gendarmería), the paramilitary Security Police (Policía de Seguridad) and the Army's Carabineer Regiment (Regimiento de Carabineros). Bolivia's police forces had always been responsible to the national government rather than to lesser political authorities. The concept of centralized police power is established by the Constitution. The Police Law of 1886 formalized the system that remained in effect throughout the first half of the twentieth century. In 1950 the Organic Law of Police and Carabineers of Bolivia (Law No. 311) revised the police system substantially. Law No. 311 and the 1886 law provide the legal basis for the present-day police system. Before the 1952 revolution, the police corps was subordinate to the army and to the Ministry of National Defense. The army assumed most police functions and treated the corps as a reserve to be called on only in times of dire emergency. As a result of its active support of the revolution, however, the national police received greater jurisdiction over police affairs and was modernized. It and the carabineers were transferred to the jurisdiction of what was then the Ministry of Interior, which concerned itself exclusively with administrative supervision. Nevertheless, the police resented being commanded by an army officer and having lower status and pay than the military. Mission The constitutional mission of the national police is to preserve public order, protect society through its specialized agencies, and guarantee enforcement of the laws. The police are also responsible for protecting foreign diplomatic missions. The police do not deliberate or participate in partisan politics. The Constitution stipulates that the president of the republic is the commander in chief of the police forces. In this capacity, the president—acting through the minister of interior, migration, and justice—names the director general of the National Police Corps (Cuerpo de Policía Nacional), another name for the national police. In a national emergency, the president is empowered to administer directly the activities of the police corps. During an international conflict, the police forces would be subordinate to the military commander-in-chief and the Ministry of National Defense. In that event, the Constitution requires that police activities be integrated with those of the army as though the police were reserve units called to active duty for the duration of hostilities. The director general, who may be a civilian but almost invariably has been a high-ranking career police officer (usually with colonel rank), normally exercises operational control. Organization The police corps, with at least 40.000 personnel in the 2020s, consists of: The General Administration (Administración General) section. The 5,000-member paramilitary National Guard (Guardia Nacional), referred to as the carabiniers (Carabineros). The Directorate of National Investigations (Dirección de Investigaciones Nacionales, DIN), which cooperated with the International Police (Interpol). The Customs Police (Policía de Aduana). The Traffic Police (Policía de Tránsito). The National Highway Service (Servicio Nacional de Carreteras), which operated under the authority of the Ministry of Transport and Communications. The Fire Corps (Cuerpo de Bomberos), which was manned by police personnel. The National Police Academy. All of these subordinate entities were separate administrative units within the director general's office. This office, which also served as national headquarters for all police and national guard activities, consisted of a command group (the Police General Command), which was established in the early 1980s; and a staff (Estado Mayor) made up of twelve numbered, conventionally established staff sections. Leadership The National Police are led by a Commandant General, currently Colonel Ciro Oscar Farfán Medina, who was named in the wake of the René Sanabria affair and took office on 11 March 2011. His predecessor was General Oscar Nina who served from 24 January 2010 to this date. Regional police organization The National Police Corps is a centralized force, organized on a territorial basis. Each department of Bolivia has a police district subdivided into zones. Field elements of the National Police and National Guard were stationed in all sectors of the country and reported directly to the office of the director general in La Paz. Each department generally had one brigade (brigada) of carabineers, consisting of an urban and a rural force. Subordinate headquarters (also known as brigades), stationed in the capital of each of the nine departments, coordinated and supervised operations. Each brigade was divided into an urban command and a rural command. The urban command, at the departmental capital, operated the police stations and local jails and was also divided into patrol and criminal investigation sections. Most corps personnel and units within a department were consideredregardless of their size, composition, mission or stationto be part of the brigade in the area they served and were members of a single departmental unit. An exception was the city of La Paz, where two separate regiments of carabineers were kept under the direct control of the director general and the president. Other exceptions to the integral brigade organization were made in sections of the country where dependence on the regular departmental brigade forces was not deemed advisable or feasible. Two such areasSan Ignacio de Velasco in Santa Cruz Department and Tupiza in Potosí Departmenthad independent carabineer detachments in addition to the department brigades. Certain departmental brigade personnel of the rural command were assigned to a series of frontier posts scattered at twenty-seven critical points along the borders and at river and lake ports of entry. They included Customs Police integral to the corps, as well as uniformed carabineers concerned with combating smuggling and other forms of illegal border crossing. The carabineers were also heavily involved in civic action in the more remote and less populated regions of the country. In an effort to improve its public relations, the police created the Department of Social Communication (Departamento de Comunicación Social) in the early 1980s. Corps personnel were classified in three distinct groups: uniformed personnel (carabineers); technical and auxiliary personnel; and civilian police investigators and identification personnel. Ranks of uniformed personnel generally corresponded to those of the army. There were four general classificationsjefes (field officers), oficiales (company officers), clases (NCOs) tropas (privates)with a graded system of rank within each class. Uniformed personnel were promoted on the basis of annual examinations given when they attained the required time in grade, which was usually four years for all except captains and sergeants, who must spend five years in grade before becoming eligible for promotion. Classification of civilians was based on a nonmilitary two-category system composed of superiors (funcionarios superiores) and subalterns (funcionarios subalternos). In the mid-1980s, approximately 80 percent of the National Police Corps were uniformed carabineers. The remaining 20 percent were civilian police investigators involved in crime detection, forensic science, administration, or logistics. Approximately half of the total uniformed personnel and 60 percent of the nonuniformed personnel of the police force were stationed in La Paz. The La Paz Departmental Police also had an Explosives Brigade (Brigada de Explosivos), which was subordinate to the Fire Corps. The 600-member Traffic Police administered traffic law. Only officers of this force normally carried sidearms. All motorcycle patrolmen were commissioned officers. The Feminine Police Brigade (Brigada Policial Femenina) served in an auxiliary or support capacity to the operational units. In addition to directing traffic, members of this brigade helped in police matters involving children and women. Municipal police All municipalities were entitled to raise local police forces to enforce local ordinances. Only La Paz, however, had established such a force, called the La Paz Municipal Police (Policía Municipal de La Paz). In the mid-1980s, this force numbered about 400 uniformed and 100 nonuniformed members, none of whom was armed. Their functions were limited to enforcing parking regulations and local bylaws. Most of the city of La Paz was under the jurisdiction of Police District No. 2, which consisted of five squadrons. Police District No. 3 was responsible for the sprawling shantytowns above the city known generally as El Alto. Police Regiment No. 4 exercised jurisdiction over the area south of La Paz. Special police forces Other police forces under the Ministry of Interior, Migration, and Justice included antiriot, antinarcotics, and antiterrorist units. Special Security Group The Special Security Group (Grupo Especial de Seguridad, GES) was an operational, technical, and specialized unit. Its approximately 450 members were organized into motorcycle companies. They were mobilized to reestablish public order or to respond to an attack against private property. Normally, they served in the Legislative Palace; Ministry of Interior, Migration, and Justice; and other public institutions; or in the national police's National Guard and DIN. The GES also assumed counterterrorist functions. In March 1987, French police advisers and Bolivian experts began giving a three-month antiterrorism courseconsisting of technical and psychological trainingto 400 GES members. The purpose of the training was to form a special group for responding to hostage taking incidents. That June the Bolivian police announced officially the creation of a twenty-two-member antiterrorist command, the Multipurpose Intervention Brigade (Brigada de Intervención Polivalente, BIP), responsible for solving cases of "uncommon violence" such as kidnapping, hostage-taking, and outbreaks of subversion. Elite Antiterrorist Force The government of President Jaime Paz Zamora gave responsibility for anti-terrorist actions to the Special Elite Anti-terrorist Force (Fuerza Especial Antiterrorista de Elite, FEAE). Special Antinarcotics Force The narcotics police, with about 6,000 members as of the late 1980s, included the Special Antinarcotics Force (Fuerza Especial de Lucha Contra el Narcotráfico, FELCN) created in 1987, and a subordinate force, the Rural Area Police Patrol Unit (Unidad Móvil Policial para reas Rurales, Umopar). The Umopar, popularly known as "The Leopards" (Los Leopardos), was formed in late 1983 under a United States-funded program designed to eradicate the nation's cocaine trade and in accordance with four treaties on narcotics, signed by both countries on August 11, 1983. By early 1989, FELCN had its own intelligence service, which was charged with collecting evidence on individuals suspected of narcotics trafficking. Tourism Police The National Tourism Police has offices in La Paz and Cochabamba with plans to expand to Santa Cruz, providing free assistance to tourists. Units Especializadas (Specialties) Unidades de orden y seguridad (Security and public order units) Prison system Prisons in Bolivia are guarded by police officers rather than a civilian force as in many western countries. Funding for the prison system is low and as a result the police only patrol the perimeter of the prisons; internal security is generally managed by the inmates. In most large Bolivian prisons the inmates elect 'delegados' or heads of departments, for example education, discipline, workshops, etc. to maintain order. Due to the lack of funding, inmates have to buy or rent their cell space and pay for meals; hence the majority of prisoners have to undertake some form of work once inside. In the department of Cochabamba, an organisation called Ayni Ruway provides a means for the prisoners to earn a living by providing services like carpentry and metal workshops, along with educational classes and computer training. In the men's prisons, inmates are permitted to live there with their wives and children, who are allowed to leave the prison during the day to attend school or work. As a result of this and the lack of funding, many prisons are acutely overcrowded. In the Cochabamba department, the only purpose-built prison is El Abra, the maximum security prison; the other main prisons in town are generally housed in converted old warehouses and are often inadequate. Recruitment and training Historically, the police force was an unpopular career choice because of poor pay, conditions, and prestige and thus did not attract high-quality personnel. Officers and higher civilian employees, who generally were drawn from the small urban middle class, were of relatively higher quality. Many officer personnel came from the army. Officers were commissioned by graduation from the National Police Academy, by transfer from the army, by direct political appointment for demonstrated ability, or by outright patronage. Civilians were nearly always political appointees. Although specialized education was not a prerequisite for a civilian's appointment, some degree of qualification was usually present and facilitated on-the-job training. Enlisted personnel received most of their training on the job during the first four months after enlistment. The academic year of the police education system began in February. The Young Men's Basic Police School (Escuela Básica Policial de Varones—EBPV), which had 120 students in 1983, provided a one-year training course at the operational level for subalterns of the national police. The National Police Academy offered a four-year course for officers. In the early 1980s, the academy's curriculum included criminal law, penal and civil investigation, criminology, ballistics, laboratory science, narcotics, vehicular and pedestrian traffic, order and security of persons and installations, martial arts, and human and public relations. The academy also offered a specialized course patterned on the counterinsurgency course of the United States Army Special Warfare School at Fort Bragg, North Carolina. The police academy additionally offered a program of foreign training for officers. Selected personnel were sent to training courses either in the United States or in neighboring countries, particularly Argentina, Chile, Paraguay, and Peru. On completing their courses abroad, these trainees returned to Bolivia for duty, to lecture at the academy, or to organize and conduct unit-level courses throughout the corps. In the past, admissions requirements for the academy gave greater importance to political reliability and unquestioned loyalty to the government than to education. By the early 1980s, applicants had to undergo medical, physical, and mental examinations, as well as tests of their general knowledge. Cadets accepted to attend the academy were not subject to the age limitations for enlisted military service. Matriculation exempted them automatically from their military obligations. The normal student body ranged from 480 to 500 cadets divided into four courses. In 1983 the academy had very few women cadets, and the incorporation of women into police ranks was at an experimental stage. On graduation, which required passing an examination, cadets received a bachelor of humanities certificate, a saber to symbolize officer rank, and a commission as second lieutenant in the carabineers. Those graduates who were drawn from brigades then returned to their units to organize local classes. The Higher Police School (Escuela Superior de Policías—ESP) was created in February 1969 for officers in the ranks of lieutenant colonel and above. The ESP prepared higher officers to manage the command departments, operational units, and training institutes. In 1983, the ESP's student body consisted of fifty-seven higher officers. See also Narcotics in Bolivia Servicio Especial de Seguridad (SES, Special Security Service), a former secret police organization. General: Crime in Bolivia References External links Official website of the Policía Nacional de Bolivia Policiadebolivia.org US State Department on Bolivia Fuerza Especial de Lucha Contra el Narcotráfico Law enforcement agencies of Bolivia Drug control law enforcement agencies
5187609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lawrence%20Wackett	Lawrence Wackett	Sir Lawrence James Wackett (2 January 1896 – 18 March 1982) is widely regarded as "father of the Australian aircraft industry". He has been described as "one of the towering figures in the history of Australian aviation covering, as he did, virtually all aspects of activities: pilot, designer of airframes and engines, entrepreneur and manager". He was knighted for his services to aviation and was a winner of the Oswald Watt Gold Medal. He was also a keen angler and wrote two books on the subject. Early years, war service and education Wackett was born in Townsville, Queensland, on 2 January 1896. He joined the Australian Army and graduated from the Royal Military College, Duntroon, then with the rank of lieutenant joined No. 1 Squadron of the Australian Flying Corps (AFC) which had formed at Point Cook the day before his 20th birthday. He was one of twelve pilots that went to Egypt with the Squadron to operate in support of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, embarking on 16 March 1916 and arriving at Suez four weeks later. In Egypt he designed a mounting to attach a Lewis Gun to the upper wing of his BE2c; considerably improving the fighting ability of a type that was described by Hudson Fysh (who served with Wackett in No. 1 Squadron.) as the "poorest of all offensive, or defensive aircraft". The BE2c was normally armed with a machine gun at the observer's position, but the observer sat in front of the pilot and behind the engine, and between the upper and lower wings. This meant that the machine gun could only be fired in fairly narrow arcs if the Observer was to avoid hitting his own aircraft. Wackett's modification meant that all he had to do was point the whole aircraft at his adversary and that he had a measure of protection when on a bombing mission (because the BE2c could carry bombs or an Observer, but not both). Wackett used his modified BE2c to good effect on several occasions. He once gave the enemy pause when while on a reconnaissance mission he was attacked by two Rumpler C.Is. Wackett flew towards them firing the gun and the Rumplers broke off the fight. On 11 November 1916 he was in his BE2c on a 7-hour bombing mission to Beersheba with four other BE2s and a Martinsyde G.100 when the formation came under attack by two much superior German aircraft. Wackett was able to use his aircraft to assist the Martinsyde in defending their comrades and fighting off the attack. On the night of the 14/15 January 1917, 16 Jewish workers (mostly masons, carpenters and plumbers) who had been working in Beer Sheba under the Turkish Military Authority, were sleeping in a railway carriage at Beer Sheba Railway Station when a RAF BC2c dropped a 45 kg bomb very near the carriage killing all of them. Later investigations by British and Australian air-force historians confirmed that the pilot was an Australian. Further investigation and in-depth study of British, Australian and Turkish records by researcher Dr. Ilan Gal Peer, confirmed that the most likely pilot was Wackett of Number 1 Squadron attached to EEF, who believed a non-existent ammunitions shed was located in the immediate vicinity. Wackett later transferred to No. 3 Squadron AFC in France and played a significant role in the Battle of Hamel fought on 4 July 1918. Captured German documents revealed that they had been experimenting with dropping ammunition from aircraft and No. 3 Squadron was asked to investigate doing the same. Wackett was asked to do the work as his reputation had spread; 'he had a gift for mechanical inventions' according to his superiors. Now a captain, he devised a small parachute that could be used to drop supplies to troops, designed a modified bomb rack to hold the supplies and then trained No. 3 Squadron personnel in the required technique. General Monash's battle plan for Hamel involved resupplying the engaged machine-gunners with ammunition dropped by aircraft. In the event No. 3 Squadron was assigned other tasks during the battle and the ammunition dropping was performed by No. 9 Squadron RAF. Monash later wrote, "at least 100,000 rounds of ammunition were [dropped] during the battle with obvious economy in lives and wounds. The method thus initiated became general in later months". Later that year, on 25 September, Wackett undertook a daring reconnaissance mission in 3 Squadron's first Bristol F.2 Fighter, when he penetrated six miles (10 km) behind enemy lines to take aerial photographs of the German Joncourt-Villers Outreaux line, that were needed for a forthcoming attack. Two days later he carried out an ammunition resupply flight to some isolated troops using the equipment he had designed. As a result of these two actions he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. By the end of the war two months later he had been promoted to the rank of major. On 6 January 1919 he was appointed the Commanding Officer of No. 7 Squadron AFC based at Leighterton in England. 7 Sqn. had acted as the training unit for No. 3 Squadron during the recent conflict and Wackett remained the CO until the Squadron was disbanded in March that year, at which time he returned to Australia. Post-war, Wackett was one of just 21 officers who formed the nucleus of the new Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) in 1921. He had a strong belief in the need to develop an indigenous aircraft industry and completed a Bachelor of Science degree at the University of Melbourne, then had two years of advanced training in aircraft design under Frank Barnwell, designer of the F.2 Fighter aircraft that he had flown while serving with No. 3 Squadron AFC. He entered and won second prize in the 1924 Low-Powered Aeroplane Competition (held at Richmond in December that year) with his first design, the Warbler. This was a parasol wing monoplane powered by an engine also of his own design, the Wizard, a two-cylinder horizontally-opposed monosoupape-type pusher engine developing . Wackett and the RAAF Experimental Section Wackett learned of war surplus machine tools slated for disposal from a workshop in Randwick, Sydney, and prevailed upon his superiors to acquire the workshop. The RAAF Experimental Aircraft Section was thus established in January 1924 and Wackett, by then a squadron leader, was placed in charge. He tried to obtain permission to design and build an entirely Australian aircraft, but the RAAF had no money in its budget for this and would not give the go-ahead unless Wackett could obtain funds from some other source. Wackett then approached the Controller of Civil Aviation Colonel H. C. Brinsmead and managed to persuade the Civil Aviation Branch (of the Department of Defence, there not being a separate Department of Civil Aviation at this time) to fund the construction of a small flying boat. The result was the Widgeon, a wooden hull biplane flying boat powered by an Armstrong Siddeley Puma of located below and forward of the upper wing. This aircraft, the first flying boat to be wholly designed and constructed in Australia, was registered to the Civil Aviation Branch out of the Australian sequence (i.e. G-AUxx) as G-AEKB, after E. K. Bowden, Minister for Defence. The aircraft was launched on 7 July 1925 into Botany Bay. The following day it hit a sandbank during taxi tests and later overturned whilst attempting a takeoff. Wackett was on board with Brinsmead and two mechanics; all were unhurt. The aircraft was repaired and made its first flight on 3 December that year. Wackett subsequently installed a more powerful ADC Nimbus engine and an undercarriage, converting it into an amphibian. Following the modifications the Widgeon I was transferred to the RAAF and used at Point Cook for flying boat training from 1927. The aircraft operated with the RAAF until 1929, when it was scrapped. A larger amphibian, the Widgeon II, powered by a Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar engine, was the next aircraft to emerge from the Experimental Section workshop. Wackett himself flew the Widgeon II extensively, later saying, "I proved its capability by flying it on a journey across and around part of the Australian continent in 1928". The next aircraft developed at Randwick was the two-seat Warrigal I of 1929, a biplane trainer of conventional design, powered by a Armstrong Siddeley Lynx radial engine. This was followed in 1930 by the improved Warrigal II, powered by a Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar radial engine. On 21 March 1927, Wackett was elected the inaugural chairman of the NSW Division of the Institution of Aeronautical Engineers (IoAE) in Sydney. The following year, after the amalgamation of the Royal Aeronautical Society (RAeS) and the IoAE parent body in Britain, he was appointed the inaugural deputy chairman of the Australasian Branch of the RAeS. He also found time to act as the New South Wales RAAF Aide de Camp to the Governor General, although the duties were not onerous. Wackett in the 1930s As a result of a government-sponsored report and pressure from British manufacturers, who saw Wackett as a threat to their monopoly on Australian orders, the Randwick Station was closed in 1931. Wackett resigned from the RAAF with the rank of wing commander and transferred (with some personnel and equipment) to the Cockatoo Island Naval Dockyard. Here he was involved in the design of watercraft as well as aircraft. He continued working for the RAAF – a single de Havilland D.H.60G Gipsy Moth was built at the Dockyard under his supervision and entered RAAF service in 1933. He also undertook civilian aviation projects including repair and modification projects, and built the Cockatoo Docks & Engineering LJW.6 Codock, a six passenger airliner powered by two Napier Javelin engines of , for Sir Charles Kingsford Smith. A later design for a larger aircraft, the 4-engined Corella, did not leave the drawing board, nor did his other aircraft concepts; VH-URP, the solitary Codock, was the only Wackett aircraft design built at the Dockyard. His marine designs at the Dockyard included small motorboats such as the Cettien (which won the Griffith Cup in 1934 and 1935) and the racing hydroplane Century Tire II, and larger commercial passenger-carrying vessels as well. In 1934, Wackett and some of his staff joined Tugan Aircraft at Mascot aerodrome. The following year, following a series of accidents involving Australian-operated de Havilland D.H.86s, he and his brother Ellis (who was then the Director of RAAF Technical Services) were asked to provide their views and recommendations to a special conference convened by the Civil Aviation Branch, held to examine the type and its shortcomings. In 1936 he was seconded to an aviation syndicate to lead a technical mission to Europe (including future enemy nation Nazi Germany) and the United States to evaluate modern aircraft types and select a type suitable to Australia's defence needs and within Australia's capabilities to build. The three-man mission lasted five months and on its return advised that the North American NA-16 was the most suitable type. Wackett was able to acquire the rights for the NA-32 and NA-33 versions of the aircraft, plus the 600-hp Pratt & Whitney R-1340-S1H1G engine. On completion of the mission Wackett returned to Tugan Aircraft, where the Codock design was developed into the LJW7 Gannet six/seven passenger airliner powered by two de Havilland Gipsy Six engines. This was the first of Wackett's designs to enter series production. The first aircraft was delivered in late 1935 and a total of eight Gannets were built for civilian customers and the RAAF. The RAAF took delivery of one new Gannet and subsequently operated another five second-hand examples. One RAAF aircraft was temporarily modified with Menasco engines as the LJW7A during World War II. Shortly after the establishment of the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation (CAC), Tugan Aircraft was purchased to give CAC a nucleus of experienced personnel. Upon joining CAC Wackett immediately became the General Manager and he oversaw the entry into production of the first aircraft mass-produced in Australia, the CAC Wirraway development of the NA-16 he had earlier recommended. The second type to emerge from CAC under Wackett's stewardship was the eponymous Wackett Trainer, the first prototype flying for the first time just after the outbreak of World War II. Wackett, CAC and the RAAF in WWII and beyond In many ways the story of Lawrence Wackett was inextricably linked with the history of the RAAF and CAC for over twenty years. He was hugely influential within the Australian aircraft industry as a whole and also within the RAAF, which often chose its combat aircraft types based on his recommendations. As already mentioned, this relationship began with the Wirraway. During the Second World War, Wackett presided over a company – that had not even existed a mere three years before the outbreak – employing thousands of people, that was now delivering hundreds of aircraft as well as engines and propellers for those aircraft. Aircraft types emerging from CAC during the war period included the innovative and advanced Woomera and CA-15, however like many of his pre-war designs these were built as prototypes only, being the victims of circumstance and changing requirements. He also suffered personal tragedy during the war when his son, Squadron Leader Wilbur Lawrence Wackett, was killed in 1944 while serving as a Beaufighter pilot with No. 31 Squadron RAAF. Following World War II his influence was again exerted over the RAAF when it became necessary to replace the de Havilland Vampire first-generation jet fighters then in service. CAC initially offered the advanced CAC CA-23 design to the RAAF but this lost out to the Hawker P.1081 then in development in the UK. When the P.1081 was cancelled, Gloster Meteors were ordered in the interim, but the combat experiences of No. 77 Squadron RAAF during the Korean War showed that a more modern type was urgently needed. The anglophile government of the day wanted to wait for the Hawker Hunter to become available, but Wackett decided otherwise. He negotiated with North American Aviation and Rolls-Royce to manufacture the Sabre jet fighter and Avon engine of those companies under licence. The use of the Avon and other features such as using 30mm Aden cannon armament instead of .50in Browning machine guns necessitated a 60% redesign of the Sabre fuselage and resulted in perhaps the best variant of that aircraft. The RAAF Chief of Air Staff at the time, Air Marshal George Jones (who had known Wackett since the time both served in No. 1 Squadron AFC), was suitably impressed by the Avon-Sabre as it became known, and threw his weight behind the project. The Sabre was ordered for the RAAF to both its and CAC's benefit. When the time came to replace the Sabre, Wackett once again was largely responsible for deciding which aircraft was selected, albeit with less desirable results from CAC's point of view. The selection race was even more wide open than that which saw the Sabre selected, with six types in the running. The Lockheed Starfighter was considered (by almost everyone except Wackett it seems) to be the best aircraft for the RAAF; the process had got to the stage where the Starfighter had been selected and the decision was about to be made public when Wackett declared to George Jones (by this time a member of the board of directors of CAC), "I think that I should decide what aircraft the RAAF should buy!" and once more set to work to do just that. Wackett together with some members of the RAAF, had the decision for the Starfighter overturned in favour of the Dassault Mirage and CAC staff commenced working with Dassault (in the expectation that CAC would build the Mirage under licence as it had the Sabre and P-51 Mustang fighters). However in a serious reverse to CAC the Government Aircraft Factories was selected to build the Mirage instead, this being a move by the government of the day to rationalise the Australian aircraft industry. Wackett and the CAC Board undertook extensive lobbying to reverse the decision but the best that could be achieved was a subcontract to build the Mirage's wings, tails and engines. The Mirage itself was a sound choice on Wackett's part that proved well suited to the RAAF's needs and the production programme was the last that Wackett oversaw; he retired in 1966 with the delivery of Mirage components in full swing. Lawrence Wackett died on 18 March 1982. Four years after his death the company with which he was bound for so long, CAC, had ceased to exist. His name lives on – the RMIT University established the Sir Lawrence Wackett Centre for Aerospace Design Technology in 1991 at the former CAC factory. Aircraft designs LJW1 – Wackett Warbler, a parasol wing monoplane of 1924, powered by an engine also of his own design, the Wizard, a two-cylinder horizontally-opposed monosoupape-type pusher engine developing 25 hp (19 kW).[9] LJW2 – Wackett Widgeon (I), (RAAF Experimental Section), a wooden hull biplane flying boat powered by an Armstrong Siddeley Puma of 230 hp (170 kW) located below and forward of the upper wing. This aircraft, the first flying boat to be wholly designed and constructed in Australia, was registered to the Civil Aviation Branch out of the Australian sequence (i.e. G-AUxx) as G-AEKB, after E. K. Bowden, Minister for Defence. The aircraft was launched on 7 July 1925 into Botany Bay. LJW3 – Wackett Widgeon II, (RAAF Experimental Section), a biplane amphibian, powered by a 440 hp (330 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar engine, was the next aircraft to emerge from the Experimental Section workshop. Wackett himself flew the Widgeon II extensively, later saying, "I proved its capability by flying it on a 9,000-mile (14,000 km) journey across and around part of the Australian continent in 1928".[10] LJW4 – Wackett Warrigal I of 1929, (RAAF Experimental Section), a two seat biplane trainer of conventional design, powered by a 180 hp (130 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Lynx radial engine. LJW5 – Wackett Warrigal II of 1930, (RAAF Experimental Section), powered by a 450 hp (340 kW) Armstrong Siddeley Jaguar radial engine.[11] LJW6 – Cockatoo Docks & Engineering Codock, a six passenger airliner powered by two Napier Javelin engines of 160 hp (120 kW), for Sir Charles Kingsford Smith. A later design for a larger aircraft, the 4-engined Corella, did not leave the drawing board, nor did his other aircraft concepts; VH-URP, the solitary Codock, was the only Wackett aircraft design built at the Dockyard. Wackett Waterhen – A 2 seat amphibian reconnaissance biplane proposed for the Royal Australian Navy in 1931. LJW7 – Tugan Gannet, Wackett left the Dockyards and joined Tugan Aircraft (itself an evolution of the earlier Genairco aircraft manufacturer), where the Codock design was developed into the LJW7 Gannet six/seven passenger airliner powered by two de Havilland Gipsy Six engines. This was the first of Wackett's designs to enter series production. The first aircraft was delivered in late 1935 and a total of eight Gannets were built for civilian customers and the RAAF. The RAAF took delivery of one new Gannet and subsequently operated another five second-hand examples. One RAAF aircraft was temporarily modified with Menasco engines as the LJW7A during World War II. "LJW8" – CAC Wackett, a two seat monoplane basic trainer with tandem enclosed cockpit, the CA-2 prototypes and CA-6 production Wackett Trainers, although not formally referred to as LJW8, are clearly acknowledged as his design, and has apparent design and structural links to the earlier LJW7 Tugan Gannet. They are his last formal design. Wackett left Tugan to join the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation, where he led the local production of the licence built NA-16 as the CAC Wirraway. The second type to emerge from CAC under Wackett's stewardship was the eponymous Wackett Trainer, the first prototype flying for the first time just after the outbreak of World War II. The CAC Wackett trainer was the first aircraft type designed in-house by the Commonwealth Aircraft Corporation of Australia. The name was derived from its designer Lawrence Wackett. The type was designed to meet RAAF Specification 3/38 for an ab initio training aircraft. It was a tandem seat fixed tailwheel-undercarriage monoplane aircraft with a fuselage of steel tube and fabric construction and wings and tail made of wood. Despite the simplicity of the design, construction of the first of two CA-2 prototypes, begun in October 1938, was not completed until September 1939 (this was partly because CAC was still building its factory during this time period). The first prototype flew for the first time on 19 September 1939 fitted with a Gipsy Major engine. The aircraft proved to be underpowered with this engine so the second prototype was fitted with a Gipsy Six prior to its first flight in early November the same year (the first prototype was subsequently also re-engined with a Gypsy Six). Although in-flight performance was improved, the heavier engine negated any benefits to take-off performance obtained from the increased power, so the decision was made to install a Warner Scarab radial engine driving a Hamilton two-bladed propeller. The two prototypes were fitted with Scarabs in mid-1940. With two CA-2 prototypes and 200 CA-6 production examples, the type was the most numerous of Wackett's designs to be produced, (and his only design to enter mass production), and also the most successful, with 200 serving in the RAAF as elementary and wireless trainers, Following retirement and disposal at the end of the war, with 30 being sold to the Netherlands East Indies ML-KNIL, the first Australian design to serve with a foreign military service, more than 40 went into civil service after WW2 on the Australian VH- civil register and 25 were later modified into the K.S.3 Cropduster and the Yeoman Cropmaster. It is also the only Wackett design to be preserved through extent survivors. Lawrence Wackett played a major design role on the CA-4 Wackett Bomber, that also took his name, but by that time he was leading a design team consisting of Herb Knight, Schulz, Frewin and Fred David among others. Lawrence Wackett clearly played a significant technical role in the introduction and local licensed production of the NA-16 / NA-33, including its conversion to British hardware etc as the CAC Wirraway, and is likely to have also had a strong technical influence over the designs of the CA-12, CA-13, CA-19 and CA-14 Boomerang, CA-4 Wackett Bomber and later CA-11 Woomera bomber, CA-15 Fighter, the CA-28 Ceres, CA-22 and CA-25 Winjeel and CA-26 & CA-27 Avon Sabre, but these later aircraft were all products of what had become a very large corporation with an extensive design team, and Wackett by this time had moved onto the management phase of his career. Awards and honours Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire. Distinguished Flying Cross. Air Force Cross 1974 Royal Federation of Aero Clubs of Australia Oswald Watt Gold Medal. 1978 Royal Society of New South Wales James Cook Medal. Fellow of the Royal Aeronautical Society. 2015 Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame Bibliography My Hobby is Trout Fishing J.T. Picken & Sons, 1946. Studies of an Angler J.T. Picken & Sons, 1950. Aircraft Pioneer: an Autobiography Angus and Robertson, 1972. Notes References Isaacs, Wing Commander Keith. Military Aircraft of Australia 1909–1918. Australian War Memorial. Sattler, Steve. HaRakevet. No ISBN. Odgers, George. The Royal Australian Air Force: An Illustrated History. Child & Henry Publishing Pty. Ltd. Wilson, Stewart. Meteor, Sabre and Mirage in Australian Service. Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. Wilson, Stewart. Wirraway, Boomerang & CA-15 in Australian Service. Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. Bean, Charles Edwin Woodrow. The Official History of Australia in the War of 1914–1918 Volume VI, The A.I.F. in France, May 1918-the Armistice. University of Queensland Press. Wilson, Stewart. Tiger Moth, CT-4, Wackett & Winjeel in Australian Service. Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. Cookson, Bert. The Historic Civil Aircraft Register of Australia G-AUAA to VH-UZZ. Privately published by AustAirData, no ISBN. Job, Macarthur. Air Crash Volume One, 1921–1939. Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. Job, Macarthur. Air Crash Volume Two. Aerospace Publications Pty. Ltd. Technology in Australia 1788–1988. Australian Academy of Technological Sciences and Engineering. Civil Aviation Historical Society website Widgeon I page. Retrieved 2007-08-16. List of Australian-designed aircraft retrieved 2007-08-16. Meggs, Keith Raymond (2009). Australian-built Aircraft and the Industry Volume 1. Seymour, Victoria: Finger-Four Publishing. . External links Photograph of Ivor McIntyre and Lawrence Wackett (on right) taken at the time Wackett flew the Widgeon around Australia. Image, Aircraft mechanics preparing the Warbler aeroplane, during light aircraft trials, December 1924, from State Library of Queensland. Widgeon I history & images. Flying Boats of the World Widgeon page. Images of various Wackett designs. List of Wackett design papers. Tugan Gannet image. Image of a Tugan Gannett (sic) at Mascot Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame Sir Lawrence Wackett digital stories and oral history: Queensland Business Leaders Hall of Fame 2015, State Library of Queensland 1896 births 1982 deaths Military personnel from Queensland Australian military personnel of World War I Royal Military College, Duntroon graduates Royal Australian Air Force personnel of World War II Fellows of the Royal Aeronautical Society Australian Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire People from Townsville Australian recipients of the Air Force Cross (United Kingdom) Australian recipients of the Distinguished Flying Cross (United Kingdom) Australian aerospace engineers
5187955	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Idol%20%28season%206%29	American Idol (season 6)	The sixth season of American Idol premiered on the Fox Broadcasting Company as a two-night, four-hour premiere special on January 16 and 17, and ran until May 23, 2007. Simon Cowell, Paula Abdul, and Randy Jackson returned as judges, and Ryan Seacrest returned as host. A new record of 74 million votes were cast in the finale round, and a new record of 609 million votes were cast in the entire season. Jordin Sparks won the competition, while Blake Lewis was the runner-up. Regional auditions Contestants were required to be between the ages 16 and 28 on August 6, 2006. Guest judges were used for auditions this season. Jewel, Minneapolis auditions Carole Bayer Sager, New York auditions Olivia Newton-John, Los Angeles auditions Auditions were held in the following cities: Jordin Sparks, this season's winner, originally failed to pass through her audition in Los Angeles, but later won an audition in Seattle as a reward for winning a local Fox-affiliate-sponsored contest called Arizona Idol. Hollywood week The Hollywood rounds of the audition process were held over four days in November 2006 at the Orpheum Theatre in Los Angeles. The first round consisted of each contestant singing one song a cappella in front of the judges. Contestants were then told whether they were moving on or going home in groups of six. This extended over the first two days. The second round took place on the second and third days, and consisted of groups of three or four contestants rehearsing and then performing one of nine pre-selected songs. Groups were reviewed and contestants were then judged individually as to whether they were moving on or going home. The third round took place on the fourth day, where each contestant performed one song from a pre-selected list accompanied by a piano and backup singers. Contestants were again informed of whether they had made the cut or not. The final round took place at the Pasadena Civic Center on January 14–15, 2007, just before the regional audition shows began airing. Without any further auditioning, the 40 remaining contestants were reduced to 24. In a process taking a whole day, contestants waited in a sitting room until, one by one, they went up to the center's Gold Room. The three judges told them whether they had made it onto the stage show or were cut. The 24 semifinalists were announced on February 14, 2007. Semifinals The live show portion of the semifinals began on February 20, 2007, with the names announced on February 14. Starting with 12 women and 12 men, the women and men performed weekly on separate shows and on the result show, the bottom two male and two female contestants were eliminated. The semifinals took place over three weeks, leaving the other six to form the top 12. The females performed on the first night, followed by the males the next night. Color key: Top 24 (February 20 & 21) Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 20 (February 27 & 28) Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 16 (March 6 & 7) Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 12 finalists The top 12 finalists were announced on March 8, 2007. As in past years, the top 12 appeared on the annual compilation album while the top 10 participated in the American Idol summer concert tour. Also as in past years, one finalist was eliminated every week, with the exception of the April 25 show, when all contestants were declared safe. As a result, two of the participants were eliminated on the May 2 results program. Jordin Sparks (17 at the time of the show) was from Glendale, Arizona, and auditioned in Seattle. She was the daughter of former NFL defensive back Philippi Sparks. Blake Lewis (25 at the time of the show) was from Bothell, Washington, and auditioned in Seattle. Claiming to be the city's beatboxing champion, Lewis sampled a hip hop tune to the judges before rendering Seal's "Crazy." He passed the auditions, but Simon commented to him: "you are not as good as you think you are." Melinda Doolittle (29 at the time of the show) was from Brentwood, Tennessee, and auditioned in Memphis. She auditioned with "For Once in My Life" by Stevie Wonder and was met with universal praise from the three judges on her vocal ability. LaKisha Jones (27 at the time of the show) was from Flint, Michigan, and she performed "Think" by Aretha Franklin at her audition in New York. Chris Richardson (23 at the time of the show) was from Chesapeake, Virginia, and auditioned in New York with Leon Russell's "A Song for You." During Richardson's audition, Randy Jackson compared him to Justin Timberlake. Phil Stacey (29 at the time of the show) was from Jacksonville, Florida, and auditioned in Memphis. He missed the birth of his daughter to audition. He performed two songs before going through to Hollywood: "My Girl" and "Let's Get It On." Sanjaya Malakar (17 at the time of the show) was from Federal Way, Washington, and auditioned in Seattle with his sister Shyamali, singing "Signed, Sealed, Delivered I'm Yours." Simon commented that he had a better voice than his sister. Both made it to Hollywood, but Sanjaya was shown tearfully embracing his sister when he made it to the top 40 in Hollywood and she did not. Haley Scarnato (24 at the time of the show) sang "I Can't Make You Love Me" by Bonnie Raitt during her audition. Gina Glocksen (22 at the time of the show) was from Naperville, Illinois, and auditioned in Memphis. She originally auditioned in the fifth season and made it to Hollywood, but she was cut before the top 40. Chris Sligh (28 at the time of the show) was from Greenville, South Carolina, and auditioned in Birmingham with "Kiss from a Rose" by Seal, after which Paula Abdul gave him a standing ovation and stated, "I like you very much." Stephanie Edwards (19 at the time of the show) was from Savannah, Georgia, and auditioned in Memphis. Brandon Rogers (29 at the time of the show) was from North Hollywood, California, and auditioned in Los Angeles. After hearing his audition, the judges, including guest judge Olivia Newton-John, were impressed with his vocals. Simon Cowell later mentioned he was the best audition in Los Angeles. Finals There were eleven weeks of finals with twelve contestants competing. One contestant was eliminated every week based on the public's votes, with the exception of the top 6 week, where one week featured a non-elimination and the following week a double-elimination. Color key: Top 12 – Diana Ross (March 15) Diana Ross served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants performed one song each from her discography and are listed in the order they performed. Top 11 – British Invasion (March 24) British singers Peter Noone and Lulu served as guest mentors this week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 10 – Gwen Stefani (March 31) Gwen Stefani served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants performed songs from her discography or songs that inspired her, and are listed in the order they performed. Top 9 – American classics (April 6) Tony Bennett served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 8 – Latin (April 11) Jennifer Lopez served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 7 – Country (April 18) Martina McBride served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 6 (Idol Gives Back) – Inspirational songs (April 25) Owning to a special theme week – Idol Gives Back – Ryan Seacrest announced that this week would be a non-elimination, and that the votes cast for this week would be combined with the votes from the following week. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 6 – Bon Jovi (May 2) Jon Bon Jovi and David Bryan served as guest mentors this week. Contestants performed one song from the Bon Jovi discography, and are listed in the order they performed. Two contestants were eliminated based on the combined votes from last week and this week. Top 4 – Bee Gees (May 9) Barry Gibb served as a guest mentor this week. Contestants performed two songs each from the Bee Gees discography and are listed in the order they performed. Top 3 (May 16) Each contestant performed three songs: one chosen by one of the judges, one chosen by the producers, and one chosen by themselves. Contestants are listed in the order they performed. Top 2 – Finale (May 23) Each contestant performed three songs, and contestants are listed in the order they performed. The finale aired on May 23, 2007, live from the Kodak Theatre in Los Angeles. Every past winner of American Idol gave a special performance except for Fantasia, who was appearing in The Color Purple in New York City and was thus unavailable. After Carrie Underwood performed "I'll Stand by You", Clive Davis gave a speech extolling the state of "the American Idol album franchise," and then presented Underwood with a special award for achieving 6 million U.S. album sales for her album Some Hearts. Elimination chart Color key: American Idol songwriter contest On the April 3 show, Ryan Seacrest announced the first American Idol songwriting contest. Following an open online submission process, where over 25,000 submissions were received, twenty songs were selected for competition by Simon Fuller and A&R representatives of 19 Entertainment. Beginning on May 2, 2007, and ending on May 8, 2007, with "one online vote per fan", the American public were able to listen to snippets from each song and rate them on the American Idol website. On the May 22 show, the two finalists performed the winning song: "This Is My Now". The song was released as a single by Jordin Sparks. The titles of the twenty songs were: "Close to Me" – Michael Doane and AnneMarie Milazzo "Forever Starts Today" – Erin Boheme and CJ Vanston "If You Ask Me To" – Jennifer Hamady and Shedrick Mitchell "I'm Going to Be Me" – Lane Lenhart "In Your Eyes" – Colin Armstrong "I Saw Stars" – Reed Waddle "Lost (Without You)" – Cal Harris, Jr. "Love Me till the Lonely's Gone" – Michael Patzig and Tracey Naples "The Next Big Thing" – Ray Grant and Sam Sims "One Night" – Kelley Hill "Right Here with Me" – Kelli Trontell and Don Gatlin "Secrets and Lies" – Drew Yowell and Byron Zanos "Send Me on My Way" – Matthew Rogers and Scott Young "Someday" – Nelson Kole "This Is My Now" – Jeff Peabody and Scott Krippayne – Contest Winner "Tonight" – Kelly Corsino "Waking in a Dream" – R. J. Martinez and Stacy Hogan "When You Need a Moment" – Christie Leigh "With All the Love Your Heart Can Hold" – Robin Randall and Diana De Witt "You Never Gave Up on Me" – Billy Aerts and Burton Collins Controversies There was controversy surrounding the judges' comments over the audition of a Special Olympics participant named Jonathan Jayne. American Idol producer Ken Warwick responded by saying: "It's not a conscious decision, It's just that the further we go in the series, there are less and less good singers, so the numbers are made up by more bad ones." Warwick said that he thinks everyone has the right to audition, and added that in some instances when there are singers with certain disabilities who just want to meet the judges, the producers will "turn the cameras off and bring them in. We give them a good experience." A series of provocative photos surfaced on the Internet of sontestant Antonella Barba. On Tuesday, April 17, 2007, the day after the Virginia Tech massacre, while Chris Richardson and Ryan Seacrest were discussing the shooting after Chris's critique, Simon Cowell apparently appeared to be rolling his eyes at the incident, when he was actually speaking to Paula Abdul and did not hear what Chris had said. On the results show the next day, Cowell stated: "I may not be the nicest person in the world, but I would never, ever, ever disrespect those families or those victims, and I felt it was important to set the record straight." To clear Cowell's name, a video was shown on the result show which showed Cowell and Abdul talking with an inset of Chris and Seacrest discussing the shooting. Additionally, Seacrest began the performance show by acknowledging what had happened the day before. Reception U.S. Nielsen ratings Live + same day ratings American Idol ended the season as the top show of the 2006–2007 TV season. Its Wednesday episodes ranked first with an average of 30.02 million viewers, followed by the Tuesday episodes which averaged 29.54 million. The premiere episode became the series' highest rated debut episode, viewed by 37.44 million viewers and receiving a 15.8/36 Nielsen rating in the Adult 18-49 demographic. Live + 7 day (DVR) ratings Related programming American Idol Extra (season 2) American Idol Extra, a behind-the-scenes show, also returned for a second season, corresponding with the start of the finals in March. It aired on Thursdays on Fox Reality. Idol Gives Back 2007 On the March 8 results show, Ryan Seacrest announced an initiative to give back to people in poverty in both Africa and the United States, including those affected by Hurricane Katrina. The event took place over two episodes of the series. For every vote cast immediately following the April 24 broadcast, sponsors donated funds to the Charity Projects Entertainment Fund. The fund would distribute the money raised to many charities in the United States as well as in Africa. News Corporation pledged to donate 10 cents for every vote made to the show for the first 50 million calls, that is, up to $5 million. MySpace created a special profile page for the event in order to spread the word. Donations from viewers were accepted by phone and through the website during the April 25 results show, in a manner similar to a telethon. Near the end of the broadcast, Seacrest announced the show had raised $30 million. As of May 1, 2007, over $70 million has been raised as a result of Idol Gives Back. Between contestant performances, video vignettes showing Seacrest and the judges and visiting and observing squalid conditions in Africa and the United States were aired. Similar vignettes were aired during the results show. For this special, the voting period was doubled to four hours following the show, rather than the usual two. In response to the anticipated call volume, each contestant was assigned two toll free numbers. Over 70 million votes were cast. The results show was broadcast from two locations—the regular American Idol stage and Walt Disney Concert Hall, which included many celebrity actors and personalities. Ellen DeGeneres co-hosted the event from the Disney Hall stage. Due to the charity theme of the show, no contestant was eliminated on the April 25 results show. This was a surprise both to viewers, to whom Seacrest promised the "most shocking elimination ever", and to the contestants. When Seacrest seemed about to eliminate Jordin Sparks, he announced that since it was a charity night, none of the contestants would be voted off, and the votes from that week would be added to the votes from the following week, and that two contestants would be eliminated. Both weeks saw a two-hour extension of the regular two-hour voting window, and in the end, the two-week combined voting totaled 135 million votes. Idol Chat (season 3) TV Guide Channel aired its third season of Idol Chat. Idol Tonight (season 2) TV Guide Channel brought back a second season of Idol Tonight, the live pre-show to American Idol, which aired on Wednesdays starting in March. The show featured Justin Guarini as a correspondent along with Kimberly Caldwell and Rosanna Tavarez. International broadcasts U.K. edition For back-to-back repeat of the performance and results shows in the U.K. on ITV2, Cat Deeley presented additional sections preceding and following each commercial break, and followed the end of the show with a short interview with that week's eliminated contestant. Music releases Unlike previous seasons, the top 12 compilation album did not come out while the show was airing. The top 12 recorded studio versions of each of the songs they sang on the show. The songs were available for purchase on AmericanIdol.com as digital downloads through the night of the finale. Originally, a collage of the finalists' head shots from the top 24 photo shoot was used as album art on AmericanIdol.com, with the title American Idol 6: Greatest Moments; at present, the covers of Sparks' and Lewis' EPs are used instead. The American Idol: Season 6 – "Greatest Hits" & "The Collector's Edition" were eventually released on June 12, 2007. This was the only season where the season's collection was not distributed by Sony BMG/RCA Records. Sparks' first non-American Idol single was the top hit "Tattoo", which received platinum certification. Her second single was the Billboard Hot 100 number three hit "No Air" with Chris Brown. The song went to number one in several countries, and also topped Billboard's Pop Airplay chart. "No Air" had been certified platinum in April. It stands as the bestselling single by any American Idol contestant. Sparks released a third single off her album, "One Step at a Time", which peaked at number 17. "One Step at a Time" so far sold over a million copies and is certified platinum. Sparks released her second album Battlefield in July 2009. The album's title track became Jordin's fifth top 20 hit on the Billboard Hot 100, peaking at number 10. This made Jordin Sparks the only American Idol contestant to have their first five singles become Top 20 Hits. Blake Lewis's first single was "Break Anotha!", which failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. His second single, "How Many Words", also failed to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. Shortly afterward, Lewis confirmed that he had been dropped by Arista records. His album sales were just over 300,000. The drop also cancelled his apparent plans for a third single release. "This Is My Now," as performed by Jordin Sparks, was released as a radio single. It debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 15. Concert tour American Idols LIVE! Tour 2007 References External links Official American Idol Contestants Website American Idol seasons 2007 American television seasons
5188166	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterine%20prolapse	Uterine prolapse	Uterine prolapse is a form of pelvic organ prolapse in which the uterus and a portion of the upper vagina protrude into the vaginal canal and, in severe cases, through the opening of the vagina. It is most often caused by injury or damage to structures that hold the uterus in place within the pelvic cavity. Symptoms may include vaginal fullness, pain with sexual intercourse, difficulty urinating, and urinary incontinence. Risk factors include older age, pregnancy, vaginal childbirth, obesity, chronic constipation, and chronic cough. Prevalence, based on physical exam alone, is estimated to be approximately 14%. Diagnosis is based on a symptom history and physical examination, including pelvic examination. Preventive efforts include managing medical risk factors, such as chronic lung conditions, smoking cessation, and maintaining a healthy weight. Management of mild cases of uterine prolapse include pelvic floor therapy and pessaries. More severe cases may require surgical intervention, including removal of the uterus or surgical fixation of the upper portion of the vagina to a nearby pelvic structure. Outcomes following management are generally positive with reported improvement in quality of life. Signs and symptoms While uterine prolapse is rarely life-threatening, the symptoms associated with uterine prolapse can have a significant impact on quality of life. The severity of prolapse symptoms does not necessarily correlate with the degree of prolapse, and one may experience little to no bothersome symptoms with even advanced prolapse. Additionally, different forms of pelvic organ prolapse often present with similar symptoms. Most women who experience pelvic organ prolapse do not have symptoms. When symptoms are present, the most common and most specific symptoms for uterine prolapse—and organ prolapse in general—into the vagina are bulge symptoms, such as pelvic pressure, vaginal fullness, or a palpable vaginal bulge, and these symptoms are often more common and more severe if the prolapse reaches the vaginal hymen. Urinary symptoms, such as uncontrollable loss of urine or difficulty urinating, may also be present. Complete uterine prolapse in which the uterus protrudes through the vaginal hymen is known as procidentia. In the absence of treatment, symptoms of procidentia may include purulent vaginal discharge, ulceration, and bleeding. Complications of procidentia include urinary obstruction. People may also report sexual dysfunction symptoms, such as pain with sexual intercourse and decreased libido. There is conflicting data concerning the effect of pelvic organ prolapse on sexual function. The severity of the symptoms associated with prolapse seems to have a negative effect on sexual activity and reported satisfaction. Mild or asymptomatic prolapse does not seem to be associated with sexual complaints while more symptomatic prolapse is associated with more negative sexual symptoms. Causes The most common risk factor associated with uterine prolapse is vaginal childbirth. The risk of prolapse increased with each vaginal delivery, and people who have had multiple vaginal deliveries are more likely to develop prolapse compared with those who have had a single vaginal delivery. Operative vaginal delivery, especially when obstetrical forceps are used, has been found to increase the odds of pelvic organ prolapse when compared to non-operative vaginal delivery. Age also plays a significant role in uterine prolapse, with prevalence increasing with each decade of life due in part to age-related changes to pelvic support structures and menopause-related reduction in estrogen levels. Additionally, conditions that chronically increase the pressure within the abdomen can also predispose people to uterine prolapse. This includes chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), obesity, chronic cough, straining due to chronic constipation, and repetitive heavy lifting. Tobacco smoking has been found to be correlated to pelvic organ prolapse both due to the risk of developing lung conditions that lead to chronic cough or COPD as well as the negative effects of tobacco chemicals on connective tissue. Pathophysiology The uterus is normally held in place by the combined effort of pelvic floor muscles, various ligaments, pelvic fascia, and the vaginal wall. The levator ani muscle plays the most significant role in pelvic organ support by acting as a basket that keeps the pelvic organs suspended. The uterosacral ligaments are especially important in providing support to the uterus by attaching and holding the uterus, cervix, and upper vagina to the sacrum. Uterine prolapse occurs when there is a disruption to any of the structures mentioned above that help hold the uterus in place. Weakening of the levator ani muscles can occur during vaginal childbirth, in which portions of the muscle can detach from the bony pelvis, or through age-related changes to musculature, and this can lead to a loss of support for the uterus. Pregnancy, vaginal childbirth, or injury can also stretch and weaken the uterosacral ligaments, leading to poor suspension or positioning of the uterus so that it is no longer supported by pelvic floor muscles. Problems with the vaginal wall, such as trauma or loss of smooth muscle support in the wall, can lead to the uterus collapsing downward due to a loss of support. When the uterus prolapses, it also drags the upper portion of the vagina (the apical vagina) along with it due to its anatomic relationship with the apical vagina. Additionally, the pelvic musculature and connective tissues are estrogen sensitive and respond to changes in estrogen level. Estrogen deficiency, which can occur during menopause, can affect the production of collagen that is needed to build connective tissue that makes up ligaments and fascia, which can contribute to uterine prolapse. This is also a reason that connective tissue disorders can predispose certain people to uterine prolapse. Diagnosis and management Diagnosis Diagnosis of uterine prolapse is based on a history of symptoms, which may include symptom questionnaires, and a physical exam. Usually, the physical exam involves a vaginal exam, often with a speculum, and a pelvic exam. The extent and severity of prolapse is commonly documented using the Pelvic Organ Prolapse Quantification (POP-Q) system. Management The management of uterine prolapse may be conservative or surgical, depending on factors such as personal preference, symptom severity, and extent of prolapse. Additionally, management of existing medical conditions that can contribute to prolapse, such as chronic lung conditions or obesity, are important to prevent progression of uterine prolapse and reduce symptom burden. Conservative Conservative options include pelvic floor muscle strengthening exercises and pessaries. Pelvic floor muscle training (PFMT), also known as Kegel exercise, has been found to improve the bulk and urinary symptoms associated with pelvic organ prolapse and improve quality of life when performed consistently and correctly. Pessaries are a mechanical treatment that supports the vagina and elevates the prolapsed uterus to its anatomically correct position. Pessaries are frequently offered as a first-line management option for uterine prolapse, especially amongst people who cannot or do not wish to undergo surgery, due to their affordability and low-risk profile compared to more invasive procedures. When properly fitted, pessaries have been found to improve bulk and pressure symptoms associated with prolapse and improve quality of life measures. Surgical There are many surgical options available for the treatment of uterine prolapse, which may be performed through a vaginal procedure or through the abdomen. Generally, vaginal procedures are considered to be less invasive, offer a quicker recovery, and have a shorter operative time compared to abdominal procedures, but abdominal procedures offer longer-term results and potentially reduce risk of postoperative vaginal pain with intercourse. Laparoscopic and robotic approaches to abdominal procedures in prolapse surgery have become more common as they require smaller incision sites, result in less blood loss, and have shorter hospital stays. Vaginal vault suspension (known as colpopexy), in which the upper portion of the vagina is surgically connected to another structure in the pelvis, is commonly performed in the treatment of uterine prolapse. Forms of colpopexy include sacrocolpopexy, in which the vaginal vault is attached to the sacrum using a surgical mesh; sacrospinous ligament fixation, in which the upper vagina is attached to the sacrospinous ligaments; and uterosacral ligament vaginal vault suspension, in which the upper vagina is attached to the uterosacral ligaments. Colpopexy can be performed with or without a hysterectomy. If performed without a hysterectomy, the procedure is known as a hysteropexy. Hysteropexy procedures include sacrohysteropexy and sacrospinous hysteropexy. In severe cases of prolapse where the person no longer desires vaginal intercourse and has contraindications to more invasive surgery, vaginal closure procedures may be offered. These include LeFort partial colpocleisis and complete colpocleisis, in which the vagina is sutured closed. Also taken into consideration prior to surgery is use of native, or one's own, tissue versus a synthetic mesh. Generally, mesh may be considered in instances where the connective tissue is weak or absent, if there is an empty space at the surgical site that needs to be bridged, or if there is a high risk of prolapse recurrence. Synthetic mesh is indicated and used for sacrocolpopexy and sacrohysteropexy procedures. However, the use of synthetic mesh transvaginally, or within the vaginal tissue itself, is not indicated and is not routinely used for apical vaginal or uterine prolapse due to a lack of safety and effectiveness data, higher rate of mesh exposure compared with native tissue repair, and lack of data regarding long-term outcomes and complication rates. Outcomes Overall, it appears that quality of life was found to be significantly improved for people with pelvic organ prolapse after surgical or pessary management. It can be difficult to determine success when discussing the outcomes of surgical intervention for pelvic organ prolapse due to multiple factors that can define success, such as anatomic success versus patient-reported outcome measures. Improvement of vaginal bulge symptoms after surgery appears to be more of a measure of success for patients themselves than does anatomic success alone. The rate of pelvic organ prolapse recurrence following surgery depends on several factors, the most significant being patient age (patients younger than 60 years have higher likelihood of recurrence), POP-Q stage (POP-Q greater than 3 has higher likelihood of recurrence), surgeon's experience performing the procedure, and prior history of pelvic surgery. Additionally, the type of surgery, for instance vaginal versus abdominal, also affects recurrence rate. The rates of reoperation following pelvic organ prolapse surgery ranges from 3.4% to 9.7%. Reoperation rates appear to be higher with transvaginal mesh repair compared to other procedures, due in part to complications such as mesh exposure. Epidemiology Numerical values regarding prevalence of uterine prolapse differ based on whether the epidemiologic study in question uses a physical exam or a symptom questionnaire to determine the presence of prolapse. Prevalence of pelvic organ prolapse was found to be consistently higher when physical exam was used (for uterine prolapse, this was 14.2% in one study and 3.8% in another) compared to a symptom-based determination in which the prevalence of any type of prolapse, including uterine prolapse, was 2.9% to 8% in the U.S. Using Women's Health Initiative data, the incidence of grades 1 to 3 uterine prolapse was approximately 1.5/100 women-years and progression of uterine prolapse was found to be about 1.9%. History The first mention of uterine prolapse in medical literature was in the Kahun papyrus, circa 1835 B.C.E, which read, "of a woman whose posterior, belly, and branching of her thighs are painful, say thou as to it, it is the falling of the womb." The treatment at the time, documented on the Ebers papyrus, was to rub the afflicted person with a mixture of "oil of the earth [and] fedder", or petroleum and manure. Throughout Western history, advancements in the management of uterine prolapse have been hampered by a poor understanding of female pelvic anatomy. During the Hippocratic era, approximately 460 B.C.E., it was thought that the uterus was akin to an animal. Therefore, common treatments included fumigation, placing a foul-smelling object near the uterus to convince it to move into the vagina; the use of topical astringents, such as vinegar; and succussion, in which a woman was tied upside-down and shaken until the prolapse reduced. During the first century C.E., the Greek physician Soranus would disagree with many of these practices and recommended the use of wool, dipped in vinegar or wine and inserted into the vagina, to lift the uterus back into place. He would also go on to recommend surgical removal of gangrenous portions of a prolapsed uterus. However, these ideas did not become commonly accepted practices during that era, and the Middle Ages brought about a return to previous beliefs and practices for uterine prolapse. In 1603, for instance, it was recommended that burning the prolapsed uterus with a hot iron would frighten it back into the vagina. Towards the end of the 16th century, pessaries became more common in the management of uterine prolapse, due in part to advances in anatomic knowledge of the female genitourinary tract earlier in the century. Pessaries were usually made out of wax, metal, glass, or wood. Charles Goodyear's invention of volcanized rubber in the mid 1800s made it possible to produce pessaries that would not decompose. However, even into the 1800s, alternative practices were still used, such as the use of sea-water douches, postural exercises, and leeching. Although the use of surgery in the treatment of uterine prolapse had been described previously, the 19th century saw advances in surgical techniques. During the mid to late 1800s, surgical attempts to manage uterine prolapse included narrowing the vaginal vault, suturing the perineum, and amputating the cervix. In 1877, LeFort described the process of a partial colpocleisis. In 1861, Choppin in New Orleans reported the first instance in which vaginal hysterectomy was performed for uterine prolapse. Prior to that, vaginal hysterectomies were mainly performed for malignancies. Following Alwin Mackenrodt's 1895 publication of a comprehensive description of the female pelvic floor connective tissue, Fothergill began working on the Manchester-Fothergill surgery with the belief that the cardinal and uterosacral ligaments were key support structures for the uterus. In 1907, Josef Haban and Julius Tandler theorized that the levator ani muscles were also very important for uterine support. Combined with a better understanding of female pelvic floor connective tissue, these ideas would go on to influence surgical approaches for the treatment of uterine prolapse. By the early 20th century, different techniques for vaginal hysterectomies had been described and performed. As a result, post-hysterectomy vaginal vault prolapse became more common and a growing concern for some surgeons, and new techniques to correct this complication were attempted. In 1957, Arthure and Savage of London's Charing Cross Hospital, suspecting that uterine prolapse could not be cured with hysterectomy alone, published their surgical technique of sacral hysteropexy. Their technique is still used in modern practice with the addition of a graft. Society and culture Vaginal mesh kits were introduced to the U.S. market in 2004 through the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) pathway that did not require companies to demonstrate both safety and efficacy of the product if they were able to demonstrate that their product was similar to previous products already in the market. However, there was concern over reports of increased rates of postoperative complications over the next several years. That, in addition to the lack of available data that transvaginal mesh products were superior to other forms of surgical intervention and the expedited process which the vaginal mesh kits were introduced to the market, the FDA released a Safety Communication in 2011 that described serious complications associated with transvaginal mesh as "not rare". In 2019, the FDA ordered manufacturers to halt sales transvaginal mesh intended for repair of pelvic organ prolapse. This does not include surgical mesh used during sacrocolpopexy, sacrohysteropexy, or transurethral sling procedures. Since 2008, a number of class action lawsuits have been filed and settled against several manufacturers of transvaginal mesh after people reported complications following surgery. References External links Illustrated description of Manchester Operation at atlasofpelvicsurgery.com Inverted uterus treatment, from Merck Professional Noninflammatory disorders of female genital tract Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate
5188309	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy%20efficiency%20in%20British%20housing	Energy efficiency in British housing	Domestic housing in the United Kingdom presents a possible opportunity for achieving the 20% overall cut in UK greenhouse gas emissions targeted by the Government for 2010. However, the process of achieving that drop is proving problematic given the very wide range of age and condition of the UK housing stock. Carbon emissions Although carbon emissions from housing have remained fairly stable since 1990 (due to the increase in household energy use having been compensated for by the 'dash for gas'), housing accounted for around 30% of all the UK's carbon dioxide emissions in 2004 (40 million tonnes of carbon) up from 26.42% in 1990 as a proportion of the UK's total emissions. The Select Committee on Environmental Audit noted that emissions from housing could constitute over 55% of the UK's target for carbon emissions in 2050. A 2006 report commissioned by British Gas estimated the average carbon emissions for housing in each of the local authorities in Great Britain, the first time that this had been done. This indicated that housing in Uttlesford (Essex) produced the highest emissions (8,092 kg of carbon dioxide per dwelling). This was 250% higher than housing in Camden (London) which produced the least (averaging 3,255 kg). Among the 23 towns included, Reading had the highest emissions (6,189 kg), with Hull the lowest (4,395 kg). The variations are due to a number of factors, including the age, size and type of the housing stock, together with the efficiency of heating systems, the mix of fuels used, the ownership of appliances, occupancy levels and the habits of the occupants. Zero carbon ambition In the December 2006 Pre-Budget Report, the Government announced their 'ambition' that all new homes will be 'zero-carbon' by 2016 (i.e. built to zero-carbon building standards). To encourage this, an exemption from Stamp duty land tax is to be granted, lasting until 2012, for all new zero-carbon homes up to £500,000 in value. Whilst some organisations applauded the initial announcement of the scheme, in the pre-budget statement from the then UK Chancellor, Gordon Brown, others are concerned about the government's ability to deliver on the promise. Domestic energy use In 2003 the housing stock in the United Kingdom was amongst the least energy efficient in Europe. In 2004, housing (including space heating, hot water, lighting, cooking, and appliances) accounted for 30.23% of all energy use in the UK (up from 27.70% in 1990). The figure for London is higher at approximately 37%. In view of the progressive tightening of the Building Regulations' requirements for energy efficiency since the 1970s (see the history section below), it might be expected that a significant cut in domestic energy use would have occurred, however this has not yet been the case. Although insulation standards have been increasing, so has the standard of home heating. In 1970, only 31% of homes had central heating. By 2003 it had been installed in 92% of British homes, leading in turn to a rise in the average temperature within them (from 12.1 °C to 18.20 °C). Even in homes with central heating, average temperatures rose 4.55 °C during this period. At the same time, the increase in the number of households, increasing numbers of domestic electrical appliances, an increase in the number of light fittings, reduction in the average number of occupants per household, plus other factors, had led to an increase in total national domestic energy consumption from around 25% in 1970 to about 30% in 2001, and remained on an upward trend (BRE figures). The figures for energy consumed by end use for 2003. Space heating - 60.51% (57.61% in 1990) Water heating - 23.60% (25.23% in 1990) Appliances and lighting - 13.15% (13.4% in 1990) Cooking - 2.74% (3.76%) The Green Deal The Green Deal provided low interest loans for energy efficiency improvements to the energy bills of the properties the upgrades are performed on. These debts are passed onto new occupiers when they take over the payment of energy bills. The costs of the loan repayments should be less than the savings on the bills from the upgrades, however this will be a guideline and not legally enforceable guarantee. It is believed that tying repayment to energy bills will give investors a secure return. The Green Deal for the domestic property market was launched in October 2012. The Commercial Green Deal was launched in January 2012 and released in a series of stages to help with the varying needs and requirements of commercial properties. Building regulations The 1965 Building Regulations introduced the first limits on the amount of energy that could be lost through certain elements of the fabric of new houses. This thermal performance was expressed in the imperial units of the time (the amount of heat in BTU lost per square foot, for each degree Fahrenheit of temperature difference between inside and outside). The 1965 regulations were the first set of truly nationwide standards, prior to this local authorities set their own local regimes. Part F of the 1965 regulations defines minimum thermal performance, and schedule 11 of the same document gives examples of compliant methods for builders and architects to refer to. While novel at the time, by modern standards these limits set quite a low target, unfilled cavity walls, 2 inches of loft insulation and uninsulated concrete floors were deemed adequate for the reference standards. The 1972 regulations retained the same standards but converted to metric units (mm) and the modern u-value (the amount of heat lost per square metre, for each degree Celsius of temperature difference between inside and outside). In effect, the Target Insulation was u-values of 1.42 W/m2·K for the roof and floor and 1.7 W/m2·K for external walls. Modern performance standards require values less than 20% of this. This u-value approach is slightly regressive in that richer people live in bigger houses which tend to have a lower ratio of surface area to floor area, although they are often detached, which can offset the advantage over smaller row houses. These first limits were tightened following the 1973 oil crisis, and on several subsequent occasions, including the addition of limits for doors and windows in the year 2000 that effectively required double glazing for the first time. (see below). Despite this, UK insulation levels have been introduced later or remained lower compared to the EU average. Changes in 2006 The energy policy of the United Kingdom through the 2003 Energy White Paper articulated directions for more energy efficient building construction. Hence, the year 2006 saw a significant tightening of energy efficiency requirements within the Building Regulations (for earlier regulations, see separate section below). With the long-term aim of cutting overall emissions by 60% by 2050, and by 80% by 2100, the intention of the 2006 changes was to cut energy use in new housing by 20% compared to a similar building constructed to the 2002 standards. The changes were the first to the regulations brought about by the desire to reduce emissions, though some have raised doubts about whether they will actually achieve the 20% cut (see criticisms section). In the 2006 regulations, the u-value was replaced as the primary measure of energy efficiency by the Dwelling Carbon Dioxide Emission Rate (DER), an estimate of carbon dioxide emissions per m2 of floor area. This is calculated using the Government's Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings (SAP 2005). In addition to the levels of insulation provide by the structure of the building, the DER also takes into account the airtightness of the building, the efficiency of space and water heating, the efficiency of lighting, and any savings from solar power or other energy generation technologies employed, and other factors. For the first time, it also became compulsory to upgrade the energy efficiency in existing houses when extensions or certain other works are carried out. Some organisations have raised doubts over the claim that the changes will result in a 20% saving. Issues cited have included alleged problems with the calculation methods, the limitations of the modelling software, and the specification of the reference building used in the model. For example, a 2005 study sponsored by the Pilkington Energy Efficiency Trust indicated that the savings would only be in the region of 9%. There are also concerns about enforcement, with a Building Research Establishment study in 2004 indicating that 60% of new homes do not conform to existing regulations. A 2006 survey for the Energy Saving Trust revealed that Building Control Officers considered energy efficiency 'a low priority' and that few would take any action over failure to comply with the Building Regulations because the matter 'seemed trivial'. Further changes In December 2006, the government announced their ambition that all new housing should be built to zero-carbon standards from 2016; i.e., that the carbon emitted during a typical year should be balanced by renewable energy generation. Despite being the first country in the world to adopt such a policy the initiative was generally welcomed by the industry in principle, despite some subsequent concern over the practicalities. On 1 April 2011 the WWF resigned from the taskforce on Zero-Carbon homes, stating that 'the zero-carbon policy is now in tatters' after the Government unilaterally decided to change the scope of the 'zero carbon' policy to exclude some emissions not currently covered by the building regulations. The UK Green Building Council estimated that the change, published at the time of the March 2011 budget, will result in only two-thirds of the emissions of a new home being mitigated. In 2004, the Government indicated that the next revision to the energy performance standards of the Building Regulations would be in 2010. In the consultation document Building a Greener Future: Towards Zero Carbon Development it was proposed that the 2010 revision should require a further 25% improvement in the energy/carbon performance, in line with the 2004 proposals. It was further envisaged that there would be a 44% improvement in 2013, compared to 2006 levels. This would then be followed by the adoption of a zero carbon requirement in 2016, applied to all home energy use including appliances. These steps in performance would align the energy efficiency requirement of the Building Regulations with those of Levels 3, 4 and 6 of the Code for Sustainable Homes in 2010, 2013 and 2016 respectively. Home energy labelling Originally, from June 2007, all homes (and other buildings) in the UK would have to undergo Energy Performance Certification (also commonly known as an EPC Certificate) before they are sold or let, in order to meet the requirements of the European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive (Directive 2002/91/EC). The scheme provides the owner or landlord with an 'energy label' so that they can demonstrate the energy efficiency of the property, and is also included in the new Home Information Packs. The scheme has been criticized for its methodology and superficial approach, especially for old buildings. For example, it ignores thick walls with their low heat transmission, and its recommendations for compact fluorescent lamps, which can damage sensitive textiles and paintings. It is hoped that energy labelling will raise awareness of energy efficiency, and encourage upgrading to make properties more marketable. Incentives may be available for carrying out energy conservation measures. Research by comparethemarket.com showed homes across the UK were worth more when scored highly in an EPC. For new building, SAP calculations are to form the basis for the certification, while RDSAP (Reduced Data SAP) will be used to assess existing properties. It is estimated that only 10% of the nation's housing will score above 60 on the scale, although most will score above 40. Other rating schemes Another rating scheme of note is the Government sponsored EcoHomes rating, mostly used in public sector housing, and only applicable to new properties or major refurbishments. This actually measures a range of sustainability issues, of which energy efficiency is only one. EcoHomes is to be replaced by the Government's Code for Sustainable Homes in 2007. The Energy Saving Trust set requirements for 'good practice' and 'advanced practice' for achieving lower energy buildings, while the Association for Environment Conscious Building's CarbonLite programme specifies Silver and Gold standards, the latter approaching a zero energy building. In Wales where 'zero-carbon homes' are the aspiration for 2011 (although 2012 is more likely) the requirements are for Code for Sustainable Homes or equivalent. This has opened the doors for standards like Passiv Haus and the CarbonLite programme. Another lesser known building type that does not rely on airtightness in order to get its energy rating is Bio-Solar-Haus. This is not a well known type of house, but it has a range of positive advantages like it is built out of renewable resources and it is a breathable structure thus making it much healthier to live in. Grants The Government's low carbon buildings programme was launched in 2006 to replace the earlier Clear Skies and Solar PV programmes. It offers grants towards the costs of solar thermal heating, small wind turbine, micro hydro, ground source heat pump, and biomass installations. As of January 2007 funding for grants is proving insufficient to meet demand. A similar scheme, the Scottish Community and Household Renewables Initiative operates in Scotland, which also offers grants towards the cost of air source heat pumps. Local government Under the Home Energy Conservation Act 1995, local authorities are required to consider measures to improve the energy efficiency of all residential accommodation in their areas, although they are not required to implement any measures. Most local authorities provide free advice on energy conservation and some also provide home visits, often targeting those in social housing and the fuel poor. Some also demand minimum levels of energy efficiency in newly constructed buildings. It was expected that the Act would result in a 30% cut in energy usage between 1996 and 2010. An overall cumulative improvement of 14.7% was reported to DEFRA for the year ending March 2004, but a large part of this would have happened without HECA. In the South, most local authority housing was sold off in the 1980s-90s under RTB (Right to buy scheme), so the remaining stock is small. Much social housing has also been transferred to housing associations. Demonstration and pioneering projects One of the most important energy efficiency demonstration projects was the 1986 Energy World exhibition in Milton Keynes, which attracted international interest. Fifty-one houses were built, designed to be at least 30% more efficient than the Building Regulations then in force. This was calculated using the Milton Keynes Energy Cost Index (MKECI), a test-bed for the subsequent SAP rating system and the National Home Energy Rating scheme. Energy World was preceded by the earlier Salford low-energy houses, built in the early 1980s, which continue to be 40% more efficient than the 2010 Building Regulations. The Beddington Zero Energy Development (BedZED), a non-traditional housing scheme of 82 dwellings near Beddington, London included zero fossil energy usage as one of its key design features. The project was completed in 2002 and is the UK's largest eco-development. As designed, the energy used is generated from renewables on site. In use, BedZED has yielded considerable useful feedback, not least that energy efficiency and passive design features delivery more reliable reduced carbon emissions than active systems. Due to their superinsulation, the properties use 88% less energy (measured) for space heating compared to those built to the 2002 Building Regulations, while the reduction for water heating is 57%. Measured electrical use for cooking, appliances and occupant's plug loads ('unregulated energy' consumption) are some 55% lower than UK norms (bedzed-seven-years-on). The Green Building in Manchester City Centre and has been built to high energy efficiency standards and won a 2006 Civic Trust Award for its sustainable design. The cylindrical shape of the ten-storey tower provides the smallest surface area related to the volume, ensuring less energy is lost through thermal dissipation. Other technologies including solar water heating, a wind turbine and triple glazing. The South Yorkshire Energy Centre at Heeley City Farm in Sheffield is an example of refurbishing an existing property to show the options available. The EcoHouse in Leicester is to be renovated in 2011 to provide a demonstration of Retrofit for the Future energy efficiency standards. The Old Home SuperHome initiative features many owner occupied, existing home retrofits which achieve a 60% carbon saving which can be visited by the public. Many of the homes have dramatically improved their energy efficiency to achieve these carbon savings, while some have also installed renewable energy technologies. International comparisons International comparisons of particular note include: The 1977 Danish BR77 standard (the first to set demanding energy efficiency requirements). The SBN-80 (Svensk Bygg Norm) 1980 Swedish Building Standards, which in 1983 was in advance of the UK 2002 standards. The voluntary Canadian R-2000 standard, to which around 14,000 houses had been built in the 10 years to 1992. Since then many more have been built in Canada, in Japan, and in various other countries including a number in the UK. Currently energy savings of 30% to 40% are typically achieved in Canada. The voluntary German Passivhaus standard. Properties built to the standards use approximately 85% less energy and produce 95% less carbon dioxide compared to properties built to the UK's 2002 standards. Over 6,000 such houses have been built across several European countries. The voluntary Swiss Minergie standard which requires that general energy consumption must not to be higher than 75% of that of average buildings and that fossil-fuel consumption must not be higher than 50% of the consumption of such buildings, and the Minergie-P standard, requiring virtually zero energy consumption. Research In 2005, the Select Committee on Environmental Audit expressed their concern that there was a lack of significant funding for research and development of sustainable construction methods, with funding for the Building Research Establishment having been "drastically" cut in the previous 4 years. As a result, many of the sustainable building materials used in the UK are imported from Germany, Switzerland and Austria—some of the countries that have been prominent in research. Existing housing stock Even if all new housing does become zero carbon by 2016, the energy efficiency of the remainder of the housing stock would need to be addressed. The 2006 Review of the Sustainability of Existing Buildings revealed that 6.1 million homes lacked an adequate thickness of loft insulation, 8.5 million homes had uninsulated cavity walls, and that there is a potential to insulate 7.5 million homes that have solid external walls. These three measures alone have the potential to save 8.5 million tonnes of carbon emissions each year. Despite this, 95% of homeowners think that the heating of their own home is currently effective. See UK Government policy for improving home energy efficiency for further information on policies from 1945 to 2016 and their effectiveness. Historic building regulations energy efficiency requirements The u-value limits introduced in 1965 were: 1.7 for walls 1.4 for roofs Following the 1973 oil crisis, these were tightened in 1976 to: 1.0 for exposed walls, floors and non-solid ground and exposed floors 1.7 for semi-exposed walls 1.8 average for walls and windows combined 0.6 for roofs 1985 saw the second tightening of these limits, to: 0.6 for exposed walls, floors and ground floors 1.0 for semi-exposed walls 0.35 for roofs These limits were reduced again in 1990: 0.45 for exposed walls, floors and ground floors 0.6 for semi-exposed walls 0.25 for roofs plus a requirement that the area of windows should not be more than 15% of the floor area. Like the 2006 changes, it was predicted that the introduction of these limits would result in a 20% reduction in energy use for heating. A survey by Liverpool John Moores University predicted that the actual figure would be 6% (Johnson, JA "Building Regulations Research Project"). In the 1995 Building Regulations, insulation standards were cut to the following U-values: 0.45 for exposed walls, floors and ground floors 0.6 for semi-exposed walls and floors 0.25 for roofs the limit on window area was raised to 22.5% The 2002 regulations reduced the U-values, and made additional elements of the building fabric subject to control. Although there was in practice considerable flexibility and the ability to 'trade off' reductions in one area for increases in another, the 'target' limits became: 0.35 for walls 0.25 for floors 0.20 or 0.25 for pitched roofs (depending on the construction) 0.16 for flat roofs 2.2 for metal framed doors and windows 2.0 for other doors and windows the limit on window area was raised again to 25% Similar limits were introduced into Scotland in 2002 & 2006, though with a lower limit of 0.3 or 0.27 for walls, and some other variations. It was claimed by Government that these measures should cut the heating requirement by 25% compared to the 1995 Regulations. It was subsequently also claimed that they had achieved a 50% cut compared to the 1990 Regulations. While the u-value ceased being the sole consideration in 2006, u-value limits similar to those in the 2002 regulations still apply, but are no longer sufficient by themselves. The DER, and TER (Target Emission rate) calculated through either the UK Government's Standard Assessment Procedure for Energy Rating of Dwellings (SAP rating), 2005 edition, or the newer SBEM (*Simplified Building Energy Model) which is aimed at non-dwellings, became the only acceptable calculation methods. Several commercial energy modeling software packages have now also been verified as producing acceptable evidence by the BRE Global & UK Government. Calculations using previous versions of SAP had been an optional way of demonstrating compliance since 1991(?). They are now a statutory requirement (B. Reg.17C et al.) for all building regulations applications, involving new dwelling/buildings and large extensions to existing non-domestic buildings. See also Energy in the United Kingdom Insulate Britain protests Climate Change and Sustainable Energy Act 2006 Fuel poverty in the United Kingdom Housing in the United Kingdom Post War Building Studies Code for Sustainable Homes Energy Saving Trust Standby power References External links BRE: Domestic Energy Fact File Energy Efficiency in Existing Buildings: The Role of Building Regulations DEFRA - Domestic energy research University of Oxford - Oxford University 40% House initiative Leeds Metropolitan University: York Energy Demonstration Project (1998) Heriot-Watt University's Tarbase Project Resources Centre for Alternative Technology The Association for Environment Conscious Building In the media Jan 2007, HBF: Landmark summit to determine how to deliver Government's environmental vision Sep 2006, New Builder: Housing Minister: Homes should exceed Scandinavian specifications in 10 years Jul 2006, BBC: Eco-targets at risk unless households cut resource use Housing in the United Kingdom Energy conservation in the United Kingdom Sustainable building in the United Kingdom Residential heating Energy efficiency Climate change in the United Kingdom
5188626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Development%20of%20Jehovah%27s%20Witnesses%20doctrine	Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine	The doctrines of Jehovah's Witnesses have developed since publication of The Watchtower magazine began in 1879. Early doctrines were based on interpretations of the Bible by Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society founder Charles Taze Russell, then added to, altered or discarded by his successors, Joseph Rutherford and Nathan Knorr. Since 1976, doctrinal changes have been made at closed meetings of the group's Governing Body, whose decisions are described as "God's progressive revelations". These teachings are disseminated through The Watchtower, and at conventions and congregation meetings. Most members of the denomination outside the Governing Body play no role in the development of doctrines and are expected to adhere to all those decided at the Warwick, NY headquarters. Jehovah's Witnesses are taught to welcome doctrinal changes, regarding such "adjustments" as "new light" or "new understanding" from God and proving that they are on the "path of the righteous". Method of doctrinal development Some core beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses have remained unchanged throughout the group's history. Certain doctrines, particularly relating to biblical chronology, were based on what Russell called a "venerable tradition" that he conceded was not directly confirmed by facts or scripture, but "based on faith". Watch Tower publications claim that doctrinal changes and refinements result from a process of progressive revelation, in which God gradually reveals his will and purpose. Watch Tower literature has suggested such enlightenment results from the application of reason and study, the guidance of holy spirit, and direction from Jesus Christ and angels. Rutherford spoke of spiritual "lightning flashes in the temple". The Society claims its doctrine of the "great crowd" and "other sheep" were "revealed" to "God's earthly servants" in 1935. Witness literature has also described sudden changes in doctrines as "flashes of light" given by God through his holy spirit. A 1930 publication claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to The Watchtower. The Watchtower told Witnesses it was not necessary for them to understand how this took place. A 1973 policy change to disfellowship tobacco users was explained as a decision that "Jehovah has brought to the attention of his 'holy' people". Watch Tower publications often cite Proverbs 4:18, "The path of the righteous ones is like the bright light that is getting lighter and lighter until the day is firmly established" (NWT) when explaining the need to change doctrines. The organization's earlier literature has included claims that its predictions about dates such as 1925 were "indisputable", "absolutely and unqualifiedly correct" and bearing "the stamp of approval of Almighty God", but the Governing Body which was established later says its teachings are neither infallible nor divinely inspired. Robert Crompton, author of a book on Watch Tower eschatology, has noted that it is difficult to trace the development of doctrines because explicit changes are often not identified in Jehovah's Witness literature, leaving readers to assume which details have been superseded. Edmund C. Gruss, a critic of the group, found that a 1943 Watch Tower Society publication that established a new creation chronology, changing the date of Adam's creation by 100 years, made no mention of the old time reckoning, which had previously been said to be "correct beyond a doubt". Watch Tower Society founding doctrines From the first issue of Zion's Watch Tower in July 1879, Russell began publicising a number of doctrines, many of them drawn from Adventist teachings, including the atonement, resurrection, the soul, the invisible parousia (or return) of Christ and God's "plan of the ages". Russell taught that mankind was to be redeemed not from torment but from the death penalty that had been imposed on Adam and subsequently passed on to all his descendants. He wrote that Christ's "ransom for all" mentioned in 1 Timothy 2:5 would be applied to all humankind rather than just the righteously inclined. Christ's death provided the ransom payment to free humans from death. He believed an elect few would be resurrected to serve as a heavenly priesthood and all humans who had died would be resurrected to earth, which would be restored to Edenic perfection. Millennialist teachings The dominant and central theme of Russell's teachings concerned the timing, nature and purpose of Christ's second coming. His beliefs on the timing of Christ's Advent and God's overarching plan for humans had gained their first exposure in Three Worlds and the Harvest of This World, a book he paid Millerite Adventist Nelson H. Barbour to write in 1877. Russell and Barbour parted company in 1879 and from 1886 Russell began writing his own books that further developed his Millennialist beliefs. Russell's doctrines on the Millennium followed a tradition of interpretation of Scripture that had begun in the 1st century, when Jewish rabbis sought to identify the due time for the appearance of the Messiah by interpreting the prophecy of the 70 weeks of years of Daniel 9:24–27. Their approach to prophetic interpretation was based on the Day-year principle, drawn from Ezekiel 4 and Numbers 14, in which one day in prophecy represents one year in fulfillment. Such teachings were revived and popularised in the early 19th century by American Adventist preacher William Miller. Russell also incorporated Miller's teaching of types and antitypes, in which an actual historical situation (the type) prefigures a corresponding situation (the antitype), as well as a modified version of John Nelson Darby's teachings on dispensationalism. Russell modified Darby's teachings to create his own doctrine of parallel dispensations, in which the timing of certain events in the Jewish age are a prophetic indication of corresponding events at the close of the Gospel age. He believed the internal harmony of his "plan of the ages" proved its validity beyond reasonable doubt, noting that a change of just one year would destroy the parallelisms, and found further confirmation in internal measurements of the Great Pyramid of Giza, which he viewed as a divinely built supporting witness to the Bible. The main points of his doctrines on Bible chronology were: Seventy weeks of years: Russell believed the Adventist interpretation of the prophecy of the 70 weeks "until Messiah the Prince" at Daniel 9:24–27 could be used to demonstrate the validity of the day-for-a-year rule. He took 454 BCE as the date of Artaxerxes' decree to rebuild Jerusalem, and by converting 69 weeks of seven days (483 days) to 483 years arrived at 29 CE as the beginning of Jesus' ministry. Christ's crucifixion took place at the midpoint of the 70th week; the covenant with the Jewish nation remained in force another "week" (seven years) from the beginning of his ministry and its end was signified by the conversion of Cornelius in 36, when the Gospel was taken to the Gentiles. Times of the Gentiles: Using the day-for-a-year rule, Russell adopted and adjusted the teachings of Miller and Englishman John Aquila Brown, who both taught that the chastisement of the Israelites "seven times" for their sins (at Leviticus 26) indicated a period of 2520 years—seven prophetic years of 360 days each. In Russell's chronology system the period began with the deposing of Zedekiah, the last king of Judah, an event that marked the end of the typical Kingdom of God and beginning of the consequent lease of earthly dominion to Gentile governments, as foretold in Ezekiel 21:25–27. Russell calculated that Zedekiah's removal occurred in 606 BCE, and therefore claimed the "times of the Gentiles" ran from that date until 1914, when the kingdom would be re-established on earth under Jewish leadership. The end of the Gentile times would be marked by a return of the Jews to Palestine. Russell believed the period was also one of degradation for mankind in general, which he believed was prefigured by the account in Daniel 4 of Nebuchadnezzar's dream of a great tree being cut down and restrained from growth for seven years. The time of the end: Miller had formulated doctrines drawn from Daniel 12:4, 9 on the "time of the end", when the meaning of certain prophecies would be finally revealed. Russell made a slight amendment to the teaching, explaining that it began in 1799 when French general Berthier entered Rome, abolished papal government and established the Republic of Italy. The "time of the end" would last 115 years to 1914. The 1799 date, in turn, had been established by linking the 1260 days of Revelation 11:3 with time periods mentioned in Daniel chapters 2, 7, and 12. Using the year-day principle, the period indicated 1260 years from 539 (when Justinian I recognised the pope as universal bishop) to 1799. Great Jubilee: Russell adopted and amended Miller's teaching of a secondary indicator of the due date for the Millennium. The ancient Jewish law provided for a series of sabbaths, each culminating in the Jubilee year in the 50th year, when slaves were released and leased property returned to its rightful owners. Like Miller, Russell believed the arrangement foreshadowed the release of humans from the debt of sin and bondage through the intervention of Christ. He taught that the Millennium was the antitypical Great Jubilee (the 50th 50-year jubilee) and marked the beginning of the second presence of Christ. Using his calculations of the date of the last jubilee before the Jewish exile, he added 2500 years (50 x 50) and calculated it had begun at the end of 1874. The great sabbath: Russell embraced Miller's view that because "one day is with the Lord as a thousand years", the seventh thousand-year period after creation would be a 1000-year-long sabbath "day". But whereas Miller had believed 1843 was 6000 years after creation, Russell believed Adam was created in 4129 BC and calculated 1872 as the end of 6000 years. He thought it reasonable that Adam and Eve had lived two years in Eden before sinning, and thus calculated the 6000 years ran from the time sin entered the world to October 1874, when Christ had returned and the times of restitution began. Parallel dispensations: Russell expanded Darby's doctrine of dispensationalism, explaining that events that befell the Jewish nation were prophetic counterparts of events during the Gospel age, with the timing of those events also having prophetic significance. He argued that the Jews had enjoyed 1845 years of favor from the death of Jacob to 33 CE (the Jewish Age) and they would have to endure the same length of time in God's disfavor—thus from 33 to 1878 (the Gospel Age). The Jews' fall from favour was gradual, spanning 37 years from 33 to 70, when Jerusalem was destroyed, and that period corresponded to a gradual restoration of God's favour to them between 1878 and 1914. But although the Jewish nation's fall began in 33, God's favor towards individual Jews continued another 3½ years from Pentecost, during which time the gospel call was limited to Jews. That typified a 3½-year opportunity from 1878 until 1881 when the "high calling" or invitation to become joint heirs with Christ closed. The 3½-year period between Christ's anointing as Messiah and his riding into Jerusalem on an ass, being acclaimed as king and cleansing the temple of money-changers typified the period between his parousia (1874) and his assuming kingly power and rejection of "nominal church systems" (1878). The 40-year "harvest" of the Jewish Age from 29–69 typified a 40-year harvest of the Gospel Age from 1874 to 1914. The Jews' expectation of the Messiah's arrival at the time of Jesus' birth, 30 years before his anointing, was correlated with the Great Disappointment, the failure of Miller's prediction of the second coming of Christ in 1844, 30 years before the date indicated by Russell's system. Timeline of doctrinal changes Doctrines unchanged since 1879 Biblical infallibility. Early copies of Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence made reference to the Bible as God's "infallible Word". Christ's return to earth was invisible. Russell claimed the Greek word parousia (Matthew 24:37) referred to a period of time, rendered more accurately as "presence" than "coming". Evolution is a teaching contrary to the Bible and denies the need of redemption by Christ. God's Kingdom is an organized heavenly government over earth, ruled by Jesus and the anointed. God's name is Jehovah. Watch Tower Society founder Charles Taze Russell used the name "Jehovah" occasionally, but not consistently, when referring to God. Humans created as living souls. Individuals who go to heaven are resurrected with spirit bodies. Jesus Christ gave his human life as a ransom sacrifice; belief in Jesus necessary for salvation. Russell believed that God's design for mankind was a restitution or restoration to the perfection and glory lost in Eden. This depended on God providing a ransom for all mankind to release them from the inevitability of death. Christ became that ransom sacrifice. Paradise to be restored, humans to live forever. The dead are unconscious, awaiting resurrection. The timing of Christ's Second Coming, or "presence", can be calculated through Bible chronology. 1880–1889 1880: Clergy–laity distinction viewed as unscriptural. 1881: Faith alone is not enough for someone's becoming a joint-heir with Christ in heaven, but also a life of "self-sacrifice in the service of the truth" is required. 1881: Rejection of the Trinity doctrine. Russell claimed the Trinity doctrine had "not a word of Scripture" to support it. He explained: "We understand the Scriptures to teach that the holy Spirit is not a separate and distinct person, but that it is the divine mind or influence—the motive power of Divinity exercised everywhere and for any purpose, at His pleasure." In 1877 N. H. Barbour had criticized the anti-Trinitarian view of the Christadelphians; an 1880 book by Zion's Watch Tower writer J. H. Paton emphasised that the Holy Spirit was a person and early Watch Tower issues referred to the Holy Spirit as "he" and part of the "Divine Three". 1882: No hellfire. According to Russell, most references to "hell" in the New Testament were more accurately translated as "tomb". 1887: The New Covenant, which Russell had claimed since 1880 would be inaugurated only after the last of the 144,000 anointed Christians had been taken to heaven, was said to be "now in force". 1890–1899 1890: The "Time of the End" of Daniel 12:4 is identified as beginning in October 1799—when Napoleon invaded Egypt and ended the power of the papacy—and closing in 1914, at which point violent worldwide revolution would mark the end of the old world order and the beginning of a new one. 1891: Biblical rapture is not a sudden event. The anointed are changed into spirit form, throughout the whole period of Christ's presence, at the time of each one's physical death. 1891: God's throne is located in the Pleiades star cluster. 1897: "This generation" of Matthew 23:36 defined as "people living contemporaneously." 1900–1909 1904: 144,000 "elect" to go to heaven. Russell believed God had chosen a "fixed and limited ... number who should constitute the New Creation of God". God had not foreordained individuals, but those who met his "moral qualities and heart measurements" would be chosen to go to heaven. 1904: "Great Company" of Revelation 7:9, 14 identified as a secondary spiritual class who have "insufficient zeal for the Lord, the Truth and the brethren" who are granted heavenly life, but on a lower spiritual plane. In heaven they serve as servants rather than kings and priests. 1904: Worldwide descent into anarchy and disintegration of human rule, previously predicted to occur in October 1914, changed to "after October 1914". 1907: The inauguration of the New Covenant described as belonging "exclusively to the coming age." Russell began to teach that the "church" (144,000 anointed Christians) had no mediator, but itself joined Christ as a joint messiah and mediator during the millennium. 1910–1919 1914: Length of each creative 'day' of Genesis defined as precisely 7000 years. 1914: Russell "by no means confident" 1914 would bring the upheaval he had predicted. 1916: Timing of Armageddon, previously claimed to have begun in 1874 and to culminate in 1914, changed to have begun in 1914. 1919: Preaching work displaces "character development" as the "chief concern" of Bible Students. Russell had taught that Christians should embark on the gradual process of "sanctification" and personality improvement to fight sinful inclinations. In 1919 The Watch Tower declared that the primary concern for Bible Students was to labor with God to find members of the elect class. 1919: The seven angels, or "messengers", of Revelation chapters 1 and 2 are identified "for the first time in the history of the church" as St Paul, St John, Arius, Peter Waldo, John Wycliffe, Martin Luther and Charles Taze Russell. 1920–1929 1920: Jesus Christ's crowning as king of God's kingdom, previously 1878, changed to 1914. 1920: The preaching of the gospel of the kingdom "in all the world for a witness unto all nations", (Matthew 24:14), previously claimed to have already been completed, identified as a work for modern-day anointed Christians. 1922: Establishment of God's kingdom over earth, previously expected to result in the destruction of human governments and a "new rule of righteousness" by the end of 1914 changed to an invisible event in heaven in 1914. 1923: Limitations placed on extent of Christ's ransom and resurrection hope. Russell had taught that Christ had provided a ransom for all; a 1923 Watch Tower article asserted that clergymen would not be resurrected and benefit from the ransom; later articles claimed that benefits of the ransom would also be denied to Adam and Eve; those who died in the Noachian flood; those who died at Sodom and Gomorrah; both the falls of Jerusalem and those who will die at Armageddon. 1923: "Sheep class", mentioned at Matthew 25:31–46 defined as those who do good to "elect" class and are rewarded by surviving Armageddon and gaining life under Christ's thousand-year reign. Russell had previously applied the parable to the work of dividing the people in the Millennial Age. 1925: Armageddon identified as a battle between God and Satan, resulting in the overthrow of human governments and false religion. Armageddon had previously been understood to mean a "melee between contending forces of mankind", resulting in social revolution and political anarchy. 1925: Michael, the dragon and the man-child in Revelation chapter 12, previously defined as the Pope, the Roman Empire and the papacy, redefined as Jesus, Satan and the New Nation (or Kingdom), respectively. 1926: "Satan's organization" defined as the rulers of politics, commerce and religion and all their followers. 1926: Use of name Jehovah, previously used sparingly at assemblies and in public preaching, given new emphasis. Announced on January 1, 1926 issue of The Watchtower. 1927: "Faithful and wise servant" of Matthew 24:45–47, previously defined as Russell since 1897, changed to a "class" comprising all remaining "anointed" Christians. 1927: "First resurrection" of "sleeping saints", previously 1878, changed to 1918. 1927: "This generation" of Matthew 23:36, previously defined as "people living contemporaneously" changed to a remnant of the "anointed" on earth during Armageddon. 1928: Celebration of Christmas, previously embraced as a "tribute of respect" to Christ, discontinued because of its "pagan origin". 1928: Great Pyramid of Giza in Egypt, previously regarded as a testimony to the Bible and its chronology, declared to have no prophetic significance and built under the direction of Satan. 1929: Honoring of God's name described as "the outstanding issue facing all intelligent creation". 1929: "Superior authorities" of Romans 13:1 to whom Christians had to show subjection and obedience, previously defined as governmental authorities, redefined as God and Christ only. Secular state then regarded as demonic and almost without redeeming features. 1929: The "time of the end" of Daniel 12:4, previously defined as a 115-year period from 1799 to 1914, redefined as a period of unspecified length starting in 1914. 1930–1939 1930: Christ's parousia—his second coming or invisible "presence"—previously established as 1874 and reaffirmed as late as 1929, changed to 1914. 1931: Adoption of the name "Jehovah's witnesses". 1932: Assertion that God's Holy Spirit ceased operating on his people when "[Jesus] the Lord came to his temple, in 1918", at which point Jesus 'took charge of feeding the flock'. 1932: Gog and Magog, previously defined as ethnic Jews and European 'false' Christians, redefined as "one of the princes in Satan's organization" (that is, a demon). 1932: Identification of "Jonadabs", a "sheep" class of people who take a stand for righteousness and who are to be preserved by God through Armageddon to gain everlasting life on earth. The term was drawn from the account at 2 Kings 10. In 1920 Rutherford had written that it was "unreasonable" to think God was developing any class other than the little flock (the 144,000 to attain heavenly kingship) and the "great company" (second spiritual class also with a heavenly hope). In 1934 the Watchtower explained that the "Jonadabs" survive Armageddon by living in the figurative "City of refuge", represented by remaining affiliated with the Watch Tower Society. 1932: The "Jews" to be restored to their homeland, previously defined as literal Jews, redefined as the Christian congregation. 1932: Watch Tower Society adherents with an earthly hope should join the worldwide preaching work. In 1927 The Watchtower had directed that only anointed Christians were "entitled" to take part in the ministry. 1934: The 1917 teaching that Russell was exercising strong influence from heaven on the "harvesting" of anointed Christians described as "foolish". 1934: Vindication of God's name becomes central doctrine. Rutherford noted that God had provided Jesus Christ's sacrifice as the redemption price for sinful humankind, but wrote that this was "secondary to the vindication of Jehovah's name". 1935: "Great crowd" of Revelation 7 defined as the "sheep" of Matthew 25, resulting in a redirection of proselytizing efforts from gathering the "elect" (remnant of the 144,000 with a heavenly destiny) to gathering an indeterminate number of people who could survive Armageddon and receive everlasting life on earth. Previously, the "great crowd" was believed to have a heavenly hope. 1935: Tobacco use "unclean" and prohibited for Bethel (branch office) staff and traveling overseers. 1935: Vaccines, described since 1921 as "devilish" and "an outrage", condemned as a violation of God's law. 1936: Device on which Jesus was killed, previously defined as a wooden cross, redefined as a "tree". An image of the cross appeared on the front page of The Watch Tower until October 1931. 1937: Jehovah's Witnesses with an earthly hope could be described as "Christian". In 1930 the Watchtower had asserted that the term "Christian" could be applied only to anointed followers of Christ. 1938: God's mandate to "be fruitful and multiply" said to apply only after the start of the millennium. The Watchtower said the mandate had never been carried out under righteous conditions, and so had failed to be fulfilled according to God's will. Rutherford urged Witnesses to delay marriage and the bearing of children until after Armageddon. 1939: Witnesses required to demonstrate complete neutrality in worldly affairs. 1940–1949 1942: Tobacco prohibition applied to all appointed positions, such as congregation overseers and servants. 1943: Adam's creation, previously 4129 BCE or 4128 BCE, moved forward 100 years to 4028 BCE. The shift in dates also moved the termination point of 6,000 years of human history from October 1872 to 1972. 1943: Destruction of Jerusalem moved from 606 BCE to 607 BCE, when the Watch Tower Society realised there was no year zero between 1 BCE and 1 CE, in order to maintain calculations regarding 1914; return of the Jews from Babylon to Jerusalem moved from 536 BCE to 537 BCE to maintain 70 years after 607 BCE. 1944: Adam's creation, previously 4028 BCE, changed to 4026 BCE. 1944: Responsibility for administering discipline, including disfellowshipping, of dissident members passed from entire congregation to congregational judicial committees. Russell had recommended in a 1904 publication that a congregation "committee" investigate a congregant's serious "error or sin", but the entire congregation voted whether "to withdraw from him its fellowship". 1944: The "governing body" identified as synonymous with the Watch Tower Bible & Tract Society. 1945: Blood transfusions forbidden. Russell had viewed the prohibition on eating blood in Acts 15:19–29 as a 'suggestion' to gentile Christians in order to "guard against stumbling themselves or becoming stumbling blocks to others" and ensure peace within the early church. 1950–1959 1950: Teaching that the "ancient worthies", including King David, Samson and Jewish prophets, would be resurrected to become "princes" in the new system, abandoned. 1951: Celebration of birthdays considered "objectionable" because celebrations are "steeped in false worship" and exalt humans. 1951: "This generation" of Matthew 23:36, previously defined as a remnant of the "anointed" on earth during Armageddon changed to "a 'generation' in the ordinary sense" who were alive in 1914. 1952: Vaccines, previously condemned, considered acceptable. 1953: Adam's creation, previously 4026 BCE, changed to 4025 BCE. End of God's 6,000-year "rest day" ending in northern hemisphere autumn 1976. 1953: God's location in the universe cannot be known, replacing the previous view that God's throne is located in the Pleiades star cluster. 1953: Gog, previously identified as one of Satan's demon princes, redefined as Satan himself; Magog redefined as "a limited spirit realm near the earth's vicinity." 1954: Worship of Jesus, previously considered appropriate and necessary, deemed inappropriate, with the New World Translation translating proskyne′ō as "do obeisance to" rather than "worship" (King James Version). 1955: Operation of Holy Spirit, asserted in 1932 to have ceased in 1918, stated as having been still operative after 1918. 1958: Various changes to the interpretation of the 'kings of the north and south' of Daniel 11:17–19 and 11:27–45, previously more closely resembling earlier Adventist interpretations. The 'king of the north' redefined as Antiochus III (verses 17–19); the German Empire (27–30); Adolf Hitler (30–31) and post-World War II Soviet Union (32–45). The 'king of the south' redefined as Ptolemy V (verses 17–19) and Anglo-America (27–45). 1960–1969 1961: Acceptance of blood transfusion deemed a disfellowshipping offence. Acceptance of human organ transplant stipulated a personal matter to be decided without criticism. 1962: "Superior authorities" of Romans 13:1 redefined as earthly governments, reverting the 1929 change to Russell's 1886 teaching. A year earlier, Russell's view was considered to have made the Watch Tower Bible Students unclean in God's eyes. 1963: Adam's creation changed back to 4026 BCE. End of 6,000 years of human history due in northern hemisphere autumn 1975. 1967: Human organ transplants equated with cannibalism, "a practice abhorrent to all civilized people", and said to be a procedure not permitted by God. The Watchtower article announcing the view is interpreted by commentators as a prohibition. In a 1972 article, Jehovah's Witnesses are described as having taken a "stand" against organ transplants, saving them from the consequences of such operations, on the basis of the description of the procedure as "a form of cannibalism". 1968: Interval between Adam's creation and the close of the sixth creative "day", previously "quite some time", changed to "a comparatively short period of time" that "may involve only a difference of weeks or months, not years." The change led to expectations that Christ's 1,000 year reign could begin in 1975. 1970–1979 1971: The "governing body" identified as not synonymous with the Board of Directors of the Watch Tower Society. 1973: Tobacco use banned. Tobacco users not to be accepted for baptism and baptized Witnesses to be disfellowshipped if they continue to smoke after "a reasonable period of time, such as six months". 1980–1989 1980: Acceptance of human organ transplants stipulated as a matter of personal choice not warranting congregational discipline. View of transplants as cannibalism now said to be held only by "some Christians". The Watchtower article is regarded by commentators as a reversal of Society's 1967 position that the procedure is not permitted by God. 1981: Members who formally resign membership of the group (disassociate) are to be shunned in the same manner as disfellowshipped Witnesses. 1983: Martial arts and carrying "firearms for protection against humans" disqualify a Witness from "special privileges in the congregation", such as appointment as elder. 1988: Length of creative 'days' in Genesis, previously defined as exactly 7,000 years each, changed to "at least thousands of years in length" [emphasis added] 1990–1999 1990: Interval between Adam's creation and the close of the sixth creative "day" changed to "some time", employing a 1963 reference rather than the 1968 change. 1992: The "modern-day Nethinim", previously defined as synonymous with the "other sheep", redefined as a subset of the "other sheep" who serve in positions of authority within the organization as "helpers" to the Governing Body. 1993: The 'king of the north' of Daniel 11:44–45, previously identified as the Soviet Union, considered to be uncertain since 1991 following the dissolution of the Soviet Union. 1995: Fulfillment of Jesus' parable of the separating of sheep and goats, previously considered to have been ongoing since 1914, changed to after the start of the 'Great Tribulation'. 1995: The expression "vindication of Jehovah's name" declared unnecessary, with emphasis on "vindicating his sovereignty" and "sanctifying his name" as being more accurate. The former expression had not appeared in any Watch Tower Society publication since 1991. 1995: "This generation" at Matthew 23:36, previously defined as a typical human lifespan since Jesus' parousia in 1914, redefined as a class of people displaying certain characteristics for an indefinite period of time. 2000–2009 2007: Selection of the 144,000 "anointed", previously considered to have ended in 1935, changed to an indefinite period. 2008: "This generation" redefined as "anointed" believers, who will "not pass away" before the great tribulation begins. This was a return to the belief held in 1927. 2010–2019 2010: "This generation" redefined to include "other anointed ones who would see the start of the great tribulation", whose lives "overlap" with "the anointed who were on hand when the sign began to become evident in 1914". 2012: "Faithful and discreet slave", previously defined as synonymous with the "anointed" and represented by the Governing Body, redefined to refer to the Governing Body only. The "domestics", previously defined as each member of the "anointed" individually, redefined as including all members of the "anointed" and the "great crowd". The "evil slave" of Matthew 24:48, previously defined as former "anointed" members who reject Jesus, redefined as a hypothetical warning to the "faithful slave". 2014: "Gog of Magog", previously identified as Satan, redefined as an unspecified "coalition of nations". 2015: The 'arrival of the bridegroom' of Matthew 25:10, previously considered to refer to 1919, changed to a future time of judgment. The 'foolish virgins' of Matthew 25:8–9, previously considered to refer to Bible Students who rejected the Watch Tower Society in 1919, changed to hypothetical unfaithful 'anointed' individuals who would be replaced by other faithful 'anointed' individuals prior to the Great Tribulation. 2016: The 'dry bones' in Ezekiel chapter 37, previously understood as persecution of the 'anointed' in 1918 followed by a 'revival' in 1919, reinterpreted as "spiritual captivity" from the second century until 1919. 2016: The 'man with the inkhorn' in Ezekiel chapter 9, previously understood as members of the 'anointed' symbolically marking people by preaching, redefined as Jesus judging individuals during the Great Tribulation. 2016: The joining of the 'two sticks' in Ezekiel chapter 37, previously associated with reunification of the 'anointed' following a Watch Tower Society leadership dispute, redefined as the 'anointed' being joined by the 'great crowd'. 2018: The 'king of the north' of Daniel 11:44–45, previously stated to have been uncertain since 1991, re-identified as "Russia and its allies". 2018: The temple vision in Ezekiel, previously likened to the tent in the Epistle to the Hebrews (which Jehovah's Witnesses call a "spiritual temple"), redefined as a more general representation of God's standards for worship. 2020–2029 2020: Identification of various historical events from the 2nd to early 19th centuries as relating to the 'kings of the north and south' abandoned. The 'king of the north' of Daniel 11:25–26, previously identified as Aurelian, redefined as the German Empire. The 'king of the south' for the same verses, previously identified as Zenobia, redefined as "Britain". Criticism Former Governing Body member Raymond Franz and Sociology lecturer Andrew Holden have pointed out that doctrines—including those relating to sexual behaviour in marriage and the "superior authorities" of Romans 13:4—have sometimes been altered, only to revert to those held decades earlier. Holden, author of an ethnographic study on Jehovah's Witnesses, commented: "It could be that many Witnesses have not yet been in the organisation long enough to realise that 'new lights' have a habit of growing dimmer, while old ones are switched back on!" In his study of the Witnesses and their history, Tony Wills has suggested that when third president Nathan H. Knorr altered major doctrines established by his predecessor, J. F. Rutherford, he was returning the Witnesses to many of Russell's teachings. He asked: "How can the Society harmonize this circular development with the claimed progressive development?" In testimony at a 1954 court case in Scotland, senior Watch Tower Society figures admitted that although doctrines were subject to change if they were later regarded as erroneous, all Witnesses were required to accept current teachings or risk expulsion. Under cross-examination, Fred Franz, then vice president of the Watch Tower Society, conceded a Witness could be disfellowshipped and shunned for "causing trouble" over a belief they held that was contrary to Society teaching but subsequently embraced by the group. Society lawyer Hayden G. Covington told the court that although the Society had for decades published a "false prophecy ... a false statement" about the date of Christ's Second Coming, members had been required to accept it and any who had rejected it would have been expelled. He explained: "You must understand we must have unity, we cannot have disunity with a lot of people going every way." See also Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses Faithful and discreet slave Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses History of Jehovah's Witnesses Jehovah's Witnesses beliefs Unfulfilled Watch Tower Society predictions References Bibliography Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses
5189361	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miles%20Browning	Miles Browning	Miles Rutherford Browning (April 10, 1897 – September 29, 1954) was an officer in the United States Navy in the Atlantic during World War I and in the Pacific during World War II. An early test pilot in the development of carrier-based Navy aircraft and a pioneer in the development of aircraft carrier combat operations concepts, he is noted for his aggressive aerial warfare tactics as a Navy captain on the Admiral's staff aboard and at Nouméa during World War II. His citation for the Distinguished Service Medal states: "His judicious planning and brilliant execution was largely responsible for the rout of the enemy Japanese fleet in the Battle of Midway." Naval historian Craig Symonds disagrees, however, writing that "the citation claim that Browning was 'largely responsible' for the American victory at Midway, an assertion that some historians have taken seriously . . . is manifestly untrue." Browning served as Admiral William Halsey's chief of staff aboard USS Enterprise (CV-6) as it launched air attacks on Japanese-held islands across the Pacific in February and March 1942, helped plan and execute the Doolittle Raid that launched 16 Army twin-engine B-25 bombers from USS Hornet (CV-8) to bomb Tokyo in April 1942, served as Admiral Raymond Spruance's chief of staff aboard USS Enterprise during the Battle of Midway in June 1942, served as Admiral Halsey's chief of staff at Nouméa during the Guadalcanal campaign in October-November 1942, and commanded the recently built new aircraft carrier USS Hornet (CV-12) during the early weeks of the Western New Guinea campaign in April-May 1944. He was removed from command in May 1944, after a shipboard incident in which a Hornet sailor drowned. For the rest of the war, he taught aircraft carrier tactics at the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas. He retired in 1947. Early life Miles Browning was born in Perth Amboy, New Jersey, the son of Sarah Louise (née Smith) and New York City stockbroker Oren Fogle Browning, Jr. He attended public schools before his appointment to the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis, in 1914. His class graduated early; he was commissioned Ensign with the Class of 1918 on June 29, 1917, a few weeks after the U.S. entered World War I. Career Following graduation, Browning briefly served on the , a battleship of the U.S. Atlantic Fleet. From February 1918 he then had duty in connection with fitting out the battleship . In June 1918, he joined the French cruiser Lutetia, and was an observer aboard while she operated with Cruiser Force, Atlantic Fleet, through the end of the war. After the end of World War I, Browning spent four consecutive years afloat, serving on the battleship (flagship of the Atlantic Fleet), on the destroyer , and as Engineer Officer of and later (destroyers operating with the U.S. Pacific Fleet). Lieutenant Browning joined the destroyer in 1920, serving as executive officer (XO) until he was transferred a year later to similar duty as XO of the destroyer . From 1922 to January 1924, Browning served as Senior Patrol Officer on the cruiser USS Charleston and the destroyer , operating out of Naval Station San Diego. In January 1924, Browning reported to Naval Air Station Pensacola for flight training. He showed exceptional skill in the cockpit, but also exhibited a "wild streak" that struck his squadron mates as "potentially dangerous." Designated Naval Aviator on September 29, 1924, he became one of America's earliest Navy combat pilots, joining , America's first aircraft carrier, which had been converted from the Navy collier . From January 1925 until May 1927, Browning was assigned to Observation Squadron 2, attached first to the minelayer , then later to the battleship . Advanced to Operations Officer, he served for two years at Naval Station Norfolk, Virginia. He was assigned his first aviation command in July 1929: Scouting Squadron 5S, the aviation unit of the light cruiser . During that time he performed additional duty on the staff of the commander of Light Cruiser Division Two of the Scouting Fleet (USS Trenton, flagship). As an aviator flying warplanes between the wars, Browning helped develop and implement fighter aircraft tactics and strategy; he also helped shape how Navy combat aircraft were designed and built. In July 1931, he reported to the Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics to serve in the Material Division (Design), and spent the next three years helping to design and test combat aircraft. As a test pilot, he crashed a plane in 1932 and was laid up in a San Diego naval hospital. The new monoplane fighters Browning and others piloted went through numerous upgrades in both structure and function, every design change hotly debated by men whose lives were at stake. Browning was part of the group of "progressives" who pushed for development of a fast high-performance fighter, with maneuverability secondary to speed. These men felt that a true fighter had to be fast enough to quickly overtake and shoot down enemy planes. Unfortunately for Browning and his like-minded colleagues, the Bureau of Aeronautics continued to emphasize maneuverability, climb rate, and flight ceiling at the expense of speed and other characteristics that the progressives argued were more important. If the bureau had been more receptive to an emphasis on speed, the United States Navy might have entered World War II with a more advanced high-performance fighter. In June 1934, Browning was given command of Fighting Squadron 3B, based on USS Langley and later on , the first American warship built from the keel up as an aircraft carrier. He served in that capacity until June 1936, when he reported to the Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island, for postgraduate studies with additional duty at the Naval Torpedo Station there. Upon completion of his junior year in 1937, he became one of the first naval instructors at the Army Air Corps Tactical School at Maxwell Field in Montgomery, Alabama, training a new generation of fighter pilots while continuing his advanced studies in combat theory, national security policy, airborne command and control and joint military operations. In 1936, the year that Nazi Germany allied with Fascist Italy and Imperial Japan, Browning laid out his tactical logic in a 13-page, single-spaced, typewritten memorandum on carrier warfare prepared at the Naval War College. Browning's essay briefly noted the vulnerability of carriers during the aircraft re-arming process, which was later demonstrated conclusively during the Battle of Midway. After completing his academic work, Browning was appointed to Admiral William F. Halsey's staff in the new billet of Air Tactical Officer. In June 1938, he joined the United States' second new aircraft carrier, , to serve as commander of Yorktowns carrier air wing. Browning organized the Fleet Aircraft Tactical Unit based on Yorktown, and commanded it for two additional years. When Halsey became the commander of Air Battle Forces two years later, Browning remained on his staff as Operations and War Plans Officer, and he became Halsey's Chief of staff in June 1941. From the onset of U.S. involvement in World War II, Browning provided tactical recommendations to Admiral Halsey from the bridge of the carrier . As war loomed on the horizon, Halsey had Browning prepare the Enterprise crew and her aircraft squadrons. When the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor on Dec 7, 1941, the Enterprise was en route to Hawaii after delivering a Marine Corps fighter squadron to Wake Island. USS Enterprise scout bombers arrived over Pearl during the attack, and immediately went into action in defense of the naval base. Six of them were shot down. The carrier reached the devastated harbor on the evening of 8 December, the day after the attack, refueled and resupplied through the night, and put to sea again early the next morning to patrol against any additional threats to the Hawaiian Islands. (Enterprise planes sank a Japanese submarine on December 10, 1941, three days into the war.) With the United States Pacific Fleet nearly destroyed, USS Enterprise and her battle group took up forward defensive positions west of Hawaii. Eight of the fleet's nine battleships had been trapped in the harbor, four of them sunk and four heavily damaged, along with three of the fleet's eight cruisers that had also been in port during the dawn attack. With the battleship force crippled, defense against further Japanese attacks on the United States and its territories was left to the three aircraft carriers stationed in the Pacific: USS Enterprise and the converted battlecruisers and . Designated flagship of the Pacific Fleet, Enterprise sailed in January 1942 to protect American convoys reinforcing Samoa. Soon after this, Enterprise went on the offensive. In February and March 1942, Enterprise launched numerous hit-and-run air raids on Japanese bases at Kwajalein, Wotje, and Maloelap in the Marshall Islands, as well as enemy installations in the Gilbert Islands, on Marcus Island, and on Wake Island. Halsey gave credit for much of this success to his chief of staff, and recommended Commander Browning for a spot promotion to the rank of captain. So dramatic were these air raids on Japanese island bases that Life magazine dubbed Browning "America's mastermind in aerial warfare." CINCPAC approved Browning's promotion that April, following the "Doolittle Raid" he had helped plan and execute. Dubbed "Jimmy Doolittle's Raid" by the American press, the daring scheme launched 16 Army Air Forces long-range bombers, led by Lt. Col. James H. Doolittle, from the deck of the carrier , with Enterprise providing combat air support. Doolittle's B-25 squadron dropped bombs on Tokyo and other Japanese cities on April 18, 1942, completely surprising the Japanese and giving beleaguered American troops and the American public a much-needed boost in morale. Midway Admiral Halsey suffered a severe attack of dermatitis on the Enterprise on the way back from launch of the successful Doolittle bombing raid, and was hospitalized in Hawaii. Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance, Halsey's hand-picked successor, inherited Halsey's staff just prior to the Battle of Midway. Spruance, who had commanded a cruiser division since the beginning of the war, was concerned about leading a carrier group because he had no prior aviation or carrier experience. Halsey reassured him, telling Spruance to rely on his battle-tested staff, especially Browning. Unfortunately, Browning had an abrasive personality. Spruance found it difficult to get along with his chief of staff during and after Midway. Military historian Samuel Eliot Morison referred to Browning as "one of the most irascible officers ever to earn a fourth stripe, but he was a man with a slide-rule brain." Others said he had a "calculator brain" and "a superintellect that evoked praise – often begrudging – from his superiors." Browning is commonly described as "crusty and brawling," clever, daring, exceptionally aggressive, and uncontrollable. He was willful, arrogant, a hard drinker, and violent tempered. Despite his many personality flaws, he was respected as a brilliant tactical officer. Midway would be a critical battle for the United States and its allies, one that all parties knew might very well determine the outcome of the war in the Pacific. After the devastation of its battleships at Pearl Harbor six months earlier, the U.S. Navy was forced to place all its hopes on a small aircraft carrier force that was dwarfed by the strength of Japan's Combined Fleet. As chief of staff for Task Force 16, Browning was charged with supporting Rear Admiral Spruance during the impending battle as the Imperial Japanese Navy, undefeated for over 350 years, bore down on Midway Island. American signals intelligence had intercepted and decrypted Japanese radio messages. Because of this, they knew that Midway was the Combined Fleet's invasion target, and they had a good estimate of the invasion fleet's direction of approach and anticipated time of arrival at the island. Although the Japanese Navy was not aware of this breach in its radio security, it did change its codes in accordance with protocol as its fleet steamed across the Pacific toward the strategic U.S. air base at Midway. Commanded by Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, the Imperial Fleet knew it would meet resistance, but did not know it had lost the element of surprise. Yamamoto's intent was to draw whatever was left of the American fleet into a battle so that any remaining U.S. warships could be destroyed, then occupy Midway and use it as a base against Hawaii and as leverage for a negotiated peace. Yamamoto's second-in-command, Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo, the hero of Pearl Harbor, also expected to achieve complete surprise at Midway. He failed to anticipate attacks from any of America's remaining carriers, and presumed that the heavily damaged Yorktown had been sunk during the Battle of the Coral Sea. Some accounts credit Browning's tactical talent and carrier operations experience with winning the battle of Midway. According to these, on the morning of 4 June 1942 Spruance wanted to wait to launch attack aircraft until the Japanese ships were within . Spruance's biographer Thomas Buell disagrees, saying that Spruance had always planned to launch as early as possible. According to naval historian John Lindstrom, "Morison misunderstood the time expressed in the TF 16 war diary" and "created the fiction of Spruance's supposed desire to delay the launch. It did not arise from Browning's wartime reputation or from any recollections by participants." Despite last minute tactical changes in the Japanese fleet's path of advance and U.S. operational delays after launch that forced them to improvise in the air, dive bombers from the U.S. carrier task force managed to find and bomb three of the Japanese aircraft carriers while they were at their most vulnerable (re-arming and refueling aircraft on the flight decks), setting the carriers on fire and winning the battle in the space of 10 minutes. This confirmed the analysis Browning had first presented in his 1936 tactical thesis. Critically low on fuel by then, 18 of those dive bombers failed to return. By the end of the day, the task force's dive bombers had sunk all four of the big carriers Japan sent to Midway. Before it was sunk, however, the fourth Japanese carrier launched a successful air attack on the Yorktown, damaging it further and contributing to its ultimate loss. Losses suffered by the U.S. carriers' torpedo bomber squadrons were even worse than the dive bombers' losses. Carrying unreliable torpedoes and attacking low, slow and unescorted due to a series of snafus similar to those that plagued the dive bombers, the torpedo bombers had been easy prey for the Japanese carriers' defending Zeros. The torpedo squadrons were almost completely wiped out (37 of 41 aircraft lost); Torpedo Squadron 8 had exactly one survivor. But with no aircraft carriers left, Admiral Yamamoto's large surviving fleet returned to Japan. The U.S. had won at Midway, and with a high cost. By early afternoon on June 5, Admiral Spruance knew Yamamoto's fleet was retreating. Concerned that at least one Japanese carrier might still be afloat, Spruance ordered Task Force 16 to pursue and attack. Browning prepared an ambitious attack plan, to arm dive bombers with the heaviest bombs available and launch the planes at the extreme limit of their operational range. Air Group Six commander Wade McClusky and two of his senior pilots objected vehemently to this unrealistic attack plan, which provided no margin for error. All three pilots had flown dive bombers in the successful attack on the morning of June 4, and all three would later be awarded the Navy Cross for it. McClusky had landed on Enterprise with no more than two gallons of fuel left, and other dive-bomber pilots in the air group had ditched their planes in the ocean after running out of fuel. After hearing McClusky outline the solid reasons for their objection, then listening patiently to a heated discussion between Browning and the normally soft-spoken McClusky, Admiral Spruance sided with the pilots. The planes took off with the lighter bombs (500 lb. instead of 1000 lb.), and took off an hour later than specified in the original plan. Events during the subsequent attack confirmed that in this instance LCDR McClusky and the other two pilots had been right. Enterprise returned to Pearl Harbor on 13 June 1942. Guadalcanal Unfortunately, Browning continued to be a man of tremendous contradictions. At this moment of triumph, in the summer of 1942, he had an affair with the wife of a fellow officer, Commander Francis Massie Hughes. Combined with his drinking and unstable temperament, this breach of trust would eventually help to derail his career. But Captain Browning resumed combat duties in October 1942 when Halsey was given command of the South Pacific theater, where Allied fortunes had gone from bad to worse. Browning's tactical advice as chief of staff helped Halsey achieve the command miracle in the Solomon Islands that did much to turn the tide in the Pacific. Like Midway, the Guadalcanal Campaign was another critical turning point in the Pacific war. The first major offensive by combined Allied forces against Japanese-held territory, it was a desperate ongoing sea, air, and ground campaign that required continual, almost daily, aircraft action. Repeated Japanese counterstrikes were repelled while Halsey ran the entire South Pacific Force – including U.S. and Allied army, navy and marine forces – from his headquarters at Nouméa in New Caledonia, with assistance from Browning, a handful of staff officers, and some fifty bluejackets. Audacious strikes by air, land and sea, and the tenacity and sacrifices of thousands of soldiers, sailors and marines under Admiral Halsey's command led to the historic naval victory at Guadalcanal in early November 1942. Again, Halsey generously gave Browning credit for much of his success. In a New Year's Day 1943 letter to Admiral Nimitz (CINCPAC) concerning Browning's precarious career situation, Halsey wrote, "Miles has an uncanny knack of sizing up a situation and coming out with an answer." Admitting that his chief of staff was "decidedly temperamental", Halsey begged Nimitz not to break up "this partnership" between himself and Browning, writing, "I am almost superstitious about it." Several days later, however, Browning antagonized visiting Secretary of the Navy Frank Knox, earning himself another powerful enemy who then replaced Browning over Halsey's objections. Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations and Commander-in-Chief, United States Fleet, and another old enemy, concurred. Halsey had pushed for a promotion to Commodore for Browning, but this did not happen. In March 1943, Browning married Jane Matthews, the woman with whom he had the 1942 affair; she was his fourth and last wife. Browning was detached from Halsey's staff in July 1943 to become the commanding officer of the new attack carrier , namesake of , which had been lost in October 1942 at the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands. During his tenure in command, took part in massive air strikes against Japanese bases in the Pacific, including Palau, Truk, and Ponape, and provided carrier-launched air support during the Allied invasion of New Guinea and the Jayapura operation, both of which began on 22 April 1944. Removal from Command On 13 April 1944, Rear Admiral Joseph J. Clark had hoisted his flag on Hornet as commander of Task Group 58.1, which consisted of Hornet and three Independence-class light carriers. Not long after this, during a nighttime showing of a film on Hornet's hangar deck, someone discharged a CO2 canister and triggered a stampede. In the chaos, two sailors fell overboard; one of them drowned. By this time, Browning had alienated several more of his superiors, including Admiral Clark and Task Force 58 commander Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher, who were waiting for Browning to make a misstep after numerous ship-handling mistakes and general insubordination. Browning was also widely hated by his subordinates, especially the pilots, who held him responsible for numerous crashes as he enforced an unrealistically short take-off distance for the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver, which he based on the manufacturer's theoretical claims instead of the pilots' own practical experience with as-built aircraft on the carrier. When Browning refused to have a boat lowered to rescue the drowning sailors despite Admiral Clark's urgent recommendation that he do so, a board of investigation was ordered, which led to Browning's removal from command. The ensuing ruin of his career, which Morison called "one of the great wastes to the American prosecution of the war", may have had little to do with combat results but had a great deal to do with flaws in his leadership. Browning was removed from command of Hornet in May 1944 and reassigned to the Command and General Staff College at Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where he taught carrier battle tactics during the final months of the war. After World War II Browning toured Japan in 1949, and stated that radiation damage from the atomic bombs was a "myth". He pointed to gardens and a number of tall chimneys left standing in Hiroshima and Nagasaki as "proof" that there were no long-term effects from the blasts. Browning retired from active duty on January 1, 1947, and was retroactively promoted to rear admiral (upper half). He was appointed New Hampshire's Civil Defense Director in 1950, where he devised a plan wherein 500,000 displaced residents of Boston could be housed in New Hampshire private homes in the event of disaster. Browning resigned from this post in 1952. On September 29, 1954, Browning died of systemic lupus erythematosus at Chelsea Naval Hospital in Boston. He was buried on October 6, 1954, at Arlington National Cemetery. Fictional portrayals In the 1976 film Midway, Browning was portrayed by actor Biff McGuire. In the 1988 TV-mini series War and Remembrance, Episode 3, Browning was portrayed by actor Michael McGuire. In the 2019 film Midway Browning was portrayed by actor Eric Davis. In the 2019 film Dauntless: The Battle of Midway, Browning was portrayed by actor C. Thomas Howell. Awards and decorations Naval Flight Officer Badge Personal life Browning was married three times. On May 20, 1922, Browning married San Francisco socialite Cathalene Isabella Parker (1906-1987), stepdaughter of Vice Admiral Clark H. Woodward. From 1922 to January 1924, Browning served as Senior Patrol Officer on the cruiser USS Charleston and the destroyer , operating out of Naval Station San Diego. During that time, his only daughter, Cathalene Parker Browning, was born in San Diego (her son is the American comedian Chevy Chase). After his divorce from Parker, Browning married Marie Héloïse Barbin (1907-2005) in June 1931. In 1943, he married Katherine Jane Eynon (1909-1982). They were married for the rest of his life. In 1970, Jane Browning testified to Congress about the small widow's pension she received and her penury. See also History of United States Naval Operations in World War II Mariana and Palau Islands campaign Midway order of battle Pacific War Pacific Theater of Operations The Two-Ocean War References External links Naval Historical Center - Battle of Midway Naval Historical Center - Naval Aviation in the Pacific (PDF file) Naval Historical Center - USS Hornet (CV-12) 1897 births 1954 deaths People from Perth Amboy, New Jersey United States Naval Academy alumni Naval War College alumni United States Naval Aviators United States Navy rear admirals (upper half) United States Navy personnel of World War I United States Navy World War II admirals Battle of Midway Burials at Arlington National Cemetery Recipients of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal Recipients of the Silver Star Deaths from lupus People with lupus United States Army Command and General Staff College faculty Military personnel from New Jersey
5189416	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlton%20Press	Charlton Press	The Charlton Press is a book publishing company that produces pricing guides as well as other books on related topics, including collectables (coins, banknotes, medals, sports cards, clocks, and dolls) and porcelain figures. The company's first title was Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Tokens & Fractional Currency, published in 1952, and contained all coins used as circulating tender in Canada from 1858 until present. Origins of the Charlton Press It was James (Jim) Charlton's (July 26, 1911 – September 20, 2013) experience as an avid numismatist that inspired him to create a catalogue for coin collectors. In 1926, when Jim Charlton was 15, his older brother Harry Charlton gifted him a United States 1863 Indian Head cent. It was from this initial exposure to coins that Jim Charlton developed an interest in numismatics, frequently visiting coin dealers, and purchasing coins from second-hand stores in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Charlton continued to cultivate his interest in coins while moving to Northern Ontario for work as an engineer from 1933 to 1948. However, it was his return to Toronto in April 1948 after accepting a position as a steam engineer for the Star (now Toronto Star) that allowed him to expand his collection. By actively acquiring withdrawn circulation coinage from bank acquisitions, coin auctions, and inventories from coin shops, Charlton's collection grew exponentially. While continuing his work as chief steam engineer at The Star, Charlton ran Canada Coin Exchange, a coin business from his home on a part-time basis during evenings and Saturdays with his wife Mary (nee Tyndall) from 1948 until 1956. Canada Coin Exchange: The early years (1952–1959) Charlton had been actively buying and selling coins since 1948 and conducting a number of mail auction sales beginning in 1950. It was during this time that he realized the need for a Canadian catalogue which would provide accurate values of coins. Based on his experience as an auctioneer, he realized that the only catalogue on Canadian coins, one published by Wayte Raymond (Coins and Tokens of Canada, 1947), was outdated. While Raymond's publication listed coinage by dates, mint marks, mintages and values, and was an improvement from its earlier 1937 publication, listed coin values did not correspond to the values received at bid during auction. It was the selling prices of those sales in which Charlton auctioneered that helped to establish the baseline values for the first catalogue. In 1952, Jim Charlton with the assistance of Fred Bowman and other numismatic students, released the company's first title, the Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Tokens & Fractional Currency, 1st edition. A publication at 34 pages, the catalogue filled a void for Canadian coin collectors and featured then current values and listings of Canadian coins. The original catalogue and all catalogues until 1959, were saddle-stitched with various coloured paper covers. Folded sheets were correlated and then stapled through the folded cover crease from the outside. With the exception of 1954, the catalogue was updated yearly until 1959 when the catalogue underwent a major revision. The growing popularity of numismatics in Canada in the 1950s necessitated Jim Charlton's expansion of his home-based business into a separate retail location. He opened Canada Coin Exchange at 53 Front Street, Toronto, Ontario, on August 2, 1956. A few months after opening Front Street, Charlton, his wife, and two employees suffered a botched armed robbery at gunpoint by two Toronto men. Due to safety concerns, Charlton then relocated Canada Coin Exchange and consolidated the store, office, and warehouse into one location. His new shop at 80 Richmond Street, Toronto, Ontario, was opened on October 31, 1958, and his operations remained there until August 1965. The Whitman years (1960–1969) In 1959, the coin catalogue (8th edition) underwent a major revision not only in terms of its content, but also with regards to the logistics of publication and distribution. Yeoman and Bressett Before the printing of the catalogue's 8th edition, Charlton had been contacted by Richard S. Yeoman (of Yeoman and Bressett) with a proposal for a new expanded edition to the Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Tokens & Fractional Currency. Having the facilities, experience and market potential that Jim Charlton lacked, Yeoman and Bressett became responsible for the printing, sales, and distribution of the catalogues through Whitman's Coin Products Division for the next ten years (1960–1969) until the 19th edition. During the "Whitman Years", the catalogue was modified to a blue hardcover case bound publication, where individual segments were sewn together, before the spine was flattened, and the hard cover attached. The blue cloth-bound soil-resistant hard cover was continued until 1969. Having Richard Yeoman handle the Charlton catalogue was a fortuitous pairing for the Canadian coin catalogue. Yeoman was an integral part of Whitman Publishing. He had helped to cultivate an extensive sales network for coin related material. His experience in compiling definitive coin price guides (the Handbook of United States Coins aka the Blue Book, and A Guide Book of United States Coins aka the Red Book) was invaluable in increasing sales and interest in Canadian numismatics. In addition to pairing with Whitman, modifications were also made to the content of the 1960 catalogue. The catalogue itself underwent a formatting modification, with the incorporation of more individual and larger illustrations of coins and tokens, additional information on coins and bills themselves, reassembling of data, mint statistics and prices on one page, the inclusion of grading standards, the inclusion of die varieties never previously catalogued, and an increase in pages to 128 from its previously 34. The length of the catalogue was limited to no more than 128 pages given the limitations of printing technology. At the time, a press could only handle a sheet that contained the equivalent of 128 smaller sheets. The inclusion of government paper money For the first time, Jim Charlton also included government paper money issues of Canada and Newfoundland in its catalogue listings. This resulted in renaming the catalogue from the Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Tokens & Fractional Currency to the Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Token & Paper Money. But the inclusion of paper money in the catalogue was not without its difficulties. Jim Charlton had long desired for his catalogue to reflect the growing interest in paper bills. When he explored the possibility in 1954, he encountered obstacles given that he had not received permission to publish such a catalogue with illustrations of paper money from the Bank of Canada and the Department of Finance. Doing so would contravene the Criminal Code (section 471(b)551). At the same time that Charlton was exploring the possibility of incorporating bank note illustrations, James Elliott Jr. was independently working on a paper money catalogue. But, unlike Elliott who published his catalogue without illustrations, Charlton took a risk and published a modest catalogue on Canadian and Newfoundland government paper money with a 1955 issue date using reduced size note face illustrations. Charlton was hopeful that no action would be taken against him by the Government of Canada. Years prior in 1947, the Department of Finance had not instigated legal proceedings against W.H. Kernohan of Forest, Ontario who had released educational material in the form of a chart featuring banknote illustrations. As Jim Charlton stated about Kernohan, "So, I figured to myself, 'if he can do that, I think I've got a good case if they decide to come after me.'" Nonetheless, fearing seizure of the printed matter, Charlton kept the majority of the publications in the basement of his brother's residence in Mississauga, Ontario. Luckily, no such seizure occurred and in fact, the Central Bank ordered a copy of the catalogue. It was soon thereafter that Elliott released a second catalogue with full illustrations of paper bills, using fronts and backs. The new format and content was well received in a book review printed in The Numismatist'''s December 1959 issue. Hailed as a "milestone in Canadian numismatics," Charlton's catalogue was recommended for "the shelf of any collector interested in Canadian numismatics, or wishing to appreciate the place of these important series in the world picture." Coin guide In 1961, Canada Coin Exchange published The Charlton Coin Guide, the definitive guidebook on determining the worth and value of a coin. For those interested in coin accumulation evaluation, the Coin Guide contained not only buying prices for coins of Canada and Newfoundland, but also for Canadian Paper Money from 1935 Bank of Canada issues up to present times, Canadian colonial tokens, war medals and decorations, United States coinage and common gold coins of the world. In addition to legal tender coinage, the Coin Guide also provided information on all Royal Canadian Mint issues. The guide was created in response to a common problem of collectors experiencing difficulty discovering the value of their coins held. Today, the Coin Guide is Canada's oldest continuously published buying guide and serves as a concise reference on the buying prices dealers will pay for coins. The Coin Guide is currently in its 54th edition. Charlton and Whitman part ways Charlton and Whitman eventually parted ways in 1970 after their decade-long pairing due to a disagreement over the pricing structure listed in the Canadian catalogue. Between 1965 and 1967, the coin business hit a recession in Canada. Proof like sets had peaked and new issues were flooding the market, saturating it. As a consequence, there was a significant price decrease in the market for coins and more dealers were turning to precious metals. Jim Charlton felt that reflecting this downturn in his catalogue was not warranted, whereas Whitman was adamant that values listed in the Canadian catalogue should account for the market's price decrease. Unable to reach a compromise, Jim Charlton once again resumed full publishing of Canadian Coins, Tokens and Paper Money. With the demands of the coin business taking his free time from his wife Mary and son Jimmy, Jim Charlton left The Star after 13 years of employment in 1961. He continued his relationship with the newspaper in a capacity unrelated to his employed profession, that is, writing the Coins column for The Star until 1968. The expansion of Canada Coin Exchange Focusing entirely on his coin business, Jim Charlton opened a retail store for Canada Coin Exchange at 49 Queen Street East on June 26, 1963, while keeping the Richmond Street location as a warehouse. It was at this time that Charlton International Publishing Inc. was incorporated on August 28, 1963. Eventually, operations of the store and office were transferred to 92 Jarvis Street in August 1965. While the business prospered, Jim Charlton found the demands deprived him of his time with family and he sold the supply business (Canadian Coin and Stamp Supply) along with the building to Jack Alexander Forbes of Dartmouth, Nova Scotia on July 2, 1967 while retaining the numismatic business (Canada Coin Exchange), which he relocated to 6 Adelaide Street East, Room 509. He also remained as editor and publisher of the Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Tokens and Paper Money. The inventory of Canada Coin Exchange was eventually liquidated in 1969 under the new owners Richard Robinson and Fred Samuels on May 1, 1969. The Charlton Publications (1970–1972) – 19th to 21st editions After parting ways with Whitman, Jim Charlton resumed publication of the catalogue for the 1971 (the 19th edition). By the early 1970s, the condition of coins became an important factor of consideration for collectors. Grades for coins allowed collectors to more accurately estimate the value of their coins. Thus, with input from dealers who precipitated the change, the coin catalogue was not only modified to incorporate the value association with a coin's condition, but also incorporated more Canadian and Newfoundland bank paper issues. The total page number of the catalogue was increased to 200. When Jim Charlton was editor of the catalogue, it was his common practise to walk around Toronto, asking dealers about the prices they were paying for coins. Charlton would then correlate these prices and adjust his catalogue figures as necessary. He continued this practise until 1976. It was also at this time, that the Charlton catalogue moved away from the hard cover binding of the Whitman years, to perfect binding, a method where the pages and cover were glued together at the spine. Charlton International Publishing Inc. used perfect binding for their catalogues until 2003. The Charlton International Publishing Inc. – 22nd to 30th editions Four years after he had purchased the coin supply business from Jim Charlton in 1967, Jack Alexander Forbes placed an advertisement in the newspaper advertising the sale of Canada Coin and Stamp Supply. Due to his failing health and his own son's lack of interest in the business, Forbes sold Canada Coin and Stamp Supply (formally known as Charlton Coin & Stamp Co. Ltd.) to William (Bill) K. Cross of Toronto, Ontario in September 1972. William Cross William Cross was a chemical engineer who worked for DuPont selling elastomer (rubber) products. As a travelling salesman, he often found himself dividing his time between Ottawa, Montreal, and Toronto. After pitching to companies on the marvels of elastomer, Cross would often visit coin shops in the area during his spare time before heading home, particularly in Ottawa. While employed full time at DuPont, Cross bought and sold coins on the side as a part time dealer. It was his mother who first initiated his interest in coins, having always set aside coins from a young age. Cross' move from engineer to coin dealer came when his manager gave Cross an ultimatum to either "work harder or leave." Cross chose to leave and make numismatics his full time passion by founding the Red Cent Coin Company (formally known as the Red Cent Coin Ltd.) in 1964. Located at 3030 Bathurst Street, Toronto, Ontario, the Red Cent Coin Company operated primarily as a numismatics company between the years of 1964 and 1966. Due to the downdraft and decreasing value and interest in coins that occurred with the coin recession in the mid-1960s, the Red Cent Coin Company shifted its focus to bullion products, buying gold and silver, and bullion gold numismatics wholesale from 1966 to 1972. While the Red Cent Coin Company no longer had a brick and mortar store, they did have offices located on Adelaide Street in 1966, which they shared with Cale Jarvis, the publisher of Canadian Coin News. As Bill Cross recalls of this time: We closed 3030 Bathurst Street in 1966 due to the downdraft in the market. We went into the bullion business and into the precious metal business, buying gold and silver. We travelled back and forth from Europe buying numismatic coins, gold coins and all those wonderful things. We used to buy sovereigns for example, out of London, England which didn't require export permits, and bring them back to Toronto with the intention of selling them to the United States. After applying for import permits from the United States government, we took the coins to the US and sold them there. Bill Cross meets Jim Charlton Bill Cross' first introduction to Jim Charlton occurred in 1962 or 1963 when Cross purchased a 1937 mirror proof set of coins from the British company Seaby, which he took to Charlton to have evaluated. While he disagreed with Charlton's assessment that his purchase was rubbish, his admiration and passion for the hobby never abated. In fact, Cross had always wanted to own the book end of Charlton, admiring what was considered to be the bible for Canadian numismatics. His passion for the hobby eventually led to Cross founding and becoming acting President of the Canadian Association of Numismatic Dealers (1976–1980), and purchasing Torex (Canada's most popular coin and paper money show) from 1976 to 1984. In November 1986, Bill Cross, along with Brian Cornwell, and Ingrid K. Smith founded the International Coin Certification Service (I.C.C.S), a third party coin grading service that evaluates coins, their authenticity, their grade, and ultimately their worth. Cross sold his share in I.C.C.S in 2009. Cross was also honorary chair of the Royal Canadian Numismatic Association (RCNA) at the World's Fair of Money in 2014, and recipient of the J. Douglas Ferguson Award in 2002. At the 2015 RCNA convention, Cross received the organization's highest distinction, The Paul Fiocca Award for "long term meritorious service or major contributions to the RCNA", the same award that James E. Charlton received in 2008. When Bill Cross purchased the coin and stamp supply business from Jack Alexander Forbes in 1972, he negotiated a deal that would include purchasing the "Charlton" name, as well as the copyrights and sole publishing rights held by Charlton and all the Charlton books. In his initial explorations of purchasing the company from Jack Alexander Forbes, Bill Cross insisted that the copyrights to his catalogues be included in the sale. When Cross was notified that no such provision had been negotiated in the original Charlton-Forbes deal, Cross recalls that the "sale came to a screeching halt." When Forbes approached Charlton five years after the business deal had been finalized, Jim Charlton granted permission for the acquisition, including extending copyright to the Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins. As Cross reminisces: Forbes went to Jim and Jim signed over the copyrights to Canada Coin and Stamp to Forbes in order that the sale could go through. He signed over the catalogue copyrights five years after the original sale, with no gain to him. There are very few people who would do this. Jim was a man of honour. After Cross successfully purchased the business from Forbes in 1972, he immediately acquired another business, International Stamp Supplies (formally International Stamp Co.) months afterwards and combined the two newly acquired companies and renamed them to Charlton International Publishing. Shortly afterwards, Bill Cross formed Charlton Numismatics. In September 1972, Cross then relocated Charlton's to 299 Queen Street West, Toronto, Ontario, the current CityTV building, and the former Ryerson Press building and operated out of that location for 12 years. The Charlton enterprises not only included Charlton Numismatics Ltd. (the largest coin company in Canada in the 1970s), but also Charlton International Publishing Inc., as well as an auction room, all under one roof. At the same time in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Cross continued operating the Red Cent Coin Company, with eventual plans to gradually phase out that aspect of the business. The Red Cent Coin Company was eventually consolidated with Charlton International Publishing in 1979 to become Charlton International, which handled both the publishing and supply end of Cross' business. At the time, Charlton Numismatics was one of the leading coin companies in Canada, as well as buying and selling jewellery and other collectables. As Cross explains, Charlton Numismatics was the first to offer jewellery gold chains by weight. Cross would import the chains from Italy and sell to the public by the gram. So popular was his service that during the Christmas season, Charlton Numismatics would often sell a profitable sum in gold chain alone. With Cross at the helm, and Charlton assuming an editorial position with the catalogues, the catalogue increased in size from 200 pages to 341 pages between the years of 1971 and 1978. In 1976, a decision was made to publish a more reader-friendly format that would split the coin catalogue by removing the token and paper money content to devote to two separate books, lest collectors be faced with an unnecessarily thick publication. Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money & Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Government Paper Money Taking three years to compile information, The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money, 1st edition published in 1980 and The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Government Paper Money, 1st edition was published in 1984. The former publication was published with an impressive 820 pages due to the fact that The Charlton Press incorporated banknotes from over 152 Chartered Banks in Canada as well as a section on Merchant Scrip. It was also at this time that the Charlton Catalogue Numbering System was introduced in the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money. As a new feature, The Charlton Press identified every Canadian banknote with an identification number, a system that had been in place for Dominion notes and Bank of Canada notes already. As explained in the catalogue, each banknote was identified with a number in the form of "123-04B0-3a". The first series represented the bank number. The second series represented the issue and sub-issue(s) with two spaces for the issue number, one space for the sub-issue letter and one space for the sub-issue number. The third series represented the denomination and occurrence of the note.The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money is published once every three years. The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Government Paper Money is published annually. Charltons Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins After removing the paper money section from the coin catalogue, the coin catalogue was renamed to Charltons Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, 27th edition and included information on decimal coins, patterns, trial pieces, and collector's coins. The cleaving permitted the incorporation of more background information on varieties. Between 1976 and 1980, there was a run in gold and silver on the market. With prices rapidly fluctuating, The Charlton Press started issuing semi-annual releases (Winter and Summer) of the Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins to keep up with the ever-fickle market. Thus from 1979 to 1984, there were 10 editions released in total (editions 27 to 38). Reverting to annual releases in 1985 account for The Charlton Press' release of its 69th edition in 2014, its 63rd year of operation. The Charlton Press (1980 to 2003) – 31st to 57th editions In 1980, The Charlton Press imprint, the broken book and half maple leaf logo was adopted and came to be the imprint for the standard catalogues. The logo was designed and officially registered by Donald Lorimer on December 2, 1976 by the name "Half Maple Leaf in open book/Broken Books/Toronto". Donald Lorimer had come to work for Charlton International Publishing Inc. in 1977 as a manager for Publishing. Early in 1979, Lorimer worked on a logo for Charlton International Publishing Inc and suggested that the company consider the half maple leaf and open book logo. Lorimer's suggestion was accepted and on November 8, 1979 it was filed and then officially registered on October 17, 1980, with the title modified to "Half Maple Leaf open book/The Charlton Press". When Bill Cross assumed the helm of the publishing business in 1972, Jim Charlton continued in his capacity as editor of the coin catalogue until 1980, the 30th edition, though technically Jim Charlton had ceased his editorial functions by 1976. In 1980, Jim Charlton officially stepped down from The Charlton Press and the coin catalogue he had founded 28 years prior. Bill Cross assumed full editorial and authorial responsibilities for the 31st edition of the Standard Catalogue of Canadian coins and onwards, as well as all numismatic catalogues and hobbyist material bearing the Charlton name. In 1979, Cross disposed of the coin supply and stamp business, while retaining the numismatic and publishing side of Charlton's, which he renamed Charlton International Inc. In November 1984, Charlton's was relocated to the Yonge and Summerhill area in Toronto, Ontario on 15 Birch Avenue. In November 1989, the company was relocated once again to 2010 Yonge Street. 36th anniversary edition In 1988, a special edition celebrating The Charlton Press' 36th anniversary was published that was limited to 1000 serialized copies, each one of which was autographed by Jim Charlton and Bill Cross. The special edition, with 796 pages, included a reprint of the 1952, 1st edition catalogue in its entirety, the 1988 42nd edition of The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, the 1987 2nd edition of The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Government Paper Money, and the 1988 1st edition of The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Colonial Tokens. Each section was separated by a coloured cover. This special edition was the first time since 1978 that the Charlton catalogue featured both tokens and paper money alongside coins in one publication. Canadian Colonial Tokens In that same year, The Charlton Press also published a stand alone catalogue of Canadian Colonial Tokens (prior to 1867). The standalone catalogue with 218 pages was researched extensively after the decision was made to remove the token and paper money content from the catalogue in 1976. Tokens were issued by provincial governments, chartered banks and merchants, due to the shortage of copper currency. In the 7th edition of Canadian Colonial Tokens published in 2010, The Charlton Press changed the size of the book from to . This allowed more space for images, better illustrations, and the incorporation of reference numbers and rarity numbers. The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Colonial Tokens is currently in its 10th edition and is published once every few years. Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Bank Notes A year later in 1989, The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money, was renamed to The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Bank Notes to reflect the removal of Merchant Scrip from the catalogue's 1st edition. Merchant Scrip would receive its own catalogue in due time. The catalogue contained all bank notes produced in Canada since the 1800s, from the Bank of Acadia to the Zimmerman Bank. In the 8th edition released in 2014, the catalogue was updated and reorganized to accommodate more census information, to identify notes which had been donated to institutional collections, and to account for recently discovered notes. Listings were expanded and extensively revised for some bank notes, and notices were added reminding readers of valuations as being inextricably linked to Charlton grading standards. Published with 616 pages, The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Bank Notes is currently in its 8th edition. In November 1996, Charlton's relocated to 2040 Yonge Street, with the numismatics store occupying the ground floor, and the publishing portion occupying the upper level. Seven years later in November 2001, Bill Cross closed Charlton Numismatics to focus solely on Charlton Publishing, and relocated the business to North York, Ontario. A Tribute to Jim Charlton: Coinman to Canadians In 2001, as homage to Jim Charlton's legacy, and on the occasion of his 90th birthday, The Charlton Press released a biography of Jim Charlton authored by H. Don Allen. J.E. Charlton: Coinman to Canadians was prepared from papers left by Jim Charlton as well as personal correspondence and conversations between the author and "Mr. Coin". Charlton's papers, an impressive archive of material that he himself had set aside included write-ups from club bulletins, clippings, pamphlets, photographs, and other ephemera. Golden Anniversary: Charlton Standards In 2002, to mark the 50th anniversary of the release of Charlton's first coin catalogue, The Charlton Press published a limited edition hard bound copy entitled Golden Anniversary The Charlton Standards 1952 – 2002 which contained the two most popular "Standards", Canadian Coins, 56th edition, and Canadian Government Paper Money, 14th edition. The 708-page release was limited to 1000 red leatherette copies, and 60 black leather-bound copies. The Charlton Press (2003 to 2015) – 57th to 69th editions Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins In 2003, the 57th edition, The Charlton Press once against redesigned the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins by offering a plastic coil bound option as well as the perfect binding used from 1971 onward. While both varieties of binding were sold for the 57th edition, by the 58th edition, all Charlton Standard Catalogues of Canadian Coins had adopted the plastic coil bound format due to customer preference. The 58th, 2004 edition saw three major additions to the catalogue which included a 40-page section on varieties (the first of a continuing series), portraits of Victorian Newfoundland were all illustrated, and finally, pricing was provided for Victorian portraits. Incorporating a supplementary section on varieties in the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins was to continue until the 69th edition. The supplements were as follows: As editorial assistant Jean Dale of The Charlton Press notes, the supplementary lists included in the Charlton Catalogues are incomplete as "there are many more die varieties to be discovered as well as Chinese counterfeits to be found and illustrated." In addition to housing a supplementary section on George VI varieties, the 61st edition was redesigned with fewer pages and its size was increased to , spiral bound. Tables carried up to 12 pricing columns. Canadian Merchant Scrip In 2007, 14 years after its removal from The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Paper Money, The Charlton Press released its first edition catalogue of Canadian Merchant Scrip. Scrip was a substitute for money that could be used like cash to purchase products or services from the merchants who issued them. While Merchant Scrip had been covered in the coin catalogue in a 47-page section, the values found therein were out of date. Listing by province of origin and presented alphabetically, the catalogue on Merchant Scrip currently provides illustrations, dimensions, dates, imprints, and price lists based on data obtained from collectors and dealers.The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Merchant Scrip is currently in its 1st edition. Copper Coinage of Canada In that same year, The Charlton Press also released a catalogue of Copper Coinage of Canada, which was essentially a reprint of Batty's Canadian Copper Coinage. Beginning in 1868, D.T. Batty began cataloguing English and Colonial copper coinage, authoring four volumes spanning over 1300 pages. Over 27 years starting from 1868, Batty sold by subscription parts of his publication, all except the final volume listing Colonial Copper Coinage, due to his death. Excerpted for reprint is Batty's section on Canadian coinage which lists over 2100 varieties of Colonial, Province of Canada and Dominion of Canada coinage. The Beginning of Volume I and Volume II of Canadian Coins The 63rd edition of the Charlton Standard Catalogue on Canadian Coins (2009) was the final edition of the coin catalogue that contained all coins under one cover. Beginning with the 64th edition, The Charlton Press separated the catalogue into two volumes. Volume one, covered numismatic issues whereas volume two focused on collector issues. This was undertaken because of the limitations of plastic coil binding at approximately 600 pages. Had the press not separated the catalogue, collectors would have been faced with an unwieldy 650-page book. Today, the volumes are separated based on type of coinage. Canadian Coins, Volume One: Numismatic Issues catalogues coins which have been circulated in Canada from the time of the French Regime to present day, as well as coinage from Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland, and the Province of Canada, plus Specimen Coins and Sets, Patterns, and Test Tokens. Canadian Coins, Volume Two: Collector Issues catalogues collector and giftware products produced from 1954 to present, including Olympic coins, non-circulating legal tender coins (NCLT) and others. Monographs: Die Varieties of Large Bronze Cents Between 2006 and 2010, The Charlton Press released a series of three monographs covering the die varieties of large bronze cents used in Canada between 1858 and 1936: Dominion of Canada Die Varieties of Edward VII and George V Large Cents (Monograph 3) released in July 2006, Newfoundland and British North America Die Varieties of Cents and Half Cents 1861–1936 (Monograph 4) released September 2006, and Some Die Varieties of the Large Cents of British North America and Canada (Monograph 1) released February 2010. Attributed posthumously to Jack Griffin who authored some aspects of the series, Griffin had spent over 50 years collecting and recording varieties of large cents. Originally conceived as a four series set which included tables and images illustrating varieties, The Charlton Press had to rethink the entirety of the monograph series upon Griffin's passing in July 2008. What was published, was an updated release featuring an additional 47 pages of new information and over 250 images to Some Die Varieties of the Large Cents of British North America and Canada (2nd Edition), which had an original publication date of 1992. In addition, the Charlton Press had previously started including variety sections in the standard catalogue, and a number of books on Victoria Large Cent Varieties published by Rob Turner had been released. Other numismatic, militaria and historical medal-related books In addition to the above publications, The Charlton Press has also released a number of other numismatic, militaria, and historical medal related books including: Exploring Canadian Colonial Tokens (1st edition) First World War Canadian Infantry Badges (1st edition) Medals of Governors General in Canada (1st edition) Monnaies Canadiennes (the 50th Edition of the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins (in French) The Canadian Medal Rolls – Distinguished Conduct and Military Medal (1st edition) The Canadian Medal Rolls – Distinguished Flying Medal (1939–1945) (1st edition) The Charlton Colonial Token Workbook (1st edition) The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Communion Tokens (1st edition) The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Tire Cash Bonus Coupons (2nd edition) The Charlton Standard Catalogue of the Canadian Numismatic Association's Medals and Awards (2nd edition) The Medal Roll of the Red River Campaign of 1870 in Canada (1st edition) World War One Canadian Corps Badges (1st edition) Non-numismatic series Royal Doulton catalogues The Charlton Press has introduced a number of other catalogues on such hobbyist pursuits as medals, sports cards, clocks, dolls, and porcelain figures. In fact, The Charlton Press' publication of catalogues on Royal Doulton Figurines has sold an estimated 100,000 copies worldwide. Bill Cross recalls an historical anecdote involving the sale of Royal Doulton figurines and a murder plot at Charlton Numismatics. As he explains, a man had walked into Charlton Numismatics with a list of a couple hundred Royal Doulton figurines, which Cross purchased. As part of the purchase agreement, a helper from Charlton Numismatics picked up the figurines from the man's home, while also agreeing to drop off a trunk that was to be shipped to Vancouver. The transaction went smoothly, with the Royal Doulton figurines picked up, inventoried and itemized, while the trunk was dropped off at Toronto's Union station. After the trunk arrived in Vancouver, it was not claimed and when curious employees opened the trunk days later, they found the man's dead wife inside. The police came to Charlton Numismatics and seized all of the Royal Doulton figurines as they were needed as evidence in the court case. The man was convicted and eventually, the figurines were returned to Charlton Numismatics where they were then auctioned off. Sports catalogues The Charlton Press has also published catalogues in the Sports realm on Hockey Cards (16th edition), the Canadian Football Card Price Guide (4th edition), and the Canadian Baseball Card Price Guide (3rd edition). In the Canadiana realm, there are: The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Dolls (3rd edition), The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Clocks (2nd edition), and The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Country Store Collectables (3rd edition) Other collectables The Charlton Press has published a number of catalogues on collectables which include: Charlton Standard Catalogue on Beswick Animals (10th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Beswick Collectables (10th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Border Fine Arts Figurines (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Caithness Paperweights (2nd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Chintz (2nd edition). Charlton Standard Catalogue on Coalport Figurines and Collectables (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Collector's Guide to Ontario (7th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Hagen-Renaker (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Lilliput Lane Cottages (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Animals (4th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Beswick Storybook Figurines (6th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Bunnykins (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Collectables (4th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Figurines (12th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Doulton Jugs (10th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Royal Worcester Figurines (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Storybook Figurines (8th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade Collectables (4th edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade Decorative Ware – Volume Two (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade General Issues (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade Liquid Containers (3rd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade Tableware – Volume Three (2nd edition) Charlton Standard Catalogue on Wade Whimsical Collectables (8th edition) The Charlton Press – legacy Bill Cross kept The Charlton Press Canadian, with all production, and printing done in Canada. Initial publishing was done by Best Books, a Toronto outfit whose printing plant was based in Peterborough. When Transcontinental (currently named TC Transcontinental), a publishing company whose main printing operations were based in Quebec, bought out Best Books, Cross continued the business relationship. Part of Cross' consideration in keeping The Charlton Press printed in Canada was due to his concerns over quality control. Building on the legacy of Jim Charlton's catalogue, Bill Cross also reconceptualized the coin catalogue to include more historical detail, photographs of coins and bills from their original line drawings, and rewrote and reorganized the catalogue. Since the early days of Jim Charlton's difficulties in printing images of bank notes, organizations such as the Royal Canadian Mint have now been cooperative with providing images of new releases based on an equitable trading system whereby The Charlton Press provides The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Volume I and Volume II to the mint. While The Charlton Press used to purchase one each of the non-circulating collector and maple leaf coins to photograph for their catalogues, their extensive network relationships with dealers and collectors have ensured that the catalogues will remain current with the latest release of product photographs. Worldwide sales A rough estimate by Robert Aaron, a columnist with the Toronto Star "Coins" feature in 1977 puts a figure of 1.25 million Charlton catalogues sales in the first 25 years of its publication. Cross estimates that since 1977: The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Volume I Numismatic Issues sells 15,000 books a year The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Volume II Collector and Maple Leaf Issues sells 5000 books a year The Charlton Standard Catalogue on Government Paper Money sells 5000 units a year The Charlton Standard Catalogue on Canadian Bank Notes sells 800 units a year The Charlton Standard Catalogue on Canadian Colonial Tokens sells 1500 units every publication The Charlton Press' French edition catalogue has not been successful. While a French version was printed for the 50th anniversary, and which the Royal Canadian Mint sold 5000 copies, subsequent attempts to translate the catalogue into Canada's other official language has not proven marketable. Canada's Coin Bible Considered "Canada's Coin Bible" the Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins'' provides comprehensive information on history, and records all legal tender coinage including current values, and major coin varieties for coins, die varieties as well as containing all coins that have been used as circulating tender in Canada from 1858 to present. Over 150 years of Canadian coins are listed, illustrated, and priced depicting standards of grading, along with varieties and illustrations for the avid collector. The Charlton Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins has never recorded errors (e.g., double strikes, die clashes, and hanging numbers) as compiling information on errors would be a never-ending endeavour. The Charlton Press (2015 to present) In 2015, The Charlton Press was sold. Endnotes References Aaron, Robert. 2001. "Paying Tribute to Canada's Premiere Coin Collector". The Toronto Star. August 27: P. E08 Aaron, Robert. 1990. Sheets of $2 Bills to be Sold Before Christmas. Toronto Star. November 17. P. SA2/G4 Banning, Edward. 1981. "About Coins: A High Price For Treasure". The Globe and Mail. April 11:P18. Banning, Edward. 1987. About Coins: Canadian Catalogue Excels in Explaining the Grading of Coins. The Globe and Mail. March 14. E22. Banning, Edward. 1988. About Coins: New Charlton Catalogues Great for Canadian Fans. The Globe and Mail. February 27. C20. Reviews of several titles published by Charlton Press Book Review. "1960 Standard Catalogue of Canadian Coins, Token and Paper Money, Fully Illustrated, 1670 to Date". By J.E. Charlton, 128 pp. The Numismatist. December 1959, P 1514; Charlton, James E. 1998. "James E. Charlton Reflects on the Changing Numismatic Scene". In North York Coin Club Bulletin. June. pp. 5–8. Paul R. Petch, transcriber. (http://www.nunet.ca/nycc/bulletins/NYCC.1998-06.pdf) Charlton Pres. Various Publications (Charlton Coin Guide, 47th edition; 2015 Charlton Coin Guide; Canadian Colonial Tokens, 8th Edition; 50th Anniversary 1952–2002; Canadian Coins, 58th Edition; Canadian Coins 59th Edition; Canadian Coins 60th Edition; Canadian Coins 61st Edition; Canadian Coins 62nd Edition; Canadian Coins 63rd Edition; Canadian Coins – Vol One: Numismatic Issues 64th Edition; Canadian Coins, Vol One – Numismatic Issues, 65th Edition; Canadian Coins, Vol One – Numismatic Issues 2012, 66th Edition; Canadian Coins Vol One – Numismatic Issues 2013; Canadian Coins Vol One – Numismatic Issues 2014; Canadian Coins 61st Edition; Canadian Coins – Vol One: Numismatic Issues; Canadian Coins – Vol Two: Collector Issues; Large Cents Die Varieties – Monograph 3; Some Varieties of the Large Cents – Monograph 1) (www.charltonpress.com) Cross, William K. 2014. Private Conversation. September 22. Toronto, Ontario. Cross, William K. 2014. Private Conversation. October 15. Toronto, Ontario. Cross, William K. 2014. Private Email Correspondence. November 3, 2014. Toronto, Ontario. Dale, Jean. 2014. Private email correspondence. October 31, 2014. Toronto, Ontario. Edmonds, Alan. 1973. "The U.S. Traffic in Canadian Coins". The Montreal Gazette. June 16. pp. 18–23. Evans, Bret. 2001. "Closing Comments". The CN Journal. July/August: 298. (http://www.rcna.ca/comments2001.php) Evans, Bret. 2013. "Loss of a Numismatic Great". Canadian Coin News. August 19. (http://canadiancoinnews.com/loss-numismatic-great/) Gosling, Dan. 1998. "The Charlton Coin Catalogue and It's [sic] Creator James E. Charlton". Edmonton Numismatic Society. (https://web.archive.org/web/20160304081412/http://www.edmontoncoinclub.com/charltn2.htm, https://web.archive.org/web/20160304090248/http://www.edmontoncoinclub.com/charltn3.htm) Jarvis, Cale B. 1972. "Charlton Coin and Stamp Sold to Toronto-based Company." The Globe and Mail. November 4. P. 31. The Numismatist. December 1959, P 1514; https://web.archive.org/web/20150923233715/http://www.edmontoncoinclub.com/charltn4.htm Thomas, Don (1976). "Canada's Coin Bible [The Charlton Catalogue]." In "Don Thomas, Publisher." Canadian Coin News. August 2. P. 4 Whitman Publishing. "History". Accessed October 1, 2014 Further reading Allen, Don. H. 2001. J.E. Charlton: Coinman To Canadians: Ontario: The Charlton Press. Charlton, James E. 1998. "James E. Charlton Reflects on the Changing Numismatic Scene". In North York Coin Club Bulletin. June. pp. 5–8. Paul R. Petch, transcriber. (http://www.nunet.ca/nycc/bulletins/NYCC.1998-06.pdf) Evans, Bret. 2001. "Closing Comments". The CN Journal. July/August: 98. (http://www.rcna.ca/comments2001.php) Evans, Bret. 2013. "Loss of a Numismatic Great". Canadian Coin News. August 19. Roy, Alan. 2011. The Charlton Standard Catalogue. Royal Canadian Numismatic Association. 14(28). July 10. Roy, Alan. 2011. Charlton's Grading Guide. Royal Canadian Numismatic Association. 14(28). July 10. Starck, Jeff. 2013. James Charlton, 'Coinman to Canadians' dies at age 102. Coin World. October 11. (http://www.coinworld.com/content/cw/global/en_us/numismatic/coins/world/james-charlton-coinman-to-canadians-dies-at-a.html) The Charlton Press. http://www.charltonpress.com/homepage.asp External links Official site. Numismatics Book publishing companies of Canada
5189452	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Syracuse%20University%20people	List of Syracuse University people	This is a list of people associated with Syracuse University, including founders, financial benefactors, notable alumni, notable educators, and speakers. Syracuse University has over 250,000 alumni representing all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and more than 170 countries and territories. Founders Jesse Truesdell Peck – first chairman of the university's board of trustees George F. Comstock George L. Taylor Charles Andrews Notable benefactors John Dustin Archbold – oil Andrew Carnegie – steel George F. Comstock – real estate Joseph Lubin – real estate Donald Newhouse – publishing Samuel Irving Newhouse, Sr. – publishing Samuel Irving Newhouse, Jr. – publishing Eliphalet Remington – firearm Margaret Olivia Slocum Sage – philanthropist Lyman Cornelius Smith – firearm and typewriter magnate Thomas J. Watson – IBM Martin J. Whitman – investment advisor Notable alumni Arts and letters Nilo Alcala – composer, first Philippine-born recipient of the Aaron Copland House Residency Award and a Los Angeles Master Chorale commission Julia Alvarez – poet, novelist, and essayist Donna Alvermann – prominent professor and researcher in adolescent and media literacies Joe Amato – author Robb Armstrong – cartoonist of the comic strip Jump Start Brad Anderson – cartoonist of the comic strip Marmaduke Bonnie August – fashion designer Maltbie D. Babcock – 19th century clergyman and author Harriete Estel Berman – artist Nydia Blas – photographer James Bishop – painter Joel Brouwer – poet, educator, and journalist Gordon Chandler – sculptor Wendy Coakley-Thompson – novelist Stephen Crane – novelist; stayed only one semester, later admitting he came "more to play baseball than to study." Virginia Cuthbert – artist Mabel Potter Daggett – journalist and suffragist Aleš Debeljak – poet, essayist and sociologist Stephen Dunn – poet, winner of the 2001 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry Birgitta Moran Farmer – painter, winner of 1906 Hiram Gee Award in Painting Frances Farrand Dodge – watercolorist and landscape artist Paul Finkelman – historian Moses Finley – historian Carlisle Floyd – opera composer Whitney Gaskell – novelist Sharon Gold – artist and professor William Pratt Graham – sixth chancellor of Syracuse University Clement Greenberg – art critic Henry Grethel – fashion designer Beth Gylys – poet and professor Wendy Anderson Halperin – illustrator and writer of children's picture books Beth Harrington – filmmaker and musician Michael Herr – writer and war correspondent Susan Joy Hassol – science communicator Morton L. Janklow – literary agent Shirley Jackson – novelist Betsey Johnson – fashion designer David N. Johnson – composer, organist, and professor Joseph S. Kozlowski – portrait artist Hilton Kramer – critic, "The Revenge of the Philistines" Barbara Kruger – collage artist Sol LeWitt – sculptor James F. Light – literary scholar Mark Lombardi – abstract painter Frederick D. Losey – Shakespearian scholar and elocutionist Jenni Lukac – contemporary artist John D. MacDonald – novelist Don Maloney – Japanophile author Barry N. Malzberg – science fiction writer Jerre Mangione – novelist, and scholar of the Italian-American experience Robert Mankoff – cartoonist and editor of The New Yorker Donald Martino – Pulitzer Prize-winning composer Clifton E. Marsh – historian of the African diaspora Scott McCloud – cartoonist and comics theorist Jay McInerney – novelist Aribert Munzner – painter Joyce Carol Oates – novelist Robert O'Connor – novelist Tom Perrotta – novelist and screenwriter John Pfahl – photographer and professor Salvador Plascencia – novelist Kim Ponders – novelist William Powhida – artist Mary Jo Putney – romance novelist Jim Ridlon – sports painter and sculptor, also a former professional football player M. J. Rose – author and book marketing executive William Safire – Pulitzer Prize-winning commentator and former New York Times columnist George Saunders – short-story writer Alice Sebold – novelist Laurie Gwen Shapiro – novelist, director, Independent Spirit Award for Keep the River on Your Right: A Modern Cannibal Tale Esther Baker Steele – educator, author, traveler, philanthropist Anthony Veasna So – Cambodian-American short story writer Cheryl Strayed – novelist, memoirist, and essayist Elizabeth Strout – novelist William Tester – short story writer Dorothy Thompson – journalist Jack Tippit – cartoonist Ada Josephine Todd – author and educator Lori Weitzner – textile designer Stephanie Welsh – Pulitzer prize winning photographer turned midwife Ryan Van Winkle – poet Irene Vilar – author and literary agent Kate Vrijmoet – artist John A. Williams – novelist Howard Wyeth – drummer and pianist Education Molly Corbett Broad – President, American Council on Education Walter Broadnax – President, Clark Atlanta University George Campbell Jr. – former President, Cooper Union Mary Schmidt Campbell – President, Spelman College Kent John Chabotar – President, Guilford College R. Inslee Clark, Jr. – Director of Admissions, Yale College Michael Crow – President, Arizona State University Mark Emmert – President, University of Washington Paul Finkelman – President, Gratz College Welthy Honsinger Fisher – Founder, World Education and World Literacy Canada. A. Lee Fritschler – former President, Dickinson College (MPA'60 & PhD '65) Jonathan Gibralter – President, State University of New York at Farmingdale Shelley Haley – Professor of Classics and Africana Studies, Hamilton College Kermit L. Hall – former president, State University of New York at Albany, Utah State University Alice Ilchman – President, Sarah Lawrence College David Knapp – President, University of Massachusetts Barry Mills – President, Bowdoin College Sean O'Keefe – former Chancellor, Louisiana State University (LSU) L. Jay Oliva – former president, New York University Joseph Rallo – President, Angelo State University Mark Reckase – University Distinguished Professor Emeritus, Michigan State University Kenneth P. Ruscio – President, Washington and Lee University Donna Shalala – President, University of Miami Deborah F. Stanley – President, State University of New York at Oswego Mitchel Wallerstein – President, Baruch College Investors, industrialists, and executives P.O. Ackley – world-renowned Gunsmith, CEO, P.O. Ackley Inc. Daniel A. D'Aniello – co-founder and chairman, The Carlyle Group Ben Baldanza – airline executive and former CEO of Spirit Airlines Al-Waleed bin Talal – founder and President, Kingdom Holding Co William J. Brodsky – chairman and chief executive officer of the Chicago Board Options Exchange Stanley Chais (1926–2010) – investment advisor in the Madoff investment scandal Dennis Crowley – co-founder, Foursquare (service) Mary C. Daly - President and chief executive officer of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco Nick Donofrio – Senior Vice President, Technology & Manufacturing, IBM Bernard Goldberg (1948) – Co-founder of Raymour & Flanigan William James – Director, Lazard Freres & Company E. Floyd Kvamme – Partner Emeritus; Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers. Chairman, Presidents Council of Advisors on Science and Technology under President George W Bush Jeff McCormick – founder, Saturn Partners, and Independent candidate for governor in the Massachusetts gubernatorial election, 2014 Richard Menschel – (retired) senior director of Goldman Sachs, philanthropist Robert Menschel – (retired) legendary senior director of Goldman Sachs, philanthropist, created Wall Street's first institutional department Sean O'Keefe – former Chairman of Airbus Group, Inc. Lowell W. Paxson – founder of Home Shopping Network Kirthiga Reddy – former MD of Facebook India. Arthur Rock – venture capitalist, cofounder of Intel and father figure to Apple founder Steve Jobs Vishal Sikka – CEO & MD (Designate) Infosys Ltd. Abhay Vakil – Indian businessman & non-executive director of Asian Paints Ltd Martin J. Whitman – founder, Co-Chief Investment Officer, Third Avenue Value Fund Rajesh Subramaniam – the CEO and President of the FedEx Corporation Hospitality, real estate, construction, and architecture Dean Alvord – developer known best for developing Belle Terre, New York, Prospect Park South, and Roslyn Estates, New York Princess Rajwa Al Hussein – architect and member of the Jordanian royal family Harley Baldwin – developer in Aspen, Colorado Thomas Wilson Boyde Jr. (1905–1981), American architect, first Black architect in Rochester, New York Arthur Bridgman Clark – architect, professor, first head of the Art Department at Stanford University Thom Filicia – interior designer, author, television host Bruce Fowle – architect, Fox & Fowle Architects James Garrison – architect, Garrison Architects Adam Gross – architect, Ayers Saint Gross Wilbur R. Ingalls, Jr. – architect Lorimer Rich – architect, designed the Tomb of the Unknowns in Washington, DC and the Tomb of the Unknown Revolutionary War Soldier in Rome, NY David Rockwell – founder and CEO, Rockwell Group Steve Rubell – former Studio 54 club owner Ian Schrager – hotelier and former Studio 54 club owner Werner Seligmann – architect Thom Filicia – interior designer, author, television host Law and public service Bob Antonacci – former NYS Senate Member, NYS Supreme Court Judge Andrew P. Bakaj – U.S. Attorney and lead counsel for the Whisteblower during the Impeachment Inquiry and the subsequent Impeachment of President Donald Trump Rostin Behnam - Chairman of the U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission Craig Benson – former New Hampshire Governor Joe Biden – 46th President of the United States, 47th Vice President of the United States, U.S. Senator from Delaware, Chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Foreign Relations Beau Biden – former Attorney General of Delaware, son of Joe Biden Dave Bing – former Mayor of Detroit, NBA Hall of Famer Carolyn Bourdeaux – Member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Georgia's 7th district Jon Bramnick – current New Jersey Assembly Minority Leader Angus Cameron – former Senator from Wisconsin Gary Chan – Member of Legislative Council of Hong Kong since 2008 George Fletcher Chandler – first Superintendent of the New York State Police John T. Connor – former US Secretary of Commerce David Crane – former Chief Prosecutor of the Special Court for Sierra Leone Al D'Amato – former Senator from New York Willy De Clercq – former European Commissioner for Trade and External Relations, former Belgian Minister of Finance, Foreign Trade, and Budget; former Belgian Deputy Prime Minister John A. DeFrancisco – New York State Senator Robert Duffy – Mayor of Rochester, New York, Lt. Governor, New York State Kwabena Dufuor – Finance Minister of Ghana and former of Governor, Bank of Ghana Ronald A. George – Maryland State Delegate James E. Graves, Jr. – United States Court of Appeals Judge for the Fifth Circuit, formerly Mississippi Supreme Court Justice Stanley L. Greigg – member of the U.S. House of Representatives from northwestern Iowa David Gurfein – U.S. Marine Corps lieutenant colonel, and CEO of nonprofit organization United American Patriots Steve Hagerty – 21st mayor of Evanston, Illinois Arthur T. Hannett – former Governor of New Mexico Kathy Hochul – Congresswoman, New York, Governor, New York State (’80) John Katko – Congressman, New York Randy Kuhl – Congressman, New York Mordecai Lee – Wisconsin State Senator Belva A. Lockwood – (GC) First woman to receive her party's nomination for President of the United States, and the first woman to argue a case before the US Supreme Court Oren Lyons – Onondaga faithkeeper and global indigenous leader William Magnarelli – New York State Assemblyman Joanie Mahoney – Former Onondaga County Executive Neal P. McCurn – Senior Judge for the US District Court, Northern District of New York Theodore McKee – United States Court of Appeals Chief Judge for the Third Circuit Rodney C. Moen – Wisconsin State Senator Toby Moffett – Former US Congressman from Connecticut John H. Mulroy – former Onondaga County Executive Norman A. Mordue – Chief Judge for the US District Court, Northern District of New York Bismarck Myrick – former US Ambassador to the Republic of Liberia and Lesotho Sean O'Keefe – former NASA administrator Masahide Ota – former Governor of Okinawa, Japan John Prevas – Circuit Court Judge, City of Baltimore Elliott Portnoy – Chairman of SNR Denton Steven Rothman – Congressman, New Jersey Warren Rudman – former Senator, New Hampshire Frederick J. Scullin, Jr. – Senior Judge for the US District Court, Northern District of New York Donna Shalala – former Secretary, US Department of Health and Human Services, US House of Representatives from Florida Salvador del Solar – former prime minister of Peru Glenn T. Suddaby – Justice for the US District Court, Northern District of New York John H. Terry – former US Congressman Sandra L. Townes – Justice for the US District Court, Eastern District of New York Harry L. Twaddle – U.S. Army major general Deborah VanAmerongen – strategic policy adviser Mitchel Wallerstein – former Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for counter-proliferation policy Ben Walsh – 54th Mayor of Syracuse George Warrington – NJ Transit president and former Amtrak president David P. Weber – former Assistant Inspector General for Investigations at the US Securities and Exchange Commission John P. White – former Deputy Secretary, US Department of Defense Media and communications Russ Alben – advertising executive, created the Timex tagline, "It takes a licking and keeps on ticking" Marv Albert – sportscaster David Amber – reporter, ESPN Damon Amendolara – sportscaster Emily Barkann – White House correspondent Michael Barkann – sportscaster, Comcast SportsNet, 94WIP Philadelphia Len Berman – sportscaster Matthew Berry – ESPN fantasy sports analyst Paul Bouche – TV producer - Media Personality Contessa Brewer – broadcast journalist, MSNBC Samantha Brown – TV host Steve Bunin – sportscaster, ESPN Ryan Burr – sportscaster, ESPN, NBC and Golf Channel Mary Calvi – journalist, anchor at WCBS-TV, New York City Craig Carton – Co-Host, Boomer and Carton in the Morning, WFAN NY Joe Castiglione – Boston Red Sox radio announcer Ernest Chappell – radio and television announcer Dick Clark – television personality, American Bandstand, Dick Clark's New Year's Rockin' Eve Michael Cole – WWE commentator Ed Coleman – sportscaster, WFAN NY Bob Costas – sportscaster, NBC Sports and MLB Network Denise D'Ascenzo (19582019) television news anchorwoman (WFSB-TV in Hartford, Connecticut) Bob Dotson – journalist Ian Eagle – sportscaster, CBS and YES Emme – plus-size model and TV host Susan Feeney – journalist, former senior editor for NPR Marty Glickman – sportscaster Jeff Glor – anchor, CBS Evening News Daniel J. Halstead – publisher of The Syracuse Daily Union (1860), The Syracuse Daily Courier and Union (1860–1869), The Syracuse Daily Courier (1869–1888) and The Syracuse Courier (1888–1898) newspapers Scott Hanson – sportscaster, NFL Network, host of NFL RedZone Vaughn Harper – radio DJ, WBLS NY 'Quiet Storm', basketball player, musician Ariel Helwani – MMA journalist Deborah Henretta, senior advisor, SSA & Company; retired group president, Procter & Gamble Larry Hryb – Xbox Live Director of Programming Avery Yale Kamila – vegan food columnist, Portland Press Herald Megyn Kelly – news anchor, Fox News Channel Ted Koppel – broadcast journalist, "Nightline" Larry Kramer – President and Publisher of USA Today Steve Kroft – co-editor and news correspondent, "60 Minutes" Michael Kranish – journalist Chris Licht - former Chairman and CEO of CNN Mike McAlary – Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Sean McDonough – sportscaster, ESPN Joe McNally – photographer Jeanne Moos – news correspondent, CNN Will Murray – researcher and segment producer, The Howard Stern Show Akshay Nanavati – USMC, author of Fearvana Jim Naughtie – British journalist and radio presenter Diane Nelson – President of DC Entertainment Bob Neumeier – sportscaster, NBC Donald Newhouse – president, Advance Publications S.I. Newhouse, Jr. – Chairman & CEO, Advance Publications/ Chairman, Conde Nast Publications Jeff Passan – baseball journalist, ESPN Greg Papa – sportscaster, Oakland Raiders Dave Pasch – sportscaster, ESPN Henry Jarvis Raymond – (GWS), Founder of the New York Times Dave Roberts – weatherman, broadcaster and presenter, WPVI-TV Sam Roberts (radio personality) – broadcaster, SiriusXM - Jim Norton & Sam Roberts, WWE Dan Roche – sportscaster, WBZ-TV, Boston, MA Harry M. Rosenfeld – former editor, "Washington Post" Dave Ryan – sportscaster, ESPN Robert Scheer – editor-in-chief, TruthDig, former managing editor Ramparts, Professor, USC Annenberg School for Communication and Journalism Adam Schein – SNY, Sirius XM Satellite radio NFL Bob Shannon – radio DJ/Announcer, CBS-FM New York Arun Shourie – Padma Bhushan recipient, World Bank Economist, former editor of Times of India and Indian Express Anish Shroff – ESPNews anchor Andrew Siciliano – sportscaster, NFL Network, host of DirecTV Red Zone Channel Fred Silverman – former president, NBC Lakshmi Singh – newscaster, journalist, NPR Jayson Stark – journalist, sportscaster, ESPN Dick Stockton – sportscaster John Sykes – President of iHeartMedia Entertainment Enterprises Mike Tirico – sportscaster, NBC Nick Wright – TV host, radio talk show, Fox Sports 1 Justin Robert Young – podcaster, journalist, comedian and writer Adam Zucker – sportscaster/anchor, CBS Sports Network Science, engineering, innovation, medicine, and exploration Joseph A. Ahearn – Civil Engineer of the U.S. Air Force; member of the National Academy of Engineering Ishfaq Ahmad – Professor of Computer Science Betty Lise Anderson – Professor of Optical Science Albert Baez – developer of the X-ray reflection microscope, physics educator, and father of Joan Baez John Boardman – physics educator, social activist, and gaming authority Daniela Bortoletto – experimental particle physicist, Nicholas Kurti Senior Research Fellow at Oxford University Charles F. Brannock – inventor and manufacturer; inventor of the Brannock Device Rubin Braunstein – semiconductor physics, pioneer of LEDs Penny Budoff – physician and medical researcher; author of No More Hot Flashes and Even More Good News Marilyn Burns; mathematics educator and the author of over a dozen children's books on mathematics George Campbell Jr. – theoretical physicist who served as the eleventh president of Cooper Union Eileen Collins – NASA astronaut and first female Space Shuttle commander Alice Carter Cook – botanist and writer, first woman PhD in botany from an American university Tesfaye Dinka – Industrial Engineer and Prime Minister of Ethiopia from April to June 1991 Nina Fedoroff – geneticist and molecular biologist; Science and Technology Adviser to the Secretary of State. Recipient of the National Medal of Science in 2007; member of the National Academy of Sciences Joan Feynman – astrophysicist, younger sister of physicist Richard Feynman Robert Finn – mathematician and professor Edith M. Flanigen – chemist and inventor; winner of the 2014 National Medal of Technology and Innovation George E. Fox – biologist and chemical engineer; co-discoverer of the Archaea kingdom of organisms Jean Fréchet – chemist and professor emeritus at the University of California, Berkeley Barry Gingell – internist, nutritionist, computer scientist and AIDS activist Joshua N. Goldberg – pioneering researcher in general relativity, professor emeritus at Syracuse University Gabriela González – former spokesperson for the LIGO Scientific Collaboration. Winner of the National Academy of Sciences Award for Scientific Discovery (2017); member of the National Academy of Sciences Hermann Gummel – semiconductor device physicist; member of the National Academy of Engineering John J. Hopfield – spectroscopist and discoverer of the Hopfield bands of molecular oxygen (O2) Robert Jarvik – inventor of the first permanently implantable artificial heart Hongxing Jiang – semiconductor physicist, inventor of the microLED display. Joel Lebowitz – statistical physicist; member of the National Academy of Sciences Jingyu Lin – semiconductor physicist. Gilles Martin – French engineer, founder and executive chairman of Eurofins Scientific William Ralph Maxon – botanist and pteridologist Evangelia Micheli-Tzanakou – pioneer in neuroelectric systems and biomedical engineering education Pericles A. Mitkas – computer scientist and Rector of the Aristotle University of Thessaloniki Story Musgrave – NASA astronaut V. Parmeswaran Nair – theoretical particle physicist, Distinguished Professor at the City University of New York Ezra T. Newman – theoretical physicist, winner of the 2011 Einstein Prize Joy Osofsky – clinical and developmental psychologist, professor of clinical psychology and psychiatry, psychoanalyst Yude Pan – forest ecologist Martin A. Pomerantz – astrophysicist, president emeritus of the Bartol Research Institute, and pioneer of Antarctic astronomy Pierre Ramond – string theorist; winner of the 2004 Oskar Klein Medal Harry Frederick Recher – ornithologist; winner of the 1994 D.L. Serventy Medal Mark Reed – nanotechnology pioneer, Harold Hodgkinson Chair at Yale University Elsa Reichmanis – optical and electronic materials; member of the National Academy of Engineering; 2001 recipient of the Perkin Medal Karin Rodland – cancer cell biologist; Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science; Laboratory Fellow of the U.S. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory Charles Rosen – robotics; co-founder of Ridge Vineyards Joel Rosenbaum – cell biologist; winner of the E. B. Wilson Medal Rainer K. Sachs – theoretical astrophysicist, co-discoverer of the Sachs–Wolfe effect Pantur Silaban – prominent Indonesian theoretical physicist Michael Streicher – developer of stainless steels; winner of the W. R. Whitney Award Sultan bin Salman – first Arab, first Muslim and the youngest person to travel to space Salvatore Torquato – theoretical scientist who does research at the interface of physics, chemistry, and engineering José W. F. Valle – Brazilian-Spanish theoretical physicist noted for work on the mass of neutrinos James Tour – organic chemist and nanotechnologist Clarence Abiathar Waldo – mathematician and educator known for his role in the 1897 Indiana Pi Bill affair Sigi Ziering – industrial physicist, businessman, and philanthropist Sports Will Allen – football player Doc Alexander – football player and coach Gary Anderson – football player, former NFL record holder Carmelo Anthony – basketball player, Portland Trail Blazers Julie Archoska – football player Michael Carter-Williams – basketball player, Orlando Magic Art Baker – football player John Barsha – football player Mathieu Beaudoin – football player Dave Bing – basketball player, current mayor of Detroit, Michigan Jim Boeheim – basketball player and coach, Syracuse University, member of the National Basketball Hall of Fame Nathan Bombrys – Managing Director of the Glasgow Warriors, a professional Scottish rugby union club Jim Brown – football player, lacrosse player, actor, member of the Pro Football Hall of Fame Keith Bulluck – football player Rob Burnett – football player Delone Carter – football player Irv Constantine – football player Derrick Coleman – basketball player Trevor Cooney – pro basketball player Rakeem Christmas – basketball player DaJuan Coleman – basketball player, free agent John Coleman – baseball player Jim Collins – football player Tom Coughlin – VP football operations, Jacksonville Jaguars Larry Csonka – football player Donovin Darius – football player Al Davis – NFL owner Ernie Davis – football player, Heisman Trophy winner John Desko – lacrosse coach Riley Dixon – NFL punter Sherman Douglas – basketball player Dennis DuVal – basketball player Randy Edsall – college football coach Joe Ehrmann – football player Tyler Ennis—basketball player David Falk – founder, SFX Basketball Group Jonny Flynn – basketball player Dwight Freeney – football player Jim Frugone – football player Gary Gait – lacrosse player Paul Gait – lacrosse player Jonah Goldman – MLB baseball player Jerami Grant – pro basketball player, Detroit Pistons Michael Gbinije — pro basketball player Donté Greene – pro basketball player Tim Green – football player Morlon Greenwood – football player Marvin Harrison – football player Jason Hart – basketball player Qadry Ismail – football player Tanard Jackson – football player Paul Jappe – football player Arthur Jones – football player; currently competing for the NFL on the Colts Chandler Jones – football player; currently playing for the Cardinals Tebucky Jones – football player Wesley Johnson – basketball player Daryl Johnston – football player Dwayne Joseph – football player Kris Joseph – basketball player, Brooklyn Nets Mark Kerr – NCAA Wrestling Champion; retired MMA fighter; 2-time UFC Heavyweight Tournament Winner Rob Konrad – football player Jim Konstanty – major league baseball pitcher Floyd Little – football player, Pro Football Hall of Fame Tyler Lydon – basketball player, Denver Nuggets John Mackey – former NFL tight end, has college award named after him Olindo Mare – football player, Carolina Panthers Doug Marrone – football coach Frank Matteo – football player Donovan McNabb – football player, Free Agent Gerry McNamara – basketball player Don McPherson – football player Dave Meggyesy – football player Fab Melo – basketball player Chris McCullough—basketball player Eddie Miller – basketball player Art Monk – football player; NFL Hall of Fame inductee Tim Moresco – football player Joe Morris – football player Larry Morris – football player Lawrence Moten – basketball player Tom Myers – football player Jim Nance – football player Ryan Nassib – football player, New York Giants Doc Oberlander – former baseball player Henry Obst – football player Louis Orr – basketball player Billy Owens – basketball player Markus Paul – football player Greg Paulus – football player and former Duke University basketball player Scott Pioli – NFL executive Casey Powell – lacrosse player Mikey Powell – lacrosse player Ryan Powell – lacrosse player Myer Prinstein – Olympic medalist Andy Rautins – basketball player Jim Ridlon – former professional football player and renowned sports painter and sculptor Jim Ringo – football player Victor Ross – lacrosse player Malachi Richardson—basketball player Mike Rotunda – professional wrestler Greg Sankey – Commissioner, Southeastern Conference Danny Schayes – basketball player Gerhard Schwedes – football player Scott Schwedes – football player Sam Sebo – football player Rony Seikaly – basketball player Wilmeth Sidat-Singh – football and basketball player Kaseem Sinceno – football player Walt Singer – football player Anthony Smith – football player Walt Sweeney – football player Kathrine Switzer – marathon runner Etan Thomas – basketball player Shamarko Thomas – football player David Tyree – football player Dion Waiters – basketball player John Wallace – basketball player Stan Walters – football player Hakim Warrick – basketball player, Phoenix Suns Dwayne Washington – basketball player Otis Wilson – football player Ray Witter – football player Paul Young – Jamaican soccer player/manager Katie Zaferes – triathlete Entertainment and performing arts Elfriede Abbe – sculptor Lynn Ahrens – musical theatre lyricist Martin Bandier – chairman and CEO of Sony/ATV Darryl Bell – actor Craig Borten – screenwriter Paul Bouche – TV Host "A Oscuras Pero Encendidos'; television producer Eric Bress – film director and screenwriter Tim Calpin – screenwriter Warren Casey – writer, lyricist, screenwriter Felix Cavaliere – singer with The Rascals Priscilla Chan – singer Clairo – singer-songwriter Dick Clark – host of American Bandstand; television producer Ken Goldstein – musician known as "Jack Dempsey"; author John Curran – film director and screenwriter Doug Davis – entertainment lawyer and Grammy Award-winning producer Taye Diggs – actor Eric J Dubowsky - Emmy and Grammy-winning musician and producer Heather Dubrow – actress; cast member on The Real Housewives of Orange County Zach Tyler Eisen – voice actor; voice of Aang on Avatar: The Last Airbender Peter Falk – actor Gary Farmer – actor Vera Farmiga – actress Wally Feresten – cue card supervisor for Saturday Night Live Judy Freudberg – screenwriter Jami Gong – stand-up comedian Carl Gottlieb – screenwriter; vice-president of the Writers Guild of America, West Peter Guber – CEO of Mandalay Entertainment and Co-owner of the Golden State Warriors Dan Gurewitch – writer Jay Harrington – actor Elizabeth Hendrickson – actress Bob Holz – musician Miriam Hopkins – actress Garland Jeffreys – musician Miss Jones – radio DJ and singer Irma Kalish – television writer Joe Klotz – film editor Lisa Lampanelli – comedian Frank Langella – actor Frost/Nixon Meg LeFauve – screenwriter Inside Out (2015 film), Captain Marvel (film) Sheldon Leonard – film and television actor, producer, director, and writer Riki Lindhome – actress Sam Lloyd – actor, musician Frank Marion – motion picture pioneer Andy Mineo – rapper, singer, producer, director, actor and minister Neal McDonough – actor Sterling Morrison – musician Jessie Mueller – Tony-winning actress Suzanne Pleshette – actress Mike Pollock – voice actor Lou Reed – musician Kevin Michael Richardson – actor Sam Roberts – radio broadcaster Doug Robinson – television producer Maria Sansone – television presenter Ken Schretzmann – film editor specializing in animated films; winner of the Ace Eddie Award for Toy Story 3. Reid Scott – actor Tom Everett Scott – actor Aaron Sorkin – Emmy- and Academy Award-winning screenwriter A Few Good Men, The Social Network, The West Wing, Moneyball Lexington Steele – actor, director, and owner of Mercenary Motion Pictures and Black Viking Pictures Inc. Jerry Stiller – actor Habib Tabani – Pakistani ghazal singer and industrialist Andrew Taggart - member of The Chainsmokers Arielle Tepper – Broadway producer Mark Tinker – television producer/director Stephen A. Unger – executive recruiter, media and entertainment business Jimmy Van Heusen – Academy Award-winning composer Bill Viola – video artist Michael H. Weber – screenwriter (500) Days of Summer, The Spectacular Now, The Fault in Our Stars, Paper Towns Peter Weller – actor Vanessa Williams – singer-songwriter, actress, dancer, Miss America Pete Yorn – musician Fictional characters Rachel Green – protagonist of hit sitcom Friends Winston Schmidt – protagonist of hit sitcom New Girl Nick Miller – protagonist of hit sitcom New GirlWinston Bishop – protagonist of hit sitcom New Girl Patrick Warburton – protagonist of hit sitcom Rules of Engagement (TV series) Terry Jeffords – revealed on Brooklyn Nine-Nine to have played football while attending Syracuse University Sonny Koufax – protagonist of Adam Sandler classic Big Daddy Other Alexandra Curtis – Miss Rhode Island 2015 Jane Dempsey Douglass – feminist theologian, ecclesiastical historian, and president of the World Alliance of Reformed Churches Marc S. Ellenbogen – diplomat, philanthropist, President, Prague Society for International Cooperation Borys Gudziak – Catholic Bishop, Metropolitan-Archbishop of Philadelphia (Ukrainian Greek Catholic) Michael Yeung Ming-cheung – Catholic Bishop, eighth Bishop of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Hong Kong John Zogby – pollster, Zogby International Neilia Hunter Biden – teacher, first wife of Joe Biden Notable educators William Alston – philosopher Julia Alvarez – poet, novelist, and essayist Richard Arnowitt – theoretical physicist Donna Arzt – attorney and legal scholar Abhay Ashtekar – theoretical physicist and creator of the Ashtekar variables for quantum gravity; member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Ernst Bacon – prolific composer A. P. Balachandran – theoretical particle physicist. Peter Bergmann – won the Einstein Prize for research on quantum gravity Catherine Bertini – United Nations under-secretary-general, winner of the 2003 World Food Prize Raymond Thayer Birge - physicist, subsequent president of the American Physical Society and chair of the University of California, Berkeley physics department Howard Boatwright – Music School dean Philip Booth – poet Mark Bowick – theoretical physicist noted for work in particle physics and condensed matter physics Zachary Braiterman – philosopher and religious studies scholar Arthur C. Brooks Lori Brown – architect and associate professor Horace Campbell – Department of African American Studies and Department of Political Science Simon Catterall – theoretical physicist specializing in elementary particles Massimo Carmassi – architect. Bill Cole – musician, author (Department of African American Studies) Raymond Carver – short story writer David Crane – former Chief Prosecutor for Special Court of the Sierra Leone Junot Diaz – writer Geoffrey C. Fox – theoretical physicist and computer scientist Tess Gallagher - poet, essayist, short story writer Joshua N. Goldberg – theoretical physicist noted for work on general relativity John Langston Gwaltney – African American professor of anthropology, author of Drylongso: A Self Portrait of Black America. Per Brinch Hansen – computer scientist Douglas Holtz-Eakin – former Director of the U.S. Congressional Budget Office (2003–2005), and chief economic policy adviser to U.S. Senator John McCain's 2008 presidential campaign Henry Kandrup – theoretical astrophysicist Mary Karr – writer and poet. Bruce Kingma – economist and academic entrepreneur Arthur Komar – theoretical physicist Louis Krasner - violinist Edgar Lane – Professor of political science Melvin Lax – theoretical physicist and member of the National Academy of Sciences Cristina Marchetti – theoretical physicist specializing in soft condensed matter physics; member of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences Donald Marolf – theoretical physicist who has worked on quantum gravity and relativity Roscoe C. Martin (1903–1972) – Professor of Political Science at Syracuse University from 1949 to 1972 Janis Mayes – author, literary critic Daniel Patrick Moynihan – Senator from New York, political scientist Ivan Meštrović – sculptor and artist Micere Mugo – poet and playwright (Department of African American Studies, Department of Literature) Ei-ichi Negishi – chemist, winner of the 2010 Nobel Prize Romita Ray – art historian Fritz Rohrlich – theoretical physicist, pioneer of quantum electrodynamics Alexander Rosenberg – philosopher and novelist Peter Saulson – experimental physicist noted for work on gravitational wave astronomy George Saunders – writer Milton Sernett – historian, author (Department of African American Studies, Department of History) Delmore Schwartz – poet Harry Schwartz – Soviet specialist, The New York Times editorial writer Huston Smith – religious studies scholar Lee Smolin – theoretical physicist noted for work on quantum gravity Rafael Sorkin – theoretical physicist noted for work on quantum gravity Sheldon Stone - elementary particle physicist, winner of the Panofsky Prize Eileen Strempel – soprano, Associate Dean of Graduate Studies, Associate Professor of Fine Arts. George Sudarshan – theoretical physicist, winner of the Dirac Prize Robert Thompson – media historian Mark Trodden – theoretical cosmologist Douglas Unger – novelist Gabriel Vahanian – theologian, noted figure in the Death of God movement in 1960s Peter Van Inwagen – philosopher Kameshwar C. Wali – theoretical physicist, author Johan Wiklund – Entrepreneurship professor and the Al Berg Chair at the Whitman School Frances Willard – 19th century educator, temperance reformer, and women's suffragist Tobias Wolff – writer Notable commencement speakers and honored guests 2022 – David Muir, Journalist and the anchor of ABC World News Tonight 2020 – Kathy Hochul, Congresswoman, New York, Governor, New York State (’80) 2018 – Mary C. Daly, Economist and President San Francisco Fed 2018 – Kathrine Switzer, Athlete, Author and Activist (’68, G’72) 2017 – Vernon Jordan, African-American Lawyer, Business Executive, and Civil Rights Activist 2016 – Donald Newhouse, President, Advance Publications 2015 – Mary Karr, Poet and Essayist 2014 – David Remnick, Editor-in-Chief, New Yorker 2013 – Nicholas Kristof, New York Times Columnist 2012 − Aaron Sorkin, American screenwriter, producer, and playwright 2011 – J. Craig Venter, American biologist and entrepreneur, President of J. Craig Venter Institute 2010 – Jamie Dimon, CEO JPMorgan Chase & Co. 2009 – Joseph R. Biden Jr., Vice President of the United States of America 2008 – Bob Woodruff, ABC News journalist 2007 – Frank McCourt, author/Pulitzer Prize winner 2006 – Billy Joel, composer and singer 2005 – Jane Goodall, primatologist, ethologist and anthropologist 2004 – Phylicia Rashad, actress 2003 – Bill Clinton, former U.S. president, 1993–2001 2002 – Rudolph Giuliani, former Mayor of New York City, 1994–2001 2001 – Eileen Collins, American astronaut 2000 – Ted Koppel, American journalist 1999 – Charles Schumer, U.S. Senator (D-NY), 1999–present 1998 – Robert Fulghum, author, essayist 1996 – Steve Kroft, journalist, long-time correspondent60 Minutes 1995 – Donna Shalala, Secretary of Health and Human Services, 1993–2001 1994 – Kurt Vonnegut, novelist 1990 – William Safire, journalist 1989 – Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator (D-NY) 1988 – Malcolm Forbes, publisher of the Forbes magazine 1986 – Mario Cuomo, Governor of New York 1983 – Daniel Boorstin, Director, Library of Congress 1982 – Ted Koppel, journalist 1981 – Alexander Haig, U.S. Secretary of State, 1981–1982 1980 – Bill Moyers, journalist 1979 – Tom Brokaw, journalist 1978 – William Safire, journalist 1973 – Edward M. Kennedy, U.S. Senator (D-MA), 1962–2009 1969 – William F. Buckley, journalist 1968 – Walter Cronkite, journalist 1966 – Nelson Rockefeller, Governor of New York, 1959–1973 1965 – Robert F. Kennedy, U.S. Senator (D-NY), 1965–1968 1964 – Lyndon B. Johnson, then U.S. President 1961 – Ayn Rand, novelist 1960 – Harry S. Truman, former U.S. president, 1945–1953 1959 – Robert Frost, poet 1957 – John F. Kennedy, U.S. Senator (D-MA), 1953–1960 1937 – Herbert Hoover, former U.S. president, 1929–1933 1930 – Franklin D. Roosevelt, Governor of New York, 1928–1932 See also Chancellor of Syracuse University References Syracuse University people People Syracuse
5190110	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans	1937 24 Hours of Le Mans	The 1937 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 14th Grand Prix of Endurance. It took place at the Circuit de la Sarthe on 19 and 20 June 1937. The race was won by Jean-Pierre Wimille and Robert Benoist in Roger Labric's works-supported Bugatti team, in one of the streamlined new Type 57G cars, at a record pace and exceeding 2000 miles in the race for the first time. The race was also notable for one of the most serious accidents in the race's history. An hour into the race, French driver René Kippeurt lost control of his Bugatti tourer at the notorious Maison Blanche corner. His car slammed into the roadside bank and rolled, throwing the driver onto the circuit. Coming around the blind corner, cars took desperate evasive actions to avoid the wreck and the unconscious driver. Ten other cars were involved, including the Frazer Nash of Pat Fairfield which rammed the stationary Bugatti and was then hit itself. Kippeurt died at the scene and five others were taken to hospital with Fairfield dying the next day from his injuries. For the first time, the race was stopped to allow the wreckage to be cleared. With Sommer out after over-revving his gearbox avoiding the accident, it left a clear path for the French cars. After three hours, Wimille had a 2-lap lead. A short, sharp squall briefly slowed everyone down, but Wimille and Benoist were able to cruise to an easy outright victory by a margin of 100km, that also gave them the Index of Performance prize. French cars took the top four places, with the 1.5-class winning Aston Martin in fifth and German 2-litre Adler in sixth. Regulations and organisation In 1936, the dominance of the German Mercedes-Benz and Auto Union teams in Grand Prix racing and eclipse of French racing had led the Automobile Club de France (ACF) to draft new sports-car regulations for their Grand Prix. These had sparked a resurgence in the French automotive industry and the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) chose to align their race regulations closely in accordance with the ACF. All cars now had to be only two-seaters (doors optional). Manufacturers had to sign a declaration that at least 30 cars were made, sold or currently in the process of being built. As the ACF regulations were for an unsupercharged engine, of a maximum of 4-litres, to further limit the impact of supercharging the ACO lifted the engine-equivalence ratio from x1.4 up to x1.6. Extra distance was also added onto the larger engines, while the 3-and 4-litre classes were eased slightly for the reliability of the new French engines. The ACO did line up with the international AIACR class delineations, now with eight eligible classes, named "A" to "H". At the bottom end, the bracket was moved up from 1000 to 1100cc and the smallest class was 500-750cc. This year the fuel supplier alternated to Esso, with four choices: its regular petrol, 100% benzole, a ternary blend of the regular with benzole and ethanol. However, the usual 4th choice (a petrol/benzole blend) was replaced by the option of 100% gasoline. For the circuit, further spectator fencing was installed at the Esses and Indianapolis-Arnage corners. The year also saw the AIACR formalise the flag-codes to be used by circuit marshals. Various combinations were already being used sporadically but this system has remained in use, unchanged ever since. These included a red flag to stop all cars, a yellow warning of imminent danger, a blue flag alerting to a faster car approaching from behind and a black and white chequered to signify the end of the race. Waving flags indicated greater urgency. These were all used at Le Mans for the first time, with equivalent coloured lights available around the circuit to assist the marshals during the hours of darkness. Entries The change in French racing regulations had promised a strong field for the cancelled race the year before. A year later, this finally came to fruition with a competitive entry list for this race. After a year of further testing, French manufacturers were in force for outright victory – with Delahaye, Bugatti, Talbot-Lago and Delage all present, thus vindicating the ACF's decision. In a unique confluence, both Le Mans and the blue riband French Grand Prix would be run to the same regulations this year and mindful of the pre-eminent race of the season following only a fortnight later, both Delahaye and Bugatti kept their latest racing models under wraps. Their competition had wilted – the British Lagonda, winner in 1935 now looked decidedly outmatched just two years later. Alfa Romeo had dominated the race for four years before that with their supercharged 8C. However, after the Scuderia Ferrari withdrew a 3-car entry, there was left only a single entry from two-time winner Raymond Sommer. In the smaller classes, there was the debut for two German teams, Adler and BMW. Often recently the preserve of small British sports cars, the list was notable for the number of small French cars, led by a squadron of Simca-Fiats, resembling an entry-list more akin to the first years of the race in the 1920s. The further penalising on supercharged engines meant there were only two such cars in the field this year, well down on the dozen or more typically seen in the earlier years of this decade. Given the cancellation of the race in 1936, the Coupe Bienniale was instead drawn from the finishers of the previous 1935 race which still provided twelve entries returning for honours. Note: The first number is the total entries, the second the number who started. Using the equivalent engine-size, with supercharged engines having the new x1.6 conversion factor Over 2-litre entries Automobiles Bugatti had struggled in Grand Prix racing, with their Type 59 proving unsuccessful. Under the new ACF regulations work had started on the new car soon after the 1936 race was cancelled. The Type 57 Grand Prix (later shortened to 57G) was developed from the Type 57S luxury tourer. The 3266cc racing engine put out 170 bhp with the main chassis members drilled out with holes to reduce weight. On the long back straight, it could reach almost 220 kp/h (135 mph). With a 130-litre fuel tank, over it all was a full-width streamlined magnesium-alloy body encompassing the wheels, and giving it the nickname "tank". It was also fitted with hydraulic brakes and a 4-speed synchromesh gearbox. In the hands of Grand Prix driver Jean-Pierre Wimille and Raymond Sommer, it had proven successful in 1936, including winning the French Grand Prix. Meanwhile, Technical Director Jean Bugatti was also working on a 4.5-litre version and originally two of these Type 57S45 cars had been entered. However, time ran out to have them ready and so Bugatti stalwart Roger Labric entered two of the three Type 57Gs on behalf of Bugatti. For Wimille, it was his first Le Mans, and was joined by Robert Benoist, former works driver and current Competition Director, while voiturette driver Pierre Veyron raced with Labric himself, in the second car. There were two other privateer models entered – a new Type 57 Sports for Frenchman Raymond d'Estrez Saugé, which he had fitted with a larger rear fuel-tank for the 3.3-litre car. René Kippeurt also returned with his 3-litre Type 44. Sometimes racing under the pseudonym "Rekip", this year he had modified the bodywork of his tourer. Delahaye had been convinced to come back to racing with the help of the wealthy American couple of Laury and Lucy Schell, resident in France. The ACF rules had produced the Type 135, and their money saw the development of the updated 135 CS, with a 170 bhp 3.6-litre Straight-6, and fitted with a semi-automatic gearbox. The Schells purchased four cars and encouraged a number of their French racing friends to buy cars as well – many of whom then fitted personalised aluminium bodyshells. Like Bugatti, a new model was being prepared . The Type 145 had a 4.5-litre V12, but not being fully ready it was the 135 CS cars that were entered. Although not as fast as the Bugatti or Talbot, they did have a proven reliability. Seven were entered for Le Mans. The Écurie Bleue had two cars with factory support. Laury Schell was partnered by René Carrière (a pair who had recently finished third in the Mille Miglia), and Grand Prix racer René Dreyfus raced with the experienced Henri Stoffel, who had finished second in 1931 and 1935. Parisian cinema-owner Joseph Paul and Eugène Chaboud had already had success in local French races, while former boxer Louis Villeneuve, Robert Brunet and Paul Bénazet were regular gentleman-racers. The Alfa Romeo 8C had been the premier car to beat in the 1930s races, yet this year there was only a single entry. Ferrari had provisionally entered three cars, but when Alfa Romeo bought out an 80% share of the Scuderia early in the year, their Chairman Ugo Gobbato chose to withdraw their cars. So the only Alfa presence was entered by Raymond Sommer. The Alfa Romeo 8C-2900 had been specifically designed for the Mille Miglia, the premier Italian sports-car race. The shorter wheelbase and supercharged 3-litre engine was well-suited to the long straights and tight town-corners. Scuderia Ferrari won in 1936 and 1937, along with the Spa 24 Hours. The twin-supercharged 8-cylinder engine put out 220 bhp. A brand new car, painted black, was built at Portello for Sommer and driven straight to Le Mans by his prospective co-driver Giovanni Battista Guidotti. They would be supported by Meo Costantini as pit manager, sporting director at Alfa Romeo and former Bugatti team manager. Delage had been very successful in Grand Prix racing in the 1920s, duelling with Bugatti. However, the company had gone into receivership after the Great Depression, to be purchased by British expat Walter Watney. He arranged a deal with Delahaye to have Delage cars built at their factory with Delahaye parts. Louis Delâge, still kept on as a director, developed the D6 coupé. The elegant D6-70 was a new version with a special 3-litre engine. Producing 130 bhp , it was capable of getting the car up to 160 kp/h (100 mph). A 1936 entry was filed by the works team, but this year a car was entered by the Société R.V. – a company co-owned by Parisian Delage agent Jacques de Valence de Minardière, who was also its lead driver. This car had recently been bought by slot-machine magnate Louis Gérard, who had never raced before, but would be the co-driver. Unable to convince the ACF to run a 3-litre class in their regulations, new Talbot owner Anthony Lago was forced to adapt the T120 raced here in 1935. The new 4-litre dry-sump engine put out 165 bhp , and was very fast. Called the 'T150 Course', the chassis was shortened and fitted with independent front suspension and a Wilson pre-selector gearbox. Extensive testing was done in 1936 at Montlhéry by André Morel (ex-Amilcar works driver) and René Dreyfus (ex-Scuderia Ferrari) along with Le Mans winner Luigi Chinetti. But reliability was an issue and results were poor. In 1937 Dreyfus left for Delahaye. In return, Lago was able to entice Albert Divo and young star René le Bègue to join from Delahaye, along with Raymond Sommer. Over the break, the cars were lightened and given an extra 25 bhp. Four were entered for Le Mans. However, with the French Grand Prix only a fortnight later, Lago withdrew the two works cars to have them prepared for that race. Sommer had a release clause in his contract to drive his Alfa Romeo at Le Mans. Two privately-owned cars would race – one with Chinetti joined by off-contract Grand Prix driver Louis Chiron and the other with young Greek ERA-driver Nicky Embiricos and Raphaël de Montbressieux (racing under the pseudonym "Raph"). The biggest car in the field was the 4.5-litre Lagonda, entered by Arthur Fox's team, continuing with the long-time works support. Rescued from bankruptcy the previous year, Lagonda had engineer W. O. Bentley (formerly owner of his own company with a strong Le Mans pedigree) working up a new V12-engined car. Meanwhile, the LG45 kept the same 130 bhp as the race-winning M45 Rapide, upgrading it with new suspension and a new gearbox, all of which could now get it up to 200 kp/h (125 mph). Team regular, and 1935-race winner, Johnny Hindmarsh was teamed up this year with Charles Brackenbury. 1.1- to 2-litre entries Just as much as the larger-engine classes, the 2-litre class promised an exciting competition with a good field of new entries. British roadsters had dominated the mid-sized classes in the past few years. Aston Martin had achieved an excellent third outright in the 1935 race, although of late, Riley had taken over their pre-eminence. Aston Martin were the expensive, elite brand and looked to move into the under-represented 2-litre market. Orchestrator of that success, Technical Director ”Bert” Bertelli, had left the company in February. The new Speed Model had either a 1949cc engine or a dry-sump 1971cc version. When the works team was folded after the cancelled 1936 race, the two cars were on-sold several times to end up with Robert Hichens and Dutchman Eddie Hertzberger and both arrived at Le Mans. The 1.5-litre car that had finished third two years' previously also returned to the track, now owned and entered by John Skiffington, Viscount Massereene. Like Aston Martin, Riley had also closed down its works team, as economic forces were forced on the company. Bought out by Morris Motors, no British entries arrived. However, there were two French entries from the new Écurie Eudel of Guy Lapchin and Jean Eudel (owner of the Riley dealership in Paris). Taking two ex-works cars, they commissioned Georges Paulin to design a new metal bodyshell with streamlined wheel-fairings- the same designer and coachbuilder as Peugeot and Darl'mat were using. Lapchin rode with Jean Trévoux, who had an entry for the Biannual Cup. Raoul Forestier, another Écurie Eudel investor, drove the other car. In August 1934, "Aldy" Aldington, director of Frazer Nash, signed an agreement with BMW to license-manufacture the German cars in Britain. Soon after, the new BMW 328 model was introduced. Designed by former Horch engineer Fritz Fiedler, the car featured swing-axle front suspension, a live rear axle and hydraulic dampers. The 2-litre 6-cylinder engine produced 80 bhp and could get the roadster up to 150 kp/h (95 mph). Full production started in February 1937 along with racing successes. For Le Mans, three cars were entered: one full works entry, driven by Uli Richter and Fritz Roth (replacing Ernst Henne injured at the Eifelrennen race). The other two were badged as Frazer Nashes, with Aldington joined by his fellow AFN-director A.F.P Fane, while ERA works driver Pat Fairfield was brought in to join AFN-investor David Murray. They were all improved versions of the standard car, with a spare wheel mounted on the rear, 118-litre, fuel tank and were now capable of reaching 185 kp/h (115 mph). The British cars ran on Dunlops while the German car ran on tyres from local Munich company Metzeler. Adler had been a Frankfurt mechanical company since starting in 1880, building bicycles. By the start of the war, they had 20% of the German car market. The Depression hit the company hard, having to lay off 70% of their workforce. The Trumpf model, introduced in 1932, was the start of their revival of fortunes. The 'Super' version had a bigger 1.7-litre version of the side-valve engine, that put out 38 bhp. The "Rennlimousine" version caused a sensation when it was unveiled in 1936. Based on a Swiss concept car, from the 1920s, it featured a fully-enclosed, longtail aluminium bodyshell. It was designed by Adler engineer Reinhard von König-Fachsenfeld, one of the innovators in vehicle aerodynamics. The sloping cockpit blended into the pointed tail. The wheels were included under the shell and the hubs had hubcaps over the spokes. Endurance records were set at the AVUS track and the race-engines were tuned up to 55 bhp. Three cars came to Le Mans: the lead car of Graf Orssich and Rudolph Sauerwein had won their class at the previous year's Spa 24-hours. The second car was run by their other team-drivers Paul von Guilleaume and Otto Löhr. The third car had a standard 1.5-litre engine and was loaned to French driver Anne-Cécile Rose-Itier, who held an entry to the Biennial Cup. She was joined by her new beau Huschke von Hanstein. Finally, there was a French privateer entry of a 996cc Trumpf Junior roadster in the crowded 1.1-litre class. Peugeot had been a force in French motorsport ten years previously. When the new Peugeot 302 tourer was released, it was Émile Darl'mat, owner of the largest Parisian Peugeot dealership, which saw its potential as a sports roadster. He got permission from the company to build his own Darl'mat Spéciales. Fitted with an aerodynamic aluminium body, they would have the larger 70 bhp 2-litre engine of the Peugeot 402 sister-model. With works-team support, three cars were entered. Works driver Louis Rigal had driven for Peugeot the only time they had competed at le Mans, in 1926, and was paired with Daniel Porthault who had latterly driven a Lorraine-Dietrich of the same vintage. Peugeot's own competition manager Charles de Cortanze drove the second car with works driver Maurice Serre, while another works driver Jean Pujol raced with Maurice Contet. The other new-entrant manufacturer was HRG. Only formed in 1936 by Ronald Godfrey and his partners, they had built a half-dozen cars with a staff of 10. An aluminium body was fitted over an ash-wood frame. It was fitted with a 1.5-litre Meadows overhead-valve engine and 4-speed gearbox. One of the first people to purchase a model was Archie Scott. He brought the car to Le Mans, with HRG principal Ted Halford (the "H" of HRG) as his co-driver. Up to 1.1-litre entries Singer returned to defend their class-victory from 1935. In the interim, the works team had been closed down but the team manager, Stan Barnes, set up his own team with his brother Donald. Team Autosports brought three cars to the race, with works backing. Stan Barnes and Roy Eccles had entries in the Biannual Cup after driving for Aston Martin in the 1935 race. Donald would drive one car, joined by Norman Black (a former Singer works driver), while Eccles had his wife Marjorie as co-driver. A fourth car was put in by French privateer, Jacques Savoye, who put his own bodyshell on the chassis. Earlier in the decade, MG cars had fared very well at Le Mans. This year, there was only a single entry. At the last race, in 1935, speed-record champion George Eyston had three all-female crews to run the Midget PA. This year he provided support to Dorothy Stanley-Turner, the 20-year-old owner of a Midget PB. The newer model was now 937cc and developed 43 bhp. She had been mentored by Joan Chetwynd and started racing at Easter. Her co-driver, Enid Riddell, was an unusual choice – she would be imprisoned in London during the war as a Nazi sympathiser. With ample technical support from Fiat, the new SIMCA daughter-company had achieved rapid success on the circuits in 1936, with Amédée Gordini running, effectively, a works team. Gordini convinced Henri Pigozzi, SIMCA general manager, to support the design of a special racing version of the Simca-Fiat 6CV. It was built with a one-piece aluminium body on a wooden frame, with improved suspension and gearbox, and hydraulic brakes. The 996cc engine was tuned and modified to now generate 55 bhp. Alongside this project, SIMCA had started licence-production of the Fiat 500 "Topolino", known as the Simca Cinq or 5CV. Gordini also prepared racing versions of that model, with another specially-fashioned bodyshell. Its little high-compression 569cc side-valve engine put out just 20 bhp. Gordini brought five cars to Le Mans, with three Sixes and a pair of Cinqs. He drove a Six himself, with team regular Philippe Maillard-Brune, while his other driver, Jean Viale, ran a Cinq. The Alin brothers, who had driven a BNC twice before, were brought in as co-pilots. Just-Émile Vernet entered his privateer SIMCA Six, with Suzanne Largeot as his co-driver. A surprising entry came from Yves Giraud-Cabantous with a pair of venerable Chenard-Walcker Z1s. He had run his own Caban cars here in 1931 and 1932 with the aid of Roger Labric. The Chenard-Walckers had last raced here in 1925, helping secure the Biennial Cup and the first (and only) Trienniale Cup for the manufacturer. At the time these small, streamlined cars had been innovative, inspired by the Bugatti Type 32. After Chenard-Walcker stopped motor-racing in 1926, the cars had been parked up in a warehouse until Giraud-Cabantous offered to buy them. The 1095cc pushrod engine put out 50 bhp and Giraud-Cabantous installed a supercharger on his that put the car now up in the 2-litre class. However, they had proven there was still life in them by winning the Bol d'Or 24 hour race. That it was done by top French wrestler Charles Rigoulot in his very first motor-race just added more celebrity to the team. He would join the team-owner in one car, with Roux/Cotet in the other. The Austin EK75 "Speedy" was the sports-version of the Austin 7. Fitted with a new racing engine, the latest "Grasshopper" variant could now reach 125 kp/h (80 mph). A one-piece bodyshell, removing the doors on the roadster, saved further weight. Again, taking advantage of prior results, all three cars were able to be entered for the Biannual Cup. An unusual entry was a Ford Model CX entered by Australian Joan Richmond and her fiancé Maurice "Bill" Bilney. The CX was a deluxe tourer version of the Ford Model C Ten production car, with a 30 bhp engine. Assisted by former Aston Martin engineer and driver Jack Besant, they upgraded the car to racing standard for the 1936 race. A year later they entered it again. Practice and pre-race Delage driver Louis Gérard, to his credit, having never raced before put in the most laps of anyone to learn the circuit and his new car. The little HRG team, had a problematic week – the car was damaged in a minor car accident en route to Le Mans. A plane had to be chartered to fly in a new suspension unit. The Bugatti team practiced their pit-stop routine on Friday night, and were able to change four tyres, replenish fuel, water and oil in just over 100 seconds – far quicker than other teams. They had also found a very impressive fuel economy of less than 20 litres/100 km (better than 14mpg). Roy Eccles was supposed to be racing a Singer with his wife. However, after celebrating too hard on the night before the race, he was unable to take the start. His place would be taken by Freddie Clifford. Donald Barnes also had to rush back to London for the early birth of his child, so his place in the Singer was taken by his brother, and team co-owner, Stan Barnes. Race Start The honorary starter this year was John Cobb, British driver and all-time record holder at Brooklands. Although the Lagonda was first away, it was "Raph" in his Talbot, who got to the front going down the Hunaudières Straight for the first time. Then Raymond Sommer got into the lead on the run down to Indianapolis. Wimille was ninth at the end of the first lap, letting the engine warm up, just ahead of the Lagonda. Then on the third lap, Wimille broke Sommer's 4-year old track record and Veyron let him by to take third. Then, on successive laps he passed Brunet, then Sommer, to take the lead. Only five laps in, Chiron had to pit the Talbot to change sparkplugs, costing him three laps. It was at the end of the first hour that the accident occurred. The Maison Blanche corners, leading up to the pit-straight, already had a notorious reputation with serious multi-car accidents in the 1927 and 1932 races. Running a lap down, René Kippeurt lost control of his Bugatti coming through the left-right combination at 130 kp/h (80 mph). Hitting the bank hard and mowing down a length of fencing, the car got airborne throwing the driver out onto the circuit before rolling several times down the road. Next to arrive were the two BMWs of Roth and Fairfield. Instinctively Roth swerved right, sending him over a ditch, through a hedge and rolling his car. Unsighted, Fairfield went the other way but slammed into the Bugatti head-on. The impact was so hard, it dislodged the engine off the Bugatti's chassis. Next to arrive was Trémoulet in his Delahaye, but he could do nothing but hit the stationary Frazer Nash-BMW, and go flying through the air and ending up in a field. The Talbot of "Raph" hit Trémoulet and ricocheted into a roadside tree. The chain reaction continued when the Riley of Forestier, in turn, rear-ended the Talbot and ending up through a hedge. Morris-Goodall, in his Aston-Martin, skidded on spilt oil and side-swiped the Bugatti while Chiron, running again, was able to slide to a stop and squeeze his Talbot through. However, running over debris, a sliver slashed a water hose and he lost his coolant forcing his retirement as well. Meanwhile, Forestier had got out and, joined by a marshal waving a red flag, was running down the track to warn the rest of the rapidly approaching field, including the leaders. Wimille braked hard and picked his way through, but Sommer also had to avoid people running onto the track to pull Kippeurt's motionless body off the racing line. Desperately trying to slow up with engine-breaking and missing a gear, he over-revved the engine and his race was effectively over. On the following lap, it expired at the Mulsanne corner. The remainder of the field came to a halt, with the race brought to an official stop for the first time. The toll on the drivers was severe – Kippeurt died at the scene and five more were taken to hospital. Three were discharged with cuts and bruises, but "Raph" had two broken legs, while Fairfield underwent emergency surgery. His injuries were too serious though, and he died on Sunday evening. After about ten minutes the wrecks and debris were pulled off to the side of the road to allow the field to get through. However, by being one of the last cars to get through, it had allowed Wimille to steal a march on the field with almost a full lap's lead. By 7pm, it had grown to a 2-lap lead. The team-car of Veyron/Labric was second, pursued by the leading Delahaye, of Schell/Carrière. With the failure of the Alfa Romeo and Lagonda, it left the race for overall victory clear for the French teams. As the cars made their first fuel stops, the Delahayes came in one after the other. Stoffel tripped getting into the car he shared with Dreyfus and broke the door-hinges. Forty minutes were lost getting it repaired and dropping them well down the order to 30th. Brunet, running fifth, handed his car over to novice driver Parguel who planted it in the sandbank at Mulsanne on his first lap. Somehow a shovel appeared, and he was able to get back to the pits. Now down in 35th, a furious Brunet promptly took over and proceeded to drive solo through the night. The incredible fuel economy of the two Bugattis meant it was nearly 7.30pm before they pulled in for their first pit-stops and driver-changes – Veyron did 33 laps, while Wimille did a remarkable 38 laps. Another team with excellent fuel economy were the Adlers. Huschke von Hanstein had come in after 38 laps and refuelled but forgot to top up the engine oil. When he came back in two laps later to do it, it technically violated the 24-lap margin between fluid replenishments and got disqualified. His co-driver, Anne-Cécile Rose-Itier, was furious at his rookie mistake. The good weather that served most of the race was interrupted by a heavy thunderstorm at 8pm that lasted half an hour. As cars eased back in the rough weather, the Delahaye of Schell moved up to second. The only casualty was the unsupercharged Chenard-Walcker that skidded off the track at the Mulsanne corner, and planting itself in the sandbank. Night The storm passed and the night stayed dry. Wimille and Benoist continued circulating at a regular speed, without incident. Meanwhile in the 2-litre battle, the remaining Frazer Nash-BMW of Aldington/Fane was leading and running sixth overall. Then Fane stopped on the Hunaudières Straight with ignition problems. He was able to get back to the pits, but despite working in the pouring rain the two drivers could not get it restarted. The class lead was taken up by the Aston Martins of Morris-Goodall (having repaired its accident damage) and Eddie Hertzberger. The Dutchman was having a good race, and by midnight was running 7th overall. They were being chased keenly by the Adler and Peugeot teams for class honours. Along with the Maison Blanche accident, attrition was high and by nightfall fully half the field had retired. By midnight Wimille and Benoist had extended their lead to three laps. Schell and Carrière consolidated their second place while the Paul/Mongin Delahaye tussled with the Labric/Veyron Bugatti over third place. Dreyfus drove hard through the night, charging back up the field and pulling back four laps on this group in the process to be back inside the top-10. In the Biennial Cup, it was the Aston Martin of Dorothy Eccles and Freddie Clifford leading from the Morris-Goodall Aston, Savoye's Singer in third, with Villeneuve's Delahaye next and the all-female MG fifth on handicap. During the night all three Austins were put out by the same problem: engine vibrations bent the copper oil-pipes severely. When they inevitably cracked and broke, the oil soon leaked out and the engines quickly seized. Soon after dawn the Bugatti of Labric and Veyron was put out with a split fuel-tank. The car had been losing time through the night with either clutch or fuel-supply issues. Meanwhile, the sister car now had a 7-lap lead. After the early problems, Robert Brunet had driven through the night all the way up to tenth. He finally handed over to his inexperienced co-driver. All the hard work was undone when it was retired soon after with a broken gearbox. By 5am, Dreyfus' incredible drive had got him back up to third, with the Delage sedately cruising behind in fourth. Morning With the retirements through the night, the crowd was excited that the Delahaye of Villeneuve/Vagniez was second in the Biennial Cup and closing in on the Hichens/Morris-Goodall Aston Martin. But their hopes literally went up in smoke just after 8am, when the engine caught fire in a refuelling stop. Although put out, the electrics were too fried to continue. After running second for 17 hours, the Schell Delahaye began overheating in the mid-morning. After several pit-stops, it was found a nut securing the water-pump had come loose, eventually rupturing a hose. Leaking water and unable to make the next refuelling stop to fill up, the car was retired around 10am. Dreyfus' speed allowed him to catch and pass Paul to move up to second, but by lunchtime they had virtually completely worn out their brakes and dropped behind again. Hertzberger's Aston Martin had set the pace through the night in the medium-engine classes, but then soon after 8am, they were stopped by a split oil-line. The leading cars of the Adler (Sauerwein/Orssich) and Peugeot (Contet/Pujol) teams were now vying for the class-honours, swapping the lead several times through the morning. Just before midday, the remaining Singer of Marjorie Eccles and Freddie Clifford stopped out on the track while leading the Coupe competition. Marjorie walked back to the pit with a broken magneto. When she returned to the car with a spare she was prevented from doing repairs by an official, as the part had not been in the car, per the standard regulations. By noon, Benoist had a comfortable 11-lap lead. However, in a lapse of concentration, he overshot his braking at Arnage trying to lap another car. Beached in the roadside ditch, it was pushed back onto the road by keen spectators. Potentially a disqualifiable offence, the stewards were persuaded that it was warranted as the car was in a dangerous position to other cars. The damage was not serious and they were able to continue, easing back on their pace. Finish and post-race With the attrition of the field, by there were only two cars in the race for the Biennial Cup. The women in the MG had been well in contest in the first half of the race. However, they encountered clutch problems in the morning, but once those were resolved things had been running reliably. The Aston Martin had a hardy margin over the smaller MG, until it came sputtering to a stop around 3pm. Morris-Goodall managed to limp back to the pits where they parked the car. The MG could not overhaul the 8 laps needed to exceed its Index target, but would win if the Aston did not finish. With ten minutes remaining, "Mort" gingerly took the car out for its final lap. He made it round to win the Biennial Cup."/> The MG also finished, getting 10 laps further than their target distance. With the leaders relaxing, the pursuing Delahayes were able to claw back two of the laps. At 3pm Benoist pitted to hand over to Wimille to take the final shift to the chequered flag. The public address announced that the leaders had exceeded the previous race-distance record, set in 1933, to generous applause from the crowd. Wimille continued on without incident to take a dominant victory, having not relinquished first place since the first hour. Marcel and Paul finished 7 laps (100 km) in arrears, with Dreyfus a further five laps behind them. The Delage coupé cruised home to fourth, trouble-free aside from windscreen wipers unable to cope with the sudden storm early in the race. A commendable fifth place (albeit over 500 km behind the winners) was the privateer Aston Martin Ulster. It had run without incident, steadily moving up the field through the second day. The car ran ten laps fewer than it did in 1935, but was still good enough to head home all the 2-litre cars and easily winning its 1.5-litre class by 42 laps over the HRG. That car had been delayed by a broken oil-pipe in the morning and had crept around carefully in the last hour doing just enough to make its target distance. In the end, that 2-litre class was won by the leading Adler pair of Sauerwein/Orssich, with the team sandwiching a pair of the Darl'Mat Peugeots, with just 3 laps between the four of them. Amédée Gordini had been controlling the 1.1-litre class for virtually the whole race. But when a mistake in the pit-signalling from his crew called him in for refuelling two laps too early at lunchtime, the car was disqualified. It capped off a bad race for the 5-car works team with just a single car finishing with all the rest waylaid by mechanical issues. That car was the little SIMCA Cinq of Viale/Alin which was the only finisher in the 750cc class. Although nearly 100 laps behind the winners, they still beat their Index target by 25 laps. It fell to Vernet's privateer SIMCA to win the 1.1-litre class after the demise of the Singer. The near-standard Ford CX also lasted the distance, coming second-in-class. Tragically however, Richmond's fiancé Bilney would be killed five weeks later at the Donington 12-hour race. For France, it was their first victory since 1926, vindicating the ACF's decision to change their racing formula. The winners comfortably broke the distance record set by Sommer and Nuvolari in their Alfa Romeo in 1933 and exceed 2000 miles for the first time. The Bugatti also won the Index of Performance. Wimille set a new lap record and joined a small group of driver to win the race on debut, including Tazio Nuvolari and Woolf Barnato. It should have been a celebratory renaissance of French racing, with half the field again made up of French cars. However, the two deaths cast a grim shadow over Bugatti's achievement. They were the first race fatalities at Le Mans since 1925. "Raph" needed several months to recover from his broken legs and spent his time recuperating at Wimille's house on the Côte d'Azur. The effect on his co-driver, Embiricos, after his own serious accident the week before was sufficient to convince him to give up a promising racing career. The French Grand Prix was held a fortnight later, to the same regulations. Bugatti had one of their new Type 57S45 cars, but the handling was terrible and it never raced. With Bugatti out, it was a victory to Louis Chiron, leading home a 1-2-3 for Talbot. Official results Finishers Results taken from Quentin Spurring’s book, officially licensed by the ACO Class Winners are in Bold text. Did not finish Note : [B]= car also entered in the 1935-37 Biennial Cup. Note *: equivalent class for supercharging, with x1.4 modifier to engine capacity. Did not start 1937 index of performance Note: A score of 1.00 means meeting the minimum distance for the car, and a higher score is exceeding the nominal target distance. Only the top 12 of the 17 finishers of this year's competition are listed. There were only two eligible cars in the Biennial Cup that finished. Class winners Statistics Fastest Lap – J-P. Wimille, #2 Bugatti Type 57G – 5:13.0secs; Winning Distance – Winner’s Average Speed – References Citations Bibliography Clarke, R.M. - editor (1998) Le Mans ‘The Bentley & Alfa Years 1923-1939’ Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books Saward, Joe (2006) The Grand Prix Saboteurs Milton Keynes: Morienval Press Spurring, Quentin (2017) Le Mans 1930-39 Sherbourne, Dorset: Evro Publishing External links Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1937 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 Le Mans History – entries, results incl. photos, hourly positions. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 World Sports Racing Prototypes – results, reserve entries & chassis numbers. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 24h en Piste – results, chassis numbers, driver photos & hourly positions (in French). Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 Radio Le Mans – Race article and review by Charles Dressing. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 Unique Cars & Parts – results & reserve entries. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 Formula 2 – Le Mans results & reserve entries. Retrieved 4 Jan 2023 24 Hours of Le Mans races Le Mans 1937 in French motorsport
5190913	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20rules%20football%20in%20South%20Australia	Australian rules football in South Australia	Australian rules football in South Australia has long been the most popular sport in the state. It is governed by the South Australia National Football League. Forms of football were played very early in the history of the Colony of South Australia pre-dating the organisation of Australian rules football in Victoria and rivalled football's popularity there. In 1877, the colony officially adopted the code in order to compete in the very first intercolonial representative football match in Australia against Victoria. The first governing body, the South Australian Football Association (now SANFL) formed on 13 April 1877, remains the oldest in Australia. Its clubs rivalled Victoria's in popularity and won 9 of 19 Championship of Australia titles from 1888 to 1975. Even with its current semi-professional status, it remains the second most popular and third strongest competition in the world in the sport. There are two professional Australian Football League clubs based in the state: the Adelaide Football Club (1990) and Port Adelaide Football Club (1870), the latter having the distinction of being the only pre-existing club to have entered the AFL from another league, as a founding member of the SAFA (SANFL). These two clubs compete against each other in the "Showdown". South Australia was chosen to host 'Gather Round' a special round where all AFL matches are played in one state annually between 2023 and 2026. South Australia has the third most players of any state and has the highest participation rate per capita (4.8%) (second only to the Northern Territory). It is the only state in Australia where Australian rules football participation is higher than soccer. It is the most watched sport and has the second largest television audience in the country. From 1976 to 2003 the SANFL held the record for the largest attendance in the sport outside of Victoria. South Australia holds the world record for a non-VFL/AFL attendance with the 1976 SANFL Grand Final drawing an estimated 80,000 spectators which remains the record crowd for any code of football in the state and the third highest official attendance outside of Victoria. The SANFL remains the second most attended league worldwide in the sport and attracts a television audience larger than that of some AFL clubs. Since 1991 South Australia has attracted an average AFL premiership season attendance of 35,919, second in the country, boosted with the 2014 upgrade of the Adelaide Oval the state's flagship venue. The South Australian state football team (the "Croweaters") have defeated every state in Interstate matches in Australian rules football and has an intense rivalry with Victoria inspiring the popular catchcry "Kick a Vic". The state has the second most State of Origin titles. 3 time South Australian captain Russell Ebert has the most caps in State of Origin. South Australia hosted national carnivals in 1911, 1930, 1953, 1969, 1975, 1980 and 1988. The state has produced some of the greatest Australian Footballers of all time, including the Australian Football Hall of Fame legends: Barrie Robran, Malcolm Blight, Jack Oatey and Russell Ebert. Craig Bradley holds the record for the most AFL games for a born and raised South Australian with 375, while Stephen Kernahan has kicked the most AFL goals with 738. In women's Australian rules, current player Erin Phillips is arguably the greatest with 2 AFLW best and fairests and also has kicked the most goals, while Ebony Marinoff has played the most AFLW games. History Early examples of football (1843–1853) The first recorded game of any "football" in South Australia was that of 'Caid' played in Thebarton by people of the local Irish community in 1843 to celebrate St Patrick's Day. In 1844 there was debate amongst the South Australian Legislative Council whether it be allowed that "foot-ball" be played on Sundays, with arguments against preferring the quiet worship of God. In 1853 a group of Irishmen from Westmeath, Ireland placed an advertisement in the South Australian Register calling for Irishmen from another county of Ireland to join them in Thebarton to play a game of football. In 1854 at the opening of a new school in Morphett Vale, at the end of the first day the students played a game of football amongst other activities. In 1855 William Anderson Cawthorne illustrated a series of images documenting South Australia's indigenous people including a pair of playthings, one being a sling and the other being a ball, referred to in Kaurna language as Pando. John Acraman and St Peters College (1854) In 1854 Adelaide businessman John Acraman imported five round footballs from England and paid for the construction of goal posts at St Peter's College in Adelaide's eastern suburbs. St Peter's football matches were played between Frome Road and Adelaide Bridge, on a similar site to the current University Oval. "Harrow rules" involving kicking the ball but not running with it. Growing popularity (1855–1859) In June 1855 the Sunday School associated with St Jude's Church in Brighton included football for its children's activities. On 4 November 1856 a Temperance Festival with 400 participants included games of football. In 1857 a football match was held in Glenelg as part of the annual Commemoration Festival to celebrate the 21st anniversary of the proclamation of the colony of South Australia. In 1859 the Gawler Institute ran a rural fete which included a game of football being staged. The start of this match featured "a long first run to the ball". On 12 March 1859 the town of Angaston held a farewell party for Charles Fuller which included football. For the Prince of Wales Birthday the Drapers Assistants Association included a football game in their festivities at Waterfall Gully. During a Christmas picnic in 1859 football was played by the employees of 'English & Brown' at Fourth Creek (River Torrens). Formation of designated clubs (1860–1875) The earliest recorded football club in South Australia was the original Adelaide Football Club, formed on 26 April 1860. The Adelaide club hosted intra-club matches to provide a platform for football games to be played. Later in 1860 two new teams were formed bearing the names North Adelaide Football Club and South Adelaide Football Club, unrelated to the modern namesakes. On 20 May 1861 the Adelaide Council were presented with a request by a party representing an "East Adelaide Football Club" (John Clark) to erect football goals in the East Park Lands but were refused. In 1862 the newly formed Modbury and Tea Tree Gully Football Club was invited to play a match against the Adelaide team. A return match was held later in the year. The early years of football were poorly organised and dogged by argument over which set of rules to adopt. In fact, after a match between Port Adelaide and Kensington in 1873, it was remarked that neither side understood the rules clearly, and there was uncertainty over which team had won. However, as the years progressed, there became a growing push for uniformity and structure in South Australian football. 20 July Meeting (1876) After a period of years with clubs fighting over technicalities of rules a meeting was held between representatives of the Adelaide, South Adelaide, Victorian and Woodville clubs. At the meeting Charles Kingston argued that "it was possible that someday an inter-colonial football match might be played, and it was desirable in that case that South Australian players should play the game as it was played in other colonies". During his plea to the other clubs at the meeting he compared the 'Old Adelaide rules' to those used in Victoria saying 'practically there was but little difference between them'. Establishment of SAFA (1877) Following an initial meeting on Thursday 19 April 1877 at Prince Alfred Hotel called by Richard Twopeny the Captain of the Adelaide Football Club two delegates each from the following Football Clubs - Kensington, South Park, Willunga, Port Adelaide, Adelaide, North Adelaide, Prince Alfred College, Gawler, Kapunda, Bankers, Woodville, South Adelaide and Victorian attended a meeting held at the Prince Alfred Hotel in King William Street, Adelaide held on 30 April 1877 to develop a uniform set of rules and establish a governing body. They formed the South Australian Football Association, the first governing body of its type for football in Australia, and adopted rules similar to those used in Victoria. The use of an oval ball, bouncing the ball and pushing from behind forbidden amongst the rules agreed. The inaugural 1877 SAFA season was contested by 8 clubs. Early years of organised competition (1877–1886) A newly formed club Norwood joined the South Australian Football Association in 1878, but Bankers (1877), Woodville (1877), Kensington (1877-1881), South Park (1877-1884), Victorian (1877-1884), Willunga, North Adelaide, Prince Alfred College and Kapunda had all left within the first 10 years. In 1879-1880 there was a growing call to create a junior competition for the growing number of other clubs which included amongst others - North Parks, St.Peter's College, Prince Alfred College, Royal Parks, West Torrens, Woodville, South Suburban, Hotham, and Middlesex. The first Annual General Meeting of the Adelaide and Suburban Association was held at Prince Alfred Hotel on 27 March 1882. The following clubs - North Parks, N.A Juniors, Kensington, Kent Town, Albion, Triton, and West Torrens were represented. The South Australian Junior Football Association was officially formed following meetings held at the Hamburg Hotel on 17 and 24 March 1885. It was decided to limit the Association to 10 clubs - Coromandel Valley, Prospect, Creswick, Medindie, Hindmarsh, Kingston, Lefevre's Peninsula, Semaphore, Albert Park, and Fitzroy. Growth as major pastime (1887–1915) 1887 saw existing clubs Gawler, Hotham and West Adelaide join the SAFA competition with the last of those bearing no relation to the modern day West Adelaide Bloods. The Association experienced a resurgence in the late 1880s. From the 1886 season to the 1887 attendances almost doubled. 1888 saw Medindie (which renamed to North Adelaide in 1893) joining the Association, but West Adelaide folded after just one season and Hotham (which had renamed North Adelaide for 1888) merged with Adelaide for 1889. For 1891 Season Gawler withdrew from competition games (having complained about the 1890 program when only given 5 home and 10 away games) but remained a member of the SAFA. By the 1894 Season, the Association had been reduced to just four clubs (Port Adelaide, South Adelaide, Norwood, North Adelaide originally called Medindie until 1892) with the demise of the Old Adelaide Football Club (which was founded in 1860) at the end of the 1893 Season. West Torrens (which joined as Port Natives in 1895 and renamed in 1897) and West Adelaide (1897) meant the Association had expanded to six clubs until the turn of the century. In 1898, the Magarey Medal was awarded to the fairest and most brilliant player for the first time. Sturt joined the Association in 1901 and in 1907, the Association was renamed the South Australian Football League. War years (1916–1944) The SAFL was suspended from 1916–18 due to World War I. Glenelg joined the league in 1921. In 1927, the South Australian Football League was renamed the South Australian National Football League. During World War II, the eight clubs merged to form four composite clubs over the period 1942–44. Golden era (1945–1981) The post war years saw the code become a part of everyday life with mass media providing greater coverage than ever before. After Port Adelaide had won its 8th premiership in the last 10 seasons the SANFL admitted two new clubs for the 1964 season, Central District and Woodville. The latter club Woodville being located less than 3 km away from Port Adelaide. Move towards national club competition (1982–1989) In 1982 the SANFL approached the VFL in regards to entering two sides, Port Adelaide and longtime major rival , in the Victorian league. This action was also taken by WAFL club East Perth in 1980. All approaches were ignored by the VFL at the time with the reason given by Jack Hamilton being that the VFL clubs thought that one or two SANFL teams would end up being too strong later admitting that they also wanted to continue to poach the states best players, which would soon include Craig Bradley and Stephen Kernahan in 1986. 1982 also saw the first instance of the VFL expanding beyond Melbourne and Geelong with the South Melbourne Football Club being relocated to Sydney. The Port Adelaide Football Club's annual report from late 1982 showed that the failure of the attempts made by South Australian and West Australian clubs to enter the VFL significantly impacted the club's understanding of its future. From this point Port Adelaide restructured the club in regards to economics, public relations and on-field performance for an attempt to enter the league in 1990. There was genuine feeling that failure to do this would result in the club ceasing to exist in the future. In 1985 Port Adelaide registered itself as a national football club. Sentiment at this time amongst the direction of Australian rules football in South Australia was succinctly encapsulated by a Michael Robinson article in the 1985 Football Times Yearbook that previewed the SANFL's upcoming season. In that article Robinson wrote about the disappointment of the equal gate sharing of match takings enforced by the SANFL for the upcoming season with the stronger South Australian clubs propping up ailing clubs such as Woodville. The following year the SANFL registered the name "Adelaide Football Club" in 1986 but ended up deciding against entering a team into the VFL. In 1986 Norwood Football Club made an independent approach to the VFL with entry into the league discussed in great detail but these discussions ultimately failed to materialise. In 1987 the West Coast Eagles and Brisbane Bears were admitted to the Victorian Football League leaving South Australia as the only mainland state without representation in the VFL. By 1989 seven out of ten SANFL clubs were recording losses and the combined income of the SANFL and WAFL had dropped to 40% of that of the VFL. The 1989 Port Adelaide annual report and November newsletter contrasted with the outlook of other SANFL and WAFL clubs. After its demolition of in the 1989 SANFL Grand Final holding its opposition to a single goal, the club claimed a profit in the annual report and hinted at its intentions the following year in the club newsletter by saying Port Adelaide was "far better than their nearest rival in the SANFL". First South Australian AFL club (1990) During early 1990 the SANFL had decided to wait three years before making any further decision. Frustrated with lack of progress, Port Adelaide were having secret negotiations in the town of Quorn for entry in 1991. A practice match organised by Port Adelaide and on 25 February at Football Park attracted at over 30,000 spectators and illustrated the potential of a South Australian side in the newly renamed national competition. Around the same time AFL was also seeking Norwood to join the national competition in 1990. However Norwood would eventually side with the SANFL after seeing the media reaction to Port Adelaide's attempts. When the knowledge of Port Adelaide Football Club's negotiations to gain an AFL licence were made public, the other SANFL clubs saw it as an act of treachery. Subsequently, the SANFL clubs, led by Glenelg and Norwood, urged Justice Olssen to make an injunction against the bid, which he agreed to. In total the SANFL spent $500,000 in legal fees to stop Port Adelaide's entry into the AFL, with the latter simply unable to compete in the court room. The SANFL promptly created a composite team to beat Port Adelaide's bid. The Adelaide Football Club gained what was very close to being Port Adelaide's licence to the AFL and began playing in 1991. The new Adelaide club would adopt the moniker of "Crows" after the states inhabitants often used the nickname "Crow-eaters". During this time the SANFL began suing people involved with Port Adelaide, including people volunteering in unpaid positions, with the AFL quickly stepping in to guarantee the protection of the club and associated people. In 2014 during an interview with the Adelaide Advertiser, Ross Oakley revealed that "In desperation to force (the SANFL’s) hand...we began dealing directly with two powerhouse clubs of the SANFL, Norwood and Port Adelaide...we were changing the league’s name to AFL – and we could not go without a team from Adelaide". The front runners for the coaching job at the newly created club were both involved in the last SANFL game played in South Australia before the advent of a local AFL team, the 1990 SANFL Grand Final. In that game Port Adelaide, coached by John Cahill defeated Glenelg, coached by Graham Cornes, by 15 points. Graham Cornes ended up being selected to coach Adelaide for the 1991 AFL season. Cornes compiled a club list of the best players from South Australia, with few originating from other states, in what was almost a state side in the first year. Chris McDermott, captain of Glenelg in the 1990 SANFL Grand Final, was designated as the Crows inaugural captain. Despite Port Adelaide being SANFL premiers in 1990, only 5 players from the team became part of the Adelaide squad of 52. Those players being Bruce Abernethy, Simon Tregenza, David Brown, Darren Smith and Scott Hodges, with the last three joining Port Adelaide's inaugural AFL squad in 1997. Race to be second South Australian AFL club (1991–1996) The admission of Adelaide to the AFL had a devastating impact on the leagues attendances with the SANFL recording a 45% drop between 1990 and 1993. Port Adelaide defied this trend of falling SANFL attendances recording an increase of 13% from 1990 to 1993. In 1994 the AFL announced that South Australia would receive a licence for a second team based in the state. The major bids competing with Port Adelaide this time around were from merger club proposals in Norwood-Sturt, and Glenelg-South. On 15 June the SANFL handed down a report recommending the second license go to a team formed from the amalgamation of two clubs. On 16 June it was reported in The Age by Stephen Linnell that "the League's preference was for a single, established club to join the league". The final tenders were submitted to the SANFL on 14 September 1994 including Port Adelaide's second application, Norwood–Sturt's merged club bid with the remaining application coming from Woodville–West Torrens. On 2 October Port Adelaide won the 1994 SANFL Grand Final, its fifth in seven years. On 13 December Port Adelaide won the tender for the second SA license over its various state rivals, however it was prevented from entering the competition before 1996 as stipulated in the Adelaide license agreement. In 1995 after an SANFL game at Football Park the Adelaide began carrying out a training session which was interrupted by a large hoard of Port Adelaide supporters chanting "We're coming to get you". Adelaide coach Robert Shaw was the only Adelaide official to confront the hoard. In 1996 Port Adelaide was left to wait again as a vacancy was required in the league. It was announced on 27 October 1995 that Port Adelaide would be participating in the 1997 AFL season, one season later than initially planned and seven years after the clubs first failed bid in 1990. National premierships (1997–2004) From 1997 to 2004 South Australian AFL clubs won three Australian Football League premierships. Adelaide Oval return (2009–2014) After previous hosting the highest level of Australian rules football in South Australia from 1877 to 1973, Adelaide Oval once again became permanent the home of top level Australian rules football in South Australia after a major redevelopment of the ground. Regional variation Some variations of Australian Rules Football in South Australia compared with other Australian states still exist: Points system: In South Australia, most leagues award two points for a win, and one for a draw. Elsewhere in Australia generally four points are awarded for a win and two for a draw. Percentage: In South Australia, ladder percentage is usually calculated as "For" ÷ "For and Against" × "100". Elsewhere in Australia it is generally calculated as "For" ÷ "Against" × "100". Behind posts: Behind posts have generally been coloured red in South Australia, as opposed to white elsewhere. Goalkicker listings: Match reports in South Australia generally list goals and behinds scored by player, whereas elsewhere in Australia goals only are generally shown. Field markings: The "50" on the 50-metre line at AAMI Stadium is in a serif font, whereas at Victorian grounds a sans-serif font is used. Participation In 2007, there were 14,825 senior players in SA and total participation of 72,971. Attendance record 66,987 (1976). SANFL Grand Final. Sturt vs Port Adelaide. (Football Park, Adelaide) Major Australian Rules events in South Australia Australian Football League Premiership Season (Crows and Power home games) including 'Gather Round' (2023-2026) a special round where all AFL matches are played in the state The Showdown Port Adelaide-Norwood SANFL rivalry SANFL Grand Final State League Interstate matches Players South Australians in the Australian Football Hall of Fame see Australian Football Hall of Fame Legends Barrie Robran (North Adelaide) Malcolm Blight (Woodville, North Melbourne) Jack Oatey Russell Ebert Players Mark Bickley (South Adelaide, Adelaide) Craig Bradley (Port Adelaide, Carlton) Peter Carey (Glenelg) John Daly (Norwood, West Adelaide) Ken Farmer (North Adelaide) Bob Hank (West Torrens) Lindsay Head (West Torrens) Neil Kerley (W. Adel, S. Adel, Glenelg) Stephen Kernahan (Glenelg, Carlton) Tom MacKenzie (West Torr., N. Adel) Dan Moriarty (South Adelaide) Geof Motley (Port Adelaide) John Platten (Central District, Hawthorn) Bob Quinn (Port Adelaide) Jack 'Dinny' Reedman (S.Adl, N.Adl, W.Adl) Mark Ricciuto (Adelaide) Umpires Ken Aplin Coaches John Cahill Jack Oatey Fos Williams Administrators Max Basheer Thomas Hill Bob McLean AFL Players from South Australia AFLW Players from South Australia Governing body The governing body is the South Australian National Football League. Leagues & Clubs Professional clubs Adelaide Football Club (Australian Football League) Port Adelaide Football Club (Australian Football League) Open Adelaide Metropolitan Leagues South Australian National Football League (governing body) South Australian Amateur Football League Regional leagues Adelaide Plains Football League Barossa Light & Gawler Football Association Broken Hill Football League Eastern Eyre Football League Great Flinders Football League Great Southern Football League Hills Football League Kangaroo Island Football League Kowree-Naracoorte-Tatiara Football League Mallee Football League Mid Murray Football Association Mid South Eastern Football League North Eastern Football League Northern Areas Football Association Port Lincoln Football League Riverland Football League River Murray Football League Southern Football League Spencer Gulf Football League Western Border Football League Western Eyre Football League Whyalla Football League Woomera & Districts Football League Yorke Peninsula Football League The South Australian Country Football Championships is contested annually, and comprises the following representative sides: Central (comprises the Barossa Light and Gawler, Adelaide Plains, Northern Areas, North Eastern and Yorke Peninsula Football Leagues) Southern Districts (River Murray, Great Southern, Hills, Southern and Kangaroo Island Football Leagues) South East (Kowree Naracoorte Tatiara, Mid South Eastern and Western Border Football Leagues) Eyre Peninsula (Port Lincoln, Great Flinders, Eastern Eyre and Far West Football Leagues) Northern Cities (Whyalla, Woomera & Districts and Spencer Gulf Football Leagues) Murray Mallee Barrier Zone (Riverland, Mid Murray, Broken Hill and Mallee Football Leagues) Women's South Australian Women's Football League Official Site Representative team The South Australian representative team, also known as the Croweaters, have played State of Origin matches against all other Australian states. Principal venues The following venues meet AFL Standard criteria and have been used to host AFL (National Standard) or AFLW level matches (Regional Standard) or SANFL matches and are listed by capacity. Historic Venues Football Park (1974 - 2015) Sources See also South Australian National Football League Australian Football League Adelaide Crows Port Adelaide Magpies Port Adelaide Football Club South Australian Football Hall of Fame External links South Australia Team of the Century (from Full Points Footy) South History of Australian rules football
5191517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex%20Gordon	Alex Gordon	Alexander Jonathan Gordon (born February 10, 1984) is an American former professional baseball left fielder who played his entire career for the Kansas City Royals of Major League Baseball (MLB) from 2007 to 2020. Prior to playing professionally, Gordon attended the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, where he played college baseball for the Nebraska Cornhuskers. At Nebraska, Gordon won the Brooks Wallace Award, Dick Howser Trophy, and Golden Spikes Award in 2005. That year, the Royals selected Gordon with the second overall pick in the 2005 MLB Draft. Gordon made his major league debut in 2007 as a third baseman, but had an inconsistent beginning to his career. In 2010, the Royals demoted Gordon to the minor leagues for a substantial period of time, and moved Gordon from third base to the outfield. He returned to the Royals later that season as a full-time outfielder, and his play improved substantially. A member of the Royals' 2015 World Series championship team, Gordon signed a four-year free agent contract that offseason to remain with the team. Gordon won eight Gold Glove Awards, four Fielding Bible Awards, and a Wilson Defensive Player of the Year Award, all after the move to the outfield. Early life Gordon was born on February 10, 1984, to a family heavily involved in baseball. Gordon's father played baseball for the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, and his brother played college baseball at the University of Nebraska Omaha. As a child, Gordon's family would sometimes make the drive from Omaha to Kansas City, Missouri, to attend Royals games. Gordon had a successful high school baseball career at Lincoln Southeast High School, where he was named the Gatorade Nebraska Player of the Year in 2002. He was also listed as one of the top high school prospects by Baseball America his senior year, and also received All-State honors in football that same year. During his teen years, Gordon played American Legion Baseball. He won the organization's Graduate of the Year award in 2015. College career Gordon attended the University of Nebraska–Lincoln, majoring in criminal justice and playing third base for the university's baseball team. In his junior year in 2005, he swept the collegiate baseball awards for college player of the year, winning the Dick Howser Trophy, Golden Spikes Award, the Brooks Wallace Award, and the American Baseball Coaches Association Rawlings Player of the Year Award. He was also an ESPY Award Finalist for the Best Male College Athlete. Over the course of his collegiate career, he posted a .355 career batting average, with 44 home runs and 189 runs batted in (RBIs) and finished in the top ten in eight different offensive statistical categories at Nebraska. Additionally, Gordon was named the Big 12 Conference Player of the Year in 2004 and 2005 and was named to the First Team All-Big 12 Team in 2004 and 2005. U.S. National Team During his time at the University of Nebraska, Gordon was a member of the 2004 United States national baseball team, which included players from 15 different colleges. He helped lead Team USA to an 18–7 overall record, seeing the majority of his playing time at first base. He hit .388 with four home runs, 12 RBI and 18 runs scored in 24 contests and was named the top offensive player at the World University Baseball Championship in Tainan, Taiwan, after leading all players with a .524 average (11-for-21) with two home runs, five RBI, and eight runs scored in eight games. Professional baseball career Draft and minor leagues Gordon was drafted in 2005 by the Kansas City Royals with the second pick overall, becoming the highest draft pick out of Nebraska since Darin Erstad was selected with the first pick of the 1995 Major League Baseball (MLB) draft. He hit 29 home runs and stole 22 bases with an on-base plus slugging over 1.000 in his first full season in minor league baseball with the Double-A Wichita Wranglers. By midseason, Gordon was receiving accolades for being one of the best hitting prospects in baseball. He participated in the Texas League All-Star game and was selected for the 2006 All-Star Futures Game. Declining to play for Team USA in 2006, Gordon led the Wichita Wranglers to the Texas League playoffs. He performed well in his first full minor league season, and won the Texas League Player of the Year Award and Baseball America's and Topps Minor League Player of the Year Award after the season ended. He also was named the MLB.com Double-A Offensive Player of the Year. 2006 Topps baseball card Gordon's baseball card gained notoriety shortly after Gordon was drafted in 2006. Topps issued Gordon's rookie card prematurely, as only players on 25-man rosters or who have played in at least one Major League game are eligible. As a result, Topps stopped producing the card and cut holes in some of the existing cards. Examples that found their way into retail stores have garnered bids in the thousands of dollars on eBay. Major leagues Third base: 2007–2009 The Royals moved Gordon through the minor league system quickly, and he made his major league debut in 2007. In his first major league at-bat, Gordon struck out with the bases loaded against Curt Schilling but eventually got his first major league hit on April 5, 2007, against the Boston Red Sox. The hit came against Daisuke Matsuzaka. On April 10, 2007, he hit his first major league home run off pitcher Josh Towers of the Toronto Blue Jays. Despite Gordon hitting .185 with three home runs and eight RBI through his first two months as an everyday starter, the Royals remained patient with him. On September 2, Gordon had the first multi-home run game of his career, connecting off Boof Bonser of the Minnesota Twins in the second inning, and in the 3rd inning off Julio DePaula. On September 12, Gordon hit his 34th double of the year against the Minnesota Twins, establishing a Royals rookie record. Gordon performed better for the rest of the season, but broke his nose in the last game of the season. Gordon's late-season resurgence brought his batting average up to .247. He also hit 15 home runs and stole 14 bases. Before the 2008 season, Gordon switched his uniform number from #7, the number he had as a rookie, to #4, his college number. On Opening Day, 2008 (which occurred on March 31), Gordon hit a two-run home run off Detroit Tigers ace Justin Verlander. The Royals placed Gordon on the 15-day disabled list on August 23 because of a torn muscle in his right quadriceps. He would not return to Kansas City until September 12, although he did hit .311 in the month of September. Gordon finished the season with a .260 batting average and 16 home runs and led the Royals with 66 walks. However, he made the most errors (16) and had the lowest fielding percentage (.955) of all American League (AL) third basemen in 2008. Gordon struggled at the beginning of the 2009 season, hitting just 2-for-21 (.095) with one home run and three RBIs in seven games before being injured while sliding. He underwent surgery on April 17 to repair a tear in the labral cartilage of the right hip, and was on the disabled list for twelve weeks. After playing a few games in the minors, Gordon came off the disabled list and rejoined the Royals on July 17 going 1 for 4 against the Tampa Bay Rays. Gordon stole home for the first time in his career on August 2 against the Rays, becoming the first Royal to do that since Mendy López in 2003. The Royals optioned Gordon to the Triple-A Omaha Royals on August 18 to free up a roster space for Kyle Farnsworth. Gordon had a batting average of .198 at his demotion, and had made five errors while appearing in only 29 games. After Omaha finished up its season, Gordon returned to the Royals in September. Between the return to Kansas City and the end of the season, Gordon got a hit in 15 of the final 20 games he played in, and hit home runs in back-to-back games against the Minnesota Twins. Move to outfield: 2010–2013 Following a broken thumb suffered in Spring Training, Gordon began the 2010 season on a minor league rehab assignment with Class-A Advanced Wilmington. Gordon was activated from the disabled list on April 17. He was demoted to the minor leagues in May, where he played left field. Gordon had been hitting .194 before his demotion, and many considered this demotion to indicate that Gordon was running out of chances with the Royals. Rusty Kuntz, a coach in the Royals' organization stated that "If he can catch a fly ball in this mess, he’s going to be OK." While playing for Omaha, Gordon was named to the Pacific Coast League's All-Star team. Gordon was recalled from Triple-A on July 23, 2010, to take the place of David DeJesus in the Royals' outfield; DeJesus had been placed on the disabled list with a right thumb sprain. On July 30, Gordon hit his first career walk-off home run in a game against the Baltimore Orioles. Gordon hit .264 in the month of August, but then slumped to a .177 batting average during September. Gordon finished the 2010 season with a .215 and eight home runs, having appeared in only 74 games for the Royals. In Spring Training in 2011, he led the major leagues in RBIs, with 23. 2011 would be a breakout season for Gordon, as his success during Spring Training carried over into the regular season. He and would string together a 19-game hitting streak during much of the month of April and hit more doubles than any player for the Royals had since 2007; his 45 doubles was tied for sixth in the major leagues. Gordon was selected as an American League finalist for the 2011 All-Star Final Vote, but Paul Konerko was elected. Gordon played in over 150 games in the season, which was the most games he had played in at the major league level since his rookie year. Gordon set career highs in batting average (.303), runs scored (101), stolen bases (17), and home runs (23). Defensively, he led all major league outfielders in assists, with 20 and won his first American League Gold Glove Award. Gordon's 20 outfield assists also set a Royals franchise record. On February 9, 2012, Gordon signed a one-year, $4.775 million deal with the Royals to avoid arbitration. In the process, Gordon filed for $5.45, while the Royals countered with $4.15. Under the Royals' agreement, he could have earned an additional $25K if he had reached 700 plate appearances, putting him at the original midpoint. However, on March 30, he signed a four-year, $37.5 million extension with the Royals with a player option for 2016. Gordon earned $6 million in 2012, $9 million in 2013, $10 million in 2014 and $12.5 million in 2015, but declined to exercise his player option of $12.5 million for 2016. Gordon would otherwise have become a free agent after 2013. Despite starting the 2012 season by hitting only .240 through early June, Gordon hit .323 from that point through the remainder of the season. He also drew five walks in a single game against the St. Louis Cardinals on June 17. Gordon finished the 2012 season with a .294 batting average and led the majors with 51 doubles. This tied him with Billy Butler for the second-greatest single-season number of doubles in team history, behind Hal McRae's 1977 season. In 2012, Gordon won a Fielding Bible Award as the best fielding left fielder in MLB. He also won the Gold Glove Award. Gordon's fielding percentage was higher than that of any other player who had played in at least 125 games as a left fielder. He started the 2013 season strongly by hitting .329 during the first two months of the season. Gordon recorded multiple hits in a game 52 times during the season, and also hit two grand slamsone in April against the Detroit Tigers and one in July against the Cleveland Indians. He finished with the season with 90 runs scored, 168 hits, 27 doubles, six triples, 20 home runs, 81 RBIs, and a .265 batting average. Gordon earned his third consecutive Gold Glove Award for his defense in left field, his second Fielding Bible Award, and earned his first career All-Star selection. Playoff appearances (Back-to-back World Series): 2014–2015 In the 2014 season, Gordon scored 87 runs, had 150 hits, 34 doubles, one triple, 19 home runs, 74 RBI, 12 stolen bases, and a .266 BA. On July 6, he was named to the 2014 All-Star Team for the second consecutive year. On August 6, he recorded his 1,000th career hit when he singled off Arizona Diamondbacks pitcher Wade Miley. On August 26, he tied Wade Boggs for the most home runs hit by a Nebraskan in the Major Leagues. The Royals qualified for the 2014 postseason. Gordon mostly struggled during the playoffs, batting only .204, including six doubles, four stolen bases, and one home run, with the home run coming in the 10th inning of Game 1 of the AL Championship Series against the Baltimore Orioles. Gordon represented the tying run in the 9th inning of Game 7 of the 2014 World Series, when with two outs, he lined a long single to left center. He reached third base when Giants' center fielder Gregor Blanco misplayed the ball, but was stranded when catcher Salvador Pérez fouled out to Pablo Sandoval to end the game and the series. After the end of the 2014 season, Gordon was awarded the Hutch Award for his off-the field actions, including raising over $1 million for a nonprofit organization supporting cancer research and his support of youth baseball in his hometown of Omaha. Gordon was also awarded for his on-the-field performance, receiving the Gold Glove, Fielding Bible, and Platinum Glove awards for his defensive performance. On July 8, 2015, against the Tampa Bay Rays, Gordon was injured attempting to chase down a fly ball hit by Logan Forsythe, which resulted in an inside-the-park home run as Gordon could not get back up. After being carted off the field, he was diagnosed with a left groin strain and was placed on the injured list. Gordon had just come off a seven-hit double header the night before against the Rays (tying the Royals record for most hits in a double header) in which he hit a double and a home run. The injury prevented Gordon from playing in the 2015 All-Star game, being replaced on the All-Star roster by Brett Gardner. At the time of the injury, Gordon had a .280 batting average and had hit 11 home runs. On September 2, Gordon was activated from the DL and went 2-for-3, with an RBI and run scored against the Detroit Tigers . He finished the regular season with a .271 batting average/.377 on-base percentage/.432 slugging percentage with 18 doubles, 13 home runs, and 48 RBIs. The Royals qualified for the postseason in 2015. Gordon hit a home run off of Luke Gregerson in the ninth inning of Game 3 of the 2015 AL Divisional Series. The Royals would go on defeat the Astros in five games, and would defeat the Toronto Blue Jays in the American League Championship Series. Gordon hit .250 in the series against Toronto. In Game 1 of the 2015 World Series, Gordon hit a ninth-inning home run off of New York Mets closer Jeurys Familia to tie the game at 4. The Royals would go on to win, 5–4, in 14 innings. Gordon became a World Champion when the Royals won the World Series in five games over the Mets, the first World Series won by the Royals since 1985. Combined in the postseason, Gordon hit .241 with 2 homers, 6 RBI and a .775 OPS. Gordon, along with all of the Royals, attended the World Series parade and pep rally in downtown Kansas City, Missouri, at Union Station on November 3. Later career and retirement: 2016–2020 Gordon signed a four-year deal worth $72 million to remain with the Royals with a mutual option for the 2020 season on January 6, 2016. On May 22, 2016, Gordon collided with Royals' third-baseman Mike Moustakas while chasing a Melky Cabrera pop-up into foul territory down the left field line against the Chicago White Sox. Gordon suffered a scaphoid fracture in his right wrist and was placed on the disabled-list where he missed 29 games. He finished 2016 hitting .220/.312/.380 with a career high 148 strikeouts in 445 at-bats. On May 4, 2017, Gordon was hit by a pitch from White Sox's pitcher Derek Holland. This was Gordon's 79th career hit by pitch, breaking Mike Macfarlane's franchise record. When asked about how he was able to be hit by so many pitches, Gordon responded "[I] don't move." While he stated that he did not lean in towards the pitch to give himself a better chance of being hit, Gordon did admit that he had done so during his college career. On September 19, Gordon hit the 5,694th home run of the MLB season against Ryan Tepera, breaking the record for the most home runs in an MLB season, with the previous record having been set in the 2000 season. For the season, he batted .208/.293/.315. His .315 slugging percentage in 2017 was the lowest of all qualified major league batters. Gordon's defense still provided value to the Royals, as Gordon again won the Gold Glove award. Before the 2018 season, Gordon was inducted into the Lincoln Southeast High School Athletics Hall of Fame. On May 8, Gordon collected a season-high four hits, and he drove in five runs on September 15. In 2018, Gordon hit .245/.324/.370 with 13 home runs and 54 RBIs and won his sixth Gold Glove. Additionally, Gordon also won his fourth Fielding Bible award. In 2019, he had his best offensive season since 2015. Early in April that season, Gordon recorded his first four-hit game since May 2018. In early May, Gordon hit two home runs, while also reaching 1,500 career hits in the same game, off of Jake Arrieta. In a blowout loss to the Oakland Athletics on August 26, Gordon made his first professional pitching appearance, pitching innings. Gordon rebounded to hit .266/.345/.396 with 13 home runs and 76 RBIs. He also won his seventh career Gold Glove. On November 2, 2019, Gordon elected free agency. On January 22, 2020, he signed a one-year, $4 million contract to remain with the Royals for the 2020 season. On September 24, Gordon announced that he would retire from baseball at the conclusion of the 2020 season. His final career game was on September 27 against the Detroit Tigers, and received one at-bat in which he struck out to lead off the bottom of the first inning, his first leadoff appearance since April 2017. Gordon then went out to take his position in left field in the top of the second before being pulled back to the dugout and replaced by Franchy Cordero. Overall with the 2020 Kansas City Royals, Gordon batted .209 with four home runs and 11 RBIs in 50 games. Personal life Gordon and his wife, Jamie, have two sons and one daughter. They reside in Leawood, Kansas. See also List of Major League Baseball players who spent their entire career with one franchise References External links 1984 births Living people All-American college baseball players American League All-Stars Arizona League Royals players Baseball players from Nebraska Gold Glove Award winners Golden Spikes Award winners Kansas City Royals players Major League Baseball center fielders Major League Baseball left fielders Major League Baseball third basemen Nebraska Cornhuskers baseball players Northwest Arkansas Naturals players Omaha Royals players Sportspeople from Lincoln, Nebraska Surprise Scorpions players Wichita Wranglers players Wilmington Blue Rocks players
5191572	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit%20rationing	Credit rationing	Credit rationing by definition is limiting the lenders of the supply of additional credit to borrowers who demand funds at a set quoted rate by the financial institution. It is an example of market failure, as the price mechanism fails to bring about equilibrium in the market. It should not be confused with cases where credit is simply "too expensive" for some borrowers, that is, situations where the interest rate is deemed too high. With credit rationing, the borrower would like to acquire the funds at the current rates, and the imperfection is the absence of supply from the financial institutions, despite willing borrowers. In other words, at the prevailing market interest rate, demand exceeds supply, but lenders are willing neither to lend enough additional funds to satisfy demand, nor to raise the interest rate they charge borrowers because they are already maximising profits, or are using a cautious approach to continuing to meet their capital reserve requirements. Forms Credit rationing is not the same phenomenon as the better-known case of food rationing. Credit rationing is the result of asymmetric information whilst food rationing is a result of direct government action. With credit rationing, lenders limit the risk of asymmetric information the borrower through a process known as credit assessment. Credit assessment is completed during the loan application process by applying a set criterion to an application which results in either a loan approval or decline. It is important to note that credit assessment is one way that the lender reduces risk of loan default and is thereby one example of how lenders may apply credit rationing in practice. Three main types of credit rationing can usually be distinguished: The most basic form of credit rationing occurs when the value of collateral provided by the borrowers drops significantly and affects the quality of the lender's capital. Collateral provides assets to the bank meeting the minimum requirements set by regulators and may commonly be used to calculate the LVR (Loan to Value Ratio) of the loan. Plunges in the value of the collateral provided to a financial institution may enhance credit rationing. This is because when the collateral (or security) provided to the lender falls in value, changing the LVR of the loan, the lenders risk of financial loss increases should the borrower default and the financial institution may not be willing to provide further lending. "Redlining" is the situation where some specific group of borrowers, who share an identifiable trait, and pose a higher risk to the lender, cannot obtain credit with a given supply of loanable funds, but could if the supply were increased and the lending assessment criteria were relaxed. More importantly, they would not be able to get loans, even if they were willing to pay higher interest rates due to their affiliation with this group whom the lender deems to be an unsuitable risk. "Pure credit rationing" is the situation in which within an observationally indistinguishable group where some obtain credit while those who are willing to pay a higher interest rate do not. Disequilibrium credit rationing is a temporary feature of the market because of some friction that prevents clearing. Theoretical background One of the main roles markets play is its allocation of goods; they allocate goods to the buyers with the highest valuation. Market equilibrium occurs when the demand of a good at the equilibrium price is equal to the supply of the good. If prices are deemed "too high" by the consumers, supply will exceed demand, and sellers will have to reduce their prices until the market clears (i.e., equilibrium is reached). On the other hand, if prices are "too low", then demand will be higher than supply, and prices will have to be raised to obtain market clearing. The graph to the right illustrates the loan market at its equilibrium point. This is where, the total saved (notated S) is equal to the total invested (notated I) at a given equilibrium interest rate (notated r). When there is no shift in either the S or I line, a rise in the interest rate will create surplus for entities looking to save. This is because the interest rate is higher than the provided level out output at that same interest rate. On the other hand, if the interest rate were to decrease there would be surplus for investing entities as the interest rate is lower than required at that output level. This also intuitively makes sense. As the interest rates rise, entities that save money are more inclined as their marginal utility is rising. As the interest rates decrease, investors are more incline to borrow more as their total cost of borrowing is decreasing. Furthermore, the rise and fall of interest rates is usually controlled by institutions such as the Fed (USA) or the RBA (Australia) in order to stimulate or control inflation within an economy and often works hand in hand with the supply and demand of financial institutional lending which may eventually result in credit rationing and further result in market equilibrium by manipulating excess demand or supply of funds. This is illustrated, when S=I, the market will be in equilibrium at interest rate r. Disequilibrium credit rationing The more mundane case of credit rationing occurs when the credit market is, for one reason or another, out of equilibrium. This could either be due to market shocks, friction in the market, or some government policy (such as anti-usury laws), which prevent supply and demand from being equalised. Disequilibrium outcomes are temporary adjustments and shocks as the economy moves back to the long run equilibrium—the equilibrium that will attain over some indeterminate amount of time in the absence of more external shocks. The main distinguishing factor between equilibrium and disequilibrium rationing in the credit markets is that the latter is not a long-term feature, and can be alleviated through changes in policy or simply through time, and does not necessarily reflect chronic or structural features of the credit market. The most important contribution in this vein was by Dwight Jaffee and Franco Modigliani, who first introduced this idea within a supply and demand framework. The more interesting case, that of equilibrium credit rationing, is the result of structural features of the market (in particular, adverse selection), and will characterise long run market outcomes (barring some technological breakthrough) and is analysed below. Equilibrium credit rationing – Stiglitz and Weiss The seminal theoretical contribution to the literature is that of Joseph Stiglitz and Andrew Weiss, who studied credit rationing in a market with imperfect information, in their 1981 paper in the American Economic Review. Stiglitz and Weiss developed a model to illustrate how credit rationing can be an equilibrium feature of the market, in the sense that the rationed borrower would be willing to obtain the funds at an interest rate higher than the one charged by the lender, who may not be willing to lend the extra funds, as the higher rate would imply lower expected profits. This may be an example of equilibrium rationing where there exists excess demand for credit at the equilibrium rate of interest. Market equilibrium may be further enhanced, however, by lenders who are in competition with each other, and where one lender may be willing to accept a higher risk than another which may result in a balance of lending to borrowers who may also be willing to accept a higher risk and/or pay a higher rate to borrow. The reason this may lead to an equilibrium may be that lenders policies regarding adverse selection may vary and the situation where the lender is faced with borrowers whose projects imply different risk levels (types), and the type of each borrower is unbeknownst to the lender. The main intuition behind this result is that safe borrowers would not be willing to tolerate a high interest rate, as, with a low probability of default, they will end up paying back a large amount to the lender. Risky types will accept a higher rate because they have a lower chance of a successful project (and typically a higher return if successful), and thus a lower chance of repayment. Additional risk is taken into account by an increase to the cost of borrowing or rather the interest rate paid. Note that when a lender restricts their lending and decides to keep the rates lower, this assumes limited liability, and supports the notion of credit rationing, though results could still hold with unlimited liability. Pure credit rationing In a framework similar to Stiglitz and Weiss, one can imagine a group of individuals, prospective borrowers, who want to borrow funds in order to finance a project, which yields uncertain returns. Let there be two types of individuals, who are observationally identical, and only differ in the riskiness of their projects. Assume type A individuals are low risk compared to type B, in the sense that the expected return on type B projects is a mean preserving spread of type A projects; they have the same expected return, but higher variance. For example, imagine that type A returns are uniformly distributed (meaning that all possible values have the same probability of occurring) from $75 to $125, so that the value of type A projects is at least $75 and at most $125, and the expected value (mean) is $100. Now, assume type B project returns are also uniformly distributed, but their range is from $50 to $150. Type B project returns also have an expected value of $100 but are more risky. Now assume that the bank knows that two types exist, and even knows what fraction of the potential borrowers applying for loans belong to each group, but cannot tell whether an individual applicant is type A or B. The implication to the bank of the difference in the riskiness of these projects is that each borrower has a different probability of repaying the loan, and this affects the bank's expected return. The bank would thus like to be able to identify (screen) the borrower types, and in the absence of other instruments to do so, it may, amongst other tools, use the interest rate. This was the main intuitive observation of Stiglitz and Weiss. They realised that an individual who is willing to accept a higher interest rate with their loan is doing so because they know that the riskiness of their project is such that there is lower probability of repaying the loan. In a limited liability setting, where the personal assets of the borrower might not be taken as collateral, the borrower might not object to paying a high enough interest rate, as they know that the probability of the project succeeding is low, so probability of repayment is low. Even if the project does succeed, the returns will be high enough for a profit to be left after repaying the loan. The safe borrowers have a high probability of repaying their loan, so even a modest interest rate, relative to their expected return, is likely to result in an unprofitable contract. It is due to these borrower adverse selection risks that banks may utilise credit rationing when approving lending, which is mostly to reduce their own risk of loss. What this implies for the banks is that there will be a range of relatively low interest rates below which all the applicants will accept the loan, and a cut-off point above which the safe borrowers decide to drop, as expected repayment becomes too high. In fact, as interest rates rise, the critical value of the project (think of it as expected return), above which the borrower is willing to borrow the money, also rises. Naturally, there exists a (higher) cut off point for the risky types as well, above which even they would not be willing to borrow and assists in maintaining market equilibrium. This situation should show that the interest rate has two effects on banks' expected return. On the one hand, higher interest rates imply that, for a given loan, the repayment (if it does take place) will be higher, and this increases bank profits; this is the direct effect. On the other hand, and crucially for credit rationing, a higher interest rate might mean that the safe types are not anymore willing to accept the loans and drop out of the market; this is the adverse selection effect. These two effects together give an odd shape to the bank's expected return. It is strictly rising with the interest rate when the latter is low enough; at the point where the safe types drop out of the market (call it r1), expected return falls sharply, and then rises again, until the point where the risky types drop out as well (r2), falling to zero, as no one is accepting loans. Technically speaking, the expected return is non-monotonic in the interest rate, as it is rising, then falling sharply, then rising again until it falls sharply to zero. It follows then that if the level of the interest rate that maximises the bank's expected return is lower than the level after which risky types drop out, there might be credit rationing, if the supply of funds is low enough. If the optimal rate (from the point of view of the bank) is between r1 and r2, then only some of the risky types will be rationed (the safe types are unwilling to borrow at such a rate); they will not be given credit even at higher rates. If the optimal rate is below r1, then borrowers of both types will be rationed. It might be more intuitive to imagine a situation with a very large number of types (continuum). In that case, the expected return function of the bank will become smooth, rising for low levels of the interest rate, until the optimal rate, and then falling smoothly until it reaches zero. Types that would be willing to borrow at rates higher than the optimal might be rationed. As the supply of funds to the bank rises, some of the rationed people will get a loan, but at the same interest rate, which is still at the profit maximising level. For a sufficient rise in supply, everyone will receive loans, at which point the interest rate will have to fall. Finally, if the optimal rate is high enough, we might have no rationing. This will happen if the level of the interest rate such that current supply of funds equal demand for funds is lower than the optimal rate, and equal to r1. All the borrowers will receive funds at that rate. Redlining Redlining is a different situation, as it is not the result of adverse selection. In fact, the bank can perfectly distinguish between the different types of buyers according to some criterion. Each type is assumed to have a different expected return function (from the point of view of the bank). As an illustration, consider the case of three types, 1, 2 and 3, which are ranked according to the maximum expected return they give to the bank, from lowest to highest. The maximum expected return a type 3 borrower can give to the bank (at the optimal interest rate for the borrower) is higher than that of type 2, which is higher than that of type 1. For a sufficiently high cost of obtaining funds, only type 3 borrowers will receive credit. This will occur if the maximum expected return from type 2 borrowers is lower than that cost. If costs fall by enough, type 2 borrowers will obtain credit, and if they fall further so will type 1 borrowers. Every type that receives credit will be charged different interest rates, but the expected return to the bank will be equal for each type, as long as there is competition between banks. Type 1 borrowers obtain credit only if type 2 borrowers are not rationed, and so on. This argument is quite pertinent in the context of the subprime mortgage crisis. Low interest rate setting by the Federal Reserve made the cost of loanable funds extremely low. On the other hand, the securitization practices of firms in the credit markets significantly raised the profitability of loans to people with poor credit ratings (type 1 in the example above), and thus contributed to massive leveraging of borrowers who would ordinarily have had a hard time receiving even modest loans. Redlining can have long-lasting effects on credit access for affected communities, leading to reduced economic opportunities and perpetuating a cycle of poverty. Despite legal and regulatory efforts to address redlining, such as the Fair Housing Act of 1968 and the Equal Credit Opportunity Act of 1974, it remains a persistent issue in the credit market. Additionally, scholars such as Patrick Sharkey and Raj Chetty argue that redlining can contribute to a negative feedback loop, where a lack of access to credit can lead to lower property values and disinvestment in affected neighbourhoods, further reinforcing redlining practices. To address the negative effects of redlining and promote equal access to credit, policymakers may implement measures such as anti-discrimination laws, affirmative lending programs, or community reinvestment requirements for financial institutions. The goal is to create a more equitable credit market that ensures access to credit for all borrowers, regardless of their race or ethnicity. Adverse Selection The contribution of Stiglitz and Weiss was very crucial in addressing this important market outcome. It was one of a series of papers to address the important phenomenon of adverse selection in economics, pioneered by the classic study of the lemon problem in used car markets by George Akerlof, and celebrated by the paper by Michael Rothschild and Stiglitz on adverse selection in the insurance market. Many important studies followed their example, some with competing results, and extended the issue of credit rationing to further domains. According to Eatwell, J. Malgate, M. Newman, P. (1989) credit rationing was briefly discussed in the context of usury ceilings by Adam Smith (1776), was a hot topic for debate in 19th Century England in regards to the bullion and currency controversies and also became topical in the USA following World War II as part of the ‘availability doctrine’ first developed by Roosa (1951) and others in the Federal Reserve System. However, the first paper to treat credit rationing as a possible equilibrium phenomenon caused by adverse selection was by Dwight Jaffee and Thomas Russell in 1976. In their model, low quality borrowers would like to "masquerade" as high quality in order to get lower rates, and a separating equilibrium (that is, with different contracts offered to the two types) entails lower rates, but also lower loans, for the high types. This approach did not become popular however, as the pooling equilibrium (both types offered the same contract), which implies credit rationing, is not sustainable; a pooling contract offered to both types that will be accepted by both types and give non-negative profits to the banks can be dominated (generate higher profits) by a contract with lower interest and loan amount, which will only be preferred by the high quality types, who will drop the pooling contract, making it unprofitable for the banks. So, focus has shifted on applications that allow for stable equilibrium rationing. Over Investment David De Meza and David C. Webb argued the possibility that adverse selection could lead to the flip side of what Stiglitz and Weiss considered, namely over-investment. Their argument runs along the same lines as Akerlof's market for lemons. In this setting, prospective buyers of used cars do not know the quality of the car they are thinking of purchasing; sellers know the value of their own cars. Assuming they know the distribution of car quality across the market, prospective buyers come to a maximum price they are willing to pay for the car. For example, suppose there are only two qualities, good cars ("peaches") and bad cars ("lemons"), worth $5000 and $1000, respectively. The buyer knows that half the cars are peaches and half are lemons. If the buyer offers $5000, the sellers of either type surely accept, but the expected value of the car will only be equal to $3000 ($1000 with 50% probability and $5000 with 50% probability), so the buyer will make an expected loss of $2000. If the buyer offers $3000, sellers of bad cars will accept but sellers of good cars will not (assuming that sellers are never willing to accept losses to liquidate the value of their cars). Every car the buyer can buy for any price less than $5000 is therefore a lemon worth only $1000. Hence, the buyer will only be willing to pay $1000; only the sellers of bad cars will accept, so the buyer will either end up with a bad car or with nothing. In this case, the adverse selection problem drives the good cars out of the market. Extending this logic to more qualities, under certain conditions, the market might completely collapse. Applying this framework to the market for credit, asymmetric information concerning the types of projects to be financed might lead to bad projects driving out good projects. De Meza and Webb's contribution is to show how the opposite might happen – that is, how good projects might draw in bad. Under some plausible conditions, the most crucial being that expected returns differ between different projects (whereas all projects in the Stiglitz and Weiss model have the same expected return but different levels of riskiness), they show that there cannot be a credit-rationing equilibrium. So, the main difference here compared to Stiglitz and Weiss is that there is no specific level of the interest rate at which banks maximise profits – a small rise in interest rates if there is excess demand for credit will attract entrepreneurs and will not drive away existing borrowers. As long as the supply of funds is increasing in the rate of return on deposits, there will be more investment compared to what the efficient solution would imply, that is, the level of investment that would take place if there were no asymmetry of information, and only the projects that should be financed are financed. The intuition is straightforward. If investment were lower than the efficient level, so would be the return on deposits. In addition, as less investment is taking place, the "worst" project that is financed must be better from the bank's point of view than the worst project that would be financed if investment were optimal. But if the bank is making a profit on the worst project that is financed, it will also be making profits on even worse projects (which were not financed before), leading to oversupply of credit and thus overinvestment. Efficient credit rationing When comparing their model to Stiglitz and Weiss, De Meza and Webb show that if credit rationing occurs in Stiglitz and Weiss, the volume of lending is actually higher than it would have been in the absence of rationing. This prompted a sister paper by the same authors, where they show that, on the one hand, credit rationing can occur even under symmetric information, and, on the other, that it might not imply a market failure. This severely limits the scope of government intervention. Moral hazard and credit rationing Bengt Holmstrom and Jean Tirole (1998) provide an example of credit rationing where asymmetric information does not lead to adverse selection, but instead moral hazard, the situation where deliberate actions by one of the parties of the contract, after the contract is signed, might affect outcomes. In their model, there are many entrepreneurs-borrower firms of only one type, who want to finance an investment opportunity, and have an initial level of assets that falls short of the amount needed for the investment. The twist in this model, compared to the cases described above, is that entrepreneurs can influence the outcome of the investment, by exerting high or low effort. High effort implies a high probability of a successful outcome, and low effort implies a lower one, but also gives a benefit to each borrower, in terms of higher leisure. So, there is an incentive by borrowers not to exert high effort, even though doing so will result in higher probability of a successful outcome. Competition between lenders and high effort by borrowers ensure positive outcomes for the economy and society, so investment should take place. However, the fact that the lenders cannot observe the borrower behaviours, prior to loan approval, implies that there is a minimum level risk the lender is willing to take and therefore requiring the lender to ensure a minimum input from the firm's assets, in terms of collateral, for the banks to be willing to provide the loan. The firms will have to provide some of the project financing "out of their own pocket" and thus incur some of the investment risk. This will provide the bank with the necessary guarantee that the borrower has personal stakes in the success of the investment, and ensures the borrower stands to wear the loss if the project is unsuccessful, so that they will be interested in exerting high effort, providing the bank with more confidence in the outcome and being more willing to make the loan. If a firm does not have the minimum amount of assets available (call it X), then its project will not be financed, and we will have credit rationing. The credit rationing may be the result of economic fluctuations, financial equilibriums, adverse selection or moral hazard, which may be termed in the literature as an agency cost, and may result from the borrower exerting low effort, essentially resulting in loan default prior to the financial institution being able to take action to exit the lending from their loan books. In the short term this may result in higher agency cost and lower initial assets for the financial institution which may therefore lead to short-term credit rationing. Whilst only some loan defaults may result due to moral hazard and may not be anticipated by the lender at the time of loan approval, in the long run, it does not benefit the borrower to engage in deliberate moral hazard behavior leading to loan default due to measures that financial institutions have in place to decline and prevent future lending to those borrowers who have not maintained their loan repayments in the past. In the short run, the loans which have gone bad due to moral hazard may influence the available funds and/or profits that financial institutions may have for new loans, however as discussed earlier in this article, an equilibrium may eventually take place to balance the economy and lending in the long run. Moral hazard in the subprime mortgage crisis Moral hazard in credit markets was likely a major contributor to the subprime mortgage crisis and the ensuing credit crunch. In the context of this model, one can think of borrowers being real estate investors (or simply home owners investing in property) that used their current homes as collateral assets when applying for loans. With rising house prices, and, more importantly, with the expectation of future rises in housing price, the expected return on the project to be financed was perceived to be higher than suggested by fundamentals, leading, on the one hand, to ever lower required X by banks in order to make loans, and, on the other, to inflated estimates of the value of the borrowers' initial assets. This led to less credit rationing, to the extent that good investments that should be undertaken got their financing, but also to subprime lending, where bad loans to poor projects were made. It should be noted, however, that the subprime mortgage crisis occurred due to risky credit being provided to borrowers which resulted from lending secured against bad loans and was discovered to be a result of structural inadequacies within the financial institutions themselves and not specifically in relation to the credit worthiness of the borrowers themselves. When the housing bubble burst, housing prices plummeted, so the expected return on projects fell, implying that banks needed very large initial assets holding, making lending scarcer and more difficult, resulting in a credit crunch. This provides a framework under which some credit rationing might be optimal, as a way of screening potentially harmful investments. Credit rationing in sovereign lending Finally, it is worthwhile to consider how credit rationing might arise as a feature of sovereign (government) lending, that is, lending to countries. Sovereign lending is a very different story than domestic lending, due to the absence of enforcement mechanisms in the case of bankruptcy, as there is no internationally acknowledged agency for such issues. If a country for one reason or another announces that it is either unable or unwilling to pay its debts, the most international lenders can do is renegotiate. Some experts believe that the threat of the country being shut off from financial markets if it defaults is not credible, as it has to be the case that absolutely no-one is willing to lend. Others stress that though this might be true for the short term, there are other reputational reasons why a country might want to avoid debt repudiation, mainly pertaining to the maintenance of good foreign relations, which allows access to international trade and technological innovations. With these caveats, it is worthwhile to consider how reputation concerns can lead to credit rationing. The seminal contribution is by Jonathan Eaton and Mark Gersovitz, who consider a simple model of international lending for a small open economy. Lenders set a maximum amount they are willing to lend (credit ceiling), which might be smaller or larger than the borrowing needs of the country. Countries face a penalty if they default, and whenever they are supposed to make debt payments, they consider whether they would be better off by defaulting, paying the penalty, and be forever barred from international credit markets, or pay the debt installment, borrowing again, and making the same decision next period. As the probability of default is higher when debt is higher, there exists a level of lending that maximises expected return to the lender, and so the credit ceiling will depend on the probability of default. If desired lending is higher than the credit ceiling, some countries will not receive funds, and credit rationing will occur. This setting is reminiscent of Stiglitz and Weiss, as the interest rate has an incentive effect, and does not play the standard allocational role prices are supposed to play. As in that case, the allocation mechanism in Eaton and Gersovitz is credit rationing, which is not related to interest rate (the price of credit); at the going rate, countries want to borrow more but credit is denied. Roy Harrod and the effectiveness of monetary policy Roy Harrod pointed to the existence of credit rationing early on. In his book Money he wrote that capital markets are highly imperfect and that in many markets there is no market price for certain customers. He argued that this was because these markets were characterized by negotiation processes that were liable to break down before a market price could be reached. Harrod was also skeptical about the traditional transmission mechanism of monetary policy. Drawing on the famous Oxford surveys of businessmen in the 1930s he argued that it was likely that changes in the interest rate did not have a substantial effect on investment decisions. Harrod went on to argue that the main channel through which interest rates curtailed economic activity was through the process of what is now known as credit rationing. He wrote that: "It is essentially the imperfection of the capital market that makes monetary policy a powerful weapon." Related Information on Credit Rationing Credit Rationing and Asymmetrical Information Asymmetric information occurs when one party in a transaction has more information than the other. In the credit market, lenders usually have better information about the borrower's creditworthiness, such as their credit history and ability to repay the loan, than the borrower themselves. As a direct result of this, lenders may only offer credit to borrowers they deem as low-risk and reject high-risk borrowers, leading to credit rationing for the latter. This can have negative consequences for borrowers, such as limiting their ability to invest or start a business, and for the economy as a whole, as it can lead to decreased economic growth and productivity. To mitigate the effects of credit rationing due to asymmetric information, policymakers may implement measures such as credit scoring systems, collateral requirements, or government-backed loan guarantee programs Impact of regulatory policies on credit access Regulatory policies such as interest rate caps, reserve requirements, and lending quotas will potentially affect the supply of credit and lead to credit rationing. For example, interest rate caps may limit the profitability of lending for financial institutions, leading to a reduction in their willingness to lend and only offer credit to low-risk borrowers. Reserve requirements may also limit the amount of funds available for lending, which can reduce the overall supply of credit in the market. Similarly, lending quotas may force lenders to prioritise certain types of borrowers, such as small businesses or low-income individuals, and reject other borrowers, leading to credit rationing for those who don't meet the criteria. However, regulatory policies can also achieve positive effects on credit access by ensuring fair lending practices and protecting consumers from predatory lending. The impact of regulatory policies on credit rationing is a complex and ongoing area of research, and understanding its effects is crucial for policymakers to develop effective regulatory frameworks. See also Adverse selection Moral hazard Government debt The Market for Lemons Subprime mortgage crisis Notes References Credit management New Keynesian economics Rationing
5191882	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mai%20Chen	Mai Chen	Mai Chen is a New Zealand and Harvard educated lawyer with a professional and specialist focus in constitutional and administrative law, Waitangi tribunal and courts, human rights, white collar fraud and regulatory defence, judicial review, regulatory issues, education law, and public policy and law reform. Chen is a barrister and holds an office in the Public Law Toolbox Chambers. She is an adjunct professor at the University of Auckland School of Law. Having served previously in the university's Business School. Chen is also the Chair of New Zealand Asian Leaders, SUPERdiverse WOMEN and the Superdiversity Institute for Law, Policy and Business. She is married to Dr John Sinclair and the two have one son. Chen has featured in Forbes magazine, TEDx talks and the National Business Review (NBR) and was a finalist for the New Zealander of the year award. Early life Born in Taipei, Taiwan, Chen immigrated to New Zealand with her family at the age of six in 1970. Hers was the first Taiwanese family in the South Island of New Zealand. She studied at Otago Girls' High School, where she became a head girl, dux. Education and scholarships Chen attended the University of Otago (New Zealand) and graduated with a Bachelor of Laws Honours degree (first class) in 1986. She was admitted to the bar in the same year. Chen was awarded several scholarships, including the William Georgetti Scholarship granted by the New Zealand Governor-General, the Sir Harold Barrowclough Scholarship and the Butterworths Travelling Scholarship. In 1987 Chen was awarded the Frank Knox Memorial Fellowship to study at Harvard Law School. Chen graduated with her Master of Laws from Harvard Law School in 1988 and won the Irving Oberman Memorial Award for the best Human Rights thesis at Harvard Law School. Her thesis was on the Treaty of Waitangi. Following Harvard Law School, Chen was awarded the Ferguson Human Rights Fellowship, a scholarship granted by the Harvard Human Rights Programme to be a Fellow at the International Labour Office in Geneva working on United Nations' Women's Convention and the ILO Indigenous Peoples Convention. The University of Otago invited Mai Chen to accept her Honorary Degree of Doctor of Laws on 16 December 2023. The university also invited Mai to deliver the graduation address on this occasion. The awarding of Honorary Degrees is a centuries-old custom of universities whereby distinguished persons are promoted to the highest academic level in the university. Conferring an Honorary Degree is a recognition of the University of Otago's most outstanding graduates and those who have brought great credit to the university through their achievements. Areas of achievement include notable service to the university or community, eminence achieved in scholarship, or other areas considered worthy of recognition. The awarding of this Honorary Degree in 2023 is especially significant, as the Otago Faculty of Law celebrated its 150th anniversary. Career Chen interned at the United Nations' International Labour Office in Geneva in 1988. In 1989, Chen took up a lectureship at the law school at Victoria University of Wellington, and wrote her first book on the discrimination of women under the UN Convention on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women. In 1990, she chaired a government review on the Policy of Excluding Women from Combat, and in 1992 she became the youngest senior lecturer in law in New Zealand at that time. In 1993, she co-authored Public Law in New Zealand with former Prime Minister Rt Hon Sir Geoffrey Palmer QC, which was published by Oxford University Press. In 1994, Chen became a lawyer at Russell McVeagh, but left after one year to co-found Chen and Palmer. In September 2022, Chen left her role as Senior Partner of Chen Palmer to go to the Bar. Chen Palmer In November 1994, Chen set up the law firm Chen and Palmer alongside former New Zealand Prime Minister Rt Hon Sir Geoffrey Palmer QC. Chen bought out Sir Geoffrey Palmer when he left to head the Law Commission. In 2013, Chen opened an Auckland office after failing to make headway in her first attempt. Chen Palmer has been a market leader in the private practice of public law. Chen Palmer won the Best Boutique Law Firm in 2010, and Best Public Law Firm in the New Zealand Law Awards from 2007 to 2011, and 2013, and was a finalist in the Employment Law Awards in 2011. Chen Palmer was one of New Zealand's first boutique law firms and was Australasia's first "Washington-style" law firm specialising in legislation and public policy. Other In April 2015, Chen was appointed, as a director, to the Board of BNZ (Bank of New Zealand), one of New Zealand's largest banks. Chen is also chair on the People and Remuneration Committee, as well as sitting on the NZ Audit Committee and the Risk Committee. Chen is an adjunct professor at the Faculty of Law at the University of Auckland. Prior to this, Chen was an adjunct professor in Commercial and Public Law at the University of Auckland Business School. Chen was also made an honorary lecturer at Victoria University of Wellington. Chen has also sat on the Trade for All Advisory Board, the Securities Commission of New Zealand, the Advisory Board of AMP Life Limited (NZ), the New Zealand Board of Trade and Enterprise's Beachheads Programme, the Asia New Zealand Foundation, the Royal NZ Ballet Board, and on the Wellington Polytechnic and Victoria University of Wellington Councils. She was President of the Harvard New Zealand Alumni Association (NZ) for eight years . Chen is a member of the New Zealand Law Society Public and Administrative Law Committee, and the New Zealand China Council. In May 2015, Chen established the Superdiversity Institute on Law, Policy and Business, undertaking research into the impact of cultural and linguistic diversity on discrimination law and policy, on electoral laws, Health and Safety legislation implementation and on parties in the Courts. Chen also established the New Zealand Asian Lawyers to increase an understanding of the issues and challenges, and to improve the contribution and practice, of Asian lawyers and Asian clients. Voluntary work Chen is founder and Chair of the Superdiversity Institute, and was the founder and previous chair of New Zealand Asian Leaders, that connects top Asian NZ lawyers, CEOs and emerging leaders with New Zealand companies doing business in Asia to enhance their success to help NZ Inc. She also helped to establish the Pacifica Leadership Academy at BEST Pacific Institute of Education, formerly led by Beatrice Faumuina. Chen is also the founder and President of New Zealand Asian Lawyers. Chen is the inaugural chair of Global Women, which is a not for profit charitable organisation for top women leaders in the public, private and not for profit sectors which mentors emerging leaders. Chen, as part of her pro-bono work, organises and hosts a number of seminars and events across Auckland to bring together the New Zealand's top legal specialists. In July 2013, Chen also launched willtolive.co.nz, a low-cost provider of templated wills for young people. Chen has done a wide range of pro bono work, including for the Auckland Zoo, New Zealand Endometriosis Foundation and He Huarahi Tamariki (the school for Teenage Parents in Tawa). Chen has also provided pro bono advice to the Bilingual Leo Pacific Coalition. Chen was President of the Harvard Law School Alumni Association (New Zealand) for ten years, and was a trustee of the Royal New Zealand Ballet Board for four and a half years. From 1982 to 1986 Chen did voluntary work with street kids referred by the Department of Social Welfare, including the establishment of a Modern Dance Group for girls . Chen has previously sat on the Yvonne Smith Scholarship Committee which awards scholarships to women, including those who want to study post-graduate law. She also was a member of the selection panel for the New Zealander of the Year award in 2019. Honours and prizes Books and publications Cultural Capability and Business Success Report: 5 top business leaders making cultural capability a cornerstone of their success, Superdiversity Institute of Law, Policy and Business, 2022 Culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse parties in the Courts: a Chinese case study, Superdiversity Institute of Law, Policy and Business, 2019. National Culture and its Impact on Workplace Health and Safety and Injury Prevention for Employers and Workers, Superdiversity Institute of Law, Policy and Business, 2019. Chen, M. & Erakovic, L. (2019). “Diverse thinking in New Zealand boardrooms: Looking through rose-coloured glasses”, paper accepted for presentation at EURAM Conference, Lisbon, 26–28 June 2019. Health and safety regulators in a superdiverse context: Review of challenges and lessons from United Kingdom, Canada and Australia, Superdiversity Institute of Law, Policy and Business, 2018. Diverse Thinking Capability Audit of New Zealand Boardrooms 2018, Superdiversity Institute of Law, Policy and Business, 2018. The Diversity Matrix: Updating What Diversity Means For Discrimination Laws in the 21st Century, Superdiversity Institute for Law, Policy and Business, 2017. Superdiversity Stocktake: Implications for Business, Government and New Zealand, Superdiversity Institute for Law, Policy and Business, 2015. Superdiversity, Democracy & New Zealand’s Electoral & Referenda Laws, Superdiversity Institute for Law, Policy and Business, 2015. Contributed to James Kouzes, Barry Posner with Michael Bunting Extraordinary Leadership in Australia & New Zealand (John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd, 2015) Public Law Toolbox (2 edition) Lexis Nexis, December 2014. Transforming Auckland: The Creation of Auckland Council LexisNexis, April 2013. Public Law Toolbox LexisNexis, March 2012. "Post-settlement implications for Crown/Māori relations" in Nicola Wheen and Janine Hayward (eds) Treaty of Waitangi Settlements Law Foundation and Bridget Williams Books, 2012 "A Public Law Toolbox Perspective on the Ombudsman’s Role After 50 Years” (paper presented to the 10th World Conference of the International Ombudsman Institute, 14 – 16 November 2012, Wellington) “Discrimination in New Zealand: A Personal Journey” in Adrien Katherine Wing (ed) Global Critical Race Feminism: An International Reader (New York University Press, New York, 2000) 129-140 “Scoping Paper on the Privacy Act 1993”, prepared for Hon Margaret Wilson, Associate Minister of Justice, 27 April 2001 Government Review of the Policy Concerning Women in Combat: Report of the Working Party on Women in Combat (1990) “The Reconfiguration of the State and the Appropriate Scope of Judicial Review” in J Boston (ed) State Under Contract (Bridget Williams Books, Wellington, 1995) “Law and Economics and the Case for Discrimination Law” in The University, Ethics and Society (Combined Chaplaincies at Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1995) Mai Chen and Rt Hon Professor Sir Geoffrey Palmer Public Law in New Zealand: Cases, Materials, Commentary and Questions (Oxford University Press, Auckland, 1993). Women and Discrimination: New Zealand and the UN Convention (Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 1989). Major articles and papers Susan Glazebrook J & Mai Chen “Tikanga and Culture in the Supreme Court: Ellis and Deng” Amicus Curiae Journal Vol 4, No. 2 (2023): Series 2, published on 6 March 2023. David Goddard J & Mai Chen “Article: Putting a Social and Cultural Framework on the Evidence Act” Amicus Curiae Journal Vol. 4 No. 1 (2022): Series 2, published on 2 November 2022. Mai Chen & Andrew Godwin “Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Parties in Australian courts – Insights from New Zealand” (2022) Issue Paper, to be launched on 12 September 2022. David Goddard J & Mai Chen “Putting a Social and Cultural Framework on the Evidence Act: Recent New Zealand Supreme Court Guidance” (2022). Presentations to a seminar on the Supreme Court decision in Deng v Zheng [2022] NZSC 76. “The Supreme Court, Confucianism and Western values and the impact on the law”, LawTalk, Issue 946, June 2021. “Latest cases on CALD parties in litigation and lessons from the Court of Appeal in Zheng”, (April 2021) Employment Law Bulletin “Lawyers need to do more to ensure CALD clients get equal access to justice in courts”, LawTalk, Issue 935, December 2020. “CALD parties before the Employment Relations Authority”, LawTalk, Issue 939, May 2020. “Judicial leadership on equal access to justice for Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Parties in Courts”, LawTalk, Issue 938, April 2020. “Unique issues and challenges faced by culturally, ethnically and linguistically diverse parties in court” [2019] New Zealand Law Journal 393. “Ensuring ethnically diverse workers do not suffer greater injury and illness”, LawTalk, Issue 925, February 2019. “The Importance of Diverse Thinking for the Legal Profession”, LawTalk, Issue 922, October 2018. “Cultural Differences”, Safeguard Magazine, September/October 2018 “Multiple Ground Discrimination: A 21st century necessity” LawTalk, Issue 902, 2 December 2016. New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 177: “The Public Law Toolbox” – 10 February 2012 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 159: “New Zealand Parliament’s love affair with fast law-making and urgency” – 6 May 2011 Mai Chen “New Zealand’s Ombudsmen Legislation: The Need for Amendments after Almost 50 Years” (2010) 40(4) VUWLR 723. This published the paper from “A Public Law Toolbox Perspective on the Ombudsman’s Role After 50 Years” (paper presented to the 10th World Conference of the International Ombudsman Institute, 14 – 16 November 2012, Wellington) New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 137: Why Ombudsman Matter and Why the Ombudsman Act needs Reform” – 28 May 2010, pp10–13 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 143: “The Relevance of Public Law to Business” – 20 August 2010, pp 10–12 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 107: The changing legislative and regulatory environment under the new Government – the first one hundred days – 8 March 2009 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 111: Is the MMP referendum likely to result in electoral reform? – 4 May 2009 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 115: The Impact of the Regulatory Reform Bill and Taskforce – 26 June 2009 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 117: The Government's decision not to regulate franchising – can it be changed? – 24 July 2009 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 123: “Education (Polytechnics) Amendment Bill 2009: A Major Law Reform in the Polytechnic Sector” – 16 October 2009 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue: 126: “Strengthening the Protection of Private Property: The Regulatory Responsibility Taskforce 2009 and Revised Bill” – 11 December 2009, pp10–11 “Auckland Local Government Reforms” (August 2009) New Zealand Law Journal 316 Mai Chen & Richard Harker “Commerce Amendment Act 2008” (November 2008) New Zealand Law Journal 421 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 82: The legislative and regulatory outlook in election year 2008 – 22 February 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 84: Greater regulation of financial advice; getting the balance right? – 20 March 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 86: Advising clients on the Electoral Finance Act – 18 April 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 92: Revealing Public Law's holy book – 11 July 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 96: Liquor Reform: good government or good politics? – 5 September 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 97: Reflections on the fifteenth anniversary of the MMP referendum – 19 September 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 98: Setting the scene: The Electoral Finance Act 2007 in context – 3 October 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 99: The Real Estate Agents Act 2008: A warning to other professions? – 17 October 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 100: When is a litigation problem really a legislative problem? – 31 October 2008 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 59: The Government agenda for 2007 from a public law perspective – 2 March 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 61: Regulate or Ban? Party Pills and Public Law Issues – 30 March 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 62: The Diagnostic Medlab case: pushing the boundaries of public law, or just an unusual set of law & facts?– 13 April 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 64: Enforcement and Penalties under the Therapeutic Products and Medicines Bill: Joint Regime or Australian Regime? – 11 May 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 66: Decision making on climate change policy and legislation: will New Zealand be ready for the first commitment period on 1 January 2008? – 8 June 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 68: The Education (Tertiary Reforms) Amendment Bill – reforming the sector or eroding academic freedom? – 6 July 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 70: Review of Parts 4A, 4 and 5 of the Commerce Act: A New Regulatory Dawn? – 3 August 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 72: Reform of the Real Estate Agents Act 1976: Some constitutional issues – 31 August 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 74: Section 19 of the Crown Entities Act: does illegality mean invalidity? – 28 September 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 76: The Government's recent climate change announcements: public law issues – 26 October 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 78: The Royal Commission of Inquiry on Auckland: Public Law Issues – 23 November 2007 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 79: Getting the balance right : Privacy, the free flow of information and the Births, Deaths, Marriages, and Relationships Registration Amendment Bill “Crown Entities Act : 18 months on” (September 2006) New Zealand Law Journal 315 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 33: Sore Loser or Defender of Democracy? Peters v Clarkson; and 2006 from a Public Law Perspective – 10 February 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 35: An underutilised public law tool? The first 15 years of the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act 1990 10 March 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 37: The Constitutional Future of the Treaty of Waitangi: will the Courts play a role? – 7 April 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 39: Private Companies and Public Duties – a Cautionary Tale – 5 May 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 41: A fresh look at Regulation: Trends and Likely Outcomes – 2 June 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 43: Evaluating the First Eighteen Months of the Crown Entities Act – 30 June 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 45: Successful Government Contracting – understanding the unique characteristics of the Government as a contracting party – 28 July 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 47: Local Government – Three years into the learning curves – 25 August 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 49: Student Discipline from the Public Law Perspective – 22 September 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 51: The Whangamata Marina Case: Crossing the Rubicon, Part 1 of 2 – 20 October 2006 New Zealand Lawyer, Issue 53: The Whangamata Marina Case: Crossing the Rubicon, Part 2 – 17 November 2006 “Is Judicial Independence under Threat in New Zealand?”, Triennial Judges Conference, Rotorua, 31 March 2003 New Zealand Law Society Seminar Delegated Legislation, May 2002, “Part II: Practical problems for practitioners with regulations”, pages 57–97 “A Constitutional Revolution? The Role of the New Zealand Parliament in Treaty-making” (2001) New Zealand Universities Law Review 448-474 “Ratifying the Kyoto Protocol by September 2002: Policy and Legislative Implications” [2001] New Zealand Law Journal 443 “The Changing Shape of the Public Sector Under the Labour-Led Coalition Government” [2001] New Zealand Law Journal 207 “Crown Entities” [2001] New Zealand Law Journal 257 “Unfinished Business: The Evolving Role of Parliament in Executive Treaty-Making in New Zealand”, Australian and New Zealand Society of International Law — American Society of International Law Proceedings of Joint Meeting 2000, 227-263 “Inquiries and reviews under the Labour/Alliance Government”, LawTalk, Issue 537, 3 April 2000 “Organising the Executive under a Change Constitution : What should be included?”, Building the Constitution Conference, (Institute of Policy Studies, Wellington, 2000) “Better Enforcing the Women’s Rights Convention” in Paul Hunt (ed) Human Rights – How are they best protected? Proceedings of a seminar organised by New Zealand Law Society, Commonwealth Human Rights Initiative, International Commission of Jurists (New Zealand Section) (Human Rights Commission, Auckland, 1998) “Improving Enforcement of the Women’s Rights Convention” (1996) 2 Human Rights Law and Practice 19 “Parliament And Law-making Under MMP: The New Standing Orders”, in Conference Papers – The 1996 New Zealand Law Conference (1996) vol 1, 132 “MMP and Further Reconfiguration of the State?” [1995] New Zealand Law Journal 158 “Accountability of SOEs & Crown-owned Companies: Judicial Review, the New Zealand Bill of Rights Act and the impact of MMP” [1994] New Zealand Law Journal 296 “The Introduction of Mixed-member Proportional Representation in New Zealand – Implications for Lawyers” (1994) 5 Public Law Review 104 “Judicial review of state-owned enterprises at the crossroads” (1994) 24 Victoria University of Wellington Law Review 51 “Self-regulation or State Regulation? Discrimination in Clubs” (1993) 15 New Zealand Universities Law Review 421 “Judicial Review under the Health and Disability Services Act 1993” (1993) 16(4) Public Sector 20 “MMP to expand lawyer influence, increase parliamentary scrutiny” (1993) Issue 406, LawTalk, 19 “Protective Laws and the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women” (1993) 15(1) Women's Rights Law Reporter 1 “The Impact of the New Human Rights Act 1993: Disability and Age Discrimination” (1993) 91 Australian and New Zealand Equal Opportunity Law and Practice Reporter, “New Developments” 705 “Remedying New Zealand’s Constitution in Crisis: Is MMP part of the answer?” [1993] New Zealand Law Journal 22 “Discrimination, Law, and Being a Chinese Immigrant Woman in New Zealand” [1993] 9(2) Women's Studies Journal 1-29 “The Inadequacies of New Zealand’s Discrimination Law” [1992] New Zealand Law Journal 137 “Reforming New Zealand’s Anti-Discrimination Law” [1992] New Zealand Law Journal 172 “A Lawyer’s Perspective on Māori and Gender Issues in the 1990 General Elections” in EM McLeay (ed) The 1990 General Election: Perspectives on Political Change in New Zealand Occasional Publication No.3 (Department of Politics, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington, 1991) 91 “The Experience of an LLM Student at Harvard Law School” [1990] New Zealand Law Journal 8 “Customary Māori Fishing Rights” [1989] New Zealand Law Journal 233 “Avoiding Compromise Agreements for Unjust Effect: An Evaluation of the Courts’ Approach to section 21(8)(b) Matrimonial Property Act 1976” (1987) 6 Otago Law Review 440 Media appearances Sunday Café with Mel Homer 15 January 2023. TV3 Newshub Nation 10 September 2022. References External links Public Law Toolbox Chambers website New Zealand Asian Leaders website Superdiversity for Law, Policy and Business website New Zealand people of Chinese descent Taiwanese emigrants to New Zealand New Zealand women lawyers Harvard Law School alumni University of Otago alumni Academic staff of Victoria University of Wellington New Zealand people of Taiwanese descent People educated at Otago Girls' High School Living people New Zealand Women of Influence Award recipients Year of birth missing (living people) 20th-century New Zealand lawyers 21st-century New Zealand lawyers 20th-century New Zealand women lawyers 21st-century New Zealand women lawyers
5192308	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic%20groups%20of%20Argentina	Ethnic groups of Argentina	Argentina has a racially and ethnically diverse population. The territory of what today is Argentina was first inhabited by numerous indigenous peoples. The first white settlers came during the period of Spanish colonization, beginning in the 16th century. The Spaniards imported African slaves, who would go on to become the first Afro-Argentines. Following independence from Spain in the 19th century and well into the 20th century, numerous migration waves took place, with Argentina being the second most popular destination for migrants in the early 20th century, after the United States. Most of these migrants came from Europe. Most modern-day Argentines are descendants of these 19th and 20th century immigrants, with about 97% of the population being of full or partial European ancestry, while an estimated of 56% have some indigenous or mestizo ancestry, and 4-5% have some African or mulatto ancestry. In the , some 955,032 Argentines (2.38% of the population) identified as indigenous or first-generation descendants of indigenous peoples, while 149,493 (0.37% of the population) identified as Afro-Argentine. In addition, Argentines of Arab (mostly Syrian and Lebanese) descent constitute a significant minority, and the Jewish population is the largest in all Latin America and the seventh in the world. Indigenous peoples continue to have significant populations in the country's North-West (Quechua, Diaguita, Kolla, Aymara); North-East (Guaraní, Mocoví, Toba, Wichí); and in the Patagonia or South (Mapuche, Tehuelche). Asian peoples have increasing minorities in some Buenos Aires neighborhoods and are expanding to other large Argentine cities. More recent migratory flows have come from other Latin American countries, with Paraguayans, Bolivians, Peruvians and Venezuelans making up the bulk of Argentina's modern-day immigrant communities. Ethnic groups Europeans Neither official census data nor statistically significant studies exist on the precise amount or percentage of Argentines of European descent today. The Argentine government recognizes the different communities, but Argentina's National Institute of Statistics and Censuses (INDEC) does not conduct ethnic/racial censuses, nor includes questions about ethnicity. The Census conducted on 27 October 2010, did include questions on Indigenous peoples (complementing the survey performed in 2005) and on Afro-descendants. Arrival of the European immigrants The number and composition of the population was stable until 1853, when the national government, after passing a constitution, started a campaign to attract European immigration to populate the country. This state policy lasted several decades. At first the number of immigrants was modest compared to other countries such as the United States (though the number of immigrants was steadily increasing as they moved to the rural areas to settle and to found colonias like those of Italian, German, Swiss, or French origin), but in the 1870s, due to the economic crisis in Europe, it started to increase, reaching an extremely high rate between 1890 and 1930. Unofficial records show that, during the 1860s, 160,000 immigrants arrived in Argentina, while in the 1880s the net number increased to 841,000, almost doubling the population of the country in that decade. Between 1857 and 1950, 6,611,000 European immigrants arrived in Argentina, making it the country with the second biggest immigration wave in the world, only second to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of such other areas of new settlement such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, New Zealand, Venezuela, Mexico and Uruguay and permanently changing the ethnography of Argentina. Immigrants arrived through the port of Buenos Aires and many stayed in the capital or within Buenos Aires Province and this still happens today. In 1895, immigrants accounted for 52% of the population in the capital, and 31% in the province of Buenos Aires (some provinces of the littoral, such as Santa Fe, had about 40%, and the Patagonian provinces had about 50%). Waves of immigrants from European countries arrived in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Over 30 percent of the country's population was born overseas by 1914, and half of the population in Buenos Aires and Rosario was foreign-born. Over 80% of the Argentine population, per the 1914 Census, were immigrants, their children or grandchildren. The Hotel de Inmigrantes, built in 1906 to accommodate the 100,000 to 200,000 yearly arrivals at the Port of Buenos Aires, was made a National Historic Monument. Italians Italian immigration to Argentina began in the 19th century, just after Argentina won its independence from Spain. Argentine culture has significant connections to Italian culture, in terms of language, customs and traditions. Italians became firmly established throughout Argentina, with the greatest concentrations in the city of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires Province, Santa Fe Province, Entre Ríos Province, Córdoba Province, Tucumán Province, La Pampa Province, and the nearby country of Uruguay. There are many reasons for the Italian immigration to Argentina: Italy was enduring economic problems caused mainly by the unification of the Italian states into one nation. The country was impoverished, unemployment was rampant, certain areas were overpopulated, and Italy was subject to significant political turmoil. Italians saw in Argentina a chance to build for themselves a brand new life. The Italian population in Argentina is the third largest in the world, and the second largest (after Brazil) outside of Italy, More than 20 million people (47% of Argentina's population according to Argentine government websites). Italians form a majority of the population of Argentina and neighboring Uruguay: up to two-thirds have some Italian background. Among Latin American countries, only Brazil has more people of Italian descent (28 million, approximately 15 percent of Brazil's total population). Croats Croats number of 200,000 in Argentina, settling primarily in Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Chaco, and Patagonia. At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries, there were over 133 settlements. Many Croatian Argentines can trace their ancestry to Dalmatia and the Croatian Littoral. Many Croats came after Nikola Mihanovich developed the merchant marine. Germans German immigration to Argentina occurred during five main time periods: pre–1870, 1870–1914, 1918–1933, 1933–1940 and post–1945. Argentina and Germany have long had close ties to each other. A flourishing trade developed between them as early as the German Unification, and Germany had a privileged position in the Argentine economy. Later, Argentina maintained a strong economic relationship with both Germany and Great Britain and supported them with supplies during World War I. There are around 50,000 German descendants living in Buenos Aires. After the United States and Brazil, Argentina is among the nations with the largest number of German descendants in the world, together with Australia, Canada, South Africa and France. They arrived in the 19th century and then before and after World War II. Their arrival continued over an extended period, from the middle to end of the 19th century, until 1960 of the 20th century. Germans, Swiss, Belgian, Luxembourg and French people founded the Colony of Esperanza, establishing the first agricultural colony and then founding others. Germans are one of the largest ethnic groups of Argentina and have had one of the biggest impacts in the Argentine culture. The influence of their culture has also impacted Argentine cuisine; this trend is especially apparent in the field of desserts. The pastries known as facturas are Germanic in origin: croissants, known as medialunas ("half-moons", from German "Halbmond"), are the most popular of these, and can be found in two varieties: butter- and lard-based. Also German in origin are the "Berliner" known as bolas de Fraile ("friar's balls"), and the rolls called piononos. The facturas were re-christened with local names given the difficult phonology of German, and usually Argentinized by the addition of a dulce de leche filling. That was also the case with the "Kreppel", called torta fritas in Argentina, which were introduced by German immigrants, and similarly with the "Achtzig Schlag" cake, translated as torta ochenta golpes. In addition, dishes like chucrut (sauerkraut) and many different kinds of sausage like bratwurst have made it into mainstream Argentine cuisine. More than 7% of Argentines are of German descent .Over 2 million ethnic Germans in Argentina are of Volga German descent . French French immigration has left a significant mark on Argentina, with a notable influence on the arts, culture, science and society of the country. Many emblematic buildings in cities like Buenos Aires, Rosario, and Córdoba were built following French Beaux Arts and neoclassical styles, such as the Argentine National Congress, the Metropolitan Cathedral, or the Central Bank building. In particular, landscape architect Carlos Thays, in his position as 1891 Director of Parks and Walkways, is largely responsible for planting thousands of trees, creating the Buenos Aires Botanical Garden and giving the city many of its parks and plazas that are sometimes compared to similar designs in Paris. While Argentines of French descent make up a substantial percent of the Argentine population, they are less visible than other similarly sized ethnic groups. This is due to the high degree of assimilation and the lack of substantial French colonies throughout the country. Spaniards Argentine elites diminished the Spanish culture from their culture in the newly independent country and created Argentine culture. Between 1857 and 1940 more than 2 million Spanish people emigrated to Argentina, mostly from Galicia, Basque Country, Asturias, Cantabria in northern Spain, Catalonia in northeast Spain, and also from Andalusia in southern Spain. Scandinavians Scandinavians arrived in Argentina around 1909. The first ones settled in the northeastern area and founded a city called Villa Svea (now called Oberá). It was composed of Swedes, Norwegians and Finns. Russians, Germans, English and Danish joined them before and after World War I and spread throughout the country. Austrians Austrians settled throughout the country in the late 19th century. Swiss Approximately 44,000 Swiss emigrated to Argentina until 1940, and settled mainly in the provinces of Córdoba and Santa Fe and, to a lesser extent, in Buenos Aires. British Around 100,000 British immigrants arrived between 1857 and 1940. The British community founded solid institutions like the British Hospital in Buenos Aires, the Herald newspaper, prestigious bilingual schools and clubs as the Lawn Tennis Club and Hurlingham Club. British immigrants had a strong impact on the taste of Argentine sports through the development of football, polo, hockey, and rugby, among others. Today, there are over 350,000 Argentines with ancestry from the British Isles. Greeks There are about 30,000 to 50,000 Argentines of Greek descent. The first immigrants arrived at the end of the 18th century, while the bulk of immigration occurred during the first half of the 20th century. Many were Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians immigrating from Greece, who became adjusted to Argentine society because of the linguistic similarities between Eastern Romance and Spanish, as well as the Latin identity of Aromanians and Megleno-Romanians. Bulgarians Bulgarian immigration in Argentina began intensively in the 1920s and had a second boom period between 1937 and 1938. Most of them were farmers from the northern regions of Bulgaria. Most settled in the province of Chaco. Czechs The Czechs were also part of the great immigration of the early 20th century. Most of their descendants live in the provinces of Chaco and Mendoza, in the country. Irish The Irish emigrated to Argentina in the 19th century, between 1830 and 1875. They extended throughout the country, especially in the provinces of Santa Fe, Entre Rios and Córdoba. The modern Irish-Argentine community is estimated to be between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Argentina is the home of the fifth largest Irish community in the world. Lithuanians The Lithuanians arrived mostly after the First World War, between 1925 and 1930, and settled mainly in Buenos Aires, Berisso and Rosario. Luxembourgers From 1888 to 1890, the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg was literally overwhelmed by a transatlantic migration wave, the so-called "Argentinienfieber", literally ‘Argentine fever’. In less than two years, more than one thousand Luxembourgers - representing 0.5 per cent of the entire population - decided to emigrate to Argentina. Dutch The first organized immigration from the Netherlands occurred in 1889, when immigrants came from the area of Friesland. A second immigration took place around 1924. Most of them settled in Mar del Plata, Bahía Blanca, Comodoro Rivadavia, and Chubut. Polish Organized Polish immigration began in 1897 and had a decisive influence in the Argentine population. Between the two world wars (1918–1939) large numbers of Poles emigrated. They mostly settled in Llavallol, San Justo, Valentín Alsina, San Martin, and Quilmes. Between 1946 and 1950 around one hundred thousand Poles settled in the country. Russians There is a significant number of Russians in Argentina. Most reside in Buenos Aires and northeastern areas. The majority of them arrived between 1880 and 1921. Another small wave arrived in the country in early 1990. Ukrainians Ukrainian regular immigration to Argentina began in the 19th century. The first Ukrainian settlement in the country was in 1897. Subsequently, groups of immigrants settled in Buenos Aires, Misiones, Chaco, Corrientes, Formosa, Mendoza, Río Negro, and Entre Ríos. Estimates of the Ukrainian and/or Ukrainian-descended population range from 300,000 to 470,000 people (the latter figure making Ukrainians up to 1% of the total Argentine population). Welsh The Welsh settlement in Argentina – known in Welsh as "Y Wladfa" – began in 1865 and occurred mainly along the coast of Chubut Province in the far southern region of Patagonia. In the 19th and early 20th century the Argentine government encouraged the immigration of Europeans to populate the country outside the Buenos Aires region; between 1856 and 1875 no fewer than 34 settlements of immigrants of various nationalities were established between Santa Fe and Entre Ríos. In addition to the main colony in Chubut, a smaller colony was set up in Santa Fe by 44 Welsh people who left Chubut, and another group settled at Coronel Suárez in southern Buenos Aires Province. In the early 21st century, around 50,000 Patagonians are of Welsh descent. The Welsh-Argentine community is centered around Gaiman, Trelew and Trevelin. By Chubut's own estimate, the number of Welsh speakers is about 25,000. The Welsh language is still present in Welsh communities of Argentina and they have developed their own dialect known as Patagonian Welsh. Jewish The overwhelming majority of Argentina's Jewish community derives from immigrants of Northern, Central, and Eastern European origin (Ashkenazi Jews), although there is a significant Sephardic population. Argentina's Jewish population is, by far, the largest in all of Latin America and is the fifth largest in the world. Buenos Aires itself is said to have over 100,000 practicing Jews, making it one of the largest Jewish urban centers in the world (see also History of the Jews in Argentina). Romani There are approximately 300,000 Roma in Argentina. West Asians Arabs and Levantines There are 1,300,000–3,500,000 Argentines whose ancestry traces back to any of various waves of immigrants, largely of Levantine cultural and linguistic heritage and/or identity. Most Levantine Argentines are from Lebanese background, originating mainly from what is now Lebanon. There are people from other Arabic speaking countries in lesser numbers. Most are Christians of the Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic (Maronite) churches. The first Levantine settled in Argentina in the 19th century, and most who came during this time period were Lebanese. From 1891 to 1920, 367,348 people of Levantine heritage immigrated into Argentina. When they were first processed in the ports of Argentina, they were classified as Turks because modern-day Lebanon as the rest of the levant were then occupied by the Turkish Ottoman Empire. Armenians The Armenians came in different time periods. The first wave was in the late 19th century, as a result of the Adana massacres and such targeted at Armenians in the region of Cilicia. The second (and largest) wave was from the 1910s to the 1930s, originated solely by the Armenian genocide. Armenophobia rose again in Turkey in the mid-20th century, and created the final migration of Armenians to the world – some of them arrived in Argentina and formed a separate third wave. The last wave was a result of the fall of the Soviet Union. There are 80,000 to 135,000 descendants of Armenians in Argentina, most of them in Buenos Aires. Amerindians Argentina's National Institute of Indigenous Affairs (INAI) identifies 38 indigenous peoples throughout the country. There are Amerindian groups like the Tobas, Aymaras, Guaraníes and Mapuches, among others, who still maintain their cultural roots, but are under continuous pressure for religious and idiomatic integration. The local natives who speak Quechua adopted that language either after they were conquered by the Inca Empire (that reached Tucumán) or by the teachings of the Spanish religious missionaries who came from Peru to today's Santiago del Estero Province; the language is quickly losing importance. The Survey on Indigenous Populations, published by the National Institute for Statistics and Census, gives a total of 600,329 people who see themselves as descending from or belonging to an indigenous people, representing 1.5% of Argentina's population. According to a recent study of 246 individuals, up to 30% of this population could have varying degrees of Native American ancestry, but other studies such as those carried by Norma Pérez Martín (2007) suggest at least 56% of Argentines would have indigenous ancestry Regarding the indigenous peoples of Argentina, the Constitution of the Argentine nation in its article 17 says: Some provinces in Argentina have indigenous languages as official languages, for example the Corrientes Province has Guarani as an official language and the Jujuy Province has Quechua and Aymara as official languages. An interesting fact is that some of the fathers of Argentina's independence wanted that the new independent state to be governed by indigenous monarchy. The Inca plan of 1816 proposed that United Provinces of the Río de la Plata (Present Argentina) should be a monarchy, led by a descendant of the Inca. Juan Bautista Túpac Amaru (half-brother of Túpac Amaru II) was proposed as monarch. This proposal was supported by notable figures such as Manuel Belgrano, José de San Martín and Martín Miguel de Güemes. The Congress of Tucumán finally decided to reject the Inca's plan, creating instead a republican, centralist state. Mapuche The Mapuche (from the Mapudungún Mapuche autonym) are the largest indigenous people in the Southern Cone, inhabiting central and southern Chile and part of Argentina. Mapuche languages are spoken in Chile and Argentina. The two living branches are Huilliche and Mapudungun. Although not genetically related, lexical influence has been discerned from Quechua. Linguists estimate that only about 200,000 full-fluency speakers remain in Chile. The language receives only token support in the educational system. In recent years, it has started to be taught in rural schools of Bío-Bío, Araucanía and Los Lagos Regions. The Mapuche traditional economy is based on agriculture; their traditional social organization consists of extended families, under the direction of a lonko or chief. In times of war, the Mapuche would unite in larger groupings and elect a toki (meaning "axe" or "axe-bearer") to lead them. Mapuche material culture is known for its textiles and silverwork. Toba The Toba, also known as the Qom, are an ethnic group of the Pampido people who live in the Central Chaco. Around the 16th century, they began to inhabit a large part of northern Argentina in what are now the provinces of Salta, Chaco, Santiago del Estero and Formosa. Guarani Guarani People are distinguished from the related Tupi by their use of the Guarani language. The traditional area of distribution of the Guaraní people is found in several countries (Paraguay, Bolivia, Uruguay, Brazil and Argentina), within Argentina they mostly inhabit the Misiones and Corrientes Provinces of Argentina. In the Corrientes Province, Guaraní is a co-official language. The Guarani had a great impact on Argentine culture, for example mate was consumed by the Guarani and Tupi peoples in pre-colonial times. Other influences could be in the famous Argentine expression "che", which could come from the Guarani language, where "che irú" means "my companion". Ava Guarani Ava guaraní is the denomination currently adopted for a mixogenized indigenous culture guaraní-arahuaca formerly better known as chiriguana', which is settled mainly in southern Bolivia, from where it expanded into western Paraguay and northwestern Argentina. Mbyá Guaraní The Mbyá Guaraní, are a branch of the Guaraní people who live in Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay. In the Argentine region of Misiones, Mbyá coexist, in the same familial communities, with members of the Xiripá Guaraní and Pai Tavytera groups. There are 120 such communities, known as tekoás, in the region, and there are approximately 11,000 Mbyá in Argentina as a whole. Two large communities in Misiones near Iguazu Falls, Fortin Mborore and Yriapú, are home to more than 2,000 people. Diaguita The Diaguita are a group of South American Indians from Chile's Norte Chico and northwestern Argentina. According to the 2010 census there are 67,410 self-identified Diaguita descendants in Argentina. Qulla They are a people who live in countries such as Argentina, Bolivia and Chile. In Argentina they are mostly located in the Corrientes, Jujuy and Catamarca provinces. Quechua The Quechua people have historically inhabited from Ecuador to Argentina. The Quechua languages have and had a great impact on the Spanish dialects of the region. Words like "Cancha" (Stadium) or "Palta" (avocado) have their origin in Quechuan languages. According to the 2010 census, the Quecha People would be composed of 55,493 people only in Argentina. The 2010 National Population Census in Argentina also revealed that there are self-identified Quechua people all over the country. Wichí They are a people who have historically inhabited Argentina, Bolivia and Paraguay. In Argentina approximately fifty thousand people have identified themselves as Whichís. Comechingón Comechingón is the common name for a group of people indigenous to the Argentine provinces of Córdoba and San Luis. They were thoroughly displaced or exterminated by the Spanish conquistadores by the end of the 17th century. According to the 2010 census there are 34,546 self-identified Comechingón descendants in Argentina. Tehuelche The Aónikenk people, also referred to by the exonym Tehuelche, are an indigenous people from Patagonia in South America, with existing members of the group currently residing in the southern Argentina-Chile borders. The 2010 National Population Census in Argentina revealed the existence of 27,813 people who considered themselves Tehuelche throughout the country, 7924 in the Chubut Province, 4570 in the interior of the Buenos Aires Province, 2615 in the Santa Cruz Province, 2269 in the Río Negro Province, 1702 in the city of Buenos Aires, 844 in the Mendoza Province, 738 in the Neuquén Province and 625 in the La Pampa Province. Mocoví The Mocoví are an indigenous tribe of the Gran Chaco region of South America. They speak the Mocoví language and are one of the ethnic groups belonging to the Guaycuru peoples. In the 2010 Argentine census, 22,439 people self-identified as Mocoví. Aymara In the 2010 Argentine census, 20,822 people self-identified as Aymara. The Aymara people are an indigenous people in the Andes and Altiplano regions of South America; about 2.3 million live in Bolivia, Peru, Chile and Argentina. Their ancestors lived in the region for many centuries before becoming a subject people of the Inca in the late 15th or early 16th century, and later of the Spanish in the 16th century. Beginning with Spanish missionary efforts, there have been many attempts to create a writing system for Aymara. The colonial sources employed a variety of writing systems heavily influenced by Spanish, the most widespread one being that of Bertonio. Querandí According to the 2010 census there are 3,658 self-identified Querandí in Argentina. Mbayá According to the 2010 census there are 7,379 self-identified Mbayá in Argentina. Rankülche The Ranquel or Rankülche are an indigenous tribe from the northern part of La Pampa Province, Argentina, in South America. According to the 2010 census there are 14,860 self-identified Ranquel in Argentina. Selk'nam The Selk'nam, also known as the Onawo or Ona people, are an indigenous people in the Patagonian region of southern Argentina and Chile. They were one of the last native groups in South America to be encountered by Europeans in the late 19th century. In the mid-19th century, there were about 4000 Selk'nam; by 1919 there were 297, and by 1930 just over 100. The exploration of gold and the introduction of farming in the region of Tierra del Fuego led to genocide of the Selk'nam perpetrated by the regimes of both states (Argentina and Chile). Joubert Yanten Gomez, a Chilean mestizo, has taught himself the language and is considered the only speaker; he uses the name Keyuk. According to Argentina's 2010 census, 696 people recognise themselves as descendants of the Selk'nam people, but they are mestizos and do not speak the Selk'nam language. Charrúa The Charrúa were an Indigenous Southern Cone people in present-day Argentina (Entre Ríos), Uruguay and Brazil (Rio Grande do Sul). They were a semi-nomadic people who sustained themselves mainly through hunting and gathering. Since resources were not permanent in every region, they would constantly be on the move. Rain, drought, and other environmental factors determined their movement. For this reason they are often classified as seasonal nomads. In Argentina 14,649 people identify themselves as Charrúa. Toconoté The Tonocotés or Tonokotés are an aboriginal people inhabiting the provinces of Santiago del Estero and Tucumán in Argentina. The Spaniards called the tonocotés and other peoples of the former Tucumán as Juríes, deformation of the Quechua word xuri that means Rhea, because of the kind of loincloth feathers of this bird that the natives wore and that they moved into real flocks. In 1574 the name of tonocoté appears on a document and eventually supplanted the earlier denomination. Current tonocotés are known as suritas. They are partially mestizos descended from the ancient tonocotés and speak their own dialect derived from Santiago del Estero's quichua. They are distributed in 19 rural communities with about 6,000 residents in the departments of San Martín, Figueroa and Avellaneda from Santiago del Estero. (According to the 2010 national census, the tonocotés village had 4,853 inhabitants) Atacama The Atacama people, also called Atacameño, are indigenous people from the Atacama Desert and altiplano region in the north of Chile and Argentina and southern Bolivia. According to the Argentine Census in 2010, 13,936 people identified as first-generation Atacameño in Argentina. In the past they spoke a language known as Kunza, to day the Kunza language is an isolate extinct language once spoken Chile, Argentina and Bolivia who have since shifted to Spanish and Quechua, to a lesser extent. The last speaker was documented in 1949. However, there are elderly people who can remember the meaning of many words and a dictionary has been created with the intention of recovering them. Julio Vilte, a native of Toconao, was able to compile a vocabulary and publish a dictionary in 2004. Huarpes The Huarpes or Warpes are an indigenous people of Argentina, living in the Cuyo region. According to the 2010 Argentine census, 34,279 people identified themselves as Huarpes. They were divided into four large groups, each corresponding to their geographic location and also to differences in language: Huarpes Allentiac (San Juan) Huarpes Millcayac (North of the province of Mendoza) Huarpes Chiquillanes (South of the province of Mendoza) Huarpes Guanacaches (Northeast of Mendoza, North of San Luis and in the southeast of San Juan) Africans Since the 15th century, groups of African slaves were exported to Argentina. From the 16th century, most Africans brought to Argentina belonged to ethnic groups who speak Bantu languages, coming from the territories now comprising the Republic of Congo, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Angola and Mozambique. Many slaves of these countries were bought in Brasil, a country where most of the slaves were from these countries, especially from Angola. In 1680–1777 came at least 40,000 slaves in the region, while among the latter date and 1812, when traffic was halted, some 70,000 were landed in Buenos Aires and Montevideo (that figure must be added another, unknown, admitted slave overland from Rio Grande do Sul). Afro-Argentines were up to a third of the population during colonial times, most of them slaves brought from Africa to work for the criollos. The 1813 Assembly decreed the Freedom of Wombs Law of 1813, which automatically freed slaves' children at birth, forty years later, in 1853, the abolition of slavery became law. Many Afro-Argentines contributed to the independence of Argentina such as María Remedios del Valle who is known as "La Madre de la Patria" (mother of the fatherland in English) and Sgt. Juan Bautista Cabral. Also there is a debate, among the historians, as to whether or not Bernardino Rivadavia, the first president of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, was of African descent. A number of myths have surged to explain the apparent disappearance of Argentina's black population. One popular myth claims that during the Paraguayan War, thousands of black citizens were forcibly conscripted and used as front-line soldiers, leading to large casualties that decreased the number of Afro-Argentines. Historian George Reid Andrews retorts that composition of the Argentine Army in 1853 meant that only two battalions of blacks served in the war, and thus this could not have been the cause of the reduction of the Afro-Argentine population. Recent historical studies suggest that that state-led blanqueamiento policies and miscegenation with an increasignly white population and with indigenous people could be the real causes of this reduction in the Afro-Argentine population. Censuses were used as a way of making black populations invisible, for example by creating new categories. Of the population of 40,117,096 in the 2010 national census, 149,493 (0.37%) self-identified as Afro-Argentine. According to genetic studies, Sub-Saharan African admixture in Argentines is around 4%. World Bank and Argentine government estimates have suggested the Argentine population with some African ancestry could number over 2 million. Since the 2000s, African immigrants, for example from Senegal, have been attracted by Argentina's flexible migration policies. November 8 has been celebrated as the National Day of Afro-Argentines and African Culture. The date was chosen to commemorate the recorded date for the death of María Remedios del Valle. Asians The first Asian-Argentines were of Japanese descent, arriving in the 1900s. For most of the 20th century they were the only Asians in Argentina. Japanese immigrants were primarily from the island of Okinawa; the majority of dry cleaning establishments in Buenos Aires were, by the mid-20th century, Japanese businesses. During the 1970s the main Asian influx was from South Korea, and during the 1990s from Taiwan and Laos. Unlike most immigrants who arrived earlier in the century, they tended to remain in close social circles and not mix with other local ethnicities. This excluded the Japanese who were the first to arrive and therefore the first to produce a native generation of mixed race Japanese-Argentines, thus integrating more so than the other Asian groups. Japanese The Japanese-Argentine population assimilated well into Argentine society, and nearly 78% of the fourth generation of Japanese-Argentines (Yonsei) are of mixed European and Japanese descent, mostly intermixed with immigrants from Italy and Spain, and in lesser number from the United Kingdom, France (mainly Occitania), Germany and Switzerland. The use of Japanese language has declined in Argentina and the Japanese-Argentine citizens speak the nation's national language, Spanish, although a minority of them only speak Japanese when living with a Japanese-born relative at home, but when they are living with Argentine-born relatives they only speak Spanish. Intermarriage in the Japanese-Argentine community. Proportion of mixed-race in each generation (%): Issei (immigrants): 0% Nisei (children): 9% Sansei (grandchildren): 66% Yonsei (great-grandchildren): 78% Koreans Argentine Koreans are the second-largest Korean diaspora community in South America and the 16th largest in the world, according to the statistics of South Korea's Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade. Their population declined by more than 50% between 1997 and 2003. Despite the small rebound in their numbers since then, they have been surpassed in size by the rapidly growing Chinese Argentine community (which since the 1990s has been increasing non-stop and is expected to become one of the biggest immigrant groups in Argentina, together with Paraguayan, Bolivian and Peruvian immigrants). In the 2010s decade, the Korean community in Argentina has fallen behind Korean communities in Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, the United States, Brazil, Canada, Singapore, The United Arab Emirates and Southeast Asia. Chinese Chinese Argentines are Argentine citizens of Chinese ancestry or Chinese-born immigrants. The Chinese Argentine community is one of the fastest-growing communities in Argentina. As of 2018, the community was made up of 200,000 people, the 0.45% of the Argentine population. Indians Also there is a small community of Indians in Argentina who are mainly immigrants or descendant of immigrants from India and form the Caribbean with Indo-Caribbean influence (i.e. Guyana, Trinidad and Tobago and Suriname). Most of them live in the provinces of Salta, the city of Buenos Aires, the province of the same name, Córdoba, Catamarca and Tucumán. In recent years there has been an increase in immigration from India, but still in small numbers. Laotian Argentina is also home to the largest Lao community in South America, with almost 2,000 people. This group emigrated due to the consequences of the Pathet Lao victory in the Lao Civil War. They arrived in Argentina thanks to the fact that after an International Conference in Geneva convened by the United Nations in mid-1979, the de facto President Jorge Rafael Videla decided to collaborate by "opening the country's doors", with the aim of improving the international image of his regime in terms of human rights. Approximately 300 families were received between 1979 and 1981. Estimated Argentine ancestry Immigration from neighbouring countries Among the most numerous immigrants from neighbouring countries are Paraguayans (the biggest foreign community), Bolivians, Peruvians, and in lesser number Ecuadorians and Brazilians. There have been reports of discrimination to these groups, as well as exploitation; Buenos Aires Police have released Bolivian citizens working in textile factories, some run by South Korean immigrants, others by Argentine businessmen and women. The former first lady, Mauricio Macri's wife Juliana Awada, was involved with illegal sweat shops, where Bolivian immigrants were treated as slaves. Uruguayans represent a special case; many have crossed the Río de la Plata to live in Argentina, mainly in Buenos Aires, searching for opportunities in the bigger country. Given their cultural resemblances with the porteños, they are rarely discriminated against. Genetic studies In the work of Corach et al., 2009, the authors say that "Argentines carried a large fraction of European genetic heritage in their Y-chromosomal (94.1%) and autosomal (78.5%) DNA, but their mitochondrial gene pool is mostly of Native American ancestry (53.7%); instead, African heritage was small in all three genetic systems (<4%)". According to Caputo et al., 2021, X-DIPs studies show that the matrilineal genetic contribution is 52.9% European, 39.6% indigenous, and 7.5% African. Homburguer et al., 2015, PLOS One Genetics: 67,3% European, 27,7% Amerindian, 3,6% African and 1,4% Asian. Di Fabbio Rocca et al., 2016. Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area: 79,9% European and 21,1% others. Rosario: 81,1% European and 18,9% others. Buenos Aires Province (Bahía Blanca): 76,9% European and 23,1% others. Puerto Madryn (Chubut Province): 67,2% European and 32,8% others. Salta Province: 41,2% European and 58,8% others. Avena et al., 2012, PLOS One Genetics: 65% European, 31% Amerindian, and 4% African. Buenos Aires Province: 76% European and 24% others. South Zone (Chubut Province): 54% European and 46% others. Northeast Zone (Misiones, Corrientes, Chaco & Formosa provinces): 54% European and 46% others. Northwest Zone (Salta Province): 33% European and 67% others. Parolin et al., (2019), found admixture in Argentine Patagonia was 62.1% European, 35.8% Amerindian and 2.1% African. Individuals with four grandparents from Central region had 85% of European admixture. Individuals with four grandparents from South and North regions had 71% and 61.9% of Amerindian admixture, respectively. According to the study by María Laura Catelli et al., 2011, the matrilineal Native American component observed in the urban populations was 66%, 41%, and 70% in South, Central, and North Argentina, respectively. According to Norma Pérez Martín, 2007, at least 56% of Argentines would have indigenous ancestry. Oliveira, 2008, on Universidade de Brasília: 60% European, 31% Amerindian and 9% African. See also Argentines History of Argentina Demographics of Argentina Culture of Argentina Southern Cone Languages of Argentina Rioplatense Spanish Native languages of Argentina Immigration to Argentina History of the Jews in Argentina Arab Argentine Angolan Argentine Cape Verdean Argentines Indians in Argentina Selk'nam genocide Napalpí massacre Conquest of the Desert Religion in Argentina Islam in Argentina References External links Official information of the Population and Human Development Commission – Chamber of Deputies. Ethnic groups in Argentina Ethnography of Argentina
5192831	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santana%20%28band%29	Santana (band)	Santana is an American rock band formed in San Francisco in 1966 by Mexican-born guitarist Carlos Santana. The band has undergone various recording and performing line-ups in its history, with Santana being the only consistent member. After signing with Columbia Records, the band's appearance at the Woodstock Festival in 1969 increased their profile, and they went on to record the commercially successful and critically-acclaimed albums Santana (1969), Abraxas (1970), and Santana III (1971). These were recorded by the group's "classic" line-up, featuring Gregg Rolie, Michael Carabello, Michael Shrieve, David Brown, and José "Chepito" Areas. Hit songs of this period include "Evil Ways", "Black Magic Woman", "Oye Como Va", and the instrumental "Samba Pa Ti". Following a change in line-up and musical direction in 1972, the band experimented with elements of jazz fusion on Caravanserai (1972), Welcome (1973), and Borboletta (1974). Santana reached a new peak of commercial and critical success with Supernatural (1999) and its singles "Smooth", featuring singer Rob Thomas, and "Maria Maria" featuring The Product G&B. The album reached No. 1 in eleven countries and sold 12 million copies in the US alone. In 2014, the "classic" line-up reunited for Santana IV (2016) and the group continue to perform and record. Santana is one of the best-selling groups of all time with over 47 million certified albums sold in the US, and an estimated 100 million sold worldwide. Its discography includes 25 studio albums, 14 of which reached the US top 10. In 1998, the line-up of Santana, Rolie, Carabello, Shrieve, Brown, and Areas was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. In 2000, the band won eight Grammy Awards in one night, a record tied with Michael Jackson, and three Latin Grammy Awards. History 1966–1972: Formation and breakthrough In 1966, Santana left Mexico for San Francisco, where he discovered the hippie and counterculture movement and found himself "wanting to be part of this new wave." Later that year, he began to assemble his own band, the first line-up of which included Sergio "Gus" Rodriguez on bass, Danny Haro on drums, and Michael Carabello on percussion. In January 1967, the four were granted an audition spot for concert promoter Bill Graham at the Fillmore Auditorium on a bill with the Paul Butterfield Blues Band and the Charles Lloyd Quartet, and named themselves the Santana Blues Band. Within a month, the group expanded with the addition of Tom Fraser on guitar and vocals, who also brought in Gregg Rolie on organ and vocals. The band stalled for several weeks, however, after Carlos was hospitalised with tuberculosis. In June 1967, Graham fired the group from performing at the Fillmore after some members turned up late for a gig supporting The Who and Loading Zone. The incident drove Carlos to bring in new and committed musicians, keeping Rolie with him. By the year's end, the band adopted the shorter name of Santana. Until early 1969, the band were joined by Marcus Malone on percussion, who left the group after being convicted of manslaughter. In late 1968, the group secured a record deal with Columbia Records, following a successful audition opening for The Grateful Dead. The band had caught the interest of Columbia and Atlantic Records, and an audition was organised for both labels, but Carlos refused to perform for Atlantic as he wanted to be on the same label as Miles Davis and Bob Dylan. In December, Santana performed a series of concerts at the Fillmore that were recorded for a proposed live album. Biographer Simon Leng said it marked Santana moving away from its blues and R&B roots towards the "Santana sound" with the addition of Afro-Cuban and jazz numbers into their sets. After several line-up changes, the group finally stabilised in May 1969 with Santana, Rolie, Carabello, David Brown on bass, Michael Shrieve on drums, and Jose "Chepito" Areas on percussion, which became known as the "classic" line-up. The band recorded their debut album, Santana, in San Francisco in May 1969. It was their third go at recording an album, after previous attempts failed to produce results they wanted. The sessions featured Alberto Gianquinto on piano, who also helped with the arrangements of the tracks. He quickly noticed the group's main problem: the solo spots were too long. Graham agreed, and advised that the band needed to cut the lengthy jams and begin constructing songs. He also got the band to listen to Willie Bobo's version of "Evil Ways", and suggested they record their own version. With the album recorded, Graham arranged for Santana to tour the Midwest as openers for Crosby, Stills and Nash, which expanded the group's profile outside the West Coast. Around this time, Graham had been asked to help organise the upcoming Woodstock Festival, agreed to promote it on the condition that Santana would be added to the bill. Graham persisted, and the band were assigned a 45-minute set in the afternoon of August 16, the second day, for $2,500. The performance launched the group to international fame, and Santana, released on August 30, peaked at No. 4 on the US Billboard 200. The first single, "Jingo", was followed by "Evil Ways", which peaked at No. 9 on the Billboard Hot 100. In October 1969, Graham had Santana perform at the Gold Rush rock music festival and on The Ed Sullivan Show, further increasing the group's nationwide exposure. In April 1970, Santana returned to the studio to record its second album, Abraxas. The album, highlighted by a reworking of "Black Magic Woman" by Fleetwood Mac that peaked at No. 4 in the US Billboard Hot 100, was released in September 1970 and rose to number 1 on the US Billboard 200. By 1971, the group were still struggling to maintain a strong musical direction. From January to July they recorded Santana III. Released in September 1971, the album also reached number 1 on the US Billboard 200. At the peak of the band's popularity, the album was the last to feature its classic Woodstock era line-up. Santana explained that there was a lot of unnecessary internal resentment and that managerial problems contributed to the problem, leading to Graham's dismissal. That year, they performed at a concert in Accra to commemorate Ghana's 14th Independence Day. The concert was filmed and released in theaters as Soul to Soul. Matters came to a head shortly before the Santana III tour in September 1971 began, when Carlos wanted Carabello to leave the group, otherwise he would. The band started the tour without Carlos, performing amidst shouts from the audience for the guitarist. After several gigs, Carlos reunited with the band to find Carabello, Areas, and manager/promoter Stan Marcum had quit, leaving the band to perform without percussionists. James "Mingo" Lewis was quickly brought in as a temporary replacement after he saw the band live and offered his services. Santana's gig in Lima, Peru in December 1971 brought further trouble, as the outbreak of violence resulted in their equipment being confiscated and the band deported from the country. The incident was a wake up call for Carlos, who was determined to "bring the madness to an end." In 1972, Santana had been increasingly influenced by the music of Miles Davis, John Coltrane, and Joe Zawinul, who had explored jazz fusion by this time. The fourth album, Caravanserai (1972), marked a number of line-up changes; bassist David Brown left in 1971 before recording started and was replaced by Doug Rauch and Tom Rutley. Carabello was replaced with two percussionists, Armando Peraza and Mingo Lewis. Rolie was replaced by Tom Coster on a few songs. Caravanserai debuted at number 8 in the US. 1973–1979: Experimentation and consolidation 13 months after Caravanserai, Santana released Welcome. Welcome was the first of four consecutive albums to achieve gold certification, as opposed to the previous four, which all at least reached platinum status. The album peaked at number 25 on the Billboard 200, the lowest of the band's career so far. The next few albums contained a more experimental style than their previous work, beginning with Borboletta, which fared arguably worse than its predecessor, despite climbing five spots higher on the Billboard album charts in the US. The group's 1976 release, Amigos, was far more successful. Reaching number 10 on the US charts, and also hitting the top 10 in France, Australia, New Zealand, Austria and the Netherlands, it was a return to the success of their early albums. Festival, did not obtain the same new-found success, but was followed by another successful album, Moonflower, released in 1977. The album was possibly the most successful since Santana III, achieving 2× platinum in the US, and being the first album since 1974's Borboletta, to break the top 10 in the UK. It was characterized by a stylistic shift for the band, as it contained heavier influences from the more conventional sound of the group's early work, while still maintaining the experimental sound of their last few albums. Their next two releases, Inner Secrets and Marathon, released in 1978 and '79, respectively, were a further musical shift for the band, moving away from the Latin-fused rock music that had characterized their work in the late 1960s and the majority of the '70s, to move towards a more album-oriented, conventional rock sound. These albums, however, fared poorly commercially, although both achieved gold status in the US. 1980–1997: Commercial decline and seven-year hiatus The 1980s started relatively brightly for Santana, with 1981's platinum-selling Zebop!, which also reached the top 20 in several countries, and continued the more conventional rock sound. The following year, Shangó was released; this album marked a steep decline in the band's commercial fortunes, although it still achieved gold status. The group waited another three years to release the follow-up, the longest break for them so far. 1985's Beyond Appearances was a commercial failure, and their first album not to achieve gold certification. Their following three releases all continued this commercial decline, with the last of these failing to break the Billboard top 100. In the midst of this commercial pitfall, the band stopped recording material for an unprecedented seven years but continued to tour. 1998–2001: Supernatural and the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame In 1998, Santana was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. The following year, their album Supernatural (1999) debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 and reached No. 1 after eighteen weeks. Also reaching No. 1 were two singles: "Smooth", recorded with Rob Thomas, and "Maria Maria" featuring The Product G&B. The album was certified platinum 15 times by the RIAA and sold 30 million copies worldwide. Santana's previous number one album had been Santana III in 1971. According to Guinness World Records, this is the longest gap between number one albums. Supernatural won nine Grammy Awards, including the award for Album of the Year, and also won three Latin Grammy Awards, including Record of the Year. 2002–2012: Dealing with new-found success The follow-up to Supernatural came three years later and was highly anticipated by international media and fans alike. On October 22, 2002, Shaman was released worldwide. Although it initially sold briskly (298,973 copies in the US in its first week) and debuted at number 1 on the Billboard 200, the album's appeal quickly wore off and it soon slid down the charts. Despite this, it went on to sell 2× platinum in the US, and achieved platinum status in several other countries including Australia. The first single released from the album, "The Game of Love", which featured vocals from Michelle Branch, debuted at number 5 on the Hot 100. The album's next four singles failed to chart in most countries, but the final single, "Why Don't You & I", featuring the vocals of Alex Band, reached number 8 on the Hot 100. Musically, the album was a return to a more conventional sound for the group, with a mainly Latin rock-based sound. With their renewed appeal worn off, another three-year wait saw the release of 2005's All That I Am. The album debuted at number 2 on the Billboard 200 but fared worse internationally, and quickly lost appeal. The album, a continuation of the Latin-rock influenced sound of Shaman, achieved gold certification in the US. A five-year break from recording saw the release of another studio album, Guitar Heaven (2010). Musically it was a drastic change for the band, with a far heavier sound at its core and strong heavy metal influences. It debuted at number 5 on the Billboard 200 but marked another decline for the band, failing to achieve gold status. In 2012 the group released Shape Shifter, which returned to the conventional Latin rock sound and was completely album-oriented, as no singles were released from it. It debuted at number 16 on the Billboard 200. 2013–present: Reunion of the classic line-up, Corazón, Santana IV, and Africa Speaks On 2 February 2013, Carlos Santana confirmed that he would reunite his classic line-up, most of whom played Woodstock with him in 1969. Santana stated that he was reuniting the group with the intention of recording new music. Confirmed for the reunion were Neal Schon, who was in the band in the early 1970s where he traded lead guitar work with Santana before leaving with founding Santana singer-organist Gregg Rolie in 1973 to form Journey; drummer Mike Shrieve and percussionist Mike Carabello. Santana said of Rolie, who played with Ringo Starr's All-Starr Band for the last two years, "I'm pretty sure Gregg's going to do it." In February 2013, Rolie told Radio.com, "it's (the reunion) just a matter of putting it together and going and doing it. I would do it. I think it's a great idea. People would love it. It could be great!" In the meantime, on 6 May 2014 Santana released a new studio album entitled Corazón and on 9 September 2014, Corazón – Live from Mexico: Live It to Believe It, a new live album (on CD, DVD and Blu-ray) of their show on 14 December 2013 in Guadalajara, Mexico. On 15 April 2016, Santana released Santana IV, the wildly anticipated studio album that reunited the early 1970s classic lineup of Carlos Santana (guitar, vocals), Gregg Rolie (keyboards, lead vocals), Neal Schon (guitar, vocals), Michael Carabello (percussion) and Michael Shrieve (drums). The album marked the first time in 45 years – since 1971's multi-platinum classic Santana III – that the quintet had recorded together. The origins for the reunion go back several years, when Schon suggested that he and Carlos Santana record together. Santana liked the idea but went one better, proposing that they recruit Rolie, Shrieve and Carabello for what would be called "Santana IV". After initial writing sessions and rehearsals took place in 2013, the group recorded throughout 2014 and 2015, amassing 16 new tracks that combined all their signature elements – Afro-Latin rhythms, soaring vocals, electrifying blues-psychedelic guitar solos, and irrepressible jubilant percussion work. About the "Santana IV" team, Santana stated: "It was magical, we didn't have to try to force the vibe – it was immense. From there, we then needed to come up with a balance of songs and jams that people would immediately identify as Santana." Santana IV features 16 all-new tracks written and produced by the band. Joining the core "Santana IV" band in the studio are current Santana members Karl Perazzo (percussion) and Benny Rietveld (bass), with vocalist Ronald Isley guesting on two cuts. The first single from Santana IV, entitled "Anywhere You Want to Go", was released on 5 February 2016. On 21 October 2016, Santana released Santana IV: Live at the House of Blues Las Vegas on Eagle Rock Entertainment, a new (151 minutes) live album (on DVD/Blu-ray/2CD) of their concert on 21 March 2016 at House of Blues in Mandalay Bay Resort and Casino on the Las Vegas Strip in Nevada. In early January 2019, Santana signed with Concord Records and on 25 January, they released In Search of Mona Lisa, a new (5-track) EP. The day before, they also released a video for new single, "Do You Remember Me." In March 2019, the band announced plans to release on June 7, 2019, Africa Speaks, their new full-length album produced by Rick Rubin. 2019 marked the 20th anniversary of Carlos Santana's album, Supernatural, and the 50th anniversary of his performance at Woodstock. Santana headlined a multi-year residency at House of Blues. The band was expected to headline at both Woodstock 50 (which was cancelled) and Bethel Woods' half-centennial celebration in Bethel, NY, in August 2019. The band toured in support of the latest album, from April to November 2019. 2021: Blessings and Miracles On 18 and 20 August 2021, "Move" and "She's Fire", the first and second singles taken from Santana's (then) forthcoming new album Blessings and Miracles, were released, and it was announced that the album would be released on 15 October 2021 via BMG Entertainment. Personnel Bold denotes members of the classic lineup. Current members Former members Timeline Discography Santana (1969) Abraxas (1970) Santana III (1971) Caravanserai (1972) Welcome (1973) Borboletta (1974) Amigos (1976) Festivál (1977) Moonflower (1977) Inner Secrets (1978) Marathon (1979) Zebop! (1981) Shangó (1982) Beyond Appearances (1985) Freedom (1987) Spirits Dancing in the Flesh (1990) Milagro (1992) Supernatural (1999) Shaman (2002) All That I Am (2005) Guitar Heaven (2010) Shape Shifter (2012) Corazón (2014) Santana IV (2016) Africa Speaks (2019) Blessings and Miracles (2021) Awards and nominations Santana has won numerous awards, including eight Grammy Awards and three Latin Grammy Awards. The band was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1998; two of Santana's albums have been inducted the Grammy Hall of Fame (Abraxas in 1999 and the original Santana in 2012); and one song has been inducted into the Latin Grammy Hall of Fame ("Oye Como Va" in 2001). References Sources External links Acid rock music groups 1966 establishments in California APRA Award winners Columbia Records artists Grammy Award winners Latin Grammy Award winners Latin music groups Musical groups established in 1966 Musical groups from San Francisco Psychedelic rock music groups from California World Music Awards winners American blues rock musical groups Jam bands Musical nonets
5192989	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catawissa%20Creek	Catawissa Creek	Catawissa Creek (colloquially known as The Cat) is a tributary of the Susquehanna River in east-central Pennsylvania in the United States. Its watershed has an area of . The waters of Catawissa Creek are highly acidic, with a pH of 4.5, due to runoff from an abandoned mine in the creek's watershed. Catawissa Creek is smaller than the nearby Fishing Creek due to a lack of major tributaries. Catawissa Creek starts in Luzerne County, not far from Hazleton. It flows west and slightly south into Schuylkill County before flowing north into Columbia County and then west to the Susquehanna River, which it flows into at Catawissa. It parallels Catawissa Mountain for a significant portion of its course. The surface rock in Catawissa Creek largely consists of sedimentary rock, such as sandstone and shale. However, there is also coal in the watershed. Major soils in the creek's watershed include the Leck Kill soil and the Albrights series. Most of the steeper hills in the watershed are situated near the headwaters of the creek. Coal mining was once a major industry in the Catawissa Creek watershed, but this is no longer the case. Major tributaries of Catawissa Creek include Little Catawissa Creek and Tomhicken Creek. The president of the Catawissa Creek Watershed Restoration Association, Ed Wytovich, called Catawissa Creek "probably the most beautiful screwed-up stream east of the Mississippi". Hydrology Audenried Tunnel Where the Audenried Tunnel meets Catawissa Creek, the concentration of iron is 0.7 milligrams per liter (mg/L). The daily load of iron is , which is 1.24 times the total maximum daily load allowed under the U.S. Clean Water Act. There are 2.28 mg/L of magnesium in the creek. The daily load of it is per day, which is 3.73 times the total maximum daily load. Aluminium makes up 7.93 mg/L. The daily load is per day, which is 19.8 times the total maximum daily load. The total concentration of acidity in the creek is 68.08 mg/L. A total of flow through the creek. This figure is 100 times the total maximum daily load. The concentration of alkalinity is 2.31 mg/L, which equates to per day. Green Mountain Tunnel At the Green Mountain Tunnel, the concentration of iron is 0.44 mg/L, which equates to a load of per day. There are 0.64 mg/L of manganese, which equates to a load of per day. There are 2.97 mg/L of aluminium, meaning that flow through each day. The amount of acidity is 28.06 mg/L, which equates to a load of per day. Alkalinity takes up 3.29 mg/L, and flow through per day. Catawissa Tunnel Where the Catawissa Creek receives the Catawissa Tunnel, the concentration of iron is 1.01 mg/L, equating to a load of per day. Manganese makes 0.31 mg/L, which is equivalent to a load of per day. Aluminium's concentration is 1.27 mg/L, meaning that flow through per day. The concentration of acidity is 18.44 mg/L, which equates to a load of per day. Alkalinity comprises 4.11 mg/L, equating to a load of per day. Catawissa Creek's headwaters At Catawissa Creek's headwaters, the concentration of iron in the water is 0.34 mg/L. Manganese's level of occurrence is 1.74 mg/L. Aluminium's concentration is 3.2 mg/L. Acidity makes up 34.5 mg/L and alkalinity makes up 0.17 mg/L. At Susquehanna River Where Catawissa Creek meets the Susquehanna River, the concentration of iron in the water is 0.11 mg/L, which equates to a load of per day. Manganese's concentration is 0.33 mg/L, equating to a load of per day. Aluminium's occurrence level is 0.85 mg/L, which equates to a daily load of . The concentration of acidity is 12.8 mg/L, meaning that flow through per day. The concentration of alkalinity is 18.16 mg/L, which equates to a load of per day. Below Messers Run Shortly downstream of the confluence of Catawissa Creek with Messers Run, the pH of Catawissa Creek ranges between 4.1 and 6.2, with an average of 4.5. Further downstream, at Davis Run, the pH changes to 4.5 to 4.9, and averages 4.64. After picking up Rattling Run, Dark Run, and Little Catawissa Creek, but before picking up Tomhicken Creek, Catawissa Creek's pH ranges from 3.2 to 6.4 and averages 4.96. After the confluence with Tomhicken Creek, Catawissa Creek's pH ranges from 4.7 to 5.4. Despite the presence of acid mine drainage in Catawissa Creek, its waters are largely clear. Geology From Catawissa Creek's source to Mainville, the creek's river valley is steep and narrow, and from Mainville to the creek's mouth, the river valley is more rolling. Interbedded sedimentary rock makes up 93% of the surface rock in the Catawissa Creek watershed, while the remaining 7% is sandstone. South of Mainville, the Catawissa Creek river valley is made of red shale. There is also conglomerate, greenish-gray sandstone, olive-colored shale, and anthracite coal near Catawissa Creek. The geological features near the headwaters of Catawissa Creek primarily include anthracite and ridges of sandstone. The valleys in this part of the watershed are narrow and steep. Elsewhere in the watershed, the topography consists mostly of less steep valleys and some hills. McCauley Mountain and Green Mountain form the sides of the Catawissa Creek valley in Beaver Township. McCauley Mountain has a gradual slope near the creek. At the location where Catawissa Creek flows past Nescopeck Mountain in Main Township, there is a layer of rock known as the Pocono Formation. Below it, there is a layer of rock called the Pocono-Catskill Formation. Below the Pocono-Catskill Formation is a layer of red shale that is thick. A formation of greenish-gray sandstone near Catawissa Creek has been quarried for use in building. Below this layer is an olive colored sandstone that is home to Spirifer fossils. This layer is to thick. In a layer of red shale that is at least thick, there are fucoid fossils. Soils A type of soil known as the Leck Kill soil occurs along Catawissa Creek. Usually, cultivated Leck Kill soils are topped with an thick layer of dark brown silt loam, with a subsoil of reddish-brown silt loam that extends to a depth of . Below the subsoil is a thick layer of clay loam. The bedrock below this type of soil is red shale. The Albrights series also occurs along Catawissa Creek. This type of soil is topped by a thick layer of reddish-brown gravelly silt loam. Below this layer, there is a subsoil of yellowish-red silty clay loam. Below the subsoil is a layer of mixed gravel and silty clay loam. Bedrock occurs several feet underground. Course Luzerne County Catawissa Creek's source is in a strip mine area in southern Luzerne County and northern Schuylkill County near Audenried and McAdoo, a few miles southwest of the city of Hazleton. However, it quickly becomes lost in the strip mines of the area. The creek resurfaces in an iron-filled pool west of Interstate 81. It runs west through another strip mine before passing into Schuylkill County. Schuylkill County Upon entering Schuylkill County in East Union Township, Catawissa Creek flows approximately west-southwest into a valley. In the valley, it goes past the geographical features called Round Head and Blue Head, picking up a tributary near Blue Head. Beyond Blue Head, the creek flows past Sheppton and then Brandonville. It picks up a tributary called Rattling Run at the edge of the township, shortly before entering Union Township. As the creek enters Union Township, its valley briefly becomes very deep before becoming shallower again. It picks up Dark Run in the township. The creek flows along the East Union Township/Union Township border before entering North Union Township. Upon entering North Union Township, Catawissa Creek flows northwards until it reaches the community of Zion Grove, where it takes a sharp turn northwest. At Zion Grove, the walls of the creek's valley again become considerably higher and steeper. As it exits Zion Grove, it picks up Tomhicken Creek. Catawissa Creek takes a sharp turn to the west and flows under Red Ridge. At the western edge of Red Ridge, the creek takes a sharp turn northwards, followed shortly afterwards by a gentle turn westwards. It picks up Crooked Run at the edge of North Union Township, and then flows into Columbia County. Columbia County Catawissa Creek enters Columbia County in Beaver Township. It immediately passes by Bunker Hill and makes several meanders and passes by Beaver Valley. An old Conrail railroad starts paralleling Catawissa Creek at this point. In the southern part of Beaver Township, the creek is situated between Buck Mountain to the east and Catawissa Mountain to the west. The creek takes a sharp turn westwards as it passes by Shumans, where Pennsylvania Route 339 crosses the creek and Beaver Run flows into it. The creek closely follows Catawissa Mountain for a short distance before turning northwards and passing close to McCauley Mountain. It meanders past Dry Ridge and then Full Mill Hill, where Pennsylvania Route 339 crosses it again. The creek makes a hairpin turn northwards and picks up Gap Run before exiting Beaver Township. Leaving Beaver Township, the creek enters Main Township. It continues following Catawissa Mountain, and, for a shorter distance, Full Mill Hill. It picks up Gap Run and Fisher Run from the left, Scotch Run from the right, and Furnace Run from the left in quick succession. After picking up Furnace Run, Catawissa Creek flows between Catawissa Mountain and Nescopeck Mountain in a high, narrow gorge. As the creek leaves the gorge, it passes Mainville and enters a plain. The creek turns west-southwest and the plain narrows slightly. On the south side of the plain is Catawissa Mountain and on the north side are lower hills. After a few miles, the creek flows out of Main Township and into Catawissa Township. In Catawissa Township, the creek flows southwest to Catawissa. It follows the southern border of Catawissa until it reaches its edge and turns northwards, following the western border of Catawissa. Pennsylvania Route 487 crosses over the creek at this point. At the western edge of Catawissa, the creek empties into the Susquehanna River. History Early history Catawissa, meaning "growing fat", was the name applied to the stream by the Native American tribes which originally occupied the area at the mouth of Catawissa Creek. Fur traders lived along the Catawissa as early as 1728. According to legend, Catawissa Creek got its name because an Indian killed a deer near there "in the season when the animal fattens". 18th century Settlers of European descent arrived on or near Catawissa Creek before 1776. The settlers included Alexander McCauley and Andrew Harger. McCauley left the area in 1776 and Harger was abducted by Indians. The Englishman Thomas Wilson was another early settler in the area. He lived in a cave on Catawissa Creek. The first mill in Columbia County was built on Catawissa Creek in 1774. Two other mills were built on the Creek in 1789 and 1799. 19th century In 1826, a forge was built on Catawissa Creek for making bar iron. By the late 1820s, there were plans to build a railroad paralleling Catawissa Creek and connecting Catawissa with Pottsville. The Catawissa Railroad, which was built in the 1830s, paralleled Catawissa Creek for part of its course. Another railroad that historically paralleled Catawissa Creek was the Danville, Hazleton and Wilkes-Barre Railroad, which was built in 1870. A paper mill was established on Catawissa Creek in Catawissa in 1811. In the late 19th century a dam was built on Catawissa Creek in Beaver Township. In 1886, a bridge known as the Catawissa Creek Bridge was built over Catawissa Creek by Columbia County. It was located at what was then Reichard's switch on the Philadelphia and Reading Railway. The bridge was destroyed by a flood in 1902, but later rebuilt. It was again carried away about downstream by ice and flooding on March 7, 1904, although it remained intact despite being carried away. The bridge, however, was not rebuilt again in that location. 20th century From the middle of the 19th century until the early part of the 1970s, coal was mined in the eastern portion of the Catawissa Creek watershed. The coal was primarily mined in the Jeansville Coal Basin and the Green Mountain Coal Basin. The Catawissa Water Company once used water from Catawissa Creek. Five drainage tunnels were built in the watershed in the 1930s, and they still discharge acid mine drainage in the 21st century. Strip mining has occurred in parts of the watershed, mainly the Catawissa Creek headwaters and the Little Tomhicken Creek sub-watershed. While deep mining of coal in the Catawissa Creek watershed ceased in the 1970s, strip mining still continued for some time. However, in the 21st century, there are still five mining permits in the watershed and some coal is still extracted from refuse banks. Several surveys of Catawissa Creek have been performed by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission. The first one was in 1957. There were two more surveys of chemical hydrology in 1966 and 1976. In 1997, the commission assessed the creek and its tributaries for usability as fisheries for the first time. There were several attempts in the late 20th century and 21st century to raise the pH of Catawissa Creek. Between 1998 and 2000, the Catawissa Creek Restoration Association added limestone sand into the creek, but were not successful in raising the pH. However, in 2001, the Oneida #1 treatment system successfully neutralized the tributary Sugarloaf Creek. As of 2000, there have been plans to reroute Catawissa Creek away from the Audenried Tunnel and the Green Mountain Tunnel. The Catawissa Creek Watershed Restoration Association was established in 1997. Catawissa Creek is the subject of at least two 1862 paintings by Thomas Moran: On the Catawissa Creek, now on display in the University Of Virginia Art Museum and Valley of the Catawissa in Autumn at the Crystal Bridges Art Museum Watershed Catawissa Creek's watershed ranges through four counties: Columbia County, Schuylkill County, Luzerne County, and Carbon County. The area of the watershed in Columbia and Schuylkill Counties are both large, with the area in Luzerne County being considerably smaller. The area in Carbon County consists of only a few square miles Tresckow. Pennsylvania Route 339 and Pennsylvania Route 924 are the main highways in the Catawissa Creek watershed. They both run along the creek for some distance. However, Interstate 81 passes by the creek's headwaters and there are many township roads throughout the watershed. The communities of McAdoo and Kelayres are on the extreme eastern edge of the watershed. Sheppton and Oneida are also in the watershed. The Hollingshead Covered Bridge No. 40 crosses Catawissa Creek. There are five drainage tunnels in the Catawissa Creek watershed: the Audenried, Oneida #1, Oneida #3, Catawissa, and Green Mountain. Audenried Tunnel drains the Jeansville Coal Basin on the eastern edge of the watershed. Oneida #1 empties into, Sugarloaf Creek, a tributary of Catawissa Creek. The Oneida #3 empties into Tomhicken Creek, another tributary of Catawissa Creek. The other two empty into Catawissa Creek itself, relatively close to each other. The Audenried Tunnel is responsible for 80% of the acid mine drainage flowing into Catawissa Creek. Out of the land in the Catawissa Creek watershed, 78.4% is forested, 17.4% is agricultural, and 1% is developed. Two percent of the land in the watershed is former coal-mining land, such as old coal mines and quarries. Fauna and flora Some of Catawissa Creek's tributaries are known to contain trout, but the creek itself does not contain any fish due to pollution from acidic mine drainage. In 1966, some woodcocks were observed to live along Catawissa Creek. Rhododendrons and hemlocks typically grow close to Catawissa Creek, while hardwood trees grow higher up in Catawissa Creek's river valley. In the late 1800s, a large number of plants resembling fucoids were discovered along Catawissa Creek near the border of Main and Catawissa Townships. In the late 1950s, Catawissa Creek was found by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission to have good temperatures for trout habitation, but there was no aquatic life in the creek due to acid mine drainage. This situation continued through the 1960s and 1970s. However, by 1997, large populations of wild trout were found on some tributaries of Catawissa Creek. As of 2003, Catawissa Creek is considered to be a cold-water fishery between its headwaters and its confluence with Rattling Run. Several other tributaries, namely Dark Run, Davis Run, Little Catawissa Creek, and Messers Run are designated as high-quality cold water fisheries. Aquatic macroinvertebrates are not common in and around Catawissa Creek, as of 2003. However, some adult members of the Allocapnia and Taeniopteryx genera have been observed. Large numbers of Amphinmeura and Leuctra have also been observed on the creek between its headwaters and the Audenried and Green Mountain tunnels. Tributaries Spies Run and Davis Run are two tributaries that flow into Catawissa Creek within a few miles of its headwaters. Spies Run is about one mile long and joins Catawissa Creek from the south. Davis Run is slightly longer, about . It also joins Catawissa Creek from the south, near Brandonville. Rattling Run, a tributary, also flows into Catawissa Creek from the south near Brandonville. The next tributaries of Catawissa Creek going downstream are Dark Run and Little Catawissa Creek. Dark Run is close to four miles long and flows into Catawissa Creek from the southwest. Little Catawissa Creek is approximately ten miles long and flows into Catawissa Creek from the west, less than a mile downstream from Dark Run. Little Catawissa Creek starts near Centralia and passes by Ringtown. Tomhicken Creek is the next tributary of Catawissa Creek flowing downstream. It has a few tributaries, including Raccoon Creek and Sugarloaf Creek. Approximately two miles downstream of Tomhicken Creek, Crooked Run, Cranberry Run and Klingerman's Run join Catawissa Creek from the south about 2 to 3 miles apart. In addition to Klingerman's Run, Fisher Run, and Furnace Run flow down Catawissa Mountain to Catawissa Creek. Scotch Run flows into the creek from the east. Recreation It is possible to paddle on much of Catawissa Creek for parts of the year. However, it is not usually possible to paddle on the creek during the summer. Upstream of Mainville, there are some riffles and small rapids. There is a larger rapid downstream of a low dam in the lower reaches of the creek. See also Corn Run, next tributary of the Susquehanna River going upriver List of rivers of Pennsylvania Roaring Creek (Pennsylvania), the next tributary of the Susquehanna River going downriver References External links Map of the Catawissa Creek watershed Rivers of Columbia County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Luzerne County, Pennsylvania Rivers of Pennsylvania Rivers of Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania Tributaries of the Susquehanna River
5193078	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20food%20additives	List of food additives	Food additives are substances added to food to preserve flavor or enhance its taste, appearance, or other qualities. Purposes Additives are used for many purposes but the main uses are: Acids Food acids are added to make flavors "sharper", and also act as preservatives and antioxidants. Common food acids include vinegar, citric acid, tartaric acid, malic acid, folic acid, fumaric acid, and lactic acid. Acidity regulators Acidity regulators are used to change or otherwise control the acidity and alkalinity of foods. Anticaking agents Anticaking agents keep powders such as milk powder from caking or sticking. Antifoaming agents Antifoaming agents reduce or prevent foaming in foods. Antioxidants Antioxidants such as vitamin C act as preservatives by inhibiting the effects of oxygen on food, and can be beneficial to health. Bulking agents Bulking agents such as starch are additives that increase the bulk of a food without affecting its nutritional value. Food coloring Colorings are added to food to replace colors lost during preparation, or to make food look more attractive. Color retention agents In contrast to colorings, color retention agents are used to preserve a food's existing color. Emulsifiers Emulsifiers allow water and oils to remain mixed together in an emulsion, as in mayonnaise, ice cream, and homogenized milk. Flavors Flavors are additives that give food a particular taste or smell, and may be derived from natural ingredients or created artificially. Flavor enhancers Flavor enhancers enhance a food's existing flavors. They may be extracted from natural sources (through distillation, solvent extraction, maceration, among other methods) or created artificially. Flour treatment agents Flour treatment agents are added to flour to improve its color or its use in baking. Glazing agents Glazing agents provide a shiny appearance or protective coating to foods. Humectants Humectants prevent foods from drying out. Tracer gas Tracer gas allow for package integrity testing to prevent foods from being exposed to atmosphere, thus guaranteeing shelf life. Preservatives Preservatives prevent or inhibit spoilage of food due to fungi, bacteria and other microorganisms. Stabilizers Stabilizers, thickeners and gelling agents, like agar or pectin (used in jam for example) give foods a firmer texture. While they are not true emulsifiers, they help to stabilize emulsions. Sweeteners Sweeteners are added to foods for flavoring. Sweeteners other than sugar are added to keep the food energy (calories) low, or because they have beneficial effects for diabetes mellitus and tooth decay. Thickeners Thickeners are substances which, when added to the mixture, increase its viscosity without substantially modifying its other properties. Caffeine and other GRAS (generally recognized as safe) additives such as sugar and salt are not required to go through the regulation process. Alphabetical index of food additives 0–9 1,4-heptonolactone – food acid * 2-hydroxybiphenyl – preservative A Abietic acid – Acacia vera – Acacia – Acesulfame potassium – artificial sweetener Acesulfame – Acetic acid – acidity regulator Acetic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Acetone – Acetylated distarch adipate – thickener, vegetable gum Acetylated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Acetylated oxidised starch – thickener, vegetable gum Acetylated starch – thickener, vegetable gum Acid treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum Adipic acid – food acid Agar – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent Alcohol – Alfalfa – Alginic acid – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Alitame – artificial sweetener Alkaline treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum Alkanet – color (red) Allspice – Allura red AC – color (FDA: FD&C Red #40) Almond oil – used as a substitute for olive oil. Also used as an emollient. Aluminium – color (silver) Aluminium ammonium sulfate – mineral salt Aluminium potassium sulfate – mineral salt Aluminium silicate – anti-caking agent Aluminium sodium sulfate – mineral salt Aluminium sulfate – mineral salt Amaranth – color (red) (FDA: [DELISTED] Red #2) Note that amaranth dye is unrelated to the amaranth plant Amaranth oil – high in squalene and unsaturated fatty acids – used in food and cosmetic industries. Amchur (mango powder) – Ammonium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Ammonium adipates – acidity regulator Ammonium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Ammonium bicarbonate – mineral salt Ammonium carbonate – mineral salt Ammonium chloride – mineral salt Ammonium ferric citrate – food acid Ammonium fumarate – food acid Ammonium hydroxide – mineral salt Ammonium lactate – food acid Ammonium malate – food acid Ammonium phosphates – mineral salt Ammonium phosphatides – emulsifier Ammonium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent Ammonium sulfate – mineral salt, improving agent Amylases – flour treatment agent Angelica (Angelica archangelica) – Anise – Annatto – color Anthocyanins – color Apricot oil – a cooking oil from certain cultivars. Arabinogalactan – thickener, vegetable gum Argan oil – a food oil from Morocco that has also attracted recent attention in Europe. Argon – propellant Rocket (Arugula) – Asafoetida – Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C) – antioxidant (water-soluble) Ascorbyl palmitate – antioxidant (fat soluble) Ascorbyl stearate – antioxidant (fat soluble) Aspartame – artificial sweetener Aspartame-acesulfame salt – artificial sweetener Astaxanthin – color Avocado oil – used a substitute for olive oil. Also used in cosmetics and skin care products. Azodicarbonamide – flour bleaching agent. Also used in the production of foamed plastics and the manufacture of gaskets. Banned as a food additive in Australia and Europe. Azorubine – color (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10) B Babassu oil – similar to, and used as a substitute for coconut oil. Baking powder – leavening agent; includes acid and base Baking soda – food base Balm, lemon – Balm oil – Balsam of Peru – used in food and drink for flavoring Barberry – Barley flour – Basil (Ocimum basilicum) – Basil extract – Bay leaves – Beeswax – glazing agent Beet red – color (red) Beetroot red – color (red) Ben oil – extracted from the seeds of the moringa oleifera. High in behenic acid. Extremely stable edible oil. Also suitable for biofuel. Bentonite – anti-caking agent Benzoic acid – preservative Benzoyl peroxide – flour treatment agent Berebere – Bergamot – in Earl Grey tea Beta-apo-8'-carotenal (C 30) – color Beta-apo-8'-carotenic acid ethyl ester – color Betanin – color (red) Biphenyl – preservative Bison grass (Hierochloe odorata) – Bixin – color Black 7984 – color (brown and black) Black cardamom – Black cumin – Blackcurrant seed oil – used as a food supplement, because of high content of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Also used in cosmetics. Black limes – Pepper (black, white, and green) – Black PN – color (brown and black) Bleached starch – thickener, vegetable gum Bolivian Coriander (Porophyllum ruderale) – Bone phosphate – anti-caking agent Borage (Borago officinalis) – Borage seed oil – similar to blackcurrant seed oil – used primarily medicinally. Borax – Boric acid – preservative Brilliant Black BN- color (brown and black) Brilliant blue FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Blue #1) Brilliant Scarlet 4R – color (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8) Brominated vegetable oil – emulsifier, stabiliser Brown FK – color (brown and black) Bush tomato – Butane – propellant Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) – antioxidant (fat soluble) Butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) – antioxidant (fat soluble) C Cacao shell – Cachou extract – Cactus root extract – Cadinene – Caffeine – stimulant Cajeput oil – Calamus – Calcium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer Calcium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Calcium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Calcium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Calcium aluminosilicate (calcium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Calcium ascorbate (Vitamin C) – Calcium benzoate – preservative Calcium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium carbonates – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser Calcium chloride – mineral salt Calcium citrates – food acid, firming agent Calcium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Calcium disodium EDTA – preservative Calcium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Calcium formate – preservative Calcium fumarate – food acid Calcium gluconate – acidity regulator Calcium guanylate – flavor enhancer Calcium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium hydroxide – mineral salt Calcium inosinate – flavor enhancer Calcium lactate – food acid Calcium lactobionate – stabilizer Calcium malates – food acid Calcium oxide – mineral salt Calcium pantothenate (Vitamin B5) – Calcium peroxide – Calcium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent, firming agent Calcium polyphosphates – anti-caking agent Calcium propionate – preservative Calcium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Calcium silicate – anti-caking agent Calcium sorbate – preservative Calcium stearoyl lactylate – emulsifier Calcium sulfate – flour treatment agent, mineral salt, sequestrant, improving agent, firming agent Calcium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Calcium tartrate – food acid, emulsifier Camomile – Candelilla wax – glazing agent Candle nut – Canola oil/Rapeseed oil – one of the most widely used cooking oils, from a (trademarked) cultivar of rapeseed Canthaxanthin – color Caper (Capparis spinosa) – Caprylic acid - preservative Capsanthin – color Capsorubin – color Carrageenan – A family of linear sulphated polysaccharides extracted from red seaweeds. Caramel I (plain) – color (brown and black) Caramel II (Caustic Sulfite process) – color (brown and black) Caramel III (Ammonia process) – color (brown and black) Caramel IV (Ammonia sulfite process) – color (brown and black) Caraway – Carbamide – flour treatment agent Carbon black – color (brown and black) Carbon dioxide – acidity regulator, propellant Cardamom – carmines – color (red) Carmoisine – color (red) (FDA: Ext D&C Red #10) Carnauba wax – glazing agent Carob pod – Carob pod oil/Algaroba oil – used medicinally Carotenes – color Alpha-carotene – color Beta-carotene – color Gamma-carotene – color Carrageenan – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Carrot oil – Cashew oil – somewhat comparable to olive oil. May have value for fighting dental cavities. Cassia – Catechu extract – Celery salt – Celery seed – Wheat germ oil – used as a food supplement, and for its "grainy" flavor. Also used medicinally. Highly unstable. Chalk – color (white), anticaking agent, stabiliser Chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) – Chicory – Chicory Root Extract – High in Inulin Chile pepper – Chili powder – Chives (Allium schoenoprasum) – Chlorine dioxide – flour treatment agent Chlorine – flour treatment agent Chlorophylls and Chlorophyllins – color (green) Chocolate Brown HT – color Choline salts and esters – emulsifier Chrysoine resorcinol – color (red) Cicely (Myrrhis odorata) – Sweet cicely (Myrrhis odorata) – Cilantro (see Coriander) (Coriandrum sativum) – Cinnamon – Cinnamon oil – used for flavoring. Citranaxanthin – color Citric acid – food acid Citric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Citrus red 2 – color (red) Cloves – Cochineal – color (red) Coconut oil – a cooking oil, high in saturated fat – particularly used in baking and cosmetics. Sage (Salvia officinalis) – Copper complexes of chlorophylls – color (green) Coriander – Coriander seed oil – used medicinally. Also used as a flavoring agent in pharmaceutical and food industries. Corn oil – one of the most common, and inexpensive cooking oils. Corn syrup – Cottonseed oil – a major food oil, often used in industrial food processing. Cress – Crocetin – color Crocin – color Crosslinked Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier Cryptoxanthin – color Cumin – Cumin oil/Black seed oil – used as a flavor, particularly in meat products. Also used in veterinary medicine. Cupric sulfate – mineral salt Curcumin – color (yellow and orange) Curry powder – Curry leaf (Murraya koenigii) – Cyanocobalamin (Vitamin B12) – Cyclamates – artificial sweetener Cyclamic acid – artificial sweetener beta-cyclodextrin – emulsifier Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus, C. flexuosus, and other species) – D Damiana (Turnera aphrodisiaca, T. diffusa) – Dandelion leaf – Dandelion Root – Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) – Decanal dimethyl acetal – Decanal – Decanoic acid – Dehydroacetic acid – preservative Delta-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant Devil's claw (Harpagophytum procumbens)– medicinal Dextrin roasted starch – thickener, vegetable gum Diacetyltartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Dicalcium diphosphate – anti-caking agent Dilauryl thiodipropionate – antioxidant Dill seed – Dill (Anethum graveolens) – Dimethyl dicarbonate – preservative Dimethylpolysiloxane – emulsifier, anti-caking agent Dioctyl sodium sulfosuccinate – emulsifier Diphenyl – preservative Diphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier Dipotassium guanylate – flavor enhancer Dipotassium inosinate – flavor enhancer Disodium 5'-ribonucleotides – flavor enhancer Disodium ethylenediaminetetraacetate – antioxidant, preservative Disodium guanylate – flavor enhancer Disodium inosinate – flavor enhancer Distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Distearyl thiodipropionate – antioxidant Dl-alpha-tocopherol (synthetic) – antioxidant Dodecyl gallate – antioxidant E Echinacea – EDTA – Antioxidant, Chelating Agent Egg – Egg yolk – Egg white – Elderberry – Eleutherococcus senticosus – Enzymatically hydrolyzed Carboxymethyl cellulose – emulsifier Enzyme treated starch – thickener, vegetable gum Epazote (Chenopodium ambrosioides) – Epsom salts – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent Erythorbic acid – antioxidant Erythrosine – color (red) (FDA: FD&C Red #3) Erythritol – sweetener Ethanol (alcohol) – Ethoxyquin - antioxidant, preservative Ethyl maltol – flavor enhancer Ethyl methyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier Ethylparaben (ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid – Evening primrose oil – used as a food supplement for its purported medicinal properties. F False flax oil – made of the seeds of Camelina sativa. Can be considered as a food or fuel oil. Fantesk – Farnesol – Fast green FCF – color (FDA: FD&C Green #3) Fat – Flavoxanthin – color Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) – Fenugreek – Ferric ammonium citrate – food acid Ferrous gluconate – color retention agent Ferrous lactate – Filé powder – Five-spice powder (Chinese) – Fo-ti-tieng – Formaldehyde – preservative Formic acid – preservative Fructose – Fumaric acid – acidity regulator Folic acid – fortyfying agent G Galangal – Galangal root – Galbanum oil – Gallic acid – Gamma-tocopherol(synthetic) – antioxidant Garam masala – Garlic extract – Garlic – Garlic oil – Gelatin/gelatine – Gelling agent, emulsifier Gellan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Ginger – Ginger oil – Ginger root – Ginseng – Glacial Acetic acid – preservative, acidity regulator Glucitol – Gluconate – Glucono delta-lactone – acidity regulator Glucose oxidase – antioxidant Glucose syrup – sweetener Glutamate – Glutamic acid – flavor enhancer Gluten – Glycerin – humectant, sweetener Glycerol – Glycerol ester of wood rosin – emulsifier Glyceryl distearate – emulsifier Glyceryl monostearate – emulsifier Glycine – flavor enhancer Glyoxylic acid – Gold – color (gold) Grains of paradise – Grape color extract – Grape seed oil – suitable for cooking at high temperatures. Also used as a salad oil, and in cosmetics. Green S – color (green) Green tea – Guanylic acid – flavor enhancer Guar gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer Guaranine – Gum arabic / Gum acacia / E414 – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Gum guaicum – preservative H Haw bark – Hazelnut oil – used for its flavor. Also used in skin care, because of its slight astringent nature. Heliotropin – Helium – propellant Hemlock oil – Hemp oil – a high quality food oil. Heptyl p-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Hesperidin – Hexamine (hexamethylene tetramine) – preservative Hexyl acetate – High fructose corn syrup – Horseradish – Hydrochloric acid – acidity regulator Hydroxypropyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier Hydroxypropyl distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier Hydroxypropyl starch – thickener, vegetable gum Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) – I Indanthrene blue RS – color (blue) Indigo carmine – color (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2) Indigotine – color (blue) (FDA: FD&C Blue #2) Indole – Inosinate – Inosinic acid – flavor enhancer Inositol – Insoluble fiber – Intense sweeteners – Inulin – Invert sugar – Invertase – Iron ammonium citrate – Iron – Iron oxides and hydroxides – color Isobutane – propellant Isomalt – humectant Isopropyl citrates – antioxidant, preservative J Jasmine – Jamaican jerk spice – Jasmine absolute – Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum) – Juniper – Juniper berry – Juniper berry oil – used as a flavor. Also used medicinally, including traditional medicine. Juniper extract – K Kaffir Lime Leaves (Citrus hystrix, C. papedia) – Kaolin – anti-caking agent Kapok seed oil, obtained from any of several related tree species, all referred to as "Kapok trees", for example: Ceiba pentandra, Bombax ceiba and Bombax costatum – used as an edible oil, and in soap production. Karaya gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Kelp – Kokam – Kola nut extract – Konjac – thickener, vegetable gum Konjac glucomannate – thickener, vegetable gum Konjac gum – thickener, vegetable gum L L-cysteine – flour treatment agent Lactic acid – acidity regulator, preservative, antioxidant Lactic acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Lactitol – humectant Lactose – Lactylated fatty acid esters of glycerol and propylene glycol – emulsifier Larch gum – Lard – Latolrubine – color Laurel berry – Laurel leaf oil – Lavender (Lavandula spp.) – Lavender oil – Lecithins – antioxidant, Emulsifier Lecithin citrate – preservative Lemon – Lemon balm (Melissa officinalis) – Lemon extract – Lemon juice – Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) – Lemon oil – Lemon verbena (Lippia citriodora) – Lemongrass Oil – Leucine – flavor enhancer Licorice – Lipases – flavor enhancer Lithol Rubine BK – color Litholrubine – color Locust bean gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Long pepper – Lovage (Levisticum officinale) – L(+)-Tartaric acid – food acid Lutein – color Lycopene – color Lysine – Lysozyme – preservative M Macadamia oil – used as an edible oil. Also used as a massage oil. Mace – Magnesium – Magnesium carbonate – anti-caking agent, mineral salt Magnesium chloride – mineral salt Magnesium citrate – acidity regulator Magnesium diglutamate – flavor enhancer Magnesium hydroxide – mineral salt Magnesium lactate – food acid Magnesium oxide – anti-caking agent Magnesium phosphates – mineral salt, anti-caking agent Magnesium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Magnesium silicate – anti-caking agent Magnesium stearate – emulsifier, stabiliser Magnesium sulfate – mineral salt, acidity regulator, firming agent Mahleb – Malabathrum – Malic acid – acidity regulator Malt extract – flavor enhancer Maltitol – humectant, stabiliser Maltodextrin – carbohydrate sweetener Maltol – flavor enhancer Maltose – Mandarin oil – leavening agent Manganese – Mannitol – humectant, anti-caking agent, sweetener Margarine – Marjoram (Origanum majorana) – Mastic – Meadowfoam seed oil – highly stable oil, with over 98% long-chain fatty acids. Competes with rapeseed oil for industrial applications. Mega-purple – a Kosher food additive made from grapes Mentha arvensis oil/Mint oil, used in flavoring toothpastes, mouthwashes and pharmaceuticals, as well as in aromatherapy and other medicinal applications. Metatartaric acid – food acid, emulsifier Methionine – Methyl butyrate – Methyl disulfide – Methyl ethyl cellulose – thickener, vegetable gum, emulsifier Methyl hexenoate – Methyl isobutyrate – Methylcellulose – thickener, emulsifier, vegetable gum Methylparaben (methyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative Methyltheobromine – Microcrystalline cellulose – anti-caking agent Milk thistle (Silybum) – Milk – Mint (Mentha spp.) – Mixed acetic and tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Modified starch – Molasses extract – Molybdenum – Bergamot (Monarda didyma) – Mono- and diglycerides of Fatty acids – emulsifier Monoammonium glutamate – flavor enhancer Monopotassium glutamate – flavor enhancer Monosodium glutamate (MSG) – flavor enhancer Monostarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Montanic acid esters – humectant Mullein (Verbascum thapsus) – Mustard – Mustard oil – (essential oil), containing a high percentage of allyl isothiocyanate or other isothiocyanates, depending on the species of mustard Mustard oil (pressed) – used in India as a cooking oil. Also used as a massage oil. Mustard plant – Mustard seed – N Natamycin – preservative Neohesperidin dihydrochalcone – artificial sweetener Niacin (vitamin B3) – color retention agent nicotinic acid (vitamin B3) – color retention agent Nicotinamide (vitamin B3) – color retention agent Nigella (Kolanji, Black caraway) – Nisin – preservative Nitrogen – propellant Nitrous oxide – propellant Norbixin – color Nordihydroguaiaretic acid - antioxidant. Banned as a food additive since the early 1960s. Nutmeg – O Octyl gallate – antioxidant, preservative Evening primrose (Oenothera biennis et al.) – Okra oil (Hibiscus seed oil) – from the seed of the Hibiscus esculentus. Composed predominantly of oleic and lanoleic acids. Oleomargarine – Olive oil – used in cooking – cosmetics – soaps and as a fuel for traditional oil lamps Orange GGN – color (orange) Orange oil – like lemon oil – cold pressed rather than distilled. Consists of 90% d-Limonene. Used as a fragrance, in cleaning products and in flavoring foods. Orcein – color (red) Orchil – color (red) Oregano (Origanum vulgare, O. heracleoticum, and other species) – Oregano oil – contains thymol and carvacrol Orris root – Orthophenyl phenol – preservative Oxidised polyethylene wax – humectant Oxidised starch – thickener, vegetable gum Oxystearin – antioxidant, sequestrant P Palm oil – the most widely produced tropical oil. Also used to make biofuel. Panax ginseng – Panax quinquefolius – Ponch phoran – Pandan leaf – Pantothenic acid (Vitamin B5) – Papain – A cysteine protease hydrolase enzyme present in papaya (Carica papaya) and mountain papaya (Vasconcellea cundinamarcensis). Paprika red – Paprika – Paprika extract – Paraffins – glazing agent Parsley (Petroselinum crispum) – Patent blue V – color (blue) Peanut oil/Ground nut oil – mild-flavored cooking oil. Pecan oil – valued as a food oil, but requiring fresh pecans for good quality oil. Pectin – vegetable gum, emulsifier Perilla seed oil – high in omega-3 fatty acids. Used as an edible oil, for medicinal purposes, in skin care products and as a drying oil. Phosphated distarch phosphate – thickener, vegetable gum Phosphoric acid – food acid Phytic acid – preservative Pigment Rubine – color Pimaricin – preservative Pine needle oil Pine seed oil – an expensive food oil, used in salads and as a condiment. Pistachio oil – strongly flavored oil, particularly for use in salads. Prune kernel oil – marketed as a gourmet cooking oil Poly vinyl pyrrolidone – Polydextrose – humectant Polyethylene glycol 8000 – antifoaming agent Polyglycerol esters of fatty acids – emulsifier Polyglycerol polyricinoleate – emulsifier Polymethylsiloxane – antifoaming agent Polyoxyethylene (40) stearate – emulsifier Polyoxyethylene (8) stearate – emulsifier, stabilizer Polyphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier Polysorbate 20 – emulsifier Polysorbate 40 – emulsifier Polysorbate 60 – emulsifier Polysorbate 65 – emulsifier Polysorbate 80 – emulsifier Polyvinylpolypyrrolidone – color stabiliser Pomegranate seeds (though some consider these a fruit, not a spice) – Ponceau 4R – color (FDA: Ext D&C Red #8) Ponceau 6R – color Ponceau SX – color Poppy seed – Poppyseed oil – used for cooking, moisturizing skin, and in paints, varnishes and soaps. Potassium acetates – preservative, acidity regulator Potassium adipate – food acid Potassium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Potassium aluminium silicate – anti-caking agent Potassium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Potassium benzoate – preservative Potassium bicarbonate – mineral salt Potassium bisulfite – preservative, antioxidant Potassium bromate – flour treatment agent Potassium carbonate – mineral salt Potassium chloride – mineral salt Potassium citrates – food acid Potassium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Potassium fumarate – food acid Potassium gluconate – stabiliser Potassium hydrogen sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Potassium hydroxide – mineral salt Potassium lactate – food acid Potassium malate – food acid Potassium metabisulfite – preservative, antioxidant Potassium nitrate – preservative, color fixative Potassium nitrite – preservative, color fixative Potassium phosphates – mineral salt Potassium propionate – preservative Potassium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Potassium sodium tartrate – food acid Potassium sorbate – preservative Potassium sulfate – mineral salt, seasoning Potassium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Potassium tartrates – food acid Powdered Cellulose – anti-caking agent Primrose (Primula) – candied flowers, tea Processed Eucheuma seaweed – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Propane-1,2-diol alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Propionic acid – preservative Propyl gallate – antioxidant Propylene glycol – humectant Propylene glycol alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Propylene glycol esters of fatty acids – emulsifier Propylparaben (propyl para-hydroxybenzoate) – preservative Pumpkin seed oil – a specialty cooking oil, produced in Austria and Slovenia. Doesn't tolerate high temperatures. Pulegone – Purslane – Pyridoxine hydrochloride (Vitamin B6) – Q Quatre épices – Quillaia extract – humectant Quinoa oil – similar in composition and use to corn oil Quinoline Yellow WS – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: D&C Yellow #10) R Ramtil oil – pressed from the seeds of the one of several species of genus Guizotia abyssinica (Niger pea) in India and Ethiopia. Used for both cooking and lighting. Ras-el hanout – Raspberry (leaves) – Red 2G – color Refined microcrystalline wax – glazing agent Rhodoxanthin – color Riboflavin (vitamin B2) – color (yellow and orange) Rice bran oil – suitable for high temperature cooking. Widely used in Asia. Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) – Rubixanthin – color S Saccharin – artificial sweetener Safflower oil – a flavorless and colorless cooking oil. Safflower – Saffron – color Saigon Cinnamon – Salad Burnet (Sanguisorba minor or Poterium sanguisorba) – Salt – Sandalwood – color Savory (Satureja hortensis, S. montana) – Scarlet GN – color Sesame oil – used as a cooking oil, and as a massage oil, particularly in India. Sesame seed – Shellac – glazing agent Sichuan pepper (Xanthoxylum piperitum) – Silicon dioxide – anti-caking agent Silver – color (silver) Luohanguo – Sodium acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Sodium adipate – food acid Sodium alginate – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, gelling agent, emulsifier Sodium aluminium phosphate – acidity regulator, emulsifier Sodium aluminosilicate (sodium aluminium silicate) – anti-caking agent Sodium ascorbate – antioxidant (water-soluble) Sodium benzoate – preservative Sodium bicarbonate – mineral salt Sodium bisulfite (sodium hydrogen sulfite) – preservative, antioxidant Sodium carbonate – mineral salt Sodium carboxymethylcellulose – emulsifier Sodium citrates – food acid Sodium dehydroacetate – preservative Sodium erythorbate – antioxidant Sodium erythorbin – antioxidant Sodium ethyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Sodium ferrocyanide – anti-caking agent Sodium formate – preservative Sodium fumarate – food acid Sodium gluconate – stabiliser Sodium hydrogen acetate – preservative, acidity regulator Sodium hydroxide – mineral salt Sodium lactate – food acid Sodium malates – food acid Sodium metabisulfite – preservative, antioxidant, bleaching agent Sodium methyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Sodium nitrate – preservative, color fixative Sodium nitrite – preservative, color fixative Sodium orthophenyl phenol – preservative Sodium propionate – preservative Sodium propyl para-hydroxybenzoate – preservative Sodium sorbate – preservative Sodium stearoyl lactylate – emulsifier Sodium succinates – acidity regulator, flavor enhancer Sodium salts of fatty acids – emulsifier, stabiliser, anti-caking agent Sodium sulfite – mineral salt, preservative, antioxidant Sodium sulfite – preservative, antioxidant Sodium tartrates – food acid Sodium tetraborate – preservative Sorbic acid – preservative Sorbitan monolaurate – emulsifier Sorbitan monooleate – emulsifier Sorbitan monopalmitate – emulsifier Sorbitan monostearate – emulsifier Sorbitan tristearate – emulsifier Sorbitol – humectant, emulsifier, sweetener Sorbol – Sorrel (Rumex spp.) – Soybean oil – accounts for about half of worldwide edible oil production. Spearmint oil – often used in flavoring mouthwash and chewing gum, among other applications. Star anise – Star anise oil – highly fragrant oil using in cooking. Also used in perfumery and soaps, has been used in toothpastes, mouthwashes, and skin creams. 90% of the world's star anise crop is used in the manufacture of Tamiflu, a drug used to treat avian flu. Starch sodium octenylsuccinate – thickener, vegetable gum Stearic acid – anti-caking agent Stearyl tartarate – emulsifier Succinic acid – food acid Sucralose – artificial sweetener Sucroglycerides – emulsifier Sucrose acetate isobutyrate – emulsifier, stabiliser Sucrose esters of fatty acids – emulsifier Sugar – Sulfur dioxide – preservative, antioxidant Sulfuric acid – acidity regulator Sumac – Sunflower oil – a common cooking oil, also used to make biodiesel. Sunset Yellow FCF – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #6) Sweet basil – Sweet woodruff – T Talc – anti-caking agent Tamarind – Tanacetum balsamita / Costmary – Tandoori masala – Tannins – color, emulsifier, stabiliser, thickener Tansy – Tara gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus) – Tartaric acid esters of mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids – emulsifier Tartrazine – color (yellow and orange) (FDA: FD&C Yellow #5) Tea oil/Camellia oil – widely used in southern China as a cooking oil. Also used in making soaps, hair oils and a variety of other products. Tert-butylhydroquinone – antioxidant Tetrahydrocannabinol- flavor enhancer, potent anti-carcinogen – Thaumatin – flavor enhancer, artificial sweetener Theine – Thermally oxidised soya bean oil – emulsifier Thiabendazole – preservative Thiamine (Vitamin B1) – Thiodipropionic acid – antioxidant Thujaplicins – preservatives registered in Japan Thyme – stannous chloride – color retention agent, antioxidant Titanium dioxide – color (white) Tocopherol (Vitamin E) – Tocopherol concentrate (natural) – antioxidant Tragacanth – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer, emulsifier Triacetin – humectant Triammonium citrate – food acid Triethyl citrate – thickener, vegetable gum Trimethylxanthine – Triphosphates – mineral salt, emulsifier Trisodium phosphate – mineral salt, antioxidant Turmeric – color (yellow and orange) V Vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) – Vegetable carbon – color (brown and black) Vinegar – Violaxanthin – color Vitamin – Vitamin A (Retinol) – Vitamin B1 (Thiamine) – Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) – Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic acid) – Vitamin B6 (Pyrodoxine) – Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin) – Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) – Vitamin D (Calciferol) – Vitamin E (Tocopherol) – Vitamin K (Potassium) – W Walnut oil – used for its flavor, also used by Renaissance painters in oil paints Wasabi – Water – Wattleseed – X Xanthan gum – thickener, vegetable gum, stabilizer Xylitol – humectant, stabiliser Y Yellow 2G – color (yellow and orange) Yucca extract – Z Zeaxanthin – color Zinc acetate – flavor enhancer See also Food Chemicals Codex List of additives in cigarettes List of food additives, Codex Alimentarius List of unrefined sweeteners List of phytochemicals in food References External links Food Additive Status List \| FDA Australian Food Additive Codes European Union food law Additives Food additives Food additives
5194435	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plan%20W	Plan W	Plan W, during World War II, was a plan of joint military operations between the governments of Ireland and the United Kingdom devised between 1940 and 1942, to be executed in the event of an invasion of Ireland by Nazi Germany. Although Ireland was officially neutral, after the German Blitzkriegs of 1939–40 that resulted in the defeat of Poland, the Low Countries and France, the British recognised that Germany planned an invasion of Britain (Operation Sea Lion) and were also concerned about the possibility of a German invasion of Ireland. German planning for Operation Green began in May 1940 and the British began intercepting communications about it in June. The British were interested in securing Ireland, as its capture by German forces would expose their western flank and provide a base of operations for the Luftwaffe in the Battle of the Atlantic and in any operations launched to invade Great Britain as part of Operation Sea Lion. Irish-British co-operation was a controversial proposal for both sides, as most members of the Irish political establishment had been combatants in the Irish War of Independence between 1919 and 1921. However, because of the threat of German occupation and seizure of Ireland and especially the valuable Irish ports, Plan W was developed. Northern Ireland was to serve as the base of a new British Expeditionary Force that would move across the Irish border to repel the invaders from any beach-head established by German paratroopers. In addition, coordinated actions of the Royal Air Force and Royal Navy were planned to repel German air and sea invasion. According to a restricted file prepared by the British Army's "Q" Movements Transport Control in Belfast, the British would not have crossed the border "until invited to do so by the Irish Government," and it is not clear who would have had the operational authority over the British troops invited into the State by Éamon de Valera. The document added that most people in Ireland probably would have helped the British Army, but "there would have been a small disaffected element capable of considerable guerrilla activities against the British." By April 1941 the new British Troops in Northern Ireland (BTNI) commander, General Sir Henry Pownall, extended his planning for a German invasion to cover fifty percent of the entire Irish coastline. He believed that German troops were likely to land in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Westport, Galway, Sligo, and County Donegal, i.e. on the southern or western coasts. British Army personnel also carried out secret intelligence-gathering trips to glean information on the rail system south of the border. Context Political context and early planning Discussions over the possible German invasion of Ireland had been ongoing in Britain since the beginning of 1939. In June 1940, Britain's political and military establishment had witnessed the seemingly invincible German Blitzkrieg which led to the defeat of Poland, the Low Countries, and France, and the retreat of the British Expeditionary Force from Dunkirk. The British suspected that, following their defeat in France, the next step would be a German invasion of Britain – Operation Sea Lion. They did not know, but also suspected, that there was a plan to invade neutral Ireland – Operation Green. In this context, they embarked on the policy of planning, together with the Irish authorities, for the defence of the island. This was a controversial proposal as most of the Irish political establishment had been combatants in the Anglo-Irish War against the British between 1916 and 1921. For instance, the Fianna Fáil politicians in the Irish government included Éamon de Valera, Seán T. O'Kelly, Seán Lemass, Gerald Boland, Oscar Traynor, Frank Aiken, Seán MacEntee, and Thomas Derrig, all of whom had been active against the British. On the British side, Winston Churchill, and many senior members of his administration had forcibly opposed their bid for an independent Irish state, including setting up the controversial Black and Tans to oppose militant separatism. However it was not so different from de Valera's position in 1921. During the debates on the Anglo-Irish Treaty in late 1921, de Valera had submitted his ideal draft, known as "Document No.2" which included: 2. That, for purposes of common concern, Ireland shall be associated with the States of the British Commonwealth, viz: the Kingdom of Great Britain, the Dominion of Canada, the Commonwealth of Australia, the Dominion of New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa. 4. That the matters of "common concern" shall include Defence, Peace and War, Political Treaties, and all matters now treated as of common concern amongst the States of the British Commonwealth, and that in these matters there shall be between Ireland and the States of the British commonwealth "such concerted action founded on consultation as the several Governments may determine". 8. That for five years, pending the establishment of Irish coastal defence forces, or for such other period as the Governments of the two countries may later agree upon, facilities for the coastal defence of Ireland shall be given to the British Government as follows: (a) In time of peace such harbour and other facilities as are indicated in the Annex hereto, or such other facilities as may from time to time be agreed upon between the British Government and the Government of Ireland. (b) In time of war such harbour and other Naval facilities as the British Government may reasonably require for the purposes of such defence as aforesaid. 9. That within five years from the date of exchange of ratifications of this treaty a conference between the British and Irish Governments shall be held to arrange for the handing over of the coastal defence of Ireland to the Irish Government unless some other arrangement for naval defence be agreed by both Governments to be desirable in the common interest of Ireland, Great Britain, and the other associated States.De Valera had proposed that a final settlement between Ireland and Britain would give regard to Britain's future maritime defence, in recognition of Britain's longstanding fear of invasion from the west. Among the Irish opposition party's Fine Gael leadership, W. T. Cosgrave, Desmond Fitzgerald, Richard Mulcahy and several others had also fought in the previous Irish Civil War and the Irish Army had thousands of veterans from that conflict. Major General Joseph McSweeney, General Officer Commanding (GOC) of Irish Army's Western Command in 1940, had been in the GPO during the Easter Rising. Colonels Archer and Bryan of Military Intelligence G2 had also fought in the conflicts. The IRA member Tom Barry volunteered his services to the Irish Army in 1939 and became operations officer in the 1st Division. British strategic assessment After the invasion of Belgium and the Netherlands, the British were convinced that an invasion of Ireland would come from the air, via paratroopers. They were not satisfied with the Irish government's defence capability, particularly against airborne troops. The topic of reoccupying the 26 counties of Ireland had been a matter of political conversation in Britain since the beginning of the war. In June 1940, Malcolm MacDonald offered to "give back" the six counties comprising Northern Ireland – an offer of Irish unity – if Ireland would join with the Allies, but the offer was not taken seriously. The same month Major General Bernard "Monty" Montgomery was busy planning the seizure of what he referred to as "Cork and Queenstown (Cobh) in Southern Ireland" (sic). Winston Churchill was to also refer to the "... most heavy and grievous burden placed upon Britain by the Royal Navy's exclusion from the three Treaty Ports [in Ireland]." The Economist reported that Britain should seize the ports if they become "a matter of life and death". The remarks were made in the face of mounting losses in the Battle of the Atlantic. Attempts were also made on 26 June 1940 to split the consensus in Ireland over the neutrality policy via a possible coup attempt. An approach was made to Richard Mulcahy (leader of Fine Gael at the time) by an Irish-born ex-British Army lieutenant colonel who was a city councillor in the State. Mulcahy recorded that the ex-officer: "...called to say that 'the people in the North are prepared to make a military convention with this country [Ireland] without reference to the Northern Government... He wanted someone to go up there from here unofficially, to speak to someone in authority and say how the land lay. In reply to questioning, he stated that the people he referred to were the British Army authorities in the North." This was in effect a proposal for a joint military command of all of Ireland, which the unidentified ex-British Army lieutenant colonel said had been stimulated after discussion with "important members of the British Army in the North of Ireland." It is possible that the simultaneous discussions could have been an attempt to pressure de Valera, the Taoiseach. Unionist politician Sir Emerson Herdman also called to speak with de Valera about obtaining "unity of command" and to ask if Ireland would enter the war in return for an end to partition. Herdman appears to have been acting on behalf of Craigavon, but when de Valera rebuffed him, he was of the view that: "the only thing to do now for Britain is to send in powerful forces here, and prevent this country being seized, or prevent them [the British] having to use and lose large numbers of troops in putting the Germans out if they got here." Therefore the W-Plan had a dual purpose: a joint plan of action in the event of a compliant Ireland, an invasion plan in the event of a German invasion and subsequent resistance. Knowledge of German planning Planning began for Operation Green in May 1940, and the British had intelligence about it beginning in around June of that year. The British were interested in securing Ireland as its capture by German forces would expose their western flank, and provide a base of operations for the Luftwaffe in the Battle of the Atlantic and in any operations launched to conquer Britain as part of Operation Sea Lion. The British suspected that the Germans target for an invasion attempt would be Cork, particularly Cork Harbour with the naval base at Cobh because it was the nearest to Luftwaffe bases in north west France. Irish defence status Irish preparations for defence of the island included protecting against the possibility of British or German attack. The Irish Army drew up contingency plans for an invasion from across the border although only two of its eight brigades were normally based in the northern half of the country. The Second Division did prepare two lines of defence against British invasion, placing explosives beneath bridges along rivers and canals in County Donegal to County Louth. The first line of defence, through Leitrim and Cavan, was centred on the Ballinamore-Ballyconnell canal. The second line chosen was the River Boyne. After a delaying action with a conventional static defence, the 2nd Division was to "split up into smaller groups and start guerrilla resistance against the British." More detailed defence plans were drawn up for local areas. In Cork city, any seaborne invaders would be engaged by motor torpedo boats and the 9.2 inch and six-inch guns of the Treaty Ports. If the enemy were able to effect a landing in strength, the forts would be demolished by explosives (as would the harbour quays and railway), a blockship would be sunk in the harbour channel and the Haulbowline oil refinery set on fire. The defence of the city itself would be undertaken by the local defence force (LDF) and a regular army battalion, while the First Division would carry out operations in the surrounding countryside. Development of Plan W The first meetings, 1940 The first meeting on establishing a joint action plan in the event of a German invasion was on 24 May 1940. The meeting was held in London and had been convened to explore every conceivable way in which the German forces may attempt an invasion of Ireland. At the meeting were Joseph Walshe, Irish secretary of External Affairs, Colonel Liam Archer of Irish Military Intelligence (G2), and officers from the Royal Navy, British Army, and the Royal Air Force. The War Office wanted direct liaisons between the Irish military authorities in Dublin and the British General Officer Commanding in Belfast. Walshe and Archer therefore agreed to fly in secret to Belfast with Lieutenant Colonel Dudley Clarke. In Belfast, two British Army staff officers were collected and the group travelled back to Dublin by rail. This meeting was held underneath Government buildings in Kildare Street and included a number of Irish Army officers. The meeting was informed that General Sir Hubert Huddleston, the General Officer Commanding (GOC.) Northern Ireland, was already under orders to take a mobile column south of the border to help the Irish Army if the Germans invaded. Clarke also met with the Irish Army Chief of Staff, General Daniel McKenna, who explained that the British would not be allowed into the south of Ireland before the Germans arrived. Clarke also met with the Irish Minister for Co-ordination of Defensive Measures, Frank Aiken, and discussed "new ideas for the mechanical improvement of the war." The point of these meetings was to secure an understanding on the threat faced by both Britain and Ireland, and the benefit of joint action – the details would later be worked out by the respective armed services. Clarke returned to London on 28 May 1940, where he reported that the Irish Army had given him full details of their organisation and equipment "without reservation" and had in return requested information on British troop strength in Northern Ireland. It had been agreed that in the event of a German invasion, the Irish would call for assistance from Huddleston in Belfast. The British Army's advance from Northern Ireland into neutral Ireland was to be called Plan W. Operational details As noted, Cork was the suspected target of an invasion because it was the nearest landfall between Luftwaffe bases in north-western France and the island of Ireland. Northern Ireland was to serve as the base of a new British Expeditionary Force, that would move into the State to repel the invaders from any beach-head that was established. Troops of the 53rd Division in Belfast were held in readiness for the advance. A brigade of Royal Marines stationed at Milford Haven were also prepared to seize a bridge-head in Wexford the moment the Germans landed. Officers at the headquarters (HQ) of British troops in Northern Ireland, Thiepval Barracks, Lisburn, County Antrim estimated that the Germans could embark five divisions by sea to Ireland although "not more than 2 to 3 would reach land". Up to 8,000 German airborne troops could be flown into the State, some of them by seaplanes which would land on the lakes. The British striking force of 53 Division, later augmented by the 5th Battalion, Cheshire Regiment, were to concentrate on the west of Down and Armagh borders, then drive across the border and race towards Dublin along three main roads – the Belfast – Dublin coastal road through Dundalk, Drogheda and Balbriggan, the inland road through Ardee and Slane, and the Castleblayney — Carrickmacross — Navan road. It is not clear who would have had the operational authority over the British troops invited into Ireland by de Valera, but it is assumed the British would retain command. By December 1940 the plan had been extended. While the first British striking force headed for Dublin, the British 61st Division, in a separate operation, would move across the border into County Donegal and secure the Treaty port of Lough Swilly for the Royal Navy, providing the British Government with a third of the naval defence requirements that they had been requesting from de Valera for more than a year. The British Troops in Northern Ireland (BTNI) war diary of the time lists 278 Irish troops at Lough Swilly and only 976 Irish troops in the rest of Donegal. The diary goes on to say that in the event of an invasion "close co-operation is to be maintained with Éire forces including Local Security Force if friendly". It is a feature of other British documents from the time; for example one reads "If Éire be hostile it may be necessary for Royal Signals units to take over the civil telephone system". According to a restricted file prepared by the British Army's 'Q' Movements Transport Control in Belfast, the British would not have crossed the border "until invited to do so by the Éire Government", but the document added that although most people in the State probably would have helped the British Army, "there would have been a small disaffected element capable of considerable guerrilla activities against us." Sir John Loader Maffey, the British representative to Ireland since 1939, was to transmit the code word "Pumpkins" (later replaced by "Measure") to begin the troop movement of the 53rd Division onto Irish soil. This codeword would be received by Huddleston and Lieutenant General Harold Franklyn, the BTNI commander. Elaborate plans were made in Belfast to supply the BEF with guns, ammunition, petrol, and medical equipment by rail. The British marshalling yards at Balmoral, south of Belfast, were extended to take long ammunition and fuel trains which were loaded and ready on new sidings. In addition three ambulance trains were equipped and positioned around Belfast and an ambulance railhead established to take the wounded returning from the south of Ireland. British soldiers stripped the sides from dozens of coal trucks transforming them into flat cars for armoured vehicles and tanks that would be sent southwards. Once the 53rd Division was committed in Ireland, the British military authorities planned to run thirty-eight supply trains on the two railway lines to Dublin every day – thirty down the main line through Drogheda (if the viaduct over the River Boyne remained undamaged), and the remainder along the track which cut through County Cavan. The Port of Belfast was estimated to have needed to handle 10,000 tons of stores a week and could receive up to 5,000 troops every day for the battle-front. The RAF were to fly three Hurricane fighter squadrons into Baldonnel Airfield southwest of Dublin and two Fairey Battle light bomber squadrons into Collinstown to attack German troops in Cork. The British 1st Heavy Anti-Aircraft Regiment was to be moved into the State to defend the Drogheda viaduct, Collinstown, and Baldonnel. The Royal Navy was to issue instructions that all British and foreign ships depart from Irish ports. Vessels in Londonderry were to head for the Clyde and boats in Belfast were to head for Holyhead and Liverpool. As many ships as possible would be cleared from Irish ports and taken to the Clyde, Holyhead and Fishguard. Royal Navy officers in Dublin were to direct this exodus and the taking on of refugees was not to be encouraged. British submarines were to patrol off Cork and the Shannon in readiness for an invasion, and should one occur, the Royal Navy was to declare a "sink on sight" zone in the western approaches and off the south and west coasts of Ireland. By April 1941, the new BTNI commander, General Sir Henry Pownall extended his planning for a German invasion to cover fifty percent of the entire Irish coastline. He believed that German troops were likely to land in Cork, Limerick, Waterford, Westport, Galway, Sligo, and Donegal. British Army personnel also carried out secret intelligence gathering trips to glean information on the rail system south of the border. Irish planning By May 1940 Irish troops were already organised in mobile columns to deal with parachute landings. By October 1940, four more regular army brigades had been raised in the State and LSF recruiting figures were increasing. The German style helmets of the army had been replaced by the pale green uniforms and rimmed style helmets of the British Army. They had a total of sixteen medium armoured cars, and thirty Ford and Rolls-Royce light armoured cars. By early 1941, two infantry divisions had been activated. First Division was headquartered in Cork and included: 1st Brigade (HQ Clonmel: 10th, 13th, 21st Battalions), 3rd Brigade (HQ Cork: 4th, 19th, 31st Battalions), 7th Brigade (HQ Limerick: 9th, 12th, 15th Battalions) Second Division was headquartered in Dublin and comprised: 2nd Brigade (HQ Dublin 2nd, 5th, 11th Battalions), 4th Brigade (HQ Mullingar 6th, 8th, 20th Battalions), 6th Brigade (HQ Dublin 7th, 18th, 22nd Battalions) There were also two independent brigades: 5th Brigade (southeast Ireland 3rd, 16th, 25th Battalions) 8th Brigade: (Rineanna 1st, 23rd Battalions) There were also three garrison battalions and the Coastal Defence Artillery forts at Cork, Bere Island, Donegal, Shannon and Waterford. The Irish Defence Forces, regular and reserve, were an all-volunteer force. If the Germans had landed where the British and Irish expected them to, they would have been engaged by the Irish Army's Fifth Brigade who had primary responsibility for the defence of Waterford and Wexford. They would have been soon supported by General Michael Joe Costello's 1st Irish Division from Cork and General Hugo MacNeill's 2nd Division. The British would establish their railhead near the Fairyhouse race course and be given billets at Lusk, Howth, and Portmarnock north of Dublin. The Irish Air Corps consisted largely of nine Avro Anson light bombers and four Gloster Gladiators, which provided the only fighter defence for the country. However, in 1940 six second-hand Hawker Hinds were added to the Air Corps and later in the war the Irish cannibalised and repaired several Allied aircraft that had crash landed in their territory, eventually putting two RAF Hurricanes, a Fairey Battle and an American-built Lockheed Hudson into service. From 1942 onwards a total of twenty Hawker Hurricanes entered Irish Air Corps service. The Marine Service only acquired its first Motor Torpedo Boat in January 1940, increasing to a total of six by 1942. However, the only patrol vessels were the "Muirchu" and the "Fort Rannoch", two former British gunboats. Besides these vessels there was one "mine planter" and a barge. The Marine Service did not acquire any other ships during the war. The Local Security Force was intended to harass and delay enemy forces by dynamiting bridges (already chambered for the purpose) and organising small ambushes and sniping attacks. Armament was paltry at first, with many units making do with requisitioned shotguns, but from 1941 on, American M1917 Enfield rifles became available. In January 1941, the LSF was split into two, the 'A' force moving from police to military control and taking the new title Local Defence Force. The B Group retained the title LSF and functioned essentially as an unarmed police reserve throughout the Emergency. In general, those aged under forty went with the LDF, those older remained with the LSF. See also Operation Dove (Ireland) Operation Mainau Plan Kathleen References Further reading Robert Fisk, In Time of War'' (Gill and Macmillan) 1983 External links Irish Army Air Corps use of the Gloster Gladiator during the Second World War Western European theatre of World War II Cancelled military operations involving the United Kingdom Cancelled military operations of World War II United Kingdom in World War II Independent Ireland in World War II Ireland–United Kingdom relations
5194620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Smagorinsky	Joseph Smagorinsky	Joseph Smagorinsky (29 January 1924 – 21 September 2005) was an American meteorologist and the first director of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)'s Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL). Early life Joseph Smagorinsky was born to Nathan Smagorinsky and Dina Azaroff. His parents were from Gomel, Belarus, which they fled during the life-threatening pogroms of the early 20th Century. Nathan and Dina bore three sons in Gomel: Jacob (who died as an infant), Samuel (b. 1903), and David (b. 1907). In 1913, Nathan emigrated from the coast of Finland, passing through Ellis Island and settling on the Lower East Side of Manhattan. Nathan at first was a house painter. Then, with the help of a relative, he opened a paint store. In 1916, with the business established, Dina, Sam, and David emigrated by going to Murmansk and then southward along the Norwegian coast to Christiana (now Oslo) and boarding a boat to New York where they joined Nathan. They had two other children: Hillel (Harry) (b. 1919) and Joseph (b. 1924). Like his three brothers, Joseph worked in their father's paint store, which over the years evolved into a hardware and paint store. Sam and Harry stayed in the painting and hardware business, with Harry eventually taking ownership of the original store. As a teenager, David began painting signs for shop owners and subsequently opened a sign painting business. Joseph attended Stuyvesant High School for Math and Science in Manhattan. When he expressed an interest in going to college, the family had a meeting in which they discussed the possibility. Sam and David prevailed in their view that Joseph had great promise and deserved the opportunity to go to college. Education and early career Smagorinsky earned his B.S. (1947), M.S. (1948), and Ph.D. (1953) at New York University (NYU). In the middle of his sophomore year at NYU, he entered the Air Force and joined an elite group of cadet recruits, chosen for their talents in mathematics and physics. Those talents led Smagorinsky to be selected for the air force meteorology program. He and other recruits were then sent to Brown University to study mathematics and physics for six months. He was then sent to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) to learn dynamical meteorology. His instructor was Ed Lorenz, who later pioneered the mathematical theory of deterministic chaos. During the war Smagorinsky flew in the nose of bombers as a weather observer, making weather forecasts based on visible factors such as the estimated size of waves, and the observed air temperature and wind velocity at the plane's altitude. Following the war, Smagorinsky concluded his studies. He originally aspired to be a naval architect, but was not admitted to the Webb Institute. He then turned to meteorology as a career and educational focus. As a doctoral student, while serving the remainder of his army commitment, he attended a lecture on weather forecasting conducted by Jule Charney, and asked a series of pointed questions during the question-and-answer session following the talk. Charney, a prominent atmospheric scientist, invited Smagorinsky to the Princeton, NJ Institute for Advanced Study to examine the possible predictability of large-scale motions in the middle troposphere (the lower part of the atmosphere) using the new electronic computer being designed by John von Neumann. In April 1950, Smagorinsky participated in a major milestone of modern meteorology; together with Ragnar Fjørtoft, John Freeman, and George Platzman, he worked with Charney to solve Charney's simplest equations on the Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer (ENIAC). His wife Margaret Smagorinsky (née Knoepfel) was also a member of the team that programmed the ENIAC computer, and was the first woman statistician hired by the Weather Bureau. Von Neumann's new Princeton computer had been delayed so arrangements were made with the Army to use its computer at Aberdeen, Maryland. The results were realistic enough to demonstrate that weather prediction by numerical process was a promising prospect. After the ENIAC work, Smagorinsky moved to the Institute for Advanced Study to work with Charney and von Neumann on the development of a radical new approach to weather forecasting that employed the new technology of the computer. Before the advent of computers in the late 1940s, weather forecasting was very crude. The American Meteorological Society (AMS) and its leaders, most of whom taught in universities, still aspired to turn meteorology into a professional discipline given the same respect accorded engineering and the other physical sciences. An exceptional mathematician, von Neumann was among the first to see the potential afforded by computers for much faster processing of data and thus more responsive weather forecasting. He was not satisfied with mathematics as an abstract practice. Weather forecasting provided him with a very concrete application of mathematical principles that could exploit the new computer technology. At the Institute for Advanced Study, he used his mathematical knowledge and Smagorinsky worked with Charney to develop a new approach called numerical weather prediction. This approach relied on data collected from weather balloons. The data were then fed into computers and subjected to the laws of physics, enabling forecasts of how turbulence, water, heat, and other factors interacted to produce weather patterns. (Smagorinsky endeared himself to his children by visiting their elementary school classrooms to demonstrate how weather balloons worked.) In his doctoral dissertation, conducted at NYU under the direction of Bernhard Haurwitz, Smagorinsky developed a new theory for how heat sources and sinks in mid-latitudes, created by the thermal contrast between land and oceans, disturbed the path of the jet stream. This theory provided one of the first applications of Jule Charney's remarkable simplification of the equations of motion for the atmosphere, now known as quasi-geostrophic theory. This work benefited greatly from interactions with Charney at the Institute for Advanced Study. This theory has been elaborated over the years to provide numerous insights into the maintenance of the climate in mid-latitudes and the interaction between the tropics and mid-latitudes. Leadership of Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Following his apprenticeship and work with von Neumann and Charney, in 1953, at age 29, Smagorinsky accepted a position at the U.S. Weather Bureau and was among the pioneers of the Joint Numerical Weather Prediction Unit. In 1955, at von Neumann's instigation, the U.S. Weather Bureau created a General Circulation Research Section under Smagorinsky's direction. Smagorinsky felt that his charge was to continue with the final step of the von Neumann/Charney computer modeling program: a three-dimensional, global, primitive-equation general circulation model of the atmosphere. The General Circulation Research Section was initially located in Suitland, Maryland, near the Weather Bureau's JNWP unit. The section moved to Washington, D.C. and was renamed the General Circulation Research Laboratory in 1959 and then renamed again as the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL) in 1963. The lab moved to its current home at Princeton University in 1968. Smagorinsky continued to direct the lab until his retirement in January, 1983. Smagorinsky's key insight was that the increasing power of computers would allow one to move beyond simulating the evolution of the atmosphere for a few days, as in weather prediction, and move toward the simulation of the Earth's climate. The intention of such simulations is not to predict the detailed evolution of the weather, but by integrating the equations of motion, thermodynamics, and radiative transfer for long enough time periods to simulate the statistics of the weather—the climate—enabling one to study how these statistics were controlled by the atmospheric composition, the character of the Earth's surface, and the circulation of the oceans. Leading the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory Among Smagorinsky's many talents was attracting creative scientists to the staff of the GFDL. Two of them were climate modeler Syukuro Manabe in 1959 and ocean modeler Kirk Bryan in 1961, who spearheaded the development of the first climate model in 1969, a general circulation model that was the first approach to take into account the interactions of oceans and atmosphere. Smagorinsky assigned Manabe to the General Circulation Model (GCM) coding and development effort. By 1963, Smagorinsky, Manabe, and their collaborators had completed a nine-level, hemispheric primitive-equation General Circulation Model. Manabe was given a large programming staff and was thus able to focus on mathematical structure of the models, without becoming overly involved in coding. In 1955-56, Smagorinsky collaborated with John von Neumann, Jule Charney, and Norman Phillips to develop a 2-level, zonal hemispheric model using a subset of the primitive equations. Beginning in 1959, he proceeded to develop a nine-level primitive-equation General Circulation Model (still hemispheric). By the end of the next decade, GCMs emerged globally as a central tool in climate research. Other researchers who worked with Smagorinsky in Washington and Princeton included Isidoro Orlanski, Jerry Mahlman, Syukuro Manabe, Yoshio Kurihara, Kikuro Miyakoda, Rod Graham, Leith Holloway, Isaac Held, Garreth Williams, George Philander, and Douglas Lilly. Development of this first climate model was based on Smagorinsky's belief that individual inquiry would be inadequate for addressing such a complex problem. He realized that it would take large-scale numerical modeling with teams of scientists using commonly shared high-speed computers to achieve such a breakthrough. As stated in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society in 1992, "Dr. Smagorinsky's almost relentless pursuit of excellence at Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory set a standard for other laboratories and centers that have contributed immensely to the growth of meteorology as a science" throughout the world. Michael MacCracken, President of International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Sciences, wrote following Smagorinsky's death that "From its earliest days, GFDL has been world renowned, with an outstanding set of scientists doing outstanding work that attracted scientists from around the world to come to learn and collaborate – and then return to their home countries or other institutions as outstanding scientists. Not only a whole new scientific field of investigation, but a community of scientists capable of doing it well has been created." Smagorinsky invited many scientists from outside the normal circle to provide the broadest perspective on weather forecasts. Very early in his career, he brought pioneering oceanographer Kirk Bryan to GFDL to account for oceanic influences on the weather; and shortly following World War II, with the nation still leery of Japan, he invited Suki Manabe, Yoshio Kurihara, and Kikuro Miyakoda to GFDL, valuing their scientific expertise and potential and ignoring the xenophobia that might have discouraged such international collaboration. He continued this practice of inviting scientists to GFDL who could take on the project of producing a comprehensive theory of atmospheric processes, valuing talent and creativity over what he regarded as irrelevant factors such as field or nationality. Jerry Mahlman, who succeeded Smagorinsky as director of GFDL at Princeton, writes that Smagorinsky "had no real interest in the 'university scientific culture' that still has a tendency to count scientific publications, rather than scientific achievements, as its measure of faculty success. Joe would have none of that. He wanted junior scientists such as us to focus on solving difficult scientific challenges of major relevance to NOAA, the United States, and the world. . . . Without Joe's support and encouragement, would Manabe have written the first paper on the science of global warming in 1967? Would Bryan have produced the world's first ocean model in 1970? Would Manabe and Bryan have produced the world's first coupled atmosphere–ocean model in 1972? Would I have produced the first comprehensive stratospheric dynamical/chemical model? Would Miyakoda have pioneered extended-range weather forecasting? For my research, the answer is: almost certainly not. Without the level of scientific and computational support provided by Joe, these achievements would have required at least another decade of development to achieve success." Smagorinsky was among the earliest researchers who sought to exploit new methods of numerical weather prediction (NWP) to extend forecasting past one or two days. Smagorinsky published a seminal paper in 1963 on his research using primitive equations of atmospheric dynamics to simulate the atmosphere's circulation. This paper fundamentally changed the approach to modeling climate. He extended early weather models to include variables such as wind, cloud cover, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and radiation emanating from the earth and sun. In order to make these simulations possible, a method was needed to account for atmospheric turbulence that occurred on scales smaller than the model's grid size but still played a crucial role in the atmospheric energy cycle. With colleagues Douglas Lilly and James Deardorff, both at the National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR), he developed one of the first successful approaches to large eddy simulation (e.g., the Smagorinsky-Lilly model), providing a solution to this problem that is still in use, not only in meteorology, but in all fields involving fluid dynamics. Technical Innovation Smagorinsky earned fame for his ability to secure the world's fastest computers for his laboratory time and time again. Many wondered how a single government scientist had such leverage in the highly competitive battle for limited resources. Jerry Mahlman wrote that "Without the level of scientific and computational support provided by Joe, these achievements [global warming, increasingly sophisticated computer models, extended weather forecasting] would have required at least another decade of development to achieve." This remark that Smagorinsky had advanced his field by at least a decade was echoed by several speakers at his memorial. Influence on global warming research In the 1970s, under the direction of Dr. Smagorinsky, scientists at his laboratory devised the first simulations of the response of climate to increasing carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, providing the first modern estimates of climate sensitivity and emphasizing the importance of water vapor feedback and stratospheric cooling. Scientists at the laboratory also developed the first coupled atmosphere-ocean climate models for studies of global warming, emphasizing the important differences between the "equilibrium" and "transient" responses to increasing carbon dioxide. International leadership and global impact Joseph Smagorinsky's influence and administrative abilities extended well beyond his work at GFDL. He led or contributed to international committees to improve global weather forecasts. Coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization, the efforts led to the first use of satellites to measure temperature and moisture. Tony Hollingsworth of the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) made the point in his remarks at the Princeton lecture after Smagorinsky was presented with the Benjamin Franklin Medal in Earth Science that Smagorinsky's work resulted in saving millions of lives around the world in that severe weather predictions such as hurricanes could alert whole towns to be saved. He reiterated the remark in his letter to GFDL following Smagorinsky's memorial service: "In terms of scientific inspiration and concrete benefits for the protection of human life and society, Joe Smagorinsky has left us a wonderful legacy for which European meteorologists honour and remember him." Academic career The year GFDL moved to Princeton, Smagorinsky was named a visiting lecturer with the rank of professor in geological and geophysical sciences at the University. He helped develop the Program in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, a doctoral program in the Department of Geosciences that collaborates closely with the GFDL. Following his retirement as director of the GFDL in 1983, he served as a visiting senior fellow in atmospheric and oceanic sciences at Princeton until 1998. "Dr. Smagorinsky, a major player in the move of the GFDL to Princeton more than 30 years ago, in effect provided Princeton University with a graduate program," said George Philander, a professor of geosciences and director of the Program in Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences. "It is because of that program, the official link between the GFDL and Princeton University, that Princeton is an internationally recognized center for weather and climate studies, especially studies related to global warming." Awards and leadership roles National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration recognition as one of the ten most significant figures in NOAA’s history, and identification of his general circulation climate model as one of the three most important breakthroughs in meteorology in the last two centuries. Benjamin Franklin Medal in Earth Science from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 2003, presented to Smagorinsky and his close friend and colleague Norman A. Phillips for "their seminal and pioneering studies" that led to "an understanding of the general circulation of the atmosphere, including transports of heat and moisture that determine the earth's climate." Chair, Global Atmospheric Research Program, coordinated by the World Meteorological Organization and the International Council of Scientific Unions Buys Ballot Gold Medal, 1974 (awarded once each decade by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences for outstanding advances in the field of meteorology) International Meteorological Organization Prize and Gold medal, the highest honor accorded by the World Meteorological Organization, 1974 The Clarence Leroy Meisinger Award, given to an individual in recognition of research achievement that is, at least in part, aerological in character and concerns the observation, theory, and modeling of atmospheric motions on all scales. The award is given to young, promising atmospheric scientists who have recently shown outstanding ability and are under 40 years of age when nominated. 1967 Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Gold medal, presented to individuals on the basis of outstanding contributions to the understanding of the structure or behavior of the atmosphere. It represents the highest honor that the American Meteorological Society can bestow upon an atmospheric scientist. 1972 The Cleveland Abbe Award for Distinguished Service to Atmospheric Sciences by an Individual, presented on the basis of activities that have materially contributed to the progress of the atmospheric sciences or to the application of atmospheric sciences to general, social, economic, or humanitarian welfare. 1980 Presidential award 1980 Symons Memorial Gold Medal, Royal Meteorological Society, 1980 The Scientific Research Society national lecturer from 1983 to 1985 President, American Meteorological Society 1986 International Meteorological Organization Prize from the World Meteorological Organization in 1988 Honorary doctorate, University of Munich Gold medal, U. S. Department of Commerce Sigma Xi Society Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Member of the Presidential Scientific Advisory Committee Panel on Pollution Member of the National Research Council's Committee on Atmospheric Science Key publications Smagorinsky, J., 1995: The growth of dynamic meteorology and numerical weather prediction - some personal reflections. In, Canadian Meteorological Memoirs No. 32: Special Symposium on Atmospheric Research in Canada in Honor of Dr. Warren L. Godson's Fifty Years of Public Service,Venkata R. Neralla..[et al.,] eds., 48-56. Smagorinsky, J., 1993: Some historical remarks on the use of non-linear viscosities - 1.1 Introductory remarks. In, Large Eddy Simulation of Complex Engineering and Geophysical Flows - Proceedings of an International Workshop in Large Eddy Simulation. Cambridge University Press; 1-34. Smagorinsky, J., 1991: Development of international climate research. In, Strategies for Future Climate Research, Mojib Latif, ed., Hamburg: Max-Planck-Institute für Meteorologie; 9-18. Smagorinsky, J., 1987: Louis Joseph Battan, 1923-1986 . Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 68(4), 370. Smagorinsky, J., 1986: The AMS's continuing role in promoting communications and setting standards. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 67(8), 938. Smagorinsky, J., 1986: GARP's objectives in weather prediction: Expectations and realizations. In, International Conference on Results of Global Weather Experiment and Their Implications for World Weather Watch, Vol. I, Geneva, Switzerland, 19-34. Smagorinsky, J., 1986: The long range eye of Jerry Namias. In, Namias Symposium - A special symposium in honor of the 75th birthday of Dr. Jerome Namias. Experimental Climate Forecast Center of Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California at San Diego, CA: 63-69. Smagorinsky, J., 1986: Review of book: "Prophet--or Professor? The life and work of Lewis Fry Richardson," Oliver M. Ashford, and Adam Hilger. EOS, 67(3), 28. Smagorinsky, J., 1985: Prospects of atmospheric modelling and its impacts on weather prediction. In, Medium Range Weather Forecasts: The First 10 years, Proceedings of the 10th Anniversary of EMCWF, 97-107. Smagorinsky, J., 1984: Review of: "The Global Climate", J. T. Houghton, ed., Cambridge University Press. WMO Bulletin, 33, 361-362. Smagorinsky, J., 1983: The beginnings of numerical weather prediction and general circulation modeling: Early recollections. Advances in Geophysics, 25, 3-37. Smagorinsky, J., 1983: The Problem of Climate and Climate Variations, World Climate Programme Publication No. WCP-72, WMO. World Meteorological Organization, 14pp. Smagorinsky, J., 1982: Jule Charney (1917–1981). Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 108(455), 267-269. Smagorinsky, J., 1982: Scientific basis for the Monsoon Experiment. In, Proceedings of International Conference on the Scientific Results of the Monsoon Experiment, ICSU/WMO GARP. 35-42. Smagorinsky, J., L. Armi, F. P. Bretherton, K. Bryan, R. D. Cess, W. L. Gates, J. Hansen, J. E. Kutzbach, and S. Manabe, et al., 1982: CO2 /Climate Review Panel. In, Carbon Dioxide and Climate: A Second Assessment. Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1-72. Smagorinsky, J., 1981: CO2 and climate - a continuing story. In, Climatic Variations and Variability: Facts and Theories, D. Reidel Publishing Co., 661-687. Smagorinsky, J., 1981: Epilogue: a perspective of dynamical meteorology. In, Dynamical Meteorology, New York: Methuen, Inc., 205-219 Smagorinsky, J., 1981: Scientific basis for the Monsoon Experiment. In, International Conference on the Scientific Results of the Monsoon Experiment, Oct. 26-30 1981 - Denpasar, Bali, Indonesia. Smagorinsky, J., 1981: Some thoughts on contemporary global climatic variability. In, Nature Pleads Not Guilty, An IFIAS Report on the Project on Drought and Man, Vol. 1, R. V. Garcia. New York: Pergamon Press; 265-296. Smagorinsky, J., 1980: Climate modelling. In, Proceedings of the Technical Conference on Climate - Asia and Western Pacific, WMO No., 578, World Meteorological Organization (WMO); 139-151. Smagorinsky, J., 1978: History and progress. In, The Global Weather Experiment—Perspective on Its Implementation and Exploitation: A Report of the FGGE Advisory Panel to the U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Program (GARP) - National Academy of Science, 4-12. Smagorinsky, J., and N. A. Phillips, 1978: Scientific problems of the Global Weather Experiment. In, The Global Weather Experiment, Perspectives on Its Implementation and Exploitation, Report of the FGGE Advisory Panel to the U.S. Committee for the Global Atmospheric Research Program, Assembly of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, National Research Council. National Academy of Science, 13-21. Smagorinsky, J., 1972: The general circulation of the atmosphere. In, Meteorological Challenges: A History, Canada: Information Canada, 3-42. Smagorinsky, J., 1971: Numerical simulation of climate modification. In, Proceedings of the 12th Interagency Conference on Climate Modification, Virginia Beach, VA, 221-226. Manabe, S., J. Smagorinsky, J. L. Holloway Jr., and H. M. Stone, 1970: Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrologic cycle, III. Effects of increased horizontal computational resolution. Monthly Weather Review, 98(3), 175-212. . Smagorinsky, J., 1970: Numerical simulation of the global atmosphere. In, The Global Circulation of the Atmosphere, G. A. Corby, Editor, London, England: Royal Meteorological Society, 24-41. Smagorinsky, J., 1969: Problems and data needs of global atmospheric models for the 1970s. In, First USCG National Data Buoy Systems Scientific Advisory Meeting, U.S. Coast Guard Academy, 16-26. Smagorinsky, J., 1969: Problems and promises of deterministic extended range forecasting. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 50(5), 286-311. Manabe, S., and J. Smagorinsky, 1967: Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrologic cycle II. Analysis of the tropical atmosphere. Monthly Weather Review, 95(4), 155-169. Smagorinsky, J., 1967: The role of numerical modeling. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 48(2), 89-93. Smagorinsky, J., 1966: Remarks on mathematical models. In, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium on the Environmental Sciences, Session 5 - Mathematical models, 241-244. Manabe, S., J. Smagorinsky, and R. F. Strickler, 1965: Simulated climatology of a general circulation model with a hydrologic cycle. Monthly Weather Review, 93(12), 769-798. Smagorinsky, J., 1965: Numerical simulation of the atmosphere's general circulation. In, Large-scale Problems in Physics, IBM Scientific Computing Symposium, Yorktown Heights, NY: 141-144. Smagorinsky, J., 1965: Remarks on data processing in meteorology. In, Proceedings of the WMO/IUGG Symposium on Meteorological Data Processing, Brussels, Belgium, WMO Technical Note 73, pp. 1–2. Smagorinsky, J., 1965: Review of book: "An introduction to the hydrodynamic methods of short period forecasting", by I. A. Kibel. Mathematics of Computation, 19(89), 162-163. Smagorinsky, J., S. Manabe, and J. L. Holloway Jr., 1965: Numerical results from a nine-level general circulation model of the atmosphere. Monthly Weather Review, 93(12), 727-768. Smagorinsky, J., R. F. Strickler, W. E. Sangster, S. Manabe, J. L. Holloway, and G. D. Hembree, 1965: Prediction experiments with a general circulation model. In, Proceedings of IAMAP/WMO International Symposium - Dynamics of Large-scale Processes, Moscow, Russia. 70-134. Smagorinsky, J., 1964: Implications of dynamical modelling of the general circulation on long-range forecasting. In, WMO-IUGG Symposium on Research and Development Aspects of Long-range Forecasting, Boulder, CO., WMO Technical Note 62, 131-137. Smagorinsky, J., 1964: Some aspects of the general circulation. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 90(383), 1-14. Smagorinsky, J., 1963: General Circulation experiments with the primitive equations I. The basic experiment. Monthly Weather Review, 91(3), 99-164. Smagorinsky, J., 1963: Remarks on geophysical fluid dynamics. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 44, 28-34. Smagorinsky, J., 1962: Numerical weather analysis and prediction, by Phillip D. Thompson. Mathematics of Computation, 16(80), 503-505. Smagorinsky, J., 1960: General circulation experiments with the primitive equations as a function of the parameters. In, International Association of Meteorology and Atmospheric Physics, XIIth General Assembly, Publication IAMAP No. 12/a, Helsinki, Finland, 22-23. Smagorinsky, J., 1960: On the application of numerical methods to the solution of systems of partial differential equations arising in meteorology. In, Frontiers of Numerical Mathematics, A Symposium Conducted by the Mathematics Research Center, United States Army and National Bureau of Standards. University of Wisconsin Press; 107-125. Smagorinsky, J., 1960: On the dynamical prediction of large-scale condensation by numerical methods. In, Physics of Precipitation, 5, AGU Monograph. Washington, DC: American Geophysical Union, 71-78. Smagorinsky, J., 1960: A primitive equation model including condensation processes. In, Proceedings of International Symposium on Numerical Weather Predictions, Japan Meteorological Society, 555. Smagorinsky, J., 1958: On the numerical integration of the primitive equations of motion for baroclinic flow in a closed region. Monthly Weather Review, 86(12), 457-466. Eliassen, A., J. S. Sawyer, and J. Smagorinsky, 1957: Upper air network requirements for numerical weather prediction. WMO Technical Note No. 29. Geneva, CH: WMO, 90 pp. Smagorinsky, J., 1956: On the inclusion of moist adiabatic processes in numerical prediction models. In, Bericht des Deutschen Wetterdienstes, Nr. 38, 82-90. Smagorinsky, J., 1955: A synopsis of research on quasi-stationary perturbations of the mean zonal circulation caused by topography and heating. In, Dynamics of Climate: The Proceedings of a Conference on the Application of Numerical Integration Techniques to the Problem of the General Circulation held October 26–28, 1955. New York, NY: Pergamon Press, 44-49. Smagorinsky, J., 1955: On the numerical prediction of precipitation. Monthly Weather Review, 83(3), 53-68. Smagorinsky, J., 1953: Data Processing requirements for the purposes of numerical weather prediction. In, Proceedings of the Eastern Joint Computer Conference, Washington, DC, 22-30. Smagorinsky, J., 1953: The dynamical influence of large-scale heat sources and sinks on the quasi-stationary mean motions of the atmosphere. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 79, 342-366. Family life Smagorinsky was married to Margaret Frances Elizabeth Knoepfel from May 29, 1948 to his death at age 81 on September 21, 2005. They met while taking classes at New York University, where Margaret was preparing for a career as a meteorological statistician. Margaret soon became the Weather Bureau's first female statistician. The couple had two wedding ceremonies. One was a Catholic ceremony at Margaret's mother's insistence; the other was a civil ceremony in the Georgetown garden of Judge Fay Bently. (Judge Bently was later removed from the bench, declared incompetent, and confined to a mental hospital.) This ceremony was attended only by the required 2 witnesses, Jerry Moss and Margaret's sister Alice Williams. Joseph and Margaret considered this smaller gathering to be their official wedding, given the ways in which his Jewish family and her Catholic family opposed the union. Following their marriage, Margaret chose to stay at home and raise their five children, Anne, Peter, Teresa, Julia, and Frederick. Margaret wrote several pamphlets featuring traditions at Princeton University, including: The Regalia of Princeton University Some Legends & Lore of Princeton University The Tigers of Princeton University At the memorial gathering at Guyot Hall, Princeton University in October, 2005, following Smagorinsky's September death, he was honored with the following story of his life, sung to the tune of Ervin Drake's "It Was a Very Good Year": His beloved wife Margaret died on November 14, 2011 and was buried with him in Princeton Cemetery. On December 29, 2011, a memorial service was held for Margaret Smagorinsky at the Nassau Inn in Princeton, at which many of Smagorinsky's colleagues and their wives honored her role as "mother hen" of GFDL during his tenure as founder and Director. References External links Joseph Smagorinsky: Visionary in Numerical Weather Prediction and Climate Modeling. Web pages recognizing Smagorinsky as one of NOAA's Top Ten History Makers Pioneering meteorologist Smagorinsky dies Princeton University obituary Weather By Numbers Mr. Wizard Studios feature on numerical weather prediction, highlighting Smagorinsky's work. American Institute of Physics 1986 interview 1986 interview with Smagorinsky on the status of the field. Oral History Transcript — Dr. Joseph Smagorinsky Interview With Professor J. Smagorinsky 1924 births 2005 deaths American meteorologists American civil servants Stuyvesant High School alumni New York University alumni National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration personnel United States Air Force airmen Department of Commerce Gold Medal Recipients of the Buys Ballot Medal (Netherlands) Carl-Gustaf Rossby Research Medal recipients American people of Belarusian-Jewish descent People from New York City Burials at Princeton Cemetery Benjamin Franklin Medal (Franklin Institute) laureates
5195034	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20the%20National%20Wildlife%20Refuge%20System	History of the National Wildlife Refuge System	The National Wildlife Refuge System in the United States has a long and distinguished history. Early years (1864–1920) In January, 1902, a plan was hatched by members of the Boone and Crockett Club to create a system of wildlife refuges across the United States with support of fellow member Theodore Roosevelt. And by Executive Order of March 14, 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt established Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge, along Florida's central Atlantic coast, as the first unit of the present National Wildlife Refuge System. It is misleading, however, to conclude that this was the genesis of wildlife sanctuaries in the United States. There is no clear documentation of just when the concept of protecting wildlife through habitat preservation was born, but as long ago as the mid-19th century, diaries of early western explorers, pictorial records and reports from journalists and speakers familiar with the West brought a public realization that the unrestricted slaughter of wildlife for food, fashion and commerce was systematically destroying an irreplaceable national heritage. The first federal action aimed in part at protecting wildlife resources on a designated area appears to be an act of Congress on June 30, 1864, that transferred the Yosemite Valley from the public domain to the State of California. One of the terms of the transfer was that State authorities "shall provide against the wanton destruction of the fish and game found within the said reservation and against their capture and destruction for purposes of merchandise or profit." Yosemite Valley was later returned to the federal government. In 1872, Yellowstone National Park was established, primarily to protect the area's hot springs and geysers, but again, the "wanton destruction" of wildlife was forbidden. Establishment as a national park did not, however, produce the desired wildlife protection effect until passage of the Yellowstone Park Protection Act of 1894. The earliest effort to set aside an area of federally owned land specifically for wildlife occurred in 1868 when President Ulysses S. Grant took action to protect the Pribilof Islands in Alaska as a reserve for the northern fur seal. In 1869, the Congress formally enacted legislation for this purpose. These remote islands in the Bering Sea were the site of the world's largest rookery of this commercially valuable animal, and the federal government was prompted in its action primarily due to interest in obtaining revenue from the management of the fur resource. Fundamentally, this action marked a formal recognition of the need to protect and manage wildlife resources for their renewable values. Under provisions of the Forest Reserve Act of March 3, 1891, President Benjamin Harrison created by an executive order the Afognak Island Forest and Fish Culture Reserve in Alaska, "including its adjacent bays and rocks and territorial waters, including among others the sea lion and sea otter islands." The action showed, in its executive history, that wildlife concerns were a paramount element in the proposal. However, possibly because of the emphasis on forest and fish resource protection, the value of this area as a wildlife refuge often escapes deserved recognition. This order also established the first reservation for fish. As a result of an increasing awareness of the importance of fish and wildlife resources, in 1871 the Federal Office of Commissioner of Fisheries and in 1886 the Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy (U.S. Department of Agriculture) were established to gain better information about the Nation's fish and wildlife resources. From studies performed by these agencies it became evident that the resources were in jeopardy and conservation, sportsmen's and scientific organizations began to lobby the Congress. One such organization was the Boone and Crockett Club, founded in 1887 by a group of leading explorers, hunters, writers, scientists and political leaders, including Theodore Roosevelt. Roosevelt was acquainted with resource management needs and with many individuals, organizations and agencies concerned about threats to wildlife and the need for natural resource protection. By the turn of the 20th century the nation had witnessed the near extinction of the bison, increasing devastation of wading bird populations by plume hunting in Florida, and severe reductions in the populations of other once abundant forms of wildlife such as the passenger pigeon. Public support increased for more vigorous actions on the part of the government to reverse this downward slide. In Florida, in an effort to control plume hunting, the American Ornithologists Union and the National Association of Audubon Societies (now the National Audubon Society) persuaded the State Legislature to pass a model non-game bird protection law in 1901. These organizations then employed wardens to protect rookeries, in effect establishing colonial bird sanctuaries. Such public concern, combined with the conservation-minded President Roosevelt, resulted in the initial federal land specifically set aside for a non-marketable form of wildlife (the brown pelican) when Pelican Island was proclaimed a Federal Bird Reservation in 1903. Thus, it is said to be the first bona fide "refuge." The first warden employed by the government at Pelican Island, Paul Kroegel, was an Audubon warden whose salary was $1 a month. Following the modest trend begun with Pelican Island, many other islands and parcels of land and water were quickly dedicated for the protection of various species of colonial nesting birds that were being destroyed for their feathers. Such refuge areas included Breton, Louisiana (1904), Passage Key, Florida (1905), Shell Keys, Louisiana (1907), and Key West, Florida (1908). The need for sound management of these reservations or refuges had become apparent as the knowledge of preservation and conservation requirements grew. In 1905, the Bureau of Biological Survey was established in the Department of Agriculture, replacing the old Division of Economic Ornithology and Mammalogy, with responsibility for new reservations and "set-aside" areas. During this period of time, on the Pacific coast sea bird populations were declining due to their extensive exploitation for eggs, feathers and guano. In response to this growing bird resource threat, federal reserve status was granted to Quillayute Needles, Washington in 1907 and to Farallon Islands, California and areas of the Hawaiian Islands in 1909. Establishment of Lower Klamath, California in 1908 then marked the beginning of the practice of creating wildlife refuges on Bureau of Reclamation reservoirs. Seventeen such western "overlay" refuges were established on one day alone in 1909 by Executive Order 1032 of February 25. By the end of his administration in 1909, Roosevelt had issued a total of 51 executive orders that established wildlife reservations in 17 states and three territories. Congress also had continued to respond to the public mood recognized by Roosevelt in establishing the Wichita Mountains Forest and Game Preserve in 1905, the National Bison Range in 1908, and the National Elk Refuge in 1912. The latter was the first unit of the present system to be referred to as a "refuge." The Izaak Walton League had initiated establishment of the National Elk Refuge by purchasing lands which they then donated to the government as a nucleus for the refuge. At the time it was said that elk were so plentiful that they were killed for their prized teeth alone, which brought as much as $1,500 a pair. Then in 1913, some 2.7 million acres (11,000 km2) were set aside in one action by President William Howard Taft when the vast Aleutian Island chain was added to the system. The federal government first exerted authority over migratory birds by legislation, the Migratory Bird Act, enacted in 1913 to protect migratory bird species. An interesting historical footnote is that this landmark legislation was attached as a rider to an agricultural appropriation bill and signed unknowingly by outgoing President Taft. Subsequently, the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 was concluded between the United States and Great Britain (for Canada) in 1916. This treaty, implemented by Congress in 1918, created an even larger role for the federal government in managing migratory birds. Organization and growth (1921–1955) The Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918 provided for regulations to control the taking of migratory species. Implementation of this act did result in increased populations for a time. However, it soon became clear that effective management of the resource would require increased efforts to protect habitat. Refuges, established primarily by executive order, were still for the most part too few and too small to ensure the future of such wide-ranging migratory species as waterfowl and shore birds. The first refuge acquisitions specifically for management of waterfowl came about with the acts establishing the Upper Mississippi River Wild Life and Fish Refuge in 1924 (again through impetus provided by the Izaak Walton League) and the Bear River Migratory Bird Refuge in 1928. Prior to this, the initial attempts to provide for the systematic acquisition of new lands for refuges had begun in 1921. A bill was introduced in Congress that would establish a "Refuge System," a Migratory Bird Refuge Commission, and a one-dollar federal hunting stamp. The bill was rejected four times during the next eight years. Finally, in 1929, it became law under the Migratory Bird Conservation Act, but only after it was stripped of any provisions for refuge hunting areas and a federal hunting stamp. The costs for managing and expanding the system were to be funded by Congressional appropriations. Despite these shortcomings, this act provided the authority under which the National Wildlife Refuge System grew in the years that followed. A major stimulus for the Refuge System came in 1934 with the passage of the Migratory Bird Hunting and Conservation Stamp Act (known as the Duck Stamp Act). The act's later amendments increased the price of the stamp providing a continuing source of revenue for acquisition of migratory bird habitat. They also authorized that a part of a refuge's area could be opened to waterfowl hunting (now set at 40% by the NWRS Administration Act of 1966). Of equal importance in 1934 was the appointment by President Franklin Roosevelt of a special "blue ribbon" committee, consisting of Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling, chairman, and Thomas Beck and Aldo Leopold to study and advise him on waterfowl needs. This dynamic trio alerted the Nation, as no other group had done before, to the crisis facing the waterfowl resource as a result of drought, over-harvest and habitat destruction. They also campaigned vigorously for the funds to combat these problems. Then, in 1935 "Ding" Darling was appointed head of the Bureau of Biological Survey and brought with him a dynamic and energetic young midwesterner, J. Clark Salyer II, to manage the fledgling refuge program. For the next 31 years, until his death in 1966, Salyer was the primary driving force in selecting new refuge areas and campaigning for their acquisition, in defending their integrity, in protecting the wildlife which they harbored, and in seeing that refuges were administered and managed to best serve the wildlife resource. Theodore Roosevelt, "Ding" Darling and others had a profound influence on the development of the Refuge System, but Salyer was unquestionably the "father" of the system. The imprints of his involvement remain to this day. The year 1934 also saw the passage of the Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act. This act, amended several times between 1934 and 1965, authorizes most federal water resource agencies to acquire lands associated with water use projects as mitigation and enhancement of fish and wildlife. The act further provides for the management of these lands by the Fish and Wildlife Service or State wildlife agencies. Two other important developments during these years were the Migratory Bird and Mammal Treaty with Mexico in 1936 and the Lea Act of 1948. The latter legislation served to greatly increase the acquisition of waterfowl habitat in California. The Bankhead-Jones Farm Tenant Act, passed in 1937, was the authority used for establishing a number of wildlife refuges across the country. Under this act, certain lands acquired by the Resettlement Administration were designated by executive order for management as refuges. Refuges acquired under this authority include Carolina Sandhills in South Carolina, Piedmont in Georgia, Noxubee in Mississippi, and Necedah in Wisconsin. For several decades the Bureau of Biological Survey had remained in the Department of Agriculture and the Bureau (formerly Commission) of Fisheries in the Department of Commerce. In 1939 both bureaus were transferred to the Department of the Interior through an Executive Branch reorganization. They were merged to form the Fish and Wildlife Service in 1940. Then in 1956, two bureaus were formed under the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service—the Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife (which included the Division of Wildlife Refuges) and the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries. Subsequently, the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries was transferred in 1970 to the Department of Commerce and became the National Marine Fisheries Service, while the Fish and Wildlife Service still remains a bureau of the Department of the Interior. New directions, new opportunities (1956–1996) The Fish and Wildlife Act of 1956 established a comprehensive national fish and wildlife policy and broadened the authority for acquisition and development of refuges. The funds necessary to implement this authority, however, were not immediately forthcoming. Without increased funding, land acquisition during the 1950s could not keep pace with the high rate of drainage (primarily due to intensive agricultural development) of waterfowl breeding habitat in the prairie pothole country. To remedy this situation, Congress passed an amendment to the Duck Stamp Act in 1958 which authorized the Waterfowl Production Area (WPA) program. To fund the WPA program and accelerate the wetland preservation effort, Congress also passed the Wetlands Loan Act of 1961. As later amended, this act authorized a loan of $200 million to be spent over a period of 23 years and to be repaid from duck stamp revenues. Recognizing new public demands for recreational activities after World War II, Congress passed the Refuge Recreation Act of 1962. This act authorized the recreational use of refuges when such uses did not interfere with the area's primary purposes and when sufficient funds were available to conduct recreational activities. The act also clarified the appropriateness of public use on refuges, encouraged efforts to provide wildlife-oriented recreation, interpretation and environmental education activities, and required that such uses be compatible with the purposes for which the lands were acquired. Perhaps the law of greatest significance to wildlife refuges since the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929 has been the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966. The act provided guidelines and directives for administration and management of all areas in the system including "wildlife refuges, areas for the protection and conservation of fish and wildlife that are threatened with extinction, wildlife ranges, game ranges, wildlife management areas, and waterfowl production areas." In addition, the 1966 law established the standard of "compatibility," requiring that uses of refuge lands must be determined to be compatible with the purposes for which individual refuges were established. This standard was later strengthened and clarified in the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act of 1997. The Endangered Species Act of 1973 also redirected management emphasis on some refuges. It is considered the world's foremost law protecting species faced with extinction. This act has provided extensive means of protection for endangered species (including penalties for harming endangered animals, review and compliance obligations for various federal agency programs, and the listing of species eligible for protection). Over 25 new refuges have been added to the NWRS under this authority including Attwater Prairie Chicken, Texas, Mississippi Sandhill Crane, Mississippi, Columbian White-tailed Deer, Washington, and Crocodile Lake, Florida. The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (ANCSA), an outgrowth of the Alaska Statehood Act, is a law of enormous importance to the National Wildlife Refuge System. Among numerous other provisions, it authorized the addition of immense areas of highly productive, internationally significant wildlife lands to the NWRS. Further far-reaching resource protection measures for Alaska were mandated by Congress in the passage on December 2, 1980, of the Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA). The act added nine new refuges, expanded seven existing refuges and added 53.7 million acres (217,000 km2) to the NWRS. This act alone nearly tripled the area of lands encompassed in the Refuge System. Approaching the centennial (1997 and on) In 1997, Congress provided much-needed organic legislation with the passage of the National Wildlife Refuge System Improvement Act. This legislation amended the National Wildlife Refuge System Administration Act of 1966 and provided significant new guidance for the management of the Refuge System. It provided a new statutory mission statement and directed that the Refuge System be managed as a national system of lands and waters devoted to conserving wildlife and maintaining biological integrity of ecosystems. The law also clarified management priorities by declaring that certain wildlife-dependent recreational uses are appropriate activities on refuges, strengthened the compatibility determination process, and required the Service to undertake comprehensive conservation planning for each refuge. In 2006, a bi-partisan group of 100 members of Congress formed the Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus to further the needs of the Refuge System with a unified voice. From the earliest years national wildlife refuges have played a major role in the evolution of resource conservation in the United States. The National Wildlife Refuge System now comprises more than 520 units in all 50 states, American Samoa, Puerto Rico, the US Virgin Islands, the Johnston Atoll, Midway Atoll and several other Pacific Islands. Refuges now encompass over 93 million acres (380,000 km2) of valuable wildlife habitat. Included in this total are nearly 1.9 million acres (7,700 km2) of wetlands in the Prairie Pothole Region of the north-central United States. These wetlands are known as "waterfowl production areas", and have federal protection through fee acquisition or easements. This vital habitat, together with the wetlands of the Canadian prairies and Alaska, provides the key production areas where the bulk of North America's waterfowl nest and rear their young. Wilderness designation also helps protect diverse refuge areas including islands, lakes, forests, deserts, and mountains. Currently, 20.6 million acres (83,400 km2) of refuge lands have been designated as wilderness under provisions of the Wilderness Act of 1964. The act states that these Congressionally designated areas "shall be administered for the use and enjoyment of the American people in such a manner as will leave them unimpaired for future use and enjoyment as wilderness." References This article incorporates text in the public domain from the United States Government: History of the National Wildlife Refuge System. National Wildlife Refuges of the United States Wildlife Refuge, History
5195192	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anastasio%20Bustamante	Anastasio Bustamante	Trinidad Anastasio de Sales Ruiz Bustamante y Oseguera (; 27 July 1780 – 6 February 1853) was a Mexican physician, general, and politician who served as the 4th President of Mexico three times from 1830 to 1832, 1837 to 1839, and 1839 to 1841. He also served as the 2nd Vice President of Mexico from 1829 to 1832 under Presidents Vicente Guerrero, José María Bocanegra, himself, and Melchor Múzquiz. He participated in the Mexican War of Independence initially as a royalist before siding with Agustín de Iturbide and supporting the Plan of Iguala. Bustamante was a member of the Provisional Government Junta, the first governing body of Mexico. After the fall of the First Mexican Empire, his support for Emperor Iturbide was pardoned by President Guadalupe Victoria. The controversial 1828 general election sparked riots forcing the results to be nullified, as a result, Congress named him vice president while the liberal Vicente Guerrero was named president. Bustamante's command of a military reserve during the Barradas Expedition in 1829 allowed him to launch a coup d'état ousting Guerrero. During his first term as president, he expelled U.S. Minister Joel Roberts Poinsett, issued a law prohibiting American immigration to Texas, and produced a budget surplus. His leading minister during this time was the conservative intellectual Lucas Alamán. Opponents of his regime proclaimed the Plan of Veracruz in 1832, leading to almost a year of civil war, ultimately forcing Bustamante into exile. During his exile, the First Republic collapsed and was replaced by Santa Anna with the Centralist Republic of Mexico. Santa Anna's fall from power during the Texas Revolution in 1836 gave Bustamante the chance to return to Mexico and smoothly reassume the presidency in early 1837. Refusal to compensate French losses in Mexico resulted in the disastrous Pastry War in late 1838. Bustamante briefly stepped down in 1839 to suppress a rebellion led by José de Urrea. Relations with the United States were restored and treaties signed with European powers. Rebellions in favor of restoring the federal system and an ongoing financial crisis was leading to unrest all over the nation. The state of Yucatán broke away in 1839, and in 1840 Bustamante himself was taken hostage in the capital by federalist rebels who were ultimately defeated. A conservative revolt led by Mariano Paredes ultimately forced him into a second exile in 1841. Bustamante returned in 1845 and participated in the Mexican–American War. He spent his last years in San Miguel de Allende where he died in 1853. Early life Anastasio Bustamante was born on July 27, 1780, in Jiquilpan, Michoacán to Jose Ruiz Bustamante and Francisca Oseguera. His family did not have great wealth and his father was employed transporting snow to Guadalajara, nonetheless they provided the young Anastasio with a good education. At the age of fifteen he enrolled at the Seminary College of Guadalajara, sponsored by Marcelino Figueroa, curate of the village of Tuxpam. He then went to Mexico City to study medicine with Dr. Ligner professor of chemistry at the college of mining. After graduating he accepted an offer to work at San Luis Potosí and was made director of the hospital of San Juan de Dios. Ever since his college years, Bustamante had also shown an intention of joining the military and after the upheavals suffered by Spain in 1808 as a consequence of the Peninsular War a corp of cavalry was formed in San Luis Potosí made up of the leading families and Bustamante was named a member, but he did not leave his profession as a physician until the Mexican War of Independence broke out in September 1810, at which Bustmante found himself fighting as a Spanish loyalist under the command of Felix Calleja. Military career War of Independence He was promoted to captain in 1812 and found himself at the Siege of Cuautla in which he was commissioned by Calleja to break the siege. He then found himself seeing action in the Valley of Apam where he was wounded in action. He was recruited to the regiments of Pascual Liñán and sent to repulse the invasion started at Galveston by Javier Mina. He captured the Fort of Remedios where he took the batteries in spite of being wounded and pursued the fleeing insurgents with cavalry. He helped pacify the entire province of Guanajuato culminating in the battle at the Hacienda de Guanimaro in which he routed the forces of Torres and the American filibuster Gregorio Wolf. Towards the end of the war Bustamante found himself at the Hacienda de Pantoja in charge of operations at the Valle of Santiago when Captain Quintanilla on behalf of Agustín de Iturbide attempting to recruit him to join the Plan of Iguala to which Bustamante aquieced. The viceroy had given orders to the commandant general of the province Antonio Linares that Bustamante be withdrawn from his command, but Bustamante intercepted the message, and he proclaimed his support for independence on March 19, 1821. He traveled to Celaya where he offered to Linares the command post which he rejected, he entered Guanajuato without meeting any resistance, and he removed from the Alhondiga the bodies of the insurgents who had been executed for fighting for independence at the start of the war, moving them rather to the cemetery of San Sebastián. Iturbide designated Bustamante second in command in regards to the revolution, and he accompanied him to a conference with General Cruz at the Hacienda of San Antonio. Bustamante was then declared head of all cavalry, defeating the forces of Bracho and San Julian who marched to the relief of Querétaro. Iturbide meanwhile travelled to Puebla and Bustamante advanced through Arroyazarco to the outskirts of the capital to prepare the siege and fought at Azcapotzalco. Before occupying Mexico City he was named by Iturbide to the Governmental Junta and after the Regency Field Marshall and captain general of the internal provinces of the West and the East when the territory of the First Mexican Empire was divided into five military districts. At Huchi he defeated the Ordenes Regiment, a Spanish expeditionary force for which he was recommended to be a part of the Regency. At the capital he was in charge of urgent matters related to the internal provinces of the country. First Republic After the First Mexican Empire fell he joined Luis de Quintanar at Guadalajara in proclaiming a revolution in favor of the federal system, hoping that in the resulting upheaval Iturbide could find a way back to power. However the uprising was defeated and Bustamante and Quintanar surrendered before General Nicolas Bravo and the pair were banished to South America, a punishment which was never carried out due to the political upheavals afflicting Mexico at the time. During the early years of the First Republic as politics in Mexico became a struggle between the liberal, federalist Yorkino party and the conservative, centralist Escoses party Bustamante sided with the former due to being offput by the hatred for Iturbide found in the Escoses party. President Victoria gave Bustamante command of the internal provinces, and he began his duties with the rank of Division General. He set out to suppress raids and protect the frontier. First Presidency Overthrow of Guerrero In the elections of 1828, Bustamante was chosen to be vice-president under the Yorkino Vicente Guerrero, and he was placed in charge of the reserve forces of Xalapa. President Guerrero had been granted emergency powers in 1829 due to a Spanish Invasion, and did not resign them, which became a point of contention among the opposition. A conspiracy began to brew against the president and it succeeded in gaining the adherence of Bustamante. He was influenced by Jose Antonio Facio, a great opponent of Guerrero, and some Yorkinos disillusioned with the president. On December 4, 1829, Bustamante proclaimed the Plan of Jalapa against the government on the pretext of restoring constitutional order against the president's alleged dictatorial tendencies. Guerrero gathered troops and left the capital to face the rebels, only for the insurrection to flare up in the capital itself, and the government surrendered on December 22 while Guerrero escaped to the south of the country. Bustamante appoints a new government Bustamante officially began his presidency on January 1, 1830. He named Lucas Alamán: Minister of Interior and Exterior Relations, Rafael Mangino: Minister of Finance, Colonel Jose Antonio Facio: Minister of War and Marine, and Minister of Justice: José Ignacio Espinosa. Congress ratified the Plan of Jalapa, but it did not annul the results of the election of 1828. It rather declared Guerrero unfit to rule, and as a consequence vice-president Bustamante was now president. The new government, notably Alaman and Facio regretted the expulsion of the Spaniards which had been carried out under previous administrations, but did not attempt to undue such measures due to popular anti-Spanish feeling. Uprisings against Bustamante Meanwhile, Guerrero remained at large in the south of the country, and the commanders who had previously all fought the Spaniards now found themselves on opposing sides of a civil conflict. On the side of Guerrero were Juan Álvarez, Francisco Mongoy, Gordiano Guzmán, and Isidoro Montes de Oca. On the side of Bustamante were Nicolas Bravo, Manuel de Mier y Terán, and Melchor Múzquiz. The conflict flared up in other parts of the country but was suppressed. A brother of the ex-president Guadalupe Victoria was executed for taking arms against the government. The problem of Texas On April 6, 1830, the government took action against the crisis that was developing in the state of Coahuila y Tejas. The region had been increasingly settled by American immigrants since the last days of Spanish rule, and the amount of settlers now threatened Mexico's ability to administer the region. Minister Alaman passed a law prohibiting further colonization of Texas by foreigners from countries contiguous to Mexico, and enforcing customs along the frontier. General Teran was ordered to establish a string of forts along the Texas frontier. The colonists who up until this point had been living in virtual independence, to the point of openly owning slaves, which was illegal in Mexico, found the law highly irritating. Guerrero captured and executed For the first time in Mexican history, official independence day celebrations also occurred on September 27 in addition to September 16 in order to commemorate the entrance of Agustín de Iturbide's Trigarantine Army into Mexico City in addition to the usual commemorations of the Grito de Dolores. On January 1, 1831, General Nicolas Bravo struck a decisive blow against the remaining forces of Vicente Guerrero. The latter attempted to flee aboard the ship Colombo departing from the port of Acapulco, but Captain Picaluga instead docked at Huatulco and turned Guerrero over to the authorities. Guerrero was court martialed and condemned to death, being executed by firing squad on February 14. The execution of one of the heroes of independence, reminiscent of Agustín de Iturbide's death only seven years earlier, shocked the nation and rumors that the government had paid Picaluga were widespread. After the end of Guerrero's struggle in the south there was relative peace throughout the nation. Taxes and customs were increasing, and the nation's credit began to improve. At the opening of congress on January 1, 1832, Bustamante reported that the states all now had considerable surplus funds, and that the treasury had enough funds to pay six months interest on the foreign debt. Beneath the increasing prosperity however lay unease over the governments increasingly autocratic measures. Freedom of speech was abolished, and the legislature and judiciary grew increasingly subservient to the executive. Plan of Veracruz On January 2, 1832, the garrison at Vera Cruz pronounced against the government, accusing the ministers of acting autocratically and demanding their dismissal. Santa Anna at this point had a reputation for being liberal, he had proclaimed for a republic when Emperor Agustín de Iturbide's was becoming increasingly autocratic, and had been a supporter of Vicente Guerrero. The opposition had gathered around him hoping that he would lead a movement to overthrow Bustamante. Santa Anna agreed to join the movement and on January 4, he addressed himself to President Bustamante offering to mediate between the rebels and the president in order to prevent bloodshed. The government failed to defeat Santa Anna, and the revolution spread to Tamaulipas, where the rebels routed the forces of Manuel de Mier y Terán at Tampico. Mier y Terán would commit suicide in the aftermath. Now the revolution was joined by more states, who now began to demand not only the dismissal of the ministers but the replacement of Bustamante himself with Manuel Gomez Pedraza who had won the elections of 1828 before fleeing the country in the aftermath of Vicente Guerrero's revolt against him. Meanwhile, the states of San Luis Potosí, Michoacán, Chihuahua, Mexico, Puebla, and Tabasco remained loyal to Bustamante, but the revolution continued to advance. The government was shaken by the news that the hereunto loyal city of San Luis Potosí was captured by the General José Esteban Moctezuma on August 6, and President Bustamante assumed personal command of the troops in order to lead an expedition against him. Bustamante stepped down as president and the deputies elected General Melchor Muzquiz to assume the role of interim president on August 14. Bustamante routed the forces of Moctezuma on September 18, and occupied the city on September 30. Unfortunately for the government General Gabriel Valencia then proclaimed his support for the revolution in the state of Mexico, putting him in a position to threaten the capital. Bustamante advanced back towards Mexico City and reached Peñón Blanco where he obtained a promise from Governor Garcia of supporting the government, a promise which was later broken. Meanwhile, in Veracruz after a six-month stalemate, Santa Anna succeeded in defeating the government forces led by José Antonio Facio, allowing his army to leave Veracruz and advance upon the capital reaching Tacubaya on October 6. However Santa Anna turned back on November 6 to face the approaching army of Bustamante at the city of Puebla, where he eventually defeated him on November 16. At this point, the government had effectively lost control over the rest of the nation, retaining the loyalty of only Oaxaca and Chihuahua. Bustamante gave up the military struggle and opened negotiations at which it was agreed to enter into an armistice until congress could approve a peace treaty between parties. Congress refused to surrender, but Bustamante disobeyed them to avert further bloodshed and proceeded to negotiate a peace that was ratified on December 23, 1832, through the Treaty of Zavaleta. In accordance with the treaty, the presidency now passed on to Manuel Gomez Pedraza. Bustamante was banished to Europe two years later in 1833. Life in Europe Bustamante spend his exile travelling the nations of Europe, touring military establishments, and while in Paris, attending lectures at the Atheneum, including those of the Astronomer François Arago. In keeping with his background as a physician, he visited the anatomical collections of Montpellier and of Vienna. He learned to speak fluent French albeit with a heavy accent, and his standing as the former president of Mexico gave him access to prominent individuals. In 1833, the liberal government of Valentín Gómez Farías, which had succeeded Bustamante was overthrown by Santa Anna who had now switched sides to the conservatives and helped rewrite the constitution, establishing the Centralist Republic of Mexico, which stripped the provinces of their autonomy in favor of a strong central government. Revolts against the new constitution flared up all over the nation, and Santa Anna set out to suppress them. With the conservatives in power, Bustamante was no longer prohibited from returning to the nation. He remained in Europe for the time being, but he was heavily affected by news of the Battle of San Jacinto in 1836, through which Mexico lost Texas. The government invited him back into the country, and the newly arrived Bustamante offered his services to the nation in the war against Texas. Second presidency With the fall of Santa Anna however, Bustamante was now the most high-profile conservative in the nation, and after the disastrous presidency of Jose Justo Corro, which had been unable to prevent the loss of Texas, congress voted to offer Bustamante the presidency which he accepted on April 12, 1837. He accepted, and published a proclamation explaining that he had left his peaceful retirement in Europe to offer his services to the nation in their struggle against the rebellious province of Texas. He lamented that there was a lack of funds to pursue this end, and promised to pursue impartial justice, and the good of the country. He chose Joaquin Lebrija as the minister of the treasury, José Mariano Michelena as minister of war, Manuel de la Peña y Peña as minister of the interior and Luis Gonzaga Cuevas, known to be an associate of Bustamante's previous minister Lucas Alamán, as minister of relations. Shortly after the inauguration, news arrived that the Spanish government had recognized Mexican independence, in a treaty concluded at Madrid with the Mexican plenipotentiary, Miguel Santa Maria on December 28, 1836. The treaty was ratified by the Mexican congress on May, 1837. Minor revolts against the government broke out at San Luis Potosí, but were suppressed. Esteban Moctezuma who had played a key role in Bustamante's first overthrow, was killed during the government's reprisals. Pastry War Months of blockade and the military occupation of the Port of Veracruz would now follow stemming from French financial claims. France had long been attempting to negotiate settlements of damages experienced by its citizens during Mexican conflicts. The claims of a French baker based in Mexico City would end up giving the subsequent conflict its name. Diplomatic talks over the matter broke down on January, 1838, and French warships arrived in Veracruz on March. A French ultimatum was rejected and France declared that it would now blockade the Mexican ports. Another round of negotiations broke down and the French began to bombard Veracruz on November 27. The Fortress of San Juan de Ulúa could not withstand the French artillery and surrendered the following day, and the Mexican government responded by declaring war. Santa Anna, who had been disgraced after recognizing Texan independence, emerged from his private life at Manga de Clavo to lead troops against the French, being given a command by the Mexican government. On December 5, three French divisions were sent to land at Veracruz to capture the forts of Santiago, Concepcion, and to arrest Santa Anna. The forts were captured, but the division tasked with finding Santa Anna was fought off at the barracks of La Merced. Santa Anna lost a leg in the fighting which gained him much public sympathy after the disgrace he suffered for losing in Texas. Nonetheless the French had effective control of Veracruz and the results of the war so far led to Bustamante’s cabinet to resign. Great Britain which also had interests in Mexico had been feeling the effects of the French blockade, and had anchored thirteen vessels in Veracruz as a show of force. France, who did not wish either to enter a conflict with England or to further invade Mexico once again entered into negotiations. An agreement was reached in April, 1838 which resulted in a French departure and a Mexican agreement to pay damages to France Tampico revolt In October 1838, another rebellion against the government broke out at Tampico, which soon placed itself under the command of General José de Urrea. The revolt spread into San Luis Potosí and Nuevo León, and the government sent Valentin Canalizo with troops that had been raised for the Pastry War. Canalizo was repulsed but not before killing the original instigator of the revolt Montenegro. Government reinforcements were sent under Garay and Lemus only to switch sides and join in the rebel siege of Matamoros. The rebels now succeeded in overthrowing the governors of Monterey and Nuevo León and in March, 1839 government reinforcements under General Cos were routed by Mejia. Bustamante stepped down from the presidency and assumed command of the armed forces himself and marched to San Luis Potosí. The presidency in the meantime was held by Santa Anna. The rebels under Urrea and Mejia now made an incursion into Puebla, and Santa Anna headed out from the capital to meet them. Government forces under General Valencia defeated the rebels at the Battle of Acajete on May 3, 1839, and captured General Mejia who was summarily executed. Urrea however escaped and retreated into Tampico which fell to government forces on June 11 with Urrea being exiled. The remainder of the rebels were concentrated in the northeast, received aid from Texas, and plotted to separate the northern Mexican provinces into an independent republic. The rebels however, now experienced a series of defeats at the hands of Mariano Arista before finally surrendering to the government on November 1, 1839 Third presidency Bustamante returned to the capital on July 19, 1839, and faced criticism for his campaign which upon reaching San Luis Potosí had largely remained idle, and Bustamante defended his conduct by reminding his opponents about how he had directed the final and decisive campaigns of Arista. Loss of Yucatán Bustamante would now go on to face the most serious separatist crisis the country had experienced since the Texas Revolution. Years of irritation at excise taxes, levies, conscription, and increase of custom duties culminated in Iman raising the standard of revolt at Tizimin on May, 1839. Valladolid was captured in February, 1840 and joined by Mérida. The entire north-east of the Yucatán Peninsula declared itself independent until Mexico should restore the federal system. Campeche was captured on June 6, and now the entire peninsula was in the hands of the rebels, who proceeded to elect a legislature and form an alliance with Texas. Federalist Revolt of 1840 Bustamante was not able to suppress the Yucatán movement and its success inspired the federalists to renew their struggle. General Urrea had been arrested but continued to conspire with his associates and on July 15, 1840, he was broken out of prison. With a group of select men, Urrea broke into the National Palace, snuck past sleeping palace guards, overpowered Bustamante's private bodyguard, and surprised the president in his bedchambers. As Bustamante reached for his sword, Urrea announced his presence, to which the president replied with an insult. The soldiers aimed their muskets at Bustamante, but were restrained by their officer who reminded them that Bustamante had once been Iturbide's second in command. The president was assured that his person would be respected, but was now a prisoner of the rebels. Almonte, the minister of war had meanwhile escaped to organize a rescue. Valentín Gómez Farías, the former liberal president whose overthrow in 1833 had led to the end of the First Republic, and the creation of the Centralist Republic had now arrived in the country to take command of the revolt. Government and federalist forces now converged at the capital. Federalists occupied the entire vicinity of the National Palace while government forces prepared their positions for an attack. Skirmishes broke out the entire afternoon, sometimes involving artillery. A cannonball crashed through the dining room where the captive president was having dinner, covering his table with debris. Shortly afterwards the officer charged with watching over him was hit by another cannonball. This was the same officer who had earlier restrained the rebels from shooting Bustamante, and the president, with his background as a physician tended to his wounds. The conflict appeared to be reaching a stalemate, and the president was released in order to try and reach a negotiation. Negotiations broke down and the capital had to face twelve days of warfare, which resulted in property damage, civilian loss of life, and a large exodus of refugees out of the city. Now news was received that government reinforcements were on the way under the command of Santa Anna. Rather than face a protracted conflict that would destroy the capital, negotiations were started again and an agreement was reached whereby there would be a ceasefire, and the rebels would be granted amnesty. The revolt among other national disorders inspired José María Gutiérrez Estrada in October to publish an essay addressed to President Bustamante advocating the establishment of a Mexican monarchy with a European prince as the remedy for the nation's ills, his indignity over witnessing the National Palace being besieged forming a notable theme throughout the essay. President Bustamante was not sympathetic to calls for importing a foreign monarch. The resulting outrage to Estrada's monarchist plan, from both the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party was so severe that the publisher of the pamphlet was arrested, and Estrada went into hiding, subsequently fleeing the country. Bustamante's final overthrow After the Gomez Farias revolt, the government still had to face a seemingly insurmountable series of challenges. Tabasco was now trying to secede, the north was facing Indian raids, and a nascent Texas navy was now on the offensive against Mexico. The ever-present financial crisis had also obliged the government to raise taxes. At the end of 1839, the tax on custom house duties was increased by fifteen percent, which offered little relief for the budget since most custom house receipts already went to cover debt. The budget of 1841 at the end of Bustamante's rule estimated the revenue at $12,874, 100, less $4,800,000 coming from customs, and the expenditures at $21,836,781, whereof $17,116,878, more than eighty percent went to the military, leaving a deficit of $13,762,681. The increase on customs resulted in formal protests from Mexican businessmen at the capital and at Jalisco, and the commandant general of the latter, Mariano Paredes joined the protestors and formally presented their grievances to the governor. Governor Mariano Escobedo, decreed to lower taxes and imports within his own state, but the national congress nullified most of his relief measures. Congress was pressed with a public desire for constitutional reform, but legislature stalled in the session from January to June 1841. In response to the national crises, Mariano Paredes on August 8, 1841, published a manifesto to his fellow commander generals, calling for the creation of a new government. He gathered as many troops as he could, gathered more on the way and entered the city of Tacubaya where he was joined by Santa Anna. In September, Bustamante resigned the presidency once again to lead the troops personally and left the presidency to the finance minister Javier Echeverria. He attempted to proclaim support for the federal system in order to divide his enemies, but the ploy failed. The insurgents were triumphant and Bustamante officially surrendered power through the Estanzuela Accords on October 6, 1841. A military junta was formed which wrote the Bases of Tacubaya, a plan which swept away the entire structure of government, except the judiciary, and also called for elections for a new constituent congress meant to write a new constitution. Santa Anna then placed himself at the head of a provisional government. Later years As he did after his first overthrow, Bustamante went to Europe. When Santa Anna fell from power in 1844, he once again returned to offer his services to the nation in its increasing tensions with the United States. Under president Paredes, Bustamante was made a senator for the national constitutional assembly that was to mee in June, 1846. Bustamante was wary of changing the constitution, but when the assembly met he was made president of the congress. While offering his services, he did not see major action during the Mexican–American War. He was sent on an expedition to reinforce California, but never made it due to budget issues, and a diversion to control an uprising in Mazatlán. After the cease-fire, he was assigned to suppress another revolt carried out by Paredes, and he succeeded, pacifying Guanajuato, Aguascalientes, and the Sierra Gorda. This series of victories would be the last campaign of Bustamante's long military career. He was amongst those opposed to the Treaty of Guadalupe which lost the nation half of its territory, but as the final ratification was approaching and Manuel de la Peña y Peña asked him on the wisdom of continuing the war, Bustamante merely replied that he would obey the government regardless of what it decided upon. After the war Bustamante retired from politics and made his residence at San Miguel de Allende. He spent his time talking with his friends and recounting his eventful political career or whatever had grabbed his attention during his trips. He died on February 6, 1853, at the age of seventy-two. He was buried at the Parish of San Miguel de Allende. His heart was buried next to the remains of Iturbide at the National Cathedral. See also List of heads of state of Mexico References Sources Andrews, Catherine. "The Political and Military Career of General Anastasio Bustamante, 1780–1853", PhD diss., University of Saint Andrews, UK, 2001 . "Bustamante, Anastasio", Enciclopedia de México, vol. 2. Mexico City, 1996, . García Puron, Manuel, México y sus gobernantes, v. 2. Mexico City: Joaquín Porrua, 1984. Orozco Linares, Fernando, Gobernantes de México. Mexico City: Panorama Editorial, 1985, . Macías-González, Víctor M. "Masculine friendships, sentiment, and homoerotics in nineteenth-century Mexico: the correspondence of Jose Maria Calderon y Tapia, 1820s–1850s". Journal of the History of Sexuality, vol. 16, 3 (September 2007): 416–35. \|- \|- Presidents of Mexico Vice presidents of Mexico Presidents of the Chamber of Deputies (Mexico) Leaders who took power by coup Mexican generals 1780 births 1853 deaths 19th-century Mexican people 19th-century presidents of Mexico 1830s in Mexico People from Jiquilpan, Michoacán Mexican Roman Catholics 19th-century Mexican military personnel 19th-century Mexican politicians Mexican independence activists
5195275	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedro%20Almod%C3%B3var	Pedro Almodóvar	Pedro Almodóvar Caballero (; born 25 September 1949) is a Spanish film director and screenwriter. His films are marked by melodrama, irreverent humour, bold colour, glossy décor, quotations from popular culture, and complex narratives. Desire, LGBT issues, passion, family, and identity are among Almodóvar's most prevalent subjects in his films. Acclaimed as one of the most internationally successful Spanish filmmakers, Almodóvar and his films have gained worldwide interest and developed a cult following. Almodóvar's career developed during La Movida Madrileña, a cultural renaissance that followed the end of Francoist Spain. His early films characterised the sense of sexual and political freedom of the period. In 1986, he established his own film production company, El Deseo, with his younger brother Agustín Almodóvar, who has been responsible for producing all of his films since Law of Desire (1987). His breakthrough film was Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988), which was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film. He achieved further success often collaborating with actors Antonio Banderas and Penélope Cruz. He directed Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1989), High Heels (1991), and Live Flesh (1997). Almodóvar's next two films, All About My Mother (1999) and Talk to Her (2002), earned him an Academy Award each for Best International Feature Film and Best Original Screenplay, respectively. He continued to garner acclaim with his later films Volver (2006), Broken Embraces (2009), The Skin I Live In (2011), I'm So Excited! (2013), Julieta (2016), Pain and Glory (2019), and Parallel Mothers (2021). He is also known for directing several short films including The Human Voice (2020), and Strange Way of Life (2023) Almodóvar has received numerous accolades including two Academy Awards, five BAFTA Awards, two Emmy Awards, two Golden Globe Awards, nine Goya Awards. He has also received the French Legion of Honour in 1997, the Gold Medal of Merit in the Fine Arts in 1999, and the European Film Academy Achievement in World Cinema Award in 2013 and was awarded the Golden Lion in 2019. He's also received an honorary doctoral degrees from Harvard University in 2009 and from University of Oxford in 2016. Early life Pedro Almodóvar Caballero was born on 25 September 1949 in Calzada de Calatrava, a small rural town of the Province of Ciudad Real in Spain. He has two older sisters, Antonia and María Jesús, and one brother Agustín. His father, Antonio Almodóvar, was a winemaker, and his mother, Francisca Caballero, who died in 1999, was a letter reader and transcriber for illiterate neighbours. When Almodóvar was eight years old, the family sent him to study at a religious boarding school in the city of Cáceres, Extremadura, in western Spain, with the hope that he might someday become a priest. His family eventually joined him in Cáceres, where his father opened a gas station and his mother opened a bodega in which she sold her own wine. Unlike Calzada, there was a cinema in Cáceres. "Cinema became my real education, much more than the one I received from the priest", he said later in an interview. Almodóvar was influenced by Luis Buñuel. Against his parents' wishes, Almodóvar moved to Madrid in 1967 to become a filmmaker. When the Spanish dictator, Francisco Franco, closed the National School of Cinema in Madrid, Almodóvar became self-taught. To support himself, Almodóvar had a number of jobs, including selling used items in the famous Madrid flea market El Rastro and as an administrative assistant with the Spanish phone company Telefónica, where he worked for 12 years. Since he worked only until three in the afternoon, he had the rest of the day to pursue his film-making. Career 1974–1979: Early work and short films In the early 1970s, Almodóvar became interested in experimental cinema and theatre. He collaborated with the vanguard theatrical group Los Goliardos, in which he played his first professional roles and met actress Carmen Maura. Madrid's flourishing alternative cultural scene became the perfect scenario for Almodóvar's social talents. He was a crucial figure in La Movida Madrileña (the Madrilenian Movement), a cultural renaissance that followed the death of Francisco Franco. Alongside Fabio McNamara, Almodóvar sang in a glam rock parody duo. Almodóvar also penned various articles for major newspapers and magazines, such as El País, Diario 16 and La Luna as well as contributing to comic strips, articles and stories in counterculture magazines, such as Star, El Víbora and Vibraciones. He published a novella, Fuego en las entrañas (Fire in the Guts) and kept writing stories that were eventually published in a compilation volume entitled El sueño de la razón (The Dream of Reason). Almodóvar bought his first camera, a Super-8, with his first paycheck from Telefónica when he was 22 years old, and began to make hand-held short films. Around 1974, he made his first short film, and by the end of the 1970s they were shown in Madrid's night circuit and in Barcelona. These shorts had overtly sexual narratives and no soundtrack: Dos putas, o, Historia de amor que termina en boda (Two Whores, or, A Love Story that Ends in Marriage) in 1974; La caída de Sodoma (The Fall of Sodom) in 1975; Homenaje (Homage) in 1976; La estrella (The Star) in 1977; Sexo Va: Sexo viene (Sex Comes and Goes); and Complementos (Shorts) in 1978, his first film in 16mm. He remembers, "I showed them in bars, at parties... I could not add a soundtrack because it was very difficult. The magnetic strip was very poor, very thin. I remember that I became very famous in Madrid because, as the films had no sound, I took a cassette with music while I personally did the voices of all the characters, songs and dialogues". After four years of working with shorts in Super-8 format, Almodóvar made his first full-length film Folle, folle, fólleme, Tim (Fuck Me, Fuck Me, Fuck Me, Tim) in Super-8 in 1978, followed by his first 16 mm short Salomé. 1980–1987: Rise to prominence Pepi, Luci, Bom (1980) Almodóvar made his first feature film Pepi, Luci, Bom (1980) with a very low budget of 400,000 pesetas, shooting it in 16 mm and later blowing it up into 35 mm. The film was based on a comic strip titled General Erections that he had written and revolves around the unlikely friendship between Pepi (Carmen Maura), who wants revenge on a corrupt policeman who raped her, a masochistic housewife named Luci (Eva Siva), and Bom (Alaska), a lesbian punk rock singer. Inspired by La Movida Madrileña, Pepi, Luci, Bom expressed the sense of cultural and sexual freedom of the time with its many kitsch elements, campy style, outrageous humour and explicit sexuality (there is a golden shower scene in the middle of a knitting lesson). The film was noted for its lack of polished filming technique, but Almodóvar looked back fondly on the film's flaws. "When a film has only one or two [defects], it is considered an imperfect film, while when there is a profusion of technical flaws, it is called style. That's what I said joking around when I was promoting the film, but I believe that that was closer to the truth". Pepi, Luci, Bom premiered at the 1980 San Sebastián International Film Festival and despite negative reviews from conservative critics, the film amassed a cult following in Spain. It toured the independent circuits before spending three years on the late night showing of the Alphaville Theater in Madrid. The film's irreverence towards sexuality and social mores has prompted contemporary critics to compare it to the 1970s films of John Waters. Labyrinth of Passion (1982) His second feature Labyrinth of Passion (1982) focuses on nymphomaniac pop star, Sexila (Cecilia Roth), who falls in love with a gay middle-eastern prince, Riza Niro (Imanol Arias). Their unlikely destiny is to find one another, overcome their sexual preferences and live happily ever after on a tropical island. Framed in Madrid during La Movida Madrileña, between the dissolution of Franco's authoritarian regime and the onset of AIDS consciousness, Labyrinth of Passion caught the spirit of liberation in Madrid and it became a cult film. The film marked Almodóvar's first collaboration with cinematographer Ángel Luis Fernandez as well as the first of several collaborations with actor Antonio Banderas. Labyrinth of Passion premiered at the 1982 San Sebastian Film Festival and while the film received better reviews than its predecessor, Almodóvar later acknowledged: "I like the film even if it could have been better made. The main problem is that the story of the two leads is much less interesting than the stories of all the secondary characters. But precisely because there are so many secondary characters, there's a lot in the film I like". Dark Habits (1983) For his next film Dark Habits (1983), Almodóvar was approached by multi-millionaire Hervé Hachuel who wanted to start a production company to make films starring his girlfriend, Cristina Sánchez Pascual. Hachuel set up Tesuaro Production and asked Almodóvar to keep Pascual in mind. Almodóvar had already written the script for Dark Habits and was hesitant to cast Pascual in the leading role due to her limited acting experience. When she was cast, he felt it necessary to make changes to the script so his supporting cast were more prominent in the story. The film heralded a change in tone to somber melodrama with comic elements. Pascual stars as Yolanda, a cabaret singer who seeks refuge in a convent of eccentric nuns, each of whom explores a different sin. This film has an almost all-female cast including Carmen Maura, Julieta Serrano, Marisa Paredes and Chus Lampreave, actresses who Almodóvar would cast again in later films. This is Almodóvar's first film in which he used popular music to express emotion: in a pivotal scene, the mother superior and her protégé sing along with Lucho Gatica's bolero "Encadenados". Dark Habits premiered at the Venice Film Festival and was surrounded in controversy due its subject matter. Despite religious critics being offended by the film, it went on to become a modest critical and commercial success, cementing Almodóvar's reputation as the enfant terrible of the Spanish cinema. What Have I Done to Deserve This? (1984) Carmen Maura stars in What Have I Done to Deserve This?, Almodóvar's fourth film, as Gloria, an unhappy housewife who lives with her ungrateful husband Antonio (Ángel de Andrés López), her mother in law (Chus Lampreave), and her two teenage sons. Verónica Forqué appears as her prostitute neighbor and confidante. Almodóvar has described his fourth film as a homage to Italian neorealism, although this tribute also involves jokes about paedophilia, prostitution, and a telekinetic child. The film, set in the tower blocks around Madrid in post-Franco Spain, depicts female frustration and family breakdown, echoing Jean-Luc Godard's Two or Three Things I Know About Her and strong story plots from Roald Dahl's Lamb to the slaughter and Truman Capote's A Day's work, but with Almodóvar's unique approach to film making. Matador (1986) Almodóvar's growing success caught the attention of emerging Spanish film producer Andrés Vicente Gómez, who wanted to join forces to make his next film Matador (1986). The film centres on the relationship between a former bullfighter and a murderous female lawyer, who both find sexual fulfillment through acts of murder. Written together with Spanish novelist Jesús Ferrero, Matador drew away from the naturalism and humour of the director's previous work into a deeper and darker terrain. Almodóvar cast several of his regulars actors in key roles: Antonio Banderas was hired for the role of Ángel, a bullfighting student who, after an attempted rape incident, falsely confesses to a series of murders that he did not commit; Julieta Serrano appears as Ángel's very religious mother; while Carmen Maura, Chus Lampreave, Verónica Forqué and Eusebio Poncela also appear in minor roles. Newcomers Nacho Martínez and Assumpta Serna, who would later work with Almodóvar again, had minor roles in the film. Matador also marked the first time Almodóvar included a notable cinematic reference, using King Vidor's Duel in the Sun in one scene. The film premiered in 1986 and drew some controversy due to its subject matter. Almodóvar justified his use of violence, explaining "The moral of all my films is to get to a stage of greater freedom". Almodóvar went on to note: "I have my own morality. And so do my films. If you see Matador through the perspective of traditional morality, it's a dangerous film because it's just a celebration of killing. Matador is like a legend. I don't try to be realistic; it's very abstract, so you don't feel identification with the things that are happening, but with the sensibility of this kind of romanticism". Law of Desire (1987) Following the success of Matador, Almodóvar solidified his creative independence by starting his own production company, El Deseo, together with his brother Agustín Almodóvar in 1986. El Deseo's first major release was Law of Desire (1987), a film about the complicated love triangle between a gay filmmaker (Eusebio Poncela), his transsexual sister (Carmen Maura), and a repressed murderously obsessive stalker (Antonio Banderas). Taking more risk from a visual standpoint, Almodóvar's growth as a filmmaker is clearly on display. In presenting the love triangle, Almodóvar drew away from most representations of homosexuals in films. The characters neither come out nor confront sexual guilt or homophobia; they are already liberated. The same can be said for the complex way he depicted transgender characters on screen. Almodóvar said about Law of Desire: "It's the key film in my life and career. It deals with my vision of desire, something that's both very hard and very human. By this I mean the absolute necessity of being desired and the fact that in the interplay of desires it's rare that two desires meet and correspond". Law of Desire made its premiere at the Berlin International Film Festival in 1987, where it won the festival's first ever Teddy Award, which recognises achievement in LGBT cinema. The film was a hit in art-house theatres and received much praise from critics. 1988–2002: Stardom and critical acclaim Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988) Almodóvar's first major critical and commercial success internationally came with the release of Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988).The film debuted at the 45th Venice film festival. This feminist light comedy of rapid-fire dialogue and fast-paced action further established Almodóvar as a "women's director" in the same vein as George Cukor and Rainer Werner Fassbinder. Almodóvar has said that women make better characters: "women are more spectacular as dramatic subjects, they have a greater range of registers, etc." Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown centres on Pepa (Carmen Maura), a woman who has been abruptly abandoned by her married boyfriend Iván (Fernando Guillén). Over two days, Pepa frantically tries to track him down. In the course, she discovers some of his secrets and realises her true feelings. Almodóvar included many of his usual actors, including Antonio Banderas, Chus Lampreave, Rossy de Palma, Kiti Mánver and Julieta Serrano as well as newcomer María Barranco. The film was released in Spain in March 1988, and became a hit in the US, making over $7 million when it was released later that same year, bringing Almodóvar to the attention of American audiences. Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown won five Goya Awards, Spain's top film honours, for Best Film, Best Original Screenplay, Best Editing (José Salcedo), Best Actress (Maura), and Best Supporting Actress (Barranco). The film won an award for best screenplay at the Venice film festival and two awards at the European Film Awards as well as being nominated for Best Foreign Language Film at the BAFTAs and Golden Globes. It also gave Almodóvar his first Academy Award nomination for Best Foreign Language Film. Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1990) Almodóvar's next film marked the end of the collaboration between him and Carmen Maura, and the beginning of a fruitful collaboration with Victoria Abril. Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! (1990) tells the story about a recently released psychiatric patient, Ricky (Antonio Banderas), who kidnaps a porn star, Marina (Abril), in order to make her fall in love with him. Rather than populate the film with many characters, as in his previous films, here the story focuses on the compelling relationship at its center: the actress and her kidnapper literally struggling for power and desperate for love. The film's title line Tie Me Up! is unexpectedly uttered by the actress as a genuine request. She does not know if she will try to escape or not, and when she realizes she has feelings for her captor, she prefers not to be given a chance. In spite of some dark elements, Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! can be described as a romantic comedy, and the director's most clear love story, with a plot similar to William Wyler's thriller The Collector. Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down! made its world premiere at the Berlin Film Festival to a polarized critical reaction. In the United States, the film received an X rating by the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA), and the stigma attached to the X rating marginalized the distribution of the film in the country. Miramax, who distributed the film in the US, filed a lawsuit against the MPAA over the X rating, but lost in court. However, in September 1990, the MPAA replaced the X rating with the NC-17 rating. This was helpful to films of explicit nature, like Tie Me Up! Tie Me Down!, that were previously categorized with pornography because of the X rating. High Heels (1991) High Heels (1991) is built around the fractured relationship between a famous singer, Becky del Páramo (Marisa Paredes), and her news reporter daughter, Rebeca (Victoria Abril), as the pair get caught up in a murder mystery. Rebeca struggles with constantly being in her mother's shadow. The fact that Rebeca is married to Becky's former lover only adds to the tension between the two. The film was partly inspired by old Hollywood mother-daughter melodramas like Stella Dallas, Mildred Pierce, Imitation of Life and particularly Autumn Sonata, which is quoted directly in the film. Production took place in 1990; Almodóvar enlisted Alfredo Mayo to shoot the film as Jose Luis Alcaine was unavailable. Japanese composer Ryuichi Sakamoto created a score that infused popular songs and boleros. High Heels also contains a prison yard dance sequence. While High Heels was a box office success in Spain, the film received poor reviews from Spanish film critics due to its melodramatic approach and unsuspecting tonal shifts. The film got a better critical reception in Italy and France and won France's César Award for Best Foreign Film. In the US, Miramax's lack of promotional effort was blamed for the film's underperformance in the country. It was however nominated for the Golden Globe for Best Foreign Language Film. Kika (1993) His next film Kika (1993) centres on the good-hearted, but clueless, makeup artist named Kika (Verónica Forqué) who gets herself tangled in the lives of an American writer (Peter Coyote) and his stepson (Àlex Casanovas). A fashion conscious TV reporter (Victoria Abril), who is constantly in search of sensational stories, follows Kika's misadventures. Almodóvar used Kika as a critique of mass media, particularly its sensationalism. The film is infamous for its rape scene that Almodóvar used for comic effect to set up a scathing commentary on the selfish and ruthless nature of media. Kika made its premiere in 1993 and received very negative reviews from film critics worldwide; not just for its rape scene which was perceived as both misogynistic and exploitative, but also for its overall sloppiness. Almodóvar would later refer to the film as one of his weakest works. The Flower of My Secret (1995) In The Flower of My Secret (1995), the story focuses on Leo Macías (Marisa Paredes), a successful romance writer who has to confront both a professional and personal crisis. Estranged from her husband, a military officer who has volunteered for an international peacekeeping role in Bosnia and Herzegovina to avoid her, Leo fights to hold on to a past that has already eluded her, not realising she has already set her future path by her own creativity and by supporting the creative efforts of others. This was the first time that Almodóvar utilized composer Alberto Iglesias and cinematographer Affonso Beato, who became key figures in some future films. The Flower of My Secret is the transitional film between his earlier and later style. The film premiered in Spain in 1995 where, despite receiving 7 Goya Award nominations, was not initially well received by critics. Live Flesh (1997) Live Flesh (1997) was the first film by Almodóvar that had an adapted screenplay. Based on Ruth Rendell's novel Live Flesh, the film follows a man who is sent to prison after crippling a police officer and seeks redemption years later when he is released. Almodóvar decided to move the book's original setting of the UK to Spain, setting the action between the years 1970, when Franco declared a state of emergency, to 1996, when Spain had completely shaken off the restrictions of the Franco regime. Live Flesh marked Almodóvar's first collaboration with Penélope Cruz, who plays the prostitute who gives birth to Victor. Additionally, Almodóvar cast Javier Bardem as the police officer David and Liberto Rabal as Víctor, the criminal seeking redemption. Italian actress Francesca Neri plays a former drug addict who sparks a complicated love triangle with David and Víctor. Live Flesh premiered at the New York Film Festival in 1997. The film did modestly well at the international box office and also earned Almodóvar his second BAFTA nomination for Best Film Not in the English Language. All About My Mother (1999) Almodóvar's next film, All About My Mother (1999), grew out of a brief scene in The Flower of My Secret. The premise revolves around a woman Manuela (Cecilia Roth), who loses her teenage son, Esteban (Eloy Azorín) in a tragic accident. Filled with grief, Manuela decides to track down Esteban's transgender mother, Lola (Toni Cantó), and notify her about the death of the son she never knew she had. Along the way Manuela encounters an old friend, Agrado (Antonia San Juan), and meets up with a pregnant nun, Rosa (Penélope Cruz). The film revisited Almodóvar's familiar themes of the power of sisterhood and of family. Almodóvar shot parts of the film in Barcelona and used lush colors to emphasise the richness of the city. Dedicated to Bette Davis, Romy Schneider and Gena Rowlands, All About My Mother is steeped in theatricality, from its backstage setting to its plot, modeled on the works of Federico García Lorca and Tennessee Williams, to the characters' preoccupation with modes of performance. Almodóvar inserts a number of references to American cinema. One of the film's key scenes, where Manuela watches her son die, was inspired by John Cassavetes' 1977 film Opening Night. The film's title is also a nod to All About Eve, which Manuela and her son are shown watching in the film. The comic relief of the film centers on Agrado, a pre-operative transgender woman. In one scene, she tells the story of her body and its relationship to plastic surgery and silicone, culminating with a statement of her own philosophy: "you get to be more authentic the more you become like what you have dreamed of yourself". All About My Mother opened at the 1999 Cannes Film Festival, where Almodóvar won both the Best Director and the Ecumenical Jury prizes. The film garnered a strong critical reception and grossed over $67 million worldwide. All About My Mother has accordingly received more awards and honours than any other film in the Spanish motion picture industry, including the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film, the Golden Globe in the same category, the BAFTA Awards for Best Direction and Best Film Not in the English Language as well as 6 Goyas in his native Spain. Talk to Her (2002) After the success of All About My Mother, Almodóvar took a break from filmmaking to focus on his production company El Deseo. During this break, Almodóvar had an idea for Talk to Her (2002), a film about two men, played by Javier Cámara and Darío Grandinetti, who become friends while taking care of the comatose women they love, played by Leonor Watling and Rosario Flores. Combining elements of modern dance and silent filmmaking with a narrative that embraces coincidence and fate, in the film, Almodóvar plots the lives of his characters, thrown together by unimaginably bad luck, towards an unexpected conclusion. Talk to Her was released in April 2002 in Spain, followed by its international premiere at the Telluride Film Festival in September of that year. It was hailed by critics and embraced by arthouse audiences, particularly in America. The unanimous praise for Talk to Her resulted in Almodóvar winning his second Academy Award, this time for Best Original Screenplay, as well as being nominated in the Best Director category. The film also won the César Award for Best Film from the European Union and both the BAFTA Award and Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. Talk to Her made over $51 million worldwide. 2004–2016: Established director Bad Education (2004) Two years later, Almodóvar followed with Bad Education (2004), tale of child sexual abuse and mixed identities, starring Gael García Bernal and Fele Martínez. In the drama film, two children, Ignácio and Enrique, discover love, cinema, and fear in a religious school at the start of the 1960s. Bad Education has a complex structure that not only uses film within a film, but also stories that open up into other stories, real and imagined to narrate the same story: A tale of child molestation and its aftermath of faithlessness, creativity, despair, blackmail and murder. Sexual abuse by Catholic priests, transsexuality, drug use, and a metafiction are also important themes and devices in the plot. Almodóvar used elements of film noir, borrowing in particular from Double Indemnity. The film's protagonist, Juan (Gael Garcia Bernal), was modeled largely on Patricia Highsmith's most famous character, Tom Ripley, as played by Alain Delon in René Clément's Purple Noon. A criminal without scruples, but with an adorable face that betrays nothing of his true nature. Almodóvar explains : "He also represents a classic film noir character – the femme fatale. Which means that when other characters come into contact with him, he embodies fate, in the most tragic and noir sense of the word". Almodóvar claimed he worked on the film's screenplay for over ten years before starting the film. Bad Education premiered in March 2004 in Spain before opening in the 57th Cannes Film Festival, the first Spanish film to do so, two months later. The film grossed more than $40 million worldwide, despite its NC-17 rating in the US. It won the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding Film – Limited Release and was nominated for the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language; it also received 7 European Film Award nominations and 4 Goya nominations. Volver (2006) Volver (2006), a mixture of comedy, family drama and ghost story, is set in part in La Mancha (the director's native region) and follows the story of three generations of women in the same family who survive wind, fire, and even death. The film is an ode to female resilience, where men are literally disposable. Volver stars Penélope Cruz, Lola Dueñas, Blanca Portillo, Yohana Cobo and Chus Lampreave in addition to reunited the director with Carmen Maura, who had appeared in several of his early films. The film was very personal to Almodóvar as he used elements of his own childhood to shape parts of the story. Many of the characters in the film were variations of people he knew from his small town. Using a colorful backdrop, the film tackled many complex themes such as sexual abuse, grief, secrets and death. The storyline of Volver appears as both a novel and movie script in Almodóvar's earlier film The Flower of My Secret. Many of Almodóvar's stylistic hallmarks are present: the stand-alone song (a rendition of the Argentinian tango song "Volver"), references to reality TV, and an homage to classic film (in this case Luchino Visconti's Bellissima). Volver received a rapturous reception when it played at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, where Almodóvar won the Best Screenplay prize while the entire female ensemble won the Best Actress prize. Penélope Cruz also received an Academy Award nomination for Best Actress, making her the first Spanish woman ever to be nominated in that category. Volver went on to earn several critical accolades and earned more than £85 million internationally, becoming Almodóvar's highest-grossing film worldwide. Broken Embraces (2009) Almodóvar's next film, Broken Embraces (2009) a romantic thriller which centres on a blind novelist, Harry Caine (Lluís Homar), who uses his works to recount both his former life as a filmmaker, and the tragedy that took his sight. A key figure in Caine's past is Lena (Penélope Cruz), an aspiring actress who gets embroiled in a love triangle with Caine and a paranoid millionaire, Ernesto (José Luis Gómez). The film has a complex structure, mixing past and present and film within a film. Almodóvar previously used this type of structure in Talk to Her and Bad Education. Jose Luis Alcaine was unable to take part in the production, so Almodóvar hired Mexican cinematographer Rodrigo Prieto to shoot the film. Distinctive shading and shadows help to differentiate the various time periods within Broken Embraces, as Almodóvar's narrative jumps between the early 1990s and the late 2000s. Broken Embraces was accepted into the main selection at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival in competition for the Palme d'Or, his third film to do so and fourth to screen at the festival. The film earned £30 million worldwide, and received critical acclaim among critics with Roger Ebert giving the film his highest rating, 4 stars, writing, "Broken Embraces" is a voluptuary of a film, drunk on primary colors...using the devices of a Hitchcock to distract us with surfaces while the sinister uncoils beneath. As it ravished me, I longed for a freeze frame to allow me to savor a shot." Despite the film failing to receive an Academy Award nomination, the film was nominated for both the British Academy Film Award and the Golden Globe Award for Best Foreign Language Film. The Skin I Live In (2011) Loosely based on the French novel Tarantula by Thierry Jonquet, The Skin I Live In (2011) is the director's first incursion into the psychological horror genre Inspired to make his own horror film, The Skin I Live In revolves around a plastic surgeon, Robert (Antonio Banderas), who becomes obsessed with creating skin that can withstand burns. Haunted by past tragedies, Robert believes that the key to his research is the patient who he mysteriously keeps prisoner in his mansion. The film marked a long-awaited reunion between Almodóvar and Antonio Banderas, reunited after 21 years. Penélope Cruz was initially slated for the role of the captive patient Vera Cruz, but she was unable to take part as she was pregnant with her first child. As a result, Elena Anaya, who had appeared in Talk to Her, was cast. The Skin I Live In has many cinematic influences, most notably the French horror film Eyes Without a Face directed by Georges Franju, but also refers to Alfred Hitchcock's Vertigo, and the style of the films of David Cronenberg, Dario Argento, Mario Bava, Umberto Lenzi and Lucio Fulci while also paying tribute to the films of Fritz Lang and F. W. Murnau. After making its premiere at the 2011 Cannes Film Festival, the film grossed $30 million worldwide. The Skin I Live In received the BAFTA Award for Best Film Not in the English Language and a Golden Globe Award nomination in the same category. I'm So Excited (2013) After a long period of dramatic and serious feature films, Almodóvar's next film was a comedy. I'm So Excited (2013) is set almost entirely on an aircraft in flight, whose first-class passengers, pilots, and trio of gay stewards all try to deal with the fact that landing gears are malfunctioning. During the ordeal, they talk about love, themselves, and a plethora of things while getting drunk on Valencia cocktails. With its English title taken from a song by the Pointer Sisters, Almodóvar openly embraced the campy humor that was prominent in his early works. The film's cast was a mixture of Almodóvar regulars such as Cecilia Roth, Javier Cámara, and Lola Dueñas, Blanca Suárez and Paz Vega as well as Antonio Banderas and Penélope Cruz who make cameo appearances in the film's opening scene. Shot on a soundstage, Almodóvar amplified the campy tone by incorporating a dance number and oddball characters like Dueñas' virginal psychic. The film premiered in Spain in March 2013 and had its international release during the summer of that year. Despite mixed reviews from critics, the film did fairly well at the international box office. Julieta (2016) For his 20th feature film, Almodóvar decided to return to drama and his "cinema of women". Julieta (2016) stars Emma Suárez and Adriana Ugarte, who play the older and younger versions of the film's titular character, as well as regular Rossy de Palma, who has a supporting role in the film. This film was originally titled "Silencio" (Silence) but the director changed the name to prevent confusion with another recent release by that name. The film was released in April 2016 in Spain to positive reviews and received its international debut at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival. It was Almodóvar's fifth film to compete for the Palme d'Or. The film was also selected by the Spanish Academy as the entry for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 89th Academy Awards, but it did not make the shortlist. 2019–present Pain and Glory (2019) Almodóvar's next film—Pain and Glory (Dolor y gloria)—was released in Spain on 22 March 2019 by Sony Pictures Releasing. It first was selected to compete for the Palme d'Or at the 2019 Cannes Film Festival. The film centers around an aging film director, played by Antonio Banderas who is suffering from chronic illness and writer's block as he reflects on his life in flashbacks to his childhood. Penelope Cruz plays Jacinta, the mother of the aging film director, in the film's flashbacks. The film has been described as semi-autobiographical, according to Almodóvar. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best International Feature Film, though it ultimately lost to Bong Joon-ho's Parasite. Parallel Mothers (2021) In July 2020, Agustín Almodóvar announced that his brother had finished the script for his next full-length feature Parallel Mothers during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown. Starring Penelope Cruz, the drama turns on two mothers who give birth the same day and follows their parallel lives over their first and second years raising their children. The film began shooting in February 2021 and opened the 78th Venice International Film Festival where Cruz won the Volpi Cup for Best Actress. The film has received near universal acclaim with David Rooney of The Hollywood Reporter writing, "It’s a testament to the consummate gifts of one of the world’s most treasured filmmakers — now entering the fifth decade of a career still going strong — that he can constantly delight your eye with no risk of losing your involvement in the emotional lives of characters he so clearly adores." The film has been nominated for the Golden Globe Award and Independent Spirit Award for Best International Film. The shoot delayed Almodóvar's previously announced feature-length adaptation of Lucia Berlin's short story collection A Manual for Cleaning Women starring Cate Blanchett which is set to be his first feature in English. During the Covid-19 pandemic Almodóvar directed the short film The Human Voice (2020) starring Tilda Swinton. The short which was based off the Jean Cocteau play of the same name premiered at the 77th Venice International Film Festival. He directed another short film Strange Way of Life (2023) a Western drama starring Ethan Hawke and Pedro Pascal. The film premiered at the 2023 Cannes Film Festival to positive reviews and will be released in theatres by Sony Pictures Classics. Artistry "Almodóvar has consolidated his own, very recognizable universe, forged by repeating themes and stylistic features", wrote Gerard A. Cassadó in Fotogramas, Spanish film magazine, in which the writer identified nine key features which recur in Almodóvar's films: homosexuality; sexual perversion; female heroines; sacrilegious Catholicism; lipsyncing; familial cameos; excessive kitsch and camp; narrative interludes; and intertextuality. June Thomas from Slate magazine also recognised that illegal drug use, letter-writing, spying, stalking, prostitution, rape, incest, transsexuality, vomiting, movie-making, recent inmates, car accidents and women urinating on screen are frequent motifs recurring in his work. Almodóvar has also been distinguished for his use of bold colours and inventive camera angles, as well as using "cinematic references, genre touchstones, and images that serve the same function as songs in a musical, to express what cannot be said". Elaborate décor and the relevance of fashion in his films are additionally important aspects informing the design of Almodóvar's mise-en-scène. Music is also a key feature; from pop songs to boleros to original compositions by Alberto Iglesias. While some criticise Almodóvar for obsessively returning to the same themes and stylistic features, others have applauded him for having "the creativity to remake them afresh every time he comes back to them". Internationally, Almodóvar has been hailed as an auteur by film critics, who have coined the term "Almodovariano" (which would translate as Almodovarian) to define his unique style. Almodóvar has taken influences from various filmmakers, including figures in North American cinema, particularly old Hollywood directors George Cukor and Billy Wilder, and the underground, transgressive cinema of John Waters and Andy Warhol. The influence of Douglas Sirk's melodramas and the stylistic appropriations of Alfred Hitchcock are also present in his work. He also takes inspiration from figures in the history of Spanish cinema, including directors Luis García Berlanga, Fernando Fernán Gómez, Edgar Neville as well as dramatists Miguel Mihura and Enrique Jardiel Poncela; many also hail Almodóvar as "the most celebrated Spanish filmmaker since Luis Buñuel". Other foreign influences include filmmakers Ingmar Bergman, Rainer Werner Fassbinder, Federico Fellini and Fritz Lang. References to film and allusions to theatre, literature, dance, painting, television and advertising "are central to the world that Almodóvar constructs on screen". Film critic José Arroyo noted that Almodóvar "borrows indiscriminately from film history". Almodóvar has acknowledged that "cinema is always present in my films [and that] certain films play an active part in my scripts. When I insert an extract from a film, it isn't a homage but outright theft. It's part of the story I'm telling, and becomes an active presence rather than a homage which is always something passive. I absorb the films I've seen into my own experience, which immediately becomes the experience of my characters". Almodóvar has alluded to the work of many different artists and genres in his work; sometimes works have been referenced diagetically or evoked through less direct methods. Almodóvar has additionally made self-references to films within his own oeuvre. Working with some of Spain's best-known actresses including Carmen Maura, Victoria Abril, Marisa Paredes and Penélope Cruz, Almodóvar has become famous for his female-centric films, his "sympathetic portrayals of women" and his elevation of "the humdrum spaces of overworked women". He was heavily influenced by classic Hollywood films in which everything happens around a female main character, and aims to continue in that tradition. Almodóvar has frequently spoken about how he was surrounded by powerful women in his childhood: "Women were very happy, worked hard and always spoke. They handed me the first sensations and forged my character. The woman represented everything to me, the man was absent and represented authority. I never identified with the male figure: maternity inspires me more than paternity". A critic from Popmatters notes that Almodóvar is interested in depicting women overcoming tragedies and adversities and the power of close female relationships. Ryan Vlastelica from AVClub wrote: "Many of his characters track a Byzantine plot to a cathartic reunion, a meeting where all can be understood, if not forgiven. They seek redemption". Almodóvar stated that he does not usually write roles for specific actors, but after casting a film, he custom-tailors the characters to suit the actors; he believes his role as a director is a "mirror for the actors – a mirror that can't lie". Critics believe Almodóvar has redefined perceptions of Spanish cinema and Spain. Many typical images and symbols of Spain, such as bullfighting, gazpacho and flamenco, have been featured in his films; the majority of his films have also been shot in Madrid. Spanish people have been divided in their opinion of Almodóvar's work: while some believe that "Almodóvar has renegotiated what it means to be Spanish and reappropriated its ideals" in a post-Franco Spain, others are concerned with how their essence might be dismissed as "another quirky image from a somewhat exotic and colorful culture" to a casual foreigner. Almodóvar has however acknowledged: "[M]y films are very Spanish, but on the other hand they are capriciously personal. You cannot measure Spain by my films". Almodóvar is generally better received by critics outside of Spain, particularly in France and the USA. Asked to explain the success of his films, Almodóvar says that they are very entertaining: "It's important not to forget that films are made to entertain. That's the key". He has also been noted for his tendency to shock audiences in his films by featuring outrageous situations or characters, which have served a political or commercial purpose to "tell viewers that if the people on the screen could endure these terrible travails and still communicate, so could they". Almodóvar believes all his films to be political, "even the most frivolous movie", but claimed that he had never attempted to pursue outright political causes or fight social injustice in his films; merely wanting to entertain and generate emotion. "I'm not a political director. As a filmmaker, my commitment was to want to create free people, completely autonomous from a moral point of view. They are free regardless of their social class or their profession", remarked Almodóvar. However, he admitted that in his earlier films, which were released just after Franco's death, he wanted to create a world on film in which Franco and his repression did not exist, thereby "providing a voice for Spain's marginalized groups". Almodóvar has incorporated elements of underground and LGBT culture into mainstream forms with wide crossover appeal; academics have recognised the director's significance in queer cinema. Almodóvar dislikes being pigeonholed as a gay filmmaker, but Courtney Young from Pop Matters claimed that he has pushed boundaries by playing with the expectations of gender and sexuality, which places his work in the queer cinematic canon. Young also commented on Almodóvar's fluid idea of sexuality; within his films, LGBT characters do not need to come out as they are already sexually liberated, "enlivening the narrative with complex figures that move beyond trite depictions of the LGBTQI experience". She also wrote about the importance of the relationships between gay men and straight women in Almodóvar's films. In conclusion, Young stated, "Almodóvar is an auteur that designates the queer experience as he sees it the dignity, respect, attention, and recognition it so deserves". He served as the President of the Jury for the 2017 Cannes Film Festival, He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2001. Frequent collaborators Almodóvar often casts certain actors in many of his films. Actors who have performed in his films 3 or more times in either lead, supporting or cameo roles include Chus Lampreave (8), Antonio Banderas (8), Rossy de Palma (8), Carmen Maura (7), Cecilia Roth (7), Penélope Cruz (7), Julieta Serrano (6), Kiti Manver (5), Fabio McNamara (5), Marisa Paredes (5), Eva Silva (5), Victoria Abril (4), Lola Dueñas (4), Lupe Barrado (4), Bibiana Fernández (Bibi Andersen) (4), Loles León (3) and Javier Cámara (3). Almodóvar is particularly noted for his work with Spanish actresses and they have become affectionately known as "Almodóvar girls" (). After setting up El Deseo in 1986, Agustín Almodóvar, Pedro's brother, has produced all of his films since Law of Desire (1986). Esther García has also been involved in the production of Almodóvar films since 1986. Both of them regularly appear in cameo roles in their films. His mother, Francisca Caballero, made cameos in four films before she died. Film editor José Salcedo was responsible for editing all of Almodóvar's films from 1980 until his death in 2017. Cinematographer José Luis Alcaine has collaborated on a total of six films with Almodóvar, particularly his most recent films. Their earliest collaboration was on Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988), and their most recent on The Human Voice (2020). Angel Luis Fernández was responsible for cinematography in five of Almodóvar's earlier films in the 1980s, from Labyrinth of Passion (1982) until Law of Desire (1987). In the 1990s, Almodóvar collaborated with Alfredo Mayo on two films and Affonso Beato on three films. Composer Bernardo Bonezzi wrote the music for six of his earlier films from Labyrinth of Passion (1982) until Women on the Verge of a Nervous Breakdown (1988). His musical style is intertextually imbued with the compositional language of various classical and film composers such as Erik Satie, Igor Stravinsky, Bernard Hermann and Nino Rota. Since The Flower of My Secret (1995), Alberto Iglesias has composed the music for all of Almodóvar's films. Art design on Almodóvar's films has invariably been the responsibility of Antxón Gomez in recent years, though other collaborators include Román Arango, Javier Fernández and Pin Morales. Almodóvar's frequent collaborators for costume design include José María de Cossío, Sonia Grande and Paco Delgado. Almodóvar has also worked with designers Jean Paul Gaultier and Gianni Versace on a few films. Personal life Almodóvar is openly gay. He describes himself as having been actively bisexual until the age of 34. He has been with his partner, the actor and photographer Fernando Iglesias, since 2002, and often casts him in small roles in his films. The pair live in separate dwellings in neighbouring districts of Madrid; Almodóvar in Argüelles and Iglesias in Malasaña. Almodóvar used to live on Calle de O'Donnell on the eastern side of the city but moved to his €3 million apartment on Paseo del Pintor Rosales in the west in 2007. In 2009, Almodóvar signed a petition in support of film director Roman Polanski, calling for his release after Polanski was arrested in Switzerland in relation to his 1977 charge for drugging and raping a 13-year-old girl. Almodóvar endorsed Democratic candidate Hillary Clinton in the run-up for the 2016 U.S. presidential election. Panama Papers scandal In April 2016, a week before his film Julieta was to be released in Spain, Pedro and Agustín Almodóvar were listed in the leak of the Panama Papers from the database of the offshore law firm Mossack Fonseca; their names showed up on the incorporation documents of a company based in the British Virgin Islands between 1991 and 1994. As a result, Pedro cancelled scheduled press, interviews and photocalls he had made for the release of Julieta in Spain. Agustín released a statement in which he declared himself fully responsible, saying that he has always taken charge of financial matters while Pedro has been dedicated to the creative side and hoping that this would not tarnish his brother's reputation. He also stressed that the brothers have always abided by Spanish tax laws. "On the legal front there are no worries", he explained. "It's a reputation problem which I'm responsible for. I'm really sorry that Pedro has had to suffer the consequences. I have taken full responsibility for what has happened, not because I'm his brother or business partner, but because the responsibility is all mine. I hope that time will put things in its place. We are not under any tax inspection". The week after the release of Julieta, Pedro gave an interview in which he stated that he knew nothing about the shares as financial matters were handled by his brother, Agustín. However, he emphasised that his ignorance was not an excuse and took full responsibility. Agustín later admitted that he believed Julietas box office earnings in Spain suffered as a result, as the film reportedly had the worst opening of an Almodóvar film at the Spanish box office in 20 years. Filmography Films Short films Awards and nominations References Further reading Allinson, Mark. A Spanish Labyrinth: The Films of Pedro Almodóvar, I.B Tauris Publishers, 2001, Almodóvar, Pedro. Some Notes About the Skin I Live In. Taschen Magazine, Winter 2011/12. Bergan, Ronald. Film, D.K Publishing, 2006, Gutierrz-Albilla, Julian Daniel. Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of Pedro Almodovar. Edinburgh University Press, 2017, Cobos, Juan and Marias Miguel. Almodóvar Secreto, Nickel Odeon, 1995 D' Lugo, Marvin. Pedro Almodóvar, University of Illinois Press, 2006, Edwards, Gwyne. Almodóvar: labyrinths of Passion. London: Peter Owen. 2001, Elgrably, Jordan. Anti-Macho Man: Spanish Iconoclast Pedro Almodóvar. Los Angeles: Los Angeles Times 1992 Levy, Emanuel. Gay Directors/Gay Films?: Almodovar, Terence Davies, Todd Haynes, Gus Van Sant, John Waters. New York: Columbia University Press, hardcover 2015; paperback 2016. Strauss, Frederick. Almodóvar on Almodóvar, Faber and Faber, 2006, External links Almodóvar Bibliography (via UC Berkeley) 1949 births Living people Best Director BAFTA Award winners Best Director Goya Award winners Best Original Screenplay Academy Award winners Best Original Screenplay BAFTA Award winners Goya Award winners Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Director winners Film directors from Castilla–La Mancha Knights of the Legion of Honour César Award winners César Honorary Award recipients Directors of Best Foreign Language Film Academy Award winners European Film Award for Best Director winners European Film Award for Best Screenwriter winners News & Documentary Emmy Award winners Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences Filmmakers who won the Best Foreign Language Film BAFTA Award Spanish LGBT film directors Gay screenwriters Spanish LGBT screenwriters People from the Province of Ciudad Real People named in the Panama Papers Spanish film directors Spanish film producers Spanish gay writers Spanish male screenwriters Cannes Film Festival Award for Best Screenplay winners Postmodernist filmmakers 20th-century Spanish male writers 21st-century Spanish male writers 20th-century Spanish screenwriters 21st-century Spanish screenwriters Golden Lion for Lifetime Achievement recipients
5195347	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second%20Spanish%20Republic	Second Spanish Republic	The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931, after the deposition of King Alfonso XIII, and was dissolved on 1 April 1939 after surrendering in the Spanish Civil War to the Nationalists led by General Francisco Franco. After the proclamation of the Republic, a provisional government was established until December 1931, at which time the 1931 Constitution was approved. During this time and the subsequent two years of constitutional government, known as the Reformist Biennium, Manuel Azaña's executive initiated numerous reforms to what in their view would modernize the country. In 1932 religious orders were forbidden control of schools, while the government began a large-scale school-building project. A moderate agrarian reform was carried out. Home rule was granted to Catalonia, with a local parliament and a president of its own. Soon, Azaña lost parliamentary support and President Alcalá-Zamora forced his resignation in September 1933. The subsequent 1933 election was won by the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). However the President declined to invite its leader, Gil Robles, to form a government, fearing CEDA's monarchist sympathies. Instead, he invited the Radical Republican Party's Alejandro Lerroux to do so. CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly a year. In October 1934, CEDA was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. The Socialists triggered an insurrection that they had been preparing for nine months. A general strike was called by the Unión General de Trabajadores (UGT) and the Spanish Socialist Workers' Party (PSOE) in the name of the Alianza Obrera. The rebellion developed into a bloody revolutionary uprising, aiming to overthrow the republican government. Armed revolutionaries managed to take the whole province of Asturias, killing policemen, clerics, and businessmen and destroying religious buildings and part of the University of Oviedo. In the occupied areas, the rebels officially declared a proletarian revolution and abolished regular money. The rebellion was crushed by the Spanish Navy and the Spanish Republican Army, the latter using mainly Moorish colonial troops from Spanish Morocco. In 1935, after a series of crisis and corruption scandals, President Alcalá-Zamora, who had always been hostile to the government, called for new elections, instead of inviting CEDA, the party with most seats in the parliament, to form a new government. The Popular Front won the 1936 general election with a narrow victory. The Right accelerated its preparations for a coup, which had been months in the planning. Amidst the wave of political violence that broke out after the triumph of the Popular Front in the February 1936 elections, a group of Guardia de Asalto and other leftist militiamen mortally shot the opposition leader José Calvo Sotelo on 12 July 1936. This assassination convinced many military officers to back the planned coup. Three days later (17 July), the revolt began with an army uprising in Spanish Morocco, followed by military takeovers in many cities in Spain. Military rebels intended to seize power immediately, but they were met with serious resistance as most of the main cities remained loyal to the Republic. An estimated total of half a million people would die in the war that followed. During the Spanish Civil War, there were three Republican governments. The first was led by left-wing republican José Giral (from July to September 1936); a revolution inspired mostly by libertarian socialist, anarchist and communist principles broke out in its territory. The second government was led by the PSOE's Francisco Largo Caballero. The UGT, along with the National Confederation of Workers (CNT), were the main forces behind the social revolution. The third government was led by socialist Juan Negrín, who led the Republic until the military coup of Segismundo Casado, which ended republican resistance and ultimately led to the victory of the Nationalists. The Republican government survived in exile and retained an embassy in Mexico City until 1976. After the restoration of democracy in Spain, the government-in-exile formally dissolved the following year. 1931–1933, the Reformist Biennium On 28 January 1930, the military dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera (who had been in power since September 1923) was overthrown. This led various republican factions from a wide variety of backgrounds (including conservatives, socialists and Catalan nationalists) to join forces. The Pact of San Sebastián was the key to the transition from monarchy to republic. Republicans of all tendencies were committed to the Pact of San Sebastian in overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The restoration of the royal Bourbons was rejected by large sectors of the populace who vehemently opposed the King. The pact, signed by representatives of the main Republican forces, allowed a joint anti-monarchy political campaign. The 12 April 1931 municipal elections led to a landslide victory for republicans. Two days later, the Second Republic was proclaimed, and King Alfonso XIII went into exile. The king's departure led to a provisional government of the young republic under Niceto Alcalá-Zamora. Catholic churches and establishments in cities like Madrid and Sevilla were set ablaze on 11 May. 1931 Constitution In June 1931 a Constituent Cortes was elected to draft a new constitution, which came into force in December. The new constitution established freedom of speech and freedom of association, extended suffrage to women in 1933, allowed divorce, and stripped the Spanish nobility of any special legal status. It also effectively disestablished the Roman Catholic Church, but the disestablishment was somewhat reversed by the Cortes that same year. Its controversial articles 26 and 27 imposed stringent controls on Church property and barred religious orders from the ranks of educators. Scholars have described the constitution as hostile to religion, with one scholar characterising it as one of the most hostile of the 20th century. José Ortega y Gasset stated, "the article in which the Constitution legislates the actions of the Church seems highly improper to me." Pope Pius XI condemned the Spanish government's deprivation of the civil liberties of Catholics in the encyclical Dilectissima Nobis. The legislative branch was changed to a single chamber called the Congress of Deputies. The constitution established legal procedures for the nationalisation of public services and land, banks, and railways. The constitution provided generally accorded civil liberties and representation. The Republican Constitution also changed the country's national symbols. The Himno de Riego was established as the national anthem, and the Tricolor, with three horizontal red-yellow-purple fields, became the new flag of Spain. Under the new Constitution, all of Spain's regions had the right to autonomy. Catalonia (1932), the Basque Country (1936) and Galicia (although the Galician Statute of Autonomy couldn't come into effect due to the war) exercised this right, with Aragon, Andalusia and Valencia, engaged in negotiations with the government before the outbreak of the Civil War. The Constitution guaranteed a wide range of civil liberties, but it opposed key beliefs of the right wing, which was very rooted in rural areas, and desires of the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, which was stripped of schools and public subsidies. The 1931 Constitution was formally effective from 1931 until 1939. In the summer of 1936, after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War, it became largely irrelevant after the authority of the Republic was superseded in many places by revolutionary socialists and anarchists on one side, and Nationalists on the other. The Azaña government With the new constitution approved in December 1931, once the constituent assembly had fulfilled its mandate of approving a new constitution, it should have arranged for regular parliamentary elections and adjourned. However fearing the increasing popular opposition the Radicals and Socialist majority postponed the regular elections, therefore prolonging their way in power for two more years. This way the republican government of Manuel Azaña initiated numerous reforms to what in their view would "modernize" the country. Landowners were expropriated. Autonomy was granted to Catalonia, with a local parliament and a president of said parliament. Catholic churches in major cities were again subject to arson in 1932, and a revolutionary strike action was seen in Málaga the same year. A Catholic church in Zaragoza was burnt down in 1933. In November 1932, Miguel de Unamuno, one of the most respected Spanish intellectuals, rector of the University of Salamanca, and himself a Republican, publicly raised his voice to protest. In a speech delivered on 27 November 1932, at the Madrid Ateneo, he protested: "Even the Inquisition was limited by certain legal guarantees. But now we have something worse: a police force which is grounded only on a general sense of panic and on the invention of non-existent dangers to cover up this over-stepping of the law." In 1933, all remaining religious congregations were obliged to pay taxes and banned from industry, trade and educational activities. This ban was forced with strict police severity and widespread mob violence. 1933–1935 period and miners' uprising The majority vote in the 1933 elections was won by the Spanish Confederation of the Autonomous Right (CEDA). In face of CEDA's electoral victory, president Alcalá-Zamora declined to invite its leader, Gil Robles, to form a government. Instead he invited the Radical Republican Party's Alejandro Lerroux to do so. Despite receiving the most votes, CEDA was denied cabinet positions for nearly a year. After a year of intense pressure, CEDA, the largest party in the congress, was finally successful in forcing the acceptance of three ministries. However the entrance of CEDA in the government, although being normal in a parliamentary democracy, was not well accepted by the left. The Socialists triggered an insurrection that they had been preparing for nine months. A general strike was called by the UGT and the PSOE in the name of the Alianza Obrera. The issue was that the Left Republicans identified the Republic not with democracy or constitutional law but with a specific set of left-wing policies and politicians. Any deviation, even if democratic, was seen as treasonous. The inclusion of three CEDA ministers in the government that took office on 1 October 1934 led to a country wide revolt. A "Catalan State" was proclaimed by Catalan nationalist leader Lluis Companys, but it lasted just ten hours. Despite an attempt at a general stoppage in Madrid, other strikes did not endure. This left Asturian strikers to fight alone. Miners in Asturias occupied the capital, Oviedo, killing officials and clergymen. Fifty eight religious buildings including churches, convents and part of the university at Oviedo were burned and destroyed. The miners proceeded to occupy several other towns, most notably the large industrial centre of La Felguera, and set up town assemblies, or "revolutionary committees", to govern the towns that they controlled. Thirty thousand workers were mobilized for battle within ten days. In the occupied areas the rebels officially declared the proletarian revolution and abolished regular money. The revolutionary soviets set up by the miners attempted to impose order on the areas under their control, and the moderate socialist leadership of Ramón González Peña and Belarmino Tomás took measures to restrain violence. However, a number of captured priests, businessmen and civil guards were summarily executed by the revolutionaries in Mieres and Sama. This rebellion lasted for two weeks until it was crushed by the army, led by General Eduardo López Ochoa. This operation earned López Ochoa the nickname "Butcher of Asturias". Another rebellion by the autonomous government of Catalonia, led by its president Lluís Companys, was also suppressed and was followed by mass arrests and trials. With this rebellion against an established political legitimate authority, the Socialists showed identical repudiation of representative institutional system that anarchists had practiced. The Spanish historian Salvador de Madariaga, an Azaña's supporter, and an exiled vocal opponent of Francisco Franco is the author of a sharp critical reflection against the participation of the left in the revolt: "The uprising of 1934 is unforgivable. The argument that Mr Gil Robles tried to destroy the Constitution to establish fascism was, at once, hypocritical and false. With the rebellion of 1934, the Spanish left lost even the shadow of moral authority to condemn the rebellion of 1936." The suspension of the land reforms that had been attempted by the previous government, and the failure of the Asturias miners' uprising, led to a more radical turn by the parties of the left, especially in the PSOE (Socialist Party), where the moderate Indalecio Prieto lost ground to Francisco Largo Caballero, who advocated a socialist revolution. At the same time, the involvement of the Centrist government party in the Straperlo and Nombela scandals deeply weakened it, further polarising political differences between right and left. These differences became evident in the 1936 elections. 1936 elections On 7 January 1936, new elections were called. Despite significant rivalries and disagreements, the socialists, Communists, and the Catalan-and-Madrid-based left-wing Republicans decided to work together under the name Popular Front. The Popular Front won the election on 16 February with 263 MPs against 156 right-wing MPs, grouped within a coalition of the National Front with CEDA, Carlists, and Monarchists. The moderate centre parties virtually disappeared; between the elections, Lerroux's group fell from the 104 representatives it had in 1934 to just 9. American historian Stanley G. Payne thinks that there was major electoral fraud in the process, with widespread violation of the laws and the constitution. In line with Payne's point of view, in 2017 two Spanish Scholars, Manuel Álvarez Tardío and Roberto Villa García published the result of a research where they concluded that the 1936 elections were rigged. This view has been criticised by Eduardo Calleja and Francisco Pérez, who question the charges of electoral irregularity and argue that the Popular Front would still have won a slight electoral majority even if all of the charges were true. In the thirty-six hours following the election, sixteen people were killed (mostly by police officers attempting to maintain order or intervene in violent clashes) and thirty-nine were seriously injured, while fifty churches and seventy right wing political centres were attacked or set ablaze. The right had firmly believed, at all levels, that they would win. Almost immediately after the results were known, a group of monarchists asked Robles to lead a coup but he refused. He did, however, ask prime minister Manuel Portela Valladares to declare a state of war before the revolutionary masses rushed into the streets. Franco also approached Valladares to propose the declaration of martial law and calling out of the army. This was not a coup attempt but more of a "police action" akin to Asturias, as Franco believed the post-election environment could become violent and was trying to quell the perceived leftist threat. Valladares resigned, even before a new government could be formed. However, the Popular Front, which had proved an effective election tool, did not translate into a Popular Front government. Largo Caballero and other elements of the political left were not prepared to work with the republicans, although they did agree to support much of the proposed reforms. Manuel Azaña was called upon to form a government before the electoral process had come to an end, and he would shortly replace Zamora as president, taking advantage of a constitutional loophole: the Constitution allowed the Cortes to remove the President from office after two early dissolutions, and while the first (1933) dissolution had been partially justified because of the fulfillment of the Constitutional mission of the first legislature, the second one had been a simple bid to trigger early elections. The right reacted as if radical communists had taken control, despite the new cabinet's moderate composition; they were shocked by the revolutionary masses taking to the streets and the release of prisoners. Convinced that the left was no longer willing to follow the rule of law and that its vision of Spain was under threat, the right abandoned the parliamentary option and began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic, rather than taking control of it. This helped the development of the fascist-inspired Falange Española, a National party led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera, the son of the former dictator, Miguel Primo de Rivera. Although it only received 0.7 percent of the votes in the election, by July 1936 the Falange had 40,000 members. The country quickly moved towards anarchy. Even the socialist Indalecio Prieto at a party rally in Cuenca, in May 1936, complained: "we have never seen so tragic a panorama or so great a collapse as in Spain at this moment. Abroad Spain is classified as insolvent. This is not the road to socialism or communism but to desperate anarchism without even the advantage of liberty." In June 1936 Miguel de Unamuno, disenchanted with the unfolding of the events told a reporter who published his statement in El Adelanto that President Manuel Azaña should commit suicide as a patriotic act. Assassinations of political leaders and beginning of the war On 12 July 1936, Lieutenant José Castillo, an important member of the anti-fascist military organisation Unión Militar Republicana Antifascista (UMRA), was shot by Falangist gunmen. In response a group of Guardia de Asalto and other leftist militiamen led by Civil Guard Fernando Condés, after getting the approval of the minister of interior to illegally arrest a list of members of parliament, went to right-wing opposition leader José Calvo Sotelo's house in the early hours of 13 July on a revenge mission. Sotelo was arrested and later shot dead in a police truck. His body was dropped at the entrance of one of the city's cemeteries. According to all later investigations, the perpetrator of the murder was a socialist gunman, Luis Cuenca, who was known as the bodyguard of PSOE leader Indalecio Prieto. Calvo Sotelo was one of the most prominent Spanish monarchists who, describing the government's actions as Bolshevist and anarchist, had been exhorting the army to intervene, declaring that Spanish soldiers would save the country from communism if "there are no politicians capable of doing so". Prominent rightists blamed the government for Calvo Sotelo's assassination. They claimed that the authorities did not properly investigate it and promoted those involved in the murder whilst censoring those who cried out about it and shutting down the headquarters of right-wing parties and arresting right-wing party members, often on "flimsy charges". The event is often considered the catalyst for the further political polarisation that ensued, the Falange and other right-wing individuals, including Juan de la Cierva, had already been conspiring to launch a military coup d'état against the government, to be led by senior army officers. When the antifascist Castillo and the anti-socialist Calvo Sotelo were buried on the same day in the same Madrid cemetery, fighting between the Police Assault Guard and fascist militias broke out in the surrounding streets, resulting in four more deaths. The killing of Calvo Sotelo with police involvement aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government's opponents on the right. Although the nationalist generals were already planning an uprising, the event was a catalyst and a public justification for a coup. Stanley Payne claims that before these events, the idea of rebellion by army officers against the government had weakened; Mola had estimated that only 12% of officers reliably supported the coup and at one point considered fleeing the country for fear he was already compromised, and had to be convinced to remain by his co-conspirators. However, the kidnapping and murder of Sotelo transformed the "limping conspiracy" into a revolt that could trigger a civil war. The involvement of forces of public order and a lack of action against the attackers hurt public opinion of the government. No effective action was taken; Payne points to a possible veto by socialists within the government who shielded the killers who had been drawn from their ranks. The murder of a parliamentary leader by state police was unprecedented, and the belief that the state had ceased to be neutral and effective in its duties encouraged important sectors of the right to join the rebellion. Within hours of learning of the murder and the reaction, Franco, who until then had not been involved in the conspiracies, changed his mind on rebellion and dispatched a message to Mola to display his firm commitment. Three days later (17 July), the coup d'état began more or less as it had been planned, with an army uprising in Spanish Morocco, which then spread to several regions of the country. The revolt was remarkably devoid of any particular ideology. The major goal was to put an end to anarchical disorder. Mola's plan for the new regime was envisioned as a "republican dictatorship", modelled after Salazar's Portugal and as a semi-pluralist authoritarian regime rather than a totalitarian fascist dictatorship. The initial government would be an all-military "Directory", which would create a "strong and disciplined state." General Sanjurjo would be the head of this new regime, due to being widely liked and respected within the military, though his position would be a largely symbolic due to his lack of political talent. The 1931 Constitution would be suspended, replaced by a new "constituent parliament" which would be chosen by a new politically purged electorate, who would vote on the issue of republic versus monarchy. Certain liberal elements would remain, such as separation of church and state as well as freedom of religion. Agrarian issues would be solved by regional commissioners on the basis of smallholdings but collective cultivation would be permitted in some circumstances. Legislation prior to February 1936 would be respected. Violence would be required to destroy opposition to the coup, though it seems Mola did not envision the mass atrocities and repression that would ultimately manifest during the civil war. Of particular importance to Mola was ensuring the revolt was at its core an Army affair, one that would not be subject to special interests and that the coup would make the armed forces the basis for the new state. However, the separation of church and state was forgotten once the conflict assumed the dimension of a war of religion, and military authorities increasingly deferred to the Church and to the expression of Catholic sentiment. However, Mola's program was vague and only a rough sketch, and there were disagreements among coupists about their vision for Spain. Franco's move was intended to seize power immediately, but his army uprising met with serious resistance, and great swathes of Spain, including most of the main cities, remained loyal to the Republic of Spain. The leaders of the coup (Franco was not commander-in-chief yet) did not lose heart with the stalemate and apparent failure of the coup. Instead, they initiated a slow and determined war of attrition against the Republican government in Madrid. As a result, an estimated total of half a million people would die in the war that followed; the number of casualties is actually disputed as some have suggested as many as a million people died. Over the years, historians kept lowering the death figures and modern research concluded that 500,000 deaths were the correct figure. Civil War On 17 July 1936, General Franco led the Spanish Army of Africa from Morocco to attack the mainland, while another force from the north under General Emilio Mola moved south from Navarre. Military units were also mobilised elsewhere to take over government institutions. Before long the professional Army of Africa had much of the south and west under the control of the rebels and by October 1936, Time Magazine declared that "façade of the Spanish Republic was crumbling". Bloody purges followed in each piece of captured "Nationalist" territory in order to consolidate Franco's future regime. Although both sides received foreign military aid, the help that Fascist Italy, Nazi Germany (as part of the Italian military intervention in Spain and the German involvement in the Spanish Civil War), and neighbouring Portugal gave the rebels was much greater and more effective than the assistance that the Republicans received from the USSR, Mexico, and volunteers of the International Brigades. While the Axis powers wholeheartedly assisted General Franco's military campaign, the governments of France, Britain, and other European powers looked the other way and let the Republican forces die, as the actions of the Non-Intervention Committee would show. Imposed in the name of neutrality, the international isolation of the Spanish Republic ended up favouring the interests of the future Axis Powers. The Siege of the Alcázar at Toledo early in the war resulted in the rebels winning after a long siege. The Republicans managed to hold out in Madrid, despite a Nationalist assault in November 1936, and frustrated subsequent offensives against the capital at Jarama and Guadalajara in 1937. Soon, though, the rebels began to erode their territory, starving Madrid and making inroads into the east. The north, including the Basque country, fell in late 1937, and the Aragon front collapsed shortly afterward. The bombing of Guernica was probably the most infamous event of the war and inspired Picasso's painting. It was used as a testing ground for the German Luftwaffe's Condor Legion. The Battle of the Ebro in July–November 1938 was the final desperate attempt by the Republicans to turn the tide. When this failed and Barcelona fell to the rebels in early 1939, it was clear the war was over. The remaining Republican fronts collapsed, and Madrid fell in March 1939. Economy The Second Spanish Republic's economy was mostly agrarian, and many historians call Spain during this time a "backward nation". Major industries of the Second Spanish Republic were located in the Basque region (due to it having Europe's best high-grade non-phosphoric ore) and Catalonia. This greatly contributed to Spain's economic hardships, as their center of industry was located on the opposite side of the country from their resource reserves, resulting in immense transportation costs due to the mountainous Spanish terrain. Compounding economic woes was Spain's low export rate and heavily domestic manufacturing industry. High levels of poverty left many Spaniards open to extremist political parties in search of a solution. See also Spanish Republican Armed Forces Spanish Republican government in exile Flag of the Second Spanish Republic Coat of Arms of the Second Spanish Republic Order of the Spanish Republic LAPE (Líneas Aéreas Postales Españolas), the Spanish Republican Airline Catholicism in the Second Spanish Republic Sanjurjada Electoral Carlism (Second Republic) Reign of Alfonso XIII of Spain Notes References Further reading Raymond Carr, ed. The Republic and the Civil War in Spain (1971) Raymond Carr, Spain 1808–1975 (2nd ed. 1982) External links Constitución de la República Española (1931) English Translation of the Constitution of the Spanish Republic (1931) Video La II República Española States and territories established in 1931 States and territories disestablished in 1939 Modern history of Spain Spanish Republic, Second Political history of Spain Republicanism in Spain 1931 establishments in Spain 1939 disestablishments in Spain Former countries of the interwar period
5195670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Karachi	History of Karachi	The area of Karachi (, ) in Sindh, Pakistan has a natural harbor and has been used as fishing port by local fisherman belonging to Sindhi tribes since prehistory. Archaeological excavations have uncovered a period going back to Indus valley civilisation which shows the importance of the port since the Bronze Age. The port city of Banbhore was established before the Christian era which served as an important trade hub in the region, the port was recorded by various names by the Greeks such as Krokola, Morontobara port, and Barbarikon, a sea port of the Indo-Greek Bactrian kingdom and Ramya according to some Greek texts. The Arabs knew it as the port of Debal, from where Muhammad bin Qasim led his conquering force into Sindh (the western corner of South Asia) in AD 712. Lahari Bandar or Lari Bandar succeeded Debal as a major port of the Indus; it was located close to Banbhore, in modern Karachi. The first modern port city near Manora Island (now Manora Peninsula) was established during British colonial Raj in the late 19th century. Names The ancient names of Karachi included: Krokola, Barbarikon, Nawa Nar, Rambagh, Kurruck, Karak Bander, Auranga Bandar, Minnagara, Kalachi, Morontobara, Kalachi-jo-Goth, Banbhore, Debal, Barbarice, and Kurrachee. Early history Pre history The Late Paleolithic and Mesolithic sites found by Karachi University team on the Mulri Hills, in front of Karachi University Campus, constitute one of the most important archaeological discoveries made in Sindh during the last fifty years. The last hunter-gatherers, who left abundant traces of their passage, repeatedly inhabited the Hills. Some twenty different spots of flint tools were discovered during the surface surveys. Indus Valley Civilisation Ahladino and Pir Shah Jurio are the archaeological sites from the Indus Valley civilisation periods situated in Karachi district. Floor tiles of a house have been discovered at this site of Ahladino. Greeks Visitors The Greeks recorded the place by many names: Krokola, the place where Alexander camped to prepare a fleet for Babylon after his campaign in the Indus Valley; Morontobara, from whence Alexander's admiral Nearchus set sail; and Barbarikon, a port of the Bactrian kingdom. Debal and Bhanbhore Debal and Bhanbhore were the ancient port cities established near present-day modern city of Karachi. It dates back to the Scytho-Parthian era and was later controlled by Hindu Buddhist kingdoms before falling into Arab possession in the 8th century CE. In the 13th century it was abandoned Remains of one of the earliest known mosques in the region dating back to 727 AD are still preserved in the city. Strabo mentions export of Rice from near present-day Karachi and Gulf of Cambay) to Arabia. According to Biladuri, A large minaret of a temple existed in Debal whose upper portion was knocked down by Ambissa Ibn Ishak and converted into prison. and at the same time began to repair the ruined town with the stones of minaret. Post Islamic era (8th century AD – 19th century) Muhammad bin Qasim In AD 711, Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the Sindh and Indus Valley, bringing South Asian societies into contact with Islam, succeeding partly because Raja Dahir was a Hindu king that ruled over a Buddhist majority and that Chach of Alor and his kin were regarded as usurpers of the earlier Buddhist Rai dynasty this view is questioned by those who note the diffuse and blurred nature of Hindu and Buddhist practices in the region, especially that of a royalty to be patrons of both and those who believe that Chach himself may have been a Buddhist. The forces of Muhammad bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir in alliance with the Jats and other regional governors. Mughal empire During the rule of the Mughal administrator of Sindh, Mirza Ghazi Beg the city was well fortified against Portuguese colonial incursions in Sindh. Debal and the Manora Island and was visited by Ottoman admiral Seydi Ali Reis and mentioned in his there. Fernão Mendes Pinto also claims that Sindhi sailors joined the Ottoman Admiral Kurtoğlu Hızır Reis on his voyage to Aceh. Debal was also visited by the British travel writers such as Thomas Postans and Eliot, who is noted for his vivid account on the city of Thatta. Karak Bander In the seventeenth century, Karak Bander was a small port on the Arabian Sea on the estuary of the Hub River, 40 km west of present-day Karachi. It was a transit point for the South Asian-Central Asian trade. The estuary silted up due to heavy rains in 1728 and the harbour could no longer be used. As a result, the merchants of Karak Bander decided to relocate their activities to what is today known as Karachi. Trade increased between 1729 and 1839 because of the silting up of Shahbandar and Keti Bandar (important ports on the Indus River) and the shifting of their activities to Karachi. Kolachii The present city of Karachi was reputedly founded as "Kolachi" by Baloch tribes from Makran, Balochistan, who established a small fishing community in the area. Descendants of the original community still live in the area on the small island of Abdullah Goth, which is located near the Karachi Port. The original name "Kolachi" survives in the name of a well-known Karachi locality named Mai Kolachi. Mirza Ghazi Beg, the Mughal administrator of Sindh, is among the first historical figures credited for the development of coastal Sindh (consisting of regions such as the Makran coast and the Indus delta), including the cities of Thatta. This settlement was reputedly founded by Baloch tribes from Balochistan and Makran in 1729 as the settlement of Kolachi. According to legend, the city started as a fishing settlement, where a fisherwoman, Mai Kolachi, settled and started a family. The village that grew out of this settlement was known as Kolachi-jo-Goth (The Village of Kolachi in Sindhi). When Sindh started trading across the sea with Muscat and the Persian Gulf in the late 18th century, Karachi gained in importance; a small fort was constructed for its protection with a few cannons imported from Muscat. The fort had two main gateways: one facing the sea, known as Khara Dar (Brackish Gate) and the other facing the adjoining Lyari river, known as the Meetha Dar (Sweet Gate). The location of these gates corresponds to the present-day city localities of Khaaradar (Khārā Dar) and Meethadar (Mīṭhā Dar) respectively. The Soomra dynasty, Samma dynasty, Arghun dynasty, Tarkhan and Talpur dynasties ruled Sindh. Kalhora dynasty During the reign of the Kalhora dynasty the present city started life as a fishing settlement when a Balochi fisher-woman called Mai Kolachi took up residence and started a family. The city was an integral part of the Talpur dynasty in the 1720s. The name Karachee was used for the first time in a Dutch document from 1742, in which a merchant ship de Ridderkerk is shipwrecked near the original settlement. The city continued to be ruled by the Talpur Amir's of Sindh until it was occupied by Bombay Army under the command of John Keane on 2 February 1839. Talpur period In the eighteenth century Karachi was occupied by the Kalhora dynasty, then handed over by them to the Khan of Kalat as blood money for the killing of his brother by the Kalhoras, and finally taken over by the Talpur dynasty. In 1795, Kolachi-Jo-Goth passed from the control of the Khan of Kalat, Kalat to the Talpur rulers of Sindh. The British East India Company, venturing and enterprising in South Asia, opened a small factory here in September 1799, but it was closed down within a year because of disputes with the ruling Talpurs. However, this village by the mouth of the Indus river, with an excellent harbour had caught British attention and, after sending a couple of exploratory missions to the area, they took the town on February 3, 1839, to use as a port for the approaching First Afghan War. Colonial period (1839–1947) Company rule After sending a couple of exploratory missions to the area, the British East India Company conquered the town on February 3, 1839. The town was later annexed to the British Indian Empire when Sindh was conquered by Charles James Napier in the Battle of Miani on February 17, 1843. Karachi was made the capital of Sindh in the 1840s. On Napier's departure it was added along with the rest of Sindh to the Bombay Presidency, a move that caused considerable resentment among the native Sindhis. The British realised the importance of the city as a military cantonment and as a port for exporting the produce of the Indus River basin, and rapidly developed its harbour for shipping. The foundations of a city municipal government were laid down and infrastructure development was undertaken. New businesses started opening up and the population of the town began rising rapidly. The arrival of troops of the Kumpany Bahadur in 1839 spawned the foundation of the new section, the military cantonment. The cantonment formed the basis of the 'white' city where the Indians were not allowed free access. The 'white' town was modeled after English industrial parent-cities where work and residential spaces were separated, as were residential from recreational places. Karachi was divided into two major poles. The 'black' town in the northwest, now enlarged to accommodate the burgeoning Indian mercantile population, comprised the Old Town, Napier Market and Bunder, while the 'white' town in the southeast comprised the Staff lines, Frere Hall, Masonic lodge, Sindh Club, Governor House and the Collectors Kutchery [Law Court] located in the Civil Lines Quarter. Saddar bazaar area and Empress Market were used by the 'white' population, while the Serai Quarter served the needs of the native population. The village was later annexed to the British Indian Empire when the Sindh was conquered by Charles Napier in 1843. The capital of Sindh was shifted from Hyderabad to Karachi in the 1840s. This led to a turning point in the city's history. In 1847, on Napier's departure the entire Sindh was added to the Bombay Presidency. The post of the governor was abolished and that of the Chief Commissioner in Sindh established. The British realized its importance as a military cantonment and a port for the produce of the Indus basin, and rapidly developed its harbor for shipping. The foundation of a city municipal committee was laid down by the Commissioner in Sinde, Bartle Frere and infrastructure development was undertaken. Consequently, new businesses started opening up and the population of the town started rising rapidly. Karachi quickly turned into a city, making true the famous quote by Napier who is known to have said: Would that I could come again to see you in your grandeur! In 1857, the Indian Mutiny broke out in South Asia and the 21st Native Infantry stationed in Karachi declared allegiance to rebels, joining their cause on 10 September 1857. Nevertheless, the British were able to quickly reassert control over Karachi and defeat the uprising. Karachi was known as Khurachee Scinde (i.e. Karachi, Sindh) during the early British colonial rule. In 1795, the village became a domain of the Balochi Talpur rulers. A small factory was opened by the British in September 1799, but was closed down within a year. In 1864, the first telegraphic message was sent from India to England when a direct telegraph connection was laid between Karachi and London. In 1878, the city was connected to the rest of British India by rail. Public building projects such as Frere Hall (1865) and the Empress Market (1890) were undertaken. In 1876, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, was born in the city, which by now had become a bustling city with mosques, temples, churches, courthouses, markets, paved streets and a magnificent harbour. By 1899, Karachi had become the largest wheat exporting port in the east. The population of the city was about 105,000 inhabitants by the end of the 19th century, with a cosmopolitan mix of Muslims, Hindus, Europeans, Jews, Parsis, Iranians, Lebanese, and Goans. The city faced a huge cholera epidemic in 1899. By around the start of the 20th century, the city faced street congestion, which led to South Asia's first tramway system being laid down in 1900. The city remained a small fishing village until the British seized control of the offshore and strategically located at Manora Island. Thereafter, authorities of the British Raj embarked on a large-scale modernisation of the city in the 19th century with the intention of establishing a major and modern port which could serve as a gateway to Punjab, the western parts of British Raj, and Afghanistan. The city was predominantly Muslim with Sindhi and Baloch ethnic groups. Britain's competition with imperial Russia during the Great Game also heightened the need for a modern port near Central Asia, and so Karachi prospered as a major centre of commerce and industry during the Raj, attracting communities of: Africans, Arabs, Armenians, Catholics from Goa, Jews, Lebanese, Malays, Konkani people from Maharashtra, Kuchhi from Kuchh, Gujarat in India, and Zoroastrians (also known as Parsees)—in addition to the large number of British businessmen and colonial administrators who established the city's poshest locales, such as Clifton. This mass migration changed the religious and cultural mosaic of Karachi. British colonialists embarked on a number of public works of sanitation and transportation, such as gravel paved streets, proper drains, street sweepers, and a network of trams and horse-drawn trolleys. Colonial administrators also set up military camps, a European inhabited quarter, and organised marketplaces, of which the Empress Market is most notable. The city's wealthy elite also endowed the city with a large number of grand edifices, such as the elaborately decorated buildings that house social clubs, known as 'Gymkhanas.' Wealthy businessmen also funded the construction of the Jehangir Kothari Parade (a large seaside promenade) and the Frere Hall, in addition to the cinemas, and gambling parlours which dotted the city. By 1914, Karachi had become the largest grain exporting port of the British Empire. In 1924, an aerodrome was built and Karachi became the main airport of entry into British Raj. An airship mast was also built in Karachi in 1927 as part of the Imperial Airship Communications scheme, which was later abandoned. In 1936, Sindh was separated from the Bombay Presidency and Karachi was made again the capital of the Sindh. In 1947, when Pakistan achieved independence, Karachi had become a bustling metropolitan city with beautiful classical and colonial European styled buildings lining the city's thoroughfares. As the movement for independence almost reached its conclusion, the city suffered widespread outbreaks of communal violence between Muslims and Hindus, who were often targeted by the incoming Muslim refugees. In response to the perceived threat of Hindu domination, self-preservation of identity, the province of Sindh became the first province of British India to pass the Pakistan Resolution, in favour of the creation of the Pakistani state. The Muslim population supported Muslim League and Pakistan Movement. After the independence of Pakistan in 1947, Hindus and Sikhs migrated to India and this led to the decline of Karachi, as Hindus controlled the business in Karachi, while the Muslim refugees from India settled down in Karachi. While many poor low caste Hindus, Christians, and wealthy Zoroastrians (Parsees) remained in the city, Karachi's Sindhi Hindu migrated to India and was replaced by Muslim refugees who, in turn, had been uprooted from regions belonging to India. Post-Independence (1947 CE – present) Pakistan's capital (1947–1958) Karachi was chosen as the capital city of Pakistan. After the independence of Pakistan, the city population increased dramatically when hundreds of thousands of Muslim refugees from India fleeing from anti-Muslim pogroms and from other parts of South Asia came to settle in Karachi. As a consequence, the demographics of the city also changed drastically. The Government of Pakistan through Public Works Department bought land to settle the Muslim refugees. However, it still maintained a great cultural diversity as its new inhabitants arrived from the different parts of the South Asia. In 1959, the capital of Pakistan was shifted from Karachi to Islamabad. Karachi remained a federal territory and became the capital of Sindh in 1970 by general Yahya khan. Cosmopolitan city (1970–1980) During the 1960s, Karachi was seen as an economic role model around the world. Many countries sought to emulate Pakistan's economic planning strategy and one of them, South Korea, copied the city's second "Five-Year Plan" and World Financial Centre in Seoul is designed and modeled after Karachi. The 1965 Pakistani presidential election disturbance and political movement against President Muhammad Ayub Khan started of a long period of decline in the city. The city's population continued to grow exceeding the capacity of its creaking infrastructure and increased the pressure on the city. The 1970s saw major labour struggles in Karachi's industrial estates. During the administration of Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto riots and Karachi labour unrest of 1972 caused major decline in economic development. During President Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq's martial law, Karachi saw relative peace and prosperity, specially during the 3 years of Major General Mahmood Aslam Hayat, as Deputy Martial Law Administrator Karachi from 1977 to 1980. Post 1970s–present The 1980s and '90s also saw an influx of Afghan refugees from the Soviet–Afghan War into Karachi, and the city. Political tensions between the Muslim refugees and other groups also erupted and the city was wracked with political violence. The period from 1992 to 1994 is regarded as the bloody period in the history of the city, when the Army commenced its Operation Clean-up against the Mohajir Qaumi Movement. Since the last couple of years however, most of these tensions have largely been quieted. Karachi continues to be an important financial and industrial centre for the Sindh and handles most of the overseas trade of Pakistan and the Central Asian countries. It accounts for a large portion of the GDP of Sindh, Pakistan and a large chunk of the country's white collar workers. Karachi's population has continued to grow and is estimated to have exceeded 15 million people. Currently, Karachi is a melting pot where people from all the different parts of Pakistan live. The Sindh government is undertaking a massive upgrading of the city's infrastructure which promises to again put this heart of Sindh city of Karachi into the lineup of one of the world's greatest metropolitan cities. The last census was held in 1998, the current estimated population ratio of 2017 is: Muhajirs: 44% Sindhi: 8% Punjabi: 14% Pashto: 20% Balochi: 4% The others include Konkani, Kuchhi, Gujarati, Dawoodi Bohra, Memon, Brahui, Makrani, Khowar, Burushaski, Arabic, and Bengali. Karachi is home to a wide array of non-Urdu speaking Muslim peoples from what is now the Republic of India. The city has a sizable community of Gujarati, Marathi, Konkani-speaking refugees. Karachi is also home to a several-thousand member strong community of Malabari Muslims from Kerala in South India. Karachi is the largest Bengali speaking city outside Bengal region. These ethno-linguistic groups are being assimilated in the Urdu-speaking community Muhajirs. In 2011, an estimated 2.5 million foreign migrants lived in the city, mostly from Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar, and Sri Lanka. Picture gallery See also Demographic history of Karachi Abdullah Shah Ghazi Bhambore Culture of Karachi Debal Demographics of Karachi Economy of Karachi Education in Karachi History of Pakistan History of Sindh Karachi Kolachi jo Goth Kolachi Krokola Kulachi (tribe) Mai Kolachi Morontobara Muhammad bin Qasim Politics of Karachi Timeline of Karachi history Timeline of Karachi References External links A story behind every name History of Karachi with old & new Pictures 'Traitor of Sindh' Seth Naomal: A case of blasphemy in 1832 The real Father of Karachi (it's not who you think) The real Father of Karachi — II Of streets and names Harchand Rai Vishan Das: Karachi's beheaded benefactor Karachi's Polo Ground: Digging into history Ranchor Line: 14 acres of an abandoned identity Mr. Strachan and Maulana Wafaai The Clifton of yore Karachi's Ranchor Line: Where red chilli is no more
5195696	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20transfers%20of%20La%20Liga%20%E2%80%93%202005%E2%80%9306%20season	List of transfers of La Liga – 2005–06 season	This is a list of Spanish football transfers for the 2005–06 La Liga season. Transfers are only allowed in limited transfer windows in summer and winter. Deportivo Alavés In: Pacheco - On loan from Albacete Balompié Ibon Begoña - Signed from Gimnástic de Tarragona Georgiev - On loan from Slavia Sofia Elton Giovanni - Signed from Santos FC Costanzo - Signed from River Plate Gaspar - Signed from Albacete Balompié Mena - Signed from Xerez CD Jandro - Signed from Celta de Vigo Juanito - Signed from Málaga CF Wesley - Signed from Peñafiel Poli - Signed from RCD Mallorca Lacen - Signed from Valence FC Gnakpa - Signed from Racing de Santander Antchouet - Signed from Os Belenenses Pellegrino - Signed from Liverpool F.C. Aloisi - Signed from CA Osasuna Arturo - Signed from Racing de Santander Out: Wesley - On loan to Vitória Guimarães Antchouet - On loan to Vitória Guimarães Bernardo - On loan to CD Tenerife Orlandi - On loan to FC Barcelona David Sanchéz - Return to FC Barcelona Santamaria - Return to FC Barcelona Sarr - Return to RC Lens Nacho - Transferred to Racing de Ferrol Abel - Transferred to UD Salamanca Kiko - Transferred to Poli Ejido Epitié - Transferred to CD Castellon Angel - Transferred to Ciudad de Murcia Juan Pablo - Transferred to CD Numancia Flotta - Transferred to Deportes Tolima Athletic Club Bilbao In: Aduriz - Signed - from Real Valladolid Bordas - Return from Terrassa Zubiaurre - Signed from Real Sociedad (Pending...) Mendilíbar - Signed from - Eibar Angulo - Return from Gimnástic Expósito - Signed from CA Osasuna Out: Ibon Gutiérrez - On loan to CD Numancia Tarantino - On loan from CD Numancia Javi González - On loan to FC Ashdod Pampín - On loan to Real Union Jonan - On loan to CD Castellon Cesar - On loan to SD Eibar Azkorra - On loan to CD Numancia Arriaga - On loan to SD Eibar Moya - On loan to SD Eibar Solabarrieta - On loan to SD Eibar Del Horno - Transferred to Chelsea Ezquerro - Transferred to FC Barcelona Ernesto Valverde - To ¿? Oskar Vales - Retired Atlético Madrid In: Mateja Kežman - Signed from Chelsea F.C. Maxi Rodríguez - Signed from RCD Espanyol Galletti - Signed from Real Zaragoza Valera - Signed from Real Murcia Martin Petrov - Signed from Wolfsburg Gabi - Return from Getafe Out: Braulio - On loan to RCD Mallorca Arizmendi - Transferred to Deportivo de La Coruña Jacobo - On loan to UE Lleida Raúl Medina - On loan to Ciudad de Murcia Kiki Musampa - On loan to Manchester City Jorge Larena - On loan to Celta Vigo Pínola - On loan to Nürnberg Richard Núñez - On loan to Cruz Azul Toché - On loan to Hércules CF Sosa - On loan to CA Osasuna Nano - On loan to Getafe CF Contra - On loan to Getafe CF Salva - Return to Valencia Paunovic - Transferred to Getafe CF Aragoneses - Transferred to Elche CF Novo - Transferred to Real Sociedad Grønkjær - Transferred to Stuttgart Aguilera - Retired Sergi - Retired FC Barcelona In: Santiago Ezquerro - Signed from Athletic de Bilbao Mark van Bommel - Signed from PSV Eindhoven Out: Damià Abella - On loan to Racing de Santander Javier Saviola - On loan to Sevilla FC Fernando Navarro - On loan to RCD Mallorca Rüştü Reçber - On loan to Fenerbahçe Sergio Santamaría - On loan to Albacete Balompié Oscar Lopez - On loan to Real Betis Ramón Ros - On loan to UE Lleida Pedro Mario - On loan to Real Valladolid Dani Tortolero - Transferred to Gimnàstic de Tarragona Fabio Rochemback - Transferred to Middlesbrough Gerard López Segú - Transferred to AS Monaco Juan Román Riquelme - Transferred to Villarreal CF Sergio García - Transferred to Real Zaragoza David Sánchez Rodríguez - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Demetrio Albertini - Retired Real Betis In: Robert - On loan from PSV Eindhoven Tardelli - On loan from São Paulo FC Miguel Angel - Signed from Málaga CF Rivera - Signed from Levante UD Xisco - Signed from Valencia CF Nano - Signed from Getafe CF Juanlu - Signed from CD Numancia Oscar López - On loan from FC Barcelona Out: Oliveira - On loan to São Paulo FC Juanlu - On loan to Albacete Balompié Jaime - On loan to UD Las Palmas David Llano - On loan to Real Jaén Pablo Niño - On loan to CD Numancia Denilson - Transferred to Girondins de Bordeaux Benjamín - Transferred to Cadiz CF Prats - Transferred to Mallorca Ismael - Transferred to Xerez CD Ito - Transferred to RCD Espanyol Mingo - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Joao Tomás - Transferred to Sporting de Braga Tote - Transferred to Valladolid CF Tais - Retired Alfonso - Retired Cadiz CF In: Vella - Signed from Newell's Old Boys Morán - Signed from Racing de Santander Lobos - Signed from Gimnasia y Esgrima La Plata Alex Medina - Signed from Nacional de Montevideo Acuña - Signed from Olimpia Ivan Ania - Signed from Gimnastic Mario Silva - Signed from Recreativo de Huelva Limia - Signed from Arsenal de Sarandí Bezares - Signed from Sevilla FC Bertran - Signed from RCD Espanyol Berizzo Signed from Celta de Vigo Benjamín - On loan from Real Betis Estoyanoff - On loan from Valencia CF Out: Bertran - On loan to Lorca Deportiva Manolo Pérez - Transferred to Hércules CF Solano - On loan to Leganés Miguel García - On loan to CD Castellón Velázquez - On loan to Lorca Deportiva Samba - On loan to Málaga B Ezequiel - On loan to Málaga B De Gomar - On loan to Rayo Vallecano Fredi - Return to Sevilla FC Armada - Transferred to Ciudad de Murcia Dani Navarrete - Transferred to Hércules CF Celta de Vigo In: Roberto - Signed from Guaraní Iriney - Signed from Rayo Vallecano Nuñez - Signed from Liverpool F.C. Perera - Signed from RCD Mallorca Baiano - Signed from Málaga CF Placente - Signed from Bayer Leverkusen Canobbio - Signed from Valencia CF Javi Guerrero - Signed from Racing de Santander Esteban - Signed from Sevilla FC Daniel de Ridder - Signed from Ajax Carlos Vela - On loan from Arsenal F.C. Jorge Larena - On loan from Atlético de Madrid Jose Enrique - On loan from Valencia CF Silva - On loan from Valencia CF Lequi - On loan from SS Lazio Out: Isaac - On loan to Racing de Ferrol Bouzón - On loan to Recreativo de Huelva Jorge Rodríguez - On loan to Racing de Ferrol Orlando Quintana - On loan to Lorca Deportiva Toni Moral - On loan to CD Tenerife Israel - On loan to Córdoba CF Vryzas - Return to ACF Fiorentina Nagore - Return to RCD Mallorca Sava - Return To Fulham Capucho - Return to Rangers Roger - Return to Corinthians Manolo - Transferred to Racing de Ferrol Berizzo - Transferred to Cádiz CF Jandro - Transferred to Deportivo Alavés Jose Ignacio - Transferred to CD Logroñés Deportivo de La Coruña In: Gallardo - On loan from Sevilla FC Arizmendi - Signed from Atletico de Madrid Taborda - Signed from Defensor de Montevideo De Guzman - Signed from Hannover 96 Juanma - Signed from Racing de Santander Rubén - Return from Albacete Balompié Momo - Return from Albacete Balompié Out: Scaloni - On loan to West Ham United Pablo Amo - Transferred to Real Valladolid Changui - On loan to Xanthi FC Abreu - Transferred to Dorados Luque - Transferred to Newcastle United Pandiani - Transferred to Birmingham City Fran - Retired Mauro Silva - Retired RCD Espanyol In: Walter Pandiani - Signed from Birmingham City F.C. Luis García - Signed from RCD Mallorca Armando Sá - Signed from Villarreal CF Zabaleta - Signed from San Lorenzo de Almagro Costa - Signed from Olympique de Marseille Jofre - Signed from Levante UD Riera - Signed from Girondins de Bordeaux Ito - Signed from Real Betis Juanfran - On loan from Real Madrid Hurtado - Return from Eibar Iraizoz - Return from Eibar Out: Soldevilla - Transferred to Polideportivo Ejido Jonathan Soriano - On loan to UD Almería Toni Velamazán - Transferred to UD Almería Morales - Transferred to Gimnàstic de Tarragona Riera - On loan to Manchester City F.C. Héctor - On loan to Racing de Ferrol Carlos García - On loan to UD Almería Serrano - On loan to Racing de Santander Miñambres - Return to Real Madrid Maxi Rodríguez - Transferred to Atlético de Madrid Hugo Benjamín Ibarra - Transferred to Boca Juniors Bertran - Transferred to Cádiz CF Erwin Lemmens - Transferred to Olympiacos Àlex Fernández - Transferred to Xerez CD Dani - Transferred to Olympiacos Raducanu - Transferred to FC Vaslui Raúl Molina - Transferred to Rayo Vallecano Amavisca - Retired Getafe CF In: Jaja Coelho - Signed from Westerlo FC Celestini - Signed from UD Levante Paredes - Signed from Real Madrid B Paunovic - Signed from Atletico de Madrid Rebollo - Signed from San Sebastián de los Reyes Luis García - Signed from Real Zaragoza Alberto - Signed from Málaga B Güiza - Signed from Ciudad de Murcia Matellán - Signed from Boca Juniors Contra - On loan from Atlético de Madrid Redondo - On loan from Valencia CF Nano - On loan from Atletico de Madrid Gavilán - On loan from Valencia CF Calatayud - On loan from Málaga CF Out: Albiol - Return to Valencia CF Gabi - Return to Atlético de Madrid Aragoneses - Return to Atlético de Madrid Kome - Return to RCD Mallorca Gallardo - Return To Sevilla FC Yordi - Transferred to RCD Mallorca Alberto - Transferred to Elche CF Sánchez Broto - Transferred to Hércules CF Yanguas - Transferred to CD Numancia Nano - Transferred to Betis Balompié Quique Medina - Transferred to Elche CF Asen - Transferred to Extremadura Real Madrid In: Cassano - Signed from A.S. Roma Cicinho - Signed from São Paulo Carlos Diogo - Signed from CA River Plate Pablo García - Signed from CA Osasuna Júlio Baptista - Signed from Sevilla FC Robinho - Signed from Santos FC Sergio Ramos - Signed from Sevilla FC Carlos Sánchez - Return from Polideportivo Ejido Óscar Miñambres - Return from RCD Espanyol Out: Borja Fernández - On loan to RCD Mallorca Javier Portillo - On loan to Club Brugge KV Juanfran - On loan to RCD Espanyol Carlos Sánchez - On loan to Unión Deportiva Almería César Sánchez - Transferred to Real Zaragoza Albert Celades - Transferred to Real Zaragoza Santiago Solari - Transferred to FC Internazionale Walter Samuel - Transferred to FC Internazionale Luís Figo - Transferred to FC Internazionale Michael Owen - Transferred to Newcastle United Málaga CF In: Jorge Ribeiro - On loan from Dinamo Moscow Antonio López - On loan from Sevilla FC Gabriel - Signed from Fluminense Bóvio - Signed from Santos FC Anderson - loaned from Everton Paco Esteban - Signed to Málaga B Morales - Signed from CA Osasuna Salva - Signed from Valencia CF Pablo Couñago - Signed from Ipswich Town Hidalgo - Signed from CD Tenerife Nacho - Return from Levante UD Out: Paco Esteban - On loan to Ciudad de Murcia Calatayud - On loan to Getafe CF Tote - Return to Real Betis Iznata - Transferred to Rayo Vallecano Alex Geijo - Transferred to Xerez CD Baiano - Transferred to Celta de Vigo Juanito - Transferred to Deportivo Alavés Michel - Transferred to Real Murcia Amoroso - Transferred to São Paulo FC Wanchope - Transferred to Al-Gharrafa Miguel Ángel - Transferred to Real Betis RCD Mallorca In: Braulio - On loan from Atletico de Madrid Basinas - Signed from Panathinaikos Nunes - Signed from Sporting Braga Pisculichi - Signed from Argentinos Juniors Doni - Signed from UC Sampdoria Yordi - Signed from Getafe CF Jonás Gutiérrez - Signed from Vélez Sársfield Tuzzio - Signed from River Plate Peralta - Signed from Instituto de Córdoba Potenza - On loan from Internazionale Choutos - On loan from Internazionale Maciel - Signed from Real Murcia Prats - Signed from Real Betis Toni González - Signed from Ciudad de Murcia Borja - On loan from Real Madrid Fernando Navarro - On loan from FC Barcelona Yoshito Okubo - loan extended from Cerezo Osaka Out: Choutos - Return to Internazionale Iuliano - Transferred to UC Sampdoria Ngom Kome - On loan to Ciudad de Murcia Cifuentes - On loan to Rayo Vallecano Iván Ramis - On loan to Real Valladolid Carmona - On loan to Real Valladolid Jorge López - Return to Valencia CF De los Santos - Return to Valencia CF Toni González - Transferred to Real Oviedo Luis García - Transferred to RCD Espanyol Nagore - Transferred to Levante UD Romeo - Transferred to CA Osasuna Poli - Transferred to Deportivo Alavés Felipe Melo - Transferred to Racing de Santander Westerveld - Transferred to Portsmouth Perera - Transferred to Celta de Vigo Fernando Correa - Transferred to Peñarol Delibasic - Transferred to Sporting Braga Marcos - Retired Nadal - Retired CA Osasuna In: Sosa - On loan from Atletico de Madrid Romeo - Signed from RCD Mallorca Ricardo - Signed from Manchester United Brit - Return from UD Salamanca Out: Iván Rosado - On loan to Xerez CD Morales - Transferred to Málaga CF Aloisi - Transferred to Deportivo Alavés Expósito - Transferred to Athletic de Bilbao Pablo García - Transferred to Real Madrid Sanzol - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Jusué - Transferred to UD San Sebastián de los Reyes Racing de Santander In: Valencia - Signed from Gimnàstic de Tarragona Pablo Alfaro - Signed from Sevilla FC Ezequiel Garay - Signed from Newell's Old Boys Damia - On loan from FC Barcelona Pinilla - On loan from Sporting Lisbon Serrano - Signed from RCD Espanyol Stephane Dalmat - Signed from Internazionale Wilfred Dalmat - Signed from Grenoble Melo - Signed from RCD Mallorca Casquero - Signed from Sevilla FC Vitolo - Signed from CD Tenerife Pinillos - Signed from Levante UD Ruben Garcia - Signed from Zamora Neru - Signed from Sporting de Gijón Antoñito - On loan from Sevilla FC Out: Toño - On loan to Recreativo de Huelva Fernando Marqués - On loan to Atletico de Madrid B Pablo Casar - Transferred to Real Valladolid Moran - Transferred to Cadiz CF Bertin - On loan to CD Tenerife Sierra - Transferred to Real Murcia Torrado - Transferred to Cruz Azul Mauro - Transferred to Racing de Ferrol Javi Guerrero - Transferred to Celta de Vigo Regueiro - Transferred to Valencia CF Juanma - Transferred to Deportivo de La Coruña Arthuro - Transferred to Deportivo Alavés Benayoun - Transferred to West Ham United Anderson - Transferred to Everton Parri - Return to Valencia CF Pedro Lopez - Return to Valencia CF Arizmendi - Return to Atletico de Madrid Carlos a. Pineda Escalera - Return to UNAM Eduardo Felipe Pineda - Return to UNAM Sevilla FC In: Escudé - Signed from Ajax Dragutinovic - Signed from Standard Liège Kanouté - Signed from Tottenham Hotspurs David Prieto - Promoted from Sevilla B Kepa - Promoted from Sevilla B Diego Capel - Promoted from Sevilla B Luís Fabiano - Signed from F.C. Porto Maresca - Signed from Juventus Palop - Signed from Valencia Gallardo - loan return from Getafe Saviola - On loan from Barcelona Out Gallardo - On loan to Deportivo Antonio López - On loan to Málaga Carlitos - Transferred to Hércules Pablo Alfaro - Transferred to Racing Santander Aranda - On loan to Albacete Redondo - Transferred to Hércules Óscar - Transferred to Poli Ejido Dani Bautista - On loan to Recreativo Marco Navas - On loan to Poli Ejido Antoñito - On loan to Racing Santander Sergio Ramos - Transferred to Real Madrid Darío Silva - Transferred to Portsmouth Esteban - Transferred to Celta Casquero - Transferred to Racing Santander Bezares - Transferred to Cádiz Júlio Baptista - Transferred to Real Madrid Barragán - Transferred to Liverpool Fredi - Transferred to Castellón Real Sociedad In: Viáfara - On loan from Portsmouth Mark González - On loan from Liverpool Skoubo - Signed from Brøndby IF Stevanovic - Signed from NK Donzale Novo - Signed from Atletico de Madrid Cifuentes - Return from SD Eibar Garitano - Return from SD Eibar Oskitz - Return from SD Eibar Out Adriano Rossato - On loan to Sporting Braga Domínguez - On loan to SD Eibar Romero - On loan to Banfield Llorente - On loan to Real Valladolid Mayrata - On loan to SD Eibar Bergara - On loan to SD Eibar Zubikarai - On loan to SD Eibar Luiz Alberto - Transferred to Santos FC Arteta - Transferred to Everton Zubiaurre - Transferred to Athletic de Bilbao Mladenovic - Transferred to Glasgow Rangers Alkiza - Retired Karpin - Retired Valencia CF In: Miguel - Signed from SL Benfica Kluivert - Signed from Newcastle United Villa - Signed from Real Zaragoza Edu - Signed from Arsenal Regueiro - Signed from Racing de Santander Cerra - Signed from Alicante CF Mora - Signed from Levante UD Hugo Viana - On loan from Newcastle United Albiol - Return from Getafe CF Jorge López - Return from RCD Mallorca de los Santos - Return from RCD Mallorca Out: de los Santos - Transferred Caneira - On loan to Sporting C Portugal Di Vaio - On loan to AS Monaco FC Ruz - On loan to Gimnàstic de Tarragona Jose Enrique - On loan to Celta de Vigo Corradi - On loan to FC Parma Santa Cruz - On loan to Real Madrid C Amarilla - On loan to CD Badajoz Valle - On loan to Hércules CF Estoyanoff - On loan to Cadiz CF Fiore - On loan to ACF Fiorentina Silva - On loan to Celta de Vigo Gavilan - On loan to Getafe CF Redondo - On loan to Getafe CF Pedro López - Transferred to Real Valladolid Parri - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Canobbio - Transferred to Celta de Vigo Salva - Transferred to Málaga CF Sissoko - Transferred to Liverpool Xisco - Transferred to Real Betis Palop - Transferred to Sevilla FC Villarreal CF In: Guillermo Franco - Signed from Monterrey Josemi - Signed from Liverpool Sebastián Viera - Signed from Nacional de Montevideo Juan Román Riquelme - Signed from Barcelona Mariano Barbosa - Signed from Banfield Alessio Tacchinardi - On loan from Juventus Jan Kromkamp - Signed from AZ Valencia - Signed from Club Deportivo El Nacional Out: Lucho Figueroa - On loan to River Plate Jan Kromkamp - Transferred to Liverpool Valencia - On loan to Recreativo de Huelva Tena - On loan to Poli Ejido Cases - On loan to Terrassa FC Pepe Reina - Transferred to Liverpool Battaglia - Transferred to Boca Juniors Armando Sá - Transferred to RCD Espanyol Real Zaragoza In: Albert Celades López- Signed from Real Madrid Ewerthon - Signed from Borussia Dortmund Sergio García - Signed from Barcelona César Sánchez - Signed from Real Madrid Corona - Return from Poli Ejido Valbuena - Return from Albacete Balompié Diego Milito - On loan from Genoa Out Camacho - Transferred to UE Lleida Corona - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Piti - On loan to Ciudad de Murcia Jorge Pina - On loan to Málaga B Dorado - On loan to UE Lleida Javi Moreno - Transferred to Córdoba CF Iban Espadas - Transferred to Ciudad de Murcia } Galletti - Transferred to Atlético Madrid David Pirri - Transferred to Albacete Balompié Soriano - Transferred to UD Almería Villa - Transferred to Valencia CF Granero - Transferred to Xerez CD Luis Garcia - Transferred to Getafe CF Drulic - Transferred to Lokeren Ruben Falcón - Transferred to Villanueva CF César Láinez - Retired 2005–06 Trans Spain Spain
5196115	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi%20Sands%20flower-loving%20fly	Delhi Sands flower-loving fly	The Delhi Sands flower-loving fly (Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis) is a subspecies of flower-loving fly, a member of the genus Rhaphiomidas in the Mydidae family. It was the first fly added to the Endangered Species List in the United States. This subspecies is restricted to the Delhi Sand Dunes formation, an area of ancient inland dunes in Southern California. Originally, the habitat area consisted of about . However, only a few hundred acres, or about 2% of the original habitat area, remain undeveloped. The rest largely now form much or all of the foundation on which the towns of Colton, Fontana, Rancho Cucamonga, Rialto, and Ontario, California are built. Adult R. t. abdominalis flies are only active for a few weeks each year, feeding on flowers in June, July, August and September. Residential and commercial development, agricultural conversion, sand mining, invasion by exotic species, dumping of cow manure and trash, and off-road vehicle use have resulted in significant loss and modification of the species' native habitat. Estimates are that over 97% of the original habitat is already gone, and only a portion of what remains is suitable habitat for these flies. The species was emergency-listed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on September 23, 1993, which has been an extremely contentious listing ever since. Political officials and news services from the region have repeatedly decried this fly as a disease-carrying pest, despite documentation that it is not. There have been repeated attempts by local officials to have the species de-listed. For example, Congressman Joe Baca proposed removing the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly off the Endangered Species List to encourage development. There are an estimated 5–10 more species of insects endemic to the Delhi Sands formation, including newly discovered and still unnamed species of scarab beetle, sand roach, and Jerusalem cricket. Taxonomy and description The Delhi Sands flower-loving fly is a large insect in the Dipteran family Mydidae. It has an elongate body, much like that of a robber fly (Asilidae), but unlike asilids, it has a long tubular proboscis (mouthparts) that may be used, as in butterflies, for extracting nectar from flowers. The Delhi Sands flower-loving fly is approximately 2.5 centimeters (1 inch) long, orange-brown in color, and has dark brown oval spots on the upper surface of the abdomen. This animal is a strong fast flier, and, like a hummingbird, is capable of stationary, hovering flight. The genus Rhaphiomidas formerly was considered to be a member of the fly family Apioceridae. However, recent taxonomic studies of the insect order Diptera indicate that it belongs in the family Mydidae. The distribution of Rhaphiomidas and the three related genera is unusual and indicates the group has great geological antiquity. The latter three genera are each found in South Africa, Chile, and Australia. This southern hemisphere distribution strongly indicates that the origin of these groups lies with a common ancestor that inhabited the southern landmass known as Gondwana before its breakup, caused by continental drift during the Mesozoic era more than 100 million years ago. Rhaphiomidas is a North American genus of 19 species and 5 subspecies, which inhabit arid regions of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico. At least one species, the Acton flower-loving fly (Rhaphiomidas acton) is an important pollinator of the Santa Ana woolly star (Eriastrum densifolium ssp. sanctorum), a federally endangered plant (52 Federal Register 36265). Rhaphiomidas terminatus consists of two subspecies, the El Segundo flower-loving fly (Rhaphiomidas terminatus terminatus) and the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly (Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis) (figure 1). Specimens of R. terminatus were misidentified as Rhaphiomidas episcopus by D.W. Coquillett (1891) from Los Angeles, California. Townsend (1895) referred to these specimens as Rhaphiomidas mellifex. Cazier (1941) noted that both identifications were in error and used the specimens collected by Coquillett to describe R. terminatus as a new species. Later in the same publication, the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly was described as Rhaphiomidas abdominalis, based on an adult male collected in August 1888 in Colton, California. In 1941, when both R. terminatus and R. abdominalis were described, Cazier had only two specimens of each taxon available for examination, and these individuals appeared to represent distinct species. However, when the genus was revised (Cazier 1985), it was determined that abdominalis is a subspecies of R. terminatus, based on abdominal spot patterns and other morphological characters. Historically restricted to the El Segundo dunes and associated habitats, Rhaphiomidas terminatus terminatus is presumed extinct; thus, Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis is the only existing representative of this species. A complete description and illustration of this subspecies can be found in Cazier (1985). Geographic distribution All existing populations known of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly occur within an 8-mile radius of each other. The distribution straddles Interstate 10 in the vicinity of Colton and Rialto, Riverside and San Bernardino Counties, California. One of the remaining population sites is on land owned by the County of San Bernardino, another is on land owned by a public utility, and portions of the largest remaining habitat are owned by a municipality. The remaining sites are on private land. Small patches of restorable habitat may exist in remnants of the Colton Dunes in the same counties. Life history The Delhi Sands flower-loving fly undergoes a complete metamorphosis (egg, larva, pupa, and adult). The life span of this animal is unknown, but the larval stage may last two years or longer, depending on availability of food, temperature, rainfall, and other environmental conditions. The adults are active in the late summer and the early stages can be found throughout the year. Except for the adults, the animal spends its entire life cycle underground. The adults emerge and become active in the early summer. Mating After mating, the females lay their eggs in suitable sandy soil. Rogers and Mattoni (1993) described their observations of two male and two female captive Delhi Sands flower-loving flies. The males lived for 3 days in captivity and would not eat. The females lived for 5 and 8 days, respectively. The females became active at 10:00 am. Pacific Daylight time (PDT) each day, regardless of light conditions and became inactive about 5:00 pm PDT, except when ovipositing. Egg One of the females was observed to oviposit at about 7:30 pm PDT. She laid a total of 40 eggs in the sand. The eggs were about 1.5 x 3 millimeters (less than 0.1 square inch), almost kidney-shaped, and pure white with a slight pink iridescence. Female flower-loving flies possess specialized egg-laying organs on the last segment on their abdomens (acanthophorites). A single acanthophorite consists of a circle of strong spines that can be rapidly revolved to serve as a drill adapted to boring through sandy soils, enabling the abdomen to be inserted almost completely underground. The abdomen and the ovipositor are extensible and the eggs can be placed between 3 and 5 centimeters (1 to 2 inches) beneath the surface of the sand. This adaption assures that the eggs are placed in a cooler more moist environment than the surface of the sand. Most oviposition takes place in the shade of shrubs, such as the telegraph weed (Heterotheca grandiflora). The larvae hatched from the eggs in 11 to 12 days. Larvae The early stages of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly are specialized for a fossorial (burrowing) existence in substrates with a high sand fraction. The body shape and structures enable the larva to burrow through the sand. The head of the pupa possess a large spine that may be useful in tunneling through the soil for emergence. Fly Hogue (1967) described the emergence of an adult El Segundo flower-loving fly at a site in Hermosa Beach in 1965. Based on this and other observations, it appears that the pupae are located underground. Rogers and Mattom (1993) found a large number of the pupal cases of three desert species of Rhaphiomidas. In all instances, the pupal cases were found on the surface of hardened sand in open areas at least 5 feet (1.5 m) from perennial plants. When they emerge, the pupae extend only their anterior half from the soil substrate, creating distinctive emergence holes that are clearly not the burrows of other animals. The flight season of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly extends from early June to early September. The adults are active during the warmest portions of the day during periods of direct sunlight, generally from 10:00 am to 2:00 pm PDT. Adults have not been observed to fly during cloudy, overcast, or rainy conditions. The animals rarely fly during windy or breezy conditions, which typically occur in the afternoon. However, during these periods they have been located by disturbing the vegetation where they are perching. Ovipositing has only been observed from mid to late afternoon, between 2:00 pm and 5:00 pm, when temperatures start to cool. Diet Delhi Sands flower-loving flies have rarely been observed taking nectar and have not been seen taking other fluids. The nectaring events have been brief, on the order of 2–10 seconds, and have all been restricted to flowers of the California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum). The only other flowers available during the flight time are croton (Croton californicus) and telegraphweed (Heterotheca grandiflora), but visitations to these plants have not been noted. The larvae of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly and two other Rhaphiomidas species were held in captivity by Rogers and Mattoni. All items of food, including synthetic diets that were offered to the animals, were rejected. Rogers and Mattom reported that captive larvae refused to feed on small beetle larvae collected from the sand dunes, fruit fly larvae, or sand dune cockroach nymphs. None of the fly larvae became cannibalistic, even when starving. The larvae all died within 15 days. It remains unclear as to whether the early stages of Rhaphiomidas are herbivores, detrivores, or carnivores. Predation The introduced Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) was observed to attack and kill a recently emerged adult Delhi Sands flower-loving fly. Large asilid flies in the genera Proctacanthus and Promachus are known to prey upon Rhaphiomidas. Other predators of the adult flies likely include dragonflies and insectivorous birds. The early stages may be eaten by ants, subterranean predatory insects, and reptiles. Ecosystem description The most characteristic feature of all known sites of Rhaphiomidas terminatus abdominalis is their fine sandy soils, often wholly or partly sand dunes stabilized by the sparse native vegetation. The Colton dunes are the result of sand blown from the canyons in the San Gabriel and San Bernardino Mountains by the Santa Ana winds in the fall. Over the millennia, the dunes grew to cover some 40 square miles. Santa Ana winds continue to carry sand down from the mountains, but the dune system has largely been eliminated by urban development and agricultural conversion. The Colton dune soils are generally classified as the Delhi series (primarily Delhi fine sand). Delhi series soils cover about 40 square miles in several irregular patches extending from the city of Colton to Ontario and Chino in northwestern Riverside and southwestern San Bernardino Counties. The Delhi series soils are a biologically sensitive and very rare environment, and are inhabited by a number of plant and animal species of special concern. The region, also known as the Colton Dunes, is the largest inland sand dune formation in southern California, exclusive of the desert. The vegetation of these dunes has been defined as the Desert Sand-verbena series in Sawyer and Keeler-Wolf. Plants on the Colton Dunes include California buckwheat (Eriogonum fasciculatum), California croton (Croton californicus), deerweed (Acmispon glaber), and California evening primrose (Oenothera californica). The habitat supports several plants and animals of limited distribution, including the legless lizard (Anniella pulchra), Coast horned lizard (Phrynosoma coronatum blainviliii), Delhi Sands metalmark butterfly, Delhi Sands Jerusalem cricket, Apiocera convergens, Delhi Sands sandroach and, potentially, Pringle's monardella (Monardella pringlei). Much of the Colton Dunes area has been used for agriculture, chiefly grapes and citrus since the 1800s. More recently, nearly all the remaining area has been used for dairies, housing tracts, and commercial/industrial sites. Most of the remaining area with restoration potential is degraded to some degree. The present distribution of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly represents less than 2% of its former range; the habitat existing today is approximately half of what existed in 1975. Before European settlement, the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly likely occurred throughout much or all of the Colton Dunes in San Bernardino and Riverside Counties, California, an assumption that is based on the animal's biology and records of museum specimens of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly, which extend from the eastern margin of the Delhi sand formation in Colton to near its western limit in Mira Loma. Threats The human population of California experienced especially rapid growth during the 1960s and 1970s, and it continues to grow beyond the 30 million mark. A significant portion of this growth has occurred in the San Bernardino County area. The western third of Riverside County currently contains approximately 800,000 people, which is predicted to increase to 1.4 million by 2010. Historically, lands in San Bernardino and Riverside Counties containing Delhi series soil have been used for agriculture. Current land altering activities in this area that adversely affect the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly include surface mining for sand, and residential and commercial development. Unauthorized collecting of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly by insect collectors is a threat to the species. Critical Habitat was not designated because of the danger posed by insect collectors. Since the animal was listed, construction of a hospital, commercial development, and dumping of cow manure and other trash have eliminated populations and restorable habitat. Invasive vegetation Invasive exotic vegetation severely degrades or eliminates the habitat of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly. Non-native plants of concern include Russian thistle (Salsola tragus), horehound (Marrubium vulgare), mustard (Brassica tournefordi), cheeseweed (Malva parviflora), and many species of introduced gasses such as ripgut (Bromus diandrus) and red brome (Bromus madritensis ssp. rubens). These plants likely alter the amount of soil moisture or make the substrate physically unsuitable for the survival of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly and other native subterranean invertebrates. The diversity and abundance of arthropods have been found to be significantly reduced or absent in coastal dune areas containing exotic plants versus areas with native vegetation. Cow manure dumping Tons of cow manure from local dairies have been dumped on several sites containing restorable habitat for the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly, often apparently without permission of the landowners. The manure smothers the animals, plants, and habitat where it is dumped. The manure also provides high levels of nutrients for invasive exotic plants, such as cheeseweed (Malva parviflora). The organic matter and nutrients can only be removed at large expense over a long time period. Restoration of manured sites, although possible, is of the lowest priority, even though manured sites under powerline rights-of-way would otherwise provide ideal habitat. Recovery units Areas known to be inhabited by the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly or areas that contain restorable habitat for the animal have been grouped into three Recovery Units based on geographic proximity, similarity of habitat, and potential genetic exchange. These three recovery units are: Ontario Recovery Unit, Jurupa Recovery Unit, and Colton Recovery Unit. Each recovery unit includes occupied habitat containing one or more populations of the Delhi Sands flower-loving fly and/or restorable habitat for at least one population. The occupied and restorable habitat in the recovery units includes only those areas that contain Delhi Series soils. The distribution of historical records suggests that the fly occurred extensively throughout these three units. Note that the recovery units do not include residential and commercial development, nor areas that have otherwise been permanently altered by human actions. References External links Western Riverside County MSHCP Report Xerces Society for Invertebrate Conservation: Delhi Sands flower-loving fly U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Recovery Plan Delhi Sands flower-loving fly information Endangered fauna of California Endemic insects of the United States Mydidae Insects described in 1941 Endemic fauna of California Diptera of North America

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.