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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kragujevac%20massacre
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Kragujevac massacre
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The Kragujevac massacre was the mass murder of between 2,778 and 2,794 mostly Serb men and boys in Kragujevac by German soldiers on 21 October 1941. It occurred in the German-occupied territory of Serbia during World War II, and came as a reprisal for insurgent attacks in the Gornji Milanovac district that resulted in the deaths of ten German soldiers and the wounding of 26 others. The number of hostages to be shot was calculated as a ratio of 100 hostages executed for every German soldier killed and 50 hostages executed for every German soldier wounded, a formula devised by Adolf Hitler with the intent of suppressing anti-Nazi resistance in Eastern Europe.
After a punitive operation was conducted in the surrounding villages, during which over 400 males were shot and four villages burned down, another 70 male Jews and communists who had been arrested in Kragujevac were killed. Simultaneously, males between the ages of 16 and 60, including high school students, were assembled by German troops and local collaborators, and the victims were selected from amongst them. The selected males were then marched to fields outside the city, shot with heavy machine guns, and their bodies buried in mass graves. Contemporary German military records indicate that 2,300 hostages were shot. After the war, inflated estimates ranged as high as 7,000 deaths, but German and Serbian scholars have now agreed on the figure of nearly 2,800 killed, including 144 high school students. As well as Serbs, massacre victims included Jews, Romani people, Muslims, Macedonians, Slovenes, and members of other nationalities.
Several senior German military officials were tried and convicted for their involvement in the reprisal shootings at the Nuremberg trials and the subsequent Nuremberg trials. The massacre had a profound effect on the course of the war in Yugoslavia. It exacerbated tensions between the two guerrilla movements, the communist-led Partisans and the royalist, Serbian nationalist Chetniks, and convinced Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović that further attacks against the Germans would only result in more Serb civilian deaths. The Germans soon found mass executions of Serbs to be ineffectual and counterproductive, as they tended to drive the population into the arms of insurgents. The ratio of 100 executions for one soldier killed and 50 executions for one soldier wounded was reduced by half in February 1943, and removed altogether later in the year. The massacre is commemorated by the October in Kragujevac Memorial Park and the co-located 21 October Museum, and has been the subject of several poems and feature films. The anniversary of the massacre is commemorated annually in Serbia as the Day of Remembrance of the Serbian Victims of World War II.
Background
Encirclement and invasion of Yugoslavia
Following the 1938 between Nazi Germany and Austria, Yugoslavia came to share its northwestern border with Germany and fell under increasing pressure as its neighbours aligned themselves with the Axis powers. In April 1939, Italy opened a second frontier with Yugoslavia when it invaded and occupied neighbouring Albania. At the outbreak of World War II, the Yugoslav government declared its neutrality. Between September and November 1940, Hungary and Romania joined the Tripartite Pact, aligning themselves with the Axis, and Italy invaded Greece. Yugoslavia was by then almost completely surrounded by the Axis powers and their satellites, and its neutral stance toward the war became strained. In late February 1941, Bulgaria joined the pact. The following day, German troops entered Bulgaria from Romania, closing the ring around Yugoslavia. Intending to secure his southern flank for the impending attack on the Soviet Union, German dictator Adolf Hitler began placing heavy pressure on Yugoslavia to join the Axis. On 25 March 1941, after some delay, the Yugoslav government conditionally signed the pact. Two days later, a group of pro-Western, Serbian nationalist Royal Yugoslav Air Force officers deposed the country's regent, Prince Paul, in a bloodless coup d'état. They placed his teenage nephew, Peter, on the throne and brought to power a "government of national unity" led by the head of the Royal Yugoslav Air Force, General Dušan Simović. The coup enraged Hitler, who immediately ordered the country's invasion, which commenced on 6 April 1941.
Yugoslavia was quickly overwhelmed by the combined strength of the Axis powers and surrendered in less than two weeks. The government and royal family went into exile, and the country was occupied and dismembered by its neighbours. The German-occupied territory of Serbia was limited to the pre-Balkan War borders of the Kingdom of Serbia and was directly occupied by the Germans for the key rail and riverine transport routes that passed through it, as well as its valuable resources, particularly non-ferrous metals. The occupied territory covered about and had a population of 3.8 million. Hitler had briefly considered erasing all existence of a Serbian state, but this was quickly abandoned and the Germans began searching for a Serb suitable to lead a puppet government in Belgrade. They initially settled on Milan Aćimović, a staunch anti-communist who served as Yugoslavia's minister of internal affairs in late 1939 and early 1940.
Occupation and resistance
Two resistance movements emerged following the invasion: the communist-led, multi-ethnic Partisans, and the royalist, Serbian nationalist Chetniks, although during 1941, within the occupied territory, even the Partisans consisted almost entirely of Serbs. The Partisans were led by the General Secretary of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia, Josip Broz Tito; the Chetniks were led by Colonel Draža Mihailović, an officer in the interwar Royal Yugoslav Army. The two movements had widely divergent goals. Whereas the Partisans sought to turn Yugoslavia into a communist state under Tito's leadership, the Chetniks sought a return to the pre-war , whereby the Yugoslav monarchy—and, by extension, Serb political hegemony—would be restored. Communist resistance commenced in early July, shortly after the invasion of the Soviet Union, targeting both the Germans and the puppet authorities. By late August 1941, the Partisans and Chetniks were carrying out joint attacks against the Germans. The Partisans were well organised and many of their commanders had ample military experience, having fought in the Spanish Civil War. Within several months of the invasion, they had 8,000 fighters spread across 21 detachments in Serbia alone. Many Chetniks were either veterans of the Balkan Wars and World War I or former members of the Royal Yugoslav Army. They boasted around 20,000 fighters in the German-occupied territory of Serbia at the time of the massacre.
On 29 August, the Germans replaced Aćimović with another fervent anti-communist, the former Minister of the Army and Navy and Chief of the General Staff, General Milan Nedić, who formed a new puppet government. In September, the Nedić government was permitted to form the Serbian Volunteer Command (; SDK), an auxiliary paramilitary formation to help quell anti-German resistance. In effect, the SDK was the military arm of the fascist Yugoslav National Movement (, Zbor), led by Dimitrije Ljotić. It was originally intended to have a strength of 3,000–4,000 troops, but this number eventually rose to 12,000. It was headed by Kosta Mušicki, a former colonel in the Royal Yugoslav Army, whom Nedić appointed on 6 October 1941. In the early stages of the occupation, the SDK formed the bulk of Nedić's forces, which numbered around 20,000 men by late 1941.
Prelude
Anti-German uprising
Nedić's inability to crush the Partisans and Chetniks prompted the military commander in Serbia to request German reinforcements from other parts of the continent. In mid-September, they transferred the 125th Infantry Regiment from Greece and the 342nd Infantry Division from France to help put down the uprising in Serbia. On 16 September, Hitler issued Directive No. 312 to Generalfeldmarschall (field marshal) Wilhelm List, the Wehrmacht commander in Southeast Europe, ordering him to suppress all resistance in that part of the continent. That same day, the Supreme Command of the Armed Forces (Oberkommando der Wehrmacht; OKW) issued Hitler's order on the suppression of "Communist Armed Resistance Movements in the Occupied Areas", signed by Generalfeldmarschall Wilhelm Keitel. This decree specified that all attacks against the Germans on the Eastern Front were to be "regarded as being of communist origin", and that 100 hostages were to be shot for every German soldier killed and 50 were to be shot for every German soldier wounded. It was intended to apply to all of Eastern Europe, though an identical policy had already been implemented in Serbia as early as 28 April 1941, aimed at deterring guerrilla attacks. Attacks against the Germans increased in the first half of the year and Serbia once again became a war zone. German troops fanned through the countryside burning villages, taking hostages and establishing concentration camps. The first mass executions of hostages commenced in July.
The strengthening of Germany's military presence in Serbia resulted in a new wave of mass executions and war crimes. The commanders who bore the most responsibility for these atrocities were primarily of Austrian origin and had served in the Austro-Hungarian Army during World War I. Most were ardently anti-Serb, a prejudice that the historian Stevan K. Pavlowitch links to the Nazis' wider anti-Slavic racism. On 19 September, (lieutenant general) Franz Böhme was appointed as Plenipotentiary Commanding General in Serbia, with direct responsibility for quelling the revolt, bringing with him the staff of XVIII Mountain Corps. He was allocated additional forces to assist him in doing so, reinforcing the three German occupation divisions already in the territory. These divisions were the 704th Infantry Division, 714th Infantry Division and 717th infantry divisions. Böhme boasted a profound hatred of Serbs and encouraged his predominantly Austrian-born troops to exact "vengeance" against them. His primary grievances were the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand and subsequent Austro-Hungarian military defeats at the hands of the Royal Serbian Army, which he thought could only be rectified by the reprisal shooting of Serbian civilians. "Your objective", Böhme declared, "is to be achieved in a land where, in 1914, streams of German blood flowed because of the treachery of the Serbs, men and women. You are the avengers of those dead."
Clashes at Gornji Milanovac
Surrender of the 6th Company
By late September 1941, the town of Gornji Milanovac had effectively been cut off from the rest of German-occupied Serbia by the frequent disruption of road and rail transport leading to and from it. On 29 September, elements of the Takovo Chetnik and Čačak Partisan detachments attacked Gornji Milanovac, which was defended by the 6th Company of the 920th (local defence) Battalion. The 6th Company's garrison was based out of a local school. The guerrillas did not expect to capture the garrison, but undertook the attack in order to generate new recruits from the surrounding area. The local Chetnik commander, Zvonimir Vučković, became aware of the Partisan plans and decided to join in the attack to avoid the significant loss of prestige that would result from allowing the Partisans to attack alone. The insurgents launched a morning attack against the school. Although they were successful in overrunning the sentry posts, the Germans' heavy machine guns soon stopped the assault. In 90 minutes of fighting, ten Germans were killed and 26 wounded. The two insurgent groups judged that continuing the assault would be too costly and Vučković suggested negotiating with the Germans.
Knowing the Germans would be far more likely to carry out negotiations with royalists than with communists, the Partisans allowed the Chetniks to conduct the negotiating in order to lure the garrison out of the town. A Chetnik envoy delivered an ultimatum to the garrison, demanding that it surrender to the guerrillas. The ultimatum was rejected. Thirty minutes later, a second Chetnik envoy appeared, guaranteeing the 6th Company unmolested passage to Čačak on the condition that it left Gornji Milanovac the same day. He further requested that the town and its inhabitants be spared from any possible reprisals. The commander of the 6th Company agreed and evacuated the garrison. Around outside Gornji Milanovac, the 6th Company was surrounded by the guerrillas and forced to surrender.
III. Battalion's punitive expedition
The 6th Company's disappearance caused unease in the German ranks. A reconnaissance flight was dispatched to locate it, to no avail. The occupational authorities were unaware of the 6th Company's fate until a German officer escaped and informed them of what had transpired. He reported that the German prisoners were being humanely treated, but when Böhme became aware of the situation, he decided that retaliation was needed. He ordered the III. Battalion of the 749th Infantry Regiment to burn down Gornji Milanovac and take hostages in order to expedite the recovery of the captured German troops.
The III. Battalion started its advance on 5 October, fighting its way along the road to Gornji Milanovac and sustaining casualties in the process. Upon entering Gornji Milanovac, it gathered between 120 and 170 male hostages, among them a Chetnik commander who had been scheduled to meet his superiors the following day. Hauptmann (Captain) Fiedler, the III. Battalion's commanding officer, hoped to use this man to contact the Chetnik command and organize a prisoner exchange. Fearing that such an action would jeopardize the recovery of the German prisoners, Fiedler decided not to raze Gornji Milanovac.
Around this time, Fiedler received an SOS signal from nearby Rudnik, where another German unit was involved in heavy fighting with the guerrillas. Fiedler decided to redirect the III. Battalion to Rudnik to relieve the unit. Assuming he would have to pass through Gornji Milanovac on his way back, he decided to postpone the taking of hostages in Gornji Milanovac and the razing of the town until his return from Rudnik. Contrary to Fiedler's expectations, the battalion was ordered back to Kragujevac immediately after relieving the unit at Rudnik, and was thus unable to raze Gornji Milanovac. Böhme was furious, and on 15 October, he sent the III. Battalion back to Gornji Milanovac to carry out his original orders. The battalion returned to Gornji Milanovac the same day, but now only forty people could be found to be taken as hostages. The town was then razed. This time, no attempt to exchange the hostages was made.
Kraljevo massacre
On 15–16 October, ten German soldiers were killed and 14 wounded during a joint Partisan-Chetnik attack on Kraljevo, a city about south of Belgrade and southeast of Gornji Milanovac. On 15 October, troops of the 717th Infantry Division shot 300 civilians from Kraljevo in reprisal. These reprisal killings continued over the following days, and by 17 or 20 October, German troops had rounded up and shot 1,736 men and 19 "communist" women from the city and its outskirts, despite attempts by local collaborationists to mitigate the punishment. These executions were personally supervised by the commander of the 717th Infantry Division, (brigadier general) Paul Hoffman.
Timeline
Round-up
Kragujevac is an industrial city in Central Serbia, about south of Belgrade, and east of Gornji Milanovac. It had a population of more than 40,000 in 1941, and was the headquarters of a German military district. The city was also home to Yugoslavia's largest armaments factory, which had between 7,000 and 8,000 workers before the invasion.
A report was written by the military district commander in Kragujevac, Otto von Bischofhausen, immediately after the massacre. This report was addressed to Böhme, and was later tendered in evidence at the Subsequent Nuremberg trials. According to von Bischofhausen, in the late evening of 18 October, all male Jews in Kragujevac, along with some communists, were arrested according to lists, totalling 70 persons. As this constituted far too few hostages to meet the quota of 2,300, it was proposed to collect the balance by arrests on the streets, squares and houses of Kragujevac, in an operation to be conducted by the III. Battalion of the 749th Infantry Regiment and the I. Battalion of the 724th Infantry Regiment, part of the 704th Infantry Division. In response to this proposal, von Bischofhausen claimed that he suggested to the garrison commander, Major Paul König, that instead of using the population of Kragujevac, the required hostages be gathered from surrounding villages which were known to be "completely strewn with communists". According to von Bischofhausen's account, this suggestion was initially accepted by König, and on 19 October, the III. Battalion "mopped up" the villages of Mečkovac and Maršić and the I. Battalion conducted a similar operation in the villages of Grošnica and Milatovac. A total of 422 men were shot in these four villages, without any German losses.
On the evening of 19 October, von Bischofhausen again met with König and was told that the original proposal was to be implemented the following day in order to collect the 2,300 hostages. The following evening, the male Jews and communists, who had been held without food since their arrest, were shot by German troops at the barracks and courtyard where they were being held. Simultaneously, males between the ages of 16 and 60 were arrested within Kragujevac itself. They were detained in the barracks of a former motorised battalion at Stanovija Field. Over 7,000 hostages were assembled. German troops and ethnic German units from the Banat were involved in the round-up, as was the 5th Regiment of the SDK, under the command of Marisav Petrović. According to von Bischofhausen, König permitted several classes of males to be excluded from the round-up, including those with a special pass issued by von Bischofhausen's district headquarters, members of a vital profession or trade, and those who were members of Ljotić's movement. When too few adult males could be located, high school students were also rounded up. Also seized were priests and monks from the city's churches. Each hostage was registered and his belongings noted meticulously.
Executions
The hostages were held overnight on a public plaza in the town. In his version of events, von Bischofhausen claimed that he made objections to König, but the latter insisted that his orders, which had been issued by the commander of the 749th Infantry Regiment, were to be carried out. Shortly before the executions commenced, Ljotić obtained approval for two Zbor officials to scrutinise the hostages. Over 3,000 individuals, those identified as being "genuine nationalists" and "real patriots", were excluded from the execution lists as a result of Ljotić's intervention. Those who were not extracted from the hostage pool were accused of being communists or spreading "communist propaganda". The Zbor officials told them they were not "worth saving" because they had "infected the younger generation with their leftist ideas." The Germans considered Zbor'''s involvement to be a "nuisance". According to the social scientist Jovan Byford, it was never intended or likely to reduce the overall number of hostages killed in reprisal, and served only to ensure the exclusion of those that were deemed by Zbor to be worth saving.
On the morning of 21 October, the assembled men and boys were marched to a field outside the town. Over a period of seven hours, they were lined up in groups of 50 to 120 and shot with heavy machine guns. "Go ahead and shoot", said an elderly teacher, "I am conducting my class". He was shot together with his students. As they faced the firing squad, many hostages sang the patriotic song "Hey, Slavs", which became Yugoslavia's national anthem after the war. One German soldier was shot for refusing to participate in the killings. A German report stated: "The executions in Kragujevac occurred although there had been no attacks on members of the Wehrmacht in this city, for the reason that not enough hostages could be found elsewhere." Even some German informants were inadvertently killed. "Clearly", the Holocaust historian Mark Levene writes, "Germans in uniform were not that particular about whom they shot in reprisal, especially in the Balkans, where the populace were deemed subhuman."
Victims of the mass executions included Serbs, Jews, Romani people, Muslims, Macedonians, Slovenes and members of other nationalities. Following the massacre, the Wehrmacht held a military parade through the city centre. On 31 October, Böhme sent a report to the acting Wehrmacht commander in Southeast Europe, General der Pioniere (lieutenant general) Walter Kuntze, reporting that 2,300 hostages had been shot in Kragujevac.
Aftermath
Response
The Partisan commander and later historian Milovan Djilas recalled in his memoirs how the Kragujevac massacre gripped all of Serbia in "deathly horror". Throughout the war, local collaborators pressured the Germans to implement stringent vetting procedures to ensure that "innocent civilians" were not executed, though only when the hostages were ethnic Serbs. The scale of the massacres in Kragujevac and Kraljevo resulted in no quarter being given to German POWs by the guerrillas. "The enemy changed his attitude toward German prisoners," one senior Wehrmacht officer reported. "They are now usually being maltreated and shot." By the time Böhme was relieved as Plenipotentiary Commanding General in December 1941, between 20,000 and 30,000 civilians had been killed in German reprisal shootings. The ratio of 100 executions for each soldier killed and 50 executions for each soldier wounded was reduced by half in February 1943, and removed altogether later in the year. Henceforth, each individual execution had to be approved by Special Envoy Hermann Neubacher. The massacres in Kragujevac and Kraljevo caused German military commanders in Serbia to question the efficacy of such killings, as they pushed thousands of Serbs into the hands of anti-German guerrillas. In Kraljevo, the entire Serbian workforce of an airplane factory producing armaments for the Germans was shot. This helped convince the OKW that arbitrary shootings of Serbs not only incurred a significant political cost but were also counterproductive.
The killings at Kragujevac and Kraljevo exacerbated tensions between the Partisans and Chetniks. They also convinced Mihailović that active resistance was futile for as long as the Germans held an unassailable military advantage in the Balkans, and that killing German troops would only result in the unnecessary deaths of tens of thousands of Serbs. He therefore decided to scale back Chetnik guerrilla attacks and wait for an Allied landing in the Balkans. The killings occurred only a few days before Captain Bill Hudson, a Special Operations Executive officer, met with Mihailović at his Ravna Gora headquarters. Hudson witnessed the aftermath of the massacre and noted the psychological toll it exacted. "Morning and night was the most desolating atmosphere," he recounted, "because the women were out in the fields, and every sunrise and sunset you would hear the wails. This had a very strong effect on Mihailović." "The tragedy gave to Nedić convincing proof that the Serbs would be biologically exterminated if they were not submissive," Djilas wrote, "and to the Chetniks proof that the Partisans were prematurely provoking the Germans". Mihailović's decision to refrain from attacking the Germans led to a rift with Tito and the Partisans. The Chetniks' non-resistance made it easier for the Germans to confront the Partisans, who for much of the remainder of the war could not defeat them in open combat.
Legal proceedings and casualty estimates
On 11 November 1941, the Partisans captured a Wehrmacht officer named Renner, the area commander in Leskovac, who was taking part in an anti-Partisan sweep around Lebane. Mistaking him for König, who by some accounts had given Renner a cigarette case engraved with his name, the Partisans executed Renner as a war criminal. For almost fifty years, it was widely believed that König, and not Renner, had been killed by the Partisans. In 1952, a plaque was erected at the place where König was purported to have been killed, and a song was written about the incident. In the 1980s, it was conclusively proven that the German officer executed by the Partisans in November 1941 was not König. A new plaque was thus dedicated in 1990.
List and Böhme were both captured at the end of the war. On 10 May 1947, they were charged with war crimes and crimes against humanity as part of the Hostages Trial of the subsequent Nuremberg trials. One of the crimes specifically listed in Count 1 of the indictment was the massacre of 2,300 hostages in Kragujevac. Böhme committed suicide before his arraignment. List was found guilty on Count 1, as well as on another count. He was sentenced to life imprisonment in 1948, but was released due to ill health in December 1952. Despite this, he lived until June 1971. Keitel was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity at the Nuremberg Trials, and subsequently hanged. Hoffmann, whom the local population dubbed the "butcher of Kraljevo and Kragujevac", was promoted to command the more capable 352nd Infantry Division in November 1941. He ended the war as the commander of a prisoner-of-war camp, having been demoted for refusing to shoot deserters in Ukraine. The 717th Infantry Division was reorganised as the 117th Jäger Division later in the war and its troops took part in the massacre of hundreds of Greek civilians at Kalavryta in December 1943.
At least 31 mass graves were discovered in Kragujevac and its surroundings after the war. In 1969, the historian Jozo Tomasevich wrote that, despite German official sources stating 2,300 hostages had been shot, both the Partisans and Chetniks had agreed that the number of victims was about 7,000. He further stated that careful investigation by the scholar Jovan Marjanović in 1967 had put the figure at about 5,000. In 1975, Tomasevich noted that some estimates of the number of those killed were as high as 7,000, but that the foremost authority on German terror in Serbia, Venceslav Glišić, placed the figure at about 3,000. In 2007, Pavlowitch wrote that inflated figures of 6,000–7,000 victims were advanced and widely believed for many years, but that German and Serbian scholars had recently agreed on the figure of 2,778. In the same year, the curator of the 21st October Museum at Kragujevac, Staniša Brkić, published a book listing the names and personal data of 2,794 victims. Of the total killed, 144 were high school students, and five of the victims were 12 years old. The last living survivor of the massacre, Dragoljub Jovanović, died in October 2018 at the age of 94. He survived despite sustaining eleven bullet wounds and had to have one of his legs amputated. After the war, he was appointed the inaugural director of the 21st October Museum.
Legacy
Commemoration
In Yugoslav popular memory, the massacre at Kragujevac came to symbolise the brutality of the German occupation. It has drawn comparisons to the Germans' destruction of the Czechoslovak village of Lidice in June 1942 and the massacre in the French village of Oradour-sur-Glane in June 1944.
To commemorate the victims, the whole of Šumarice was designated as a memorial park in 1953. It is now known as the October in Kragujevac Memorial Park, and covers encompassing the area that contains the mass graves. The 21st October Museum was founded within the park on 15 February 1976. Šumarice is the site of a televised annual commemoration known as the Great School Lesson () that attracts thousands of attendees every year. The park contains several monuments, including the Interrupted Flight monument to the murdered high school students and their teachers, and the monuments Pain and Defiance, One Hundred for One, and Resistance and Freedom. The site sustained damage during the NATO bombing of Yugoslavia in 1999.
In 2012, the National Assembly of Serbia passed a law declaring 21 October the Day of Remembrance of the Serbian Victims of World War II. Germany's Federal Cabinet has never officially apologized for any of the mass executions committed by the Wehrmacht in the occupied territory of Serbia during World War II, including the Kragujevac massacre. On 21 October 2021, Vice President of the Bundestag Claudia Roth became the first senior German government official to attend the annual commemoration at Šumarice. "My intention in attending was to underline that we will not let the crimes of the Nazis and the Wehrmacht be forgotten," she remarked, "and that, building on that remembrance, we want to foster good and friendly relations with our Serbian friends and partners."
Depictions in art
The Serbian poet and writer Desanka Maksimović wrote a poem about the massacre titled Krvava bajka ("A Bloody Fairy Tale"). The poem was later included in the Yugoslav secondary school curriculum and schoolchildren were required to memorise it. It ranks among the most famous Serbian-language poems. Recitations of it form the centerpiece of the annual commemoration ceremonies at Šumarice. In 1965, the Belgian poet Karel Jonckheere wrote the poem Kinderen met krekelstem ("Children with Cricket Voices"), also about the massacre. The Blue Butterfly, a book of poetry by Richard Berengarten, is based on the poet's experiences while visiting Kragujevac in 1985, when a blue butterfly landed on his hand at the entrance to the memorial museum.
The massacre has been the subject of two feature films: Prozvan je i ( is Called Out; 1962) and Krvava bajka (A Bloody Fairy Tale''; 1969), named after the eponymous poem.
See also
List of massacres in Yugoslavia
Notes
Footnotes
References
1941 in Serbia
Antiziganism in Europe
Collective punishment
Kragujevac
Mass murder in 1941
Massacres in 1941
Massacres in Serbia
Massacres in Yugoslavia
Massacres of men
Massacres of Serbs
Nazi war crimes in Serbia
October 1941 events
The Holocaust
Serbia under German occupation
Violence against men in Europe
World War II massacres
War crimes of the Wehrmacht
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price%20of%20oil
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Price of oil
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The price of oil, or the oil price, generally refers to the spot price of a barrel () of benchmark crude oil—a reference price for buyers and sellers of crude oil such as West Texas Intermediate (WTI), Brent Crude, Dubai Crude, OPEC Reference Basket, Tapis crude, Bonny Light, Urals oil, Isthmus, and Western Canadian Select (WCS). Oil prices are determined by global supply and demand, rather than any country's domestic production level.
The global price of crude oil was relatively consistent in the nineteenth century and early twentieth century. This changed in the 1970s, with a significant increase in the price of oil globally.
There have been a number of structural drivers of global oil prices historically, including oil supply, demand, and storage shocks, and shocks to global economic growth affecting oil prices.
Notable events driving significant price fluctuations include the 1973 OPEC oil embargo targeting nations that had supported Israel during the Yom Kippur War, resulting in the 1973 oil crisis, the Iranian Revolution in the 1979 oil crisis, the financial crisis of 2007–2008, and the more recent 2013 oil supply glut that led to the "largest oil price declines in modern history" in 2014 to 2016. The 70% decline in global oil prices was "one of the three biggest declines since World War II, and the longest lasting since the supply-driven collapse of 1986."
By 2015, the United States had become the third-largest producer of oil and resumed exporting oil upon repeal of its 40-year export ban.
The 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war resulted in a 65% decline in global oil prices at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic. In 2021, the record-high energy prices were driven by a global surge in demand as the world recovered from the COVID-19 recession. By December 2021, an unexpected rebound in the demand for oil from United States, China and India, coupled with U.S. shale industry investors' "demands to hold the line on spending", has contributed to "tight" oil inventories globally. On 18 January 2022, as the price of Brent crude oil reached its highest since 2014—$88, concerns were raised about the rising cost of gasoline—which hit a record high in the United Kingdom.
Structural drivers of global oil price
According to Our World in Data, in the nineteenth and early twentieth century the global crude oil prices were "relatively consistent." In the 1970s, there was a "significant increase" in the price of oil globally, partially in response to the 1973 and 1979 oil crises. In 1980, globally averaged prices "spiked" to US$107.27.
Historically, there have been a number of factors affecting the global price of oil. These have included the Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries led by Saudi Arabia resulting in the 1973 oil crisis, the Iranian Revolution in the 1979 oil crisis, Iran–Iraq War (1980–88), the 1990 Invasion of Kuwait by Iraq, the 1991 Gulf War, the 1997 Asian financial crisis, the September 11 attacks, the 2002–03 national strike in Venezuela's state-owned oil company Petróleos de Venezuela, S.A. (PDVSA), Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the 2007–08 global financial collapse (GFC), OPEC's 2009 cut in oil production, the Arab Spring 2010s uprisings in Egypt and Libya, the ongoing Syrian civil war (2011–present), and the 2013 oil supply glut that led to the "largest oil price declines in modern history" in 2014 to 2016. The 70% decline in global oil prices was "one of the three biggest declines since World War II, and the longest lasting since the supply-driven collapse of 1986." By 2015 the United States was the 3rd-largest producer of oil moving from importer to exporter. The 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war resulted in a 65% decline in global oil prices at the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Structural drivers affecting historical global oil prices include are "oil supply shocks, oil-market-specific demand shocks, storage demand shocks", "shocks to global economic growth", and "speculative demand for oil stocks above the ground".
Analyses of oil price fluctuations
Oil prices are determined by global forces of supply and demand, according to the classical economic model of price determination in microeconomics. The demand for oil is highly dependent on global macroeconomic conditions. According to the International Energy Agency, high oil prices generally have a large negative impact on global economic growth.
In response to the 1973 oil crisis, in 1974, the RAND Corporation presented a new economic model of the global oil market that included four sectors—"crude production, transportation, refining, and consumption of products" and these regions—United States, Canada, Latin America, Europe, the Middle East and Africa, and Asia. The study listed exogenous variables that can affect the price of oil: "regional supply and demand equations, the technology of refining, and government policy variables". Based on these exogenous variables, their proposed economic model would be able to determine the "levels of consumption, production, and price for each commodity in each region, the pattern of world trade flows, and the refinery capital structure and output in each region".
A system dynamics economic model of oil price determination "integrates various factors affecting" the dynamics of the price of oil, according to a 1992 European Journal of Operational Research article.
A widely cited 2008 The Review of Economics and Statistics, article by Lutz Killian, examined the extent to which "exogenous oil supply shocks"—such as the Iranian revolution (1978–1979), Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988), Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), Iraq War (2003), Civil unrest in Venezuela (2002–2003), and perhaps the Yom Kippur War/Arab oil embargo (1973–1974)"—explain changes in the price of oil." Killian stated that, by 2008, there was "widespread recognition" that "oil prices since 1973 must be considered endogenous with respect to global macroeconomic conditions," but Kilian added that these "standard theoretical models of the transmission of oil price shocks that maintain that everything else remains fixed, as the real price of imported crude oil increases, are misleading and must be replaced by models that allow for the endogenous determination of the price of oil." Killian found that there was "no evidence that the 1973–1974 and 2002–2003 oil supply shocks had a substantial impact on real growth in any G7 country, whereas the 1978–1979, 1980, and 1990–1991 shocks contributed to lower growth in at least some G7 countries."
A 2019 Bank of Canada (BOC) report, described the usefulness of a structural vector autoregressive (SVAR) model for conditional forecasts of global GDP growth and oil consumption in relation to four types of oil shocks. The structural vector autoregressive model was proposed by the American econometrician and macroeconomist Christopher A. Sims in 1982 as an alternative statistical framework model for macroeconomists. According to the BOC report—using the SVAR model—"oil supply shocks were the dominant force during the 2014–15 oil price decline".
By 2016, despite improved understanding of oil markets, predicting oil price fluctuations remained a challenge for economists, according to a 2016 article in the Journal of Economic Perspectives , which was based on an extensive review of academic literature by economists on "all major oil price fluctuations between 1973 and 2014".
A 2016 article in the Oxford Institute for Energy Studies describes how analysts offered differing views on why the price of oil had decreased 55% from "June 2014 to January 2015" following "four years of relative stability at around US$105 per barrel". A 2015 World Bank report said that the low prices "likely marks the end of the commodity supercycle that began in the early 2000s" and they expected prices to "remain low for a considerable period of time".
Goldman Sachs, for example, has called this structural shift, the "New Oil Order"—created by the U.S. shale revolution. Goldman Sachs said that this structural shift was "reshaping global energy markets and bringing with it a new era of volatility" by "impacting markets, economies, industries and companies worldwide" and will keep the price of oil lower for a prolonged period. Others say that this cycle is like previous cycles and that prices will rise again.
A 2020 Energy Economics article confirmed that the "supply and demand of global crude oil and the financial market" continued to be the major factors that affected the global price of oil. The researchers using a new Bayesian structural time series model, found that shale oil production continued to increase its impact on oil price but it remained "relatively small".
Benchmark pricing
Major benchmark references, or pricing markers, include Brent, WTI, the OPEC Reference Basket (ORB)—introduced on 16 June 2005 and is made up of Saharan Blend (from Algeria), Girassol (from Angola), Oriente (from Ecuador), Rabi Light (from Gabon), Iran Heavy (from Iran), Basra Light (from Iraq), Kuwait Export (from Kuwait), Es Sider (from Libya), Bonny Light (from Nigeria), Qatar Marine (from Qatar), Arab Light (from Saudi Arabia), Murban (from UAE), and Merey (from Venezuela), Dubai Crude, and Tapis Crude (Singapore).
In North America the benchmark price refers to the spot price of West Texas Intermediate (WTI), also known as Texas Light Sweet, a type of crude oil used as a benchmark in oil pricing and the underlying commodity of New York Mercantile Exchange's oil futures contracts. WTI is a light crude oil, lighter than Brent Crude oil. It contains about 0.24% sulfur, rating it a sweet crude, sweeter than Brent. Its properties and production site make it ideal for being refined in the United States, mostly in the Midwest and Gulf Coast regions. WTI has an API gravity of around 39.6 (specific gravity approx. 0.827) per barrel (159 liters) of either WTI/light crude as traded on the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) for delivery at Cushing, Oklahoma. Cushing, Oklahoma, a major oil supply hub connecting oil suppliers to the Gulf Coast, has become the most significant trading hub for crude oil in North America.
In Europe and some other parts of the world, the price of the oil benchmark is Brent Crude as traded on the Intercontinental Exchange (ICE, into which the International Petroleum Exchange has been incorporated) for delivery at Sullom Voe. Brent oil is produced in coastal waters (North Sea) of UK and Norway. The total consumption of crude oil in UK and Norway is more than the oil production in these countries. So Brent crude market is very opaque with very low oil trade physically. Brent price is used widely to fix the prices of crude oil, LPG, LNG, natural gas, etc. trade globally including Middle East crude oils.
There is a differential in the price of a barrel of oil based on its grade—determined by factors such as its specific gravity or API gravity and its sulfur content—and its location—for example, its proximity to tidewater and refineries. Heavier, sour crude oils lacking in tidewater access—such as Western Canadian Select—are less expensive than lighter, sweeter oil—such as WTI.
The Energy Information Administration (EIA) uses the imported refiner acquisition cost, the weighted average cost of all oil imported into the US, as its "world oil price".
Global oil prices: a chronology
The price of oil remained "relatively consistent" from 1861 until the 1970s. In Daniel Yergin's 1991 Pulitzer prize-winning book The Prize: The Epic Quest for Oil, Money, and Power, Yergin described how the "oil-supply management system"—which had been run by "international oil companies"—had "crumbled" in 1973. Yergin states that the role of Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)—which had been established in 1960, by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela— in controlling the price of oil, was dramatically changed. Since 1927, a cartel known as the "Seven Sisters"—five of which were headquartered in the United States—had been controlling posted prices since the so-called 1927 Red Line Agreement and 1928 Achnacarry Agreement, and had achieved a high level of price stability until 1972, according to Yergin.
There were two major energy crisis in the 1970s: the 1973 oil crisis and the 1979 energy crisis that affected the price of oil. Starting in the early 1970s—when domestic production of oil was insufficient to satisfy increasing domestic demands—the US had become increasingly dependent on oil imports from the Middle East. Until the early 1970s, the price of oil in the United States was regulated domestically and indirectly by the Seven Sisters. The "magnitude" of the increase in the price of oil following OPEC's 1973 embargo in reaction to the Yom Kippur War and the 1979 Iranian Revolution, was without precedent. In the 1973 Yom Kippur War, a coalition of Arab states led by Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. During the ensuing 1973 oil crisis, the Arab oil-producing states began to embargo oil shipments to Western Europe and the United States in retaliation for supporting Israel. Countries, including the United States, Germany, Japan, and Canada began to establish their own national energy programs that were focused on security of supply of oil, as the newly formed Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) doubled the price of oil.
During the 1979 oil crisis, the global oil supply was "constrained" because of the 1979 Iranian Revolution—the price of oil "more than doubled", then began to decline in "real terms from 1980 onwards, eroding OPEC's power over the global economy," according to The Economist.
The 1970s oil crisis gave rise to speculative trading and the WTI crude oil futures markets.
In the early 1980s, concurrent with the OPEC embargo, oil prices experienced a "rapid decline." In early 2007, the price of oil was US$50. In 1980, globally averaged prices "spiked" to US$107.27, and reached its all-time peak of US$147 in July 2008.
The 1980s oil glut was caused by non-OPEC countries—such as the United States and Britain—increasing their oil production, which resulted in a decrease in the price of oil in the early 1980s, according to The Economist. When OPEC changed their policy to increase oil supplies in 1985, "oil prices collapsed and remained low for almost two decades", according to a 2015 World Bank report.
In 1983, the New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX) launched crude oil futures contracts, and the London-based International Petroleum Exchange (IPE)—acquired by Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) in 2005— launched theirs in June 1988.
The price of oil reached a peak of c. US$65 during the 1990 Persian Gulf crisis and war. The 1990 oil price shock occurred in response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, according to the Brookings Institution.
There was a period of global recessions and the price of oil hit a low of before it peaked at a high of $45 on 11 September 2001, the day of the September 11 attacks, only to drop again to a low of $26 on 8 May 2003.
The price rose to $80 with the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq.
There were major energy crises in the 2000s including the 2010s oil glut with changes in the world oil market.
Starting in 1999, the price of oil rose significantly. It was explained by the rising oil demand in countries like China and India. A dramatic increase from US$50 in early 2007, to a peak of US$147 in July 2008, was followed by a decline to US$34 in December 2008, as the financial crisis of 2007–2008 took hold.
By May 2008, The United States was consuming approximately 21 million bpd and importing about 14 million bpd—60% with OPEC supply 16% and Venezuela 10%. In the middle of the financial crisis of 2007–2008, the price of oil underwent a significant decrease after the record peak of US$147.27 it reached on 11 July 2008. On 23 December 2008, WTI crude oil spot price fell to US$30.28 a barrel, the lowest since the financial crisis of 2007–2008 began. The price sharply rebounded after the crisis and rose to US$82 a barrel in 2009.
On 31 January 2011, the Brent price hit $100 a barrel briefly for the first time since October 2008, on concerns that the 2011 Egyptian protests would "lead to the closure of the Suez Canal and disrupt oil supplies". For about three and half years the price largely remained in the $90–$120 range.
From 2004 to 2014, OPEC was setting the global price of oil. OPEC started setting a target price range of $100–110/bbl before the 2008 financial crisis —by July 2008 the price of oil had reached its all-time peak of US$147 before it plunged to US$34 in December 2008, during the financial crisis of 2007–2008. Some commentators including Business Week, the Financial Times and the Washington Post, argued that the rise in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was due to speculation in futures markets.
Up until 2014, the dominant factor on the price of oil was from the demand side—from "China and other emerging economies".
By 2014, production from unconventional reservoirs through hydraulic fracturing in the United States and oil production in Canada, caused oil production to surge globally "on a scale that most oil exporters had not anticipated" resulting in "turmoil in prices." The United States oil production was greater than that of Russia and Saudi Arabia, and according to some, broke OPEC's control of the price of oil. In the middle of 2014, price started declining due to a significant increase in oil production in USA, and declining demand in the emerging countries. According to Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, in 2014–2015, Saudi Arabia flooded the market with inexpensive crude oil in a failed attempted to slow down US shale oil production, and caused a "positive supply shock" which saved consumers about US$2 trillion and "benefited the world economy".
During 2014–2015, OPEC members consistently exceeded their production ceiling, and China experienced a marked slowdown in economic growth. At the same time, U.S. oil production nearly doubled from 2008 levels, due to substantial improvements in shale "fracking" technology in response to record oil prices. A combination of factors led a plunge in U.S. oil import requirements and a record high volume of worldwide oil inventories in storage, and a collapse in oil prices that continues into 2016. Between June 2014 and January 2015, according to the World Bank, the collapse in the price of oil was the third largest since 1986.
In early 2015, the US oil price fell below $50 per barrel dragging Brent oil to just below $50 as well.
The 2010s oil glut—caused by multiple factors—spurred a sharp downward spiral in the price of oil that continued through February 2016. By 3 February 2016 oil was below $30— a drop of "almost 75% since mid-2014 as competing producers pumped 1–2 million barrels of crude daily exceeding demand, just as China's economy hit lowest growth in a generation." The North Sea oil and gas industry was financially stressed by the reduced oil prices, and called for government support in May 2016. According to a report released on 15 February 2016 by Deloitte LLP—the audit and consulting firm—with global crude oil at near ten-year low prices, 35% of listed E&P oil and gas companies are at a high risk of bankruptcy worldwide. Indeed, bankruptcies "in the oil and gas industry could surpass levels seen in the Great Recession."
The global average price of oil dropped to US$43.73 per barrel in 2016.
By December 2018, OPEC members controlled approximately 72% of total world proved oil reserves, and produced about 41% of the total global crude oil supply. In June 2018, OPEC reduced production. In late September and early October 2018, the price of oil rose to a four-year high of over $80 for the benchmark Brent crude in response to concerns about constraints on global supply. The production capacity in Venezuela had decreased. United States sanctions against Iran, OPEC's third-biggest oil producer, were set to be restored and tightened in November.
The price of oil dropped in November 2018 because of a number of factors, including "rising petro-nations’ oil production, the U.S. shale oil boom, and swelling North American oil inventories," according to Market Watch.
The 1 November 2018 U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) report announced that the US had become the "leading crude oil producer in the world" when it hit a production level of 11.3 million barrels per day (bpd) in August 2018, mainly because of its shale oil production. US exports of petroleum—crude oil and products—exceeded imports in September and October 2019, "for the first time on record, based on monthly values since 1973."
When the price of Brent oil dropped rapidly in November 2018 to $58.71, more than 30% from its peak,—the biggest 30-day drop since 2008—factors included increased oil production in Russia, some OPEC countries and the United States, which deepened global over supply.
In 2019 the average price of Brent crude oil in 2019 was $64, WTI crude oil was $57, the OPEC Reference Basket (ORB) of 14 crudes was $59.48 a barrel.
In 2020, the economic turmoil caused by the COVID-19 recession, included severe impacts on crude oil markets, which caused a large stock market fall. The substantial decrease in the price of oil was caused by two main factors: the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war and the COVID-19 pandemic, which lowered demand for oil because of lockdowns around the world.
The IHS Market reported that the "COVID-19 demand shock" represented a bigger contraction than that experienced during the Great Recession during the late 2000s and early 2010s. As demand for oil dropped to 4.5m million bpd below forecasts, tensions rose between OPEC members. At a 6 March OPEC meeting in Vienna, major oil producers were unable to agree on reducing oil production in response to the global COVID-19 pandemic. The spot price of WTI benchmark crude oil on the NYM on 6 March 2020 dropped to US$42.10 per barrel. On 8 March, the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war was launched, in which Saudi Arabia and Russia briefly flooded the market, also contributed to the decline in global oil prices. Later on the same day, oil prices had decreased by 30%, representing the largest one-time drop since the 1991 Gulf War. Oil traded at about $30 a barrel. Very few energy companies can produce oil when the price of oil is this low. Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq had the lowest production costs in 2016, while the United Kingdom, Brazil, Nigeria, Venezuela, and Canada had the highest. On 9 April, Saudi Arabia and Russia agreed to oil production cuts.
By April 2020 the price of WTI dropped by 80%, down to a low of about $5. As the demand for fuel decreased globally with pandemic-related lockdowns preventing travel, and due to excessive demand for storage of the large surplus in production, the price for future delivery of US crude in May became negative on 20 April 2020, the first time to happen since the New York Mercantile Exchange began trading in 1983. In April, as the demand decreased, concerns about inadequate storage capacity resulted in oil firms "renting tankers to store the surplus supply". An October Bloomberg report on slumping oil prices—citing the EIA among others—said that, with the increasing number of virus cases, the demand for gasoline—particularly in the United States—was "particularly worrisome", while global inventories remained "quite high".
With the price of WTI at a record low, and 2019 Chinese 5% import tariff on U.S. oil lifted by China in May 2020, China began to import large quantities of US crude oil, reaching a record high of 867,000 bpd in July.
According to a January 2020 EIA report, the average price of Brent crude oil in 2019 was $64 per barrel compared to $71 per barrel in 2018. The average price of WTI crude oil was $57 per barrel in 2019 compared to $64 in 2018. On 20 April 2020, WTI Crude futures contracts dropped below $0 for the first time in history, and the following day Brent Crude fell below $20 per barrel. The substantial decrease in the price of oil was caused by two main factors: the 2020 Russia–Saudi Arabia oil price war and the COVID-19 pandemic, which lowered demand for oil because of lockdowns around the world. In the fall of 2020, against the backdrop of the resurgent pandemic, the U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA) reported that global oil inventories remained "quite high" while demand for gasoline—particularly in the United States—was "particularly worrisome." The price of oil was about US$40 by mid-October. In 2021, the record-high energy prices were driven by a global surge in demand as the world quit the economic recession caused by COVID-19, particularly due to strong energy demand in Asia.
The ongoing 2019–2021 Persian Gulf crisis, which includes the use of drones to attack Saudi Arabia's oil infrastructure, has made the Gulf states aware of their vulnerability. Former US President "Donald Trump's 'maximum pressure' campaign led Iran to sabotage oil tankers in the Persian Gulf and supply drones and missiles for a surprise strike on Saudi oil facilities in 2019." In January 2022, Yemen's Houthi rebels drone attacks destroyed oil tankers in Abu Dhabi prompting concerns about further increases in the price of oil.
The oil prices were seen rising to hit $71.38 per barrel in March 2021, marking the highest since the beginning of the pandemic in January 2020. The oil price rise followed a missile drone attack on Saudi Arabia's Aramco oil facility by Yemen’s Houthi rebels. The United States said it was committed to defending Saudi Arabia.
On 5 October 2021, crude oil prices reached a multiyear high but retreated by 2% the following day. The price of crude was on the rise since June 2021, after a statement by a top US diplomat that even with a nuclear deal with Iran, hundreds of economic sanctions would remain in place. Since September 2021, Europe's energy crisis has been worsening, driven by high crude prices and a scarcity of Russian gas on the continent.
The high price of oil in late 2021, which resulted in US gasoline pump prices that rose by over $1 a gallon—a seven-year high—added pressure to the United States, which has extensive reserves of oil and has been one of the world's largest producers of oil since at least 2018. One of the major factors in the US refraining from increased oil production is related to "investor demands for higher financial returns". Another factor as described by Forbes, is 'backwardation'—when oil futures markets see the current price of $85+ as higher than what they can anticipate in the months and years in the future. If investors perceive lower future prices, they will not invest in "new drilling and fracking."
By mid-January 2022, Reuters raised concerns that an increase in the price of oil to $100—which seemed to be imminent—would worsen the inflationary environment that was already breaking 30-year-old records. Central banks were concerned that higher energy prices would contribute to a "wage-price spiral." The European Union (EU) embargo of Russian seaborne oil, in response to the Russian invasion of Ukraine in February, 2022, was one—but not the only—factor in the increase in the global price of oil, according to The Economist. When the EU added new restrictions to Russia's oil on May 30, there was a dramatic increase in the price of Brent crude to over $120 a barrel. Other factors affecting the surge in the price of oil included the tight oil market combined with a "robust demand" for energy as travel increased following the easing of coronavirus restrictions. At the same time, the United States was experiencing decreased refinery capacity which led to higher prices for petrol and diesel. In a effort to lower energy prices and to curb inflation, President Biden announced on March 31, 2022, that he would be releasing a million bbl/d from the Strategic Petroleum Reserve (SPR). Bloomberg described how the price of oil, gas and other commodities had risen driven by a global "resurgence in demand" as COVID-19 restrictions were eased, combined with supply chains problems, and "geopolitical tensions".
In March 2023, oil prices dropped over $2 a barrel on the 14th following the Collapse of Silicon Valley Bank. The bank's collapse sent a tremor through various financial sectors, from banking to the oil industry.
Oil-storage trade (contango)
The oil-storage trade, also referred to as contango, a market strategy in which large, often vertically integrated oil companies purchase oil for immediate delivery and storage—when the price of oil is low— and hold it in storage until the price of oil increases. Investors bet on the future of oil prices through a financial instrument, oil futures in which they agree on a contract basis, to buy or sell oil at a set date in the future. Crude oil is stored in salt mines, tanks and oil tankers.
Investors can choose to take profits or losses prior to the oil-delivery date arrives. Or they can leave the contract in place and physical oil is "delivered on the set date" to an "officially designated delivery point", in the United States, that is usually Cushing, Oklahoma. When delivery dates approach, they close out existing contracts and sell new ones for future delivery of the same oil. The oil never moves out of storage. If the forward market is in "contango"—the forward price is higher than the current spot price—the strategy is very successful.
Scandinavian Tank Storage AB and its founder Lars Jacobsson introduced the concept on the market in early 1990. But it was in 2007 through 2009 the oil storage trade expanded, with many participants—including Wall Street giants, such as Morgan Stanley, Goldman Sachs, and Citicorp—turning sizeable profits simply by sitting on tanks of oil. By May 2007 Cushing's inventory fell by nearly 35% as the oil-storage trade heated up.
By the end of October 2009 one in twelve of the largest oil tankers was being used more for temporary storage of oil, rather than transportation.
From June 2014 to January 2015, as the price of oil dropped 60% and the supply of oil remained high, the world's largest traders in crude oil purchased at least 25 million barrels to store in supertankers to make a profit in the future when prices rise. Trafigura, Vitol, Gunvor, Koch, Shell and other major energy companies began to book oil storage supertankers for up to 12 months. By 13 January 2015 At least 11 Very Large Crude Carriers (VLCC) and Ultra Large Crude Carriers (ULCC)" have been reported as booked with storage options, rising from around five vessels at the end of last week. Each VLCC can hold 2 million barrels."
In 2015 as global capacity for oil storage was out-paced by global oil production, and an oil glut occurred. Crude oil storage space became a tradable commodity with CME Group— which owns NYMEX— offering oil-storage futures contracts in March 2015. Traders and producers can buy and sell the right to store certain types of oil.
By 5 March 2015, as oil production outpaces oil demand by 1.5 million bpd, storage capacity globally is dwindling. In the United States alone, according to data from the Energy Information Administration, U.S. crude-oil supplies are at almost 70% of the U. S. storage capacity, the highest to capacity ratio since 1935.
In 2020, rail and road tankers and decommissioned oil pipe lines are also being used to store crude oil for contango trade. For the WTI crude to be delivered in May 2020, the price had fallen to -$40 per bbl (i.e. buyers would be paid by the sellers for taking delivery of crude oil) due to lack of storage/expensive storage. LNG carriers and LNG tanks can also be used for long duration crude oil storage purpose since LNG can not be stored long term due to evaporation. Frac tanks are also used to store crude oil deviating from their normal use.
Comparative cost of production
In their May 2019 comparison of the "cost of supply curve update" in which the Norway-based Rystad Energy—an "independent energy research and consultancy"—ranked the "worlds total recoverable liquid resources by their breakeven price", they listed the "Middle East onshore market" as the "cheapest source of new oil volumes globally" with the "North American tight oil"—which includes onshore shale oil in the United States—in second place. The breakeven price for North American shale oil was US$68 a barrel in 2015, making it one of the most expensive to produce. By 2019, the "average Brent breakeven price for tight oil was about US$46 per barrel. The breakeven price of oil from Saudi Arabia and other Middle Eastern countries was US$42, in comparison.
Rystad reported that the average breakeven price for oil from the oil sands was US$83 in 2019, making it the most expensive to produce, compared to all other "significant oil producing regions" in the world. The International Energy Agency made similar comparisons.
In 2016, the Wall Street Journal reported that the United Kingdom, Brazil, Nigeria, Venezuela, and Canada had the costliest production. Saudi Arabia, Iran, and Iraq had the cheapest.
Future projections
Peak oil is the period when the maximum rate of global petroleum extraction is reached, after which the rate of production enters terminal decline. It relates to a long-term decline in the available supply of petroleum. This, combined with increasing demand, will significantly increase the worldwide prices of petroleum derived products. Most significant will be the availability and price of liquid fuel for transportation.
The US Department of Energy in the Hirsch report indicates that "The problems associated with world oil production peaking will not be temporary, and past "energy crisis" experience will provide relatively little guidance."
Global annual crude oil production (including shale oil, oil sands, lease condensate and gas plant condensate but excluding liquid fuels from other sources such as natural gas liquids, biomass and derivatives of coal and natural gas) increased from in 2008 to per day in 2018 with a marginal annual growth rate of 1%. During the year 2020 crude oil consumption is expected to decrease from earlier year due to Coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic.
Impact of rising oil price
The rising oil prices could negatively impact the world economy. One example of the negative impact on the world economy, is the effect on the supply and demand. High Oil prices indirectly increase the cost of producing many products thus causing increased prices to the consumer. Since supplies of petroleum and natural gas are essential to modern agriculture techniques, a fall in global oil supplies could cause spiking food prices in the coming decades. One reason for the increase in food prices in 2007–08 may be the increase in oil prices during the same period.
Bloomberg warned that the world economy, which was already experiencing an inflationary "shock", would worsen with oil priced at $100 in February 2022. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) described how a combination of the "soaring" price of commodities, imbalances in supply and demand, followed by pressures related to the Russian invasion of Ukraine, resulted in monetary policies being tightened by central banks, as some inflation in some countries broke 40-year-old record highs. The IMF also cautioned that there was a potential for social unrest in poorer nations as the price of food and fuel increases.
Impact of declining oil price
A major rise or decline in oil price can have both economic and political impacts. The decline on oil price during 1985–1986 is considered to have contributed to the fall of the Soviet Union. Low oil prices could alleviate some of the negative effects associated with the resource curse, such as authoritarian rule and gender inequality. Lower oil prices could however also lead to domestic turmoil and diversionary war. The reduction in food prices that follows lower oil prices could have positive impacts on violence globally.
Research shows that declining oil prices make oil-rich states less bellicose. Low oil prices could also make oil-rich states engage more in international cooperation, as they become more dependent on foreign investments. The influence of the United States reportedly increases as oil prices decline, at least judging by the fact that "both oil importers and exporters vote more often with the United States in the United Nations General Assembly" during oil slumps.
The macroeconomics impact on lower oil prices is lower inflation. A lower inflation rate is good for the consumers. This means that the general price of a basket of goods would increase at a bare minimum on a year to year basis. Consumer can benefit as they would have a better purchasing power, which may improve real gdp. However, in recent countries like Japan, the decrease in oil prices may cause deflation and it shows that consumers are not willing to spend even though the prices of goods are decreasing yearly, which indirectly increases the real debt burden. Declining oil prices may boost consumer oriented stocks but may hurt oil-based stocks. It is estimated that 17–18% of S&P would decline with declining oil prices.
It has also been argued that the collapse in oil prices in 2015 should be very beneficial for developed western economies, who are generally oil importers and aren't over exposed to declining demand from China. In the Asia-Pacific region, exports and economic growth were at significant risk across economies reliant on commodity exports as an engine of growth. The most vulnerable economies were those with a high dependence on fuel and mineral exports to China, such as: Korea DPR, Mongolia and Turkmenistan—where primary commodity exports account for 59–99% of total exports and more than 50% of total exports are destined to China. The decline in China's demand for commodities also adversely affected the growth of exports and GDP of large commodity-exporting economies such as Australia (minerals) and the Russian Federation (fuel). On the other hand, lower commodity prices led to an improvement in the trade balance—through lower the cost of raw materials and fuels—across commodity importing economies, particularly Cambodia, Kyrgyzstan, Nepal and other remote island nations (Kiribati, Maldives, Micronesia (F.S), Samoa, Tonga, and Tuvalu) which are highly dependent on fuel and agricultural imports.
The oil importing economies like EU, Japan, China or India would benefit, however the oil producing countries would lose. A Bloomberg article presents results of an analysis by Oxford Economics on the GDP growth of countries as a result of a drop from $84 to $40. It shows the GDP increase between 0.5% to 1.0% for India, USA and China, and a decline of greater than 3.5% from Saudi Arabia and Russia. A stable price of $60 would add 0.5 percentage point to global gross domestic product.
Katina Stefanova has argued that falling oil prices do not imply a recession and a decline in stock prices. Liz Ann Sonders, Chief Investment Strategist at Charles Schwab, had earlier written that that positive impact on consumers and businesses outside of the energy sector, which is a larger portion of the US economy will outweigh the negatives.
While President Trump said in 2018, that the lower price of oil was like a "big Tax Cut for America and the World", The Economist said that rising oil prices had a negative impact on oil-importing countries in terms of international trade. Import prices rise in relation to their exports. The importing country's current account deficits widen because "their exports pay for fewer imports".
Speculative trading and crude oil futures
In the wake of the 1970s oil crisis, speculative trading in crude oil and crude oil futures in the commodity markets emerged.
NYMEX launched crude oil futures contracts in 1983, and the IPE launched theirs in June 1988. Global crude oil prices began to be published through NYMEX and IPE crude oil futures market. Volatility in crude oil prices can cause problems for the global economy. These crude oil futures contracts helped mitigate the "economic hazards of international crude oil spot price fluctuations". By 2019, NYMEX and ICE had become "representative of the world crude oil futures market"—an important factor in the world economy. Crude oil futures bring some uncertainty to the market and contribute to crude oil price fluctuations.
By 2008, there were a number of widely traded oil futures market listings. Some of the big multinational oil companies actively participate in crude oil trading applying their market perception to make profit.
Speculation during the 2007–2008 financial crisis
According to a U.S. Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) 29 May 2008 report the "Multiple Energy Market Initiatives" was launched in partnership with the United Kingdom Financial Services Authority and ICE Futures Europe in order to expand surveillance and information sharing of various futures contracts. Part 1 is "Expanded International Surveillance Information for Crude Oil Trading." This announcement received wide coverage in the financial press, with speculation about oil futures price manipulation. In June 2008 Business Week reported that the surge in oil prices prior to the financial crisis of 2008 had led some commentators to argue that at least some of the rise was due to speculation in the futures markets. The July 2008 interim report by the Interagency Task Force found that speculation had not caused significant changes in oil prices and that the increase in oil prices between January 2003 and June 2008 [were] largely due to fundamental supply and demand factors." The report found that the primary reason for the price increases was that the world economy had expanded at its fastest pace in decades, resulting in substantial increases in the demand for oil, while the oil production grew sluggishly, compounded by production shortfalls in oil-exporting countries.
The report stated that as a result of the imbalance and low price elasticity, very large price increases occurred as the market attempted to balance scarce supply against growing demand, particularly from 2005 to 2008. The report forecast that this imbalance would persist in the future, leading to continued upward pressure on oil prices, and that large or rapid movements in oil prices are likely to occur even in the absence of activity by speculators.
Hedging using oil derivatives
The use of hedging using commodity derivatives as a risk management tool on price exposure to liquidity and earnings, has been long established in North America. Chief Financial Officers (CFOS) use derivatives to dampen, remove or mitigate price uncertainty. Bankers also use hedge funds to more "safely increase leverage to smaller oil and gas companies." However, when not properly used, "derivatives can multiply losses" particularly in North America where investors are more comfortable with higher levels of risk than in other countries.
With the large number of bankruptcies as reported by Deloitte "funding [for upstream oil industry] is shrinking and hedges are unwinding." "Some oil producers are also choosing to liquidate hedges for a quick infusion of cash, a risky bet."
According to John England, the Vice-chairman Deloitte LLP, "Access to capital markets, bankers' support and derivatives protection, which helped smooth an otherwise rocky road, are fast waning...The roughly 175 companies at risk of bankruptcy have more than $150 billion in debt, with the slipping value of secondary stock offerings and asset sales further hindering their ability to generate cash."
To finance exploration and production of the unconventional oil industry in the United States, "hundreds of billions of dollars of capital came from non-bank participants [non-bank buyers of bank energy credits] in leveraged loans that were thought at the time to be low risk. However, with the oil glut that continued into 2016, about a third of oil companies are facing bankruptcy. While investors were aware that there was a risk that the operator might declare bankruptcy, they felt protected because "they had come in at the 'bank' level, where there was a senior claim on the assets [and] they could get their capital returned."
According to a 2012 article in Oil and Gas Financial Journal, "the combination of the development of large resource plays in the US and the emergence of business models designed to ensure consistent dividend payouts to investors has led to the development of more aggressive hedging policies in companies and less restrictive covenants in bank loans."
Institutional investors divesting from oil industry
At the fifth annual World Pensions Forum in 2015, Jeffrey Sachs advised institutional investors to divest from carbon-reliant oil industry firms in their pension fund's portfolio.
COVID impact on oil prices
The COVID-19 pandemic lowered demand for oil because of lockdowns around the world.
On February 10, 2020, oil reached its lowest level in over a year, with the pandemic a major reason. WTI fell 1.5 percent to $49.57, the lowest since January 2019, and Brent dropped 2.2 percent to $53.27, the lowest since December 2018. WTI ended February 28 down more than 16 percent for the week, the most in 11 years, falling 5 percent to $44.76 on February 28. Brent closed at $50.52. Both were the lowest since December 2018. Warmer than usual weather was one reason but the major factor was concerns about economic slowdown due to COVID-19.
With worldwide demand continuing to decline due to COVID-19, oil fell for a fifth straight week at the end of March and any actions taken by Saudi Arabia or Russia would be inconsequential.
In the first quarter, the percentage loss was the worst ever, 66.5 percent for WTI and 65.6 percent for Brent. Then on April 2, WTI jumped 24.7 percent to $25.32 and Brent rose 21 percent to $29.94, the biggest percentage increase in a single day ever, in anticipation of significant production cuts.
On April 20, the front month contract for WTI fell below zero, an unprecedented event. With the contract for May delivery expiring on April 21, the contract for June delivery became the new front month contract; on April 22 after settling at $13.78, WTI was the lowest since the 1990s.
In December 2020 demand appeared likely to rise in China, and a pandemic relief package appeared more likely in the United States, while COVID-19 vaccines became available. WTI ended December 15 the highest since February, and Brent reached the highest since March.
WTI and Brent finished the first week of February 2021 at the highest since January 2020. COVID-19 vaccines were a big reason for positive economic news.
The third week of March ended with the largest loss for a week since October, with COVID-19 increases in Europe a big reason. In April, optimism about the end of the pandemic was a factor in oil price increases.
On August 9 COVID-19 restrictions in China and other parts of Asia threatened to slow demand. WTI reached its lowest level since May. Later in August WTI and Brent had their worst week since October, with concern over the Delta variant a major reason.
In November, with news of a COVID lockdown in Austria and the possibility of more lockdowns in Europe, oil fell and Omicron variant concerns caused more losses later in November. Encouraging news about the effectiveness of vaccines against the Omicron variant helped prices increase for the week for the first time in several weeks by December, though increases in cases due to Omicron led to more losses.
See also
2007–2008 world food price crisis
Asymmetric price transmission
Chronology of world oil market events (1970–2005)
World oil market chronology from 2003
2011–2013 world oil market chronology
2014–2016 world oil market chronology
2017–2019 world oil market chronology
2020–2022 world oil market chronology
2021–2023 global energy crisis
2023–2025 world oil market chronology
Cost competitiveness of fuel sources
Efficient energy use
Elasticity (economics)
Energy crisis
Food vs fuel
Gasoline usage and pricing
Simmons–Tierney bet
Stagflation
Supply and demand
References
External links
Oil price data, Federal Reserve Economic Data
Gasoline and diesel fuel prices in Europe
CME (formerly NYMEX) future prices for light sweet crude, Session Overview.
NYMEX:BZ is the most commonly quoted price for Brent crude oil
Energy Futures Databrowser Current and historical charts of NYMEX energy futures chains.
Live oil prices NYMEX Crude oil price chart
U.S. Energy Information Administration Part of the U.S. Department of Energy, official source of price and other statistical information
Petroleum economics
Oil and gas markets
Pricing
Late modern economic history
Oil phase-out
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5137998
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manam%20language
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Manam language
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Manam is a Kairiru–Manam language spoken mainly on the volcanic Manam Island, northeast of New Guinea.
Phonology
Vowels
Consonants
Allophony
Some vowels become glides in diphthongs, e.g. , > and , > . and are 'weaker' than and , so that the syllable becomes and not
According to Turner, is more and more often realized as , while some older speakers have .
Syllable structure
The Manam syllable is (C)(V1)V(V1)(C1), the only exception is a syllabic .
There are some phonotactic restrictions on the prevalent syllable structure. E.g. V1 cannot be , whereas V must be as long as it is not the syllable's sole vowel. C can be any consonant, whereas C1 must be a nasal consonant.
Stress
Stress is phonemic: 'palm tree', 'seagull'. The stress falls on one of the three last syllables of a word, and stressing the penult syllable is the most common: 'child', 'work'. If the last syllable ends in a nasal consonant, it will be stressed instead: 'your child'. Some inflections and affixes do not alter the stress of the root word: 'he learned' (i- is a 3rd person prefix), 'in the bush' (-lo is a locative suffix).
In the orthography, stressed vowels can be underlined in order to avoid ambiguities. Ie. 'palm tree', 'seagull'.
Syntax
Word order
The basic, unmarked word order in Manam is SOV:
Predicator
Lichtenberk defines the predicator as the primary element within a clause. The predicator of a Manam clause can be realised in a variety of different ways, such as verb phrases Ex. (1), noun phrases Ex. (2), postpositional phrases Ex. (3), numbers Ex. (4), etc.
Ex. (1): verb phrase predicator
Ex. (2): noun phrase predicator
Ex. (3): postpositional phrase predicator
Ex. (4): numeral predicator
Negation
Negation in Manam is primarily expressed using one of two negative markers: and . is used exclusively in direct speech prohibitions; whilst is used for all other cases.
Scope of negation
The use of is primarily categorised by its scope of negation, which further indicates the focus of the clause. The spectrum of scope runs from negating one or more elements within a single clause, to negating an entire clause. The concept of scope of negation can be demonstrated in English: 'I did not go to the party' is an example of a broad scope of negation, i.e. the verb phrase (VP) is negated; therefore, the act of going to the party is negated; 'not one person went to the party' is an example of a narrow scope of negation, i.e. the subject is negated, not the act of going to the party.
Broad scope
A broad scope of negation is expressed in Manam by negating the predicator—this is done so by placing the negative marker before the predicator, as demonstrated in the following examples:
Ex. (5): broad scope negation–1 element
Ex. (6): broad scope negation–2 elements
Ex. (7): broad scope negation–3 elements
Additionally, the negative marker can also function as a predicator of existential and possessive clauses. Compare the following examples:
Ex. (8): negative existential sentence
Ex. (9): negative possessive sentence
Narrow scope
As a general rule, Manam primarily expresses narrow scope negation by placing before the element which is being negated i.e. the object of focused negation within the clause.
Ex. (10): narrow scope negation
In example (10), it is not the act of coming that is being negated; rather the negation is narrowly focused in negating the presence of the brother.
Ex. (11): narrow scope negation
Similarly, in example (11), it is not the act of calling one's name that is being negated, rather the negation focuses the fact that someone was called, but by some other name that was not their own.
Negative quantifiers
Additionally, the negative marker can be used in conjunction with the quantifiers 'one' and 'some' to produce the negative expressions, 'no, not any' and 'no, not any'. These expressions function as attributes within the noun phrases that they modify, as seen in the following examples (NP are enclosed within brackets):
Ex. (12): negation using
Ex. (13): negation using
More specifically, is used to modify noun phrases whose head are mass nouns; comparatively modifies count nouns. Compare the following two examples:
Ex. (14): negative quantifier mass noun
Ex. (15): negative quantifier count noun
Intensified negation
Negation in Manam can be intensified by appending the buffer element –na and the intensifier suffix to , as seen in the following example:
Ex. (16): intensifier suffix
The buffer element , however, is not included when acts as the predicator of a clause, as seen in the following example:
Ex. (17): intensified predicator
Additionally, negation in Manam can be intensified using 'little', as seen in the following example:
Ex. (18): intensifier
Moreover, 'little' can be used in conjunction with within the same clause, as seen in the following example:
Ex. (19): intensifier + suffix
Furthermore, the suffix may be appended to the prohibitive marker (with the presence of the buffer ), as seen in the following example:
Ex. (20): suffix + prohibitive marker
Prohibitions
Manam expresses prohibitions in two basic ways: using finite verbs—defined as verb (phrase) forms that can occur on their own in a main clause; using gerunds and verbal nouns. Lichtenberk defines gerunds as verb nuclei used to indicate 'non-specific' events, whereas verbal nouns are used to indicate ‘specific’ events. Compare the following examples:
Ex. (21): gerund
Ex. (22): verbal noun
Prohibitive constructions with finite verbs
The basic structure of prohibitive constructions using finite verbs is followed by a verb with a realis subject/mood prefix, as seen in the following examples:
Ex. (23): prohibitive construction finite verb
Ex. (24): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ subject NP
Ex. (25): prohibitive construction finite verb w/ direct object NP
Sometimes, however—the subject or direct object NP may occur between and the verb, as in the following example:
Ex. (26): prohibitive construction finite verb
Prohibitive constructions with gerunds and verbal nouns
Prohibitive constructions using gerunds or verbal nouns are formed by placing the prohibitive/negative marker after the gerund or verbal noun, demonstrated in the following example:
Ex. (27): prohibitive construction using gerund/verbal noun
The distinction between using a gerund or a verbal noun is determined by whether the source verb is transitive (verbal noun) or intransitive (gerund).
Additionally, the form 'never mind' may also be used in forming prohibitive constructions using gerunds and verbal nouns. The location of within the clause is more dynamic than the prohibitive/negative marker , as may occur both following or preceding the verbal noun or gerund. Compare the following two examples:
Ex. (28): prohibitive construction using (following)
Ex. (29): prohibitive construction using (preceding)
Indirect prohibitive constructions
The negative marker is used when expressing prohibitions in indirect speech—its behaviour is identical as in its regular usage: is placed before the element which is being negated, as seen in the following example:
Ex. (30): indirect prohibitive construction
Morphology
Number
Manam has an unusual, though regionally common, four-way distinction between singular, dual, paucal, and plural number. Singular and plural are marked on the verb and sometimes on the adjective, but not on the noun.
Pronouns
Reduplication
Reduplication can be either leftward () or rightward (). There is no point in distinguishing 'partial' and 'total' reduplication, since at most two syllables are reduplicated.
Nouns
Rightwards reduplicated nouns can either take on a meaning related to the original word, or function as an agentive marker:
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Adjectives
Here are two examples of how number can be marked on the adjective through the different kinds of reduplication:
Rightward reduplication (singular)
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Leftward reduplication (plural)
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|||the big men
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Verb aspects
The verb
The verb always marks the subject and the mood; these are fused together. Optional suffixes include such things as object, direction, aspectual markers, benefactive and various kinds of intensifiers and quantifiers.
Here is a schematical overview of the Manam verb:
Subject marking
The marking of subject is obligatory. In addition to expressing number and person, the pronouns have fused with the mood markers (see below) called realis and irrealis.
Mood
The realis mood () is used for actual events of the past or present, i.e. things that are certain to have happened, things that are "real". Accordingly, the irrealis () mood describes anticipated events in the future, or events that the speaker wishes were real.
Manner prefixes
Manner prefixes are found between the subject/mood marker and the verb root. The manner prefixes describe in what manner the verb action was done, such as 'biting', 'cutting', 'throwing' etc.
Object marking
Transitivization
There are three different morphologically overt methods for turning intransitive verbs into transitive ones:
The prefix can occur between the person/mood marker and the verb root.
The suffix can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
The so-called "transitive consonant" (TC) can occur between the verb root and the outer suffixes.
These methods can be combined.
Optional suffixes
The object suffixes are also optional, but rather common. Here are a few examples of some of the more unusual suffix types:
Direction
Spreading
Intensifying
Benefactive
Adjectives
Most adjectives are derived by reduplication from a verb or a noun. As seen above, some reduplicated adjectives have a number distinction, but some others do not, e.g. 'small' (singular and plural). Some adjectives use the possessive pronouns to mark person and number, e.g. 'selfish' (singular) and 'selfish' (plural).
Possession
As in many other Austronesian languages, Manam expresses different degrees of possession. In addition to the most common differentiation between alienable and inalienable possession, Manam uses a particular morphological processes to describe belongings that are edible or associated with eating.
Possessive pronouns
Inalienable possession
In this class are 'belongings' that are involuntary, such as body parts, family members and different kinds of necessary 'parts of a whole'. This class is characterized by simply a possessive suffix attached to the word in question:
Edible possession
In this class are things that are edible and 'used to obtain, prepare or store food'. This class is characterized by the word , which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:
Alienable possession
In this class are belongings that are voluntary; things that one can cease to own, unlike body parts or family. This class is characterized by the word , which is placed after the possessed thing and to which the possessive suffix is attached:
Cross-class possession
One notable aspect is that the same word can occur in all three possession classes, and then of course its meaning will differ. Here are two examples:
Demonstratives
Manam has two kinds of demonstratives. This two-way system distinguishes between proximal demonstratives, which indicate proximity to a speaker, and distal demonstratives, which indicate distance from a speaker. Both demonstratives occur after the noun phrase. They are formed from the demonstrative marker , followed by either the proximal suffix or the distal marker , followed by either the third-person singular marker -∅ or the third-person plural marker as shown in the table below:
Data from WALS suggests that both the Austronesian and Papuan languages, which are geographically close to the Manam language community, show an approximately even distribution of two-way and three-way distinction systems for demonstratives. In fact, despite Ross's observation that "Schouten family members are … much more closely related to each other than to any other members of the [North New Guinea] Linkage", Kairiru, which like Manam is a member of the Schouten family, shows a three-way distinction in its demonstratives. The reconstructed proto language Proto-Oceanic (POc), from which the Schouten family is descended, was determined to have a three-way distinction system. POc's system is believed to have included an additional demonstrative compared to Manam, the medial demonstrative which indicates an intermediate distance, or proximity to the listener rather than the speaker. However, Manam does show the same noun-demonstrative word order which was reconstructed for POc.
In Manam, the proximal form is often contracted from to . It can also be cliticised to a proceeding word when it is not followed by a suffix. Because the 3sg adnominal suffix has a zero form, can be cliticised for this construction. This means that Examples (1), (2), and (3) are all acceptable ways to construct 'this woman', while example (4) but not Example (5) is an acceptable construction of 'these women'.
It is also acceptable to remove the head noun, for instance in the comparative construction in Example (6).
Selective forms of proximal demonstratives
A selective form can be derived from the proximal demonstrative (but not the distal demonstrative). It is formed by adding the suffix after the proximal marker and before the adnominal suffix, as per Example (7) below, and indicates selection out of a set or group of options.
The selective suffix is optional and is used when it is necessary to express selection explicitly. If not, the basic demonstrative can be used.
Anaphoric usage
Previous examples of the use of the demonstrative in Manam have been exophoric, referring to the world outside of the text. However, they can also be used anaphorically, to reference something previously brought up by a speaker. Although Example (8) below demonstrates that both the proximal and the distal demonstrative can be used anaphorically, the proximal demonstrative is used much more commonly than the distal in this manner.
Usage of the proximal demonstrative as a resumptive pro-form
A second anaphoric use of the proximal demonstrative in Manam is as a resumptive pro-form. In this situation, the proximal demonstrative is used to sum up or resume discussing a topic that has already been spoken about. It can be used in reference to a topic discussed within the same sentence, or in an earlier sentence. When it is used to reference a topic within one sentence, the resumptive pro-form will immediately follow its antecedent as in Example (9).
When the proximal demonstrative is acting as a resumptive pro-form, it usually takes the from or rather than . The singular form is also more common than the plural form. This can be seen in Example (10) where the singular form is used despite the pro-from referring to a group of items.
The resumptive pro-form can be used to reference a clause in order to indicate the time of a second clause, demonstrated by Example (11). It is also commonly used when a noun phrase is modified by a relative clause, as can be seen in Example (12).
It is also often used when a sentence is thematised, and can function similarly to a theme-marker even though it does not meet the requirements to be considered a thematiser. In Example (13) below, ('your mattress') is the theme.
Directional system and spatial deixis
Manam, like most Oceanic languages, primarily uses an absolute reference directional system, even on a local scale, (as opposed to many European languages which primarily use relative reference systems). This system is oriented on a land-sea axis. However, Manam's system is unique because it has taken on a circular nature, becoming intrinsically linked to the geography of the island which is almost perfectly circular. Below are the directional terms associated in Manam:
This directional system has only been attested in three languages: Manam, Boumaa Fijian, and Makian Taba.
The suffix can be added to any of these terms to indicate movement towards that direction, as in Example (3). No suffix is needed to indicate movement away from a direction – this is inferred from the context of the sentence (contrast Examples (1) and (2) with Example (3)).
Spatial deixis
Spatial deixis describes how speakers can 'point out' the location of an object in relationship to their own position. Manam has two main spatial deictical terms. These are ('here') and ('there'). is constructed by suffixing the distal marker to . These two terms are used regardless of which direction the speaker is indicating. If it is necessary to specify direction, this can be done by adding the directional term after the deictical term, as is done in Example (4).
Manam has three additional spatial deixis, which are used to specify spatial relationships in a specific direction. These terms refer to the land-sea directional system described above, and are listed below:
Interestingly, unlike Manam's two-way distinction for demonstratives, these directional spatial deictical terms show the same three-way distinction that was reconstructed for Proto-Oceanic (POc). To indicate an intermediate distance, the distal suffix can be added to each directional spatial deictic. If the object described is so far away as to be out of sight, the spatial dialectical term can be combined with a directional term to indicate extreme distance. This is illustrated in the table below:
Similar to directional terms, to indicate movement towards the most distant directional spatial dialectical terms, the suffix is added as in Example (5). For the less distant terms, no affix is needed, illustrated by Example (6).
Abbreviations
AD:adnominal
BF:buffer
DEMPROX:proximal demonstrative
DL:dual
EXC:exclusive
FOOD:edible
INIR:indefinite irrealis
IP:independent pronoun
IR:irregular
LIM:limiter
PROX:proximte
RESPRO:resumptive pro-form
RP:reflexive-possessive
RL:realis
RPL:reduplication
SEL:selective
SIM:simulative
TC:transitive consonant
TRANS:transitiviser
Resources
Lichtenberk, Frantisek (1983) A grammar of Manam. Oceanic Linguistics Special Publication No. 18. Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press. (Available in JSTOR.)
Turner, Blaine (1986) A teaching grammar of the Manam language
Short description of Manam culture
Paradisec has a number of collections with Manam materials
Crystal, David (2008) A dictionary of linguistics and phonetics. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
References
Languages of Papua New Guinea
Schouten languages
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enchanted%20%28film%29
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Enchanted (film)
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Enchanted is a 2007 American live-action/animated musical fantasy romantic comedy film directed by Kevin Lima and written by Bill Kelly. Co-produced by Walt Disney Pictures, Josephson Entertainment, and Right Coast Productions, the film stars Amy Adams, Patrick Dempsey, James Marsden, Timothy Spall, Idina Menzel, Rachel Covey, and Susan Sarandon, with Julie Andrews as the narrator. It focuses on an archetypal Disney princess-to-be exiled from her animated world into the live-action world of New York City.
The film is both a homage to and a self-parody of Disney's animated features, making numerous references to past works through the combination of live-action filmmaking, traditional animation, and computer-generated imagery. It also marks the return of traditional animation to a Disney feature film after the company's decision to move entirely to computer animation in 2004. Composer Alan Menken and lyricist Stephen Schwartz, who had written songs for previous Disney films, wrote and produced the songs of Enchanted, and Menken also composed the film's score. The animated sequences were produced at James Baxter Animation in Pasadena, while filming of the live-action segments took place around New York City.
Enchanted premiered on October 20, 2007 at the London Film Festival, and went into its wide release in the United States on November 21. It was critically well-received, established Adams as a leading lady, and earned more than $340 million worldwide at the box office. It won three Saturn Awards, Best Fantasy Film, Best Actress for Adams and Best Music for Menken. Enchanted also received two nominations at the 65th Golden Globe Awards and three Best Original Song nominations at the 80th Academy Awards. This is the first Walt Disney Pictures film to be distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures after Disney retired the Buena Vista brand from its distribution division. A sequel, Disenchanted, was released on Disney+ on November 18, 2022.
Plot
In the animated fairy tale kingdom of Andalasia, the corrupt and ruthless Queen Narissa plots to protect her claim to the throne, which she will lose once her stepson, Prince Edward, finds his true love and marries. She enlists her loyal servant Nathaniel to keep Edward distracted by hunting trolls.
Giselle, a young woman, dreams of meeting a prince and experiencing a "happily ever after." She, her chipmunk friend Pip, and animals from the forest work together to make a homemade statue of her true love. Edward hears Giselle singing and sets off to find her. Nathaniel frees a captured troll to kill Giselle, but Edward rescues her. She and Edward are instantly attracted to each other and plan to be married the following day.
Disguised as an old hag, Narissa intercepts Giselle on her way to the wedding and pushes her into a well, where she is transformed into a live-action version of herself and transported to New York City's Times Square in the real world. A frightened Giselle quickly becomes lost.
Meanwhile, Robert Philip, a divorce lawyer, plans to propose to his girlfriend, Nancy. He and his young daughter Morgan encounter Giselle on their way home, and Robert reluctantly allows Giselle to stay in their apartment at the insistence of Morgan, who believes she is a princess.
Pip and Edward embark on a rescue mission to the real world, where they, too, are turned into live-action versions of themselves. Pip, now a real chipmunk, can no longer speak and only communicates through squeaks. Narissa sends Nathaniel to follow and impede Edward. Narissa gives Nathaniel three poisoned apples that will put whoever eats one to sleep until the clock strikes twelve, after which they will die.
Meanwhile, after Giselle summons insects and vermin to clean Robert's apartment, Nancy arrives to take Morgan to school. She meets Giselle and leaves, assuming Robert is unfaithful. He is initially upset, but he spends the day with Giselle, knowing she is vulnerable in the city. She questions Robert about his relationship with Nancy and helps the pair reconcile by sending her flowers and an invitation to a costume ball at the Woolworth Building.
Edward locates Giselle at Robert's apartment. Although he is eager to take her home to Andalasia and marry her, she suggests they should first go on a date and get to know each other better. Giselle promises to return to Andalasia after the ball that night, which Robert and Nancy also attend. Narissa decides to enter the real world and kill Giselle herself after Nathaniel fails twice to poison her.
At the ball, Robert and Giselle dance romantically with each other. Giselle and Edward prepare to depart, but she feels depressed about leaving Robert behind. Narissa appears as the old hag and offers the last poisoned apple to Giselle, promising that it will wipe her memories. She takes a bite and plunges into sleep with mere minutes to live.
Narissa tries escaping with Giselle's body but Edward thwarts her. Realizing that Narissa never cared about him, Nathaniel reveals her plot and apologizes for his previous actions. Robert realizes that true love's kiss is the only force powerful enough to break the apple's curse. Edward's kiss fails to wake Giselle, so he and Nancy prompt Robert to kiss her instead.
When Robert kisses her, she awakens. Infuriated, Narissa transforms into a dragon and takes him hostage. Giselle takes Edward's sword and pursues Narissa to the top of the building to rescue Robert. Pip comes to support Giselle and causes Narissa to fall to her death on the streets below. Robert almost falls as well, but Giselle rescues him, and they share another kiss on the roof.
A happy new life unfolds for everyone, showing Edward and Nancy falling in love and marrying in Andalasia while Nathaniel, who stays in New York, and Pip, who returns to Andalasia, each write autobiographies based on their experiences in the real world. Giselle starts a prevalent fashion design business and then forms a happy family with Robert and Morgan in New York.
Cast
Amy Adams as Giselle: A singing and dancing princess-to-be who ends up almost having her dream of meeting her prince a reality. Adams was announced to have been cast in the role of Giselle on November 14, 2005. Although the studio was looking for a film star in the role, director Kevin Lima insisted on casting a lesser-known actress. Out of the 300 or so actresses who auditioned for the role, Adams stood out to Lima because not only did she look like a Disney princess but her "commitment to the character, her ability to escape into the character's being without ever judging the character was overwhelming". Hailing from Andalasia, Giselle displays similar traits to early Disney Princesses; Lima describes her as "about 80% Snow White, with some traits borrowed from Cinderella and Princess Aurora from Sleeping Beauty... although her spunkiness comes from Ariel from The Little Mermaid". She is "eternally optimistic and romantic" but is also "very independent and true to her convictions". Over the course of the film, she becomes more mature (even stopping her habit of singing in a continuous manner) but maintains her fondness of singing, kindness, innocence and optimism.
Patrick Dempsey as Robert Philip: A cynical Manhattan divorce attorney at Churchill, Harline & Smith LLP who does not believe in true love, happily-ever-after, or fairy tales since his wife left him and their daughter. He falls in love with Giselle after her adventure to New York City, and her sense of fun gradually rubs off on him over the course of the film. Lima cast Dempsey after Disney was satisfied with the casting of Adams but had wanted more well-known actors in the film. Dempsey, whose starring role on TV series Grey's Anatomy had earned him the nickname "McDreamy", was described by Lima as "a modern-day Prince Charming to today's audience". The role was challenging for Dempsey because he had to play the straight man to Adams' and Marsden's more outrageous characters.
James Marsden as Prince Edward: A dim-witted, yet brave, heroic and good-hearted, prince who is baffled by the world of New York once he enters it. Marsden was announced to have been cast on December 6, 2005. At the time Marsden was auditioning, the role of Robert had not been cast but he decided to pursue the role of Prince Edward because he was "more fun and he responded more to that character". Edward is a prince in Andalasia and the stepson of Queen Narissa. He is "very pure, very simple-minded and naive, but innocently narcissistic".
Timothy Spall as Nathaniel: A servant of Queen Narissa, who gets controlled through his infatuation with the Queen and his own lack of self-esteem. He initially does Narissa's bidding, but ultimately realizes her true nature and rebels against her. He has a penchant for disguises.
Idina Menzel as Nancy Tremaine: A fashion designer and Robert's girlfriend. Once Giselle falls in love with Robert, she falls for Edward and leaves with him. Since the role did not require any singing, Menzel said in an interview that "it was a compliment to be asked to just be hired on my acting talents alone". She is named after Lady Tremaine, the stepmother from Cinderella.
Rachel Covey as Morgan Philip: Robert's 6-year-old daughter. Despite her father misunderstanding her and telling her otherwise, she believes in fairy tales and also believes that magic exists.
Susan Sarandon as Queen Narissa: Edward's evil stepmother, a sorceress, and a megalomaniac with a hatred for Giselle simply for being an obstacle for her to keep her power. Sarandon had been attracted to the project prior to Lima's involvement as director. Since Sarandon's on-screen time was relatively short, it took only two weeks to film her scenes. Narissa's mannerisms, characteristics, powers, and physical features were inspired by such classical Disney villainesses as the Evil Queen from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Maleficent from Sleeping Beauty.
Giselle's chipmunk friend Pip is voiced by Jeff Bennett in Andalasia, where he has no trouble expressing himself through speech, while Enchanted director Kevin Lima voices Pip in the real world, where he must communicate through squeaks and charades. Much of Pip's personality were based on Disney sidekicks such as Mushu from Mulan and Timon from The Lion King. The Andalasia cast also includes Lima's daughter Emma Rose Lima as the bluebird and the fawn, Teala Dunn as a bunny and Fred Tatasciore as the troll. Julie Andrews provides the film's narration.
Paige O'Hara and Judy Kuhn make cameo appearances as soap opera character Angela and a pregnant woman Edward encounters, respectively. John Rothman and Jodi Benson portray, respectively, Robert's boss Carl and secretary Sam, while Tonya Pinkins and Isiah Whitlock Jr. portray Phoebe and Ethan Banks, a couple whose divorce Robert is mediating. Marlon Saunders and Jon McLaughlin appear as vocalists who sing "That's How You Know" and "So Close", respectively.
Production
Development
The initial script of Enchanted, written by Bill Kelly, was bought by Disney's Touchstone Pictures and Sonnenfeld/Josephson Productions for a reported sum of $450,000 in September 1997. The script was written for three years, but it was thought to be unsuitable for Walt Disney Pictures because it was "a racier R-rated movie", inspired by the adult-risque comedy movies in the 1980s and 1990s such as Fast Times at Ridgemont High and American Pie. The first draft of the script had Giselle being mistaken for a stripper when she arrives in New York City. To the frustration of Kelly, the screenplay was rewritten several times, first by Rita Hsiao and then by Todd Alcott. The film was initially scheduled to be released in 2002 with Rob Marshall as director but he withdrew due to "creative differences" between the producers and him. In 2001, director Jon Turteltaub was set to direct the film but he left soon after, later working with Disney and Jerry Bruckheimer on the National Treasure franchise. Adam Shankman became the film's director in 2003, while Bob Schooley and Mark McCorkle were hired by Disney to rewrite the script once again. At the time, Disney considered offering the role of Giselle to Kate Hudson or Reese Witherspoon. However, the project did not take off.
On May 25, 2005, Variety reported that Kevin Lima had been hired as director and Bill Kelly had returned to the project to write a new version of the script. Lima worked with Kelly on the script to combine the main plot of Enchanted with the idea of a "loving homage" to Disney's heritage. He created visual storyboard printouts that covered the story of Enchanted from beginning to end, which filled an entire floor of a production building. After Lima showed them to Dick Cook, the chairman of the Walt Disney Studios, he received the green light for the project and a budget of $85 million. Lima began designing the world of Andalasia and storyboarding the movie before a cast was chosen to play the characters. After the actors were hired, he was involved in making the final design of the movie, which made sure the animated characters look like their real-life counterparts.
Filming
Enchanted is the first feature-length Disney live-action/traditional animation hybrid since Disney's Who Framed Roger Rabbit in 1988, though the traditionally animated characters do not interact in the live-action environment in the same method as they did in Roger Rabbit; however, there are some scenes where live-action characters share the screen with two-dimensional animated characters, for example, a live-action Nathaniel communicating with a cel-drawn Narissa, who is in a cooking pot. The film uses two aspect ratios; it begins in 2.35:1 when the Walt Disney Pictures logo and Enchanted storybook are shown, and then switches to a smaller 1.85:1 aspect ratio for the first animated sequence. The film switches back to 2.35:1 when it becomes live-action and never switches back, even for the remainder of the animated sequences. When this movie was aired on televised networks, the beginning of the movie (minus the Walt Disney Pictures logo and opening credits) was shown in the pillarboxed 4:3 aspect ratio; the remainder of the movie was shown in the 16:9 aspect ratio when it becomes live-action. The fullscreen version uses the 4:3 format during the entire movie, while the open matte version retains the letterboxed 1.85:1 format for the first animated sequence then switches to an open matted 1.85:1 format for the rest of the movie when it switches to live-action. Lima oversaw the direction of both the live-action and animation sequences, which were being produced at the same time Enchanted took almost two years to complete. The animation took about a year to finish while the live-action scenes, which commenced filming on location in New York City during the summer of 2006 and were completed during the animation process, were shot in 72 days.
Animation
Out of the film's 107 minutes of running time, ten of the approximately 13 minutes of animation are at the beginning of the film. Lima tried to "cram every single piece of Disney iconic imagery" that he could into the first ten minutes, which were done in traditional cel animation (in contrast to computer-generated 3-D animation) as a tribute to past Disney fairy tale films such as Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, and Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. It was the first Disney film theatrically released in America to feature traditional cel animation since Pooh's Heffalump Movie (2005). This film, although quite different in terms of plot from any previous Disney film, also contained obvious homages to other Disney films of the distant past, such as Old Yeller, The Shaggy Dog, Swiss Family Robinson, Bon Voyage!, and Savage Sam. As most of Disney's traditional animation artists were laid off after the computer graphics boom of the late 1990s, the 13 minutes of animation were not done in-house but by the independent Pasadena-based company James Baxter Animation, founded by former Disney animator Baxter.
Although Lima wanted the animation to be nostalgic, he wanted Enchanted to have a style of its own. Baxter's team decided to use Art Nouveau as a starting point. For Giselle, the hand-drawn animated character had to be "a cross between Amy Adams and a classic Disney princess. And not a caricature." Seeing Giselle as "a forest girl, an innocent nymph with flowers in her hair" and "a bit of a hippie", the animators wanted her to be "flowing, with her hair and clothes. Delicate." For Prince Edward, Baxter's team "worked the hardest on him to make him look like the actor" because princes "in these kinds of movies are usually so bland." Many prototypes were made for Narissa as Baxter's team wanted her face to "look like Susan Sarandon. And the costumes had to align closely to the live-action design."
To maintain continuity between the two media, Lima brought in costume designer Mona May during the early stages of the film's production so the costumes would be aligned in both the animated and live-action worlds. He also shot some live-action footage of Amy Adams as Giselle for the animators to use as reference, which also allowed the physical movement of the character to match in both worlds. Test scenes completed by the animators were shown to the actors, allowing them to see how their animated selves would move.
Live-action
Principal photography began in April 2006 and ended in July. Because of the sequence setting, the live action scenes were filmed in New York City. However, shooting in New York became problematic as it was in a "constant state of new stores, scaffolding and renovation".
The first scene in New York, which features Giselle emerging from a manhole in the middle of Times Square, was filmed on location in the center of the square. Because of the difficulties in controlling the crowd while filming in Times Square, general pedestrians were featured in the scene with hired extras placed in the immediate foreground. Similarly, a crowd gathered to watch as James Marsden and Timothy Spall filmed their scenes in Times Square. However, the scene Lima found the most challenging to shoot was the musical number, "That's How You Know", in Central Park. The five-minute scene took 17 days to finish due to the changing weather, which allowed only seven sunny days for the scene to be filmed. The filming was also hampered at times by Patrick Dempsey's fans. The scene was choreographed by John O'Connell, who had worked on Moulin Rouge! beforehand, and included 300 extras and 150 dancers.
Many scenes were filmed at Steiner Studios, which provided the three large stages that Enchanted needed at the same facility. Other outdoor locations included the Brooklyn Bridge and The Paterno, an apartment building with a curved, heavily embellished, ivory-colored façade located on the corner of Riverside Drive and 116th Street, which is the residence of the film's characters Robert and Morgan.
Costume design
All the costumes in the film were designed by Mona May, who had previously worked on Clueless (1995), The Wedding Singer (1998), and The Haunted Mansion (2003). To create the costumes, May spent one year in pre-production working with animators and her costume department of twenty people, while she contracted with five outside costume shops in Los Angeles and New York City. She became involved in the project during the time when the animators were designing the faces and bodies of the characters as they had to "translate the costumes from two-dimensional drawings to live-action human proportion". Her goal was to keep the designs "Disneyesque to the core but bring a little bit of fashion in there and humor and make it something new". However, May admitted this was difficult "because they're dealing with iconic Disney characters who have been in the psyche of the viewing audience for so long".
For the character of Giselle, her journey to becoming a real woman is reflected in her dresses, which become less fairy tale-like as the film progresses. Her wedding dress at the beginning of the film directly contrasts her modern gown at the end of the film. The wedding dress served to provide a "humongous contrast to the flat drawings" and to accentuate the image of a Disney Princess. In order to make the waist look small, the sleeves are designed to be "extremely pouffy" and the skirt to be as big as possible, which included a metal hoop that holds up twenty layers of petticoats and ruffles. Altogether, eleven versions of the dress were made for filming, each made of 200 yards (183 m) of silk satin and other fabric, and weighing approximately 40 pounds (18 kg). On the experience of wearing the wedding dress, Amy Adams described it as "grueling" since "the entire weight was on her hips, so occasionally it felt like she was in traction".
Unlike Giselle, Prince Edward does not adapt to the real world and James Marsden, who plays Edward, had only one costume designed for him. May's aim was to try "not to lose Marsden in the craziness of the outfit... where he still looks handsome". The costume also included padding in the chest, buttocks, and crotch, which gave Marsden the "same exaggerated proportions as an animated character" and "posture – his back is straight, the sleeves are up and never collapse".
May was delighted that Lima "went for something more fashion-forward" with Susan Sarandon's Queen Narissa. She decided to make her look like a "runway lady", wearing something that is "still Disney" but also "high fashion, like something John Galliano or Thierry Mugler might design". Since Narissa appears in three media: hand drawn animation, live-action, and computer animation, May had to make sure that the costume would be the same throughout in terms of "color, shape, and texture". The costume for Narissa consisted of a leather corset and skirt, which looked "reptilian", as well as a cape. Working with the animators, May incorporated parts of the dragon's form into the costume; the cape was designed to look like wings, the layers of the skirt wrap around like a tail and a crown that would turn into horns during Narissa's transformation into a dragon.
Music
The film's score was written by accomplished songwriter and composer Alan Menken, who has worked on a number of Disney films previously. Fellow composer Stephen Schwartz wrote the lyrics for six songs, also composed by Menken. Menken and Schwartz previously worked together on the songs for Pocahontas and The Hunchback of Notre Dame.
Menken became involved with the film in the early stages of the film's development and invited Schwartz to resume their collaboration. They began the songwriting process by searching for the right moments in the story in which a song moment was allowed. Schwartz found that it was easier to justify situations in which the characters would burst into songs in Enchanted than in other live-action musicals as its concept "allowed the characters to sing in a way that was completely integral to the plot of the story." The three songs Giselle sings contain references to earlier Disney films. The first song played in the film, "True Love's Kiss", was written to be "a send-up of, and an homage to, the style of those Disney animated features", namely, "I'm Wishing" (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs) and "A Dream is a Wish Your Heart Makes" (Cinderella), during which Disney heroines sing about the joy of being loved. It posed a challenge for Menken and Schwartz because of the "many preconceptions with that number"; it had to be reflective of the era of Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and Cinderella. Accordingly, Amy Adams performed the first song in an operetta style in contrast to the Broadway style of the later songs.
Both "Happy Working Song" and "That's How You Know" also pay tributes to past Disney songs and movies. "Happy Working Song" pays a lyrical homage to such songs as "Whistle While You Work" (Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs), "The Work Song" (Cinderella), "A Spoonful of Sugar" (Mary Poppins) and "Making Christmas" (The Nightmare Before Christmas), and a musical homage to the Sherman Brothers (with a self-parodic "Alan Menken style" middle eight). "That's How You Know" is a self-parody of Menken's compositions for his Disney features, specifically such big production numbers as "Under the Sea" (The Little Mermaid) and "Be Our Guest" (Beauty and the Beast). To achieve this, Schwartz admitted he had to "push it a little bit further in terms of choices of words or certain lyrics" while maintaining "the classic Walt Disney sensibility". However, Menken noted that the songs he has written for Disney have always been "a little tongue-in-cheek". As the film progresses, the music uses more contemporary styles, which is heard through the adult ballad "So Close" and the country/pop number "Ever Ever After" (sung by Carrie Underwood as a voice-over).
Out of the six completed songs written and composed by Menken and Schwartz, five remained in the finished film. The title song, "Enchanted," a duet featuring Idina Menzel and James Marsden, was the only song of Menken's and Schwartz's authorship and composition that was deleted from the movie.
Effects
The majority of the visual effects shots in Enchanted were done by Tippett Studio in Berkeley, California, who contributed a total of 320 shots. These shots involved virtual sets, environmental effects and CG characters that performed alongside real actors, namely the animated animals during the "Happy Working Song" sequence, Pip and the Narissa dragon during the live-action portions of the film. CIS Hollywood was responsible for 36 visual effects shots, which primarily dealt with wire removals and composites. Reel FX Creative Studios did four visual effects shots involving the pop-up book page-turn transitions while Weta Digital did two.
Out of all the animals that appear in the "Happy Working Song" sequence, the only real animals filmed on set were rats and pigeons. The real animals captured on film aided Tippett Studio in creating CG rats and pigeons, which gave dynamic performances such as having pigeons that carried brooms in their beaks and rats that scrubbed with toothbrushes. On the other hand, all the cockroaches were CG characters.
Pip, a chipmunk who can talk in the 2D world of Andalasia, loses his ability to communicate through speech in the real world so he must rely heavily on facial and body gestures. This meant the animators had to display Pip's emotions through performance as well as making him appear like a real chipmunk. The team at Tippett began the process of animating Pip by observing live chipmunks which were filmed in motion from "every conceivable angle", after which they created a photorealistic chipmunk through the use of 3D computer graphics software, Maya and Furrocious. When visual effects supervisor Thomas Schelesny showed the first animation of Pip to director Kevin Lima, he was surprised that he was a looking at a CG character and not reference footage. To enhance facial expressions, the modelers gave Pip eyebrows, which real chipmunks do not have. During the filming of scenes in which Pip appears, a number of ways were used to indicate the physical presence of Pip. On some occasions, a small stuffed chipmunk with a wire armature on the inside was placed in the scene. In other situations, a rod with a small marker on the end or a laser pointer would be used to show the actors and cinematographer where Pip is.
Unlike Pip, the Narissa dragon was allowed to be more of a fantasy character while still looking like a living character and a classic Disney villain. The CG dragon design was loosely based on a traditional Chinese dragon and Susan Sarandon's live-action witch. When filming the scene which sees the transformation of Narissa from a woman into a dragon, a long pole was used to direct the extras' eyelines instead of a laser pointer. Set pieces were made to move back and forth in addition to having a computer-controlled lighting setup and a repeatable head on the camera that were all synchronized. In the film's final sequence, in which Narissa climbs the Woolworth Building while clutching Robert in her claws, a greenscreen rig was built to hold Patrick Dempsey in order to film his face and movements. The rig was a "puppeteering" approach that involved a robotic arm being controlled by three different floor effects artists.
Release
The film was distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures to 3,730 theaters in the United States. It was distributed worldwide by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures International to over 50 territories around the world and topped the box office in several countries including the United Kingdom and Italy. It is the first movie to be released under the Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures name following the retirement of the previous Buena Vista Pictures Distribution.
Merchandising
Disney had originally planned to add Giselle to the Disney Princess line-up, as it was shown at a 2007 Toy Fair where the Giselle doll was featured with packaging declaring her with Disney Princess status, but decided against it when they realized they would have to pay for lifelong rights to Amy Adams' image. While Giselle is not being marketed as one of the Disney Princesses, Enchanted merchandise was made available in various outlets with Adams' animated likeness being used on all Giselle merchandise. Giselle led the 2007 Hollywood Holly-Day Parade at Disney's Hollywood Studios. She was also featured in the 2007 Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade in the Magic Kingdom with the official Disney Princesses.
A video game based on the film was released for Nintendo DS and mobile phones in addition to a Game Boy Advance title, Enchanted: Once Upon Andalasia, which is a prequel to the film, about Giselle and Pip rescuing Andalasia from a magic spell.
Home media
Enchanted was released on Blu-ray Disc and DVD by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on March 18, 2008, in the United States. While Enchanted topped the DVD sales chart on the week of its release in the United States, narrowly defeating the DVD sales of I Am Legend, the Blu-ray Disc sales of I Am Legend were nearly four times the number of Blu-ray Disc sales of Enchanted. Overall, Enchanted was the eighth best-selling film on home video with 5.3 million units sold and earning a revenue of $86.3 million. The DVD was released in United Kingdom and Europe on April 7, 2008, Australia on May 21, 2008 and in other 50 international countries on 2008.
The bonus features included on both the Blu-ray Disc and DVD are "Fantasy Comes to Life", a three-part behind-the-scenes feature including "Happy Working Song", "That's How You Know" and "A Blast at the Ball"; six deleted scenes with brief introductions by director Kevin Lima; bloopers; "Pip's Predicament: A Pop-Up Adventure", a short in pop-up storybook style; and Carrie Underwood's music video for "Ever Ever After". Featured on the Blu-ray disc only is a trivia game titled "The D Files" that runs throughout the movie with high scoring players given access to videos "So Close", "Making Ever Ever After" and "True Love's Kiss". In the United States, certain DVDs at Target stores contain a bonus DVD with a 30-minute-long making-of documentary titled Becoming Enchanted: A New Classic Comes True. This DVD is also sold with certain DVDs at HMV stores in the United Kingdom.
On November 12, 2021, the film was added to Disney+ to coincide with Disney+ Day. On October 26, 2022, the film was upgraded to 4K resolution on Disney+.
Reception
Box office
Enchanted earned $8 million on the day of its release in the United States, placing at #1. It was also placed at #1 on Thanksgiving Day, earning $6.7 million to bring its two-day total to $14.6 million. The film grossed $14.4 million on the following day, bringing its total haul to $29.0 million placing ahead of other contenders. Enchanted made $34.4 million on the Friday-Sunday period in 3,730 theaters for a per-location average of $9,472 and $49.1 million over the five-day Thanksgiving holiday in 3,730 theaters for a per-location average of $13,153. Its earnings over the five-day holiday exceeded projections by $7 million. Ranking as the second-highest Thanksgiving opening after Toy Story 2, which earned $80.1 million over the five-day holiday in 1999, Enchanted is the first film to open at #1 on the Thanksgiving frame in the 21st century.
In its second weekend, Enchanted was also the #1 film, grossing a further $16.4 million at 3,730 locations for a per-theater average of $4,397. It dropped to #2 in its third weekend, with a gross of $10.7 million in 3,520 theaters for a per-theater average of $3,042. It finished its fourth weekend at #4 with a gross of $5.5 million in 3,066 locations for a per-theater average of $1,804. Enchanted earned a gross of $127.8 million in the United States and Canada as well as a total of $340.5 million worldwide. It was the 15th highest-grossing film worldwide released in 2007.
Critical response
On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval of 93% based on 193 reviews, with an average score of 7.3/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "A smart re-imagining of fairy tale tropes that's sure to delight children and adults, Enchanted features witty dialogue, sharp animation, and a star turn by Amy Adams." Metacritic gave it a rating of 75 out of 100 based on 32 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Rotten Tomatoes ranked the film as the ninth best reviewed film in wide release of 2007 and named it the best family film of 2007. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade "A-" on scale of A to F.
Positive reviews praised the film's take on a classic Disney story, its comedy and musical numbers as well as the performance of its lead actress, Amy Adams. Roger Ebert of Chicago Sun-Times gave the film three stars out of four, describing it as a "heart-winning musical comedy that skips lightly and sprightly from the lily pads of hope to the manhole covers of actuality" and one that "has a Disney willingness to allow fantasy into life". Film critics of Variety and LA Weekly remarked on the film's ability to cater for all ages. LA Weekly described the film as "the sort of buoyant, all-ages entertainment that Hollywood has been laboring to revive in recent years (most recently with Hairspray) but hasn't managed to get right until now" while Todd McCarthy of Variety commented, "More than Disney's strictly animated product, Enchanted, in the manner of the vast majority of Hollywood films made until the '60s, is a film aimed at the entire population – niches be damned. It simply aims to please, without pandering, without vulgarity, without sops to pop-culture fads, and to pull this off today is no small feat." Enchanted was the Broadcast Film Critics Association's choice for Best Family Film of 2007 while Carrie Rickey of The Philadelphia Inquirer named it the 4th best film of 2007.
Rolling Stone, Premiere, USA Today, and The Boston Globe all gave the film three out of four, while The Baltimore Sun gave the film a B grade. They cited that although the story is relatively predictable, the way in which the predictability of the film is part of the story, the amazingly extravagant musical numbers, along with the way in which Disney pokes fun at its traditional line of animated movies outweighs any squabbles about storyline or being unsure of what age bracket the film is made for. Michael Sragow of The Baltimore Sun remarked that the film's "piquant idea and enough good jokes to overcome its uneven movie-making and uncertain tone", while Claudia Puig of USA Today stated that "though it's a fairly predictable fish-out-of-water tale (actually a princess-out-of-storybook saga), the casting is so perfect that it takes what could have been a ho-hum idea and renders it magical."
Amy Adams herself garnered many favorable reviews. Reviewers praised her singing ability and asserted that her performance, which was compared by some to her Academy Award-nominated performance in Junebug, has made Adams a movie star, likening it to Mary Poppins effect on Julie Andrews' career. Similarly, film critics Richard Roeper and Michael Phillips, who gave the film positive reviews on At the Movies with Ebert & Roeper, emphasized the effect of Adams' performance on the film with remarks like "Amy Adams is this movie" and "Amy Adams shows how to make a comic cliché work like magic." However, both agreed that the final sequence involving the computer-generated dragon "bogged down" the film.
Empire stated that the film was targeted at children but agreed with other reviewers that the "extremely game cast" was the film's best asset. It gave the film three out of five. TIME gave the film a C−, stating that the film "cannibalizes Walt's vault for jokes" and "fails to find a happy ending that doesn't feel two-dimensional". Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian gave the film two out of five and commented that the film "assumes a beady-eyed and deeply humourless sentimentality" and that Adams' performance was the "only decent thing in this overhyped family movie covered in a cellophane shrink-wrap of corporate Disney plastic-ness".
Accolades
Disney references
According to director Kevin Lima, "thousands" of references are made to past and future works of Disney in Enchanted, which serve as both a parody of and a "giant love letter to Disney classics". It took almost eight years for Walt Disney Studios to greenlight the production of the film because it "was always quite nervous about the tone in particular". As Lima worked with Bill Kelly, the writer, to inject Disney references to the plot, it became "an obsession"; he derived the name of every character as well as anything that needed a name from past Disney films to bring in more Disney references.
While Disney animators have occasionally inserted a Disney character into background shots – for example, Donald Duck appears in a crowd in The Little Mermaid – they have avoided "mingling characters" from other Disney films for fear of weakening their individual mythologies. In Enchanted, characters from past Disney films are openly seen, such as the appearances of Thumper and Flower from Bambi in the 2D animation portion of the film. Disney references are also made through camera work, sets, costumes, music and dialogue. Some of the more familiar examples include the use of poisoned apples from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs and True Love's Kiss from Snow White and Sleeping Beauty. Dick Cook, the chairman of Walt Disney Studios, admitted that part of the goal of Enchanted was to create a new franchise (through the character of Giselle) and to revive the older ones.
Sequel
A sequel, Disenchanted, was released to Disney+ on November 18, 2022. Directed by Adam Shankman, the sequel sees Adams, Dempsey, Menzel, and Marsden reprising their roles. Newcomer Gabriella Baldacchino replaces Covey as Morgan, though Covey has a brief cameo in the film. They are joined by Maya Rudolph, Jayma Mays, and Yvette Nicole Brown as new characters. The film received mixed reviews from critics.
References
External links
2007 films
2007 fantasy films
2007 romantic comedy films
2000s English-language films
2000s fantasy comedy films
2000s musical comedy films
2000s musical fantasy films
2000s parody films
2000s romantic fantasy films
2000s romantic musical films
American animated fantasy films
American fantasy comedy films
American films with live action and animation
American musical comedy films
American musical fantasy films
American romantic comedy films
American romantic fantasy films
American romantic musical films
Disney parodies
Metafictional works
Fairy tale parody films
Magic realism films
Films about divorce
Films about dragons
Films about lawyers
Films about princesses
Films about royalty
Films about shapeshifting
Films about trolls
Films about witchcraft
Films directed by Kevin Lima
Films produced by Barry Sonnenfeld
Films scored by Alan Menken
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
Walt Disney Pictures films
2000s American films
Films about single parent families
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bombsight
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Bombsight
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A bombsight is a device used by military aircraft to drop bombs accurately. Bombsights, a feature of combat aircraft since World War I, were first found on purpose-designed bomber aircraft and then moved to fighter-bombers and modern tactical aircraft as those aircraft took up the brunt of the bombing role.
A bombsight has to estimate the path the bomb will take after release from the aircraft. The two primary forces during its fall are gravity and air drag, which make the path of the bomb through the air roughly parabolic. There are additional factors such as changes in air density and wind that may be considered, but they are concerns only for bombs that spend a significant portion of a minute falling through the air. Those effects can be minimized by reducing the fall time by low-level bombing or by increasing the speed of the bombs. Those effects are combined in the dive bomber.
However, low-level bombing also increases the danger to the bomber from ground-based defences, so accurate bombing from higher altitudes has always been desired. That has led to a series of increasingly sophisticated bombsight designs dedicated to high-altitude level bombing.
Bombsights were first used before World War I and have since gone through several major revisions. The earliest systems were iron sights, which were pre-set to an estimated fall angle. In some cases, they consisted of nothing more than a series of nails hammered into a convenient spar, lines drawn on the aircraft, or visual alignments of certain parts of the structure. They were replaced by the earliest custom-designed systems, normally iron sights that could be set based on the aircraft's airspeed and altitude. These early systems were replaced by the vector bombsights, which added the ability to measure and adjust for winds. Vector bombsights were useful for altitudes up to about 3,000 m and speeds up to about 300 km/h.
In the 1930s, mechanical computers with the performance needed to solve the equations of motion started to be incorporated into the new tachometric bombsights, the most famous of which is the Norden. Then, in World War II, tachometric bombsights were often combined with radar systems to allow accurate bombing through clouds or at night. When postwar studies demonstrated that bomb accuracy was roughly equal either optically or radar-guided, optical bombsights were generally removed and the role passed to dedicated radar bombsights.
Finally, especially since the 1960s, fully computerized bombsights were introduced, which combined the bombing with long-range navigation and mapping.
Modern aircraft do not have a bombsight but use highly computerized systems that combine bombing, gunnery, missile fire and navigation into a single head-up display. The systems have the performance to calculate the bomb trajectory in real time, as the aircraft manoeuvres, and add the ability to adjust for weather, relative altitude, relative speeds for moving targets and climb or dive angle. That makes them useful both for level bombing, as in earlier generations, and tactical missions, which used to bomb by eye.
Theory
Forces on a bomb
The drag on a bomb for a given air density and angle of attack is proportional to the relative air speed squared. If the vertical component of the velocity is denoted by and the horizontal component by then the speed is and the vertical and horizontal components of the drag are:
where is the coefficient of drag, is the cross-sectional area, and is the air density. These equations show that horizontal velocity increases vertical drag and vertical velocity increases horizontal drag. These effects are ignored in the following discussion.
To start with, consider only the vertical motion of a bomb. In this direction, the bomb will be subject to two primary forces, gravity and drag, the first constant, and the second varying with the square of velocity. For an aircraft flying straight and level, the initial vertical velocity of the bomb will be zero, which means it will also have zero vertical drag. Gravity will accelerate the bomb downwards, and as its velocity increases so does the drag force. At some point (as speed and air density increase), the force of drag will become equal to the force of gravity, and the bomb will reach terminal velocity. As the air drag varies with air density, and thus altitude, the terminal velocity will decrease as the bomb falls. Generally, the bomb will slow as it reaches lower altitudes where the air is denser, but the relationship is complex.
Now consider the horizontal motion. At the instant it leaves the shackles, the bomb carries the forward speed of the aircraft with it. This momentum is countered solely by drag, which starts to slow the forward motion. As the forward motion slows, the drag force drops and this deceleration diminishes. The forward speed is never reduced entirely to zero. If the bomb were not subject to drag, its path would be purely ballistic and it would impact at an easily calculable point, the vacuum range. In practice, drag means that the impact point is short of the vacuum range, and this real-world distance between dropping and impact is known simply as the range. The difference between the vacuum range and actual range is known as the trail because the bomb appears to trail behind the aircraft as it falls. The trail and range differ for different bombs due to their individual aerodynamics and typically have to be measured on a bombing range.
The main problem in completely separating the motion into vertical and horizontal components is the terminal velocity. Bombs are designed to fly with the nose pointed forward into the relative wind, normally through the use of fins at the back of the bomb. The drag depends on the angle of attack of the bomb at any given instant. If the bomb is released at low altitudes and speeds the bomb will not reach terminal velocity and its speed will be defined largely by how long the bomb has been falling.
Finally, consider the effects of wind. The wind acts on the bomb through drag and is thus a function of the wind speed. This is typically only a fraction of the speed of the bomber or the terminal velocity, so it only becomes a factor if the bomb is dropped from altitudes high enough for this small influence to noticeably affect the bomb's path. The difference between the impact point and where it would have fallen if there had been no wind is known as drift, or cross trail.
The bombsight problem
In ballistics terms, it is traditional to talk of the calculation of aiming of ordnance as the solution. The bombsight problem is the calculation of the location in space where the bombs should be dropped in order to hit the target when all of the effects noted above are taken into account.
In the absence of wind, the bombsight problem is fairly simple. The impact point is a function of three factors, the aircraft's altitude, its forward speed, and the terminal velocity of the bomb. In many early bombsights, the first two inputs were adjusted by separately setting the front and back sights of an iron sight, one for the altitude and the other for the speed. Terminal velocity, which extends the fall time, can be accounted for by raising the effective altitude by an amount that is based on the bomb's measured ballistics.
When windage is accounted for, the calculations become more complex. As the wind can operate in any direction, bombsights generally break the windage into the portions that act along the flight path and across it. In practice, it was generally simpler to have the aircraft fly in such a way to zero out any sideways motion before the drop, and thereby eliminate this factor. This is normally accomplished using a common flying techniques known as crabbing or sideslip.
Bombsights are sighting devices that are pointed in a particular direction, or aimed. Although the solution outlined above returns a point in space, simple trigonometry can be used to convert this point into an angle relative to the ground. The bombsight is then set to indicate that angle. The bombs are dropped when the target passes through the sights. The distance between the aircraft and target at that moment is the range, so this angle is often referred to as the range angle, although dropping angle, aiming angle, bombing angle and similar terms are often used as well. In practice, some or all of these calculations are carried out using angles and not points in space, skipping the final conversion.
Accuracy
The accuracy of the drop is affected both by inherent problems like the randomness of the atmosphere or bomb manufacture as well as more practical problems like how close to flat and level the aircraft is flying or the accuracy of its instruments. These inaccuracies compound over time, so increasing the altitude of the bomb run, thereby increasing the fall time, has a significant impact on the final accuracy of the drop.
It is useful to consider a single example of a bomb being dropped on a typical mission. In this case we will consider the AN-M64 500 lbs General-Purpose Bomb, widely used by the USAAF and RAF during World War II, with direct counterparts in the armouries of most forces involved. Ballistic data on this bomb can be found in "Terminal Ballistic Data, Volume 1: Bombing". Against men standing in the open, the 500 lbs has a lethal radius of about , but much less than that against buildings, perhaps .
The M64 will be dropped from a Boeing B-17 flying at at an altitude of 20,000 feet in a wind. Given these conditions, the M64 would travel approximately forward from the drop point before impact, for a trail of about from the vacuum range, and impact with a velocity of 351 m/s (1150 fps) at an angle of about 77 degrees from horizontal. A wind would be expected to move the bomb about during that time. The time to fall is about 37 seconds.
Assuming errors of 5% in every major measurement, one can estimate those effects on accuracy based on the methodology and tables in the guide. A 5% error in altitude at 20,000 feet would be 1,000 feet, so the aircraft might be anywhere from 19 to 21,000 feet. According to the table, this would result in an error around 10 to 15 feet. A 5% error in airspeed, 10 mph, would cause an error of about 15 to 20 feet. In terms of drop timing, errors on the order of one-tenth of a second might be considered the best possible. In this case, the error is simply the ground speed of the aircraft over this time, or about 30 feet. All of these are well within the lethal radius of the bomb.
The wind affects the accuracy of the bomb in two ways, pushing directly on the bomb while it falls, as well as changing the ground speed of the aircraft before the drop. In the case of the direct effects on the bomb, a measurement that has a 5% error, 1.25 mph, that would cause a 5% error in the drift, which would be 17.5 feet. However, that 1.25 mph error, or 1.8 fps, would also be added to the aircraft's velocity. Over the time of the fall, 37 seconds, that would result in an error of 68 feet, which is at the outside limit of the bomb's performance.
The measurement of the wind speed is a more serious concern. Early navigation systems generally measured it using a dead reckoning procedure that compares measured movement over the ground with the calculated movement using the aircraft instruments. The Federal Aviation Administration's FAR Part 63 suggests 5 to 10% accuracy of these calculations, the US Air Force's AFM 51-40 gives 10%, and the US Navy's H.O. 216 at a fixed 20 miles or greater. Compounding this inaccuracy is that it is made using the instrument's airspeed indication, and as the airspeed in this example is about 10 times that of the wind speed, its 5% error can lead to great inaccuracies in wind speed calculations. Eliminating this error through the direct measurement of ground speed (instead of calculating it) was a major advance in the tachometric bombsights of the 1930s and 40s.
Finally, consider errors of the same 5% in the equipment itself, that is, an error of 5% in the setting of the range angle, or a similar 5% error in the levelling of the aircraft or bombsight. For simplicity, consider that 5% to be a 5 degree angle. Using simple trigonometry, 5 degrees at 20,000 feet is approximately 1,750 feet, an error that would place the bombs far outside their lethal radius. In tests, accuracies of 3 to 4 degrees were considered standard, and angles as high as 15 degrees were not uncommon. Given the seriousness of the problem, systems for automatic levelling of bombsights was a major area of study before World War II, especially in the US.
Early systems
All of the calculations needed to predict the path of a bomb can be carried out by hand, with the aid of calculated tables of the bomb ballistics. However, the time to carry out these calculations is not trivial. Using visual sighting, the range at which the target is first sighted remains fixed, based on eyesight. As aircraft speeds increase, there is less time available after the initial spotting to carry out the calculations and correct the aircraft's flight path to bring it over the proper drop point. During the early stages of bombsight development, the problem was addressed by reducing the allowable engagement envelope, thereby reducing the need to calculate marginal effects. For instance, when dropped from very low altitudes, the effects of drag and wind during the fall will be so small that they can be ignored. In this case only the forward speed and altitude have any measurable effect.
One of the earliest recorded examples of such a bombsight was built in 1911 by Lieutenant Riley E. Scott, of the U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps. This was a simple device with inputs for airspeed and altitude which was hand-held while lying prone on the wing of the aircraft. After considerable testing, he was able to build a table of settings to use with these inputs. In testing at College Park, Maryland, Scott was able to place two 18 pound bombs within 10 feet of a 4-by-5 foot target from a height of 400 feet. In January 1912, Scott won $5,000 for first place in the Michelin bombing competition at Villacoublay Airfield in France, scoring 12 hits on a 125-by-375 foot target with 15 bombs dropped from 800 meters.
In spite of early examples like Scott's prior to the war, during the opening stages of the First World War bombing was almost always carried out by eye, dropping the small bombs by hand when the conditions looked right. As the use and roles for aircraft increased during the war, the need for better accuracy became pressing. At first this was accomplished by sighting off parts of the aircraft, such as struts and engine cylinders, or drawing lines on the side of the aircraft after test drops on a bombing range. These were useful for low altitudes and stationary targets, but as the nature of the air war expanded, the needs quickly outgrew these solutions as well.
For higher altitude drops, the effect of wind and bomb trajectory could no longer be ignored. One important simplification was to ignore the terminal velocity of the bomb, and calculate its average speed as the square root of the altitude measured in feet. For instance, a bomb dropped from 10,000 feet would fall at an average rate of 400 fps, allowing easy calculation of the time to fall. Now all that remained was a measurement of the wind speed, or more generally the ground speed. Normally this was accomplished by flying the aircraft into the general direction of the wind and then observing motion of objects on the ground and adjusting the flight path side to side until any remaining sideways drift due to wind was eliminated. The speed over the ground was then measured by timing the motion of objects between two given angles as seen through the sight.
One of the most fully developed examples of such a sight to see combat was the German Görtz bombsight, developed for the Gotha heavy bombers. The Görtz used a telescope with a rotating prism at the bottom that allowed the sight to be rotated fore and aft. After zeroing out sideways motion the sight was set to a pre-set angle and then an object was timed with a stopwatch until it was directly below the aircraft. This revealed the ground speed, which was multiplied by the time taken to hit the ground, and then a pointer in the sight was set to an angle looked up on a table. The bomb aimer then watched the target in the sight until it crossed the pointer, and dropped the bombs. Similar bombsights were developed in France and England, notably the Michelin and Central Flying School Number Seven bombsight. While useful, these sights required a time-consuming setup period while the movement was timed.
A great upgrade to the basic concept was introduced by Harry Wimperis, better known for his later role in the development of radar in England. In 1916 he introduced the Drift Sight, which added a simple system for directly measuring the wind speed. The bomb aimer would first dial in the altitude and airspeed of the aircraft. Doing so rotated a metal bar on the right side of the bombsight so it pointed out from the fuselage. Prior to the bomb run, the bomber would fly at right angles to the bomb line, and the bomb aimer would look past the rod to watch the motion of objects on the ground. He would then adjust the wind speed setting until the motion was directly along the rod. This action measured the wind speed, and moved the sights to the proper angle to account for it, eliminating the need for separate calculations. A later modification was added to calculate the difference between true and indicated airspeed, which grows with altitude. This version was the Drift Sight Mk. 1A, introduced on the Handley Page O/400 heavy bomber. Variations on the design were common, like the US Estoppey bombsight.
All of these bombsights shared the problem that they were unable to deal with wind in any direction other than along the path of travel. That made them effectively useless against moving targets, like submarines and ships. Unless the target just happened to be travelling directly in line with the wind, their motion would carry the bomber away from the wind line as they approached. Additionally, as anti-aircraft artillery grew more effective, they would often pre-sight their guns along the wind line of the targets they were protecting, knowing that attacks would come from those directions. A solution for attacking cross-wind was sorely needed.
Vector bombsights
Calculating the effects of an arbitrary wind on the path of an aircraft was already a well-understood problem in air navigation, one requiring basic vector mathematics. Wimperis was very familiar with these techniques, and would go on to write a seminal introductory text on the topic. The same calculations would work just as well for bomb trajectories, with some minor adjustments to account for the changing velocities as the bombs fell. Even as the Drift Sight was being introduced, Wimperis was working on a new bombsight that helped solve these calculations and allow the effects of wind to be considered no matter the direction of the wind or the bomb run.
The result was the Course Setting Bomb Sight (CSBS), called "the most important bomb sight of the war". Dialling in the values for altitude, airspeed and the speed and direction of the wind rotated and slid various mechanical devices that solved the vector problem. Once set up, the bomb aimer would watch objects on the ground and compare their path to thin wires on either side of the sight. If there was any sideways motion, the pilot could slip-turn to a new heading in an effort to cancel out the drift. A few attempts were typically all that was needed, at which point the aircraft was flying in the right direction to take it directly over the drop point, with zero sideways velocity. The bomb aimer (or pilot in some aircraft) then sighted through the attached iron sights to time the drop.
The CSBS was introduced into service in 1917 and quickly replaced earlier sights on aircraft that had enough room – the CSBS was fairly large. Versions for different speeds, altitudes and bomb types were introduced as the war progressed. After the war, the CSBS continued to be the main bombsight in British use. Thousands were sold to foreign air forces and numerous versions were created for production around the world. A number of experimental devices based on a variation of the CSBS were also developed, notably the US's Estoppey D-1 sight, developed shortly after the war, and similar versions from many other nations. These "vector bombsights" all shared the basic vector calculator system and drift wires, differing primarily in form and optics.
As bombers grew and multi-place aircraft became common, it was no longer possible for the pilot and bombardier to share the same instrument, and hand signals were no longer visible if the bombardier was below the pilot in the nose. A variety of solutions using dual optics or similar systems were suggested in the post-war era, but none of these became widely used. This led to the introduction of the pilot direction indicator, an electrically driven pointer which the bomb aimer used to indicate corrections from a remote location in the aircraft.
Vector bombsights remained the standard by most forces well into the Second World War, and was the main sight in British service until 1942. This was in spite of the introduction of newer sighting systems with great advantages over the CSBS, and even newer versions of the CSBS that failed to be used for a variety of reasons. The later versions of the CSBS, eventually reaching the Mark X, included adjustments for different bombs, ways to attack moving targets, systems for more easily measuring winds, and a host of other options.
Tachometric bombsights
One of the main problems using vector bombsights was the long straight run needed before dropping the bombs. This was needed so the pilot would have enough time to accurately account for the effects of wind, and get the proper flight angle set up with some level of accuracy. If anything changed during the bomb run, especially if the aircraft had to maneuver in order to avoid defences, everything had to be set up again. Additionally, the introduction of monoplane bombers made the adjustment of the angles more difficult, because they were not able to slip-turn as easily as their earlier biplane counterparts. They suffered from an effect known as "Dutch roll" that made them more difficult to turn and tended to oscillate after levelling. This further reduced the time the bomb aimer had to adjust the path.
One solution to this later problem had already been used for some time, the use of some sort of gimbal system to keep the bombsight pointed roughly downward during maneuvering or being blown around by wind gusts. Experiments as early as the 1920s had demonstrated that this could roughly double the accuracy of bombing. The US carried out an active program in this area, including Estoppey sights mounted to weighted gimbals and Sperry Gyroscope's experiments with US versions of the CSBS mounted to what would today be called an inertial platform. These same developments led to the introduction of the first useful autopilots, which could be used to directly dial in the required path and have the aircraft fly to that heading with no further input. A variety of bombing systems using one or both of these systems were considered throughout the 1920s and 30s.
During the same period, a separate line of development was leading to the first reliable mechanical computers. These could be used to replace a complex table of numbers with a carefully shaped cam-like device, and the manual calculation though a series of gears or slip wheels. Originally limited to fairly simple calculations consisting of additions and subtractions, by the 1930s they had progressed to the point where they were being used to solve differential equations. For bombsight use, such a calculator would allow the bomb aimer to dial in the basic aircraft parameters – speed, altitude, direction, and known atmospheric conditions – and the bomb sight would automatically calculate the proper aim point in a few moments. Some of the traditional inputs, like airspeed and altitude, could even be taken directly from the aircraft instruments, eliminating operational errors.
Although these developments were well known within the industry, only the US Army Air Corps and US Navy put any concerted effort into development. During the 1920s, the Navy funded development of the Norden bombsight while the Army funded development of the Sperry O-1. Both systems were generally similar; a bomb sight consisting of a small telescope was mounted on a stabilizing platform to keep the sighting head stable. A separate mechanical computer was used to calculate the aim point. The aim point was fed back to the sight, which automatically rotated the telescope to the correct angle to account for drift and aircraft movement, keeping the target still in the view. When the bomb aimer sighted through the telescope, he could see any residual drift and relay this to the pilot, or later, feed that information directly into the autopilot. Simply moving the telescope to keep the target in view had the side effect of fine-tuning the windage calculations continuously, and thereby greatly increasing their accuracy. For a variety of reasons, the Army dropped their interest in the Sperry, and features from the Sperry and Norden bombsights were folded into new models of the Norden. The Norden then equipped almost all US high-level bombers, most notably the B-17 Flying Fortress. In tests, these bombsights were able to generate fantastic accuracy. In practice, however, operational factors seriously upset them, to the point that pinpoint bombing using the Norden was eventually abandoned.
Although the US put the most effort into development of the tachometric concept, they were also being studied elsewhere. In the UK, work on the Automatic Bomb Sight (ABS) had been carried on since the mid-1930s in an effort to replace the CSBS. However, the ABS did not include stabilization of the sighting system, nor the Norden's autopilot system. In testing the ABS proved to be too difficult to use, requiring long bomb runs to allow the computer time to solve the aim point. When RAF Bomber Command complained that even the CSBS had too long a run-in to the target, efforts to deploy the ABS ended. For their needs they developed a new vector bombsight, the Mk. XIV. The Mk. XIV featured a stabilizing platform and aiming computer, but worked more like the CSBS in overall functionality – the bomb aimer would set the computer to move the sighting system to the proper angle, but the bombsight did not track the target or attempt to correct the aircraft path. The advantage of this system was that it was dramatically faster to use, and could be used even while the aircraft was manoeuvring, only a few seconds of straight-line flying were needed before the drop. Facing a lack of production capability, Sperry was contracted to produce the Mk. XIV in the US, calling it the Sperry T-1.
Both the British and Germans would later introduce Norden-like sights of their own. Based at least partially on information about the Norden passed to them through the Duquesne Spy Ring, the Luftwaffe developed the Lotfernrohr 7. The basic mechanism was almost identical to the Norden, but much smaller. In certain applications the Lotfernrohr 7 could be used by a single-crew aircraft, as was the case for the Arado Ar 234, the world's first operational jet bomber. During the war the RAF had the need for accurate high-altitude bombing and in 1943 introduced a stabilized version of the earlier ABS, the hand-built Stabilized Automatic Bomb Sight (SABS). It was produced in such limited numbers that it was at first used only by the famed No. 617 Squadron RAF, The Dambusters.
All of these designs collectively became known as tachometric sights, "tachometric" referring to the timing mechanisms which counted the rotations of a screw or gear that ran at a specified speed.
Radar bombing and integrated systems
In the pre-World War II era there had been a long debate about the relative merits of daylight versus night-time bombing. At night the bomber is virtually invulnerable (until the introduction of radar) but finding its target was a major problem. In practice, only large targets such as cities could be attacked. During the day the bomber could use its bombsights to attack point targets, but only at the risk of being attacked by enemy fighters and anti-aircraft artillery.
During the early 1930s the debate had been won by the night-bombing supporters, and the RAF and Luftwaffe started construction of large fleets of aircraft dedicated to the night mission. As "the bomber will always get through", these forces were strategic in nature, largely a deterrent to the other force's own bombers. However, new engines introduced in the mid-1930s led to much larger bombers that were able to carry greatly improved defensive suites, while their higher operational altitudes and speeds would render them less vulnerable to the defences on the ground. Policy once again changed in favour of daylight attacks against military targets and factories, abandoning what was considered a cowardly and defeatist night-bombing policy.
In spite of this change, the Luftwaffe continued to put some effort into solving the problem of accurate navigation at night. This led to the Battle of the Beams during the opening stages of the war. The RAF returned in force in early 1942 with similar systems of their own, and from that point on, radio navigation systems of increasing accuracy allowed bombing in any weather or operational conditions. The Oboe system, first used operationally in early 1943, offered real-world accuracies on the order of 35 yards, much better than any optical bombsight. The introduction of the British H2S radar further improved the bomber's abilities, allowing direct attack of targets without the need of remote radio transmitters, which had range limited to the line-of-sight. By 1943 these techniques were in widespread use by both the RAF and USAAF, leading to the H2X and then a series of improved versions like the AN/APQ-13 and AN/APQ-7 used on the Boeing B-29 Superfortress.
These early systems operated independently of any existing optical bombsight, but this presented the problem of having to separately calculate the trajectory of the bomb. In the case of Oboe, these calculations were carried out before the mission at the ground bases. But as daylight visual bombing was still widely used, conversions and adaptations were quickly made to repeat the radar signal in the existing bombsights, allowing the bombsight calculator to solve the radar bombing problem. For instance, the AN/APA-47 was used to combine the output from the AN/APQ-7 with the Norden, allowing the bomb aimer to easily check both images to compare the aim point.
Analysis of the results of bombing attacks carried out using radio navigation or radar techniques demonstrated accuracy was essentially equal for the two systems – night time attacks with Oboe were able to hit targets that the Norden could not during the day. With the exception of operational considerations – limited resolution of the radar and limited range of the navigation systems – the need for visual bombsights quickly disappeared. Designs of the late-war era, like the Boeing B-47 Stratojet and English Electric Canberra retained their optical systems, but these were often considered secondary to the radar and radio systems. In the case of the Canberra, the optical system only existed due to delays in the radar system becoming available.
Postwar developments
The strategic bombing role was following an evolution over time to ever-higher, ever-faster, ever-longer-ranged missions with ever-more-powerful weapons. Although the tachometric bombsights provided most of the features needed for accurate bombing, they were complex, slow, and limited to straight-line and level attacks. In 1946 the US Army Air Force asked the Army Air Forces Scientific Advisory Group to study the problem of bombing from jet aircraft that would soon be entering service. They concluded that at speeds over , optical systems would be useless – the visual range to the target would be less than the range of a bomb being dropped at high altitudes and speeds.
At the attack ranges being considered, thousands of miles, radio navigation systems would not be able to offer both the range and the accuracy needed. This demanded radar bombing systems, but existing examples did not offer anywhere near the required performance. At the stratospheric altitudes and long "sighting" ranges being considered, the radar antenna would need to be very large to offer the required resolution, yet this ran counter for the need to develop an antenna that was as small as possible in order to reduce drag. They also pointed out that many targets would not show up directly on the radar, so the bombsight would need the ability to drop at points relative to some landmark that did appear, the so-called "offset aiming points". Finally, the group noted that many of the functions in such a system would overlap formerly separate tools like the navigation systems. They proposed a single system that would offer mapping, navigation, autopilot and bomb aiming, thereby reducing complexity, and especially the needed space. Such a machine first emerged in the form of the AN/APQ-24, and later the "K-System", the AN/APA-59.
Through the 1950s and 1960s, radar bombing of this sort was common and the accuracy of the systems were limited to what was needed to support attacks by nuclear weapons – a circular error probable (CEP) of about was considered adequate. As mission range extended to thousands of miles, bombers started incorporating inertial guidance and star trackers to allow accurate navigation when far from land. These systems quickly improved in accuracy, and eventually became accurate enough to handle the bomb dropping without the need for a separate bombsight. This was the case for the accuracy demanded of the B-70 Valkyrie, which lacked any sort of conventional bombsight.
Modern systems
During the Cold War the weapon of choice was a nuclear one, and accuracy needs were limited. Development of tactical bombing systems, notably the ability to attack point targets with conventional weapons that had been the original goal of the Norden, was not considered seriously. Thus when the US entered the Vietnam War, their weapon of choice was the Douglas A-26 Invader equipped with the Norden. Such a solution was inadequate.
At the same time, the ever-increasing power levels of new jet engines led to fighter aircraft with bomb loads similar to heavy bombers of a generation earlier. This generated demand for a new generation of greatly improved bombsights that could be used by a single-crew aircraft and employed in fighter-like tactics, whether high-level, low-level, in a dive towards the target, or during hard maneuvering. A specialist capability for toss bombing also developed in order to allow aircraft to escape the blast radius of their own nuclear weapons, something that required only middling accuracy but a very different trajectory that initially required a dedicated bombsight.
As electronics improved, these systems were able to be combined, and then eventually with systems for aiming other weapons. They may be controlled by the pilot directly and provide information through the head-up display or a video display on the instrument panel. The definition of bombsight is becoming blurred as "smart" bombs with in-flight guidance, such as laser-guided bombs or those using GPS, replace "dumb" gravity bombs.
See also
Norden bombsight (USAAF)
Stabilized Automatic Bomb Sight (RAF)
Mark XIV bomb sight (RAF) less accurate, for area bombing
Lotfernrohr 7 (Luftwaffe)
SVP-24
References
Bibliography
Volta Torrey, "How the Norden Bombsight Does Its Job", Popular Science, June 1945, pp. 70–73, 220, 224, 228, 232
Optical bombsights
Aerial bombs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20hunting
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Ghost hunting
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Ghost hunting is the process of investigating locations that are purportedly haunted by ghosts. Typically, a ghost-hunting team will attempt to collect evidence supporting the existence of paranormal activity.
Ghost hunting has been heavily criticized for its dismissal of the scientific method. No scientific study has ever been able to confirm the existence of ghosts. The practice is considered a pseudoscience by the vast majority of educators, academics, and science writers.
Ghost hunters use a variety of electronic devices, including EMF meters, digital thermometers, both handheld and static digital video cameras, including thermographic and night vision cameras, night vision goggles, and digital audio recorders. Other more traditional techniques are also used, such as conducting interviews and researching the history of allegedly haunted sites. Ghost hunters also refer to themselves as paranormal investigators.
History
Paranormal research dates back to the nineteenth century, with organizations such as the Society for Psychical Research investigating spiritual matters. Psychic researcher Harry Price published his Confessions of a Ghost-Hunter in 1936.
Ghost hunting was popularized in the 2000s by television series such as Most Haunted and Ghost Hunters, combined with the increasing availability of high-tech equipment. The Atlantic Paranormal Society reported a doubling in their membership in the late 2000s, attributing this to the television programs. Despite its lack of acceptance in academic circles, the popularity of ghost-hunting reality TV shows has influenced a number of individuals to take up the pursuit.
Small businesses offering ghost-hunting equipment and paranormal investigation services increased in the early 2000s. Many offer electromagnetic field (EMF) meters, infrared motion sensors and devices billed as "ghost detectors". The paranormal boom is such that some small ghost-hunting related businesses are enjoying increased profits through podcast and website advertising, books, DVDs, videos and other commercial enterprises.
One ghost-hunting group called "A Midwest Haunting" based in Macomb, Illinois, reported that the number of people taking its tours had tripled, jumping from about 600 in 2006 to 1,800 in 2008. Others, such as Marie Cuff of "Idaho Spirit Seekers" pointed to increased traffic on their websites and message boards as an indication that ghost hunting was becoming more accepted. Participants say that ghost hunting allows them to enjoy the friendship of like-minded people and actively pursue their interest in the paranormal. According to Jim Willis of "Ghosts of Ohio", his group's membership had doubled, growing to 30 members since it was founded in 1999 and includes both true believers and total skeptics. Willis says his group is "looking for answers, one way or another" and that skepticism is a prerequisite for those who desire to be "taken seriously in this field."
Author John Potts says that the present day pursuit of "amateur ghost hunting" can be traced back to the Spiritualist era and early organizations founded to investigate paranormal phenomena, like London's The Ghost Club and the Society for Psychical Research, but that modern investigations are unrelated to academic parapsychology. Potts writes that modern ghost hunting groups ignore the scientific method and instead follow a form of "techno-mysticism".
The popularity of ghost hunting has led to some injuries. Unaware that a "spooky home" in Worthington, Ohio was occupied, a group of teenagers stepped on the edge of the property to explore. The homeowner fired on the teenagers' automobile as they were leaving, seriously injuring one. A woman hunting for ghosts was killed in a fall from a University of Toronto building.
An offshoot of ghost hunting is the commercial ghost tour conducted by a local guide or tour operator who is often a member of a local ghost-hunting or paranormal investigation group. Since both the tour operators and owners of the reportedly haunted properties share profits of such enterprises (admissions vary depending on the location, length and other aspects of the tour), some believe the claims of hauntings are exaggerated or fabricated in order to increase attendance. The city of Savannah, Georgia, is said to be the American city with the most ghost tours, having more than 31 as of 2003.
Notable paranormal investigators
Harry Price
Harry Price (1881–1948) was a British parapsychologist, psychic researcher and author who gained public prominence for his investigations into psychical phenomena and his exposing of fraudulent spiritualist mediums. He is best known for his well-publicized investigation of the purportedly haunted Borley Rectory in Essex, England. Price's exploits were given wide exposure in a 1950 book, Harry Price: Biography of a Ghost Hunter by Paul Tabori. He was also a longstanding member of the Ghost Club based in London.
Price joined the Society for Psychical Research (SPR) in 1920, and used his knowledge of stage magic to debunk fraudulent mediums. In 1922, he exposed the "spirit" photographer William Hope. In the same year he traveled to Germany with Eric Dingwall and investigated Willi Schneider at the home of Baron Albert von Schrenck-Notzing in Munich. In 1923, Price exposed the medium Jan Guzyk.
Price wrote that the photographs depicting the ectoplasm of the medium Eva Carrière taken with Schrenck-Notzing looked artificial and two-dimensional made from cardboard and newspaper portraits and that there were no scientific controls as both her hands were free. In 1920 Carrière was investigated by psychical researchers in London. An analysis of her ectoplasm revealed it to be made of chewed paper. She was also investigated in 1922 and the result of the tests were negative. In 1925, Price investigated Maria Silbert and caught her using her feet and toes to move objects in the séance room. He also investigated the "direct voice" mediumship of George Valiantine in London. In the séance Valiantine claimed to have contacted the "spirit" of the composer Luigi Arditi, speaking in Italian. Price wrote down every word that was attributed to Arditi and they were found to be word-for-word matches in an Italian phrase-book.
In 1926, Price formed the National Laboratory of Psychical Research as a rival to the SPR. Price made a formal offer to the University of London to equip and endow a Department of Psychical Research, and to loan the equipment of the National Laboratory and its library. The University of London Board of Studies in Psychology responded positively to this proposal.
Price had a number of public disputes with the SPR, most notably regarding professed medium Rudi Schneider. Price exposed Frederick Tansley Munnings, who claimed to produce the independent "spirit" voices of Julius Caesar, Dan Leno, Hawley Harvey Crippen and King Henry VIII. Price also invented and used a piece of apparatus known as a "voice control recorder" and proved that all the voices were those of Munnings. In 1928, Munnings admitted fraud and sold his confessions to a Sunday newspaper.
In 1933, Frank Decker was investigated by Price at the National Laboratory of Psychical Research. Under strict scientific controls that Price contrived, Decker failed to produce any phenomena at all. Price's psychical research continued with investigations into Karachi's Indian rope trick and the fire-walking abilities of Kuda Bux. In 1936, Price broadcast from a supposedly haunted manor house in Meopham, Kent for the BBC and published The Confessions of a Ghost-Hunter and The Haunting of Cashen's Gap. This year also saw the transfer of Price's library on permanent loan to the University of London (see external links), followed shortly by the laboratory and investigative equipment. In 1937, he conducted further televised experiments into fire-walking with Ahmed Hussain at Carshalton and Alexandra Palace, and also rented Borley Rectory for one year. The following year, Price re-established the Ghost Club, with himself as chairman, modernizing it and changing it from a spiritualist association to a group of more or less open-minded skeptics that gathered to discuss paranormal topics. He was also the first to admit women to the club. Price drafted a bill for the regulation of psychic practitioners, and in 1939, he organized a national telepathic test in the periodical John O'London's Weekly. During the 1940s, Price concentrated on writing and the works The Most Haunted House in England, Poltergeist Over England and The End of Borley Rectory were all published.
Price's friends included other debunkers of fraudulent mediums such as Harry Houdini and the journalist Ernest Palmer.
Ed and Lorraine Warren
Edward Warren Miney (1926–2006) and Lorraine Rita Warren (née Moran, 1927–2019) were American paranormal investigators and authors associated with prominent reports of haunting from the 1950s to the present. Edward was a World War II United States Navy veteran who became a self-taught and self-professed demonologist, author, and lecturer. Lorraine professes to be clairvoyant and a light trance medium who worked closely with her husband. In 1952, the Warrens founded the New England Society for Psychic Research, the oldest ghost hunting group in New England. They authored numerous books about the paranormal and about their private investigations into various reports of paranormal activity. They claimed to have investigated over 1,000 cases during their career, and have been involved with various supernatural claims such as the Snedeker family haunting, the Enfield Poltergeist and the Smurl haunting, as well as claims of demonic possession in the Trial of Arne Cheyenne Johnson.
The Warrens are best known for their involvement in the 1976 Amityville Horror case in which New York couple George and Kathy Lutz claimed that their house was haunted by a violent, demonic presence so intense that it eventually drove them out of their home. The Amityville Horror Conspiracy authors Stephen and Roxanne Kaplan characterized the case as a "hoax". Lorraine Warren told a reporter for The Express-Times newspaper that the Amityville Horror was not a hoax. The reported haunting was the basis for the 1977 book The Amityville Horror, which was adapted into the 1979 and 2005 movies of the same name, while also serving as inspiration for the film series that followed. The Warrens' version of events is partially adapted and portrayed in the opening sequence of The Conjuring 2 (2016). According to Benjamin Radford, the story was "refuted by eyewitnesses, investigations and forensic evidence". In 1979, lawyer William Weber reportedly stated that he, Jay Anson, and the occupants "invented" the horror story "over many bottles of wine".
General criticism of the Warrens include those by skeptics Perry DeAngelis and Steven Novella, who investigated the Warrens' evidence and described it as "blarney". Skeptical investigators Joe Nickell and Ben Radford also concluded that the more famous hauntings, such as Amityville and the Snedeker family haunting, did not happen and had been invented.
Stories of ghosts and hauntings popularized by the Warrens have been adapted as or have indirectly inspired dozens of films, television series and documentaries, including 17 films in the Amityville Horror series and six films in The Conjuring Universe including Annabelle, Annabelle: Creation, and Annabelle Comes Home, spin-off prequels of The Conjuring.
Belief statistics
According to a survey conducted in October 2008 by the Associated Press and Ipsos, 34 percent of Americans say they believe in the existence of ghosts. Moreover, a Gallup poll conducted on June 6–8, 2005, showed that about one-third (32%) of Americans believe that ghosts exist, with belief declining with age. Having surveyed three countries (the United States, Canada, and the United Kingdom), the poll also mentioned that more people believe in haunted houses than any of the other paranormal items tested, with 37% of Americans, 28% of Canadians, and 40% of Britons believing.
In 2002, the National Science Foundation identified haunted houses, ghosts, and communication with the dead among pseudoscientific beliefs.
Skepticism
Critics question ghost hunting's methodology, particularly its use of instrumentation, as there is no scientifically proven link between the existence of ghosts and cold spots or electromagnetic fields. According to skeptical investigator Joe Nickell, the typical ghost hunter is practicing pseudoscience. Nickell says that ghost hunters often arm themselves with EMF meters, thermometers that can identify cold spots, and wireless microphones that eliminate background noise, pointing out the equipment being used to try to detect ghosts is not designed for the job. "The least likely explanation for any given reading is it is a ghost," maintains Nickell. Orbs of light that show up on photos, he says, are often particles of dust or moisture. "Voices" picked up by tape recorders can be radio signals or noise from the recorder, EMF detectors can be set off by faulty wiring, microwave towers, iron, recording equipment, or cell phones, and heat sensors can pick up reflections off of mirrors or other metal surfaces. Nickell has also criticized the practice of searching only in the dark, saying that since some ghosts are described as "shadows or dark entities," he conducts searches in lighted rather than darkened conditions.
According to investigator Benjamin Radford, most ghost-hunting groups including The Atlantic Paranormal Society make many methodological mistakes. According to Radford, "[a]fter watching episodes of Ghost Hunters and other similar programs, it quickly becomes clear to anyone with a background in science that the methods used are both illogical and unscientific". Anyone can be a ghost investigator, "failing to consider alternative explanations for anomalous… phenomena", considering emotions and feelings as "evidence of ghostly encounters". "Improper and unscientific investigation methods" for example "using unproven tools and equipment", "sampling errors", "ineffectively using recording devices" and "focusing on the history of the location... and not the phenomena". In his article for Skeptical Inquirer Radford concludes that ghost hunters should care about doing a truly scientific investigation: "I believe that if ghosts exist, they are important and deserve to be taken seriously. Most of the efforts to investigate ghosts so far have been badly flawed and unscientific – and, not surprisingly, fruitless."
Although some ghost hunters believe orbs are of supernatural origin, skeptic Brian Dunning says that they are usually particles of dust that are reflected by light when a picture is taken, sometimes it may be bugs or water droplets. He contends that "there are no plausible hypotheses that describe the mechanism by which a person who dies will become a hovering ball of light that appears on film but is invisible to the eye." He does not believe there is any science behind these beliefs; if there were then there would be some kind of discussion of who, what and why this can happen. In his investigations he can not find any "plausible hypothesis" that orbs are anything paranormal.
Science writer Sharon Hill reviewed over 1,000 "amateur research and investigation groups" (ARIGs), writing that "879 identified with the category of 'ghosts'". Hill reports that many groups used the terms "science" or "scientific" when describing themselves; however they overwhelmingly display neither understanding of nor adherence to scientific norms. Hill writes:
Hill sees the supernatural bias of such groups as an indication of how "far removed ARIG participants really are from the established scientific community".
In Hill's 2017 book Scientifical Americans reviewed by historian Brian Regal for Skeptical Inquirer magazine, Regal writes that this is a timely book as it comes during an era when many question science. Regal wonders why believers think that "untutored amateurs know more (and are more trustworthy) than professional scholars". He asks why there is little discussion on "philosophical and theological aspects of their work". For example, the theoretical questions such as "what is a ghost?" and "does one's religion in life determine if they can become a ghost in death?" Hill gives a historiography of the field of "modern paranormal interest: monsters, UFOs, and ghosts." Hill does not insult or ridicule the people she writes about, but explains their stories through case studies. Regal feels that this book will not deter believers in the paranormal, but it is an important part of a "growing literature on amateur paranormal research". Regal states that paranormal researchers are not engaging in scientific discovery but are engaging "blithely in confirmation bias, selective evidence compiling, and the backfire effect while all the time complaining that it is the other side doing it… They, like all of us, are ultimately not searching for ghosts… they are looking for themselves."
Kenny Biddle is the Chief Investigator for the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and writes a column for Skeptical Inquirer called A Closer Look (2018-present), on his use of scientific skepticism to investigate paranormal claims, which include ghost photography, ghost hunting equipment and psychic ability. Biddle is a former ghost hunter turned scientific skeptic.
In May 2018, Kenny Biddle, a skeptical investigator of paranormal claims, spent a night in the White Hill Mansion in Fieldsboro, New Jersey, along with a group of fellow skeptics. The mansion, built in 1757, has traditionally been visited by many ghost hunting teams who claim to have experienced paranormal activity and communicate with spirits via EVPs while there. According to Biddle, many of the ghost hunters claimed that the EVPs they obtained "were not just random responses; they were direct, intelligent responses to specific questions". To challenge these claims, Biddle's group conducted a controlled experiment: the group recorded audio while asking any spirits in the Mansion to help them in locating a small foam toy hidden somewhere on the premises by a third party. They asked direct questions, but no responses were detected during review of the audio. Biddle subsequently reset the experiment and has offered a prize to ghost hunters for proof of their claim that they can obtain direct answers from spirits via EVP.
Biddle has also criticized what he calls "paranormal gadgets" that are popular with ghost hunters, such as the Ovilus, a device designed to respond to electromagnetic field variations with words from a pre-programmed dictionary, which, according to Popular Mechanics resemble a "demonic Speak & Spell" whose "phrases often sound like they were cherry picked from a John Carpenter flick".
Methods and equipment
Ghost hunters use a variety of techniques and tools to investigate alleged paranormal activity. While there is no universal acceptance among ghost hunters of the following methodologies, a number of these are commonly used by ghost hunting groups.
Still photography and video: using digital, night vision, infrared, and even disposable cameras.
EMF meter: to detect possibly unexplained fluctuations in electromagnetic fields. The Safe Range EMF brand of meter, designed for use with power lines and household appliances, became popular after the Ghost Hunters television series claimed it to be "specially calibrated for paranormal investigators". The Atlantic attribute its popularity among ghost hunters to its brightly colored LED display and propensity for false positive readings.
Tablet PC: to record data, audio, video and even environmental fluctuations such as electromagnetic fields.
Ambient temperature measurement: using thermographic cameras, thermal imaging cameras, infrared thermometers, and other infrared temperature sensors. All of these methods only measure surface temperature and not ambient temperature.
Digital and analog audio recording: to capture any unexplained noises and electronic voice phenomena (EVPs), which may be interpreted as disembodied voices.
Compass: some ghost hunters use a compass to determine the location of paranormal spots, similar to EMFs.
Geiger counter: to measure fluctuations in radiation.
Infrared and/or ultrasonic motion sensors: to detect possible anomalous movement within a given area, or to assist in creating a controlled environment where any human movement is detected.
Air quality monitoring equipment: to assess the levels of gases such as carbon monoxide, which are thought to contribute to reports of paranormal activity.
Infrasound monitoring equipment: to assess the level of sound vibrations.
Dowsing rods: usually constructed of brass and bent into an L-shape.
Psychics, mediums, or clairvoyants: trance mediums or "sensitive" individuals thought to have the ability to identify and make contact with spiritual entities.
Demonologists, exorcists, and clergy: individuals who may say prayers, give blessings, or perform rituals for the purpose of cleansing a location of alleged ghosts, demons, poltergeists, or "negative energy".
Ghost boxes: radio devices which randomly scan AM and FM frequencies, presenting the audio as the words of spirits
Interviews: collecting testimony and accounts about alleged hauntings.
Historical research: researching the history behind the site being investigated.
Ouija board: purportedly used to communicate with spirits.
Night vision and full spectrum video and photography are used by ghost hunters to visualize areas of the light spectrum unseen by the human eye including infrared and ultraviolet.
Trigger objects are props or tools that ghost hunters claim can be used to attract an entity to interact. According to ghost hunters, this could be any object which might bring emotion or connection such as a teddy bear, photo or a wedding band, and some pieces of equipment have been designed within a trigger object in order to help detect a presence around the object.
Thermographic cameras, according to ghost hunters, are helpful in detecting and visualizing temperature changes during an investigation.
SLS or Kinect camera: a device that uses a pattern of infrared dots to detect objects in complete darkness. Analyzed by Kenny Biddle and found prone to spurious results when used as a non-stationary device.
Vibration Activated Light Spheres. Plastic balls which light up when detecting movement. These were not originally designed for paranormal investigations, with Kenny Biddle finding them to be very similar to commercial cat toys.
Cold spots
According to ghost hunters, a cold spot is an area of localized coldness or a sudden decrease in ambient temperature. Temperature decreases claimed to be associated with cold spots range from a few degrees Fahrenheit to over 40 degrees. Many ghost hunters use digital thermometers or heat sensing devices to measure such temperature changes. Believers claim that cold spots are an indicator of paranormal or spirit activity in the area; however, there are many natural explanations for rapid temperature variations within structures, and there is no scientifically confirmed evidence that spirit entities exist or can affect air temperatures.
Orbs
Some ghost hunters claim that circular artifacts appearing in photographs are spirits of the dead or other paranormal phenomena; however, such visual artifacts are a result of flash photography illuminating a mote of dust or other particle, and are especially common with modern compact and ultra-compact digital cameras.
Depiction in media
Television
Ghost Hunters
Ghost Hunters features the activities of a Warwick, Rhode Island, ghost hunting group called The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS). Since 2004, the program has garnered some of the highest ratings of any Syfy network programming, presenting a mix of paranormal investigation and interpersonal drama. It has since been syndicated on NBCUniversal sister cable channel Oxygen and also airs on the Canadian cable network, OLN. In addition to their television venture, TAPS hosts a three-hour weekly radio show called Beyond Reality, operates a website where they share their stories, photographs, and ghost hunting videos with members. TAPS cast members also appear at lectures, conferences and public events.
Ghost Adventures
Ghost Adventures premiered in 2008 on the Travel Channel. The TV series features ghost hunters Zak Bagans, Nick Groff (seasons 1–10), Aaron Goodwin, Billy Tolley, and Jay Wasley as they investigate reportedly haunted locations hoping to collect visual or auditory evidence of paranormal activity.
The Haunted Collector
Haunted Collector features a team of paranormal investigators led by demonologist John Zaffis who investigate allegedly haunted locations in hopes of identifying and removing objects they believe can trigger supernatural activity. The objects are transported for eventual display in Zaffis's museum. The series premiered in 2011 on the Syfy cable television channel and was cancelled in 2013.
Films
Poltergeist
Poltergeist is the original film in the Poltergeist trilogy, directed by Tobe Hooper, co-written by Steven Spielberg and released on June 4, 1982. The story focuses on the Freeling family, which consists of Steven (Craig T. Nelson), Diane (JoBeth Williams), Dana (Dominique Dunne), Robbie (Oliver Robins), and Carol Anne (Heather O'Rourke), who live in a California housing development called Cuesta Verde, which comes to be haunted by ghosts. The film depicts a group of paranormal investigators, parapsychologists, and a spiritual medium named Tangina Barrons (Zelda Rubinstein) in their efforts to assist the family. A reboot of the series, Poltergeist, was directed by Gil Kenan and released on May 22, 2015, that features the host of a paranormal-themed TV show who comes to the aid of the family.
Ghostbusters
Ghostbusters is a 1984 American fantasy comedy film produced and directed by Ivan Reitman and written by Dan Aykroyd and Harold Ramis. It stars Bill Murray, Aykroyd and Ramis as Peter Venkman, Ray Stantz and Egon Spengler, eccentric parapsychologists who start a ghost-catching business in New York City. Ghostbusters was released in the United States on June 8, 1984, and grossed 242 million USD in the United States and more than 295 million USD worldwide, making it the highest-grossing comedy film of its time. It launched a media franchise, which includes two sequels (Ghostbusters II and Ghostbusters: Afterlife), two animated television series (The Real Ghostbusters and Extreme Ghostbusters), video games, and a 2016 reboot. The Ghostbusters concept was inspired by Aykroyd's fascination with the paranormal.
The Conjuring
The Conjuring is a 2013 American supernatural horror film directed by James Wan and written by Chad Hayes and Carey W. Hayes. It is the inaugural film in The Conjuring Universe franchise, in which Patrick Wilson and Vera Farmiga star as paranormal investigators Ed and Lorraine Warren. Their purportedly real-life exploits inspired The Amityville Horror story and film franchise. In The Conjuring, the Warrens come to the assistance of the Perron family, who experience increasingly disturbing events in their farmhouse in Rhode Island in 1971. The Conjuring was released in the United States and Canada on July 19, 2013, and grossed over 319 million USD worldwide. A sequel, The Conjuring 2, was released on June 10, 2016, and a prequel, Annabelle, directed by John R. Leonetti, written by Gary Dauberman and produced by Peter Safran and James Wan was released in 2014.
Video games
Phasmophobia
Kinetic Games's indie survival horror game sees the player(s) take on the role of ghost hunters contracted to explore various premises for ghosts. The game received a large influx of popularity after its September 2020 release due to many well-known Twitch streamers and YouTubers playing it, mainly for the Halloween season.
Web series
Buzzfeed Unsolved
The American entertainment web series BuzzFeed Unsolved included BuzzFeed Unsolved Supernatural episodes where hosts Shane Madej and Ryan Bergara discussed alleged ghosts, hauntings and demons, often seeking evidence of their existence. In 2019, Bergara and Madej left Buzzfeed to host a web series similar to Buzzfeed Unsolved Supernatural called Ghost Files in 2022, documenting their attempts to find evidence of supernatural beings and occurrences.
Tourism
Interest in ghost hunting has driven tourism to historical sites and locations claimed to be haunted. A study published in the Cornell Hospitality Quarterly in 2020 stated that "haunted tourism has allowed attractions like historic house museums as well as abandoned hospitals, schools and prisons 'to remain intact' or bring in the money needed to make necessary improvements". According to architectural historian Jen Levstik, revenues from haunted tourism can help fund historic preservation, "so long as the tours are also providing historically accurate information related to the property [and] the humanity of the people at those properties, and not just the salacious things that can't be backed up beyond hearsay or rumor."
Further reading
External links
"Ghost Hunting Science Vs Pseudoscience" by Steven Novella
"Proton Packs and Teddy Bears: The Pseudoscientific History of Ghost Hunting Gadgets" by Popular Mechanics
See also
Legend tripping
List of ghost films
List of topics characterized as pseudoscience
Paranormal television
Stone Tape
References
Hunting
Hunting by game
Parapsychology
Pseudoscience
Hobbies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cory%20Bernardi
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Cory Bernardi
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Cory Bernardi (born 6 November 1969) is an Australian conservative political commentator and former politician. He was a Senator for South Australia from 2006 to 2020, and was the leader of the Australian Conservatives, a minor political party he founded in 2017 but disbanded in 2019. He is a former member of the Liberal Party of Australia, having represented the party in the Senate from 2006 to 2017. Bernardi is a conservative Catholic Christian and author of The Conservative Revolution.
Career
Bernardi entered politics in 2006 when he was selected by the Liberal Party to fill a Senate seat vacancy for South Australia left by the resignation of Robert Hill. During his time in Parliament, Bernardi attracted controversy over several statements and views. On 7 February 2017, he announced that he would be leaving the Liberal Party to form his own party, the Australian Conservatives. In June 2019, Bernardi announced that he was disbanding the Australian Conservatives and the party was voluntarily deregistered by the Australian Electoral Commission on 25 June 2019. Bernardi announced his resignation from politics on 19 November 2019, and on 20 January 2020 resigned from the Senate with immediate effect.
After leaving the Senate, Bernardi became a commentator and podcaster with Sky News Australia.
Personal life
Bernardi was born and raised in Adelaide and attended Prince Alfred College in Kent Town, South Australia. His father was an Italian immigrant who came to Australia in 1958. His maternal grandfather was a trade unionist and staunch Labor supporter. Bernardi took a business and management course at South Australian Institute of Technology before winning a scholarship and furthering his rowing career at the Australian Institute of Sport in 1989.
After a back injury terminated his rowing career, Bernardi travelled Europe and Africa, working as a labourer. Returning to Australia, he managed the family's hotel before spending four months in a hospital with tuberculosis. He subsequently worked as a stockbroker and financial adviser before entering politics.
Bernardi and his Irish-born wife Sinéad, an economics graduate, have two sons.
Rowing career
Bernardi made state representative appearances for South Australia in the State Youth VIII at the Australian Rowing Championships in 1987 and 1988. In 1988, as part of a Mercantile Rowing Club eight, he won the Ladies' Challenge Plate—open to 2nd grade/varsity/college crews below the heavyweight international standard—at the Henley Royal Regatta in England.
In 1989, Bernardi was selected in the seven seat of the South Australian Men's Senior VIII. Unfortunately, the nationals interstate events that year were cancelled when a cyclone hit the Wellington Dam course in WA, part-way through the programme of events. Three weeks later at Carrum in Victoria, Bernardi's South Australian crew placed 2nd in an unofficial men's eight race attended by the Victorian, Western Australian and South Australian crews who raced for the Patten Cup. That same year Bernardi became an Australian national representative when he was selected in the three seat of the coxless four
which competed at the 1989 World Rowing Championships in Bled—formerly of Yugoslavia but what is now the Republic of Slovenia—and placed tenth. Later that year Bernardi suffered a back injury that effectively ended his rowing career.
Political career
Elections to the Senate
After South Australian Senator Robert Hill resigned from the Senate to become Ambassador to the United Nations in March 2006, Bernardi was selected by the Liberal Party to fill the vacancy, officially commencing his senate term on 4 May 2006. On 17 February 2007, Bernardi was pre-selected ahead of Simon Birmingham and Senator Grant Chapman by the State Council of the South Australian Liberal Party to be the number one candidate on the South Australian Liberal Senate ticket for the federal election to be held in late 2007. At the election, Bernardi was elected to a full six-year term. He was again given the first place on the Liberal ticket at the 2013 federal election and was re-elected. Following a double dissolution of Parliament at the 2016 federal election, Bernardi was re-elected from the second place on the Liberal ticket. He was elected for a term of six years, ending on 30 June 2022.
Opposition under Brendan Nelson: 2007–2008
In December 2007, Bernardi was appointed the federal Coalition's Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Families and Community Services. On 19 March 2008, Bernardi was named in a story published in The Australian newspaper as having been linked to a scheme that sold financial advice on how divorcees could hide money from their former spouses. In a media statement released shortly after the article was published, Bernardi described the story as "a rehash of a factually incorrect story that first appeared in 2006 before my appointment to the Senate." Bernardi claimed that he had been "made aware that a colleague [had] been approaching numerous journalists in an attempt to 'push' this matter as a means of personally attacking me." In a statement he went on to say, "I find it disappointing that there are people who clearly pine to background journalists with half-truths and mischievous suggestions in an attempt to smear others. The people who creep out of their darkened closets to resurrect previously discredited accusations do no service to themselves or the community. Politics is a battle of ideas, not a battle of smears."
On 20 March 2008, Bernardi introduced a motion calling for a Senate inquiry into swearing on television and the effectiveness of the Code of Practice after a television show was broadcast at 8.30 pm containing the word "fuck" eighty times in 40 minutes. The Senate supported the motion. Then in June, Bernardi stated his personal view on onlineopinion.com.au regarding a proposed reform relating to same-sex relationships. He stated, "Same-sex relationships are not the same as marital relationships and to treat them the same is to suspend common sense." A month later, Bernardi questioned the ethics of granting human rights to great apes while ignoring the rights of the unborn child on the ABC "unleashed" website.
In August 2008, the Herald Sun newspaper reported that the Federal Parliamentary Library had, following a request from Bernardi, identified a loophole in government legislation that allowed some women who aborted their pregnancies to claim a $5,000 "baby bonus". The Government later stated that the bonus was not available for aborted pregnancies and was committed to following up on any such occurrences.
Opposition under Malcolm Turnbull: 2008–2009
In September 2008, new Federal Liberal leader Malcolm Turnbull appointed Bernardi the Coalition Spokesman for Disabilities, Carers and the Voluntary Sector. In October, Bernardi caused a stir with a speech to the Senate against the Same-Sex Relationships (Equal Treatment in Commonwealth Laws-Superannuation) Bill 2008 supported by the Liberal Party. The bill led to discontent within the Party's conservative faction—of which Bernardi was a key figure. Turnbull was "unhappy that Party authority was being challenged" by Bernardi. In Bernardi's speech, he complained that society should not "throw open the doors and welcome into the fold those whose relationships are uncharacteristic of the most basic elements of a marital union." The next morning Turnbull rang Bernardi to "chip him", having felt the speech was intemperate in tone and that it went against the party line and Turnbull's own leadership.
Bernardi was removed from the Shadow Ministry by Turnbull in February 2009 after reportedly making unsubstantiated claims regarding a fellow Liberal MP in his weekly blog. Recalling an encounter with the Liberal MP at the Royal Adelaide Golf Club about 14 years before, he wrote:In response to my question of why he joined the Liberal Party, the MP blithely responded "I live in a Liberal seat so I had to be a member of the Liberal Party to get into Parliament. If I lived in a Labor seat I would have joined the Labor Party." Frankly I was aghast at this response. Where was the conviction, the beliefs, the values that I believe should motivate our political leaders? Several follow up questions disclosed that the only motivation for his own political involvement was for him to become Prime Minister.
The MP involved was thought to be Christopher Pyne, who denied the allegations as "preposterous."
Opposition under Tony Abbott: 2009–2013
Following the election of Tony Abbott as the leader of the federal Liberal Party in late 2009, Bernardi was appointed Shadow Parliamentary Secretary Assisting the Leader of the Opposition and Shadow Parliamentary Secretary for Infrastructure and Population Policy, and in August 2012 was appointed Deputy Manager of Opposition Business in the Senate. In September 2012, Bernardi resigned from his position as parliamentary secretary as a result of statements he had made the day before, when he argued that permitting same-sex marriages would lead to legalised polygamy and bestiality.
Abbott and Turnbull Governments: 2013–2017
In January 2014, Prime Minister Tony Abbott again distanced himself from Bernardi after the latter called for a new debate on abortion, called for more flexible industrial relations laws, stated his belief in the primacy of the traditional family and claimed that non-traditional families may cause negative social outcomes, linked a secular polity with Australia having lost its way, and claimed that Christianity was under siege from both the political Greens and Islam.
Bernardi was re-elected for a six-year term in the Senate at the July 2016 election.
In September 2016, Bernardi spoke in favour of the repeal of section 18C of the Racial Discrimination Act, which prohibits speech that is reasonably likely to "offend, insult, humiliate or intimidate on the basis of race, colour or national or ethnic origin". In December 2016 Bernardi got into a public spat with former Prime Minister Tony Abbott over reports that Bernardi may start his own party.
In the same month, it was reported that Bernardi in 2009 set up an entity called the Conservative Leadership Foundation, "a fundraising entity that inhabits a grey area in the political donations system and permits gifts from foreign donors." and that "it has never made a disclosure to the Australian Electoral Commission as an associated entity, nor disclosed any political expenditure."
Departure from the Liberal Party
In February 2017, seven months after the 2016 election, Bernardi left the Liberal Party to form a separate party, the Australian Conservatives, which was born out of Bernardi's Australian Conservatives movement. The Australian Conservatives movement was formed by Bernardi in July 2016 to "unite conservatives", and which by August claimed 50,000 members.
In June 2019, Bernardi announced that the Australian Conservatives would apply to be voluntarily deregistered with the Australian Electoral Commission. He cited a poor result in the 2019 Australian federal election, and that the removal of Malcolm Turnbull as prime minister meant that his supporters would return to the Liberal Party. The AEC confirmed the party had been deregistered on 25 June 2019.
In November 2019, Bernardi announced that he would resign from his Senate position; his resignation formally occurred on 20 January 2020. Because he was elected as a member of the Liberal Party, a member of that party would fill the vacancy caused by his resignation. The former President of the South Australian Legislative Council Andrew McLachlan filled Bernardi's vacancy on 6 February 2020.
Political views and controversies
Prior to forming the Australian Conservatives, Bernardi was a member of the conservative faction or right-wing of the Liberal Party.
Global warming
On 21 April 2007, Bernardi published an essay questioning whether global warming was caused by human activities. Then-environment Minister Malcolm Turnbull and other Liberal parliamentarians promptly distanced themselves from his views.
Islam
Bernardi has been publicly critical of Islam. In 2010, he wrote an opinion piece calling for a ban on wearing the burqa in public.
In 2011, Bernardi referred to the controversy over paying funeral expenses for asylum-seekers, declaring it was "wrong" for the government to pay. He also said that "Islam itself is the problem—it's not Muslims", and that multiculturalism had failed. He subsequently clarified his remarks by stating "When I say I'm against Islam, I mean that the fundamentalist Islamic approach of changing laws and values does not have my support."
For these comments he received death threats. Liberal leader Tony Abbott distanced himself from the comments.
Bernardi has shared values with Dutch anti-Islam politician Geert Wilders whom he met while on a trip to Europe. Bernardi offered to assist Wilders in a visit to Australia but, in February 2013 when Wilders did come, Bernardi did not meet with him. Wilders stated in an interview that Bernardi's decision not to meet him was a "sad but true" reflection on politics, particularly in an election year. The opposition treasury spokesman, Joe Hockey, said in response "Neither Cory Bernardi nor the Coalition will be facilitating this visit."
Abbott rejected suggestions that Bernardi was trying to bring Wilders to Australia, saying the Coalition had nothing to do with the organisation of any trip.
In September 2016, Bernardi proposed the Turnbull government take up a modified version of the immigration policy of One Nation, aiming to mollify people fearing Muslim immigration as he felt soft immigration policies were to blame for a fall in government support. In February 2017, he attracted criticism for speaking at the Q Society of Australia. The event received protests who called the event "racist".
Publicly funded broadcasting
Bernardi has publicly expressed his concern over the effect of Australia's public broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, on commercial operators. His view is that the ABC has grown beyond its initial charter and its size is unjustifiably encroaching into the online news sphere at the expense of commercial operators and media diversity. However, Bernardi supports the continued existence of iView (internet based television service) and podcasting services. Bernardi agrees that the ABC provides useful services to regional areas often under-serviced by commercial operators; however, he suggests that the scale of the ABC's funding should be reviewed.
Same-sex marriage
Bernardi has said that permitting same-sex marriages would lead to legalised polygamy and bestiality; and said that the "safe schools program" designed to make homosexual children feel safer at school "bullies" heterosexual children. Several of his colleagues from the Liberal Party at the time distanced themselves from Bernardi's comments, including Tony Abbott who also opposes same-sex marriage. Bernardi was one of twelve senators who voted against what became the Marriage Amendment (Definition and Religious Freedoms) Act 2017.
Abortion
He is anti-abortion saying those who support it are "pro death".
On 16 November 2017 Bernardi moved a motion in the Senate to ban abortion on gender grounds. He was one of the 10 senators who voted in favour of the motion, which was defeated 10 votes to 36.
Nuclear industrial development
Bernardi supports the legalisation of nuclear fuel cycle activities in Australia which, as of November 2017, are prohibited under the EPBC Act and ARPANS Act. In November 2017, he presented the Nuclear Fuel Cycle (Facilitation) Bill in the Senate to repeal these prohibitions, effectively enabling future proposals for activities such as: nuclear waste importation, storage and disposal, nuclear power generation, further processing of uranium and the reprocessing of spent nuclear fuel.
Criticism
On 28 September 2015, Tony Jones, host of the television program Q&A on ABC, referred to "Cory Bernardi's Golden Dawn or something" in the context of the prospect of Bernardi forming his own political party. The Greek political party Golden Dawn has been characterised as neo-fascist. ABC later stated that the words were intended only as shorthand for a new conservative party and not to suggest that Bernardi shared the views of Golden Dawn.
In February 2016, Labor Opposition Leader Bill Shorten labelled Bernardi a "homophobe". In March, student protesters trashed Bernardi's Adelaide office and wrote slogans such as "stop homophobia" after Bernardi raised concerns about the content of the Safe Schools Program. Bernardi claimed the program was indoctrinating minors.
Bernardi was criticised for comments regarding the role of women in the military. Liberal Senator Linda Reynolds called Bernardi a 'disgrace' in response to Bernardi's condemnation of women seeking combat roles in the military.
References
External links
Official website: CoryBernardi.com
Official biography: Parliament of Australia
Summary of parliamentary voting for Senator Cory Bernardi on TheyVoteForYou.org.au
1969 births
21st-century Australian politicians
Australian Conservatives members
Australian critics of Islam
Australian Institute of Sport rowers
Australian male rowers
Australian monarchists
Australian people of Italian descent
Australian Roman Catholics
Australian sportsperson-politicians
Independent members of the Parliament of Australia
Leaders of political parties in Australia
Liberal Party of Australia members of the Parliament of Australia
Living people
Members of the Australian Senate
Members of the Australian Senate for South Australia
People educated at Prince Alfred College
Politicians from Adelaide
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adani%20Group
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Adani Group
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Adani Group is an Indian multinational conglomerate, headquartered in Ahmedabad. Founded by Gautam Adani in 1988 as a commodity trading business, the Group's businesses include port management, electric power generation and transmission, renewable energy, mining, airport operations, natural gas, food processing and infrastructure. More than 60 percent of the Adani Group's revenue is derived from coal-related businesses.
At its peak, Adani was the largest Indian conglomerate, surpassing Reliance Industries. It lost more than $104 billion in value after fraud and market manipulation allegations by short-seller firm Hindenburg Research. The Adani Group has also attracted other controversies due to reports of stock manipulation, accounting irregularities, cronyism, tax evasion, environmental damage, and suing journalists.
History
Adani Exports Limited started as a commodity trading company in 1988 and expanded into importing and exporting multiple commodities. With a capital of ₹5 lakhs, the company was established as a partnership firm with the flagship company Adani Enterprises, previously Adani Exports.
In 1990, the Adani Group developed its own port in Mundra to provide a base for its trading operations. It began construction at Mundra in 1995. In 1998, it became the top net foreign exchange earner for India Inc. The company began coal trading in 1999, followed by a joint venture in edible oil refining in 2000 with the formation of Adani Wilmar.
Adani handled 4 Mt of cargo at Mundra in 2002, becoming the largest private port in India. Later in 2006, the company became the largest coal importer in India with 11 Mt of coal handling.
The company expanded its business in 2008, purchasing Bunyu Mine in Indonesia which has 180 Mt of coal reserves. In 2009 the firm began generating 330 MW of thermal power. It also built an edible oil refining capacity in India of 2.2 Mt per annum.
In 2010, Adani group with help of Petronet LNG will setup a solid cargo port through a Joint Venture company namely Adani Petronet (Dahej) Port Private Ltd., has already commenced its Phase 1 operations from August 2010 at Dahej Port. solid cargo port terminal would have facilities to import/export bulk products like coal, steel and fertilizer. PLL has 26% equity in this JV.
The Adani group became India's largest private coal mining company after Adani Enterprises won the Orissa mine rights in 2010. Operations at the Port of Dahej commenced in 2011 and its capacity subsequently grew to 20 Mt. The company also bought Galilee Basin mine in Australia with 10.4 gigatonnes (Gt) of coal reserves. More than 60 percent of the Adani Group's revenue is derived from coal-related businesses.
In 2011, the Adani group also bought Abbot Point port in Australia with 50 Mt of handling capacity. It commissioned India's largest solar power plant with a capacity 40 MW. As the firm achieved 3,960 MW capacity, it became the largest private sector thermal power producer in India. In 2012 The company shifted its focus on three business clusters – resources, logistics and energy.
Adani Power emerged as India's largest private power producer in 2014. Adani Power's total installed capacity then stood at 9,280 MW. On 16 May of the same year, Adani Ports acquired Dhamra Port on East coast of India for . Dhamra Port was a 50:50 joint venture between Tata Steel and L&T Infrastructure Development Projects, which has been acquired by Adani Ports. The port began operations in May 2011 and handled a total cargo of 14.3 Mt in 201314. With the acquisition of Dhamra Port, the Group is planning to increase its capacity to over 200 Mt by 2020.
In 2015, the Adani Group's Adani Renewable Energy Park signed a pact with the Rajasthan Government for a 50:50 joint venture to set up India's largest solar park with a capacity of 10,000 MW. In November 2015, the Adani group began construction at the port in Vizhinjam, Kerala.
Adani Aero Defence signed a pact with the Israeli arms manufacturer, Elbit-ISTAR, and Alpha Design Technologies to work in the field of Unmanned Aircraft Systems (UAS) in India in 2016. In April, Adani Enterprises secured approval from the Government of Gujarat to begin work on building a solar power equipment plant. In September, Adani Green Energy (Tamil Nadu), the renewable wing of the Adani Group, began operations in Kamuthi in Ramanathapuram, Tamil Nadu with a capacity of 648 MW at an estimated cost of . In the same month, the Adani Group inaugurated a 648 MW single-location solar power plant. It was the world's largest solar power plant at the time it was set up.
On 22 December 2017, the Adani Group acquired the power arm of Reliance Infrastructure for .
In October 2019, French oil and gas company TotalEnergies bought a 37.4% stake in Adani Gas for and obtained joint control of the company. Total also invested 510 million in a subsidiary of Adani Green Energy in February 2020.
In August 2020, Adani Group obtained a majority stake in Mumbai and Navi Mumbai airports after entering a debt acquisition agreement with GVK Group. Through a concession agreement with the Airports Authority of India, Adani Group also obtained a 50-year lease on Ahmedabad, Guwahati, Jaipur, Lucknow, Mangalore and Thiruvananthapuram airports.
In May 2021, Adani Green Energy acquired SB Energy, a joint venture of SoftBank Group and Bharti Enterprises, for 3.5 billion.
In May 2022, the Adani Group acquired Ambuja Cements and ACC for $10.5 billion. The deal will make the Adani Group the second largest cement maker in India.
In May 2022, UAE-based conglomerate International Holding Company (IHC), headed by Syed Basar Shueb, invested 2 billion in three Adani Group companies, namely Adani Green Energy, Adani Transmission and Adani Enterprises. In June 2022, TotalEnergies acquired a 25% stake in Adani New Industries, the newly formed green hydrogen subsidiary of Adani Enterprises, for 12.5 billion.
Affiliated companies
Controversies
Coal mining in Australia
The Adani Group launched in 2014, with the support of a part of the Australian Government and Queensland, a mining and rail project (Carmichael coal mine) in Carmichael in Queensland's Galilee Basin for $21.5 billion over the life of the project, i.e. 60 years. This mine is one of many coal mines in Queensland, Australia. Its annual capacity would be 10 Mt of thermal coal.
This project will occupy an area of . In response to activist pressure some international banks refused to finance it, and in November 2018, Adani Australia announced that the Carmichael project would be 100% financed by Adani Group resources. In July 2019, the project received its final approvals from the Australian Government and construction of the mine commenced.
In 2015, the then-head of Adani's Australian mining division came under scrutiny due to his association with a mining pollution incident in Zambia, sparking renewed concerns about Adani's suitability to manage the Carmichael coal mine. According to a collaborative report from Environmental Justice Australia, Jeyakumar Janakaraj held significant positions at a mining company that faced criminal charges related to the contamination of the Kafue River in Zambia. This occurred before he assumed leadership role of Adani's operations in Australia. Specifically, Janakaraj served as the operations director at Konkola Copper Mines in 2010, when the company faced legal charges concerning the discharge of hazardous wastewater into the river. However, the Australian government characterized Adani's omission of Janakaraj's involvement in the African pollution incident as a "mistake." Although, under section 489 of Australia's Environmental Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999, presenting inaccurate or deceptive information could potentially constitute an offense, the federal government has opted not to pursue any legal action against Adani.
The Australian Government has been taken to the Federal Court of Australia by the Australian Conservation Foundation twice, once in 2018 and once in March 2020 (still ongoing ), relating to its contravention and alleged contravention of the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 with respect to the impact of the Carmichael mine on groundwater and the country's water resources.
In 2020, Adani Mining changed its name to Bravus Mining and Resources.
On 29 December 2021, Bravus announced that the first shipment of high-quality coal from the Carmichael mine had been assembled at the North Queensland Export Terminal (NQXT) in Bowen ready for export as planned.
Cronyism
Chairman and MD Gautam Adani has been described as being close to former Chief Minister of Gujarat and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi and his ruling Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP). This has led to allegations of cronyism as his firms have won many Indian energy and infrastructure government contracts. In 2012, an Indian government auditor accused Modi of giving low cost fuel from a Gujarat state-run gas company to the Adani group and other companies. In Jharkhand, the BJP-led state government made an exception to its energy policy for Adani's Godda power plant. Both the Adani Group and Modi's government have denied allegations of cronyism.
Leverage
The company's corporate debt totaled $30 billion in 2022. In August 2022, CreditSights, a unit of Fitch Ratings, warned that Adani's recent aggressive expansion had hurt the group's cash flow and credit metrics. It also stated that a potential "worst-case scenario" could lead the group to end up in a debt trap and a potential default. The CreditSights report garnered significant attention for its dire assessment of Adani's "deeply overleveraged” book; after outreach by Adani, CreditSights softened its language but kept its main conclusion.
Stock market rigging
In 2007, the Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) prohibited multiple Adani companies from engaging in the purchase or sale of securities for a period of two years. This action was taken due to their involvement in a manipulation scheme that occurred between 1999 and 2001 to artificially influence stock prices. This manipulation was carried out through entities overseen by Ketan Parekh, the stockbroker who was the main accused in India’s biggest stock market scandal. After paying a fine of $140,000, the companies were eventually permitted to recommence their trading activities.
Tax evasion
On 27 February 2010, Central Bureau of Investigation arrested Rajesh Adani, managing director of Adani Enterprises Ltd., on charges of custom duty evasion amounting to ₹80 lakh.
In August 2017, Indian customs alleged the Adani Group was diverting millions of funds from the company's books to Adani family tax havens overseas. Adani was accused of using a Dubai shell company to divert the funds. The details of a $235 million diversion were obtained and published by The Guardian. In 2014, the Directorate of Revenue Intelligence mapped out a complex money trail from India through South Korea and Dubai, and eventually to an offshore company in Mauritius allegedly owned by Vinod Shantilal Adani, the older brother of Gautam Adani. Same year, DRI forwarded a letter to the then SEBI chairperson,U. K. Sinha, along with a CD containing evidence suggesting the improper diversion of Rs. 2,323 crore. Additionally, they provided two investigative notes, cautioning that the group might be involved in manipulating the stock market through funds allegedly siphoned off using the strategy of overvaluing power equipment imports. However, SEBI did not publicly acknowledge the receipt of this letter and the accompanying evidence from DRI until September 2023, when it was disclosed before the Supreme Court of India.
Stock manipulation and accounting fraud allegations
In January 2023, Hindenburg Research published the findings of a two-year investigation alleging that Adani had engaged in market manipulation and accounting malpractices. The report accused Adani of pulling "the largest con in corporate history" and "brazen stock manipulation and accounting fraud scheme over the course of decades". Hindenburg also disclosed that it was holding short positions on Adani Group companies. Bonds and shares of companies associated with Adani experienced a decline of more than $104 billion in market value after the accusations, representing approximately half of the market value. Hedge fund manager Bill Ackman said Hindenburg's Adani Report was "highly credible and extremely well researched." Adani denied the fraud allegations as without merit.
On 29 January, Adani released a 413 page response to the Hindenburg report, calling Hindenburg’s conduct a "calculated securities fraud" and the report a "calculated attack on India, the independence, integrity and quality of Indian institutions, and the growth story and ambition of India." Hindenburg characterized the response as failing to engage with the issues raised by its initial report, and an exercise in obfuscation under the garb of nationalism. On 1 February, Adani cancelled its planned $2.5 billion (Rs 20,000 crore) Follow-on Public Offer (FPO) citing market volatility, and announced that it would return the FPO money to investors. Reserve Bank of India sought details from banks on exposure to Adani firms. Citigroup's wealth unit stopped extending margin loans to its clients against securities of Adani Group. Credit Suisse Group AG stopped accepting bonds of Adani Group companies as collateral for margin loans to its private banking clients. S&P Dow Jones Indices removed Adani Enterprises from its sustainability index.
Norway's Oil Fund, which had already shed a bulk of its Adani shares pre-Hindenburg report, divested its entire stake following the report.
On 19 May, on prima facie, a committee formed by the Supreme Court of India communicated its inability to conclude regarding the existence of a regulatory failure concerning the accusation of stock price manipulation by the group. This was primarily due to the insufficient information provided in the explanations by the SEBI's investigation. Earlier on 29 April, SEBI requested a six-month extension to conclude its investigation, instead of the initially given two months provided on 2 March. However, the Supreme Court granted a three-month extension and directed SEBI to complete the probe by 14 August 2023.
On 24 June, 2023, Adani Group's share value took a significant dive, following reports that United States Department of Justice and U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission were investigating the corporation's communications with its U.S.-based investors, spurred by a report from a short seller.
On 31 August 2023, the Organized Crime and Corruption Reporting Project put forth allegations asserting that a substantial amount of funds, in the hundreds of millions of dollars, were directed into publicly traded stocks of the Adani Group. These investments purportedly occurred by means of investment funds situated in Mauritius, which are characterized as possessing a lack of transparency. These funds were reportedly associated with partners connected to the promoter family. Supporting evidence presented in the report indicates that these entities engaged in protracted activities involving the acquisition and divestiture of Adani stock through offshore mechanisms, thereby concealing their active participation. This covert engagement apparently yielded significant financial gains. Additionally, the documentation suggests that the overseeing investment firm compensated a company belonging to Vinod Adani for advisory services pertinent to their investment pursuits.
In October 2023, the National Financial Reporting Authority initiated an investigation, reaching out to several audit firms involved in examining the financial records of the Adani Group's listed companies.
Manipulating Wikipedia entries
A February 2023 article in The Signpost said that the Adani team has been manipulating Wikipedia entries using sock puppet accounts to insert promotional material and remove or edit criticism.
Sports
In addition to its industrial interests, the Adani group owns several sports teams, such as the Gujarat Giants team in the Pro Kabaddi League. In 2022, Adani Group acquired the Gulf Giants team in UAE's International League T20. In August 2022, It also purchased a franchise in Legends League Cricket. In 2023, it purchased a team in the Women's Premier League based in Ahmedabad.
Teams owned by Adani Group
Adani also sponsored various other sports initiatives, including a 2016 nationwide programme to prepare athletes for Rio Olympics called Garv Hai (). It was re-launched for a second time to groom athletes for 2020 Tokyo Olympics, 2022 Asian Games and Commonwealth Games. The programme focuses on archery, shooting, athletics, boxing, and wrestling. Beneficiaries of the Garv Hai pilot project in 2016 include Ankita Raina (tennis), Pinki Jangra (boxing), Shiva Thapa (boxing), Khushbir Kaur (athletics), Inderjeet Singh (athletics), Mandeep Jangra (boxing), Malaika Goel (shooting), Deepak Punia (wrestling), KT Irfan (Racewalking) and Sanjivani Jadhav (athletics).
Adani Group has naming rights on Hegvold Stadium (now known as Adani Arena) in Rockhampton and the pavilion end of the Narendra Modi Stadium in Ahmedabad.
See also
List of companies of India
References
External links
Companies based in Ahmedabad
Corporate crime
Corporate scandals
Conglomerate companies of India
Conglomerate companies established in 1988
Indian companies established in 1988
1988 establishments in Gujarat
Adani family
Scandals in India
Real estate companies of India
Companies listed on the National Stock Exchange of India
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North%20Geelong%20Warriors%20FC
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North Geelong Warriors FC
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North Geelong Warriors Football Club, formerly known as North Geelong Croatia, is an Australian professional soccer club from the regional Victorian city of Geelong. The club currently competes in the National Premier Leagues Victoria 1, Australia's third division in the country's league system and second division in their state, Victoria. The club was founded in 1967 by a large contingent of ethnic Croatians in the city of Geelong. The Warriors' home base is Elcho Park in the northern Geelong suburb of Lara.
North Geelong is a regular participant in the Australian-Croatian Soccer Tournament, which it has hosted four times and won for the first time in 2014, in Wollongong, New South Wales. The club's greatest achievement is winning the 1992 Victorian Premier League title, becoming the first promoted side to achieve the feat.
History
Early beginnings
North Geelong Croatia Soccer Club was formed in December 1967 by newly arrived Croatian migrants Mirko Hrkač, Ivan Sesar, Vinko Radojević and Aldo Siketa. North Geelong's first season saw it compete in Division 2 of the Ballarat, Geelong and Districts Soccer Association (BGDSA) in 1968, finishing in fourth place of the ten team division. The following year, North competed in Division 1 and a reserve side was formed. In 1970, the club fielded its first junior side, which competed under the name North United.
The 1970s
In 1972, the Club competed in the Victorian Provisional League for the first time in its history. The season was marred by an incident involving an altercation with a referee in North Geelong's Round 6 match against Werribee which saw the club immediately expelled from the Victorian Provisional League. The VSF disallowed the club from competing in any further matches that year.
North Geelong was accepted back into the BGDSA competition in 1973, where it was, for the majority of seasons, the dominant force in the league. Croatia won the BDGSA league five times in six years between 1973 and 1978.
Return to State competition
In 1979, North Geelong re-joined the Victorian Provisional League, run by the VSF, and was placed into Division Three. North finished in a very respectable third place. Also in 1979, North Geelong Croatia bought a block of land in Lara where its current Elcho park home base on Gibbons Road now stands. The land cost a sum of $12,000.
Rise Through the Ranks
Croatia then won back-to-back premierships in 1980, and 1981. In 1982, following its Provisional League Division Two title, North Geelong skipped promotion to Provisional League Division One, thanks to a league restructure, and entered the Victorian Metropolitan League Division Four, at the time the fifth tier of Victorian soccer, the highest rung the club had reached in its short history.
North Geelong made the move to Elcho Park in 1986, hosting the Geelong Pre-Season Cup in pre-season, winning the competition. The first competitive league game at the venue was a 3–3 draw between North Geelong and Essendon City on 29 March 1986.
After four consecutive top four finishes in Division Two, North Geelong finally achieved promotion when it took out the league championship in 1989. North Geelong Croatia endured a difficult start to life in Division One in 1990. After a shaky start, Branko Culina was able to lead the club to a respectable seventh-place finish.
Victorian Premier League Era
In 1991, with the club run by a new committee headed by Steve Horvat Senior and the first team managed by Čulina, North Geelong Croatia won the Division 1 title, finishing a point ahead of Knox City. and hence promotion to the Victorian Premier League (VPL), reaching the pinnacle of Victorian soccer for the first time in the club's history.
In its inaugural season in the VPL, the club surprised everyone finishing first and collecting the Minor Premiership. The club went on to make the Grand Final. They faced former National Soccer League champions Brunswick Juventus at Middle Park. North Geelong's George Karkaletsis opened the scoring on the 22nd minute. Brunswick equalized 4 minutes later. The match remained 1–1 at full-time, taking it into extra time. North Geelong ripped Brunswick apart scoring three unanswered goals from Adrian Cervinski, Robert Markovac and Robert Cosic. It was an unprecedented event, the only time a newly promoted side had won the title in their first season, a record that still stands to this day. Players in this championship side included Steve Horvat, Adrian Cervinski and David Cervinski. All three players would become successful players in the National Soccer League. All three were a part of the Melbourne Croatia NSL championship side of the mid 90s.
1993 was another successful season. The club finished third in the regular season, making the finals for a second year in a row. But this time their finals campaign did not prove to rewarding as in the previous season. The club lost both its finals matches, including a heartbreaking loss in extra time to Sunshine George Cross. The next three seasons saw the club miss out on finals action, finishing mid table. But some joy came with the club producing club legend Richard O'Sullivian and future star player and future socceroo in Josip Skoko.
In 1994, North Geelong Croatia Soccer Club became North Geelong Warriors Soccer Club when the Victorian Soccer Federation banned ethnic names.
In 1997, North Geelong's six-year stint in the top-flight came to an end as it endured relegation from the Premier League.
Regression, Rebuild
In 1999, the club was relegated once more, to the Victorian State League Two North-West. The Club remained in Division 2 for the next six season, with mixed results.
Throughout the early 2000s, North Geelong battled away in the Victorian State League Division 2 North-West, finishing in mid-table each year for the period.
2004 marked the beginning of players returning home to North Geelong having left the club in the 90s for NSL and VPL opportunities. The Cervinski brothers, Mijo Trupković, Ante Deak and Greg Šarić were all players that returned to the club from 2004 onwards.
In 2005, with the introduction of new coach Robert Krajačić, North Geelong blazed its way to the State League Division Two North-West title, losing only 4 matches. North Geelong were subject to relegation in 2007, returning to State League 2 N/W.
In 2009, Vinko Buljubašić led the club back to State League 1, winning State League 2 North-West.
After an inconsistent 2010 season, the club finished in 8th spot in the Victorian State League Division One, well clear of relegation, but also lower than expectations. In the summer of 2011, Vinko Buljubasic was relieved of his duties as manager and replaced by Ante Skoko with his brother, a recently retired professional soccer player, Josip Skoko, as his assistant. North Geelong finished in 6th place in State League One in 2011.
At the end of the 2012 season, with the club just missing out on promotion, the Skoko brothers stepped down from their joint post as managers of the club.
In 2013, Mario Jurjevic replaced Ante Skoko with disastrous results, having just three points from 12 games and Skoko was brought back. Despite a late revival, North Geelong were relegated from State 1.
National Premier Leagues Victoria (2014–Present)
After a restructuring of soccer in Victoria in 2014, North Geelong found their bid for a place in the National Premier Leagues accepted, therefore avoiding relegation and remaining in the second tier of soccer in Victoria, now known as the National Premier Leagues Victoria 1. In North Geelong's first ever NPL1 contest, the club came away with a 2–1 away victory over sister club Dandenong City. Ante Skoko resigned from his post three months into the new season, with the club in 11th place in the new 14 team league. Former St Albans Saints manager Micky Čolina took over. The club sealed promotion to the top division on 13 September 2014, with a 1–0 win over rivals St Albans, ending the season in second place, three points adrift of league champions Avondale Heights. The club also won the Geelong Pre-Season Cup, Victorian Croatian Cup and won the Australian-Croatian Soccer Tournament for the first time in early October.
Ahead of the 2015 season, the club re-signed Čolina to a two-year deal and retained the core of the promoted squad. The season started with a 0–2 loss to eventual champions Bentleigh Greens at Kingston Heath Soccer Complex, followed up by a 0–3 loss to eventual premiers South Melbourne at Elcho Park, but Round 3 saw the Warriors record their first points of the season with a 6–1 victory over Green Gully, with winger Robbie Zadworny scoring a hattrick. However, after 14 rounds of the 2015 NPL Victoria season, the club were in bottom place with just five points earned. The Reds managed to turn it around, though, securing 16 points in the last 11 rounds of the season, including two wins in the last two games of the season against Dandenong Thunder and Werribee City, with both of the wins confirming relegation for its opponents. The club finished in 12th place and qualified for the promotion / relegation playoff against Melbourne Victory Youth. North Geelong lost 2–0 in front of over 1,000 at J L Murphy Reserve in Port Melbourne, confirming relegation to NPL2 for the 2016 season.
During the off-season there were a number of departures. The club signed Kene Eze, an American striker who previously turned out for Pittsburgh Riverhounds. North Geelong announced that a partnership had been formed with NPL South Australia side Adelaide Raiders, a fellow Croatian-Australian founded soccer side. North Geelong travelled to Gepps Cross and, on 6 February, won the first ever Friendship Cup against Adelaide Raiders by a score of 2–1. The league competition started with a trip to sister-club St Albans which finished in a 1–1 draw. North Geelong moved into outright top spot of the NPL2 West ladder after a 1–0 win over Brunswick City, a match in which Nicholas Jurčić tapped in a 93rd-minute winner. A tough run of results followed, with the Warriors winning just one of the next seven games in the league, slipping to fourth position on the ladder. North exited the 2016 FFA Cup at the hands of South Melbourne in Round 6 with a 0–2 loss at bogey ground JL Murphy Reserve. The Warriors went undefeated in the last ten games of the season, pushing the title race to the last day. St Albans took out the NPL2 West title and automatic promotion on the final match-day with a 1–0 win over Whittlesea Ranges while North Geelong took second place and a spot in the NPL2 promotion playoff against NPL2 East runner-up Dandenong Thunder. The Warriors produced a mercurial performance in the NPL2 promotion playoff, defeating the fancied Thunder 4–1, with Michael Anderson grabbing a hattrick. North then faced Richmond in the NPL promotion / relegation playoff and confirmed an immediate return to the top fight of Victorian soccer with a 4–0 win, Matt Thorne scoring twice with Michael Anderson and Michael Simms adding singles in another emphatic win.
Returning to the top-flight, the Warriors signed Andrew Doig from Moreland City, Bobby Vidanoski and Marko Stevanja from Werribee City and Ivan Grgić from Melbourne Knights. Taking out the first Friendship Cup at Elcho Park with a 4–1 win over Adelaide Raiders in pre-season, North Geelong went into Round 1 high on confidence and took a point from CB Smith Reserve in a 1–1 draw against Pascoe Vale. North managed just one more point in the following seven rounds and were thumped 8–0 at Olympic Village by a ten-man Heidelberg United. A mini mid-season revival ensued, where the Warriors went one win, four draws and one loss in six games, but nine consecutive losses following confirmed another relegation back to NPL2 for 2018. Following the relegation, Čolina and North Geelong agreed to part ways and the coach left after three and a half seasons at the helm.
North Geelong began its rebuild for the 2018 season by appointing former A-League assistant coach Luciano Trani as its senior head coach. The appointment was billed as one of its biggest coups in recent history for the club. Trani oversaw a huge turnover in the playing ranks, with just two players, Michael Anderson and Marko Stevanja, from the 2017 side remaining. Long-time servants Daniel Zilic (10 years), Darren Lewis and Matthew Townley (6 years), and Vito Cichello (5 years) all departed the club. North and Trani turned to local talent and youth to build the squad. Former players Michael Boyar, Anthony Banovac, Hamish Flavell and Nicholas Anderson returned to Elcho Park, while former junior players Jamie Noggler and Thomas Hidic ensured a strong club-grown feel to the crop. 11 games into the 2018 season, with the club sitting in fourth place, head coach Trani handed in his resignation. On 1 June 2018, North Geelong named James Coutts as the new senior head coach of the club, confirming also that he would be taking over in a player-coach capacity. The club finished the 2018 NPL2 West season in third place, two points short of the NPL2 promotion playoff spot. Earlier in the season, North Geelong were deducted three competition points for a melee against Melbourne Victory Youth. United States import Darius Madison was the top scorer with 13 league goals, following by 18-year-old Noggler who scored 7.
The 2019 season had far more stability than the previous, with Coutts able to re-sign 12 members of the 2018 squad. With Geelong achieving promotion in 2018, 2019 was the first Geelong derby of the decade. North Geelong won 4–2 at home, in front of 1400 people. With a promotion playoff spot on the cards, North Geelong's season almost unraveled with 4 losses in 5 league games but with a win against then-league leaders Werribee got the season back on track but Madison departed the club after round 24, scoring his 16th league goal of the season in a 1–0 victory over Springvale White Eagles. On 28 August 2019, after a 1–0 loss to Melbourne Victory Youth, effectively ending the Warriors' promotion charge, it was announced that player-coach Coutts would be departing the club at season's end, returning to Gold Coast for family reasons.
North Geelong appointed Zeljko Gagula as its new head coach for the 2020 NPL2 season. Gagula had most recently coached a Melbourne Knights junior side to a league title. After just one game, a 2–0 cup loss to Moreland Zebras, the 2020 season was postponed indefinitely, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, with the season being suspended just four days out from the opening round.
The Warriors began preparations for the 2021 season by taking out the annual pre-season competition the Victorian Croatian Cup, contesting between Melbourne Knights, St Albans Saints and Dandenong City, beating Dandenong City 2-0 in the final game. The first competitive fixture of the season came in Round 4 of the Victorian 2021 FFA Cup preliminary rounds, where North came back from 0-2 down to beat Kingston City FC 3-2 at Elcho Park, with a brace from new signing Luka Jurković. A mixed start to the NPL 2 season saw North Geelong pick up a win and three draws, but were followed by three consecutive losses and led to the departure of Gagula. Assistant manager Stuart Begg was given the head coach role on an interim basis until the end of the 2021 season. Under Begg, North Geelong would win three matches, draw three and lose one amidst further season interruptions due to the pandemic. The season was ultimately cancelled after 14 games played with North "finishing" in 7th place in the 12-team league.
Begg was confirmed as the club's permanent head coach ahead of the 2022 NPL 2 season. The pre-season delivered silverware, with the club winning both the 2022 Geelong Pre-Season Cup and the 2022 Victorian Croatian Cup, the latter for the second consecutive year. The Geelong Cup win was the club's first Geelong Cup title since 2014. After an opening day loss to Northcote City FC, North Geelong then went on an 11 game unbeaten streak, which included nine consecutive wins from rounds 4 to 12, the nine consecutive wins a feat achieved for the first time this century. The run included a comeback win against FC Bulleen Lions were North was 2-0 down at half time away from home but came back to win 2-3. Promotion from NPL2 to the top division was confirmed in Round 21, with a 3-0 home win against Bulleen, with the Warriors returning to Victoria's highest tier for the first time since 2017. North Geelong missed out on the league championship on the final day of the season despite leading the league for the entire second half of the season, losing to Moreland City FC 1-0 and leapfrogging the Geelong club with the win. New recruit Caleb Mikulić took out the league's Golden Boot award with 18 goals, Hamish Flavell won the NPL2 Goalkeeper of the Year award and Stuart Begg was named NPL2 Coach of the Year.
On 28 March 2023, head coach Stuart Begg resigned after 37 official games in charge, taking over in 2021. The resignation followed a poor start to the 2023 season, with a first round win followed by five consecutive losses. Assistant coach Tomi Gavran took over first team coaching duties as caretaker. After three consecutive losses following the coaching change, Gavran picked up his first point as head coach with a 1-1 draw against Heidelberg United away from home in Round 10 and first win the following round against St Albans Saints at Elcho Park. Despite back-to-back wins against Hume City and Moreland City in Rounds 18 and 19, relegation back to NPL Victoria 2 was confirmed for North Geelong for 2024 in the final round of the season with a 0-2 loss to grand finalists South Melbourne. Early in the post-season, North Geelong confirmed that Gavran would not continue in his role as head coach.
In September 2023, North Geelong Warriors confirmed that one of its most decorated former players, Joey Didulica, would take over as senior head coach at the club. Didulica's career as a goalkeeper saw him move from North Geelong to Melbourne Knights in 1996 and then to AFC Ajax in 1999. He made four appearances for the Croatia national football team and was selected for both the UEFA Euro 2004 and 2006 FIFA World Cup. Prior to taking the senior manager role with the Warriors, Joey has spent a decade coaching in the club's decorated junior program.
Women's soccer
North Geelong Warriors won the 2013 Women's State League 2 North-West championship, beating Keilor Park SC to the title by one point and earning promotion to State League 1. In 2015, North Geelong Warriors placed third in the Women's State League 1, the second tier of women's soccer in Victoria.
The following season, the Women's National Premier Leagues Victoria was introduced and Geelong side Galaxy United FC was named as an inaugural participant. Becoming the new highest-ranked club in the region for women's soccer, many of North Geelong's players departed for the new entity and the women's team was disbanded after a sustained period of success, with the side containing former W-League and Victorian Women's Premier League players in recent years, highlighted by Laura Spiranovic.
In 2019, North Geelong relaunched senior women's soccer at the club, entering two senior sides into the local Geelong competition, one in Division 1 and one in Division 2. Further, the 2019 season marked the first time in the club's history that the Warriors had over 100 registered female participants.
Following 2020, where there was no football season due to the COVID-19 pandemic, North Geelong Women rejoined the State Leagues, competing in Women's State League 3 West in 2021. The season was cancelled after 12 games, also due to the pandemic. After 12 games, North Geelong had a perfect record of 12 wins, with 68 goals scored and just 1 conceded. Due to the disruption caused by the pandemic, the Victorian Women's State Leagues were restructured for 2022, and North Geelong were granted a place in Women's State League 1 North-West, the third tier of women's football in Victoria. Not to be deterred by its rapid ascent, North Geelong managed a fifth place finish in the 10-team league in 2022. After the conclusion of the league season, North Geelong went on to win the 2022 Australian-Croatian Soccer Tournament women's division.
Notable coaches
Branko Culina
Eddie Krncevic (2007)
Vinko Buljubašić
Josip Skoko (assistant)
Luciano Trani
James Coutts
Players
International representatives
Francis Awaritefe – Australia national team (1993–1996).
Steve Horvat – Australia U17 (1987), Australia U20 (1989), Australia U23 (1996), Australia national team (1994–2002).
Josip Skoko – Australia U20 (1993–1995), Australia U23 (2000), Australia (1997–2007).
Adrian Cervinski – Australia U23 (1994)
Joey Didulica – Croatia national team (2004–2006)
Matthew Spiranovic – Australia U17 (2004–2005), Australia U20 (2006), Australia U23 (2007–2008), Australia (since 2008).
Ante Cicak – Australia national team U20 (2007)
Current squad
First-team
As of 10 May 2023
Presidential history
Managerial history
Honours
State
Victorian Premier League Champions 1992
Victorian Premier League Minor Premiers 1992
Victorian Premier League Finalists (Playoffs) 1992, 1993
Victorian State League Division 1 Champions 1991
National Premier Leagues Victoria Promotion Relegation Playoff Winners 2016
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 West Runner-up 2016
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 Runner-up 2014, 2022
Victorian State League Division 2 North West Champions (3): 1989, 2005, 2009
Metropolitan League Division 4 Runner-up 1983
Victorian Provisional League Division 2 Champions 1981
Victorian Provisional League Division 3 Champions 1980
Victorian State League Cup Runner-up 1991
Victorian Provisional League Cup Champions 1981
Other
Ballarat, Geelong and Districts Soccer Association/Western Victoria Soccer Association Champions (13): 1973, 1974, 1976, 1977, 1978, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988, 1995, 2002, 2003
Geelong Advertiser Cup/City of Greater Geelong Cup Champions (22): 1985, 1986, 1989, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995, 1996, 1997, 2001, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2022, 2023
Geelong Advertiser Cup/City of Greater Geelong Cup Runner-up (6): 1988, 1990, 1998, 2000, 2002, 2021
Australian-Croatian Soccer Tournament Champions 2014
Victorian Croatian Cup Champions (6): 2004, 2014, 2015, 2021, 2022, 2023
Individual honours
Victorian Premier League Gold Medal – VPL Player of the Year
1992 – Bogdan Bonk
1994 – Josip Skoko
Bill Fleming Medal – Media voted VPL Player of the Year
1993 – David Cervinski
Victorian Premier League Coach of the Year
1992 – Branko Culina
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 Coach of the Year
2014 – Micky Colina
2022 – Stuart Begg
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 Golden Boot
2022 - Caleb Mikulić
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 Goalkeeper of the Year
2022 - Hamish Flavell
Victorian Premier League Under 21 Player of the Year
1994 – Josip Skoko
Victorian Premier League Jim Rooney Medal – Grand Final Man of the Match
1992 – David Cervinski
Weinstein Medal Junior Player of the Year
1992 – Josip Skoko
2005 – Matthew Spiranovic
Women's Honours
Victorian Women's State League Division 2 North West Champions 2013
Victorian Women's State League Division 3 North West Runner-Up 2001
Australian-Croatian Soccer Tournament Champions (4) 2005, 2010, 2015, 2022
Divisional history
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2023–
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 2018–2022
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2017
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 2016
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2015
National Premier Leagues Victoria 2 2014
Victorian State League Division 1 2010–2013
Victorian State League 2 N/W 2008–2009
Victorian State League Division 1 2006–2007
Victorian State League 2 N/W 2000–2005
Victorian State League Division 1 1998–1999
Victorian Premier League 1992–1997Victorian State League Division 1 1990–1991Victorian State League 2 1984–1989Metropolitan League Division 4 1982–1983Victorian Provisional League 2 1981Victorian Provisional League 3 1979–1980Western Victoria Soccer Association 1975–1978Ballarat, Geelong and District Soccer Association 1973–1974Victorian Provisional League 1972Ballarat, Geelong and District Soccer Association 1968–71''
All-time record 1967–2023
See also
Australian football (soccer) league system
Geelong Regional Football Association
List of Croatian soccer clubs in Australia
References
External links
North Geelong Warriors Football Club home page
Cronet.com N.G.W.S.C. page Retrieved 14 May 2006
North Geelong Warriors divisional history
Sport in Geelong
Soccer clubs in Victoria (state)
Croatian sports clubs in Australia
Association football clubs established in 1967
1967 establishments in Australia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homosexuality%20in%20ancient%20Rome
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Homosexuality in ancient Rome
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Homosexuality in ancient Rome often differs markedly from the contemporary West. Latin lacks words that would precisely translate "homosexual" and "heterosexual". The primary dichotomy of ancient Roman sexuality was masculine and feminine. Roman society was patriarchal, and the freeborn male citizen possessed political liberty (libertas) and the right to rule both himself and his household (familia). "Virtue" (virtus) was seen as an active quality through which a man (vir) defined himself. The conquest mentality and "cult of virility" shaped same-sex relations. Roman men were free to enjoy sex with other males without a perceived loss of masculinity or social status, as long as they took the dominant or penetrative role. Acceptable male partners were slaves and former slaves, prostitutes, and entertainers, whose lifestyle placed them in the nebulous social realm of infamia, excluded from the normal protections accorded to a citizen even if they were technically free. Freeborn male minors were off limits at certain periods in Rome, though professional prostitutes and entertainers might remain sexually available well into adulthood.
Same-sex relations among women are far less documented and, if Roman writers are to be trusted, female homoeroticism may have been very rare, to the point that Ovid, in the Augustine era describes it as "unheard-of". However, there is scattered evidence—for example, a couple of spells in the Greek Magical Papyri—which attests to the existence of individual women in Roman-ruled provinces in the later Imperial period who fell in love with members of the same sex.
Overview
During the Republic, a Roman citizen's political liberty (libertas) was defined in part by the right to preserve his body from physical compulsion, including both corporal punishment and sexual abuse. Roman society was patriarchal (see paterfamilias), and masculinity was premised on a capacity for governing oneself and others of lower status. Virtus, "valor" as that which made a man most fully a man, was among the active virtues. Sexual conquest was a common metaphor for imperialism in Roman discourse, and the "conquest mentality" was part of a "cult of virility" that particularly shaped Roman homosexual practices. Roman ideals of masculinity were thus premised on taking an active role that was also, as Craig A. Williams has noted, "the prime directive of masculine sexual behavior for Romans". In the late 20th and early 21st centuries, scholars have tended to view expressions of Roman male sexuality in terms of a "penetrator-penetrated" binary model; that is, the proper way for a Roman male to seek sexual gratification was to insert his penis into his partner. Allowing himself to be penetrated threatened his liberty as a free citizen as well as his sexual integrity.
It was expected and socially acceptable for a freeborn Roman man to want sex with both female and male partners, as long as he took the penetrative role. The morality of the behavior depended on the social standing of the partner, not gender per se. Both women and young men were considered normal objects of desire, but outside marriage a man was supposed to act on his desires with only slaves, prostitutes (who were often slaves), and the infames. Gender did not determine whether a sexual partner was acceptable, as long as a man's enjoyment did not encroach on another man's integrity. It was immoral to have sex with another freeborn man's wife, his marriageable daughter, his underage son, or with the man himself; sexual use of another man's slave was subject to the owner's permission. Lack of self-control, including in managing one's sex life, indicated that a man was incapable of governing others; too much indulgence in "low sensual pleasure" threatened to erode the elite male's identity as a cultured person.
Homoerotic themes are introduced to Latin literature during a period of increasing Greek influence on Roman culture in the 2nd century BC.
Greek cultural attitudes differed from those of the Romans primarily in idealizing eros between freeborn male citizens of equal status, though usually with a difference of age (see "Pederasty in ancient Greece"). An attachment to a male outside the family, seen as a positive influence among the Greeks, within Roman society threatened the authority of the paterfamilias. Since Roman women were active in educating their sons and mingled with men socially, and women of the governing classes often continued to advise and influence their sons and husbands in political life, homosociality was not as pervasive in Rome as it had been in Classical Athens, where it is thought to have contributed to the particulars of pederastic culture.
In the Imperial era, a perceived increase in passive homosexual behavior among free males was associated with anxieties about the subordination of political liberty to the emperor, and led to an increase in executions and corporal punishment. The sexual license and decadence under the empire was seen as a contributing factor and symptom of the loss of the ideals of physical integrity (libertas) under the Republic.
Homoerotic literature and art
Love or desire between males is a very frequent theme in Roman literature. In the estimation of a modern scholar, Amy Richlin, out of the poems preserved to this day, those addressed by men to boys are as common as those addressed to women.
Among the works of Roman literature that can be read today, those of Plautus are the earliest to survive in full to modernity, and also the first to mention homosexuality. Their use to draw conclusions about Roman customs or morals, however, is controversial because these works are all based on Greek originals. However, Craig A. Williams defends such use of the works of Plautus. He notes that the homo- and heterosexual exploitation of slaves, to which there are so many references in Plautus' works, is rarely mentioned in Greek New Comedy, and that many of the puns that make such a reference (and Plautus' oeuvre, being comic, is full of them) are only possible in Latin, and can not therefore have been mere translations from the Greek.
The consul Quintus Lutatius Catulus was among a circle of poets who made short, light Hellenistic poems fashionable. One of his few surviving fragments is a poem of desire addressed to a male with a Greek name. In the view of Ramsay MacMullen, who is of the opinion that, before the flood of Greek influence, the Romans were against the practice of homosexuality, the elevation of Greek literature and art as models of expression promoted the celebration of homoeroticism as the mark of an urbane and sophisticated person. The opposite view is sustained by Craig Williams, who is critical of Macmullen's discussion on Roman attitudes toward homosexuality: he draws attention to the fact that Roman writers of love poetry gave their beloveds Greek pseudonyms no matter the sex of the beloved. Thus, the use of Greek names in homoerotic Roman poems does not mean that the Romans attributed a Greek origin to their homosexual practices or that homosexual love only appeared as a subject of poetic celebration among the Romans under the influence of the Greeks.
References to homosexual desire or practice, in fact, also appear in Roman authors who wrote in literary styles seen as originally Roman, that is, where the influence of Greek fashions or styles is less likely. In an Atellan farce authored by Quintus Novius (a literary style seen as originally Roman), it is said by one of the characters that "everyone knows that a boy is superior to a woman"; the character goes on to list physical attributes, most of which denoting the onset of puberty, that mark boys when they are at their most attractive in the character's view. Also remarked elsewhere in Novius' fragments is that the sexual use of boys ceases after "their butts become hairy". A preference for smooth male bodies over hairy ones is also avowed elsewhere in Roman literature (e.g., in Ode 4.10 by Horace and in some epigrams by Martial or in the Priapeia), and was likely shared by most Roman men of the time.
In a work of satires, another literary genre that Romans saw as their own, Gaius Lucilius, a second-century BC poet, draws comparisons between anal sex with boys and vaginal sex with females; it is speculated that he may have written a whole chapter in one of his books with comparisons between lovers of both sexes, though nothing can be stated with certainty as what remains of his oeuvre are just fragments.
In other satire, as well as in Martial's erotic and invective epigrams, at times boys' superiority over women is remarked (for example, in Juvenal 6). Other works in the genre (e.g., Juvenal 2 and 9, and one of Martial's satires) also give the impression that passive homosexuality was becoming a fad increasingly popular among Roman men of the first century AD, something which is the target of invective from the authors of the satires. The practice itself, however, was perhaps not new, as over a hundred years before these authors, the dramatist Lucius Pomponius wrote a play, Prostibulum (The Prostitute), which today only exists in fragments, where the main character, a male prostitute, proclaims that he has sex with male clients also in the active position.
"New poetry" introduced at the end of the 2nd century included that of Gaius Valerius Catullus, whose work include expressing desire for a freeborn youth explicitly named "Youth" (Iuventius). The Latin name and freeborn status of the beloved subvert Roman tradition. Catullus's contemporary Lucretius also recognizes the attraction of "boys" (pueri, which can designate an acceptable submissive partner and not specifically age). Homoerotic themes occur throughout the works of poets writing during the reign of Augustus, including elegies by Tibullus and Propertius, several Eclogues of Vergil, especially the second, and some poems by Horace. In the Aeneid, Vergil—who, according to a biography written by Suetonius, had a marked sexual preference for boys—draws on the Greek tradition of pederasty in a military setting by portraying the love between Nisus and Euryalus, whose military valor marks them as solidly Roman men (viri). Vergil describes their love as pius, linking it to the supreme virtue of pietas as possessed by the hero Aeneas himself, and endorsing it as "honorable, dignified and connected to central Roman values".
By the end of the Augustan period Ovid, Rome's leading literary figure, was alone among Roman figures in proposing a radically new agenda focused on love between men and women: making love with a woman is more enjoyable, he says, because unlike the forms of same-sex behavior permissible within Roman culture, the pleasure is mutual. Even Ovid himself, however, did not claim exclusive heterosexuality and he does include mythological treatments of homoeroticism in the Metamorphoses, but Thomas Habinek has pointed out that the significance of Ovid's rupture of human erotics into categorical preferences has been obscured in the history of sexuality by a later heterosexual bias in Western culture.
Several other Roman writers, however, expressed a bias in favor of males when sex or companionship with males and females were compared, including Juvenal, Lucian, Strato, and the poet Martial, who often derided women as sexual partners and celebrated the charms of pueri. In literature of the Imperial period, the Satyricon of Petronius is so permeated with the culture of male–male sex that in 18th-century European literary circles, his name became "a byword for homosexuality".
Sex, art, and everyday objects
Homosexuality appears with much less frequency in the visual art of Rome than in its literature. Out of several hundred objects depicting images of sexual contact—from wall paintings and oil lamps to vessels of various types of material—only a small minority exhibits acts between males, and even fewer among females.
Male homosexuality occasionally appears on vessels of numerous kinds, from cups and bottles made of expensive material such as silver and cameo glass to mass-produced and low-cost bowls made of Arretine pottery. This may be evidence that sexual relations between males had the acceptance not only of the elite, but was also openly celebrated or indulged in by the less illustrious, as suggested also by ancient graffiti.
When whole objects rather than mere fragments are unearthed, homoerotic scenes are usually found to share space with pictures of opposite-sex couples, which can be interpreted to mean that heterosexuality and homosexuality (or male homosexuality, in any case) are of equal value. The Warren Cup (discussed below) is an exception among homoerotic objects: it shows only male couples and may have been produced in order to celebrate a world of exclusive homosexuality.
The treatment given to the subject in such vessels is idealized and romantic, similar to that dispensed to heterosexuality. The artist's emphasis, regardless of the sex of the couple being depicted, lies in the mutual affection between the partners and the beauty of their bodies.
Such a trend distinguishes Roman homoerotic art from that of the Greeks. With some exceptions, Greek vase painting attributes desire and pleasure only to the active partner of homosexual encounters, the erastes, while the passive, or eromenos, seems physically unaroused and, at times, emotionally distant. It is now believed that this may be an artistic convention provoked by reluctance on the part of the Greeks to openly acknowledge that Greek males could enjoy taking on a "female" role in an erotic relationship; reputation for such pleasure could have consequences to the future image of the former eromenos when he turned into an adult, and hinder his ability to participate in the socio-political life of the polis as a respectable citizen. Because, among the Romans, normative homosexuality took place, not between freeborn males or social equals as among the Greeks, but between master and slave, client and prostitute or, in any case, between social superior and social inferior, Roman artists may paradoxically have felt more at ease than their Greek colleagues to portray mutual affection and desire between male couples. This may also explain why anal penetration is seen more often in Roman homoerotic art than in its Greek counterpart, where non-penetrative intercourse predominates.
A wealth of wall paintings of a sexual nature have been spotted in ruins of some Roman cities, notably Pompeii, where there were found the only examples known so far of Roman art depicting sexual congress between women. A frieze at a brothel annexed to the Suburban Baths, in Pompeii, shows a series of sixteen sex scenes, three of which display homoerotic acts: a bisexual threesome with two men and a woman, intercourse by a female couple using a strap-on, and a foursome with two men and two women participating in homosexual anal sex, heterosexual fellatio, and homosexual cunnilingus.
Contrary to the art of the vessels discussed above, all sixteen images on the mural portray sexual acts considered unusual or debased according to Roman customs: e.g., female sexual domination of men, heterosexual oral sex, passive homosexuality by an adult man, lesbianism, and group sex. Therefore, their portrayal may have been intended to provide a source of ribald humor rather than sexual titillation to visitors of the building.
Threesomes in Roman art typically show two men penetrating a woman, but one of the Suburban scenes has one man entering a woman from the rear while he in turn receives anal sex from a man standing behind him. This scenario is described also by Catullus, Carmen 56, who considers it humorous. The man in the center may be a cinaedus, a male who liked to receive anal sex but who was also considered seductive to women. Foursomes also appear in Roman art, typically with two men and two women, sometimes in same-sex pairings.
Roman attitudes toward male nudity differ from those of the ancient Greeks, who regarded idealized portrayals of the nude male. The wearing of the toga marked a Roman man as a free citizen. Negative connotations of nudity include defeat in war, since captives were stripped, and slavery, since slaves for sale were often displayed naked.
At the same time, the phallus was displayed ubiquitously in the form of the fascinum, a magic charm thought to ward off malevolent forces; it became a customary decoration, found widely in the ruins of Pompeii, especially in the form of wind chimes (tintinnabula). The outsized phallus of the god Priapus may originally have served an apotropaic purpose, but in art it is frequently laughter-provoking or grotesque. Hellenization, however, influenced the depiction of male nudity in Roman art, leading to more complex signification of the male body shown nude, partially nude, or costumed in a muscle cuirass.
Warren Cup
The Warren Cup is a piece of convivial silver, usually dated to the time of the Julio-Claudian dynasty (1st century AD), that depicts two scenes of male–male sex. It has been argued that the two sides of this cup represent the duality of pederastic tradition at Rome, the Greek in contrast to the Roman. On the "Greek" side, a bearded, mature man is penetrating a young but muscularly developed male in a rear-entry position. The young man, probably meant to be 17 or 18, holds on to a sexual apparatus for maintaining an otherwise awkward or uncomfortable sexual position. A child-slave watches the scene furtively through a door ajar. The "Roman" side of the cup shows a puer delicatus [fig., delicious boy], age 12 to 13, held for intercourse in the arms of an older male, clean-shaven and fit. The bearded pederast may be Greek, with a partner who participates more freely and with a look of pleasure. His counterpart, who has a more severe haircut, appears to be Roman, and thus uses a slave boy; the myrtle wreath he wears symbolizes his role as an "erotic conqueror". The cup may have been designed as a conversation piece to provoke the kind of dialogue on ideals of love and sex that took place at a Greek symposium.
More recently, academic Maria Teresa Marabini Moevs has questioned the authenticity of the cup, while others have published defenses of its authenticity. Marabini Moevs has argued, for example, that the Cup was probably manufactured by the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries and that it supposedly represents perceptions of Greco-Roman homosexuality from that time, whereas defenders of the legitimacy of the cup have highlighted certain signs of ancient corrosion and the fact that a vessel manufactured in the 19th century, would have been made of pure silver, whereas the Warren Cup has a level of purity equal to that of other Roman vessels. To address this issue, the British Museum, which holds the utensil, performed a chemical analysis in 2015 to determine the date of its production. The analysis concluded that the silverware was indeed made in classical antiquity.
Male–male sex
Roles
A man or boy who took the "receptive" role in sex was variously called cinaedus, pathicus, exoletus, concubinus (male concubine), spint(h)ria ("analist"), puer ("boy"), pullus ("chick"), pusio, delicatus (especially in the phrase puer delicatus, "exquisite" or "dainty boy"), mollis ("soft", used more generally as an aesthetic quality counter to aggressive masculinity), tener ("delicate"), debilis ("weak" or "disabled"), effeminatus, discinctus ("loose-belted"), pisciculi, and morbosus ("sick"). As Amy Richlin has noted, "'gay' is not exact, 'penetrated' is not self-defined, 'passive' misleadingly connotes inaction" in translating this group of words into English.
Some terms, such as exoletus, specifically refer to an adult; Romans who were socially marked as "masculine" did not confine their same-sex penetration of male prostitutes or slaves to those who were "boys" under the age of 20. Some older men may have at times preferred the passive role. Martial describes, for example, the case of an older man who played the passive role and let a younger slave occupy the active role. An adult male's desire to be penetrated was considered a sickness (morbus); the desire to penetrate a handsome youth was thought normal.
Cinaedus
Cinaedus is a derogatory word denoting a male who was gender-deviant; his choice of sex acts, or preference in sexual partner, was secondary to his perceived deficiencies as a "man" (vir). Catullus directs the slur cinaedus at his friend Furius in his notoriously obscene Carmen 16. Although in some contexts cinaedus may denote an anally passive man and is the most frequent word for a male who allowed himself to be penetrated anally, a man called cinaedus might also have sex with and be considered highly attractive to women. Cinaedus is not equivalent to the English vulgarism "faggot", except that both words can be used to deride a male considered deficient in manhood or with androgynous characteristics whom women may find sexually alluring.
The clothing, use of cosmetics, and mannerisms of a cinaedus marked him as effeminate, but the same effeminacy that Roman men might find alluring in a puer became unattractive in the physically mature male. The cinaedus thus represented the absence of what Romans considered true manhood, and the word is virtually untranslatable into English.
Originally, a cinaedus (Greek kinaidos) was a professional dancer, characterized as non-Roman or "Eastern"; the word itself may come from a language of Asia Minor. His performance featured tambourine-playing and movements of the buttocks that suggested anal intercourse. The Cinaedocolpitae, an Arabian tribe recorded in Greco-Roman sources of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, may have a name derived from this meaning.
Concubinus
Some Roman men kept a male concubine (concubinus, "one who lies with; a bed-mate") before they married a woman. Eva Cantarella has described this form of concubinage as "a stable sexual relationship, not exclusive but privileged". Within the hierarchy of household slaves, the concubinus seems to have been regarded as holding a special or elevated status that was threatened by the introduction of a wife. In a wedding hymn, Catullus portrays the groom's concubinus as anxious about his future and fearful of abandonment. His long hair will be cut, and he will have to resort to the female slaves for sexual gratification—indicating that he is expected to transition from being a receptive sex object to one who performs penetrative sex. The concubinus might father children with women of the household, not excluding the wife (at least in invective). The feelings and situation of the concubinus are treated as significant enough to occupy five stanzas of Catullus's wedding poem. He plays an active role in the ceremonies, distributing the traditional nuts that boys threw (rather like rice or birdseed in the modern Western tradition).
The relationship with a concubinus might be discreet or more open: male concubines sometimes attended dinner parties with the man whose companion they were. Martial even suggests that a prized concubinus might pass from father to son as an especially coveted inheritance. A military officer on campaign might be accompanied by a concubinus. Like the catamite or puer delicatus, the role of the concubine was regularly compared to that of Ganymede, the Trojan prince abducted by Jove (Greek Zeus) to serve as his cupbearer.
The concubina, a female concubine who might be free, held a protected legal status under Roman law, but the concubinus did not, since he was typically a slave.
Exoletus
Exoletus (pl. exoleti) is the past-participle form of the verb exolescere, which means "to grow up" or "to grow old". The term denotes a male prostitute who services another sexually despite the fact that he himself is past his prime according to the ephebic tastes of Roman homoerotism. Though adult men were expected to take on the role of "penetrator" in their love affairs, such a restriction did not apply to exoleti. In their texts, Pomponius and Juvenal both included characters who were adult male prostitutes and had as clients male citizens who sought their services so they could take a "female" role in bed (see above). In other texts, however, exoleti adopt a receptive position.
The relationship between the exoletus and his partner could begin when he was still a boy and the affair then extended into his adulthood. It is impossible to say how often this happened. For even if there was a tight bond between the couple, the general social expectation was that pederastic affairs would end once the younger partner grew facial hair. As such, when Martial celebrates in two of his epigrams (1.31 and 5.48) the relationship of his friend, the centurion Aulens Pudens, with his slave Encolpos, the poet more than once gives voice to the hope that the latter's beard come late, so that the romance between the pair may last long. Continuing the affair beyond that point could result in damage to the master's repute. Some men, however, insisted on ignoring this convention.
Exoleti appear with certain frequency in Latin texts, both fictional and historical, unlike in Greek literature, suggesting perhaps that adult male-male sex was more common among the Romans than among the Greeks. Ancient sources impute the love of, or the preference for, exoleti (using this or equivalent terms) to various figures of Roman history, such as the tribune Clodius, the emperors Tiberius, Galba, Titus, and Elagabalus, besides other figures encountered in anecdotes, told by writers such as Tacitus, on more ordinary citizens.
Pathicus
Pathicus was a "blunt" word for a male who was penetrated sexually. It derived from the unattested Greek adjective pathikos, from the verb paskhein, equivalent to the Latin deponent patior, pati, passus, "undergo, submit to, endure, suffer". The English word "passive" derives from the Latin passus.
Pathicus and cinaedus are often not distinguished in usage by Latin writers, but cinaedus may be a more general term for a male not in conformity with the role of vir, a "real man", while pathicus specifically denotes an adult male who takes the sexually receptive role. A pathicus was not a "homosexual" as such. His sexuality was not defined by the gender of the person using him as a receptacle for sex, but rather his desire to be so used. Because in Roman culture a man who penetrates another adult male almost always expresses contempt or revenge, the pathicus might be seen as more akin to the sexual masochist in his experience of pleasure. He might be penetrated orally or anally by a man or by a woman with a dildo, but showed no desire for penetrating nor having his own penis stimulated. He might also be dominated by a woman who compels him to perform cunnilingus.
Puer
In the discourse of sexuality, puer ("boy") was a role as well as an age group. Both puer and the feminine equivalent puella, "girl", could refer to a man's sexual partner, regardless of age. As an age designation, the freeborn puer made the transition from childhood at around age 14, when he assumed the "toga of manhood", but he was 17 or 18 before he began to take part in public life. A slave would never be considered a vir, a "real man"; he would be called puer, "boy", throughout his life. Pueri might be "functionally interchangeable" with women as receptacles for sex, but freeborn male minors were strictly off-limits. To accuse a Roman man of being someone's "boy" was an insult that impugned his manhood, particularly in the political arena. The aging cinaedus or an anally passive man might wish to present himself as a puer.
Puer delicatus
The puer delicatus was an "exquisite" or "dainty" child-slave chosen by his master for his beauty as a "boy toy", also referred to as ("sweets" or "delights"). Unlike the freeborn Greek eromenos ("beloved"), who was protected by social custom, the Roman delicatus was in a physically and morally vulnerable position. The "coercive and exploitative" relationship between the Roman master and the delicatus, who might be prepubescent, can be characterized as pedophilic, in contrast to Greek paiderasteia.
Funeral inscriptions found in the ruins of the imperial household under Augustus and Tiberius also indicate that deliciae were kept in the palace and that some slaves, male and female, worked as beauticians for these boys. One of Augustus' pueri is known by name: Sarmentus.
The boy was sometimes castrated in an effort to preserve his youthful qualities; Caroline Vout asserts that the emperor Nero's eunuch Sporus, whom he castrated and married, may have been a puer delicatus.
Pueri delicati might be idealized in poetry and the relationship between him and his master may be painted in what his master viewed as strongly romantic colors. In the Silvae, Statius composed two epitaphs (2.1 and 2.6) to commemorate the relationship of two of his friends with their respective delicati upon the death of the latter. These poems have been argued to demonstrate that such relationships could have an emotional dimension, and it is known from inscriptions in Roman ruins that men could be buried with their delicati, which is evidence of the degree of control that masters would not relinquish, even in death, as well as of a sexual relationship in life.
Both Martial and Statius in a number of poems celebrate the freedman Earinus, a eunuch, and his devotion to the emperor Domitian. Statius goes as far as to describe this relationship as a marriage (3.4).
In the erotic elegies of Tibullus, the delicatus Marathus wears lavish and expensive clothing. The beauty of the delicatus was measured by Apollonian standards, especially in regard to his long hair, which was supposed to be wavy, fair, and scented with perfume. The mythological type of the delicatus was represented by Ganymede, the Trojan youth abducted by Jove (Greek Zeus) to be his divine companion and cupbearer. In the Satyricon, the tastelessly wealthy freedman Trimalchio says that as a child-slave he had been a puer delicatus serving both the master and, secretly, the mistress of the household.
Pullus
Pullus was a term for a young animal, and particularly a chick. It was an affectionate word traditionally used for a boy (puer) who was loved by someone "in an obscene sense".
The lexicographer Festus provides a definition and illustrates with a comic anecdote. Quintus Fabius Maximus Eburnus, a consul in 116 BC and later a censor known for his moral severity, earned his cognomen meaning "Ivory" (the modern equivalent might be "Porcelain") because of his fair good looks (candor). Eburnus was said to have been struck by lightning on his buttocks, perhaps a reference to a birthmark. It was joked that he was marked as "Jove's chick" (pullus Iovis), since the characteristic instrument of the king of the gods was the lightning bolt (see also the relation of Jove's cupbearer Ganymede to "catamite"). Although the sexual inviolability of underage male citizens is usually emphasized, this anecdote is among the evidence that even the most well-born youths might go through a phase in which they could be viewed as "sex objects". Perhaps tellingly, this same member of the illustrious Fabius family ended his life in exile, as punishment for killing his own son for impudicitia.
The 4th-century Gallo-Roman poet Ausonius records the word pullipremo, "chick-squeezer", which he says was used by the early satirist Lucilius.
Pusio
Pusio is etymologically related to puer, and means "boy, lad". It often had a distinctly sexual or sexually demeaning connotation. Juvenal indicates the pusio was more desirable than women because he was less quarrelsome and would not demand gifts from his lover. Pusio was also used as a personal name (cognomen).
Scultimidonus
Scultimidonus ("asshole-bestower") was rare and "florid" slang that appears in a fragment from the early Roman satirist Lucilius. It is glossed as "Those who bestow for free their scultima, that is, their anal orifice, which is called the scultima as if from the inner parts of whores" (scortorum intima).
Impudicitia
The abstract noun impudicitia (adjective impudicus) was the negation of pudicitia, "sexual morality, chastity". As a characteristic of males, it often implies the willingness to be penetrated. Dancing was an expression of male impudicitia.
Impudicitia might be associated with behaviors in young men who retained a degree of boyish attractiveness but were old enough to be expected to behave according to masculine norms. Julius Caesar was accused of bringing the notoriety of infamia upon himself, both when he was about 19, for taking the passive role in an affair with King Nicomedes of Bithynia, and later for many adulterous affairs with women. Seneca the Elder noted that "impudicitia is a crime for the freeborn, a necessity in a slave, a duty for the freedman": male–male sex in Rome asserted the power of the citizen over slaves, confirming his masculinity.
Subculture
Latin had such a wealth of words for men outside the masculine norm that some scholars argue for the existence of a homosexual subculture at Rome; that is, although the noun "homosexual" has no straightforward equivalent in Latin, literary sources reveal a pattern of behaviors among a minority of free men that indicate same-sex preference or orientation. Plautus mentions a street known for male prostitutes. Public baths are also referred to as a place to find sexual partners. Juvenal states that such men scratched their heads with a finger to identify themselves. In his 9th satire, Juvenal describes the life of a male gigolo who earned his living servicing rich passive homosexual men.
Apuleius indicates that cinaedi might form social alliances for mutual enjoyment, such as hosting dinner parties. In his novel The Golden Ass, he describes one group who jointly purchased and shared a concubinus. On one occasion, they invited a "well-endowed" young hick (rusticanus iuvenis) to their party, and took turns performing oral sex on him.
Other scholars, primarily those who argue from the perspective of "cultural constructionism", maintain that there is not an identifiable social group of males who would have self-identified as "homosexual" as a community.
Marriage between males
Although in general the Romans regarded marriage as a male–female union for the purpose of producing children, a few scholars believe that in the early Imperial period some male couples were celebrating traditional marriage rites in the presence of friends. Male–male weddings are reported by sources that mock them; the feelings of the participants are not recorded. Both Martial and Juvenal refer to marriage between males as something that occurs not infrequently, although they disapprove of it. Roman law did not recognize marriage between males, but one of the grounds for disapproval expressed in Juvenal's satire is that celebrating the rites would lead to expectations for such marriages to be registered officially. As the empire was becoming Christianized in the 4th century, legal prohibitions against marriage between males began to appear.
Various ancient sources state that the emperor Nero celebrated two public weddings with males, once taking the role of the bride (with a freedman Pythagoras), and once the groom (with Sporus); there may have been a third in which he was the bride. The ceremonies included traditional elements such as a dowry and the wearing of the Roman bridal veil. In the early 3rd century AD, the emperor Elagabalus is reported to have been the bride in a wedding to his male partner. Other mature men at his court had husbands, or said they had husbands in imitation of the emperor. Although the sources are in general hostile, Dio Cassius implies that Nero's stage performances were regarded as more scandalous than his marriages to men.
The earliest reference in Latin literature to a marriage between males occurs in the Philippics of Cicero, who insulted Mark Antony for being promiscuous in his youth until Curio "established you in a fixed and stable marriage (matrimonium), as if he had given you a stola", the traditional garment of a married woman. Although Cicero's sexual implications are clear, the point of the passage is to cast Antony in the submissive role in the relationship and to impugn his manhood in various ways; there is no reason to think that actual marriage rites were performed.
Male–male rape
Roman law addressed the rape of a male citizen as early as the 2nd century BC, when it was ruled that even a man who was "disreputable and questionable" (famosus, related to infamis, and suspiciosus) had the same right as other free men not to have his body subjected to forced sex. The Lex Julia de vi publica, recorded in the early 3rd century AD but probably dating from the dictatorship of Julius Caesar, defined rape as forced sex against "boy, woman, or anyone"; the rapist was subject to execution, a rare penalty in Roman law. Men who had been raped were exempt from the loss of legal or social standing suffered by those who submitted their bodies to use for the pleasure of others; a male prostitute or entertainer was infamis and excluded from the legal protections extended to citizens in good standing. As a matter of law, a slave could not be raped; he was considered property and not legally a person. The slave's owner, however, could prosecute the rapist for property damage.
Fears of mass rape following a military defeat extended equally to male and female potential victims. According to the jurist Pomponius, "whatever man has been raped by the force of robbers or the enemy in wartime" ought to bear no stigma.
The threat of one man to subject another to anal or oral rape (irrumatio) is a theme of invective poetry, most notably in Catullus's notorious Carmen 16, and was a form of masculine braggadocio. Rape was one of the traditional punishments inflicted on a male adulterer by the wronged husband, though perhaps more in revenge fantasy than in practice.
In a collection of twelve anecdotes dealing with assaults on chastity, the historian Valerius Maximus features male victims in equal number to female. In a "mock trial" case described by the elder Seneca, an adulescens (a man young enough not to have begun his formal career) was gang-raped by ten of his peers; although the case is hypothetical, Seneca assumes that the law permitted the successful prosecution of the rapists. Another hypothetical case imagines the extremity to which a rape victim might be driven: the freeborn male (ingenuus) who was raped commits suicide. The Romans considered the rape of an ingenuus to be among the worst crimes that could be committed, along with parricide, the rape of a female virgin, and robbing a temple.
Same-sex relations in the military
The Roman soldier, like any free and respectable Roman male of status, was expected to show self-discipline in matters of sex. Augustus (reigned 27 BC – 14 AD) even prohibited soldiers from marrying, a ban that remained in force for the Imperial army for nearly two centuries. Other forms of sexual gratification available to soldiers were prostitutes of any gender, male slaves, war rape, and same-sex relations. The Bellum Hispaniense, about Caesar's civil war on the front in Roman Spain, mentions an officer who has a male concubine (concubinus) on campaign. Sex among fellow soldiers, however, violated the Roman decorum against intercourse with another freeborn male. A soldier maintained his masculinity by not allowing his body to be used for sexual purposes.
In warfare, rape symbolized defeat, a motive for the soldier not to make his body sexually vulnerable in general. During the Republic, homosexual behavior among fellow soldiers was subject to harsh penalties, including death, as a violation of military discipline. Polybius (2nd century BC) reports that the punishment for a soldier who willingly submitted to penetration was the fustuarium, clubbing to death.
Roman historians record cautionary tales of officers who abuse their authority to coerce sex from their soldiers, and then suffer dire consequences. The youngest officers, who still might retain some of the adolescent attraction that Romans favored in male–male relations, were advised to beef up their masculine qualities by not wearing perfume, nor trimming nostril and underarm hair. An incident related by Plutarch in his biography of Marius illustrates the soldier's right to maintain his sexual integrity despite pressure from his superiors. A good-looking young recruit named Trebonius had been sexually harassed over a period of time by his superior officer, who happened to be Marius's nephew, Gaius Lusius. One night, after having fended off unwanted advances on numerous occasions, Trebonius was summoned to Lusius's tent. Unable to disobey the command of his superior, he found himself the object of a sexual assault and drew his sword, killing Lusius. A conviction for killing an officer typically resulted in execution. When brought to trial, he was able to produce witnesses to show that he had repeatedly had to fend off Lusius, and "had never prostituted his body to anyone, despite offers of expensive gifts". Marius not only acquitted Trebonius in the killing of his kinsman, but gave him a crown for bravery.
Sex acts
In addition to repeatedly described anal intercourse, oral sex was common. A graffito from Pompeii is unambiguous: "Secundus is a fellator of rare ability" (Secundus felator rarus). In contrast to ancient Greece, a large penis was a major element in attractiveness. Petronius describes a man with a large penis in a public bathroom. Several emperors are reported in a negative light for surrounding themselves with men with large sexual organs.
The Gallo-Roman poet Ausonius (4th century AD) makes a joke about a male threesome that depends on imagining the configurations of group sex:
"Three men in bed together: two are sinning, two are sinned against.""Doesn't that make four men?""You're mistaken: the man on either end is implicated once, but the one in the middle does double duty."
In other words, a 'train' is being alluded to: the first man penetrates the second, who in turn penetrates the third. The first two are "sinning", while the last two are being "sinned against".
Lesbian sex
References to sex between women are infrequent in the Roman literature of the Republic and early Principate. Ovid finds it "a desire known to no one, freakish, novel ... among all animals no female is seized by desire for female". During the Roman Imperial era, sources for same-sex relations among women, though still rare, are more abundant, in the form of love spells, medical writing, texts on astrology and the interpretation of dreams, and other sources. While graffiti written in Latin by men in Roman ruins commonly express desire for both males and females, graffiti imputed to women overwhelmingly express desire only for males, though one graffito from Pompeii may be an exception, and has been read by many scholars as depicting the desire of one woman for another:
I wish I could hold to my neck and embrace the little arms, and bear kisses on the tender lips. Go on, doll, and trust your joys to the winds; believe me, light is the nature of men.
Other readings, unrelated to female homosexual desire, are also possible. According to Roman studies scholar Craig Williams, the verses can also be read as, "a poetic soliloquy in which a woman ponders her own painful experiences with men and addresses herself in Catullan manner; the opening wish for an embrace and kisses express a backward-looking yearning for her man."
Greek words for a woman who prefers sex with another woman include hetairistria (compare hetaira, "courtesan" or "companion"), tribas (plural tribades), and Lesbia; Latin words include the loanword tribas, fricatrix ("she who rubs"), and virago. An early reference to same-sex relations among women is found in the Roman-era Greek writer Lucian (2nd century CE): "They say there are women like that in Lesbos, masculine-looking, but they don't want to give it up for men. Instead, they consort with women, just like men."
Since Romans thought a sex act required an active or dominant partner who was "phallic", male writers imagined that in female–female sex one of the women would use a dildo or have an exceptionally large clitoris for penetration, and that she would be the one experiencing pleasure. Dildos are rarely mentioned in Roman sources, but were a popular comic item in Classical Greek literature and art. There is only one known depiction of a woman penetrating another woman in Roman art, whereas women using dildos is common in Greek vase painting.
Martial describes women acting sexually actively with other women as having outsized sexual appetites and performing penetrative sex on both women and boys. Imperial portrayals of women who sodomize boys, drink and eat like men, and engage in vigorous physical regimens may reflect cultural anxieties about the growing independence of Roman women.
Gender presentation
Cross-dressing appears in Roman literature and art in various ways to mark the uncertainties and ambiguities of gender:
as political invective, when a politician is accused of dressing seductively or effeminately;
as a mythological trope, as in the story of Hercules and Omphale exchanging roles and attire;
as a form of religious investiture, as for the priesthood of the Galli;
and rarely or ambiguously as transvestic fetishism.
A section of the Digest by Ulpian categorizes Roman clothing on the basis of who may appropriately wear it: vestimenta virilia, "men's clothing", is defined as the attire of the paterfamilias, "head of household"; puerilia is clothing that serves no purpose other than to mark its wearer as a "child" or minor; muliebria are the garments that characterize a materfamilias; communia, those that are "common", that is, worn by either sex; and familiarica, clothing for the familia, the subordinates in a household, including the staff and slaves. A man who wore women's clothes, Ulpian notes, would risk making himself the object of scorn. Female prostitutes were the only women in ancient Rome who wore the distinctively masculine toga. The wearing of the toga may signal that prostitutes were outside the normal social and legal category of "woman".
A fragment from the playwright Accius (170–86 BC) seems to refer to a father who secretly wore "virgin's finery". An instance of transvestism is noted in a legal case, in which "a certain senator accustomed to wear women's evening clothes" was disposing of the garments in his will. In the "mock trial" exercise presented by the elder Seneca, the young man (adulescens) was gang-raped while wearing women's clothes in public, but his attire is explained as his acting on a dare by his friends, not as a choice based on gender identity or the pursuit of erotic pleasure.
Gender ambiguity was a characteristic of the priests of the goddess Cybele known as Galli, whose ritual attire included items of women's clothing. They are sometimes considered a transgender or transsexual priesthood, since they were required to be castrated in imitation of Attis. The complexities of gender identity in the religion of Cybele and the Attis myth are explored by Catullus in one of his longest poems, Carmen 63.
Macrobius describes a masculine form of "Venus" (Aphrodite) who received cult on Cyprus; she had a beard and male genitals, but wore women's clothing. The deity's worshippers cross-dressed, men wearing women's clothes, and women men's. The Latin poet Laevius wrote of worshipping "nurturing Venus" whether female or male (sive femina sive mas). The figure was sometimes called Aphroditos. In several surviving examples of Greek and Roman sculpture, the love goddess pulls up her garments to reveal her male genitalia, a gesture that traditionally held apotropaic or magical power.
Intersex
Pliny notes that "there are even those who are born of both sexes, whom we call hermaphrodites, at one time androgyni" (andr-, "man", and gyn-, "woman", from the Greek). Some commentators see hermaphroditism as a "violation of social boundaries, especially those as fundamental to daily life as male and female". The era also saw a historical account of a congenital eunuch.
Under Christian rule
Attitudes toward same-sex behavior changed as Christianity became more prominent in the Empire. The modern perception of Roman sexual decadence can be traced to early Christian polemic. Apart from measures to protect the liberty of citizens, the prosecution of male–male sex as a general crime began in the 3rd century when male prostitution was banned by Philip the Arab. A series of laws regulating male–male sex were promulgated during the social crisis of the 3rd century, from the statutory rape of minors to marriage between males.
By the end of the 4th century, anally passive men under the Christian Empire were punished by burning. "Death by sword" was the punishment for a "man coupling like a woman" under the Theodosian Code. It is in the 6th century, under Justinian, that legal and moral discourse on male–male sex becomes distinctly Abrahamic: all male–male sex, passive or active, no matter who the partners, was declared contrary to nature and punishable by death. Male–male sex was pointed to as cause for God's wrath following a series of disasters around 542 and 559.
See also
Catamite
Erotic art in Pompeii and Herculaneum
Greek love
Kagema
Homoeroticism
History of erotic depictions
History of homosexuality
Homosexuality in ancient Greece
Homosexuality in China
Homosexuality in India
Homosexuality in Japan
Lex Scantinia, a poorly documented Roman law that regulated erotic affairs between freeborn men
LGBT history in Italy
Pederasty
Pederasty in ancient Greece
Sexuality in ancient Rome
Societal attitudes toward homosexuality
Spintria
Wakashū
Notes
Literature
Boswell, John. Christianity, Social Tolerance, and Homosexuality. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980. Esp. pp. 61–87.
Clarke, John R. “Sexuality and Visual Representation.” In A Companion to Greek and Roman Sexualities, edited by Thomas K. Hubbard, 509–33. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
Hubbard, Thomas K., ed. Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents. Los Angeles, London: University of California Press, 2003.
Lelis, Arnold A., William A. Percy, and Beert C. Verstraete. The Age of Marriage in Ancient Rome. Lewiston, New York: Edwin Mellen Press, 2003.
Skinner, Marilyn B. Sexuality in Greek and Roman Culture. 2nd edition. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014.
Williams, Craig. Roman Homosexuality: Ideologies of Masculinity in Classical Antiquity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.
Williams, Craig. Roman Homosexuality. 2nd edition. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
External links
Sexuality in ancient Rome
Rome
Rome
Gay history
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1994%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1994 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1994 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative)
Parliament – 51st
Events
January
4 January – Following the expulsion of the British ambassador from Sudan, the Foreign Office orders the Sudanese ambassador to leave Britain.
8 January – Jayne Torvill and Christopher Dean win the British ice-dancing championship at the Sheffield Arena.
10 January – Two government ministers resign: Lord Caithness following the suicide of his wife, and Tim Yeo following the revelation that he fathered a child with Conservative councillor Julia Stent.
14 January – The Duchess of Kent joins the Roman Catholic Church, the first member of the Royal Family to convert to Catholicism for more than 300 years.
18 January – The Prince of Wales (now Charles III) retires from competitive polo at the age of 45.
20 January
Despite the continuing economic recovery and falling unemployment, the Conservative government is now 20 points behind Labour (who score at 48%) in the latest MORI poll.
Sir Matt Busby, the legendary former Manchester United manager, dies aged 84.
25 January – Jimmy Boyce, the newly elected Labour MP for Rotherham in South Yorkshire, dies suddenly of a heart attack aged 47.
31 January – British Aerospace sells its 80% stake in Rover to BMW, leaving Britain without an independent volume carmaker. It is envisaged that the new Rover Group will produce more than 1 million cars per year worldwide and will be Europe's seventh largest carmaker.
February
1 February
John Smith (Labour Party leader) strongly criticises the sale of the Rover Group, saying that it only satisfied British Aerospace's short-term need for cash. In contrast, Prime Minister John Major backs the takeover as giving the Rover Group excellent prospects for export markets and investment.
Jo Richardson, the Labour MP for Barking in London, dies in office aged 70.
4 February – British Coal confirms the closure of four more pits, a move which will claim some 3,000 jobs.
7 February – Stephen Milligan, Conservative MP for Eastleigh in Hampshire, is found dead aged 45 at his home in Chiswick, West London. On 11 February it is announced that forensic tests have revealed that he died of asphyxiation and that his death was probably the result of an auto-erotic sex practice.
10 February – Three men are jailed in connection with the IRA bombings of Warrington gasworks 11 months previous. Pairic MacFhloinn is jailed for 35 years, Denis Kinsella for 25 years and John Kinsella for 20 years.
12–27 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, and win 2 bronze medals.
21 February – Honda sells its 20% stake of the Rover Group, allowing BMW to take full control. This marks the end of the 13-year venture between the two carmakers, although the Honda-based Rover 400 will still go into production next year, becoming the seventh and final product of the venture.
24 February – Police in Gloucester begin excavations at 25 Cromwell Street, the home of 52-year-old builder Fred West, investigating the disappearance of his daughter Heather, who was last seen alive in the summer of 1987 when she was 16 years old.
28 February
Fred West is charged with the murder of his daughter Heather and of the murder of Shirley Robinson, an 18-year-old woman who was last seen alive in 1978.
Ron Leighton, the Labour MP for Newham North East in London, dies in office aged 64.
March
8, 10 and 13 March – The IRA launch three successive mortar attacks on Heathrow Airport.
8 March – Police in Gloucester confirm that they have now found the bodies of eight people buried at 25 Cromwell Street.
12 March – The first women are ordained as priests in the Church of England, at Bristol Cathedral, the very first being Angela Berners-Wilson.
19 March – Europe's first inverted roller coaster, Nemesis, opens at Alton Towers.
April
April – Economic growth for the first quarter of this year exceeded 1% – the highest for five years.
1 April – Women's Royal Air Force fully merged into Royal Air Force.
10 April – Human remains are found at Kempley, Gloucestershire, by police working on the Gloucester mass murder case. The body is believed to be that of Catherine "Rena" Costello, Fred West's first wife, who was last seen alive in 1971.
12 April – Bob Cryer, the Labour MP for Bradford South in West Yorkshire, is accidentally killed after his car overturns on the M1 near Watford, Hertfordshire, aged 59.
20 April – Unemployment has fallen to just over 2,500,000 – the lowest level in two years – as the economy continues to make a good recovery from the recession that ended a year ago.
28 April – Rosemary West, 40-year-old wife of suspected serial killer Fred West, is charged with three of the murders her husband stands accused of. Rosemary West was first arrested seven days ago, two months after her husband was first taken into custody.
29 April – An opinion poll shows that Conservative support has fallen to 26% – their worst showing in any major opinion poll since coming to power 15 years ago.
May
4 May – Police find human remains buried at a former home of Fred and Rose West in Gloucester. The body is believed to be that of Fred West's daughter Charmaine, who was last seen alive at the age of 8 in the summer of 1971.
5 May
Local council elections see the Conservatives lose 429 seats and control of 18 councils.
The Rotherham by-election is held; Denis MacShane holds the seat for Labour.
6 May – The Channel Tunnel, a long rail tunnel beneath the English Channel at the Strait of Dover, officially opened.
9 May – Release of Scottish group Wet Wet Wet's cover of the song "Love Is All Around" (1967), as featured in Four Weddings and a Funeral. From 29 May it will spend 15 consecutive weeks at number one in the UK Singles Chart, the longest spell ever attained by a British act.
12 May – John Smith (Labour Party leader) dies suddenly of a massive heart attack in London at 55 years old.
13 May – The film Four Weddings and a Funeral is released in the UK.
17 May – Bryan Gould, the Labour MP who unsuccessfully lost to John Smith in the 1992 leadership election, resigns from the House of Commons, triggering a by-election in his Dagenham constituency.
19 May – Robert Black, who was jailed for life four years ago for abducting a seven-year-old girl in the Scottish Borders, is found guilty of murdering three girls (Caroline Hogg, Susan Maxwell and Sarah Harper) who were killed during the 1980s and sentenced to life imprisonment with a recommended minimum term of 35 years.
25 May – The Camelot Group consortium wins the contract to run the UK's first National Lottery.
31 May – Tony Blair and Gordon Brown have dinner at the Granita restaurant in Islington and allegedly make a deal on who will become the leader of the Labour Party, and ultimately, the next Prime Minister of the United Kingdom.
June
2 June – Chinook crash on Mull of Kintyre: an RAF Chinook helicopter carrying more than twenty leading intelligence experts crashes on the Mull of Kintyre, killing everyone on board.
7 June
Television playwright Dennis Potter, 59, dies of cancer in Ross-on-Wye, a week after his wife Margaret died of the same illness.
Police working on the Gloucester mass murder case find and begin the 2-day recovery of human remains from a field at Much Marcle, near Gloucester (a site located by Fred West), which are identified on 30 June to be those of Anne McFall, who was last seen alive in 1967 at the age of 18 and pregnant with West's child.
9 June
David Chidgey wins the Eastleigh seat for the Liberal Democrats in the by-election sparked by Stephen Milligan's death; the Tory majority now stands at 15 seats compared with the 21-seat majority they gained at the general election two years ago.
By-elections are held in the seats of Barking, Bradford South, Dagenham and Newham North East; all four are held by Labour.
13 June – The Conservatives suffer their worst election results this century, winning a mere 18 out of 87 of the nation's seats in the European parliament elections. The resurgent Labour Party, still without a leader as the search for a successor to the late John Smith continues, wins 62 seats.
16 June – Sir Norman Fowler resigns as chairman of the Conservative Party.
15 June – Britain's railways grind to a virtual standstill with a strike by more than 4,000 signalling staff.
29 June – Jonathan Dimbleby's film on Charles III, Charles: The Private Man, the Public Role is broadcast on ITV.
30 June
Magistrates in Gloucester charge Fred West with a total of 11 murders believed to have been committed between 1967 and 1987, while Rose West is charged with nine murders which are believed to have been committed between 1970 and 1987. On 3 July he is charged with a 12th murder, that of Anna McFall.
Helen Liddell, a former aide to Robert Maxwell, is elected as the new Labour MP for Monklands East in the by-election caused by the death of John Smith.
July
14 July – The Queen opens the SIS Building, the new headquarters of MI6 on the banks of the River Thames in London.
21 July – Tony Blair wins the Labour Party leadership election defeating John Prescott and Margaret Beckett.
26 July – The Embassy of Israel, London is damaged in a bombing.
August
1 August
Fire destroys the Norwich Central Library, including most of its historical records.
The University of London founds the School of Advanced Study, a group of postgraduate research institutes.
13 August – Fifteen-year-old Richard Everitt is stabbed to death in London by a gang of British Bangladeshis in a racially motivated murder.
18 August – The first MORI poll since Tony Blair became Labour Party leader gives him a massive boost in his ambition to become prime minister as his party scores at 56% and has a 33-point lead over the Conservatives, who are now just five points ahead of the Liberal Democrats.
20 August – Huddersfield Town move into their new all-seater Alfred McAlpine Stadium, which has an initial capacity of 16,000 and will rise to 20,000 later this year on the completion of a third stand; a fourth stand is also planned and would take the capacity to around 25,000.
26 August – Sunday Trading Act 1994 (5 July) comes into full effect, permitting retailers to trade on Sundays, though restricting opening times of larger stores to a maximum of six hours, which must be between 10 am and 6 pm. This will have a significant social effect on shopping habits.
31 August – The Provisional Irish Republican Army declares a ceasefire.
September
September – Lidl, a German discount food supermarket chain, opens its first 10 stores in Britain.
2 September – Television entertainer Roy Castle, who became best known to British viewers as the long-running presenter of the BBC children's series Record Breakers, dies from lung cancer at the age of 62.
2–4 September – The first Whitby Goth Weekend takes place in Whitby, North Yorkshire, featuring Inkubus Sukkubus, 13 Candles, Nightmoves, All Living Fear.
30 September – Aldwych, North Weald and Ongar railway stations on the London Underground close permanently after the last trains run.
October
October – Rover Group launches the Rover 100 – a facelifted version of the Metro.
10 October – With the economic recovery continuing at a strong rate, unemployment is now falling at twice the rate in Conservative constituencies than in Labour ones, giving the Conservatives hope that they could win the next general election (which has to be held by May 1997) despite Labour having led the way in the opinion polls for virtually all of the two-and-a-half years since the last election.
12 October – John Blackburn, the Conservative MP for Dudley West in the West Midlands, dies suddenly of a heart attack aged 61.
20 October – Cash-for-questions affair: The Guardian newspaper reports that two Conservative MPs, Neil Hamilton and Tim Smith, took bribes from Harrods chief Mohamed Al-Fayed to ask questions in the House of Commons.
30 October – Korean industrial giant Daewoo announces that it will start selling cars in Britain next year, selling directly to customers through its own sales organisation rather than a traditional dealer network.
31 October – The Duke of Edinburgh attends a ceremony in Israel where his late mother, Princess Alice of Battenberg is honoured as "Righteous among the Nations" for sheltering Jewish families from the Nazis in Athens, during World War II.
November
3 November – Criminal Justice and Public Order Act receives Royal Assent. This changes the right to silence of an accused person, allowing for inferences to be drawn from their silence; increases police powers of "Stop and search" and gives them greater rights to take and retain intimate body samples; changes the law relating to collective trespass to land, criminalising some previously civil offences; tightens the law in some areas relating to obscenity, pornography and sexual offences; and lowers the age of consent for male homosexual acts from twenty-one years to eighteen, while setting the age for female acts at sixteen, for the first time in English law recognising the existence of lesbianism.
10 November – BBC1 broadcasts the first episode of sitcom The Vicar of Dibley, created by Richard Curtis for Dawn French, who plays the title role.
15 November – The Daily Telegraph becomes the first national newspaper in Britain to launch an online edition, the Electronic Telegraph. Some 600,000 people in Britain now have access to the internet at home.
16 November – Unemployment has fallen to under 2,500,000 for the first time since the end of 1991.
19 November – The first UK National Lottery draw takes place.
December
December – Rover Group ends production of its long-running Maestro and Montego ranges which were strong sellers during the 1980s but in recent years has been produced in lower volumes due to the success of models like the Rover 200.
9 December – First meeting between the British government and Sinn Féin in more than 70 years.
14 December – Moors murderer Myra Hindley, who has been in prison since 1966, is informed by the Home Office that she will never be released from prison. She is one of an estimated 15 life sentence prisoners who have been issued with the whole life tariff. The decision was taken by former Home Secretary David Waddington in 1990. Ian Brady who was also jailed with Hindley in May 1966, is also on the list.
15 December
Tony Blair continues to enjoy dominance in the opinion polls as the latest MORI poll shows Labour support at an unprecedented 61%, putting them a massive 39 points ahead of the Conservatives. The Liberal Democrats have suffered a slump in popularity, gained just 13% of the vote in this poll compared to 20% a year ago.
Ian Pearson wins the Dudley West by-election for Labour with nearly 70% of the votes, becoming the new MP for the constituency which was left vacant with the death of Conservative John Blackburn two months ago. The Conservative majority has now fallen to 13 seats.
28 December – Tony Blair claims that 40% of the workforce have been unemployed at some time since 1989, although there has never been more than 10.6% of the workforce out of work at the same time since then.
Undated
Deregulation of the British milk market following the abolition of most functions of the Milk Marketing Board under terms of the Agriculture Act 1993.
All Saints Church in Dewsbury is raised to the dignity of Dewsbury Minster, the first such modern elevation in the Church of England.
Publications
Iain M. Banks' novel Feersum Endjinn.
Edwina Currie's novel A Parliamentary Affair.
Simon Hopkinson's cookbook Roast Chicken and Other Stories.
James Kelman's novel How Late It Was, How Late.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Soul Music and Interesting Times.
Sexual Behaviour in Britain: the national survey of sexual attitudes and lifestyles by Kaye Wellings et al.
Births
3 January – Olivia Bowen, reality television personality
14 January – Abi Phillips, singer-songwriter and actress
17 January – Lucy Boynton, actress
18 January – Sam Strike, actor
19 January – Alfie Mawson, footballer
21 January – Laura Robson, Australian-born tennis player
30 January – Amelia Dimoldenberg, media personality
1 February – Harry Styles, pop singer-songwriter, member of boyband One Direction
6 February – Charlie Heaton, actor
12 February – Reece Topley, cricketer
22 February – Jake Hill, English racing driver
24 February – Ryan Fraser, footballer
7 March – Jordan Pickford, goalkeeper
10 March – Nikita Parris, footballer
11 March – Andrew Robertson, footballer
11 April – Dakota Blue Richards, actress
19 April – Freya Ridings, singer
25 April – Sam Fender, singer
5 May – Celeste, American-born singer
9 May – Ryan Auger, footballer
21 May – Tom Daley, diver
28 May – John Stones, footballer
1 June – Ross Greer, Scottish politician
19 June – Scarlxrd, rapper
23 June – Jamie Borthwick, actor
28 June – Madeline Duggan, actress
1 July – Fallon Sherrock, darts player
6 July – Camilla and Rebecca Rosso, twin actresses
21 July – Jamal Lowe, footballer
14 August – Maya Jama, television and radio presenter
10 September – Hetti Bywater, actress
12 September – Mhairi Black, Scottish politician
19 September – Alex Etel, English actor
20 September – Wallis Day, actress
21 September – Ben Proud, English swimmer
24 September – Alex Mellor, rugby league player
17 October – Ben Duckett, cricketer
18 October – Jake Connor, rugby league player
1 November – James Ward-Prowse, footballer
3 November − Ella Mai, singer
6 November − Paul Mullin, footballer
9 November – MNEK, singer
11 November – Ellie Simmons, paralympic swimmer
30 November – William Melling, actor
12 December – Mitchell Pinnock, footballer
16 December – Olivia Gray, née Grant, actress
28 December – Adam Peaty, swimmer
Deaths
January
1 January
William Chappell, ballet dancer and director (born 1907)
Peggy Simpson, actress (born 1913)
E. A. Thompson, Marxist historian (born 1914, Ireland)
3 January
Katharine Elliot, Baroness Elliot of Harwood, politician and public servant (born 1903)
Norman Hepple, painter (born 1908); accidentally killed
Heather Sears, actress (born 1935)
5 January
David Bates, physicist and mathematician (born 1916)
Brian Johnston, BBC cricket commentator (born 1912)
7 January
Arthur Dooley, artist and sculptor (born 1929)
Llewellyn Rees, actor (born 1901)
10 January – Michael Aldridge, actor (born 1920)
17 January – Robin Turton, Baron Tranmire, politician (born 1903)
20 January – Sir Matt Busby, football player and manager (born 1909)
21 January – Tony Waddington, football manager (born 1924)
23 January – Brian Redhead, journalist and broadcaster (born 1929)
25 January – Jimmy Boyce, politician (born 1947)
27 January – Sir Frank Twiss, Royal Navy admiral (born 1910)
30 January – Oswald Phipps, 4th Marquess of Normanby, peer and philanthropist (born 1912)
February
1 February – Jo Richardson, politician (born 1923)
2 February – Anona Winn, actress (born 1904, Australia)
3 February – Frederick Copleston, Jesuit priest, philosopher and historian (born 1907)
4 February – Jane Arbor, novelist (born 1903)
6 February
Norman Del Mar, musician and biographer (born 1919)
Gwen Watford, actress (born 1927)
7 February
Stephen Milligan, politician (born 1948)
Sir Charles Leslie Richardson, Army general and World War II veteran (born 1908)
10 February – Mel Calman, cartoonist (born 1931)
11 February – Sir Vincent Wigglesworth, entomologist (born 1899)
13 February – Michael Lindsay, 2nd Baron Lindsay of Birker, peer and academic (born 1909)
14 February – Margaret Lane, novelist and biographer (born 1907)
18 February
Ruth Adler, feminist and human rights campaigner (born 1944)
John Tedder, 2nd Baron Tedder, peer and chemist (born 1926)
Barbara Willard, novelist (born 1929)
19 February – Derek Jarman, film director, stage designer, artist and writer (born 1942)
27 February – Harold Acton, writer and scholar (born 1904)
28 February – Ron Leighton, politician (born 1930)
March
1 March – Tim Souster, musician and writer on music (born 1943)
2 March – Donald M. MacKinnon, philosopher and theologian (born 1913)
8 March – Rosemary Du Cros, aviator (born 1901)
9 March – Jon Kimche, journalist and historian (born 1909, Switzerland)
10 March – Rupert Bruce-Mitford, archaeologist (born 1914)
11 March
Evelyn Gardner, socialite (born 1903)
Brenda Wootton, folk singer and poet (born 1928)
15 March – Jack Hargreaves, television presenter and writer (born 1911)
16 March – Richard Nugent, Baron Nugent of Guildford, politician (born 1907)
18 March
Andrew Crawford, actor (born 1917)
David Ginsburg, politician (born 1921)
23 March – Donald Swann, composer (born 1923)
27 March – Frances Donaldson, writer and biographer (born 1907)
28 March – Richard Brandram, Army major and husband of Princess Katherine of Greece and Denmark (born 1911)
29 March – Bill Travers, actor and co-founder of the Born Free Foundation (born 1922)
April
1 April – Ian MacDonald Campbell, civil engineer (born 1922)
7 April
Lee Brilleaux, singer (Dr. Feelgood) (born 1952)
Cecil Gould, art historian (born 1918)
8 April – Irene Eisinger, opera singer and film actress (born 1903, German Empire)
9 April
Anthony E. Pratt, musician and inventor of the board game Cluedo (born 1903)
Keith Watson, comics artist (born 1935)
12 April
Bob Cryer, politician (born 1934); car accident
Pamela Mitford, socialite and one of the Mitford sisters (born 1907)
13 April – Bert Ramelson, communist politician (born 1910)
14 April – Evelyn King, politician (born 1907)
15 April – John Curry, figure skater (born 1949)
16 April – Leslie Flint, psychic medium (born 1911)
19 April
Michael Carreras, film director and producer (born 1927)
Tommy McCue, rugby league player (born 1913)
25 April – David Langton, actor (born 1912)
27 April – Lynne Frederick, actress (born 1954)
30 April – Herbert Bowden, Baron Aylestone, politician (born 1905)
May
8 May – Lady Victoria Wemyss, last surviving godchild of Queen Victoria (born 1890)
11 May – Alfred James Broomhall, missionary to China (born 1911)
12 May
Sir Alfred Beit, 2nd Baronet, politician, art collector and philanthropist (born 1903)
John Smith, Leader of the Labour Party and Leader of the Opposition (born 1938)
13 May – Duncan Hamilton, racing driver (born 1920)
14 May – Brian Roper, actor and estate agent (born 1929)
15 May – Alexander Nove, economist and economic historian (born 1915, Russian Empire)
19 May – Joseph Chatt, chemist (born 1914)
20 May – Ingrid Hafner, actress (born 1936)
21 May
Ralph Miliband, sociologist and father of David and Ed Miliband (born 1924)
Cliff Wilson, snooker player (born 1934)
23 May – Joan Vickers, Baroness Vickers, politician (born 1907)
24 May – John Wain, novelist, poet and critic (born 1925)
29 May
Lady May Abel Smith, British royalty (born 1906)
Peter Cranmer, sportsman (born 1914)
30 May – Donald Hill, science historian (born 1922)
31 May – Sidney Gilliat, film director, producer and writer (born 1908)
June
3 June – Stuart Blanch, former archbishop of York (born 1918)
4 June
Derek Leckenby, guitarist (born 1943)
Peter Thorneycroft, Baron Thorneycroft, politician, Chancellor of the Exchequer (1957–1958) (born 1909)
6 June
Peter Graves, 8th Baron Graves, peer and actor (born 1911)
Mark McManus, Scottish actor (born 1935)
7 June – Dennis Potter, screenwriter (born 1935)
12 June – William Elgin Swinton, paleontolgist (born 1900)
14 June
Lionel Grigson, jazz musician (born 1942)
Denys Hay, historian (born 1915)
16 June – Eileen Way, actress (born 1911)
17 June
Len White, footballer (born 1930)
Frank Yates, statistician (born 1902)
19 June – Anthony Coke, 6th Earl of Leicester, peer (born 1909)
22 June – Jack Davies, screenwriter (born 1913)
24 June – Leon MacLaren, philosopher (born 1910)
26 June – Thomas Armstrong, organist, composer, conductor and educationalist (born 1898)
July
3 July – Felix Kelly, designer and artist (born 1914, New Zealand)
5 July – Charles Comfort, Scottish-born painter, sculptor, teacher and writer (born 1900)
6 July – Geoff McQueen, screenwriter (born 1947)
9 July – Trevor King, Ulster loyalist (born 1953); murdered
12 July
James Joll, historian (born 1918)
David Malcolm Lewis, historian (born 1928)
14 July – Rosalind Shand, aristocrat and mother of Queen Camilla (born 1921)
21 July – John Ernest, American-born constructivist artist (born 1922)
23 July – John Marlow Thompson, World War II air ace (born 1914)
25 July
Walter Baxter, novelist (born 1915)
Jack Clemo, poet and writer (born 1916)
26 July – Terry Scott, comic actor (born 1927)
28 July – Bernard Delfont, theatrical impresario (born 1909, Russian Empire)
29 July – Dorothy Hodgkin, chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1910)
30 July – Derek Raymond, crime writer (born 1931)
31 July
Anne Shelton, singer (born 1923)
Caitlin Thomas, author and wife of Dylan Thomas (born 1913)
August
1 August – Romilly Lunge, actor (born 1904)
4 August – Solomon Adler, economist and Soviet spy (born 1909)
7 August – Larry Martyn, comic actor (born 1934)
11 August
Gordon Cullen, architect and urban designer (born 1914)
Peter Cushing, actor (born 1913)
14 August – Joan Harrison, screenwriter (born 1907)
15 August – Syd Dale, composer (born 1924)
18 August
John Beavan, Baron Ardwick, journalist (born 1910)
Richard Laurence Millington Synge, chemist and Nobel Prize winner (born 1914)
19 August – Nancy Lancaster, interior designer (born 1897)
27 August – Fred Griffiths, actor (born 1912)
29 August
Marea Hartman, athletics administrator (born 1920)
Arthur Mourant, chemist, haematologist and geneticist (born 1904)
30 August – Lindsay Anderson, film and theatre director (born 1923)
September
2 September – Roy Castle, actor and entertainer (born 1932)
3 September – Billy Wright, footballer, football manager and husband of Joy Beverley (born 1924)
4 September
Mark Bonham Carter, Baron Bonham-Carter, publisher and politician (born 1922)
Roger Thomas, politician (born 1925)
6 September – Nicky Hopkins, pianist and organist (born 1944)
7 September – Eric Crozier, theatrical director and opera librettist (born 1914)
8 September – Margaret Guido, archaeologist (born 1912)
9 September – Donald Court, paediatrician (born 1912)
11 September – Jessica Tandy, actress (born 1909)
13 September – John Stevens, rock drummer (born 1940)
16 September – Johnny Berry, footballer (born 1926)
17 September – Sir Karl Popper, philosopher, academic and social commentator (born 1902, Austria-Hungary)
22 September
Leonard Feather, jazz pianist and composer (born 1914)
Andrew Rothstein, journalist (born 1898)
Edward Shackleton, Baron Shackleton, geographer, RAF officer and politician (born 1911)
25 September – Mark Abrams, sociologist (born 1906)
26 September – Maurice Ashley, historian (born 1907)
29 September – O. S. Nock, railway signal engineer and writer on railways (born 1905)
30 September – Alex Scott, racehorse trainer (born 1960); murdered
October
1 October – Ron Herron, architect (born 1930)
2 October – Matthew Black, Scottish minister and biblical scholar (born 1908)
7 October – James Hill, film director (born 1919)
8 October – Diana Churchill, actress (born 1913)
9 October – Philip Burton Moon, nuclear physicist (born 1907)
10 October – Richard J. C. Atkinson, archaeologist (born 1920)
12 October – John Blackburn, politician (born 1933)
14 October – Gioconda de Vito, violinist (born 1907, Italy)
16 October
Peter Bromilow, actor (born 1933)
Monja Danischewsky, film producer and writer (born 1911, Russian Empire)
20 October – Robert Medley, artist (born 1905)
22 October – Harold Hopkins, physicist (born 1918)
23 October – Jack Gibson, schoolmaster and mountaineer (born 1908)
28 October
William Boon, chemist (born 1911)
Marcia Anastasia Christoforides, philanthropist, art collector and racehorse owner (born 1909)
31 October – Sir John Pope-Hennessy, art historian (born 1913)
November
3 November – Archibald Stinchcombe, ice hockey player (born 1912)
5 November – Patrick Dean, diplomat (born 1909)
8 November – Marianne Straub, textile designer (born 1909, Switzerland)
9 November – Ralph Michael, actor (born 1907)
11 November
Stephen Dykes Bower, church architect (born 1903)
Ernest Clark, actor (born 1912)
Elizabeth Maconchy, composer (born 1907)
12 November – J. I. M. Stewart, novelist (born 1906)
13 November – John Bishop Harman, physician (born 1907)
14 November – Humphry Berkeley, politician (born 1926)
15 November – Janet Ahlberg, children's writer (born 1944)
16 November – Doris Speed, actress (born 1899)
18 November – Michael Somes, ballet dancer (born 1917)
19 November – Julian Symons, crime writer and poet (born 1912)
23 November – Austen Albu, politician (born 1903)
24 November – George Douglas-Hamilton, 10th Earl of Selkirk, peer and politician (born 1906)
26 November – David Bache, automobile designer (born 1925)
28 November
Charles Howard, 12th Earl of Carlisle, peer (born 1923)
Ian Serraillier, novelist and poet (born 1912)
December
4 December – Sir Geoffrey Elton, historian (born 1921, Germany)
6 December – Alun Owen, actor and screenwriter (born 1925)
10 December – Keith Joseph, Baron Joseph, lawyer and politician (born 1918)
12 December – Sir Evelyn Shuckburgh, diplomat (born 1909)
13 December – Norman Beaton, actor (born 1934, British Guiana)
14 December – Sir Edmund Hudleston, RAF officer (born 1908)
15 December – Mollie Phillips, figure skater (born 1907)
18 December
Heinz Bernard, actor and theatre manager (born 1923)
David Pitt, Baron Pitt of Hampstead, politician and physician (born 1913)
19 December – James Elphinstone, 18th Lord Elphinstone, Scottish peer (born 1953)
20 December – Phelim O'Neill, 2nd Baron Rathcavan, peer and politician (born 1909)
21 December – Mabel Poulton, actress (born 1901)
22 December – J. A. Todd, mathematician (born 1908)
23 December – Sebastian Shaw, actor and writer (born 1905)
24 December – John Osborne, actor and playwright (born 1929)
25 December – Cyril Garnham, parasitologist (born 1901)
26 December – Jock Campbell, Baron Campbell of Eskan, businessman (born 1912)
27 December
Fanny Cradock, cookery writer and TV chef (born 1909)
Steve Plytas, actor (born 1913, Ottoman Empire)
30 December – Maureen Starkey Tigrett, hairdresser and first wife of Ringo Starr (born 1946)
See also
1994 in British music
1994 in British television
List of British films of 1994
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5140214
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20works%20by%20Clough%20Williams-Ellis
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List of works by Clough Williams-Ellis
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Sources
Compiled by Gareth Hughes, based on the preliminary list of drawings held in the RIBA Drawings Collection.
This is as complete a list as can be achieved, although some works have gone unrecorded because of the loss of most of Clough Williams-Ellis's office papers in a fire in 1951. In addition, a number of drawings in the collection are not from Clough's office and may represent schemes on which he was asked to comment, rather than design projects by him.
– entries marked thus are known or reputed to be by Clough but are not represented in the RIBA Drawings Collection.
RIBA Catalogue references are shown as [general location / file], or file(sheets) where there is more than one sheet of drawings for a project.
Argentina
Buenos Aires
Exhibition pavilion for the Ffestiniog District Slate Quarry Proprietors' Association at the Exposición Internacional del Centenario (1910)
China
Guangdong
Shantou
Design for agent's house, ca. 1922 [PA439/16]
Liaoning
Dalian
Design for house at Sakaki-Machi, 1934 [PA481/2(1-2)]
Shanghai
Shanghai
Design for manager's house, for Messrs. Butterfield & Swire, 1924-ca. 1935 [PA442/10(1-36)]
England
Bedfordshire
Henlow
Working drawing for memorial cross, for Christopher Gurney (print), 1927 [PA428/10(1-2)]
Design for tomb [PA428/11]
Berkshire
Barkham / Finchampstead: Ridgelands House
Bradfield
Bradfield College, design for house, plan & elevation, 1924, & design for Housemaster's House, 1925 [PA430/5(1-9)]
Caversham Place
Design for 12 bedroom house, for Major-General Sir Cecil Edward Pereira, 1923 [PA2044/6(1-2)]
Design for house, for Major General Sir C. E. Pereira, plans, elevation & sketch perspective, 1923–24 [PA432/11(1-14)]
Ridge House: Design for alterations [PA442/1(1-3)]
Shrivenham (now in Oxfordshire)
Village centre, design, for Viscountess Barrington, 1919 [PA442/14(1-7)]
Buckinghamshire
Bulstrode Park
Layout of draft development scheme, 1931 [PA431/7(1-3)]
Denham
Savay Farm, design for alterations [PA481/6(1-6)] for Oswald Mosley
Great Missenden
Design for cottage, Great Hundridge Manor, 1927 [PA474/4(1-40)]
Great Hundridge Manor, Alterations 1933
Medmenham
Yew Tree Cottage, design for alterations & additions, for Sir Alfred Davies KBE [PA474/1(1-2)]
Stone
Village hall, design for additions, 1909–10 [PA442/21(1-3)]
Stowe
Stowe School, design for assembly hall & block of 6 classrooms & laboratory [PA439/12(1-4)]
Stowe School, design for Chatham House, 1925, column & classical capital for house & candlestick, 1925 [PA439/13(1-7)]
Stowe School design for chapel, drawn by Philip Dalton Hepworth (1888–1963) [PA439/13(8)]
Stowe School, design for Masters houses, assistant Masters hostel, Masters hostel, 1925 [PA439/14(1-7), PA439/19]
Stowe School, design for Boycott Pavilion, Temple of Music, Sanatorium, swimming bath, design for conversion of whitehorse block into boarding house, design for screen to entrance front, details of window to stable block, gates on Grand Avenue, 1925–26 [PA439/15(1-8)]
Unknown location
Design for a pair of country villas, perspective by Evans Palmer, 1924 [PA437/1]
Cambridgeshire
Cambridge
Girton College, steam laundry, plan, by Thomas Bradford & Co., 1895 [PA432/3]
Swavesey
Design for 4 pensioners cottages, plan & elevation [PA439/17]
Cheshire
Alderley Edge
Design for house, for A. A. Funduklian, plans & elevations, 1925 [PA485/23(1-2)]
Bolesworth Castle
Design & design for garden temple, for Robert Barbour, plans & elevations, 1920–27 [PA488/5(1-29)]
Bolesworth (Tattenhall)
Oarestowe cottages, design, plan & elevation, 1927 [PA488/6]
Hankelow
"Taikoo" (later Teekyn House), elevation [PA483/7] (Possibly for a member of the Swire family, Taikoo being the Chinese name for the firm of Butterfield and Swire, for whom Clough worked in Shanghai)
Harthill
Church, design for memorial (print) [PA428/5]
Tattenhall
Design for Rose Farm cottages, Glory cottages, for Robert Barbour, 1927 & pair of cottages type B, [PA440/1(1-4)]
Design for decoration of Ford delivery van for Messrs. Murgatroyds Salt Works, 1925 [PA434/7]
Cornwall
Penlee
Upper House, design for alterations [PA469/22]
Could also mean Penlee House, Penlee Park, Penzance
Cumbria
Dalton Hall
Design for alterations, 1968, & circular temple, 1972 [PA481/3(1-10)]
Design for rebuilding, for A. F. Mason Hornby [PA481/4(1-14)]
Killington
Service area & restaurant, 1964 [PA430/6(1-4)]
Workington
Moss Bay Hill, design for a pair of houses & terrace type house, 1941 [PA437/10(1-9)]
Solway terrace houses type A2, plans & elevation, 1941 [PA437/11]
Devon
Ashburton
Design for house, for Mrs. H. Radcliffe, designs & working drawings, 1927 [PA485/27(1-14)] probably Penpark ()
Design for alterations to house, for Lt. Comm. W. A. Bolitho, 1927 [PA485/28(1-2)]
Bishop's Tawton
(Codden Hill) Design for memorial seat, detail, 1971 [PA488/1]
(Codden Hill) Design for a monument, for Caroline Thorpe, first wife of Jeremy Thorpe MP (d. 1970), layout & lettering, 1971 [PA433/4(1-6)]
Clovelly
Survey drawing by Strutt & Parker, Lofts & Warner (print), 1962 [PA432/19]
Dawlish
Plan of layout of Pidgley estate, Dawlish U. D. C., 1932 [PA432/17]
South Molton
Road house, plans [PA474/5(1-2)]
Dorset
Chideock
Wyrneford, survey drawings of house, 1937 [PA432/14]
Melcomb
Satellite town development, layout plan, 1945 [PA474/2]
Essex
Burton Grange
[PA431/11(1-3)]
Chingford
Gilwell Park, design for alterations [PA432/15(1-2)]
Gidea Park
Reed Pond House, elevation & section [PA483/2]
Great Yeldham
Design for alterations, Mullers Lane cottage (print), 1935 [PA437/7]
Harlow
Hubbard's Hall, design for alterations & additions, 1934 [PA428/4(1-8)]
Moynes [sic for Moyns] Park
Design for alterations [PA474/7(1-2)]
Gloucestershire
Sapperton
Design for cemetery layout [PA442/8(1-2)]
Stroud
Burleigh Court
Design for Cottage 1935 [PA439/8];
design for layout of garden & loggia [PA439/9(1-13)],
design for layout of garden, by William Wood & Sons Ltd. [PA439/10(1-3)];
survey drawings, for Miss Frith [PA439/11]
Westonbirt
Design for garden house, water pavilion, entrance gate & pagoda [PA440/23(1-7)]
Hampshire
Aldershot
Design for Second Division Memorial, layout plan [PA485/24]
Ascot
Gilmuir, survey drawing & design for alterations, ground floor plans [PA485/26(1-4)]
Avon Tyrell
Design for cottage & dairy, for Lord Manners [PA486/5]
Burley
Design for house [PA431/8(1-3)]
Eaglehurst
Survey drawings, site layout [PA481/10]
Design for The Solent Steps [PA481/11(1-2)]
Octagon, Inland & Waterside Planners, 1977 [PA481/12(1-6)]
New Forest
Design for a house, for Miss Bland Strang, alternative plans [PA475/3(1-4)]
Preston Candover
Preston House, design for alterations (removal of Palm House) [PA441/5(1-3)]
Cottage, survey drawing, 1922 [PA441/6]
Ripley
Design for cottage, for the Hon. F. Manners, 1924–25 [PA442/2(1-2)]
Roche Court
Design for cottages, plans, elevation & section, 1912 [PA442/3]
Stanbridge
Design for house, for E. S. Williams-Ellis [PA442/16(1-4)]
Winchester
St. Cross Mill, design for alterations [PA440/24(1-3)]
St. Cross Mill, design for alterations, by J. R. Manning, 1902–02 [PA440/25(1-7)]
Hereford and Worcester
Burton Court, Eardisland
Design for alterations & additions, 1911–24 [PA431/10(1-7)]
Design for a Labourer's Cottage, 1908 [PA431/10(8)]
Design for pair of labourers' cottages
Overbury
Grasshopper Green, design for flat, cottage, 1944–46 [PA469/5(1-2)]
Grasshopper Green, design for cottages, 1944–46 [PA469/6(1-3)]
Tyberton
Stockley-Hill-on-the-Wye, Design for house, plans & perspective [PA442/20(1-2)]
Webheath
Design for parsonage, plan, elevation & section [PA440/19(1-3)]
Hertfordshire
Ashridge Park
Design for layout of 12 new cottages & other schemes, 1928–29, (Nos. 27–30 are details by S. J. Randell) [PA486/1(1-47)]
Survey drawings & plans showing drainage & sewage disposal, 1928 [DR135/2(1-4), PA2044/7(5-12)]
Bishop's Stortford
Bishop's Stortford College, Memorial Hall & Chapel, elevations, 1920–21 [PA486/10(1-6)]
Brickendon
Design for house, for Miss E. M. Swordes (print), 1937 [PA431/3]
Design for house, Hacketts Barn, plan & elevation, 1933 [PA431/4(1-2)]
Bushey Heath
Hartsbourne Grange, design for portico [PA431/12(1-2)]
Elstree
The Rising Star [PA482/3]
Little Gaddesden
Design for block of 8 cottages, for the Rt. Hon. J. C. C. Davidson, M.P. [PA482/8(1-3)]
Markyate Cell
Design for fireplace in saloon, 1910 [PA473/19]
Rickmansworth
Pynesfield Manor, design for alterations, for Trevor Williams [PA441/14(1-4)]
Royston
Yew Tree House, cottage adjoining boundary wall, design for alterations [PA442/5(1-2)]
Ware
The Round House, design for alterations, for Mrs. Page-Croft [PA440/12]
Watford
"Little Cassiobury" estate, design for layout of land, for G. Blake [PA440/15(1-3)]
"Little Cassiobury" estate, design for alterations & additions, for H. L. H. Hill, 1930 [PA440/16(1-23)]
"Little Cassiobury" estate, design for alterations, 1930 [PA440/17(1-6)]
Design for house, for Mrs. E. Mayo, plan & elevation, 1930 [PA440/18(1-2)]
Isle of Wight
Farringford: group of holiday cottages (with Lionel Brett)
Yarmouth
Isle of Wight & Lymington Public Steam Laundry, plans [PA437/6]
Kent
Birchington
Cleve Court, details of bay window, for Sir Edward Carson, 1920–21 [PA486/8(1-4)]
Cobham
The Fish Ponds Restaurant, plan, Laughing water, The Ship Restaurant [PA432/20]
Hildenborough
Pair of Girls Homes for Princess Christian's Farm Colony, 1910 [PA428/12(1-4)]
Home for 25 feeble minded boys, Princess Christians Farm Colony, ca. 1910 [PA428/13]
Littlestone-on-Sea
Design of Romney Bay House known as The Mustard Pot, for Mrs. Margaret Ethel Bray, 1927 [PA429/7(1-13)]
Strood
Design for layout, for Evelyn Countess of Warwick, & design for small house [PA439/7(1-2)]
Tonbridge
Design for Trench house [PA440/3]
Design for addition to "Tracn", house between Mayfield & Tunbridge Wells [PA433/18]
Lincolnshire
Laughton
Shooting lodge, design for alterations, for Lt. Col. Francis Meynell, 1923 [PA429/2(1-4)]
Laughton Wood
Design for house, site plan, plans & elevations, 1922 [PA429/3(1-2)]
London
(Brent)
British Empire Exhibition, Wembley, 1922–24, designs for stands for various companies [PA477/7-10, PA478/1-9, PA479/1-13, DR134/2(1-3)]
(Camden)
Windmill Hill, Frognal Rise, alternative designs for house, for H. M. Lancaster Hill [PA480/1(1-26)]
Bunkers Hill, Hampstead, design for a house, plans & elevations [PA429/12]
Ellerdale Close, Ellerdale Road, Hampstead, design for 4 houses, 1934 [PA430/1(1-22)]
No. 15 Dorset Square, design for alterations & additions [PA429/16(1-6)]
Romney's House, Hollybush Hill, alterations c.1929–39
Romney's House, Hollybush Hill, design for office accommodation, 1935 [PA476/3(1-4)]
(Haringey)
Design for a house, verso design for Welsh dresser [PA476/9(1-2)]
(Harrow)
Design for house, Stanmore, for Mr. & Mrs. Heisch [PA442/17] (Cheyne House, 63 Gordon Avenue)
(Kensington & Chelsea)
Addison Lodge, design for alterations, 1924 [PA429/8(1-6)]
Bolton Gardens, (probably The Boltons) Bladon Lodge, design for Eye Trap Temple, elevation [PA488/2]
No. 80 Ladbroke Road, design for alterations, 1921 [PA476/6(1-2)]
No. 24 Onslow Gardens, basement plan [PA476/10]
Ovington Square Mews, design for house, (32a) for W. I. Turner, 1924 [PA476/11(1-5)]
No. 53 Pont Street, design for heating & hot water supply & balustrade of front entrance [PA476/13(1-3)]
Pont Street, designs for houses [PA476/14(1-2)]
(Richmond upon Thames)
No. 2 Maids of Honour Row, 1920 [PA476/7(1-3)]
Design for house, Strawberry Hill, plan, 1910 [PA442/22]
(Wandsworth)
Battersea: Battersea Dogs' Home (mostly demolished, the Cattery survives)
"Heathside", Putney Heath, design for alterations, 1923 [PA476/5(1-2)]
Design for development of island site adjoining Putney Bridge & perspective of cinema, for Leslie Wilson, 1927 [PA476/16(1-3)]
(Westminster)
No. 3 Barton Street, design for additions, for John Davidson M.P., 1925 [PA429/9(1-17)]
No. 49 Berkeley Square, design for alterations, for Lady Bunning, 1925 [PA429/10(1-4)]
No. 48 Boscobel Place, remodelling
No. 40 Brook Street, design for alterations, 1920 [PA429/11]
No. 62 Cadogan Square, design for a block of garages with residence & chauffeur's quarters over rear, 1926 [PA429/13(1-8)]
Chesham Street, design for alterations, to rear of No. 85 Eaton Place, plan & elevation [PA429/14(1-2)]
Charles Street, Dartmouth House: Design for memorial Library [PA481/5] (English-Speaking Union)
No. 28 Chester Street, plan of basement [PA429/15]
No. 29 Eaton Square, survey drawings, 1921 [PA429/17(1-3)]
No. 69 Eaton Square, design for alterations (electric passenger lift), for the Rt. Hon. Earl Baldwin, 1937 [PA429/18(1-16)]
No. 12 Ennismore Gardens, survey drawings, for Mrs. A. Payne [PA430/2]
No. 15 Grosvenor Crescent Mews, design for alterations, plans & elevations, 1924–25 [PA430/3(1-6)]
Nos. 4–5 Grosvenor Place, Ladies Carlton Club, garage & swimming pool, 1929–30 [PA430/4(1-41)]
No. 8 Hanover Terrace, Regent's Park, design for alterations to garage at rear, 1925 [PA476/1(1-4)]
No. 8 Hill Street, design for alterations, for Geoffrey Fry, 1923 [PA476/2(1-26)]
All Souls Church, Langham Place, design for redecoration, 1922 [PA476/4]
No. 43 Leicester Square, design for alterations, for Messrs. Boulestin Ltd. [PA476/5(1-6)]
No. 56 Montagu Square, design for alterations, for Sir Henry Mather Jackson, 1921 [PA476/8(1-2)]
Oxford & Cambridge Club, Pall Mall, design for alterations, 1933 [PA476/12(1-5)]
No. 48 Royal Oak Place, design for alterations & additions, plan & elevation, 1925 [PA480/3]
No. 16 Rutland Gate, design for alterations, for Mrs. Payne, 1921 [PA477/1(1-7)]
No. 36 Seymour Street, sketch plan [PA477/2]
No. 22 South Eaton Place, survey drawings [PA477/3(1-3)]
No. 19 Warwick Square, design for maisonette [PA477/4(1-2)]
No. 14 Waterloo Place, design for communication door to No. 15, 1921 [PA477/5]
No. 86 Waterloo Road, drawing of Gothic window removed, 1965 [PA477/6(1-3)]
No. 62 Wellington Road, St. John's Wood, Corner House, design for house & studio, 1921–24, & design for additions to studio, 1926, for Oswald Birley [PA 434/12]
No. 13 York Street, design for alterations to the Spectator's office [PA480/2]
Rex Place, No. 8 Streets Mews, design for alterations [PA480/4(1-2)]
The Mary Summer House, for the Mothers Union, east front elevation, 1924 [PA480/5]
Norfolk
Thornham Marsh
View, plans, for Victor Ames [PA440/2]
Northamptonshire
Gayton
Manor House: Gate Piers and gates
Grafton House
Design for entrance gates [PA482/16]
Oundle School
Design for war memorial in ambulatory of chapel, 1923–25 [PA469/4(1-4)]
Stoke Bruerne
Stoke Park Pavilions, restoration
Oxfordshire
Aston Tirrold
Manor, Garden Pavilion & farm house, 1934 & gateway, 1955 [PA486/3(1-5)]
Farm house, plans by Harold Bulmer & S. Ricardo Pearce [RAN 32/A/16 (1–2)]
Banbury
Court End, Adderbury, design for alterations & additions [PA486/6]
Barford St. John
Design for garden loggia, plan & elevation, 1957, & gateway, 1961 [PA486/7(1-3)]
Chipping Norton
Cornwell House (Manor), design, including pump kiosk, dovecote, iron gates & swimming pool, plans & elevations, 1937–38 [PA484/10(1-18)]
Cornwell House (Manor), design for conversion of old school to village hall, 1938 [PA484/11(1-5)]
Cumnor
Design for house, for Leslie Brooke, plans & elevations, 1923 [PA432/4(1-2)] (possibly Hurstcote, if executed)
Sketch design for cottage & garages, for Leslie Brooke, 1923 [PA485/2(1-2)]
Design for cottage, for Miss Earp, 1923 [PA485/3] (Cutt’s End?)
Design for cottage & garage, Cuts End [PA485/6]
Design for cottages, plan & elevation, 1906–07 [PA485/4(1-3)]
Alternative designs for alterations & additions to a house, survey drawing, for Miss Dougal, 1911 [PA485/5(1-7)]
Design for "The Milefield", plan & perspective, for Miss Hughes [PA485/7]
Eynsham: Highcroft House, extension
Kidmore End
Cross Farm, design for alterations & additions, 1937 [PA429/19(1-33)]
Cross Farm, design for alterations & additions, for Gerald Griffiths, 1925 [PA429/20(1-3)]
Nettlebed
Design for a house [PA475/2]
Orchard Lea
Gardener's Lodge, verso "Dryden Lodge", 1908 [PA469/3]
Oxford
Cottage, Davenant Road, design for Miss Earp & Miss Dougall, 1923 [PA469/7]
Design for a house, for Mrs. Wood, 1925 [PA469/8(1-2)]
Design for a house, scheme B, 1910 [PA469/9]
Design for gardener's cottage, Cumnor Hill, for Mrs. Venables, 1910 [PA469/10] (possibly at 77 or 39 Cumnor Hill)
Design for gardener's cottage, Foxcombe Hill, plan [PA469/11]
Home for feeble-minded girls, Cumnor Rise, design, ca. 1914 [PA469/12(1-8)]
University College, pavilion of groundsmen's cottage, design, ca. 1920 [PA469/13(1-4)]
Christ Church College, detail of library front [PA469/14]
Wardington
Manor, design for cloister [PA440/11]
Wardington: Manor, Alterations
Shropshire
Hatton Grange
Park Temple, 1968 [PA428/6(1-8)]
Circular temple, sketch design [PA428/7]
Knighton
Bournville Housing Society, design for pair of bungalows, 1920 [PA488/11]
Longden Manor
Cottage [PA480/6]
Longner Hall
Design for alterations, survey drawing [PA480/7]
Quatt
Memorial cross, design, elevation & details, 1920 [PA441/10(1-3)]
Shotton Hall
Design for alterations [PA442/12]
Atcham
Mytton & Mermaid Hotel, Main Road, design for hotel sign board [PA442/13]
Mytton & Mermaid Hotel, seating design & lettering layout [PA474/8(1-2)]
Wellington
Wrekin College, design for laboratory & dormitory block, plans & elevation, 1925 [PA440/20(1-3)]
Somerset
Burnham-on-Sea
Design for Steart House, plans & elevation, 1920 [PA431/9(1-6)]
Cricket Saint Thomas
Design for pair of cottages, for F. J. Fry, 1906 [PA484/20(1-4)]
Curry Mallet
Design for additions to manor house [PA485/8(1-2)]
Quantoxhead Kilve House, survey drawing & design for alterations, 1920 [PA441/9(1-3)]
Weston super Mare House (with Lionel Brett)
Surrey
Albury Park
The Half Moon, elevation & plan, 1920 [PA485/22]
Ashtead
Victoria Works [PA486/2(1-12)]
Byfleet
Design for Clock House, roof over cowshed, 1905 [PA432/2]
Chiddingfold
Old Pickhurst [PA432/13(1-4)]
Old Pickhurst: FS banister details [PA472/8]
Chipstead
Design for additions to "Sopess" Mark Edge Lane, for W. I. Turner, 1925 [PA432/16(1-6)]
Compton
Design for a pair of cottages for Mrs. Watts, plan & elevations, 1912 [PA484/6(1-4)]
Design for additions to the gallery for Mrs. Watts, ca. 1912 [PA484/7]
Hackbridge
Design for dog quarantine station, plan [PA483/6(1-2)]
Hindhead
Stonycrest, design for alterations & conversion of garage to nurses quarters, 1924 [PA428/14(1-3)]
Lower Kingswood
Mulberry Cottage, design for bungalow, porch, 1925, for Falconer Wallace & design for addition, 1936 [PA428/18(1-6)]
Mulberry Cottage, design for hot water, heating & domestic supply, 1923 [PA428/19(7-8)]
Newlands House
Design for alterations & additions, plans & details [PA475/4(1-12)]
Newland's Corner
Design for alterations, for G. H. Clark, 1926 [PA475/5(1-18)]
Design for garage & chauffeur's cottage, for J. St. Loe Strachey, 1925 [PA475/6(1-5)]
Design for tea house, for Captain Long, 1924 [PA475/7]
Little Newlands
Design for thatched house with shutters, 1915 [PA475/8]
Design for a house (also called Harrow Hill Copse), for J. St. Loe Strachey, 1926 [PA475/9(1-21)]
Peaslake
Hurtwood School, design, 1933 [PA469/17(1-28)]
Shamley Green
Design for additions to house [PA442/9(1-2)]
Shere
Pise House or Pise Hall, plan & elevation [PA442/11(1-2)]
Stapledown
Design for addition [PA442/18(1-12)]
Design for cottage, plans, elevations & details, 1931 [PA442/19(1-4)] (The Tree House, Staple Lane, Shere, GU5 9TE)
Walton Heath
Design for detached cottage, plan & elevations [PA440/10(1-2)]
West Clandon
Sarisberie, design for additions, plan & elevations [PA432/18]
Westcott
Milton Court, survey drawings, 1927 [PA440/22(1-3)]
Wisley
Memorial garden & pavilion, site plan, elevation & section [PA440/26(1-3)]
Woking
Design for house, by W. J. Wells, 1913 [PA440/27(1-2)]
Maybury Cottage, plan [PA437/7]
Sussex
Bolney
Design for proposed cottage for Edward Huth [PA488/7]
Bosham, near Chichester
Design for house, for J. H. Figg [PA488/8(1-9)]
Bosham Hoe, near Chichester
Design for house at the Creek, for Lady Allen [PA488/9(1-12)]
Bosham, near Chichester
Design for semi-detached house, plan & elevation [PA488/10]
Chichester
Funtingdon Lodge, design for addition, for George Booth, 1927 [PA432/12(1-7)]
Fittleworth
Little Bognor House, design for stone loggia in garden, for Lt. General Sir Ivor Maxse, 1925 [PA482/4(1-7)]
Little Bognor House, design for garden terrace, for the Hon. Mrs. Maxse, 1914 [PA482/4(8)]
War memorial seat, Hesworth Common [PA428/9]
Littlehampton
Design, unexecuted, for houses, Kingston Gorse Estate [PA429/6(1-3)]
Mayfield
Design for cottage, for Miss Fuller [PA473/21(1-8)]
Pashley Manor, near Ticehurst
Design, 1925 [PA469/16(1-2)]
Petworth
War memorial cross, design, 1919 [PA472/7]
Playden
Design for alterations [PA473/2(1-2)]
Design for a house, for Mrs. A. Ticehurst, elevations & section, 1913 [PA473/3(1-3)]
Warwickshire
Bishops Itchington
Design for pair of cottages, for Sir Michael Lakin Burt, 1914, & design for group of 7 cottages [PA486/9(1-5)]
Eathorpe
Group of 7 cottages, for the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Clonmell, sketch plan & details [PA481/13(1-3)]
Guy's Cliffe
Design for cottages, for Lord Algernon Percy, plan & elevation, 1908 [PA440/14(1-2)]
Harbury
Design for Manager's House [PA428/2]
Design for pair of cottages, for Sir M. Lakin [PA428/3(1-2)]
Wolverton Court
Design for alterations & additions, plan, elevations & details [PA437/8(1-4)]
Cottages, design for alterations & additions [PA437/9]
Wroxall Abbey
Design for garden house & drawing of school as built in 1912 [PA437/14(1-2)]
Wroxall Abbey: Gates
Design for rebuilding Warren Farm, 1912 [PA437/15(1-3)]
Wiltshire
Oare
Design for a block of 6 cottages, for Mrs. G. Fry, 1926 [PA469/1]
Design for parsonage, unexecuted, 1924 [PA469/2]
The Dower House (Cold Blow), design, 1921 [PA475/10(1-5)]
Oare House, design, 1921–22 [PA475/11(1-4)]
Design for 2 cottages, for Geoffrey Fry, 1924 [PA475/12(1-3)]
Design for Apple & Garden House, 1924 [PA475/14]
Additions to Oare Pennings [PA475/13(1-2)]
Cold Blow, design for stable block, garage & groom's cottage [PA484/4]
Pewsey
Frys Farm, design for alterations, 1923 [PA482/7]
Pill Hill, (?Whiteparish, or Highclere)
Design for a house, for Miss Poore, sketch plan, plans, elevations & details & design for shed, 1927 [PA472/9(1-18)]
Design for Chauffeur's cottage, for Miss Poore, 1927 [PA472/10]
Salisbury
Wilsford Manor, design for heating chamber, 1922 [PA442/7]
Design for additions to house in the Close
Yorkshire
Dunwood House, Woodmansey
Trinities of London Ltd., design for additions, for Mr. & Mrs. G. Wiles, 1961 [PA481/9(1-20)]
Rotherham
Peter Stubbs Works, main gateway [PA442/4]
Woodmansey
Survey drawing, by Elsworth Sykes & Partners, for G. Wiles, 1963 [PA437/13]
France
Île-de-France
Paris
British pavilion, 1925 exhibition, design [PA469/15(1-7)]
Guernsey
Castle Carey, design for pavilion, plan & elevation, 1961 [PA432/6(1-7)]
Castle Carey, design for obelisk, draft plan & elevations, 1961 [PA432/7(8-9)]
Castle Carey, design for steps from sitting room, schemes A & B, site plan, 1959 [PA432/8(1-11)]
Castle Carey, design for house, for Dr. W. Winch, plans, elevations, section & perspectives, 1962 [PA432/9(1-4)]
Lancresse Bay, Martello tower, survey drawings, for Mrs. Winch, 1963 [PA429/1]
Netherlands
Gelderland
Ede
Lunteren, Design for "Landhuis", plan & elevations [PA480/7A]
Northern Ireland
County Antrim
Belfast
First Church of Christ Scientist, perspective by Philip Dalton Hepworth (1888–1963), photograph of original drawing, original exhibited at RA in 1923 [PA487/1(1)]
First Church of Christ Scientist, Sunday School, caretaker's cottage, plans, elevations, & details of furniture, 1922–35 [PA487/1(2-73)]
Bushmills
School, preliminary design& design, 1919 [PA431/13(1-2)]
School, design, elevations, 1925 [DR133/1(1-10)]
School, design, plan, elevation & layout, 1923, proposed latrines & playsheds, drainage, 1924, proposed war memorial & gardens, 1925 [PA431/14(1-16)]
School, proposed sewage purification & disposal system, latrines & playsheds, by Tuke & Bell [PA431/15(17-18)]
School, latrines, 1913, plan of drains, details of entrance piers, classroom block, plans, elevations, sections & details, school fittings by Bennet Furnishing Co. Ltd., Glasgow [PA431/16(19-30)]
School, proposed additions to Beuview, 1922–26, for Sir Malcolm MacNaughton [PA432/1(1-12)]
Giants Causeway, Design for entrance gates, site plan, plans, for the National Trust, 1960–61 [PA482/18(1-6)]
Giants Causeway, Design for development, site plan on O.S. map, for the National Trust, 1961 [PA2044/3]
Giants Causeway, Lord MacNaughten's Memorial Hall & School, design, plan, elevation & perspective, 1914 [PA483/1(1-10)]
Cushendun
Glenmona House 1923
New Lodge, Glenmona, design, 1913 [PA485/9(1-6)]
Public Hall & Club, design, 1912 [PA485/10(1-3)]
Design for cottages for square (print) [PA485/11(1-2)]
Design for block of 4 cottages, 1926 [PA485/12(1-3)]
Design for 4 terraced cottages (print) [PA485/13]
Design for shop, for Mr. A. McAlister [PA485/14(1-3)]
Portballintrae
Runkerry, FS details [PA442/6]
Republic of Ireland
County Cork
Glengariff
Design for house for Lady Katherine Somerset [PA483/3]
Scotland
Aberdeenshire
Arbuthnott
Design for proposed library & recreation hall, sketch plan [PA485/25]
South Africa
KwaZulu-Natal
Design for a thatched pise house Type A/1, for Major Baylay, [PA436/17]
Wales
Blaenau Gwent
Ebbw Vale
Plas Parc, Perspective [PA473/1]
General Manager's House, sketch plan [PA482/1]
Bridgend
Porthcawl
Design for a house on estate [PA443/2]
Layout of Dan-y-Graig estate, 1935 [PA443/3]
Design for a house, scheme B & joinery details [PA443/4(1-3)]
Cardiff
Lisvane
The Dingle [PA429/5]
Carmarthenshire
Carmarthen
Town Bridge 1937-8
Llanegwad
Brechfa, House, for Cyril Joynson, plans, elevations & sections, 1909 [PA431/2(1-5)] and Stable Block
Conwy
Abergele
Coed Coch, plans, elevations & details [PA483/8(1-17)]
Coed Coch Memorial Hall, plan & perspective, 1919 [PA484/1(1-7)]
Bro Garmon
Conwy Falls, Design for cottage entrance to Conway Falls [PA484/8]
Conwy Falls, Design for cafe & dwelling, ca. 1955 [PA484/9(1-2)]
Conwy Falls, Design for cafe & sewage disposal plant, layout & perspective, 1938–56 [PA484/9(3-6)]
Capel Curig
Design for house "Cerdd-Dy", for Mrs. P. E. Lewis, 1959 [PA432/5(1-2)]
Colwyn Bay
Design for improvements to Station Road, plans & elevations (prints) [PA484/5(1-3)]
Conwy
Deganwy, Coed y castell, Design for house inscribed "Talbot", ca. 1930s [PA433/16]
Deganwy, Coed y Castell, Design for house, for Dr Talbot, plan & elevation [PA435/9]
Deganwy, Coed y Castell, house for Dr and Mrs Talbot
Llandudno
Craigside: Design for unidentified house on Bryn-y-Bia Road to Colwyn Bay from Llandudno, site plan [PA433/19]
Design for a house, for Miss Wilkinson [PA480/9(1-5)]
Sheraton, Craig y Don
Llanddoged and Maenan
Maenan Hall, Sun Pavilion, designs by Henry Hope & Sons Ltd., 1963 [PA473/18(1-3)]
Llanfair Talhaiarn
design for alterations to Garthewin, plans [PA473/4]
Pentrefoelas
Voelas, Design for screen wall & permanent canopy, 1959–60 [PA440/9(1-5)]
Village hall, design, plan, 1960 [PA472/6]
Voelas, New House
Rhos on Sea
House
Denbighshire
Llanelidan
Nantclwyd Hall, Design, for Sir Vivian Naylor-Leyland, 1956–74 [PA474/9(1-43)]
Nantclwyd Hall, Design for alterations & additions to garden cottage [PA475/1]
Nantclwyd Hall, New bridge [PA475/15]
Cwm Farm house, design, plans & elevation, 1966 [PA480/10]
Design for cottages, 1966 [PA480/11]
Design for pair of bungalows, plan & elevation (print), 1966 [PA480/12]
Leyland Arms, design for alterations, 1966 [PA480/13(1-4)]
Church, survey drawings, 1960 [PA480/14(1)]
Church, design for alterations (print), 1938 [PA480/14(2)]
Llanferres
Maeshafn, Design for a hostel, plan & elevation [PA436/22(1-3)]
Rhuddlan
Bodrhyddan Hall, Design for entrance gates, elevation & full size details of freestone capitals, 1959 [PA488/4]
Flintshire
Nannerch
Penbedw, Design for house, 1954–56 [PA469/18(1-4)]
Penbedw, Design for house, for Miss Venetia Buddicom, 1954–55 [PA469/19(1-3)]
Gwynedd
Aberdaron
Y Gegin Fawr, design for proposed ?oathouse [PA485/17]
Old Post Office
Y Rhiw, Plas yn Rhiw, restoration
Aberdyfi
Brynawelon, plan & perspective, 1960 [PA485/16]
Arthog
Cwm Pennant, Tyddyn Mawr Farm, design for water supply scheme, for William Owen, 1953 [PA481/1]
Beddgelert: Snowdonia Forest Park Campsite Hall
Betws Garmon
Snowdon, Summit, design for restaurant (known as Snowdon Cafe), 1934 [PA442/15(1-3)], demolished 2006 to make way for new building
Brithdir and Llanfachreth
Braich y Ceunant: Design for alterations & additions to house [PA431/1]
Design for alterations to Nannau, 1934 [PA481/8(1-23)]
Criccieth
Old Church Corner [PA484/12]
Home of rest, design for alterations & additions, 1914 [PA484/13(1-3)]
G. F. S. Home, details, 1914 [PA484/14]
Design for Memorial Hall [PA484/15]
Design for development scheme for part of Lady Megan Lloyd George's land, layout plan, 1965 [PA484/16]
Design for residential development, Pwllheli Road, site plan & contract drawing, in association with R. W. Evans, 1964 [PA484/18(1-4)]
Morannedd Café (later Dylan's), Esplanade, c.1948
Dolbenmaen
Wern Estate, Design for cottage type 1, plan & elevation, 1907 [PA440/21(1-2)]
Pentrefelin, Parsonage, design & contract drawing, 1912 [PA443/6(1-2)]
Pentrefelin, Open air school, design [PA472/2]
Pentrefelin, Church hall, design, plan, elevation & perspective, 1933 [PA472/3(1-11)]
Pentrefelin, House, design, for Mr O Owens at Bronygadair, 1934 [PA472/4]
Design for a house, parsonage [PA472/5(1-2)]
Dolgellau
Garthmyn: Design for a house, plan & elevations, 1966 [PA482/15]
Ffestiniog
Tanygrisiau, Power station, survey drawings, 1969 [PA439/18]
Blaenau Ffestiniog, Design for additions to Memorial cottage hospital, 1934 [PA488/3(1-5)]
Blaenau Ffestiniog Memorial Hospital 1923
Llanaelhaearn
Coed Ty, Design for alterations, plans & elevation, 1958 [PA484/2(1-2)]
Llanbedrog,
Porth Bedrog, Design for restaurant, shop & bedroom accommodation [PA443/1]
Glyn-y-Weddw, Design for approach & restaurant [PA483/4(1-4)]
Porth Bedrog, Layout and three houses on the Glyn-y-Weddw Estate
Llandderfel
Bryn Derw, Design for reconstruction to house, plans & elevation, 1966 [PA431/6]
Rhiwlas, Staircase details, 1954 & design for a pair of china cabinets, 1957 [PA441/11(1-3)]
Detail of French windows to new rooms (print), 1954 [PA441/12]
Design for alterations to the house for Col. J. Price, plans, elevations & details, 1925–26, 1949 [PA441/13(1-14)]; 1920s alterations demolished for new house of 1949–54
Llandwrog
Groeslon, Design for village hall, plans & elevations, 1917 [PA483/5(1-3)]
Llanegryn
Peniarth, Design for pediment clock dial on south elevation, 1909
Llanengan
Abersoch, Bronheulog, Lon Garmon, Design for additions to house for F. Russell Roberts (later Bronheulog Hotel), 1920 [PA431/5(1-4)]
Abersoch, Seaside House, Penrhyn Point, 1924 [PA485/18]
Abersoch, Design for proposed house, 1906 [PA485/19]
Abersoch, Pen Craig Cottage, Aberuchaf [PA485/20]
Abersoch, Design for proposed house, sketch plan & elevation, 1920 [PA485/21]
Abersoch, St Garmon’s Catholic Church
Llanfair
Gerddi Bluog, Design for alterations & additions, 1966–68 [PA482/17(1-8)]
Llanfihangel-y-Pennant
Nant Gwernol, unexecuted scheme for Talyllyn Railway terminus, c.1969 [Talyllyn News March 1969]
Llanfrothen
Plas Brondanw, Design for reconstruction, unexecuted, survey plans, plans, elevations & perspective, design for alterations to gatehouse, 1962 [PA472/11(1-42)]
Plas Brondanw, Belvedere, design, 1913 [PA472/12]
Plas Brondanw, Brondanw Tower, Window details, by Henry Hope & Sons Ltd., 1935 [PA472/13]
Beudy Rhiw, sketch plan, 1972 [PA473/5(1-2)]
Minafron, design for bungalow, plans & elevations, for Prof. Hugh Hunt, 1972 [PA473/6(1-6)]
Morfa Cottages, survey drawing [PA473/7]
Design for reconditioning of gatehouse, 1959 [PA473/8]
War memorial, preliminary design & design, 1922 [PA473/9(1-2)]
St Frothen's Hall, plans & elevations, 1911 [PA473/10]
Hafodty Farm house, block plan [PA473/11]
Garreg, Design for public conveniences (print), widening of road & memorial [PA482/9(1-3)]
Garreg, Design for houses, plan & elevation, 1922 [PA482/10]
Garreg, Brondanw Arms, design, plan & elevation, by Rowland Lloyd-Jones, 1903 [PA482/11(1)]
Garreg, Brondanw Arms, design for additions, 1968–72 [PA482/12(2-17)]
Garreg, Design for Nos 1 & 2 Garreg & Post Office, plan [PA482/13]
Garreg, Siop Newydd, near Brondanw Arms, site plan, plan & elevation, 1968 [PA482/14(1-2)]
Croesor, Design for field study centre, Caerffynnon cottages, site plan, plan & elevation, 1969 [PA484/21]
Croesor, Design for refurbishment of 17th century manor farm, plans & perspective, 1968 [PA484/22(1-4)]
Croesor Môr, Old Drum House & Bothery, site plan, plan & elevation, 1960 [PA484/23(1-2)]
Croesor-uchaf, Cottage & septic tank, plan, 1960 [PA485/1]
Cwm Croesor, Design for swimming pool (for school?), layout, 1969 [PA485/15]
Llannor
Penrhos, Design for front door to house, 1973 [PA469/23]
Llanystumdwy
Trefan: Design for gazebo, 1967 [PA440/6(1-4)]
Pencaenewydd, Design for cottage & house, for Miss Owen [PA469/20(1-4)], [PA469/21], [PA469/25]
Design for Lloyd George Library memorial, 1956, & design for additions to Lloyd George Museum, 1965 [PA473/13(1-3)]
Design for chapel, details [PA473/14(1-10)]
Nant-y-Glyn, design for balcony railings, 1960 [PA473/15]
Nant-y-Glyn, design for additions, for Lt. James Gresham D.S.O., site plan, plan & elevation, 1959 [PA484/17(1-2)]
Lloyd George Museum, gates etc.
Grave of David Lloyd George
Tŷ Newydd: Alterations and Lodge
Maentwrog
Tanygrisiau dam spillway viaduct on unexecuted east shore deviation of Ffestiniog Railway, c.1963
Penrhyndeudraeth
Portmeirion, Map of Snowdonia showing the location of Portmeirion [PA435/2]
Portmeirion, Dinillyn, Porthmadog, maps [PA441/1(1)]
Portmeirion, Layouts showing location of buildings, views, presscuttings [PA441/1(2-12)]
Portmeirion, Design for unidentified group of buildings with campanile [PA441/2(1)]
Portmeirion, Joinery details [PA441/2(2-3)]
Portmeirion, Unidentified designs [PA441/2(4-22)]
Portmeirion, Ironwork, various & unidentified [PA441/3(1-12)]
Portmeirion, Survey drawings & design of hotel, 1926–68 [PA443/8(1-26)]
Portmeirion, Block A, design, 1925 [PA444/1(1-5)] (Neptune)
Portmeirion, Block B, design [PA444/2(1)] (Angel)
Portmeirion, Block C, design, 1927 [PA444/2(2-4)] (Battery)
Portmeirion, The Angel, design for alterations & additions [PA444/3(1-4)]
Portmeirion, The Anchor, design [PA444/4(1)]
Portmeirion, The Arches, design, 1956 [PA444/4(2)]
Portmeirion, The Upper Arches House, design, 1954 [PA444/4(3)]
Portmeirion, The Barbican Lodge, perspective, 1966 [PA444/4(4)]
Portmeirion, Battery block, Battery Square, Belvedere, Bristol colonnade & Bridge House [PA444/5(1-3, 7–13)]
Portmeirion, Bristol, Arno's Bath House, The Colonnade, working drawings [PA444/5(4-6)]
Portmeirion, Castle Cove, Castle Cove cottages, house near Castle Gardens, Gardener's House, Castle Yard extension, Castle Yard sunroom, 1960–71 [PA444/6(1-16)]
Portmeirion, The Chantry, Chantry Lodge, Chantry Row, Cliffe House, The Crown, design [PA444/7(1-32)]
Portmeirion, The Dolphin, The Emral Hall for Portmeirion Concessions, Fountain & Fountain House, The Gloriette, Gwt Gwyn, 1926–64 [PA444/8(1-13)]
Portmeirion, Cliffe House [PA445/1(15)]
Portmeirion, Harbour Lodge, 1966, Hercules Hall [PA445/1(1-4)]
Portmeirion, Top Lodge, The Mitre, The Neptune, The Pavilion [PA445/1(5-10)]
Portmeirion, Peacock Shop, sign, design [PA445/1(11-12)]
Portmeirion, The Piazza, Pilot House [PA445/1(13-14)]
Portmeirion, Recreation Room, 1960, The Round House, 1926, The Salutation, 1965 [PA445/2(1-5)]
Portmeirion, Tower House, 1955–56 [PA445/2(6-8, 20–22)]
Portmeirion, The Bell Tower [PA445/2(9-12)]
Portmeirion, Fountain Tower House, 1962 [PA445/2(13-14, 23–24)]
Portmeirion, The Lion Tower, 1962–66 [PA445/2(15)]
Portmeirion, The Observatory Tower, 1935 [PA445/2(16-17)]
Portmeirion, The Old Tower, 1956 [PA445/2(18)]
Portmeirion, The Writer's Tower [PA445/2(19)]
Portmeirion, Vane House, Villa Winch, White Cottage, White Houses, The Winch [PA445/3(1-7)]
Portmeirion, Conference hall, Opera House, refreshment kiosk, orangery, lighthouse railing, front door, mermaid detail, Sea Lawn Bridge, substation, Vista Pagoda, plaque [PA445/4(1-12)]
Portmeirion, New House, New Place, New bedrooms, New Staff Flats, new block, bedroom additions to New Lodge, New Ladies Lavatory [PA445/5(1-18)]
Portmeirion, Studio cottage for Henry Winch, dwelling, archway end of Friday Lane [PA445/6(1-7)]
Deudraeth Castle, survey of castle & stable block, 1932, design for garden house & cottage, 1958–59, layout for walling [PA469/24(1-6)]
Lodge, design, for Dr Rees, working drawing [PA472/1]
Portmeirion, Bell tower, design, 1927 [PA479/14]
Deudraeth, Design for type of houses under Agricultural Workers Act 1931 [PA481/7(1-2)]
Portmeirion, Designs for miscellaneous buildings at Portmeirion, for Hatton Grange Park Temple & Deudraeth Castle, 195-s & 1960s (29) [RAN 54/C/2]
Cae Canol, Coed Mor, Dorlan Goch, Three houses on Portmeirion estate
Deudraeth Castle, Garden, 1912
Mardir, House for Dr Rees
Porthmadog
Tremadog, Lawrence Memorial, town hall & market hall [PA440/5(1-5)]
Parsonage, plans [PA443/7]
Pwllheli
Shops, joinery details, 1935 [PA441/8]
Talsarnau
Eisingrug: Design for conversion of Seion Chapel into cottage, 1936 [PA482/2]
Tudweiliog
Design for farmhouse at Hafod Wen (later Ty Uchaf), Llangwnnadl, for Mr & Mrs L Porter, plans, elevation & section [PA441/7]
Isle of Anglesey
Llannerch-y-Medd
Coedana, Design for vicarage, 1909 [PA484/3(1-3)]
Menai Bridge
Ynys Gaint, Design for garden layout, for Guy Fison [PA437/18]
Moelfre
Trwyn Melyn, Nant Bychan, design for development, 1944 [PA440/7(1-2)]
Rhosyr
Ynys Llanddwyn, Saint Dwynwen's Priory Church, design, plans, elevations & perspective, 1906 [PA480/8]
Monmouthshire
Llantilio Crossenny
Llantilio Estate, Workmen's cottage, for Sir H. Mather-Jackson, 1913 [PA473/17(1-2)]
Monmouth
Hunt Club, lodges for huntsman & stud-groom, 1907 [PA474/6]
Pembrokeshire
Martletwy
Lawrenny, Knowles Farm, design for alterations (drawing room), 1956 [PA429/4]
Milford Haven
Design for house, for Mrs. M. Chadwick, 1936 [PA474/3]
St David's and the Cathedral Close
Alterations to house, Tower Hill
Powys
Llyswen
Llangoed Hall (originally Llangoed Castle). Design, contract & working drawings for alterations & additions to house & outbuildings & garden house, 1913 [PA473/12(1-20)]
Design for alterations, 1913 [PA473/16(1-27)]
Erwood
Crickadarn, Church of Saint Mary, design for alterations, elevations, sections & details 1914 [PA484/19(1-2)]
Presteigne
Broad Heath House, design for alterations & additions, for Misses Coates, survey drawings & site plan, 1909 [PA441/4(1-17)]
Unidentified in Wales
Caernarfonshire
Design for small house, plans & elevations (print), 1935 [PA436/12(1-2)]
Porth Gwerbert
Design for camp, ablution blocks, 1958 [PA443/5(1-2)] (Possibly Gwbert, Ceredigion)
Traeth
Cottage, design, plan & perspective [PA440/4] (Possibly in Gwynedd)
Tyn-y-Mos
Joinery details, 1955 [PA440/8]
United States
New York
New York City
Elevation of 2 masted yacht, Burgess, Rigg & Morgan Ltd for George Draper [PA434/10(2)]
Details of marine fitments, Burgess, Rigg & Morgan Ltd, 1927 [PA434/10(1)]
Unknown locations and speculative schemes
Design for a pavilion or gazebo, perspective, 1912 [PA433/1]
Design for a belvedere [PA433/2(1-2)]
Design for a monument, 1958 [PA433/3(1-2)]
Design for a monument, for Hilda Mary Greaves (d. 1927), design for tombstone for Cowen Hughes (d. 1937), design for memorial marked "A" & 1922 in roundel, design for tombstone of war grave, 1919, design for memorial plaques, design for monument urn, 1964, design for cartouches [PA433/5(1-14)]
Design for 6 or 8 light candelabra in wood [PA433/6(1-3)]
Design for dolls house [PA433/7(1-2)]
Design for 3 fireplaces, 1920 [PA433/8]
Design for fountain, detail [PA433/9]
Design for a garden gate, detail, 1922 [PA433/10]
Design for yard gates, elevation & detail, 1975 [PA433/11]
Design for wrought iron grille, 1954 [PA433/12(1-2)]
Design for house, 1910 [PA433/13]
Design for house to cost Ð4329, 1924 [PA433/14]
Design for house in neo-Georgian style with Regency capping to front door asymmetrically placed [PA433/15]
Design for house & garden [PA433/17]
Design for a ladies lavatory in the style of a grotto, drawn on the verso of a print for a design for a garden seat [PA433/20]
Design for a war memorial cross [PA433/21]
Design for model cases, 1925 [PA433/22(1-2)]
Design for upright pianoforte, 1928 [PA434/1(1-5)]
Design for ventilating radiators by H. Hope & Sons & "Ideal radiators" by Musgrave & Co. Ltd. [PA434/2]
Design for a septic tank & filter bed, 1959 [PA434/3]
Design for urn in cast iron, 1958 [PA434/4(1-2)]
Design for memorial urn, 1959 [PA434/5]
Design for urn [PA434/6]
Design for water filtration plant [PA434/8]
Design for well head [PA434/9]
Design for writing table [PA434/11(1)]
Design for 2 bedside tables [PA434/11(2)]
Fragmentary drawings [PA434/12]
Design for a plinth, 1955 [PA435/1]
Collection of miscellaneous uncatalogued drawings, temporarily unavailable [PA434/13(1-9)]
Design for garden house, 1963 & design for garden loggia, 1963 [PA435/4(1-2)]
Design for lodges, plan & elevation, 1959 [PA435/5]
Design for piggeries, for Board of Agriculture & Fisheries, plan & elevation [PA435/6]
Design for a house, for Leslie Croome, plan, elevation & section [PA435/7]
Design for house, for Dr. Davidson (print) [PA435/8]
Design for concrete houses, types 2 & 2A, for British Portland Cement Ltd. (print) [PA435/10]
Design for homestead designed for mixed farm of 300 or 400 acres, plan & elevation, 1908 [PA435/11(1-2)]
Design for house & buildings for small-holding, plan, elevation & perspective, 1911 [PA435/12]
Design for seaside house, 1925 [PA435/13]
Design for House on the Hill [PA435/14]
Design for typical Type P house, site plan, plan, elevation & section, 1953 (print) [PA436/1(1-2)]
Design for 1000 guinea country house, plans & perspective [PA436/2]
Design for a house to cost Ð1000, plan, elevation & perspective [PA436/3]
Design for a small house to cost Ð500, cubic contents 17000ft., plan, elevation, interior & exterior perspectives & garden layout [PA436/4]
Design for Ministry housing, type 6 & 14, plans (prints) [PA436/5(1-2)]
Design for house, plans & elevations [PA436/6]
Design for large house, plans & elevations [PA436/7]
Design for a house & garden, site plan, 1922 [PA436/8]
Design for a country house [PA436/9(1-5)]
Design for house, plans, elevation & perspective [PA436/10]
Design for house with tower plan [PA436/11]
Design for house, plans & elevations, 1918 [PA436/13]
Design for house, plans & perspective [PA436/14]
Design for house & garages, plans, elevation & section [PA436/15]
Design for a 5 bedroom house in neo-Georgian style with hipped roof [PA436/16]
Design for pise houses, types 2, 3, 4 & 5, design for a 5-room pise bungalow type G, design for a thatched 7 bedroom pise house, types A/1 & A/2 [PA436/18(1-15)]
Design for a country house, plan & elevation [PA436/19]
Design for an unidentified house [PA436/20]
Design for The Salutation hotel & restaurant, plan & perspective, 1922 [PA436/21]
Design for an unidentified cottage, plan & front elevation, 1966 [PA437/2]
Sketch design of classical facade [PA437/3(1)]
Sketch design of classical facade [PA437/3(2)]
Design for cookery & manual (?) furniture for 20 students, for the Midland Educational Ltd., 1912 [PA437/4]
Design for crown doorhood, 1961 [PA437/5(1-2)]
Sketch designs for interiors & restaurant sign [PA437/6(1-6)]
Design for an unidentified two-storey bungalow to cost £1100, plan, elevation & perspective [PA437/20]
Design for unidentified bungalow, plan & perspective, 1912 [PA437/21]
Diagram showing inflexible angle braces of reinforced concrete, 1972 [PA438/1]
Design for an unidentified cottage "Piper's Piece", for Miss Price, plan, 1920 [PA438/2(1-2)]
Design for an unidentified cottage "West Prospect Gell", plan & perspective [PA438/3]
Design for unidentified bungalow, plan, elevation & section [PA437/19]
Design for a pair of cottages type A (issued by the Festiniog District State Quarry Owners Association) & Type B (print) [PA438/4(1-4), PA438/20(1-3)]
Design for detached All-slate cottage Type D, Type E, (issued by the Festiniog District State Quarry Owners Association) [PA438/5(1-5)]
Design for a pair of small cottages, Type D & Type E [PA438/6(1-2), PA438/21]
Design for a block of 4 cottages, plans, & elevation, 1906 [PA438/7]
Designs for a pair of small-holders cottages, plan & elevation, 1919 [PA438/8(1-2)]
Design for a tiny cottage in Wrenaissance style, dormers in roof & steps up to front door [PA438/9]
Design for a group of 4 cottages, inscribed "Eaeth Close" [PA438/10]
Design for a block of 2 small-holders cottages, series B, plan, elevation & section [PA438/11(1-3)]
Design for a single cottage for a small-holder, & single storey cottage for a small-holder, & design for bungalow cottage Type A1, plans, elevations & sections [PA438/12(1-3)]
Design for detached brick & thatch cottage, plans & details [PA438/13(1-4)]
Design for a pair of labourer's cottages, plan, elevation & perspective [PA438/14(1-2)]
Design for a pair of labourer's cottages, Blocks A-C, North Wales, 1905 [PA438/15(1-3)]
Design for a detached cottage for a labourer, plan, elevation & perspective, ca. 1913 [PA438/16]
Design for a small cottage, Montgomeryshire type & Northumberland type, plan & elevation [PA438/17(1-2)]
Design for "Welsh cottage", plans & elevations [PA438/18(1-2)]
Design for a small single cottage, "100 guineas cottage", plan, elevation & details [PA438/19(1-2)]
Design for a small single cottage (print) [PA439/1(1-2)]
Design for a small single cottage [PA439/2]
Design for a pair of subsidy cottages, plans & elevation, 1924 [PA439/3]
Design for a 2-storey cottage, plan & elevation [PA439/4]
Design for a 6-room pise cottages, Type 1, design for a 7-room pise cottage type D & design for a 5-room pise cottage type E [PA439/5(1-4)]
Design for conversion of garden house, for Charles Piggott [PA439/6]
Full scale details of Brancolor (?) partitions, post & lintels, by Art Pavements & Decorations Limited [PA486/4]
Unidentified locations
Castle Main
Design for alterations [PA432/10]
Frampton Court (possibly Frampton-on-Severn, Gloucestershire)
Design for alterations, 1909 [PA482/5(1-8)]
Freshfield Farm
Design for alterations (print) [PA482/6(1-2)]
Hazelwood: 1914 [PA428/8(1-2)]
Matthews Point (possibly Stoke Fleming, Devon)
Design for alterations to gardens, 1920 [PA473/20]
Wotton House (probably either Surrey or Buckinghamshire)
Gardener's Bothy, plan, elevation & section, 1909 [PA437/12]
Warren (possibly Warren Farm, Wroxall Abbey, Warwickshire)
Farm house, plan & elevations, 1912 [PA440/13(1-3)]
References
External links
Williams-Ellis
Williams-Ellis, Clough
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5140230
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vikram%20%28actor%29
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Vikram (actor)
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Kennedy John Victor (born 17 April 1966), better known by his stage name Vikram or Chiyaan Vikram, is an Indian actor who predominantly works in Tamil cinema. He is among the most decorated actors in Tamil cinema, with laurels including seven Filmfare Awards South, a National Film Award and a Tamil Nadu State Film Award. Amongst his other honours include the Kalaimamani Award from the Government of Tamil Nadu in 2004 and an honorary doctorate by the Popular University of Milan in May 2011. Vikram is the first Indian actor to receive the Doctorate in the history of the European Universities in acting. Based on the earnings of Indian celebrities, Vikram was included in the Forbes India Celebrity 100 list for 2016 and 2018.
Vikram debuted with the romance En Kadhal Kanmani (1990) followed by his major breakthrough with his portrayal of a rogue-turned-lover in Bala's tragedy film Sethu (1999) and next appeared in hit films like Dhill (2001), Gemini (2002), Dhool (2003), Saamy (2003), Anniyan (2005), Raavanan (2010), Deiva Thirumagal (2011) and Iru Mugan (2017). He also earned widespread critical acclaim for diverse roles of disadvantaged people in Kasi (2001), Samurai (2002) and Pithamagan (2003); the lattermost won him the National Film Award for Best Actor. Vikram's highest-grossing releases came with the romantic thriller I (2015) and the epic historical dramas Ponniyin Selvan: I (2022) and Ponniyin Selvan: II (2023).
Vikram has promoted various social causes and appeared as the Youth Envoy for the United Nations Human Settlements Programme in 2011. He has been a brand ambassador of Sanjeevani Trust and a school for special children, Vidya Sudha, which he stayed at during the making of Deiva Thirumagal as well as having long-term associations with the Kasi Eye Care and running his own welfare association through the Vikram Foundation. In 2016, he produced and directed the video to the flood relief anthem, Spirit of Chennai, as a tribute to the city's volunteers following the 2015 South Indian floods.
Early life and family
Vikram was born as Kennedy John Victor on 17 April 1966 to a Christian father and a Hindu mother. His father, John Victor (alias Vinod Raj) was a native of Paramakudi and ran away from home to start a career in films, but worked only in minor roles. Vikram's mother, Rajeshwari, was a government officer who reached the rank of sub-collector. Rajeshwari was born in a Hindu family with film connections. Her brother, Thiagarajan, is an established director-actor in the Tamil film industry; he is the father of actor Prashanth, making him Vikram's first cousin (although the two have never openly acknowledged this relationship). Vikram has two siblings, both younger to him. His brother, Arvind, appeared in the low-budget Tamil film, Eppo Kalyanam (2022). His sister, Anitha, is a teacher.
Vikram's father, Vinod Raj, was a small time actor who did not fare successfully in films and only managed to act in supporting roles in Tamil films and television serials. This inspired Vikram to take theatre lessons and become professionally trained in classical and cinema dance forms to ensure that he became a leading actor. Vikram decided to use a screen name because he disliked his original name, Kennedy, and he also felt that such a foreign name was not a fit name for an actor in Tamil films. He took the name Vikram (a Hindu name) which means "man who does great deeds." In one interview, he said that he was also inspired to take the name because it was a mixture of several names dear to him: "Vi" from his father's name (Vinod), "K" from Kennedy, "Ra" from his mother's name (Rajeshwari) and "ram" from his sun sign, Aries.
Vikram was educated at Montfort School, Yercaud (a boarding school in a hill station near Salem) and graduated in 1983. He has mentioned that he used his opportunities at school well by taking part in karate, horseback riding and swimming and noted that such early exposure to activities gave him confidence as a youngster. Vikram lurked in the fringes of the school's theatre club for a long period and often took part in backstage work before being handed the lead role in a school adaptation of Molière's The Doctor in Spite of Himself after the original lead had contracted chicken pox. Despite expressing his interest to join films after school, his father forced him to go through education and Vikram subsequently graduated from Loyola College, Chennai with a degree in English Literature and worked halfway towards an MBA programme. Through the prolific dramatics club, Vikram appeared in stage productions including college adaptations of The Caine Mutiny Court-Martial and Peter Shaffer's Black Comedy, receiving best actor awards for his performances. After winning a Best Actor Award at a function held at IIT Madras, Vikram was hit by a truck during a ride on his motorbike on the way home and suffered a serious leg injury. He remained hospital-ridden for three years during college and subsequently went through twenty-three surgeries to prevent his leg from being amputated. Vikram then returned to finish the final year of his degree after his accident and secured permission to finish his dissertation at home, as he was only able to walk on crutches for a short period.
Acting career
1990–1998
Vikram began his professional career by modelling in advert films for brands including Chola Tea, TVS Excel and Alwyn watches as well as appearing in a six episode television serial titled Galatta Kudumbam, which aired between November and December 1988. During the final year of his M.B.A programme at Loyola College, he was recognised by the film industry, with veteran director C. V. Sridhar approaching him for a lead role in a film. Vikram made his film debut in 1990 by appearing in En Kadhal Kanmani, a small-budget love story featuring him alongside Rekha Nambiar, with Sridhar's Thanthu Vitten Ennai, opposite Rohini being his next release. He then signed on to be a part of cinematographer P. C. Sriram's college love story Meera, with high expectations, however, the three films failed to launch his career. His appearances in Meera and in Kaaval Geetham, with another veteran director S. P. Muthuraman, helped him secure film offers from the Malayalam and Telugu film industries. In 1993, he almost signed on to appear in Mani Ratnam's Bombay and featured in the initial photo shoot alongside Manisha Koirala. However, Mani Ratnam wanted Vikram to remove his beard for the role, and Vikram could not do so due to continuity problems with another film he had signed and hence was dropped from the project.
Between 1993 and 1994, Vikram played supporting roles in a series of films. He appeared in three successful Malayalam films by appearing with Mammootty, Suresh Gopi and Jayaram in Joshi's successful action film Dhruvam, before teaming up with Gopi again for Shaji Kailas's Mafia, which explored Bangalore's criminal underworld. Furthermore, Joshi cast him again alongside Mammootty in the action drama Sainyam in the role of an air cadet. During the period, Vikram also appeared in the small budget Telugu film Chirunavvula Varamistava in the lead role and as Akkineni Nageswara Rao's eldest son in the family drama Bangaru Kutumbam, with both films failing to give him a breakthrough although the latter was a box office success. A brief return to Tamil films also proved unsuccessful, with his role in Vikraman's multi-starrer Pudhiya Mannargal, with music composed by A. R. Rahman turning out to be a commercial failure.
Throughout 1995 and 1996, Vikram appeared in further Telugu and Malayalam films to receive income, being kept away from Tamil films due to a lack of offers. He played the lead role in the Malayalam film Mayoora Nritam directed by Vijayakrishnan's and even played villain in Street opposite Babu Antony and lead roles in the small budget Telugu films Adalla Majaka and Sriraj Ginne's Akka! Bagunnava?. He collaborated again with Mammootty in Indraprastham and Suresh Gopi in Rajaputhran, before appearing in his first lead role in Malayalam with Itha Oru Snehagatha opposite Laila. Vikram signed Amitabh Bachchan's first Tamil language film production, Ullaasam, which also featured Ajith Kumar and Maheswari. The big budget film created anticipation prior to release, but was average run at the box office. However, Vikram acknowledged the film for expanding his female fan base as a result of the soft-personality of his character. He followed it up with appearances in the unsuccessful films Kurralla Rajyam in Telugu and then in the Ilaiyaraaja musical Kangalin Vaarthaigal, before playing a short role in Parthiban's critically acclaimed film Housefull.
During his struggling phase, Vikram dubbed for other heroes in films including voices for Prabhu Deva in Kaadhalan, Ajith Kumar in Amaravathi and Abbas in Kandukondain Kandukondain respectively. Vikram has mentioned that he did not look down on dubbing and saw it as a "dignity of labour". During the period, he also attended dancing classes every day, and tried acting out different scenes and different characters with his small group of friends. He began to turn down chances to play supporting roles in films and was intent on making a breakthrough as a lead actor and notably turned down the role of Swarnamalya's fiancée in Mani Ratnam's Alaipayuthey. Vikram also rejected approaches from television serial producers, citing that working in television would reduce his chances of becoming a mainstream actor. He also refused opportunities to take part in film events as a backing dancer, with actor Sriman revealing that Vikram was "one amongst not many" who was not interested in travelling to Canada to participate in such shows.
1999–2001
In 1999, he played the eponymous lead in debutant director Bala's romantic drama Sethu. To prepare for the character, which was also referred to as Chiyaan, Vikram shaved his head, lost 21 kilograms and grew his nails long for the role. After beginning production in April 1997, the film went through development hell after industry strikes and lack of funds hampered progress. During this phase, he did not accept other acting offers to maintain the continuity of his looks. The film then struggled to find a distributor, who shunned it due to the tragic climax and the film remained unreleased. Vikram described the period of production as "the worst phase of his career" as he was financially strapped and "his fire was in danger of dying down". He turned down an opportunity from a friend to take up a job in technology and attempted to stay in the industry by directing a serial titled Mounam Pesiyadhey, with Ameer as his assistant director. Sethu finally released in December 1999 and initially began running at a single noon show at a suburban theater, but gradually gained an audience through word-of-mouth publicity. Eventually, it ran for over 100 days at several cinema halls across Chennai. Vikram was constantly being mobbed by people on the streets as a result of the film's success. Critics highly praised Vikram's performance with a reviewer referring to Vikram as "a revelation" and that "he is very natural and his acting in last few scenes are just too good and could even be compared with the best we have seen". Similarly, a critic from the Malaysian daily New Straits Times, described the film as an "unforgettable experience" and described Vikram's performance as "praise-worthy". The performance drew accolades with Vikram winning the Filmfare Special Award – South and the Tamil Nadu State Film Award Special Prize, in addition to his first nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his portrayal of the title character, while reports emerged that he missed out on the National Film Award for Best Actor by a single vote to Mohanlal. Post-Sethu, Vikram has said that the film would always remain close to him regardless of its commercial success and that it put him on the "right path", with Vikram choosing to adapt the prefix of Chiyaan to his screen name.
Vikram did not sign up to a film for 65 days after the release of Sethu, to ensure that he made the right career move. Vikram spent time completing projects he had agreed to feature in before the release of Sethu and hence made a couple of appearances in the Malayalam films Red Indians and the horror film Indriyam. He also played a leading role in Siragugal, a rare Tamil telefilm produced and featuring Raadhika, which was shot entirely in the suburbs of London. Furthermore, he also completed two Telugu films during the period; 9 Nelalu and Youth. 9 Nelalu featured Vikram as the husband of the character played by Soundarya, who faces the challenges of being a surrogate mother. The film won positive reviews, with a critic mentioning that Vikram gave a "controlled performance" while Vikram's newfound popularity in Tamil films saw the film dubbed into Tamil soon after as Kandaen Seethaiyai, with an inserted comedy track by comedian Vivek. His next release was Rajakumaran's Vinnukum Mannukum, alongside Sarath Kumar, Khushbu and Devayani, which revolved around an ordinary boy falling in love with an actress. Vikram has since mentioned his displeasure at being a part of the film, claiming that he had arguments with the director for every single shot and that "everything in that film, right from the first shot was wrong"; the film became a failure commercially.
His next film was Dhill, where he played an aspiring police officer, Kanagavel, who tackles a corrupt policeman. To appear trim in the role of the aspiring police officer, Vikram went on a strict diet eating only fruits and drinking juice. The film opened to positive reviews, with a critic from The Hindu claiming that "Vikram has the ability and potential" and that "Vikram has once again proved that his success in Sethu was not a fluke". Dhill subsequently went on to become Vikram's first success in the masala film genre and led the way for more such films in the same genre for him. Vikram's portrayal of a blind folk singer in Vinayan's Kasi won him his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil and the film also proved to be a commercial success. For the film, he sunbathed on the terrace of his beachside home in Chennai for a sunburnt look and got dizzying headaches while practising to look blind. Again, Vikram's performance won positive reviews from critics, with a reviewer describing it as an "extraordinarily detailed performance" and that "as the blind singer, he brings laughter, tears and a lump in one's throat".
2002–2003
The following year, Vikram went on to play the title role in Saran's Gemini, produced by AVM Productions, his first big-budget film in the Tamil industry, which featured him in the role of a local rowdy. The action film received positive reviews, with a critic citing that Vikram "delivers a convincing performance" and consequently became a "box office triumph". Similarly, the film's soundtrack composed by Bharadwaj had become popular prior to release, with Vikram also singing a version of the hit song "O Podu!" for the album. Balaji Sakthivel's Samurai was his next release, featuring him as a vigilante Robin Hood-esque figure who kidnapped corrupt politicians. Vikram had signed the film in early 2000 and the film was on hold during production, leading to a two-year delay and the film finally opened to average reviews and box office collections. The critic from The Hindu gave praise for Vikram's "admirably well-maintained physique and powerful eyes", whilst another labelled that the film's single major positive was Vikram's convincing portrayal. His final release of the year was Prabhu Solomon's King, a drama film which featured him alongside Sneha and Nassar. Vikram played Raja, a magician, who is unaware that he has been diagnosed with multiple sclerosis, with his family trying to keep the truth away from him. The film also met with an unfavorable response commercially, but received positive reviews from critics.
2003–2009
The success of Dharani's Dhill resulted in the film's team collaborating to make a film in a similar genre; Dhool, which also featured Jyothika, Reemma Sen and Vivek. The film saw Vikram play Aarumugham, a villager, who comes to the city seeking help in regard to a water crisis back home, but subsequently ends up tackling the corrupt politicians who are behind the water scam. In regard to his performance, the Rediff.com review praised his enactment, citing that "Vikram is at his peak" and that "he seems as much at home with comedy as with action, in romance as in emotional sequences", while the critic from The Hindu also praised his performance. The film became a blockbuster and his fifth success in two and a half years, with Vikram being dubbed as "the matinee idol of our times" by a leading Indian newspaper. He also featured in the romantic film Kadhal Sadugudu, with Priyanka Trivedi which was a critical and commercial failure, with reviewers claiming that "there are times you wish Vikram were a little more brisk and dynamic" in regard to his performance. After release, Vikram was critical of the film's failure, confessing that the story "underwent a lot of changes after the initial narration", lamenting that he was "taken for a royal ride" by the producers.
Vikram was then signed on by K. Balachander to appear in his banner's biggest production at the time, the masala film Saamy, directed by Hari. Vikram played Aarusaamy, an honest cop working in Tirunelveli, who solves the region's communal problems with his down-to-earth approach. Vikram worked on his body for the film, sporting a thick waist to show notable differences from his other police film, Dhill and also put on eight kilograms. The film took a large opening, grossing over Rs. 70 million in 10 days in Tamil Nadu, while also taking the largest opening of the new millennium in Kerala, with the Telugu remake rights also sold for a record price. Due to the good opening, the film has proved to be profitable just 10 days after its release and consequently went on to become a blockbuster. Vikram's performance was acclaimed by critics, with a critic from Sify claiming that Vikram had "succumbed to the superstar image trap", but is the "mainstay of the picture".
Later that year, he starred in Bala's crime drama Pithamagan, alongside Suriya, Sangeetha and Laila, playing the role of Chitthan, a gravedigger with autism spectrum disorders. He did not have any dialogue in the film and the actor's acting muscles were stretched as he had to use body language and facial expressions to convey his feelings and thoughts, with Vikram also applying the make-up for the character himself. The film received highly positive reviews upon release, with a critic from The Hindu calling it a "symphony on celluloid", while noting that it will be a "milestone in Vikram's career" and "he carves a niche for himself in the viewer's mind with his expressions and excellent body language". His performance earned him the National Film Award for Best Actor, with the latter accolade making him only the third Tamil actor to win the award; he also received two nominations for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for Saamy and Pithamagan, winning for the latter, his second win in the category. His next release was the revenge drama Arul, directed by Hari. The film received mixed to positive reviews and moderate box office collections.
Vikram signed on to feature in the action thriller Anniyan, directed by prominent director Shankar in March 2004. Vikram agreed to shoot for the film for 140 days, which was revealed to be amongst the longest contracts signed by an actor in a Tamil film. The film featured him as a character suffering from dissociative identity disorder with three distinct personae: a meek lawyer, a suave fashion model and a psychotic serial killer. Prior to release, the film was touted as the most expensive South Indian film ever, costing Rs 263.8 million, and was released across India with 400 prints. Anniyan took an "extraordinary opening", and went on to become a blockbuster grossing more than Rs. 1 billion through the original and two dubbed versions. Vikram's performance received widespread critical acclaim, with a reviewer from Sify citing that "Anniyan truly belongs to Vikram and the film is unthinkable without him" and "it is a role that could have been reduced to a caricature by a lesser actor". Anniyan won several accolades at award ceremonies the following year, with Vikram winning his third Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil for his performance in the film.
Later in the year, he signed and completed Shafi's comedy film with Asin, Majaa, in less than five months. The film which also featured Pasupathy as his brother, saw Vikram work as the assistant director under Shafi. Majaa faced a poor response at the box office and fetched average reviews, with a reviewer citing that "you will surely find something missing".
Vikram then signed up for Bheema in October 2005, with the film facing severe delays and only releasing in January 2008. The film saw him portray Sekhar, who grows up idolizing the gangster played by Prakash Raj, and Vikram revealed that he approached the film like an actor, even though the film's script was written "for a star". Upon release, the film gained mixed reviews though reviewers praised Vikram's performance, with a critic claiming that "Vikram breathes life into the film", "he looks sensational with his toned body, killer looks and unarguably delivers yet another outstanding performance of his career" and to "see the film only for him". Similarly, the review from The Hindu was critical of the excessive violence and mentioned that "as narration gives way after a point, Vikram can only appear helpless". His next release, Kanthaswamy, directed by Susi Ganesan and also featuring Shriya Saran, became the first superhero film in Tamil cinema, with Vikram being featured as a vigilante dressed as an anthropomorphic rooster, Kokorako and a CBI Officer. Kanthaswamy became Vikram's most expensive production beating Anniyan, with the film boasting of high production values of having an innovative pre-launch trailer and with scenes shot in Italy and Mexico. The film earned a mixed response from critics, with the reviewer from Sify claiming that the film "strikes a fine balance between style and substance" and proceeding to state that "Vikram is mesmerizing and has given an extra dimension to the characters he plays in the film and steers it to the winning post", suggesting that "there are very few people in Indian cinema who can do the larger-than-life fantasy characters as easily as Vikram". Sudhish Kamath of The Hindu labelled the film as "slow death", claiming that "as an actor, Vikram has nothing to do". The film took a strong opening, with a collection of Rs. 370 million, including Rs. 160 million in Tamil Nadu, at the box office in the opening week of its international release. The film subsequently went on to become one of the most profitable films of the year and ran in theaters for over one hundred days.
2010–2014
Vikram then featured in Mani Ratnam's bilingual films Raavanan and Raavan, inspired by the ancient Sanskrit epic Ramayana, with Vikram featuring as the tribal leader, Veeraiya, in the Tamil version and the cop, Dev Pratap Sharma, in the Hindi version of the films, which were shot simultaneously. Vikram revealed that changes between the two characters during filming took up to 45 minutes, with Abhishek Bachchan playing the tribal leader in the Hindi version, whilst Prithviraj played the cop in the Tamil version, with Aishwarya Rai as the female lead. Vikram was initially apprehensive, because both roles were to be shot almost simultaneously, but revealed that he succeeded by showing differences in his body language and expressions. Vikram revealed that he and Abhishek Bachchan played the roles in the respective versions without inspiration from one another. Despite being a non-speaker and making his debut in Hindi, he dubbed his lines in the language, remarking jovially that it was the "most difficult thing in the world". After promotions at the Cannes Film Festival and a premiere at Leicester Square in London, the two versions and the dubbed Telugu version released simultaneously in 2,200 screens worldwide and took a big opening on day one, earning 200 million. The Tamil version, Raavanan won rave reviews from critics, with The Hindu calling it a "master-stroke" and claiming that Vikram "raises the bar higher with every venture". The critic cited that "emotions of love, animus, anguish and joy dance on his face in quick succession", concluding that "Vikram lifts the role to an admirable level". The critic from Sify labelled it as an "astonishing portrayal", while the critic from the Hindustan Times praised Vikram's "ability to get into Veeraiya's skin and emote with conviction". The Tamil version emerged as a commercial success, with Vikram's performance winning him his fourth Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil among other accolades. In contrast, the Hindi version fetched mixed reviews, with critics agreeing that Vikram's performance as the tribal leader was more convincing than Bachchan's. Baradwaj Rangan, writing for The New Indian Express rated the film 4/5 and said: "Raavan falls for Sita (and vice versa) in an intriguingly idiosyncratic take on the Ramayana – if you can get past the lead performances, that is". Whereas, Taran Adarsh, writing for Bollywood Hungama rated it 1.5/5 and said: "On the whole, Raavan is a king-sized disappointment, in terms of content" though mentioning that Vikram was "first-rate, although the role isn't substantial enough". Raavan subsequently went on to become a surprise flop at the Indian box office. The film was also screened at the Venice Film Festival and the Busan International Film Festival, with Vikram in attendance.
After two years of discussions, Vikram began a film under the direction of Selvaraghavan in a project dubbed by the media as Sindubad. The film began shoot and completed a schedule by early 2010 in the Himalayas with Swati Reddy appearing as the female lead. However, the film was reported to be momentarily shelved and subsequently never took off again after the producer Singanamala Ramesh walked out. Vikram then agreed terms to feature in Vikram Kumar's 24, produced by Mohan Natarajan, with Ileana D'Cruz signed on to play the female lead role. The film progressed briefly with shots being canned in caves, before the director was ousted from the project, cancelling the film. Vikram then also shot briefly for a third successive shelved project directed by Boopathy Pandian for the same producer, featuring him in the role of an investigative cop; however the film failed to progress and instead Natarajan financed Vikram's next film.
His 2011 release, the melodrama Deiva Thirumagal, directed by A. L. Vijay, saw Vikram portray a father with a developmental disability having the mental maturity of a seven-year-old. To prepare for the role, Vikram visited homes for the mentally challenged such as Vidya Sagar and Vidya Sudha for a month, watching their body language and taking notes. He also communicated with the patients, to pick up the nuances of people with impaired speech. Vikram has since gone on to describe his role as Krishna as the best character he has ever portrayed. The film, which also featured Sara Arjun, Anushka Shetty and Amala Paul in supporting roles, opened to predominantly positive reviews from critics and enjoyed commercial success at the box office. The reviewer from The Deccan Chronicle described that the film was "Vikram's show all the way" and that "his rendition of a mentally-challenged man trying to cope with the everyday realities of raising a child is a work of art", praising his "fiery, complex performance as one of the more viciously honest depictions of mental illness cinema has seen". Similarly, another critic described that the on-screen chemistry between Vikram and his daughter, played by Sara Arjun, is "magic" and their performances "are sure to leave a lump in your throat". The critic from The Hindu praised the film and Vikram's performance, but analysed that "a problem arises only when you stop looking at Krishna as a character, and begin to see him as Vikram, the hero" and that Vikram should have "underplayed a little here and there and it would have worked better". For his performance in the film, Vikram won his first Filmfare Award for Best Actor (Critics) – Tamil, in addition to his seventh nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.
Vikram next featured in Rajapattai (2011), alongside Deeksha Seth, under the direction of Suseenthiran, where he played a henchman trying to get a break in the Tamil film industry. The film opened to mixed reviews from critics in December 2011 and performed below expectations at the box office. Vikram also completed half of a fantasy period film during 2011, Karikalan, in which he played Karikala Chola, a Tamil king who ruled in 270 BC, opposite Zarine Khan, under the direction of graphics director Kannan, but the film was later shelved owing to production troubles. He then appeared in his second project with director Vijay, portraying the lead role of a blinded RAW agent in the action-thriller, Thaandavam. The film, which also featured Anushka Shetty, Amy Jackson and Lakshmi Rai in pivotal roles, opened to mixed reviews in September 2012. For his role of a blind man, Vikram trained under noted human echolocation specialist Daniel Kish, with the latter also playing a cameo in the film. A critic from Sify.com noted that it was "Vikram and him alone who diverts your attention from the film's little logical script flaws and spellbinds you with an endearing act that is Thaandavam's biggest strength"; subsequently, the film did average business commercially. For his performance in the film, Vikram received his eighth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. The actor was next seen portraying the title role in Bejoy Nambiar's Hindi-language film David playing out a love story between a careless drunkard fisherman and a mute girl played by Isha Sherwani. The film won mixed reviews and performed average business at the box office. The film was also partially reshot in Tamil for which Vikram was one of the producers.
2015–present
Vikram signed on to collaborate again with Shankar for I, a romantic thriller opposite Amy Jackson, in early 2012. Following hushed production developments, it was revealed that the actor would sport four significantly different looks in the film: a body builder, a beast, a model and a hunchback. He put on weight to portray the bodybuilder, sticking to a diet of protein and coffee, to ensure his muscles were defined on screen. Vikram subsequently lost weight to portray a model, before shaving his head and reducing his weight to 56 kilograms to portray the crippled hunchback. He changed his physique by eating small meals of egg whites and apples instead of regular food intake, while engaging in an intensive weight loss regimen to become thin. The cast and crew of the film reportedly struggled to recognise the actor at times, while he also stayed away from the media for close to a year when sporting the look. Taking almost three years for production, Vikram described the film "as the toughest he has ever done" and regularly suffered folliculitis as a result of the prosthetic make-up he had to wear. The film opened amidst much expectation in January 2015 to mixed reviews, though Vikram's portrayal of Lingesan received highly positive reviews. A critic from The Times of India noted: "Vikram bowls you over with a heart-wrenching performance whether he is handsome or disfigured", while The Hindu added his transformation was "laudable", and that "Vikram wins hearts as the earnest-to-boot gym rat and as the strapping new model on the block, he floors the audience with his performance as Koonan, the deformed hunchback". Similarly, Rediff.com noted the actor "is truly impressive and deserves much applause", while Sify.com added he "lived the role". Despite the mixed critical reception, I performed well at the box office, as well as becoming the most successful Tamil film of all time in Kerala. By early 2015, it was the sixth highest-grossing Tamil film of all time at the time. I won Vikram his fifth Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil.
He then worked on Vijay Milton's road-thriller, 10 Enradhukulla (2015), which featured him as an unnamed race driver who goes on a road trip through India. Paired opposite Samantha, the film opened to mixed reviews and did not perform well at the box office. A critic from Sify.com however, noted that Vikram "breathes life to his role and his energy level is highly infectious", adding that "the way he smiles, dances and fights is a treat for his fans". Likewise, a critic from The Hindu criticised the film's script, adding that "it's hard to see Vikram in this fluff".
Vikram later appeared in Iru Mugan (2016), a science fiction action film directed by Anand Shankar, featuring him alongside Nayanthara and Nithya Menen. The film was a critical and commercial success, and earned him his tenth nomination for the Filmfare Award for Best Actor – Tamil. His next films are Sketch (2018) directed by Vijay Chandar followed by Saamy Square (2018) directed by Hari.
In 2022, Vikram appeared in Mahaan as Gandhi Mahaan, along with his son Dhruv Vikram. It released on 10, February in Amazon Prime Video.
He also signed his 58th film with R. Ajay Gnanamuthu as the director who is known for his work in Demonte Colony. The film was titled as Cobra and was released on 31 August 2022. The film received mixed reviews from critics. His most recent role was Aditya Karikalan in Mani Ratnam's film Ponniyin Selvan, which released on 30 September 2022. It is the first Tamil film to release in IMAX format.
Other work
Film and television work
Apart from acting, Vikram has also been a part of other film-making processes with credits as a playback singer and as an assistant director. In 2000, Vikram and actress Meena launched a pop album titled Kadhalism, which the pair would sing and appear in music videos for, although the project was completed without much promotion. Following the success of Bharadwaj's music for Vikram's 2002 film Gemini, Vikram sang a version of the hit song "O Podu!" for the extended version of the album. During the making of Kanthaswamy in 2009, the music composer Devi Sri Prasad had asked Vikram to sing a few rough tracks during the film's song composition in Malaysia. The producers were impressed with his voice and Vikram ended up singing four songs in the film. Furthermore, Vikram also recorded all four tracks in the Telugu version of the album titled Mallana. He then went on to sing for a film he was unrelated to, by lending five different voices in "Meghame" for G. V. Prakash Kumar's album in Madrasapattinam. He sang two further songs under Prakash Kumar for his Deiva Thirumagal, singing in the voice of his character, an adult with the maturity of a six-year-old. In 2011, he sang the song "Laddu Laddu" for his film Rajapattai, under composer Yuvan Shankar Raja's direction. Vikram announced his own production company Reel Life Entertainment in July 2009 and announced that Sasikumar would direct his first film, the action thriller Easan, featuring Samudrakani, Vaibhav, Abhinaya and Aparnaa Bajpai. However, after 90% of the shoot had been completed, Vikram pulled out of the venture, citing that Sasikumar had overshot his budget and the director eventually bought and released the film. The actor, however, was later listed as one of the three producers for the Tamil version of the 2013 film, David, thereby making his debut in film financing. Vikram has also worked as the assistant director under Shafi in Majaa, and has mentioned that he would like to direct a film in the future.
Philanthropy
Vikram has promoted various social causes with several of his charity works being linked to characters he had portrayed in his films. He has been a brand ambassador of Sanjeevani Trust and a school for special children Vidya Sudha, where he stayed during the making of Deiva Thirumagal. Moreover, he has had a long-term association since the making of his film Kasi with the Kasi Eye Care, which does free eye surgeries for the poor. Vikram has also set up The Vikram Foundation through his fan club to provide heart operations for the poor, educate poor children and rehabilitate victims from natural disasters. Every year, Vikram has celebrated his birthday doing charity work across Tamil Nadu and in 2008, he organised a camp where a thousand of his fans pledged their eyes in an eye donation appeal.
He has lent his support for the Chennai-based charity The Banyan, and appeared in the charity musical Netru, Indru, Naalai directed by Mani Ratnam for the cause. The actor also starred in the 2010 "Mile Sur Mera Tumhara" music video on national integration alongside a bevy of Indian actors and musicians, describing the experience as "phenomenal". In 2011, Vikram was selected as a Youth Envoy for the United Nations Human Settlements Programme with his aim being to spread awareness about the statutes of U.N. Habitat which include urban stabilisation and to help formulate plans for effective water management, slum eradication and women and youth empowerment. Soon after, he announced two further social projects, "Karka Kasadara" and "Patchai Puratchi", with the former being to identify school and college dropouts and help them to stand on their own feet, while the latter was about planting trees with an aim to make Chennai go green. In 2016, he produced and directed the video to the flood relief anthem Spirit of Chennai, as a tribute to the city's volunteers following the 2015 South Indian floods.
In the media
Vikram is a prolific method actor, being often compared akin to Hollywood's Christian Bale. Since the success of Sethu, Vikram's intense performances and variety of roles have received critical acclaim. His performances as a rogue turned mentally ill patient in Sethu, a gravedigger with autism spectrum disorder in Bala's Pithamagan, a Brahmin lawyer with multiple personality disorder in Anniyan and a mentally challenged adult with the maturity of a six-year-old boy in Deiva Thirumagal are all roles in which he played a mentally affected man, with Vikram mentioning that he does such roles to reinvent himself on screen.
Furthermore, Vikram has enjoyed a large fan following in Andhra Pradesh as a result of a series of successful dubbed Telugu films with Aparichitudu, dubbed from his Tamil film Anniyan, being among the most successful Telugu films of 2005. All his films are thus released in Telugu soon after their original release in Tamil, while Anniyan was also dubbed in Hindi as Aparichit. He has also enjoyed success in Kerala, where his films have demanded large box office openings akin to Malayalam film stars. In 2004, Vikram participated in a live stadium stage event organised by producer P. L. Thenappan titled "Vikram Mega Nite". The event, held in Singapore, attracted several hundreds of his South East Asian fans and was held in the form of a stage musical. Vikram's pan-Indian popularity has also prompted him to be regularly considered for brand endorsements. In 2005, he was signed as Coca-Cola's brand ambassador in Tamil Nadu. He has been the ambassador for Brooke Bond 3 Roses, Manappuram General Finance and Leasing Ltd and Josco Jewellers since 2010. In 2015, Vikram has endorsed Big Deal TV, a celebrity-driven home shopping channel.
He is amongst the most decorated actors in terms of awards in the history of Tamil cinema. He holds a National Film Award for Best Actor; a feat only matched by four other actors in Tamil films. Moreover, Vikram holds seven Filmfare Awards South, with the tally being only second to Kamal Haasan who has ten wins. In 2010 his film Raavan was promoted at the Cannes Film Festival and then screened at Venice Film Festival and the Busan International Film Festival. Within weeks of release, Deiva Thirumagal was sent to the Asia Pacific Screen Awards after it was nominated by the Film Federation of India and the National Film Development Corporation. Vikram is also a recipient of the Kalaimamani Award from the Government of Tamil Nadu in 2004. Other recognitions includes a string of Cinema Express Awards, Vijay Awards and Tamil Nadu State Film Awards, including recognition in three different categories. In 2011, Vikram was awarded an honorary doctorate from Università Popolare degli Studi di Milano (People's University of Milan) in the field of Fine Arts. Vikram accepted the title on 29 May 2011 and in his next release, Deiva Thirumagal, he was credited as Dr. Chiyaan Vikram.
Personal life
Vikram met Shailaja Balakrishnan in the late 1980s and married her in 1992 at Guruvayoor Temple in a mass wedding alongside dozens of couples. The pair then had a low-key wedding ceremony conducted at the church at Loyola College, Chennai. She hails from Thalassery, Kerala and now works as a psychology teacher at a leading Chennai school. Shailaja also worked with the team of Deiva Thirumagal by giving professional advice on how people with special needs are treated and helping develop the character played by Vikram.
The couple has a daughter Akshita born in 1993 and a son Dhruv born in 1997. His daughter married Manu Ranjith, the great-grandson of M. Karunanidhi, on 30 October 2017. He lives near the beach in Besant Nagar, Chennai and has stated that he would remain based in Chennai regardless of any offers in other regional films.
His son Dhruv made his debut with Adithya Varma in 2019 which was the Tamil remake of the Telugu film Arjun Reddy.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
Discography
References
External links
1966 births
20th-century Indian male actors
21st-century Indian male actors
Best Actor National Film Award winners
Filmfare Awards South winners
Indian male film actors
Indian male voice actors
Living people
Loyola College, Chennai alumni
Male actors from Chennai
Male actors in Hindi cinema
Male actors in Malayalam cinema
Male actors in Tamil cinema
Male actors in Telugu cinema
Recipients of the Kalaimamani Award
South Indian International Movie Awards winners
Tamil male actors
Tamil Nadu State Film Awards winners
Tamil playback singers
Telugu male actors
University of Madras alumni
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clan%20McCulloch
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Clan McCulloch
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The origins of Clan MacCulloch are unknown, but there is a consensus that the family was one of the most ancient families of Galloway, Scotland, and a leading medieval family in that region. Despite the obscurity of the early history of the clan, the history and genealogies of the family are well documented in Walter Jameson McCulloch's History of the Galloway Families of McCulloch, which provides extensive footnotes for original Scottish charters, correspondence, and other primary source documentation. The latter provides family history for the following lines: Myretoun, Ardwell, Killasser, Torhouse, Drummorrell, Inshanks and Mule, Torhousekie, Cardiness, Barholm, Kirkclaugh, Auchengool, and Ardwall (Nether Ardwall).
Clan MacCulloch is a Lowland Scottish clan. As it no longer has a clan chief, it is an armigerous clan.
History
Origins
The name McCulloch is of Celtic origin and is found mainly in Galloway and Wigtownshire. The name is in the format of a Gaelic patronym with "mac" meaning son followed by a name. However, the origin of that name is a subject of debate.
The first record of the name McCulloch was a 1285 transaction with respect to a delivery of 320 cattle by Thomas McCulloch (rendered "MacUlauth") as payment to the estate of Sir John de Balliol according to the testament of Sir Alan Fitz Comte. (The latter appears to be Alan, son of Thomas of Galloway, the mormaer of Atholl). The second record of the name McCulloch (written as "MacUlagh") was an oath of fealty to Edward I of England in 1296 by Thomas, Michael and William McCulloch, on the Ragman Rolls. The seal of Thomas McCulloch was in the name of "S' Thome Maccvli" and bore an image of a squirrel. The latter Sir Thomas McCulloch, an English loyalist, was appointed Sheriff of Wigtownshire by 1305.
Andrew McCulloch's history of Galloway: A Land Apart suggests that their prominence in Wigtownshire pinpoints the family as one of the kindreds who amassed power and land under Roland (or Lochlann), Lord of Galloway, having supported him in the brief civil conflict against his uncle Gille Brichte in the later 12th century. However, very little is known about the McCullochs or their status within Galloway prior to the rise of the Lords of Galloway.
The McCulloch lineage held the lands of Torhouse, Myreton and Ardwell in Galloway until 1682. A study of this surname and its variants can be found at the Guild of One Name Studies.
McCulloch Support for Balliol Cause
In the History of the Land of Galloway and their Owners, P.H. McKerlie describes the McCullochs as "traitors" for not supporting King Robert the Bruce in his claims for the throne of the King of Scots and his eventual war for independence from England. To better understand why the McCullochs supported Kings John Balliol and Edward Balliol and their ally, King Edward I of England, some historical context is necessary.
In earlier medieval times, regions like Galloway and the Isles, were semi-independent lordships that generally supported the King of Scots. After the death of Alexander III, the McCullochs, like other Galloway families, supported the bid of John Balliol, son of Lady Dervorguila of Galloway, rather than De Brus. The McCullochs remained loyal to the Balliols even after King John was dethroned. Sir Patrick McCulloch even entered exile in England with Edward Balliol.
When Edward Balliol pursued his claim to the Scottish throne, he did so with the support of several McCullochs, including Sir Patrick, and his sons (John and Patrick), William, Gilbert (and his son), among others. Sir Patrick also served Edward III in his campaigns in Brittany.
Because of their support for Balliol and King Edward I, King Robert the Bruce stripped McCulloch's of their extensive land holdings in Galloway. Around 1364, Sir Patrick returned to Scotland and entered the king's peace at which time King David II restored a portion of the prior McCulloch lands. An undated indenture purports to be a proposal for discussions between King Edward III of England and King David of Scotland with respect to the restoration of lands and castles seized by the late King Robert the Bruce. This indenture, which mentions Patrick McCulloch and other dispossessed landholders, may indicate that the restoration of the McCulloch lands was part of a broader settlement between the kings of England and Scotland.
McCulloch of Myreton (Galloway)
The McCullochs of Myreton were a Scottish Lowland family who lived in Myreton, Ardwell, Rhins of Galloway, Wigtownshire overlooking Luce Bay near the Water of Luce. (see location on map on this page). Unlike other McCulloch families the McCullochs of Myreton were not septs of another clan but owned their own territory. They were later seated at Cardoness Castle. Myreton is in southwest Scotland along the coast in the Machars. Another McCulloch region related to Ardwell lies across the bay from Myreton.
Between the later 14th and mid-15th centuries, they were strong allies of the earls of Douglas, who had now acquired the Galloway lordship, witnessing their charters, supplying soldiers and ships of war for their forces, and maintaining places on their council. According to Michael Brown's history of The Black Douglases, McCullochs were part of the Douglas muster-roll that fought against the English armies at the Battle of Homildon Hill in 1402. John McCulloch was chancellor to the Countess of Douglas in the 1420s.
Though the power of the Black Douglases fell away in the later fifteenth century, the McCullochs outlasted their erstwhile patrons, and with castles built at Myretoun, Cardoness and Barholm on the Galloway shoreline, the strength of the family became a central part of Scotland's maritime defence. Their influence rose to its height in the career of Sir Alexander McCulloch (d. 1523), a favourite of King James IV of Scotland whom he served as chief falconer, sheriff of Wigtown and captain of the Royal Palace of Linlithgow. Under his authority, the McCulloch family and their following supplied the bodyguard for the newly-born Prince James in 1512, and were exempted from local legal and military duties in Wigtownshire while they resided at Linlithgow. In 1507, Sir Alexander ravaged the Isle of Man in revenge for an English raid on the town of Kirkcudbright. The Isle of Man was then in the possession of the Earl of Derby. Sir Alexander's daughter Margaret was married to a kinsman, another Alexander ('Sandy') McCulloch, who was a favoured member of the king's guard, and is recorded as archery partner to James IV, and as a regular participant in the royal jousts. At the Battle of Flodden, the younger MacCulloch was one of ten men clad in armour identical to the king, in an attempt to confuse the English adversaries. The ruse failed to work - James IV was killed, and so was Sandy McCulloch.
The power of the McCullochs on the national stage entered into decline after the reign of James IV. However, the family remained significant within Galloway, and a number of influential landholding branches had sprung off the main Myreton line. The McCulloch lairds of Ardwell and Killasser were among the leading Galloway supporters of Mary, Queen of Scots, summoned with the threat of a charge of treason to submit to the regency ruling after her deposition in 1569 and 1571. David, son of Thomas McCulloch of Nether Ardwall was in military service in the Thirty Years' War, and settled permanently on the continent; his sons Thomas and Anthony were officers in a British regiment in Spanish service during the War of Devolution (1667-8) against Louis XIV. A second David McCulloch of Nether Ardwall served in the armies of William of Orange before the 1688 Revolution, and then in the British forces in the Nine Years' War (1688–97). In 1715, he was offered but declined a commission in the Jacobite rebel army, commanded by his cousin William Gordon, 6th Viscount of Kenmure. In the earlier part of the seventeenth-century, the brothers John and James McCulloch, younger sons of the McCullochs of Killasser, attained distinction as scholars and physicians, both holding professorial chairs at the University of Pisa, and both serving as physicians-in-ordinary to King James VI/I. John McCulloch had worked previously as physician to the Holy Roman Emperor Rudolf II, who shared his enthusiasm for alchemy and astrology.
The chief of the Clan McCulloch of Myreton was raised to the rank of Baronet in 1634. However this title ended when Sir Godfrey McCulloch was executed in Edinburgh in 1697 for the murder of William Gordon seven years earlier. This may have been as a result of a fight over some cattle. Sir Godfrey's crime was the beginning of a time of severe misfortune for the Myreton line. [In Sir Walter Scott's version of the tale, Sir Godfrey is rescued from execution by a faerie whom Sir Godfey had previously befriended]. The chief's son Captain John McCulloch left a flourishing career in the Grenadier Guards in 1691: probably returning from the continent to support a family cast into penury after flight from justice of the laird. The next chief, Sir Gilbert McCulloch was killed on military service in Flanders in 1704. The representation of the family then passed to the McCullochs of Ardwall, which name was eventually assumed by the descendants of Andrew Jameson, Lord Ardwall.
MacCulloch of Plaids (Ross-shire)
Origins in Plaids
Another MacCulloch family, the MacCullochs of Plaids, established themselves in Easter Ross in the Scottish Highlands by the 14th century. They were first noted as followers of the Earl of Ross and Clan Ross, and also as septs of the Clan Munro. The MacCullochs intermarried with Clan Ross so frequently they were included in Ross genealogies. The family however, are believed to have originated outside the north-east, and there are some unsubstantiated claims of an ancestral connection with the Galloway MacCullochs.
According to historian R.W Munro, if the Ross-shire MacCullochs had a Galloway origin then no details of it have been preserved, but it is possible that they came from some other part of Scotland. It is noteworthy, however, that the first record of a MacCulloch in Ross-shire was a 1431 inquest signed by Alexander MacCulloch who attached a seal bearing a shield, fretty, and apparent ermines similar to the coat of arms of the Galloway families. Plaids was formerly spelt Pladis, Pladdis, and the Pladdis. It is on the flat land on the coast to the east of Tain, about three quarters of a mile from the centre of the burgh. The estate gave its name to the territorial designation of the chiefly MacCulloch family of the North, who are recorded as land owners by documentary evidence from 1436 to 1552. In some early charters, Skardy is the designation used before Plaids came into use for the estate and although now obsolete as a place-name it has been equated with Hilton. What was known as Paul Mactire's Hill is near Plaids and was one of the 'court places' used by the Tain burgh.
Several of the Ross-shire MacCullochs became Canons Regular of the Premonstratensian Order at Fearn Abbey in Ross-shire.
Alexander MacCulloch of Plaids
Alexander MacCulloch of Plaids is on record from 1436 to 1443. He was an important person under Alexander of Islay, Earl of Ross and Lord of the Isles. He received a charter dated January 6, 1436/7 at Dingwall Castle for the lands of Scardy, Pladds, Petnely, Petogarty, Balmaduthy, and Ballechory, and it was witnessed by Hugh Ross of Balnagown Castle and George Munro, 10th Baron of Foulis. This charter gave him the office of bailie of the immunity of Tain. He also witnessed charters by the same Earl at Inverness in 1437, 1439, 1440. Alexander MacCulloch's last appearance is as a witness with George Munro of Foulis for another charter by the Earl at Dingwall on October 24, 1443. A daughter of MacCulloch of Plaids, whose Christian names have not been recorded, was the second wife of George Munro of Foulis and from whom the later Munro chiefs are descended.
John MacCulloch of Plaids
John MacCulloch of Plaids is on record from 1450 to 1466. He had a retour to his father, Alexander, for the lands of Skardy and Plaids on November 10, 1450. John of Islay, Earl of Ross and Lord of the Isles wrote to John MacCulloch who was the bailie of the girth of Sanct Duthowis in 1458, ordering him and the inhabitants of Tain to defend their neighbours in Inverness and not to allow their trade to be impeded, as ordered by the King. John MacCulloch witnessed a charter by Thomas Dingwall of Kildun on October 27, 1466, at Tain.
Angus MacCulloch of Plaids
Angus MacCulloch of Plaids is on record from 1483 to 1498. He first appears ordering the production of the charter for his neighbour, William McTeyr, for him to receive the lands of Achnaplad which was produced on February 27, 1483, at the head of the court near Scarde. Along with John Ross of Balnagowan and John Munro, 11th Baron of Foulis he was among the citizens of Tain who granted land in the town on behalf of the community in 1484. The Earl of Ross was forfeited in 1475 and in the disturbances that followed, the MacCullochs are said to have been with the Mackenzie force which defeated Alexander MacDonald of Lochalsh at the Battle of Blar Na Pairce. However, the MacCullochs are not mentioned when the Mackenzies drove Alexander MacDonald of Lochalsh out of Ross a few years later at the Battle of Drumchatt in 1497. It is related that the MacCullochs and Dingwalls, who were haid bound ther dependence on William Munro, 12th Baron of Foulis as the King's representative, lost all their men in an ambush by the Mackenzies in another Battle of Drumchatt in 1501. However, no MacCullochs of Plaids are specifically mentioned in this, nor on any of the previous occasions. Angus MacCulloch was accused on July 30, 1498, by the Lords of Council for taking part in spoiliation of 30 cattle and two horses from the lands of Tordarroch. Three days later he and John Vass of Lochslin were among those who had to pay damages to the burgess of Dysart, Fife.
William MacCulloch of Plaids
In 1505, William MacCulloch of Plaids had sasine for the lands of Pladys, Scardy, Petnely, Balmaduthy and Bellecarw. However, he was not retoured as heir to his father, John MacCulloch, until April 10, 1512. James IV of Scotland granted to him a charter for the lands of Scardy, Pladdis, Petnely, Pettogarty, Balmoduthy and Ballecarew, with the office of baillie of the immunity of Tain, on August 12, 1512. In 1513 and 1514, he was a member of an inquest at Inverness when Thomas Paterson who was the rector of Assynt was served heir to his uncle, William Paterson, and when Lady Elizabeth Gordon was served heir to her brother, John Sutherland, 9th Earl of Sutherland. William MacCulloch of Plaids brought an action against the Abbot of Fearn and others in 1534 as to whether the lands in Easter Catboll belonged to him in heritage, and he obtained a decree in his favour. He received a letter of regress from the King on part of Pitnele and Ballecouth on August 1, 1540. He died on October 15, 1541, at Folis (Foulis). He had married Agnes, daughter of Sir David Ross of Balnagowan and was succeeded by his son, Thomas.
Thomas MacCulloch of Plaids
On November 1, 1541, he was retoured as the son and heir of William MacCulloch of Plaids, in the lands of Pladdis, Skardy, Bellycarnich, and with office of bailliary of the immunity of Tain. He was on the inquest which found that Robert Munro, 14th Baron of Foulis was the lawful and nearest heir of Hector Munro, 13th Baron of Foulis that took place at Inverness on May 2, 1542. On May 20, 1547, along with the same Robert Munro he was one of an assize at Inverness. It was probably with his chief, Robert Munro, that Thomas MacCulloch joined the Scottish army that had mustered to meet the English invasion of Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, as both were killed at the subsequent Battle of Pinkie near Musselburgh on September 10, 1547. Thomas MacCulloch had married a sister of Alexander Innes of Catboll and was succeeded by his son, Robert MacCulloch.
Robert MacCulloch of Plaids
Robert MacCulloch of Plaids is on record from 1547 to 1552 and was the last of his family to own that estate. On February 10, 1547/8 he received a retour as son and heir of his father Thomas in the lands of Pladdis, as well as the office of bailliary of the town and immunity of Tain. He was also excepted from paying feudal taxes because of the death of his father in the national cause. Mary, Queen of Scots, as the Countess of Ross, gave him sasine of his lands on March 22. He was a witness for Alexander Ross of Balnagowan at Edinburgh on April 21, 1550. He sold the lands of Plaids, Pettogarte, Bellequich, Ballekere, Petneille, Scarde and the bailliary of Tain to his uncle Alexander Innes of Catboll, captain of Orkney and his wife Elizabeth Innes, at Elgin on January 23, . On February 20, the Queen granted a charter to Alexander Innes and his wife for these lands and the name MacCulloch ceased to be associated with them.
MacCullochs of Kindeace and Glastullich (Ross-shire)
The MacCullochs of Kindeace and Glastullich held the lands of Kindeace in the parish of Nigg and Glastullich in Logie-Easter from the 17th century onward. They obtained Wester Kindeis in 1621 from Andrew Munro of Culnald. A manuscript genealogy shows that they were descended from the MacCullochs of Plaids. A later James MacCulloch of Kindeace married Christian Munro of Obsdale, sister of Sir Robert Munro, 3rd Baronet. A later Roderick MacCulloch of Glastullich was a captain in the Jacobite George Mackenzie, 3rd Earl of Cromartie's regiment during the Jacobite rising of 1745 and his estate was forfeited as a result. However, he was given a free pardon in 1748 and married in 1752 to Margaret Munro of Culrain. Roderick's sister, Mary, had a son, Hugh Rose who married Catherine Ross Munro of Culcairn and succeeded to the Cromarty estates including Glastullich. Andrew MacCulloch of Tain, a merchant and sea captain who traded between Scotland and Sweden, was also involved in the Jacobite rebellion, as the leader of a French-backed expedition that attempted the rescue of Prince Charles Edward in July 1746, after the Battle of Culloden. MacCulloch's vessel sailed between Mull and Skye, liaising with local Jacobites, but failed to locate the Prince, and returned to Gothenberg in April 1747.
MacCullochs of Cadboll (Ross-shire)
The MacCullochs of Cadboll in Ross-shire were closely associated with the MacCullochs of Plaids but no genealogical connection has been found between them. Catherine MacCulloch, wife of Farquhar Munro of Aldie, near Tain, and from whom she separated in 1605 due to his cruelty was the daughter of Walter or William MacCulloch of Cadboll.
MacCullochs of Pilton/Pitneilies/Mulderg (Ross-shire)
The MacCullochs of Pilton/Pitneilies/Mulderg are descended from the MacCullochs of Cadboll. Sir Hugh MacCulloch of Pilton was a knight who died August 6, 1688, in his 70th year and his tombstone at Greyfriars Kirk, Edinburgh states that he was descended from the MacCulloch of Cadboll family. He allegedly also claimed cousinage with the lairds of Myreton in Galloway and matriculated arms that advertised the affinity. An 1845 salt paper photographic print of Sir Hugh MacCulloch's monument at Greyfriars Churchyard entitled the Greyfriars Churchyard, Edinburgh, "The McCulloch Monument and the Martyr's Monument" is included in the University of Edinburgh Library prints collection. He left descendants.
MacCullochs of Tarrell (Ross-shire)
The MacCullochs of Tarrell held their estate in the parish of Tarbat and was once the property of the Tarrell family. John of Tarrell was chamberlain to William III, Earl of Ross in the 14th century and he witnessed the charter granted in 1370/1 from the Earl to Hugh Munro, 9th Baron of Foulis. Angus MacCulloch had sasine of Meikle Tarrell in 1505 and he may have been a cadet of the MacCullochs of Plaids. In this charter he was served heir to his grandmother Eufemia of Tarrell. However, an earlier Angus MacCulloch of Tarrell was recorded in 1484 as a citizen of Tain and was among the landed gentlemen killed in 1486 at the Battle of Auldicharish fighting for the Clan Ross against the Clan Mackay. Another Angus MacCulloch of Tarrell appears on record in 1534 and 1539 along with his son and heir, Alexander MacCulloch, in 1537. However, when Angus MacCulloch resigned his lands to the King in , they were granted to John MacCulloch who was probably his grandson. John MacCulloch of Tarrell who was a baillie of Tain, married in 1553 to Christina, sister of Thomas Moneypenny of Kinkell. He died in 1567 and left a widow, Elizabeth Ross. His son, another Angus MacCulloch, whose ward of lands and marriage were given by Queen Mary to David Chalmer on his forfeiture to Andrew Munro of Newmore in 1568. The deceased Alexander MacCulloch of Tarrell was described as the last possessor of Meikle Tarrell in 1576. John MacCulloch's only surviving heir, Marion MacCulloch, then entered into a contract of marriage with Andrew Munro of Newmore to marry his son, George Munro, in 1577 with the consent of her curators, including Robert Mor Munro, 15th Baron of Foulis. A Crown charter dated July 26, 1578, confirmed the lands of Meikle Tarrell to the couple. George Munro was head of the Munro of Milntown family and sat in the Scots Parliament. He died in 1623 and his son sold the lands to Roderick Mackenzie of Coigach who had them erected into a barony by James VI of Scotland.
MacCulloch of Oban (Argyll)
A distinct 'clan' of MacCullochs, the MacCullochs of Oban, lived in the vicinity of Oban, Argyll, and the island of Kerrara, on the West coast of Argyll. Here MacCulloch of Colgin was long recognised as the representative of his line. They were said to be descended from a race of MacLulichs who had lived in Benderloch under the Clan MacDougall. Although the Collins Scottish Clan Encyclopedia states that the MacCullochs of Oban were descendants of the MacDougalls themselves.
McCullochs in Ulster and North America
At its nearest point, Northern Ireland is only twelve miles away from Galloway across the Irish Sea. It is likely that there was trade and migration between these locales for some time. However, the earliest recorded migration of Clan McCulloch to Northern Ireland might be when Sir William McCulloch of Myreton migrated to Ireland in the early seventeenth century. His son, Laird Alexander McCulloch of Myreton later followed him and settled in County Antrim around 1634, leaving his Myreton estate in the hands of his brother-in-law John McCulloch of Ardwell.
Descendants of these McCullochs who settled in County Antrim became prominent landowners and speculators in North Carolina. Eventually confederate brigadier generals Benjamin McCulloch and his brother Henry Eustace McCulloch descended from this line.
Around 1609, James McCulloch, the elder, of Drummorrell was enlisted as an undertaker in the Ulster Plantation and granted 1,000 acres of land at Mullaveagh Manor in Donegal. He subsequently sold this property a few years later. It is unknown if any McCullochs settled in Donegal as a result of James McCulloch's temporary ownership of property there.
According to Andrew McCulloch, "Although the original McCullochs of Myretoun disposed of their family estates in the 1620s, they left numerous descendants, all of whom live in the United States". McCulloch indicates that, apart from the McCullochs of Barholm, the families named McCulloch who remained in Galloway after this time may not have descended from the McCullochs of Myreton.
Known descendants of the McCulloch of Myreton in the United States include John McCullough of Bohemia Manor (Maryland), a son of Sir Godfrey, and John McCulloch, Sir Godfrey's nephew who migrated to New Jersey by way of Ulster. The latter's descendants include Major John McColloch, the trailblazer of McCulloch's Trading Path, and the first High Sheriff of Ohio County, Virginia and his son, Major Samuel McCulloch, famous for McColloch's Leap. Other McCulloch immigrants from different lines also migrated to North America and beyond at this time and thereafter.
Name Origin Hypotheses
Son of a Boar
In Scottish Gaelic the name may be rendered as MacCullaich which is translated as son of a boar. However, the name is rarely if ever spelled as "MacCullaich" based on a survey of available baptism, marriage, death, and other records available at Scotlands People and extant medieval or early modern records such as R.C. Reid's Wigtownshire Charters. This origin story is hard to square with the fact that the seal of Thomas McCulloch, Sheriff of Wigtown included an image of a squirrel and the earliest known family coats of arms featured wolves.
Hound of Ulster
An alternative derivation has been suggested that the name comes from the Irish Gaelic MacCú'Uladh derived from "mac" and the Gaelic forename Cú'Uladh which means son of the Hound of Ulster. This name is anglicized as McCullough or MacCullagh. The combination of "mac" and Cú'Uladh was used by Kings of Ulster as early as the 13th century. However, there is no documented link between the Irish name and the Scottish name that has become McCulloch. Current Y DNA data indicates that there are multiple haplogroups associated with surnames McCullough and MacCullagh, which may suggest independent origins.
Gwallawc
According to Sir Andrew Agnew, author of the Hereditary Sheriffs of Galloway, the McCullochs were an ancient Pictish people named for a 6th-century chieftain named Gwallawc, also spelled "Uallauc." Gwallawc, featured in Welsh ballads, may have been a king of Elmet and may have conquered part of the Kingdom of Rheged in Galloway. "
Cullo O'Neill
A tradition relayed by US Supreme Court Justice James Iredell (a descendant of the McCullochs of Killasser who migrated to County Antrim) linked the origins of the family to Cullo O'Neill, believed to have been born in Ireland, a son of the family of O'Neills of Clandeboye. Cullo O'Neill served in the army of Edward Bruce, King of Ireland, brother of king Robert the Bruce of Scotland. In around 1316 he was chosen by Edward Bruce as Captain of horse in his army. He later became Sir Cullo O'Neill. In about 1317 king Robert the Bruce of Scotland knighted Captain Cullo og Neil (o’Neil) and chose him to be his standard-bearer and Secretary of State. King Robert the Bruce granted Sir Cullo og Neil the lands of Achawan or Auchwane in Wigtownshire. In 1331 Sir Cullo Og Neil died and left his estate to his eldest son Sir Godfrey, who assumed the surname of MacCullog. (MacCullough / MacCullo’c). However, this origin story is dubious considering the McCulloch name was already in use prior to 1285.
Ulgric
Another origin myth speculates that the family descended from Ulgric, one of the leaders of the Gallovidian spearmen who fought and fell in the van of King David I's army at the Battle of the Standard in 1138.
Y DNA
As mentioned above, Sir Andrew Agnew described the McCullochs as Pictish, presumably because the family was known to be an ancient family of Galloway. Alternatively, it has also been suggested that the McCullochs descend from the Gall-Goídil or Norse-Gaelic kindreds who took root in western Galloway in the 11th century, moving in from Ireland and the Hebrides, and gradually extending their imprint eastwards to become the dominant cultural influence on the province. However, current Y DNA data available at the FamilyTreeDNA "McCollough Project" indicate documented McCulloch of Myreton descendants are haplogroup R1a (R-BY32010). These unique Y DNA results cast doubt that the McCullochs of Myerton were paternal-line descendants Picts, Gaels, or Norse- Gaels and add to the mystery of the origins of Clan McCulloch.
McCullochs in the Scottish Parliament
Several McCullochs served in the Scottish Parliament, including:
Alexander McCulloch of Drummorrell, Whithorn, 1669–74. (son of Robert McCulloch, of Drummorrell).
Andrew McCulloch of Tain, 1649.
Sir Godfrey McCulloch, Laird of Myrtoun, Wigtownshire, 1678.
James McCulloch of Tain, 1648.
James McCulloch of Findhorn, 1649.
James McCulloch of Whithorn, 1649 and 1650
John McCulloch, of Myrtoun, Wigtownshire, 1641.
John McCulloch, Provost Stirling, 1685–1686.
Thomas McCulloch, bailie of Tain, 1639–41.
William McCulloch, Laird of Myrtoun, Kirkcudbright, 1612 and 1617.
Coats of Arms
There are several coats of arms registered with the Court of Lord Lyon by different McCulloch lines.
Galloway
Makcullo of Mertoun. Azure, three wolves' heads erased argent.
McCulloch of Cardoness: Ermine frette gules of eight pieces, and on an escutcheon azure, three wolves heads erased argent.
McCulloch of Ardwell: Ermine frette gules. Crest: A hand throwing a dart proper. (Granted to Sir Godfrey McCulloch of Myrtoun about 1672).
McCulloch of Drummorrell. Bears ermine frettee gules a bordur ingrailed of the second, Above the Shield ane helmet befitting his degree mantle gules doubled argent. The motto in ane Escroll Verus et Sedulus. (Granted to Alexander McCulloch of Drummorrell in 1672).
McCulloch of Barholm: Fret being engrailed, and the escutcheon azure, three wolves' heads erased argent; supporters, as heir-male of the families of Muile, Myretown, and Cardoness —two men in armour, each holding a spear in his hand proper. (Granted to John McCulloch of Barholm, 1814)
McCulloch of Mule and Inshanks: Ermine frette gules, a bordure, indented of the second.
McCulloch of Ardwall – Ermine fretty gules within Fretty a bordure of the last (1st and 4th quarters). (Granted to Andrew Jameson McCulloch of Ardwall, the younger, in 1899).
McCullock of Kirkclaugh – Ermine fretty gules within a bordure engrailed of the last (1st and 4th quarters). (Granted to William Edward Cliff McCulloch, the younger, of Kircklaugh in 1899).
Ross-shire
McCulloch of Pilton: Ermine a fret engrailed gules. (Granted to Sir Hilton McCulloch of Pilton, about 1672)
McCulloch of Cadboll – Ermine fretty
Castles
Cardoness Castle, which was built in the 1470s, was the seat of the McCullochs of Cardoness.
Barholm Castle was the seat of a branch of the McCullochs of Myreton, who became known as the McCullochs of Barholm.
Killasser Castle, another seat of the McCullochs of Myreton in Ardwell, known as McCullochs of Killasser, now in ruins.
Myreton Castle was the seat of the McCullochs of Myreton which was built in the 16th century but was sold to the Clan Maxwell in 1685. The castle was built on the site of a 12th-century motte. Today it lies in ruins.
MacCulloch Tartans
The MacCullochs of Ross-shire, as septs of the Clan Munro and Clan Ross, are permitted to wear either of those clans' tartans and the MacCullochs of Oban, as septs of the Clan MacDougall, may wear their tartan or even the District of Galloway tartan. However the MacCullochs themselves do not have a modern clan tartan as the last recognized clan Chief died before one could be created and authorized. The current tartan thought by some to be the MacCulloch clan tartan is actually a personal/name tartan for an individual.
Spelling variations
"McCulloch" is the most frequently encountered modern spelling for the McCullochs originating in Galloway. "MacCulloch" appears to be more common with respect to the family from Ross-shire. Because few people could write centuries ago, and the written records that exist are sometimes in Latin, the spelling of the name varied greatly in medieval and early modern times. As a result, several modern spelling variations have developed. In addition, Y DNA data indicates there are multiple families with names similar to McCulloch, such as McCullough, McCullagh, but who are genetically unrelated. To add to the confusion, some families have adopted different spellings when migrating from Scotland, to Ireland, or North America.
Spelling variations for McCulloch and similar names include:
Culloch
Gulloch
McCullough
MacCoulaghe
McCullagh
MacChullach
MacGillhauch
M'Ilhauch
M'Ylhauch
Makkillauch
MacAlach
MacCulloch
MacCullaich
MacCullough
McCulla
MacCulla
MacCullow
McCollough
McColloch
McCoulough
McCully
McCulley
McCullagh
McCullah
McCullow
McCullar
McCuller
McCullers
McCullick
McCulligh
McCulloch
McCullogh
McCullock
McCulloh
McCollough
McCullouch
See also
Horatio McCulloch
John Ramsay McCulloch
Benjamin McCulloch
Henry Eustace McCulloch
McColloch's Leap
Hugh McCulloch
John MacCulloch
Cardoness Castle
Unicorn Pursuivant
Ormond Pursuivant
Marchmont Herald
Lord of Galloway
Cruggleton Castle
Gatehouse of Fleet
Torhouse
Candida Casa
Dunskey Castle
Stoneykirk
Earl of Ross
Clan Munro
Clan Ross
Edward Balliol
McCulloch (disambiguation)
McCullagh
References
External links
McCulloch Research
McCulloch One Name Study
Clan McCulloch | Clan Society Project
Electric Scotland: MacCulloch
Chebucto Community Net: Culture, Heritage, Philosophy & Religion: Heritage & Multicultural: Scots in New Scotland (Nova Scotia), Canada: Scottish Clans, Septs of Scottish Clans and Scottish Families within Nova Scotia: Clan MacCulloch
McCulloch
Scottish Lowlands
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5140924
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DLL%20injection
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DLL injection
|
In computer programming, DLL injection is a technique used for running code within the address space of another process by forcing it to load a dynamic-link library. DLL injection is often used by external programs to influence the behavior of another program in a way its authors did not anticipate or intend. For example, the injected code could hook system function calls, or read the contents of password textboxes, which cannot be done the usual way. A program used to inject arbitrary code into arbitrary processes is called a DLL injector.
Approaches on Microsoft Windows
There are multiple ways on Microsoft Windows to force a process to load and execute code in a DLL that the authors did not intend:
DLLs listed in the registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SOFTWARE\Microsoft\Windows NT\CurrentVersion\Windows\AppInit_DLLs are loaded into every process that loads User32.dll during the initial call of that DLL. Beginning with Windows Vista, AppInit_DLLs are disabled by default. Beginning with Windows 7, the AppInit_DLL infrastructure supports code signing. Starting with Windows 8, the entire AppInit_DLL functionality is disabled when Secure Boot is enabled, regardless of code signing or registry settings.
DLLs listed under the registry key HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet\Control\Session Manager\AppCertDLLs are loaded into every process that calls the Win32 API functions CreateProcess, CreateProcessAsUser, CreateProcessWithLogonW, CreateProcessWithTokenW and WinExec. That is the right way to use legal DLL injection on current version of Windows - Windows 10. DLL must be signed by a valid certificate.
Process manipulation functions such as CreateRemoteThread or code injection techniques such as AtomBombing, can be used to inject a DLL into a program after it has started.
Open a handle to the target process. This can be done by spawning the process or by keying off something created by that process that is known to exist – for instance, a window with a predictable title, or by obtaining a list of running processes and scanning for the target executable's filename.
Allocate some memory in the target process, and the name of the DLL to be injected is written to it.
This step can be skipped if a suitable DLL name is already available in the target process. For example, if a process links to ‘User32.dll’, ‘GDI32.dll’, ‘Kernel32.dll’ or any other library whose name ends in ‘32.dll’, it would be possible to load a library named ‘32.dll’. This technique has in the past been demonstrated to be effective against a method of guarding processes against DLL injection.
Create a new thread in the target process with the thread's start address set to be the address of LoadLibrary and the argument set to the address of the string just uploaded into the target.
Instead of writing the name of a DLL-to-load to the target and starting the new thread at LoadLibrary, one can write the code-to-be-executed to the target and start the thread at that code.
The operating system then calls the initialization routine of the injected DLL.
Note that without precautions, this approach can be detected by the target process due to the DLL_THREAD_ATTACH notifications sent to every loaded module as a thread starts.
Windows hooking calls such as SetWindowsHookEx.
Use the SuspendThread or NtSuspendThread function to suspend all threads, and then use SetThreadContext or NtSetContextThread function to modify an existing thread's context in the application to execute injected code, that in turn could load a DLL.
Exploit design limitations in Windows and applications that call the LoadLibrary or LoadLibraryEx function without specifying a full-qualified path to the DLL being loaded.
Operating system-level shims.
Substituting an application-specific DLL with a rogue replacement that implements the same function exports as the original.
Approaches on Unix-like systems
On Unix-like operating systems with the dynamic linker based on ld.so (on BSD) and ld-linux.so (on Linux), arbitrary libraries can be linked to a new process by giving the library's pathname in the LD_PRELOAD environment variable, that can be set globally or individually for a single process.
For example, on a Linux system, this command launches the command "prog" with the shared library from file "test.so" linked into it at the launchtime:
LD_PRELOAD="./test.so" prog
Such a library can be created in the same way as other shared objects. With GCC, this involves compiling the source file containing the new globals to be linked, with the or option, and linking with the option. The library has access to external symbols declared in the program like any other library.
On macOS, the following command launches the command "prog" with the shared library from file "test.dylib" linked into it at the launchtime:
DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES="./test.dylib" DYLD_FORCE_FLAT_NAMESPACE=1 prog
It is also possible to use debugger-based techniques on Unix-like systems.
Sample code
Copying a LoadLibrary-loaded DLL to a remote process
As there is no LoadLibrary() call to load a DLL into a foreign process you have to copy a locally loaded DLL into remotely allocated memory.
The following commented code shows how to do that.
#include <Windows.h>
#include <TlHelp32.h>
#include <iostream>
#include <memory>
#include <system_error>
#include <charconv>
#include <vector>
#include <cassert>
#if defined(_MSC_VER)
#pragma warning(disable: 6387)
#endif
using namespace std;
using XHANDLE = unique_ptr<void, decltype([]( void *h ) { h && h != INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE && CloseHandle( (HANDLE)h ); })>;
using XHMODULE = unique_ptr<remove_reference_t<decltype(*HMODULE())>, decltype([]( HMODULE hm ) { hm && FreeLibrary( hm); })>;
MODULEENTRY32W getModuleDescription( HMODULE hmModule );
size_t maxReadableRange( void *pRegion );
string getAbsolutePathA( char const *fileName, char const *err );
DWORD dumbParseDWORD( wchar_t const *str );
wstring getAbsolutePath( wchar_t const *makeAbsolute, char const *errStr );
[[noreturn]]
void throwSysErr( char const *str );
constexpr wchar_t const *LOADER_DLL_NAME = L"loaderDll.dll";
constexpr char const *LOADER_THREAD_PROC = "loadLibraryThread";
int wmain( int argc, wchar_t **argv )
{
try
{
if( argc < 3 )
return EXIT_FAILURE;
wchar_t const
*processId = argv[1],
*remoteLoadedDll = argv[2],
*initData = argc >= 4 ? argv[3] : L"";
DWORD dwProcessId = dumbParseDWORD( processId );
XHANDLE xhProcess( OpenProcess( PROCESS_ALL_ACCESS, FALSE, dwProcessId ) );
if( !xhProcess.get() )
throwSysErr( "can't open remote process with unlimited access" );
XHMODULE xhmLocalLoader;
MODULEENTRY32W meLocalLoader;
for( ; ; )
{
xhmLocalLoader.reset( LoadLibraryW( LOADER_DLL_NAME ) );
if( !xhmLocalLoader.get() )
throwSysErr( "can't locally load loader DLL" );
// get module starting address and size
meLocalLoader = getModuleDescription( (HMODULE)xhmLocalLoader.get() );
// try to allocate memory range in the foreign process with the same size the DLL in our process occupies
if( VirtualAllocEx( xhProcess.get(), meLocalLoader.modBaseAddr, meLocalLoader.modBaseSize, MEM_RESERVE | MEM_COMMIT, PAGE_EXECUTE_READWRITE ) )
break;
// allocation failed, free library
xhmLocalLoader.reset( nullptr );
// try to reserve address range which the library occupied before to prevent
// recycling of that address range with the next LoadLibrary() call.
if( !VirtualAlloc( meLocalLoader.modBaseAddr, meLocalLoader.modBaseSize, MEM_RESERVE, PAGE_NOACCESS ) )
throwSysErr( "can't reserve address range of previously mapped DLL" );
}
LPTHREAD_START_ROUTINE loaderThreadProc = (LPTHREAD_START_ROUTINE)GetProcAddress( (HMODULE)xhmLocalLoader.get(), ::LOADER_THREAD_PROC );
if( !loaderThreadProc )
throwSysErr( "can't get procedure entry point" );
// coppy all readable DLL-contents to the destination process
if( SIZE_T copied; !WriteProcessMemory( xhProcess.get(), meLocalLoader.modBaseAddr, meLocalLoader.modBaseAddr, meLocalLoader.modBaseSize, &copied ) && GetLastError() != ERROR_PARTIAL_COPY )
throwSysErr( "can't copy loader DLL to remote process" );
// create two concatenated C strings that contain the DLL to load as well as the parameter
// given to the remotely loaded DLL
wstring data( getAbsolutePath( remoteLoadedDll, "can't get absolute path to DLL to be remotely loaded" ) );
data += L'\0';
data += initData;
data += L'\0';
size_t dataSize = data.size() * sizeof(wchar_t);
auto initStrErr = []() { throwSysErr( "failed to copy initialization data to loader DLL" ); };
void *remoteData;
// remotely allocate memory large enough to hold at least our both strings
if( !(remoteData = VirtualAllocEx( xhProcess.get(), nullptr, dataSize, MEM_RESERVE | MEM_COMMIT, PAGE_READWRITE)) )
initStrErr();
// write our both strings to remote memory
if( SIZE_T copied; !WriteProcessMemory( xhProcess.get(), remoteData, data.data(), dataSize, &copied )
|| copied != dataSize )
initStrErr();
// create a remote DLL loader thread; the given entry point has the same address in our process as well as the remote address
// tive this thread the address of our both remotely copied strings
XHANDLE xhRemoteInitThread( CreateRemoteThread( xhProcess.get(), nullptr, 0, loaderThreadProc, remoteData, 0, nullptr ) );
if( !xhRemoteInitThread.get() )
throwSysErr( "failed to create remote initializaton thread" );
// wait on our remote loader thread to finish
// it should that very soon as its only task is to copy the strings for the remotely loaded DLL and load this DLL itself
if( WaitForSingleObject( xhRemoteInitThread.get(), INFINITE ) == WAIT_FAILED )
throwSysErr( "can't wait for remote initialization thread" );
DWORD dwInitThreadExitCode;
if( !GetExitCodeThread( xhRemoteInitThread.get(), &dwInitThreadExitCode ) )
throwSysErr( "can't get initialization thread's success code" );
// check for remote loader's exit-code, it should be NO_ERROR (0)
if( dwInitThreadExitCode != NO_ERROR )
throw system_error( (int)dwInitThreadExitCode, system_category(), "LoadLibrary() error in remote loader dll" );
}
catch( exception const &se )
{
cout << se.what() << endl;
}
}
MODULEENTRY32W getModuleDescription( HMODULE hmModule )
{
// returns the absolute path to for a given module handle
auto getModulePath = []( HMODULE hm, char const *err ) -> wstring
{
wchar_t modulePath[MAX_PATH];
if( DWORD dwRet = GetModuleFileNameW( hm, modulePath, MAX_PATH ); !dwRet || dwRet >= MAX_PATH )
throwSysErr( err );
return modulePath;
};
// local DLL's module path
wstring moduleAbsolute( getModulePath( hmModule , "can't get absolute path for local loader DLL" ) );
XHANDLE xhToolHelp( CreateToolhelp32Snapshot( TH32CS_SNAPMODULE, GetCurrentProcessId() ) );
auto toolHelpErr = []() { throwSysErr( "can't list modules in injecting process" ); };
if( xhToolHelp.get() == INVALID_HANDLE_VALUE )
toolHelpErr();
MODULEENTRY32W me;
me.dwSize = sizeof me;
if( !Module32FirstW( xhToolHelp.get(), &me ) )
toolHelpErr();
for( ; ; )
{
// has the current image in the snapshot the same path like the DLL which is given by the module handle
// no need to compare case insensitive because we got both paths from the kernel so that they should exactly match
if( getModulePath( me.hModule, "can't get absolute path for toolhelp-enumerated DLL name" ) == moduleAbsolute )
return me;
me.dwSize = sizeof me;
if( !Module32NextW( xhToolHelp.get(), &me ) )
toolHelpErr();
}
}
[[noreturn]]
void throwSysErr( char const *str )
{
throw system_error( (int)GetLastError(), system_category(), str );
}
DWORD dumbParseDWORD( wchar_t const *str )
{
// idiot's from_chars because there's no from_chars for unicode characters
DWORD dwRet = 0;
while( *str )
dwRet = dwRet * 10 + (unsigned char)(*str++ - L'0');
return dwRet;
}
wstring getAbsolutePath( wchar_t const *makeAbsolute, char const *errStr )
{
// get absolute path of a given relative path
wstring path( MAX_PATH, L'\0' );
DWORD dwLength;
if( !(dwLength = GetFullPathNameW( makeAbsolute, MAX_PATH, path.data(), nullptr )) )
throwSysErr( errStr );
// if deRet == MAX_PATH we might miss a zero-termination character, treat this as an error
else if( dwLength >= MAX_PATH )
throw invalid_argument( errStr );
path.resize( dwLength );
return path;
}
The main issue solved here is that a locally loaded DLL copied to a remote process must occupy the same addresses as in the injecting process. The above code does this by allocating memory for the same address range as occupied before in the injecting process. If this fails the DLL is locally freed, the former address range is marked as reserved, and the LoadLibrary() call is tried again. By reserving the former address range the code prevents that the next LoadLibrary() apptempt will assign the same address range as used before.
The main drawback with that approach is that the DLL copied into the foreign process is that there aren't any other DLL library dependencies of that DLL loaded into the foreign address space or pointers, f.e. function calls, to DLLs loaded by the foreign process are adjusted according to the dependencies of the copied DLL. Luckily DLLs usually have preferred loading addresses which are honored by the kernel's loader. Some DLLs like kernel32.dll are reliably loaded in the early beginning when the process address space is occupied by the executable image and its depending DLLs. These normally have reliable and non-conflicting addresses. So the copied DLL can use any kernel32.dll calls, f.e. to load another DLL with full advantages of a locally loaded DLL, i.e. having all relative library-dependencies. The path to that DLL is copied to the foreign address space and given as a void-parameter to the thread-function. The above implementation also allows to have additional parameters, which are passed to the remotely copied DLL after the string with the DLL to remotely loaded to passed to that DLL.
The following code is the source of the remotely copied loader DLL which only does kernel32.dll calls:
#include <Windows.h>
#include <atomic>
using namespace std;
BOOL APIENTRY DllMain( HMODULE hModule, DWORD ul_reason_for_call, LPVOID lpReserved )
{
return TRUE;
}
DWORD WINAPI loadLibraryThread( LPVOID lpvThreadParam );
// MSVC / clang-cl mangling
#if defined(_M_IX86)
#pragma comment(linker, "/export:loadLibraryThread=?loadLibraryThread@@YGKPAX@Z")
#elif defined(_M_X64)
#pragma comment(linker, "/export:loadLibraryThread=?loadLibraryThread@@YAKPEAX@Z")
#else
#error unsupported platform
#endif
DWORD WINAPI loadLibraryThread( LPVOID lpvThreadParam )
{
// use atomics to prevent the "optimizer" from replacing my code with
// wsclen or memcpy library calls to external addresses actually not valid
// with this copied DLL
// ignore any atomic load barriers since this hasn't to be fast
atomic_wchar_t const
// path to the library to load from inside
*libPath = (atomic_wchar_t *)lpvThreadParam,
// pointer to the parameters given to this library
*data = libPath;
// advance data to the actual parameters
while( *data++ );
HANDLE hOutboundEvent;
// create named event to notify the remote DLL that data has already copied
// necessary because the remote DLL execution begins directly after LoadLibrary()S
if( !(hOutboundEvent = CreateEventA( nullptr, FALSE, FALSE, "nasty hackers" )) )
return GetLastError();
// size of the paramers given to the DLL
size_t dataSize = 0;
while( data[dataSize++] );
if( dataSize >= MAX_PATH )
return ERROR_INVALID_PARAMETER;
// clean LoadLibrary() with all DLL-dependencies
HMODULE hm = LoadLibraryW( (wchar_t *)libPath );
if( !hm )
return GetLastError();
// get address of parameters export from the loaded DLL
wchar_t volatile (&initData)[MAX_PATH] = *(wchar_t (*)[MAX_PATH])GetProcAddress( hm, "initData" );
// the loaded DLL doesn't provide such an export, i.e. its not relying on parameters ?
if( !initData )
return NO_ERROR;
// copy parameters to the DLL
for( size_t i = 0; i != dataSize; initData[i] = data[i], ++i );
// notify that parameters available
if( !SetEvent( hOutboundEvent ) )
return GetLastError();
return NO_ERROR;
}
The last code shows an example of a DLL loaded by the loader DLL which prints the parameters to a file.
#include <Windows.h>
#include <fstream>
#include <atomic>
using namespace std;
#if defined(_MSC_VER)
#pragma warning(disable: 6387) // returned handle could be null
#endif
#if defined(_M_IX86)
#pragma comment(linker, "/export:DllMain=_DllMain@12")
#elif defined(_M_X64)
#pragma comment(linker, "/export:DllMain=_DllMain@12")
#else
#error unsupported platform
#endif
using namespace std;
DWORD WINAPI myThread( LPVOID lpvThreadParam );
BOOL APIENTRY DllMain( HMODULE hModule, DWORD dwReason, LPVOID lpReserved )
{
switch( dwReason )
{
case DLL_PROCESS_ATTACH:
// create thread since there is no export called from the loader DLL
CreateThread( nullptr, 0, myThread, nullptr, 0, nullptr );
default:
break;
}
return TRUE;
}
extern "C"
__declspec(dllexport)
wchar_t initData[MAX_PATH] = { 0 };
DWORD WINAPI myThread( LPVOID lpvThreadParam )
{
// wait for initData to be filled by loader DLL
// skip that if you don't rely on any initData
// as the named event "nasty hackers" has been created by our own DLL's
// LoadLibrary() we're just connecting to a named event, but not creating one
if( WaitForSingleObject( CreateEventA( nullptr, FALSE, FALSE, "nasty hackers" ), INFINITE ) != WAIT_OBJECT_0 )
return 0;
// write parameters in a file to test function
// the following code doesn't work when the DLL is non-statically linked for unknown reasons
wofstream wofs;
wofs.open( "c:\\Users\\xxx\\test.txt", ofstream::out | ofstream::trunc );
wofs << initData << endl;
return 0;
}
One important fact is that there are no exports called from the loader DLL, but instead all initialization is done from DllMain. The only export is that of initData, which receives the parameters given by the injecting process through the loader DLL. And one must be aware that the thread created from a DllMain-function isn't scheduled until after its DLL_THREAD_ATTACH-function has succeeded. So there may not be any synchronization from inside DllMain with the created thread.
References
Computer libraries
Windows administration
Threads (computing)
|
5141079
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian%20cruiser%20Rurik%20%281906%29
|
Russian cruiser Rurik (1906)
|
Rurik was the last armored cruiser to be built for the Imperial Russian Navy. The ship was designed by the British firm Vickers and built in their shipyard, being laid down in 1905 and completed in 1908. She was armed with a main battery of four guns and a secondary battery of eight guns; her top speed was rated at . Despite her powerful gun armament, Rurik was rendered obsolescent even before she was completed by the advent of the British battlecruisers of the , which were more powerfully armed and faster. Her design is nevertheless well regarded and naval historians rate her as one of the best vessels of her type ever built.
Rurik served as the flagship of the Russian Baltic Fleet for much of her relatively short career. She made one overseas cruise with a trip to the Mediterranean Sea in mid-1910, but spent the rest of her early career in the Baltic Sea. After the start of World War I, she operated with the other cruisers of the fleet, making raids on German positions in the southern Baltic, and after being modified to carry naval mines, took part in laying offensive minefields to block German naval traffic. She saw one major action, the Battle of Åland Islands, in July 1915. There, she engaged three German cruisers; she failed to score any hits and was struck several times, though she was not seriously damaged and her presence convinced the Germans to retreat.
The ship was badly damaged by a German mine in November 1916 and spent the next several months under repair. During that period out of service, the Russian Revolution toppled the Imperial government and ultimately led to the Bolshevik seizure of power late that year. The resulting Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ended the war for Russia and Rurik was laid up in Kronstadt in October 1918. She lingered there for another three years in a state of preservation, but by November 1923, she was in poor condition. The new Soviet Navy decided to break up the ship and she was towed to Petrograd, being scrapped there between 1924 and 1925.
Design
In July 1904, the Imperial Russian Navy held a design competition that solicited tenders from several foreign and domestic shipyards to design a new armored cruiser. Maximum displacement was limited to , more than twice that of the preceding of armored cruisers. Vickers won the competition to build the ship in June 1905, and the company offered several proposals, including a vessel armed with a dozen guns, though the Russians opted for a slightly smaller vessel displacing around that carried four of the 254 mm guns and twelve guns, along with a defensive armament of twenty guns.
Before construction work began, refinements were made to the design based on experiences gathered during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. The defensive battery was increased to guns since the 75 mm guns were no longer sufficiently powerful to deal with modern torpedo boats and destroyers. To save weight, four of the 203 mm guns were removed. Side armor had proved to be critically important in the battles against Japan, and so the ship's armor was strengthened. Despite the weight savings measures, displacement increased by about . The Russian Navy had originally planned to build another two cruisers to the same design in domestic shipyards, but budgetary problems, coupled with the advent of the steam turbine-powered, all-big-gun battlecruisers of the British in 1907 rendered the plans moot.
Despite the appearance of more powerful battlecruisers before her completion, Rurik is generally considered to have been a very good design. Conway's All the World's Fighting Ships states that Rurik was "the best large ship laid down for the Russian Navy up to 1905 and one of the best armored cruisers ever built." Anthony Watts concurs, describing her as "one of the finest armoured cruisers ever built."
General characteristics and propulsion machinery
Rurik was long between perpendiculars, long at the waterline, and long overall. She had a beam of and a draft of and displaced . Her hull featured a long forecastle deck that extended to her main mast and incorporated a pronounced ram bow. Her superstructure was minimal, consisting primarily of her main conning tower forward with a command bridge and a smaller, secondary conning tower aft.
She was completed with just the pole main mast that was placed just ahead of the rear conning tower, but around the time she entered service in 1909, a pole fore mast was installed atop her forward conning tower as well. By 1917, the fore mast had been replaced with a sturdier tripod mast to support a spotting top to help the direction of her armament. Steering was controlled by a single rudder. Her crew numbered 26 officers and 910 enlisted men.
The ship's propulsion system consisted of two vertical triple-expansion steam engines that drove a pair of screw propellers. Steam was provided by twenty-eight coal-fired Belleville type water-tube boilers, which were vented through three funnels located amidships. The power plant was rated to produce for a top speed of . Coal storage amounted to . While steaming at a more economical , Rurik could cruise for .
Armament
Ruriks main battery consisted of four 50-caliber (cal.) guns in a pair of twin gun turrets, mounted fore and aft on the centerline. These guns and their turrets were designed by Vickers specifically for Rurik. The turrets were oval-shaped and sat atop a working chamber that handled shells and propellant charges brought up from the magazines below. One set of hoists brought the munitions up to the working chambers from their magazines, and another set transferred them up to the turrets. In addition to the split hoist arrangement, anti-flash precautions included a sprinkler system in the magazines and provisions to quickly flood them in the event of a serious fire. The guns fired armor piercing (AP) or high explosive (HE) shells at a muzzle velocity of . At their maximum elevation of 21 degrees, the guns had a range of for the AP round and for the HE variant. The guns had to be returned to between −5 and 8 degrees of elevation to be reloaded. The guns had a rate of fire of two shots per minute.
Her main battery was supported by a secondary battery of eight 203 mm 50 cal. Pattern 1905 guns in four twin turrets, which were placed on the corners of the superstructure, two turrets per broadside. These were also Vickers designs, though they had been used on a number of earlier Russian pre-dreadnought battleships. They fired a semi-armor-piercing (SAP) shell at a muzzle velocity of . At the elevation of 15 degrees, they could hit targets out to ; the turrets allowed elevation from −5 to 25 degrees, but range figures at maximum elevation are unknown. The turrets were broadly similar to the 254 mm guns, but the guns could be reloaded at any angle of elevation. The guns could fire three shells per minute.
For defense against torpedo boats, the ship carried a tertiary battery of twenty 120 mm 50 cal. guns carried individually in casemates. Sixteen were located in the forecastle deck, clustered around the superstructure, while the remaining four were located in the stern. They fired a SAP shell at a velocity of 792.5 m/s, and at an elevation of 19.5 degrees, had a range of . Their rate of fire was eight rounds per minute. Four 43 cal. Hotchkiss guns rounded out the armament. She was also armed with a pair of torpedo tubes. The M1908 torpedo carried a warhead and had a range of at a speed of ; the range doubled when they were set to . These were later replaced with M1912 variants, which increased the warhead to . Their performance increased considerably, reaching at a speed of and at .
Armor
The ship was protected with Krupp cemented armor plate. Her armor belt covered the side of the hull from above the waterline and below. The main section of belt, between the barbettes for the 254 mm guns, was thick, tapering to at the top edge and at the bottom. Forward of the main section, the belt was reduced to 102 mm with a bottom edge, while aft, the belt was a uniform thickness of 76 mm. The aft section did not extend all the way to the sternpost, instead terminating at a 76 mm transverse bulkhead. Above the belt, a strake of armor that was 76 mm thick covered the tertiary casemates. There were three armored decks; the lower deck was thick, with sloped sides that were and connected to the bottom edge of the belt. The main deck was also 38 mm thick, and above that, the roof of the casemate battery was 25 mm.
Ruriks conning tower had 203 mm of armor plate on the sides. Her main battery turrets consisted of 203 mm on the front and sides and sloped roofs, and they were supported by barbettes that extended down to the ammunition magazines. Behind the belt, the barbettes reduced in thickness to . The secondary turrets received slightly lighter protection, with 180 mm sides and faces and 50 mm roofs. Their barbettes were 152 mm thick above the belt and 38–76 mm below. Underwater protection consisted of a torpedo bulkhead that was 38 mm thick, set back about from the side of the ship. It covered the ship's citadel.
Service history
The keel for Rurik was laid down on 22 August 1905, and she was launched on 17 November 1906. Structural weaknesses were revealed during gunnery testing in 1907, but the Russian Navy decided to remedy the defects after delivery rather than delay her completion. The testing included firing thirty rounds from two of the 254 mm guns, another thirty shells from two of the 203 mm guns, and fifteen shots from the 120 mm guns. During steam trials in 1908, she exceeded her design speed and horsepower. The ship was completed in September 1908 and delivered to the Russian fleet. Upon arrival, she was sent to the shipyard in Kronstadt for modifications to her hull structure to correct the design problems. She operated in the Baltic Sea over the following two years, and in July 1910, she was sent on a cruise in the Mediterranean Sea. She returned to the Baltic, where she remained for the next three years. Starting in 1913, she served as the flagship of the Baltic Fleet.
World War I
At the start of World War I in July 1914, Russia had not yet completed its s or dreadnought battleships, leaving Rurik and the Bayan-class cruisers as the core of the Baltic Fleet. These ships bore the burden of naval operations against the significantly more powerful Imperial German Navy in the Baltic. At the time, Rurik served as the flagship of Admiral Nikolai Ottovich von Essen, the commander of Russian naval forces in the Baltic. Ruriks commander was initially Captain Mikhail Bakhirev. He sortied with Rurik and the armored cruiser on 27 August to make a sweep into the western Baltic in the vicinity of Bornholm, Denmark, and Danzig, Germany. They failed to locate any enemy vessels, however. The operation bolstered the morale of the Baltic Fleet, but Tsar Nicholas II refused to grant Essen the freedom of maneuver he sought to force action with the German fleet. The Russians nevertheless won a major intelligence victory that month when the German cruiser ran aground in Russian territory and they were able to recover German code books, allowing the Russian Navy to decrypt German wireless signals.
In November, Rurik was modified to serve as a fast minelayer with provisions to carry naval mines. She carried out her first operation on 14 December under the command of Admiral Ludvig Kerber, in company with the cruisers and , while another pair of cruisers covered another minelayer further north. Rurik laid a field of 120 mines off the German port at Danzig during the operation. On 12 January 1915, Rurik sortied for another minelaying operation, this time part of the escort force with Bayan and Admiral Makarov. Over the following two days, three other cruisers laid a series of minefields off the island of Rügen; this was the furthest west the Russian fleet penetrated during the war. This minefield later damaged the German cruisers and , the latter beyond the point of repair.
Rurik escorted a group of minelayers sent to lay another field off Danzig on 13 February 1915, ran aground east of Gotland, Sweden and was seriously damaged, forcing the Russians to cancel the operation. Despite taking on of water, with half of her boiler rooms flooded, she was able to free herself and return to Reval under her own power. She was subsequently repaired at Cronstadt. Rurik was out of action for 89 days. Heavy ice in the Baltic curtailed further operations. By that time, the Ganguts had entered service, and the fleet was reorganized. Rurik was assigned to Group 5, along with Bayan and Admiral Makarov, part of the 1st Cruiser Brigade. The cruisers continued to carry out most of the offensive operations, as the new dreadnoughts were considered too valuable to risk. They were instead used as a fleet in being and to guard the Gulf of Finland.
Battle of Åland Islands
In late June, the Russian naval command planned a bombardment operation to support the garrison at Windau (in what is now Latvia) during a German attack on the port. Initial plans called for an attack on the city of Rostock, well behind German lines, in part to demonstrate the strength of the Russian fleet, but Vice Admiral Vasily Kanin, who had replaced Essen as the fleet commander, refused to grant permission to send Rurik that far into enemy territory. The target of the operation was therefore changed to Memel. Bakhirev, by now promoted to rear admiral, led the bombardment force, the composition of which is unclear. According to Paul Halpern, it consisted of the cruisers Admiral Makarov, Bayan, , and , while Rurik and the destroyer covered them and a group of submarines screened ahead. But Gary Staff indicates that Rurik, Oleg, and Bogatyr were to conduct the bombardment while Admiral Makarov and Bayan covered them. The ships departed port shortly after midnight on 1 July. Heavy fog forced Bakhirev to cancel the bombardment since they could no longer reliably locate Memel and his cruisers became separated from Rurik and Novik.
Bakhirev planned to make another attempt the next morning, but he learned by way of decrypted intercepts from German wireless signals of a minelaying operation on the 1st while en route to Riga and decided to try to intercept the vessels instead. He took the four cruisers from the bombardment group, and guided by wireless intercepts, steamed west to ambush the German flotilla that consisted of an armored cruiser, two light cruisers, a minelayer, and seven destroyers. The two sides made contact at around 06:30. In the ensuing Battle of Åland Islands, the Germans turned to flee while the Russian cruisers concentrated on the minelayer , forcing it ashore.
As he began the engagement, Bakhirev ordered Rurik to reinforce him, and at 09:45, she arrived in the vicinity but found no friendly or enemy vessels. The ship's commander, Captain A. M. Pyshnov, turned his ship north in an attempt to locate Bakhirev's ships, and shortly thereafter, she encountered the German light cruiser . The two ships quickly opened fire, and while Rurik was significantly more powerful than her opponent, she failed to score any hits, while receiving ten herself. One started a fire on Ruriks forecastle and a near miss caused a large splash that damaged her forward rangefinder. The German shells were not powerful enough to penetrate her armor, but they nevertheless temporarily disabled one of her main battery turrets when fumes from an explosion threatened to poison its crew.
The German armored cruiser then intervened and ordered Lübeck to disengage, and at 10:04, Rurik ceased fire at the light cruiser. The Russian cruiser then turned to engage Roon, which had by that time been joined by the light cruiser Augsburg, opening fire at a range of . She concentrated most of her fire on Roon, but again failed to score any hits. She received another hit, which struck the rear conning tower and damaged the surrounding superstructure. The German commander decided to attempt to disengage, using the poor visibility to cover his escape; at around the same time, Russian lookouts spotted what they mistakenly believed to be a U-boat. The threat of a submarine attack led Rurik to disengage, which gave the Germans enough time to make good their escape.
Later operations
On 11 November, Rurik was sent on another minelaying operation to sow a field of 560 mines off the Swedish island of Gotland. Another such mission on 6 December, laying a further 700 mines in the same area. As a result of the Russian mining effort and Allied submarine attacks, the Germans concluded that they could no longer safely operate capital ships in the Baltic. Starting in June 1916, Rurik was sent on several sweeps into the Baltic to search for German merchant shipping, but she only found and sank one vessel during these patrols. While on patrol off the island of Hogland, Russia, on 7 November, she struck a mine and was badly damaged. She remained under repair until April 1917; during this period, her foremast was replaced with the tripod version.
The Russian Revolution began in March 1917 and culminated in the October Revolution in November, which saw the Bolsheviks take power in Russia. The government signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk that ended Russia's participation in the conflict. As part of the treaty, Russia granted Finland independence, which forced the fleet to abandon its principal base at Helsingfors and return to Kronstadt. Rurik was reduced to reserve at Kronstadt in October 1918, and she lay there for the next three years. Initially listed for long-term preservation on 21 May 1921, she was disarmed and useful systems were removed to be preserved ashore. By late 1923, she was in poor condition, and the decision was made to break her up. She was struck from the naval register on 1 November and taken to Petrograd, where she was dismantled over the course of 1924–1925. Her 203 mm guns were later used as coastal artillery batteries.
Footnotes
Notes
Citations
References
Further reading
World War I cruisers of Russia
Ships built in Barrow-in-Furness
Vickers
1906 ships
Cruisers of the Imperial Russian Navy
Maritime incidents in 1915
Maritime incidents in 1916
Ships sunk by mines
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestication%20of%20the%20dog
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Domestication of the dog
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The domestication of the dog was the process which created the domestic dog. This included the dog's genetic divergence from the wolf, its domestication, and the emergence of the first dogs. Genetic studies suggest that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, now-extinct wolf population – or closely related wolf populations – which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage. The dog's similarity to the grey wolf is the result of substantial dog-into-wolf gene flow, with the modern grey wolf being the dog's nearest living relative. An extinct Late Pleistocene wolf may have been the ancestor of the dog.
The dog is a wolf-like canid. The genetic divergence between the dog's ancestor and modern wolves occurred between 40,000 and 30,000 years ago, just before or during the Last Glacial Maximum (20,000–27,000 years ago). This timespan represents the upper time-limit for the commencement of domestication because it is the time of divergence but not the time of domestication, which occurred later.
One of the most important transitions in human history was the domestication of animals, which began with the long-term association between wolves and hunter–gatherers more than 30,000 years ago. The dog was the first species and the only large carnivore to have been domesticated. The domestication of the dog occurred due to variation among the common ancestor wolf population in the fight-or-flight response where the common ancestor wolves with less aggression and aversion but greater altruism towards humans received fitness benefits (similar processes applied to humans), and thus the domestication of the dog is a prominent example of social selection (rather than artificial selection). The archaeological record and genetic analysis show the remains of the Bonn-Oberkassel dog buried beside humans 14,200 years ago to be the first undisputed dog, with disputed remains occurring 36,000 years ago.
The domestication of the dog predates agriculture, and it was not until 11,000 years ago in the Holocene era that people living in the Near East entered to relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats. Where the domestication of the dog took place remains debated; however, literature reviews of the evidence find that the dog was domesticated in Eurasia, with the most plausible proposals being Central Asia, East Asia, and Western Europe. By the close of the most recent Ice Age 11,700 years ago, five ancestral lineages had diversified from each other and were represented through ancient dog samples found in the Levant (7,000 years before present YBP), Karelia (10,900 YBP), Lake Baikal (7,000 YBP), ancient America (4,000 YBP), and in the New Guinea singing dog (present day).
In 2021, a literature review of the current evidence infers that domestication of the dog began in Siberia 26,000-19,700 years ago by Ancient North Eurasians, then later dispersed eastwards into the Americas and westwards across Eurasia. This hypothesis is derived from when genetic divergences are inferred to have happened, ancient dog remains dating to this time and place have not been discovered, but archaeological excavation in those regions is rather limited.
The oldest known dog skeletons are found in the Altai Mountains of Siberia and a cave in Belgium, dated ~33,000 years ago. According to studies, this may indicate that the domestication of dogs occurred simultaneously in different geographic locations.
Divergence from wolves
Genetic studies indicate that the grey wolf is the closest living relative of the dog. Attempting to reconstruct the dog's lineage through the phylogenetic analysis of DNA sequences from modern dogs and wolves has given conflicting results for several reasons. Firstly, studies indicate that an extinct Late Pleistocene wolf is the nearest common ancestor to the dog, with modern wolves not being directly ancestral to it. Secondly, the genetic divergence (split) between the dog's ancestor and modern wolves occurred over a short period of time, so that the time of the divergence is difficult to date (referred to as incomplete lineage sorting). This is complicated further by the cross-breeding that has occurred between dogs and wolves since domestication (referred to as post-domestication gene flow). Finally, there have been only tens of thousands of generations of dogs since domestication, so few mutations between dog and wolf have occurred; this sparsity makes the timing of domestication difficult to date.
Pleistocene wolves
The Late Pleistocene era was a time of glaciation, climate change, and the advance of humans into isolated areas. During the Late Pleistocene glaciation, a vast mammoth steppe stretched from Spain eastwards across Eurasia and over Beringia into Alaska and the Yukon. The close of this era was characterized by a series of severe and rapid climate oscillations with regional temperature changes of up to , which has been correlated with megafaunal extinctions. There is no evidence of megafaunal extinctions at the height of the Last Glacial Maximum (26,500 YBP), indicating that increasing cold and glaciation were not factors. Multiple events appear to have caused the rapid replacement of one species by another one within the same genus, or one population by another within the same species, across a broad area. As some species became extinct, so too did the predators that depended on them (coextinction).
The grey wolf is one of the few large carnivores to survive the Late Pleistocene megafaunal extinctions, but similar to many other megafaunal species it experienced a global population decline towards the end of this era, which was associated with extinctions of ecomorphs and phylogeographic shifts in populations. Grey wolf mitochondrial genomes (excluding the Himalayan wolf and the Indian plains wolf) indicate that the most recent common ancestor for all C. lupus specimens studied – modern and extinct – dates to 80,000 YBP, and this is more recent than the time suggested by the fossil record. The fossil record suggests that the earliest grey wolf specimens were found in what was once eastern Beringia at Old Crow, Yukon, in Canada and at Cripple Creek Sump, Fairbanks, in Alaska. The age is not agreed but could date 1 million YBP. All modern wolves (excluding the Himalayan wolf and the Indian plains wolf) show a most recent common ancestor dating to 32,000 YBP, which coincides with the commencement of their global demographic decline.
The origin of dogs is couched in the biogeography of wolf populations that lived during the Late Pleistocene. The fossil record shows evidence of changes in the morphology and body size of wolves during the Late Pleistocene, which may be due to differences in their prey size. Wolf skeletal development can be changed due to a preference for larger prey which results in larger wolves. Considerable morphological diversity existed among grey wolves by the Late Pleistocene. These are regarded as having been more cranio-dentally robust than modern grey wolves, often with a shortened rostrum, the pronounced development of the temporalis muscle, and robust premolars. It is proposed that these features were specialized adaptations for the processing of carcass and bone associated with the hunting and scavenging of Pleistocene megafauna. Compared with modern wolves, some Pleistocene wolves showed an increase in tooth breakage that is similar to that seen in the extinct dire wolf. This suggests that these either often processed carcasses, or that they competed with other carnivores and needed to quickly consume their prey. The frequency and location of tooth fractures found in these wolves compared with the modern spotted hyena indicates that these wolves were habitual bone crackers. These ancient wolves carried mitochondrial lineages which cannot be found among modern wolves, which implies that the ancient wolves went extinct.
Grey wolves suffered a species-wide population bottleneck (reduction) approximately 25,000 YBP during the Last Glacial Maximum. This was followed by a single population of modern wolves expanding out of a Beringia refuge to repopulate the wolf's former range, replacing the remaining Late Pleistocene wolf populations across Eurasia and North America as they did so. This source population probably did not give rise to dogs, but it admixed with dogs which allowed them to gain coat colour genes that are also related to immunity. There is little genetic information available on the ancient wolves that existed prior to the bottleneck. However, studies show that one or more of these ancient populations is more directly ancestral to dogs than are modern wolves, and conceivably these were more prone to domestication by the first humans to expand into Eurasia.
An apex predator sits on the top trophic level of the food chain, while a mesopredator sits further down the food chain and is dependent on smaller animals. Towards the end of the Pleistocene era, most of today's apex predators were mesopredators and this included the wolf. During the ecological upheaval associated with the close of the Late Pleistocene, one type of wolf population rose to become today's apex predator and another joined with humans to become an apex consumer. The domestication of this lineage ensured its evolutionary success through its expansion into a new ecological niche.
For a long time scientists assumed that dogs evolved from the modern grey wolf. But a study published in 2014 concluded that this was incorrect, and that dogs are descended from an extinct type of wolf.
Time of genetic divergence
The date estimated for the divergence of a domestic lineage from a wild one does not necessarily indicate the start of the domestication process but it does provide an upper boundary. The divergence of the lineage that led to the domestic horse from the lineage that led to the modern Przewalski's horse is estimated to have occurred around 45,000 YBP but the archaeological record indicates 5,500 YBP. The variance can be due to modern wild populations not being the direct ancestor of the domestic ones, or to a divergence caused by changes in the climate, topography, or other environmental influences. Recent studies indicate that a genetic divergence occurred between the dog's and modern wolves 20,000–40,000 YBP; however, this is the upper time-limit for domestication because it represents the time of divergence and not the time of domestication.
In 2013, the mitochondrial DNA (mDNA) sequencing of ancient wolves together with whole genome sequencing of modern dogs and wolves indicated a divergence time of 19,000–32,000 YBP. In 2014, another study indicated 11,000–16,000 YBP based on the modern wolf's mutation rate. The first draft genome sequence of a Pleistocene wolf was published in 2015. This wolf from the Taymyr Peninsula belonged to a population that had diverged from the ancestors of both modern wolves and dogs. Radiocarbon dating indicates its age to be 35,000 YBP, and this age could then be used to calibrate the wolf's mutation rate, indicating that the genetic divergence between the dog's ancestor and modern wolves occurred before the Last Glacial Maximum, between 27,000 and 40,000 YBP. When the Pleistocene wolf's mutation rate was applied to the timing of the earlier 2014 study which had originally used the modern wolf's mutation rate, that study gave the same result of 27,000–40,000 YBP. In 2017, a study compared the nuclear genome (from the cell nucleus) of three ancient dog specimens and found evidence of a single dog-wolf divergence occurring between 36,900 and 41,500 YBP.
Prior to genetic divergence, the population of wolves ancestral to the dog outnumbered all other wolf populations, and after divergence the dog population underwent a population reduction to be much lower.
In 2020, a genomic study of Eurasian wolves found that they and the dog share a common ancestor which is dated to 36,000 YBP. This finding supports the theory that all modern wolves descend from a single population which expanded after the Last Glacial Maximum and replaced other wolf populations that were adapted to different climatic conditions, and the finding of dog-like fossils dated over 30,000 YBP.
Place of genetic divergence
Based on modern DNA
Genetic studies have found that the modern dogs from Southeast Asia and South China show greater genetic diversity than those dogs from other regions, suggesting that this was the place of their origin. A similar study found greater genetic diversity in African village dogs than in breed dogs. An East Asian origin has been questioned because dog fossils have been found in Europe dating around 15,000 YBP but only 12,000 YBP in far eastern Russia. The reply is that archaeological studies in East Asia lag behind those in Europe, and that the environmental conditions in southern East Asia do not favor the preservation of fossils. Although primitive forms of the dog may have existed in Europe in the past, the genetic evidence indicates that these were later replaced by dogs that have migrated from southern East Asia. In 2017, a literature review found that this East Asian study sampled only east Asian indigenous dogs and compared their patterns of genetic diversity to those of breed dogs from other geographic regions. As it is known that the genetic bottlenecks associated with formation of breeds strongly reduce genetic diversity, this was not an appropriate comparison.
One DNA study concluded that dogs originated in Central Asia because dogs from there exhibit the lowest levels of linkage disequilibrium. In 2017, a literature review found that because it is known that the genetic bottlenecks associated with formation of breeds raise linkage disequilibrium, the comparison of purebred with village dogs was not appropriate.
Another DNA study indicated that dogs originated in the Middle East due to the sharing of DNA between dogs and Middle Eastern grey wolves. In 2011, a study found this indication to be incorrect because there had been hybridization between dogs and Middle Eastern grey wolves. In 2012, a study indicated that dogs derived from wolves originating in the Middle East and Europe and this was consistent with the archaeological record. In 2014, a genomic study found that no modern wolf from any region was any more genetically closer to the dog than any other, implying that the dog's ancestor was extinct.
Based on ancient DNA
In 2018, a literature review found that most genetic studies conducted over the last two decades were based on modern dog breeds and extant wolf populations, with their findings dependent on a number of assumptions. These studies assumed that the extant wolf was the ancestor of the dog, did not consider genetic admixture between wolves and dogs, nor the impact of incomplete lineage sorting. These pre-genomic studies have suggested an origin of dogs in Southeast Asia, East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, or Europe. More recently, the field of Paleogenomics applies the latest molecular technologies to fossil remains that still contain useful ancient DNA.
Arctic Siberia
In 2015, a study recovered mDNA from ancient canid specimens that were discovered on Zhokhov Island and the Yana river, arctic Siberia. These specimens included the mandible of a 360,000–400,000 YBP Canis c.f. variabilis (where c.f. is a Latin term meaning uncertain). Phylogenetic analyses of these canids revealed nine mDNA haplotypes not detected before. The Canis c.f. variabilis specimen clustered with other wolf samples from across Russia and Asia. The mDNA haplotypes of one 8,750 YBP specimen and some 28,000 YBP specimens matched with those of geographically widely-spread modern dogs. One 47,000 YBP canid from Duvanny Yar (which was once a part of western Beringia) was distinct from wolves but was only a few mutations away from those haplotypes found in modern dogs. The authors concluded that the structure of the modern dog gene pool was contributed to from ancient Siberian wolves and possibly from Canis c.f. variabilis.
Southern Siberia
See further: Altai dog
In 2013, a study looked at the well-preserved skull and left mandible of a dog-like canid that was excavated from Razboinichya Cave in the Altai Mountains of southern Siberia. It was dated to 33,300 YBP, which predates the oldest evidence from Western Europe and the Near East The mDNA analysis found it to be more closely related to dogs than wolves. Later in 2013, another study found that the canid could not be classified as a dog nor wolf because it fell between both. In 2017, evolutionary biologists reviewed all of the evidence available on dog divergence and supported the specimens from the Altai mountains as being those of dogs from a lineage that is now extinct, and that was derived from a population of small wolves that is also now extinct.
Europe
Phylogenetic analysis showed that modern dog mDNA haplotypes resolve into four monophyletic clades designated by researchers as clades A-D.
In 2013, a study sequenced the complete and partial mitochondrial genomes of 18 fossil canids from the Old and New Worlds whose dates range from 1,000 to 36,000 YBP, and compared these with the complete mitochondrial genome sequences from modern wolves and dogs. Clade A included 64% of the modern dogs sampled, and these are a sister group to a clade containing three fossil pre-Columbian New World dogs dated between 1,000 and 8,500 YBP. This finding supports the hypothesis that pre-Columbian New World dogs share ancestry with modern dogs and that they likely arrived with the first humans to the New World. Together, clade A and the pre-Columbian fossil dogs were the sister group to a 14,500 YBP wolf found in the Kessleroch cave near Thayngen in the canton of Schaffhausen, Switzerland, with a most recent common ancestor estimated to 32,100 YBP.
Clade B included 22% of the dog sequences which related to modern wolves from Sweden and Ukraine, with a common recent ancestor estimated to 9,200 YBP. However, this relationship might represent mitochondrial genome introgression from wolves because dogs were domesticated by this time. Clade C included 12% of the dogs sampled and these were sister to two ancient dogs from the Bonn-Oberkassel cave (14,700 YBP) and the Kartstein cave (12,500 YBP) near Mechernich in Germany, with a common recent ancestor estimated to 16,000–24,000 YBP. Clade D contained sequences from 2 Scandinavian breeds – the Jamthund and Norwegian Elkhound – and is the sister group to another 14,500 YBP wolf sequence also from the Kesserloch cave, with a common recent ancestor estimated to 18,300 YBP. Its branch is phylogenetically rooted in the same sequence as the "Altai dog" (not a direct ancestor). The data from this study indicated a European origin for dogs that was estimated at 18,800–32,100 YBP based on the genetic relationship of 78% of the sampled dogs with ancient canid specimens found in Europe. The data supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the emergence of agriculture and was initiated close to the Last Glacial Maximum when hunter-gatherers preyed on megafauna.
The study found that three ancient Belgium canids (the 36,000 YBP "Goyet dog" cataloged as Canis species, along with two specimens dated 30,000 YBP and 26,000 YBP cataloged as Canis lupus) formed an ancient clade that was the most divergent group. The study found that the skulls of the "Goyet dog" and the "Altai dog" had some dog-like characteristics and proposed that this may have represented an aborted domestication episode. If so, there may have been originally more than one ancient domestication event for dogs as there was for domestic pigs.
One review considered why the domestication of the wolf occurred so late and at such high latitudes, when humans were living alongside wolves in the Middle East for the past 75,000 years. The proposal is that domestication was a cultural innovation caused through a long and stressful event, which was climate change. Domestication may have happened during one of the five cold Heinrich events that occurred after the arrival of humans in West Europe 37,000, 29,000, 23,000, 16,500, and 12,000 YBP. The theory is that the extreme cold during one of these events caused humans to either shift their location, adapt through a breakdown in their culture and change of their beliefs, or adopt innovative approaches. The adoption of the large wolf/dog was an adaptation to this hostile environment.
A criticism of the European proposal is that dogs in East Asia show more genetic diversity. However, dramatic differences in genetic diversity can be influenced both by an ancient and recent history of inbreeding. A counter-comment is that the modern European breeds only emerged in the 19th century, and that throughout history global dog populations experienced numerous episodes of diversification and homogenization, with each round further reducing the power of genetic data derived from modern breeds to help infer their early history.
In 2019, study of wolf samples from northern Italy using very short lengths of mDNA found that two specimens found in the Cava Filo archaeological site near San Lazzaro di Savena, Bologna fell within the domestic dog clade A haplogroup, with one being radio-carbon dated 24,700 YBP and the other stratigraphy dated to 20,000 YBP. The 24,700 YBP specimen matched the haplotype of ancient Bulgarian dogs, 2 historical sled dogs from the North American arctic, and 97 modern dogs. The 20,000 YBP specimen matched the haplotype of ancient Iberian and ancient Bulgarian dogs, Roman dogs from Iberia, and 2 historical sled dogs from the North American arctic. Four dog specimens found in the Bronze Age town of Via Ordiere, Solarolo, Italy dated to 3,600–3,280 years ago shared haplotypes with Late Pleistocene wolves and modern dogs.
In 2020, dog remains were found in two caves, Paglicci Cave and Grotta Romanelli in Apulia, southern Italy. These were dated 14,000 YBP and are the oldest dog remains found in the Mediterranean Basin. One specimen was retrieved from a layer where the sediment was dated 20,000 YBP, indicating the possibility of an earlier timing. The specimens were genetically related to the 14,000 YBP Bonn-Oberkassel dog from Germany and other early dogs from western and central Europe which all fall within the domestic dog mDNA haplogroup C, indicating that these were all derived from a common ancestor. Using genetic timing, this clade's most recent common ancestor dates to 28,500 YBP.
Morphological divergence
The first dogs were certainly wolflike; however, the phenotypic changes that coincided with the dog–wolf genetic divergence are not known. Identifying the earliest dogs is difficult because the key morphological characters that are used by zooarchaeologists to differentiate domestic dogs from their wild wolf ancestors (size and position of teeth, dental pathologies, and size and proportion of cranial and postcranial elements) were not yet fixed during the initial phases of the domestication process. The range of natural variation among these characters that may have existed in ancient wolf populations, and the time it took for these traits to appear in dogs, are unknown.
The fossil record suggests an evolutionary history that may include both morphologically dog-like wolves and wolf-like dogs. If the earliest dogs followed humans scavenging on carcasses that they left behind, then early selection may have favoured a wolf-like morphology. Perhaps when humans became more sedentary and dogs became closely associated with them was there selection for smaller, phenotypically distinct dogs, even if a reduced body size in dogs may have occurred before agriculture.
When, where, and how many times wolves may have been domesticated remains debated because only a small number of ancient specimens have been found, and both archaeology and genetics continue to provide conflicting evidence. The most widely accepted earliest dog remains are those of the Bonn-Oberkassel dog which date to 15,000 YBP. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 YBP have been described as Paleolithic dogs but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated.
Proposed dual ancestry of the domestic dogs of West Asia, Africa and southern Europe
More recent research analysing the genomes of 72 ancient wolves, specimens from Europe, Siberia and North America spanning the past 100,000 years has confirmed that both early and modern dogs are more similar genetically to ancient wolves from Asia than from Europe. This suggests that domestication occurred in the East. The research also found evidence that dogs have a dual ancestry, meaning that two separate populations of wolves contributed DNA to dogs.
Early dogs from northeastern Europe, Siberia and the Americas appear to have a single, shared origin from the eastern source. But early dogs from the Middle East, Africa and southern Europe appear to have some ancestry from another source related to wolves in the Middle East, in addition to the eastern source. It is possible that wolves underwent domestication more than once, with different populations then mixing together. Or, that domestication happened once only, and that dual ancestry is related to early dogs then mixing with wild wolves.
The research also demonstrated how wolf DNA changed during the 30,000 generations that were represented in their 100,000-year timeline. This identified the effects of natural selection as particular genes spread within wolf populations. One gene variant, over a period of around 10,000 years, went from being very rare to being present in every wolf, and it is still present in all wolves and dogs today. The variant affects a gene, IFT88, which is involved in the development of bones in the skull and jaw. It is possible that the spread of this variant could have been driven by a change in the types of prey available during the Ice Age, giving an advantage to wolves with a certain head shape.
"This is the first time scientists have directly tracked natural selection in a large animal [the wolf] over a time-scale of 100,000 years, seeing evolution play out in real time rather than trying to reconstruct it from DNA today," said study senior author Pontus Skoglund.
Dog domestication
Animal domestication is a coevolutionary process in which a population responds to selective pressure while adapting to a novel niche that included another species with evolving behaviors.
One of the most important transitions in human history was the domestication of animals, which began with the long-term association between wolves and hunter–gatherers more than 15,000 years ago. Dogs were the first domesticated species, the only animal known to have entered into a domestic relationship with humans during the Pleistocene, and the only large carnivore to have been domesticated. It was not until 11,000 YBP that people living in the Near East entered into relationships with wild populations of aurochs, boar, sheep, and goats. A domestication process then began to develop. The earlier association of dogs with humans may have allowed dogs to have a profound influence on the course of early human history and the development of civilization.
The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 YBP, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. There is clear evidence that dogs were derived from grey wolves during the initial phases of domestication. The wolf population(s) that were involved are likely to be extinct. Despite numerous genetic studies of both modern dogs and ancient dog remains, there is no firm consensus regarding either the timing or location(s) of domestication, the number of wolf populations that were involved, or the long-term effects domestication has had on the dog's genome.
Around 10,000 YBP agriculture was developed resulting in a sedentary lifestyle, along with phenotype divergence of the dog from its wolf ancestors, including variance in size. Two population bottlenecks have occurred to the dog lineage, one due to the initial domestication and one due to the formation of dog breeds.
Socialization
Humans and wolves both exist in complex social groups. How humans and wolves got together remains unknown. One view holds that domestication is a process that is difficult to define. The term was developed by anthropologists with a human-centric view in which humans took wild animals (ungulates) and bred them to be "domestic", usually in order to provide improved food or materials for human consumption. That term may not be appropriate for a large carnivore such as the dog. This alternate view regards dogs as being either socialized and able to live among humans, or unsocialized. There exist today dogs that live with their human families but are unsocialized and will threaten strangers defensively and aggressively no differently than a wild wolf. There also exists a number of cases where wild wolves have approached people in remote places, attempting to initiate play and to form companionship. One such notable wolf was Romeo, a gentle black wolf that formed relationships with the people and dogs of Juneau, Alaska. This view holds that before there could have been domestication of the wolf, there had to have been its socialization.
Even today, the wolves on Ellesmere Island do not fear humans, which is thought to be due to them seeing humans so little, and they will approach humans cautiously, curiously and closely.
Commensal pathway
The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely traveled a commensal pathway into domestication. The dog was the first domesticant, and was domesticated and widely established across Eurasia before the end of the Pleistocene, well before cultivation or the domestication of other animals. It may have been inevitable that the first domesticated animal came from the order of carnivores as these are less afraid when approaching other species. Within the carnivores, the first domesticated animal would need to exist without an all-meat diet, possess a running and hunting ability to provide its own food, and be of a controllable size to coexist with humans, indicating the family Canidae, and the right temperament with wolves being among the most gregarious and cooperative animals on the planet.
Human campfire theory
Ancient DNA supports the hypothesis that dog domestication preceded the emergence of agriculture and was initiated close to the Last Glacial Maximum when hunter-gatherers preyed on megafauna, and when proto-dogs might have taken advantage of carcasses left on site by early hunters, assisted in the capture of prey, or provided defense from large competing predators at kill-sites. Wolves were probably attracted to human campfires by the smell of meat being cooked and discarded refuse in the vicinity, first loosely attaching themselves and then considering these as part of their home territory where their warning growls would alert humans to the approach of outsiders. The wolves most likely drawn to human camps were the less-aggressive, subdominant pack members with lowered flight response, higher stress thresholds and less wary around humans, which was the start of a process known as self-domestication, making them better candidates for further domestication.
Migratory wolves theory
On the mammoth steppe the wolf's ability to hunt in packs, to share risk fairly among pack members, and to cooperate moved them to the top of the food chain above lions, hyenas and bears. Some wolves followed the great reindeer herds, eliminating the unfit, the weaklings, the sick and the aged, and therefore improved the herd. These wolves had become the first pastoralists hundreds of thousands of years before humans also took to this role. The wolves' advantage over their competitors was that they were able to keep pace with the herds, move fast and enduringly, and make the most efficient use of their kill by their ability to "wolf down" a large part of their quarry before other predators had detected the kill. One study proposed that during the Last Glacial Maximum, some of our ancestors teamed up with those pastoralist wolves and learned their techniques.
Many early humans remained gatherers and scavengers, or specialized as fish-hunters, hunter-gatherers, and hunter-gardeners. However, some adopted the pastoralist wolves' lifestyle as herd followers and herders of reindeer, horses, and other hoofed animals. They harvested the best stock for themselves while the wolves kept the herd strong, and this group of humans was to become the first herders and this group of wolves was to become the first dogs.
The remains of large carcasses left by human hunter-gatherers may have led some wolves into entering a migratory relationship with humans. This could have led to their divergence from those wolves that remained in the one territory. A closer relationship between these wolves — or proto-dogs — and humans may have then developed, such as hunting together and mutual defence from other carnivores and other humans. A maternal mDNA, paternal yDNA, and microsatellite assessment of two wolf populations in North America and combined with satellite telemetry data revealed significant genetic and morphological differences between one population that migrated with and preyed upon caribou, and another territorial ecotype population that remained in a boreal coniferous forest. Though these two populations spend a period of the year in the same place, and though there was evidence of gene flow between them, the difference in prey–habitat specialization has been sufficient to maintain genetic and even coloration divergence. A study has identified the remains of a population of extinct Pleistocene Beringian wolves with unique mDNA signatures. The skull shape, tooth wear, and isotopic signatures suggested these were specialist megafauna hunters and scavengers that became extinct while less specialized wolf ecotypes survived. Analogous to the modern wolf ecotype that has evolved to track and prey upon caribou, a Pleistocene wolf population could have begun following mobile hunter-gatherers, thus slowly acquiring genetic and phenotypic differences that would have allowed them to more successfully adapt to the human habitat.
Food partitioning theory
Dogs were the only animal to be domesticated by mobile hunter-gatherers. Humans and wolves were both persistent pack hunters of large prey, were competing in overlapping territory, and are both capable of killing each other. One study proposes how humans may have domesticated such a dangerous competitor. Humans and wolves are members of the large carnivore guild, and when there is abundant game the top members leave carcasses for the other members to scavenge. When game is scarce there is often conflict. Humans are unusual members of this guild because their ancestors were primates, therefore their ability to process meat is limited by the capacity of the liver to metabolize protein, and they can only derive 20% of their energy requirements from protein. High protein consumption in humans can lead to illness.
During the harsh winters of the Last Glacial Maximum plant foods would have not been available, and meat would not be the favoured food but fat and grease would be, as is prized by some high-latitude dwelling peoples in modern times. Game meat would have been devoid of fat, but the limbs and crania contain fat deposits, and limb bones contain fatty oils. There is evidence of such processing during this period. Wolves are typical carnivores and can survive on a protein-based diet for months. Calculations of the lipid content of arctic and subarctic game available across the cold steppe environment at this time and today shows that in order to gain the necessary quantity of fat and oils, there would have been enough excess animal calories to feed either proto-dogs or wolves with no need for competition. Hunting together and protection from other predators would have been advantageous to both species, leading to domestication.
Genetic changes
The Yellow Dog Study
Domestic dogs exhibit diverse coat colours and patterns. In many mammals, different colour patterns are the result of the regulation of the Agouti gene, which can cause hair follicles to switch from making black or brown pigments to yellow or nearly white pigments. The most common coat pattern found in modern wolves is agouti, in which the upperside of the body has banded hairs and the underside exhibits lighter shading. The colour yellow is dominant to the colour black and is found in dogs across much of the world and the dingo in Australia.
In 2021, a study of whole genome sequences taken from dogs and wolves focused on the genetic relationships between them based on coat colour. The study found that most dog colour haplotypes were similar to most wolf haplotypes, however dominant yellow in dogs was closely related to white in arctic wolves from North America. This result suggests a common origin for dominant yellow in dogs and white in wolves but without recent gene flow, because this light colour clade was found to be basal to the golden jackal and genetically distinct from all other canids. The most recent common ancestor of the golden jackal and the wolf lineage dates back to 2 million YBP. The study proposes that 35,000 YBP there was genetic introgression into the Late Pleistocene grey wolf from a ghost population of an extinct canid which had diverged from the grey wolf lineage over 2 million YBP. This colour diversity could be found 35,000 YBP in wolves and 9,500 YBP in dogs. A closely related haplotype exists among those wolves of Tibet which possess yellow shading in their coats. The study explains the colour relationships between modern dogs and wolves, white wolves from North America, yellow dogs, and yellowish wolves from Tibet. The study concludes that during the Late Pleistocene, natural selection laid the genetic foundation for modern coat colour diversity in dogs and wolves.
Dietary adaptation
Selection appears to have acted on the dog's metabolic functions to cope with changes in dietary fat, followed later with a dietary increase in starch associated with a more commensal lifestyle.
The dog genome compared to the wolf genome shows signs of having undergone positive selection, these include genes relating to brain function and behavior, and to lipid metabolism. This ability to process lipids indicates a dietary target of selection that was important when proto-dogs hunted and fed alongside hunter-gatherers. The evolution of the dietary metabolism genes may have helped process the increased lipid content of early dog diets as they scavenged on the remains of carcasses left by hunter-gatherers. Prey capture rates may have increased in comparison to wolves and with it the amount of lipid consumed by the assisting proto-dogs. A unique dietary selection pressure may have evolved both from the amount consumed, and the shifting composition of, tissues that were available to proto-dogs once humans had removed the most desirable parts of the carcass for themselves. A study of the mammal biomass during modern human expansion into the northern Mammoth steppe found that it had occurred under conditions of unlimited resources, and that many of the animals were killed with only a small part consumed or were left unused.
See further: Dietary phenotypic plasticity
Behaviour
The key phase in domestication appears to have been changes in social behaviour and its corresponding oxytocin receptor genes and neural-related genes. Behaviour differences between dogs and wolves may be contributed by structural variation in the genes that are associated with human Williams-Beuren syndrome. This syndrome causes increased hyper-sociability, which may have been important during domestication.
In 2014, a whole genome study of the DNA differences between wolves and dogs found that the dogs tameness was not a reduced fear response but did show greater synaptic plasticity. Synaptic plasticity is widely believed to be the cellular correlate of learning and memory. The study proposes that the improved learning and memory abilities of dogs also helped to lower their level of fear around humans.
Unlike other domestic species which were primarily selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors. In 2016, a study found that there were only 11 fixed genes that showed variation between wolves and dogs. These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution, and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. There was evidence of selection during dog domestication of genes that affect the adrenaline and noradrenaline biosynthesis pathway. These genes are involved in the synthesis, transport and degradation of a variety of neurotransmitters, particularly the catecholamines, which include dopamine and noradrenaline. Recurrent selection on this pathway and its role in emotional processing and the fight-or-flight response suggests that the behavioral changes we see in dogs compared to wolves may be due to changes in this pathway, leading to tameness and an emotional processing ability. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared to wolves. Some of these genes have been associated with aggression in some dog breeds, indicating their importance in both the initial domestication and then later in breed formation.
Role of epigenetics
Differences in hormonal expression that are associated with domestication syndrome may be linked to epigenetic modifications. A recent study that compared the methylation patterns of dogs with those of wolves found 68 significantly different methylated sites. These included sites which are linked to two neurotransmitter genes associated with cognition. There is a direct association between the dog's social behaviour and OXTR, which is a receptor for the neurotransmitter Oxytocin, and this has been caused through the epigenetic methylation of the OXTR gene. DNA methylation differences have been found between wolves and dogs, and between different dog breeds. This implies that epigentic factors may have been important for both dog domestication and the divergence of dog breeds.
Similar to humans, wolves show strong social and emotional bonds within their groupings, and this relationship might have been the foundation for the evolution of dog-human bonding. In 2019, a literature review led to a new theory named Active Social Domestication, in which the social environment of the dog ancestor induced neuro-physiological changes that caused an epigenetic cascade, which led to the rapid development of domestication syndrome.
Dog and human coevolution
Parallel evolution
Being the first domesticated species has created a strong bond between dogs and humans and entwined their histories. There is an extensive list of genes that showed signatures of parallel evolution in dogs and humans. A suite of 311 genes under positive selection in dogs are related to a large number of overlapping loci which show the same patterns in humans, and these play a role in digestion, neurological processes, and some being involved with cancers. This fact can be used to study the coevolution of gene function. Dogs accompanied humans when they first migrated into new environments. Both dogs and humans have adapted to different environmental conditions, with their genomes showing parallel evolution. These include adaptation to high altitude, low oxygen hypoxia conditions, and genes that play a role in digestion, metabolism, neurological processes, and some related to cancer. It can be inferred from those genes which act on the serotonin system in the brain that these have given rise to less aggressive behavior when living in a crowded environment. Dogs suffer from the same common diseases – such as cancer, diabetes, heart disease, and neurological disorders – as do humans. The underlying disease pathology is similar to humans, as is their responses and outcomes to treatment.
Behavioral evidence
Convergent evolution is when distantly related species independently evolve similar solutions to the same problem. For example, fish, penguins and dolphins have each separately evolved flippers as a solution to the problem of moving through the water. What has been found between dogs and humans is something less frequently demonstrated: psychological convergence. Dogs have independently evolved to be cognitively more similar to humans than we are to our closest genetic relatives. Dogs have evolved specialized skills for reading human social and communicative behavior. These skills seem more flexible – and possibly more human-like – than those of other animals more closely related to humans phylogenetically, such as chimpanzees, bonobos and other great apes. This raises the possibility that convergent evolution has occurred: both Canis familiaris and Homo sapiens might have evolved some similar (although obviously not identical) social-communicative skills – in both cases adapted for certain kinds of social and communicative interactions with human beings.
Studies support coevolution in that dogs can follow the human pointing gesture, discriminate the emotional expressions of human faces, and that most people can tell from a bark whether a dog is alone, being approached by a stranger, playing, or being aggressive, and can tell from a growl how big the dog is.
In 2015, a study found that when dogs and their owners interact, extended eye contact (mutual gaze) increases oxytocin levels in both the dog and its owner. As oxytocin is known for its role in maternal bonding, it is considered likely that this effect has supported the coevolution of human-dog bonding.
Human adoption of some wolf behaviors
In 2002, a study proposed that immediate human ancestors and wolves may have domesticated each other through a strategic alliance that would change both respectively into humans and dogs. The effects of human psychology, hunting practices, territoriality and social behavior would have been profound.
Early humans moved from scavenging and small-game hunting to big-game hunting by living in larger, socially more-complex groups, learning to hunt in packs, and developing powers of cooperation and negotiation in complex situations. As these are characteristics of wolves, dogs and humans, it can be argued that these behaviors were enhanced once wolves and humans began to cohabit. Communal hunting led to communal defense. Wolves actively patrol and defend their scent-marked territory, and perhaps humans had their sense of territoriality enhanced by living with wolves. One of the keys to recent human survival has been the forming of partnerships. Strong bonds exist between same-sex wolves, dogs and humans, and these bonds are stronger than exist between other same-sex animal pairs. Today, the most widespread form of inter-species bonding occurs between humans and dogs. The concept of friendship has ancient origins, but it may have been enhanced through the inter-species relationship to give a survival advantage.
In 2003, a study compared the behavior and ethics of chimpanzees, wolves and humans. Cooperation among humans' closest genetic relative is limited to occasional hunting episodes or the persecution of a competitor for personal advantage, which had to be tempered if humans were to become domesticated. One might therefore argue that the closest approximation to human morality that can be found in nature is that of the grey wolf. Wolves are among the most gregarious and cooperative of animals on the planet, and their ability to cooperate in well-coordinated drives to hunt prey, carry items too heavy for an individual, provisioning not only their own young but also the other pack members, babysitting etc. are rivaled only by that of human societies. Similar forms of cooperation are observed in two closely related canids, the African wild dog and the Asian dhole, therefore it is reasonable to assume that canid sociality and cooperation are old traits that in terms of evolution predate human sociality and cooperation. Today's wolves may even be less social than their ancestors, as they have lost access to large herds of ungulates and now tend more toward a lifestyle similar to coyotes, jackals, and even foxes. Social sharing within families may be a trait that early humans learned from wolves, and, with wolves digging dens long before humans constructed huts, it is not clear who domesticated whom.
First dogs
Dogs domesticated in East Asia
Savolainen looking at mitochondrial DNA shows that an initial phase of dog domestication began in China or Southeast Asia 33, 000 years ago, and a second phase 18, 000 years later in which the dog migrated out of Southeast Asia towards Africa and the Middle East. Arriving in Europe, around 10 000 years ago, giving rise to modern dog breeds.
Savolainen pointed out that many studies that contradicted the origin of dog domestication from China or elsewhere in Southeast Asia, did not include wolf or dog samples from China or Southeast Asia.
Dogs domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago
Locating the origin of dogs is made difficult by the lack of data on extinct Pleistocene wolves, the small morphological changes that occurred between wild and domestic populations during the first phases of domestication, and the lack of an accompanying human material culture at this time.
In 2016, a genetic study found that ancient and modern dogs fall into an Eastern Eurasian clade and a Western Eurasian clade. In 2017, another genetic study found evidence of a single dog-wolf divergence occurring between 36,900 and 41,500 YBP, followed by a divergence between Eastern Eurasian and Western Eurasian dogs 17,500–23,900 YBP and this indicates a single dog domestication event occurring between 20,000 and 40,000 YBP.
In 2021, a review of the current evidence infers from the timings provided by DNA studies that the dog was domesticated in Siberia 23,000 years ago by ancient North Siberians. The dog later dispersed from Siberia with the migration of peoples eastwards into the Americas and westwards across Eurasia. The ancient North Siberians were once a people whose ancestors archaeological remains have been found at the Paleolithic Yana RHS (Rhinoceros Horn Site) on the Yana River delta in arctic northern Siberia that is dated 31,600 YBP, and at the Mal'ta site near Lake Baikal in southern Siberia just north of Mongolia that is dated 24,000 YBP. Ancient dog remains dating to this time and place have yet to be discovered to support this hypothesis.
The review theorizes that the harsh climate of the Last Glacial Maximum may have brought humans and wolves closer together while they were isolated inside refuge areas. Both species hunt the same prey, and their increased interactions may have resulted in the shared scavenging of kills, wolves drawn to human campsites, a shift in their relationship, and eventually domestication.
Mitochondrial DNA indicates that almost all modern dogs fall into one of four monophyletic haplogroups which are named haplogroups A, B, C, and D. The majority of dogs fall within haplogroup A. The mDNA "molecular clock" indicates that 22,800 YBP the first genetic divergence (split) occurred in haplogroup A, resulting in the lineages A1b and A2. This timing is the oldest known between any two dog mDNA lineages. As humans migrated across Siberia, through Beringia, and down through the Americas, archaeological remains indicate that their mDNA lineages diverged several times. Based on these timings, and the timings of several dog divergences found from early dog remains across these regions, it was discovered that there was a correlation between human and dog migrations and population divergences. This correlation suggests that where people went, their dogs also went. Tracing back through these human and dog lineages and timings led to the inference that the dog was first domesticated in Siberia nearly 23,000 YBP by North Siberians.
Another study undertook an analysis of the complete mitogenome sequences of 555 modern and ancient dogs. The sequences showed an increase in the population size approximately 23,500 YBP, which broadly coincides with the proposed genetic divergence of the ancestors of dogs from modern wolves. A ten-fold increase in the population size occurred after 15,000 YBP, which is consistent with the demographic dependence of dogs on the human population.
Earlier in 2018, a study proposes that the Yana site showed evidence of wolf pre-domestication. There are remains of medium-sized canids found there that could not be referred to as dogs, however they showed indications of living with people. These included worn and partially-missing teeth, and the skull of an almost-adult showing juvenile features. The morphologic and morphometric anomalies in the specimens indicate commensalism and the earliest stage of domestication.
Admixture
Studies indicate admixture between the dog-wolf ancestor and golden jackals. However, since domestication, there was almost negligible gene flow from wolves into dogs but substantial gene flow from dogs into wolves. There were some wolves that were related to all ancient and modern dogs. A very small amount of gene flow was detected between coyotes and ancient American dogs, and between the African wolf and African dogs but in which direction could not be determined. The short divergence time between dogs and wolves followed by their continuous admixture has led to 20% of the genome of East Asian wolves and 7–25% of the genome of European and Middle Eastern wolves showing contributions from dogs. The β-defensin gene responsible for the black coat of North American wolves was the result of a single introgression from early Native American dogs in the Yukon between 1,600 and 7,200 YBP. Dogs and wolves living in the Himalayas and on the Tibetan plateau carry the EPAS1 allele that is associated with high-altitude oxygen adaptation, which has been contributed by a ghost population of an unknown wolf-like canid. This ghost population is deeply-diverged from modern Holarctic wolves and dogs, and has contributed 39% to the Himalayan wolf's nuclear genome. Limited gene flow has likely occurred in arctic dogs.
Bonn-Oberkassel dog
The earliest generally accepted dog remains were discovered in Bonn-Oberkassel, Germany. Contextual, isotopic, genetic, and morphological evidence shows that this dog was clearly not a local wolf. The dog was dated to 14,223 YBP.
In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, two human skeletons were discovered during basalt quarrying at Oberkassel, Bonn in Germany. With them were found a right mandible of a "wolf" and other animal bones. After the end of the First World War, in 1919 a full study was made of these remains. The mandible was recorded as "Canis lupus, the wolf" and some of the other animal bones were assigned to it. The remains were then stored and forgotten for fifty years. In the late 1970s there was renewed interest in the Oberkassel remains and the mandible was re-examined and reclassified as belonging to a domesticated dog. The mitochondrial DNA sequence of the mandible was matched to Canis familiaris – a dog and falls within mDNA haplogroup C of dogs. The bodies were dated to 14,223 YBP. This implies that in Western Europe there were morphologically and genetically "modern" dogs in existence around 14,500 YBP.
Later studies assigned more of the other animal bones to the dog until most of a skeleton could be assembled. The humans were a man aged 40 years and a woman aged 25 years. All three skeletal remains were found sprayed with red hematite powder and covered with large 20 cm thick basalt blocks. The consensus is that a dog was buried along with two humans. A tooth belonging to a smaller and older dog was also identified but it had not been sprayed with red powder. The cause of the death of the two humans is not known. A pathology study of the dog remains suggests that it had died young after suffering from canine distemper between ages 19 and 23 weeks. The dog could not have survived during this period without intensive human care. During this period the dog was of no utilitarian use to humans, and suggests the existence of emotional or symbolic ties between these humans and this dog. In conclusion, near the end of the Late Pleistocene at least some humans regarded dogs not just materialistically, but had developed emotional and caring bonds for their dogs.
Ice Age dogs
In 2020, the sequencing of ancient dog genomes indicates that dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, now-extinct wolf population - or closely related wolf populations - which was distinct from the modern wolf lineage. By the close of the last Ice Age (11,700 YBP), five ancestral lineages had diversified from each other and were expressed in dog samples taken from the Neolithic era Levant (7,000 YBP), Mesolithic era Karelia (10,900 YBP), Mesolithic era Baikal (7,000 YBP), ancient America (4,000 YBP), and the New Guinea singing dog (present day).
The world's ancient and modern dog population structure can be classified into Arctic/Americas, East Asian, and West Eurasian. The Arctic/Americas lineage includes modern arctic breeds, a 9,500 YBP dog from Zhokhov Island, ancient pre-European contact American dogs, mid-Holocene dogs from Lake Baikal, historical dogs from across Siberia, and dogs from the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug region in northwestern Siberia. The East Asian lineage includes modern dogs from China, Vietnam, Island South East Asia, and the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog that represent unadmixed East Asian ancestry. The West Eurasian lineage includes ancient Levantine and ancient Near Eastern dogs, ancient and modern European dogs, modern African dogs, and Bronze Age dogs from the Eurasian Steppe.
Ancient and modern European dogs have a closer relationship with arctic dogs than do Near Eastern dogs, indicating a major admixture event in Europe. Analyses of a recently sequenced genome from the Mesolithic site of Veretye, Karelia (~10,000 YBP) in Northeast Europe recapitulate findings that show these dogs possessed ancestry related to both Arctic (~70%) and Western Eurasian (~30%) lineages. This suggests that other modern and ancient (post-Mesolithic) European dogs sequenced to date, Mesolithic dogs in Europe already possessed both Arctic and Western Eurasian ancestry. The fact that the ancient Siberian dog from Zhokhov Island, dated ~1,000 years after the Veretye, Karelia dogs, possesses no Western Eurasian ancestry, indicates that Western dog ancestry had not yet reached the Siberian Arctic by 9,500 YBP. The 9,500 YBP Zhokhov dog is more closely related to a 6,000 YBP dog from Lake Baikal than related to the ancient dogs found in North America, which supports that a genetic split had occurred between the early Arctic and North American dogs and that their common ancestor dates much older than the 9,500 YBP Zhokhov dog The earliest Neolithic European dog dated 7,000 YBP was found to be a mixture of the Karelian and the Levantine lineages. The lineage of a Neolithic dog dated 5,000 YBP found in southwestern Sweden was the ancestor of 90-100% of modern European dogs. This implies that in Europe a population of half-Karelian and half-Levantine dogs similar to this one - but not necessarily originating in Sweden - replaced all of the other dog populations. These findings together support a dual ancestry for modern European dogs, which possess 54% Karelian and 46% Levantine ancestries.
Siberian dogs were genetically similar 9,500–7,000 YBP showing Arctic ancestry, however the introduction of dogs from the Eurasian Steppe and Europe led to substantial genetic admixture, with ancient and historical Siberian dogs exhibiting varying levels of Arctic and Near East ancestry. Dogs from the Bronze Age Eurasian Steppe exhibited 40% ancient arctic and 60% ancient Near East ancestry until the Middle Ages. This implies that dogs migrated as part of the Neolithic expansion of farming from the Near East into the steppes. In the Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug region in northwestern Siberia, dogs from 2,000 YBP were less related to the dogs of the Eurasian Steppe and Europe than dogs 1,000 YBP. The archaeological presence of glass beads and metal items indicate that this region was connected to a large trade network which included the Near East, the Black Sea region, and the Eurasian Steppe which led to the acquiring of dogs from these regions. The acquisition of dogs from the Near East adapted to farming, and the Eurasian Steppe adapted to pastoralism, may have provided behavioural and morphological characteristics when admixed with Arctic dogs, leading to their adaptation from foraging to reindeer pastoralism. Two dog specimens that are nearly 100 years old and obtained from the Nenets people on the Yamal Peninsula found that these are related to two specimens dated 2,000 years old and 850 years old, which suggests continuity of the lineage in this region. The two 100 year old dogs were closely related with the Samoyed breed. Siberian Huskies show a genetic affinity with historical East Siberian dogs and ancient Lake Baikal dogs. Together, this indicates that the ancient arctic lineage lives on in some modern Siberian breeds.
Ancient dog genomes were compared with ancient human genomes across time, space, and cultural context to reveal that these generally matched each other. These generally share similar features but they differ across time. There were some large differences: the same dogs could be found in both the Neolithic Levant and later in Chalcolithic Iran (5,800 YBP) although the human populations of each were different; in Neolithic Ireland (4,800 YBP) and Germany (7,000 YBP) the dogs are more associated with northern European hunter-gatherers while the humans were more associated with people from the Levant; and on the Bronze Age Pontic–Caspian steppe (3,800 YBP) and in Corded Ware culture Germany (4,700 YBP) the human population had shifted away from the Neolithic European populations but the dogs had not. European dogs have a stronger genetic relationship to Siberian and ancient American dogs than to the New Guinea singing dog, which has an East Asian origin, reflecting an early polar relationship between humans in the Americas and Europe. People living in the Lake Baikal region 18,000—24,000 YBP were genetically related to western Eurasians and contributed to the ancestry of Native Americans, however these were then replaced by other populations. Ten thousand years later, around 7,000 YBP, the dogs in the Lake Baikal region still exhibited a relationship with Europe and the Americas. This implies that there was a shared population structure for both dogs and humans across circumpolar northern Eurasia.
Ancient human genomes show a major ancestry transformation which coincided with the expansion of Neolithic farmers from the Near East into Europe. Ancient dog mitochondria suggests these were accompanied by dogs, which led to an associated ancestry transformation for dogs in Europe. The expansions of steppe pastoralists associated with the Corded Ware culture and the Yamnaya culture into Late Neolithic and Bronze Age Europe transformed the ancestry of human populations but their accompanying dogs had no major impact on European dog populations. The steppe pastoralists also expanded eastwards but had little impact on the ancestry of East Asian people. However, many Chinese dogs appear to be a product of admixture between the lineage of a 3,800 YBP western Eurasian Srubnaya culture dog and the ancestor of the dingo and New Guinea singing dog. Populations of modern Siberian dogs also show ancestry from 7,000 YBP Lake Baikal dogs but little or no New Guinea singing dog ancestry, indicating no East Asian ancestry.
The AMY2B gene codes a protein which assists with the first step in the digestion of dietary starch and glycogen. An expansion of this gene would enable early dogs to exploit a starch-rich diet. At the beginning of agriculture, only some dogs possessed this adaptation which became widespread several thousand years later.
Dogs migrated alongside humans but the movement of the two did not always align, indicating that in some cases humans migrated without dogs or that dogs moved between human groups, possibly as a cultural or trade item. Dogs appear to have been dispersed across Eurasia and into the Americas without any major human population movement being involved, which remains a mystery. Past studies have suggested the dog's place of origin but these studies were based upon today's patterns of genomic diversity or possible links to modern wolf populations. The dog's history was obscured to these studies because of recent gene flow and population dynamics – the geographical origin of the dog remains unknown.
First dogs as a hunting technology
During the Upper Paleolithic (50,000–10,000 YBP), the increase in human population density, advances in blade and hunting technology, and climate change may have altered prey densities and made scavenging crucial to the survival of some wolf populations. Adaptations to scavenging such as tameness, small body size, and a decreased age of reproduction would reduce their hunting efficiency further, eventually leading to obligated scavenging. Whether these earliest dogs were simply human-commensal scavengers or they played some role as companions or hunters that hastened their spread is unknown.
Researchers have proposed that in the past a hunting partnership existed between humans and dogs that was the basis for dog domestication.
Petroglyph rock art dating to 8,000 YBP at the sites of Shuwaymis and Jubbah, in northwestern Saudi Arabia, depict large numbers of dogs participating in hunting scenes with some being controlled on a leash. The transition from the Late Pleistocene into the early Holocene was marked by climatic change from cold and dry to warmer, wetter conditions and rapid shifts in flora and fauna, with much of the open habitat of large herbivores being replaced by forests. In the early Holocene, it is proposed that along with changes in arrow-head technology that hunting dogs were used by hunters to track and retrieve wounded game in thick forests. The dog's ability to chase, track, sniff out and hold prey can significantly increase the success of hunters in forests, where human senses and location skills are not as sharp as in more open habitats. Dogs are still used for hunting in forests today.
Arctic breeds
First dog breeds developed in arctic northeastern Siberia
The domestic dog was present 9,500 YBP on what is now Zhokhov Island, arctic northeastern Siberia. The archaeological discoveries at the Zhokhov site includes the remains of dog harness straps similar to those used by the modern Inuit, the bone remains of polar bears and reindeer which suggests a wide hunting range and the transport of large body parts back to the site, and tools made from obsidian transported from 1,500 kilometres away. These findings suggest long-distance transport through the use of sled dogs.
A study of dog remains indicates that these were selectively bred to be either as sled dogs or as hunting dogs, which implies that a sled dog standard and a hunting dog standard existed at that time. The optimal maximum size for a sled dog is 20–25 kg based on thermo-regulation, and the ancient sled dogs were between 16 and 25 kg. The same standard has been found in the remains of sled dogs from this region 2,000 YBP and in the modern Siberian husky breed standard. Other dogs were more massive at 30 kg and appear to be dogs that had been crossed with wolves and used for polar bear hunting. At death, the heads of the dogs had been carefully separated from their bodies by humans, probably for ceremonial reasons.
The study proposes that after having diverged from the common ancestor shared with the grey wolf, the evolution of the dog proceeded in three stages. The first was natural selection based on feeding behavior within the ecological niche that had been formed through human activity. The second was artificial selection based on tamability. The third was directed selection based on forming breeds that possessed qualities to help with specific tasks within the human economy. The process commenced 30,000–40,000 YBP with its speed increasing in each stage until domestication became complete.
The Zhokhov dogs are the oldest known dogs to exhibit colour patterns. These possessed black colour patterns on their backs, which helped to distinguish them from white arctic wolves.
Dogs enter North America from northeastern Siberia
Material culture provides evidence for dog harnessing in the Arctic 9,000 YBP. Ancient DNA from the remains of these dogs indicates that they belong to the same genetic lineage as modern Arctic dogs, and that this lineage gave rise to the earliest native American dogs. Since the earliest native American dogs, multiple, genetically different lineages of dogs were introduced by the Thule people and European settlers. The European dogs replaced the dog lineages that were introduced more than 10,000 years ago.
In North America, the earliest dog remains were found in Lawyer's Cave on the Alaskan mainland east of Wrangell Island in the Alexander Archipelago of southeast Alaska, radiocarbon dating indicates 10,150 YBP. A genetic-based estimate indicates that this dog's lineage had split from the Siberian Zhokhov Island dog lineage 16,700 YBP. This timing coincides with the suggested opening of the North Pacific coastal route into North America. Stable isotope analysis can be used to identify some chemical elements, allowing researchers to make inferences about the diet of a species. An isotope analysis of bone collagen indicates a marine diet. The next earliest dogs were found in Illinois and radiocarbon dating indicates 9,900 YBP. These include three isolated burials at the Koster Site near the lower Illinois River in Greene County, and one burial 35 km away at the Stilwell II site in Pike County. These dogs were medium-sized adults around in height and around in weight, with very active lifestyles and varied morphologies. Stable isotope analysis indicates a diet consisting largely of freshwater fish. Similar dog burials across Eurasia are thought to be due to the dog's importance in hunting to people who were trying to adapt to the changing environments and prey species during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. In these places, the dog had gained an elevated social status.
In 2018, a study compared sequences of North American dog fossils with Siberian dog fossils and modern dogs. The nearest relative to the North American fossils was a 9,000 YBP fossil discovered on Zhokhov Island, arctic north-eastern Siberia, which was connected to the mainland at that time. The study inferred from mDNA that all of the North American dogs shared a common ancestor dated 14,600 YBP, and this ancestor had diverged along with the ancestor of the Zhokhov dog from their common ancestor 15,600 YBP. The timing of the Koster dogs shows that dogs entered North America from Siberia 4,500 years after humans did, were isolated for the next 9,000 years, and after contact with Europeans these no longer exist because they were replaced by Eurasian dogs. The (earlier wave of, prior to the Thule/Inuit introduction) pre-contact dogs exhibit a unique genetic signature that is now gone, with nDNA indicating that their nearest genetic relatives today are the arctic breed dogs: Alaskan malamutes, Greenland dogs, and Alaskan huskies and Siberian huskies.
In 2019, a study found that those dogs brought initially into the North American Arctic from northeastern Siberia were later replaced by dogs accompanying the Inuit during their expansion beginning 2,000 years ago. These Inuit dogs were more genetically diverse and more morphologically divergent when compared with the earlier dogs. Today, Arctic sledge dogs are among the last descendants in the Americas of this pre-European dog lineage. In 2020, the sequencing of ancient dog genomes indicates that in two Mexican breeds the Chihuahua retains 4% and the Xoloitzcuintli 3% pre-colonial ancestry.
Late Pleistocene wolf admixture
In 2015, a study mapped the first genome of a 35,000 YBP Pleistocene wolf fossil found in the Taimyr Peninsula, arctic northern Siberia and compared it with those of modern dogs and grey wolves. The Taimyr wolf was identified through mDNA as Canis lupus but from a population which had diverged from the dog–grey wolf lineage immediately before the dog and grey wolf diverged from each other, which implies that the majority of grey wolf populations today stems from an ancestral population that lived less than 35,000 years ago but before the inundation of the Bering Land Bridge with the subsequent isolation of Eurasian and North American wolves.
The Taimyr wolf was equally related to both dogs and modern wolves, but shared more alleles (i.e. gene expressions) with those breeds that are associated with high latitudes and arctic human populations: the Siberian husky and Greenland dog, and to a lesser extent the Shar Pei and Finnish spitz. The Greenland dog shows 3.5% Taimyr wolf ancestry, which indicates admixture between the Taimyr wolf population and the ancestral dog population of these four high-latitude breeds. These results can be explained either by a very early presence of dogs in northern Eurasia or by the genetic legacy of the Taimyr wolf being preserved in northern wolf populations until the arrival of dogs into high latitudes. This introgression could have provided early dogs living in high latitudes with adaptations to the new and challenging environment. It also indicates that the ancestry of present-day dog breeds descends from more than one region. An attempt to explore admixture between the Taimyr wolf and grey wolves produced unreliable results.
As the Taimyr wolf had contributed to the genetic makeup of the Arctic breeds, this indicates that the descendants of the Taimyr wolf survived until dogs were domesticated in Europe and arrived at high latitudes where they mixed with local wolves, and these both contributed to the modern Arctic breeds. Based on the most widely accepted oldest zooarchaeological dog remains, domestic dogs most likely arrived at high latitudes within the last 15,000 years.
The nuclear genome sequence was generated for a dog specimen that was found in the Late Neolithic passage grave at Newgrange, Ireland and radiocarbon dated at 4,800 YBP. A genetic analysis of the Newgrange dog showed that it was male, did not possess genetic variants associated with modern coat length nor color, was not as able to process starch as efficiently as modern dogs but more efficiently than wolves, and showed ancestry from a population of wolves that could not be found in other dogs nor wolves today. The mutation rates calibrated from both the Taimyr wolf and the Newgrange dog genomes suggest that the modern wolf and dog populations diverged from a common ancestor between 20,000 and 60,000 YBP. This indicates that either dogs were domesticated much earlier than their first appearance in the archaeological record, or they arrived in the Arctic early, or both. Another view is that because northern breeds can trace at least some of their ancestry back to the Taimyr wolf, this indicates the possibility of more than one domestication event.
In 2020, the nuclear genome was generated of a 33,000 YBP Pleistocene wolf from an archaeological site on the Yana River, arctic northeastern Siberia. The Yana wolf sequence was more closely related to the 35,000 YBP Taimyr wolf than it was to modern wolves. There was evidence of gene flow between the Yana-Taimyr wolves and the Pre-Columbian, Zhokhov, and modern sled dogs. This suggests that genetic admixture has occurred between the Pleistocene wolves and the ancestor of these dogs. There was no evidence of admixture between sled dogs and the modern grey wolf for the past 9,500 years. Greenland sled dogs have been kept isolated from other breeds since their arrival in Greenland with the Inuit 850 years ago. Their lineage traces more genomic history to the Zhokhov dogs than any other arctic breed. Sled dogs do not show an adaptation to a starch-rich diet when compared with other dogs but do show an adaptation to a high intake of fat and fatty acids, which was not found in the Zhokhov dogs. The same adaptation has been found in Inuit and other arctic peoples. This suggests that the sled dogs adapted to the low starch and high fat diet of the people they coexisted with.
In 2021, a study of another four Late Pleistocene northeast Siberian wolf sequences showed that they are genetically similar to the Taimyr and Yana wolves. These six extinct wolves sequentially branched off from the lineage that leads to the modern wolf and dog. The 50,000 YBP Tirekhtyakh River, 48,000 YBP Bunge-Toll site, and 32,000 YBP Yana RHS specimens were separate lineages not related to each other. The 16,800 YBP Ulakhan Sular and the 14,100 YBP Tumat specimens both cluster with a modern wolf from Ellesmere Island, indicating that these two specimens derive from the same lineage as the North American wolves. All six Late Pleistocene wolves share alleles with Arctic dogs: Greenland dogs, Siberian and Alaskan huskies, Alaskan malamutes, the extinct Zhokhov dog and the extinct pre-European contact dogs of North America. It is possible that another population of extinct wolves, that were related to all six specimens, may have contributed to the ancestry of the Arctic dogs. There was evidence that four of the extinct Siberian wolves had contributed to the ancestry of modern wolf populations in Shanxi, western China, and possibly Chukotka and Inner Mongolia.
Dogs enter Japan
The oldest fossil of a dog that has been found in Japan dates to 9,500 YBP. With the beginning of the Holocene and its warmer weather, temperate deciduous forests rapidly spread onto the main island of Honshu and caused an adaption away from hunting megafauna (Naumann's elephant and Yabe's giant deer) to hunting the quicker sika deer and wild boar in dense forest. With this came a change in hunting technology, including a shift to smaller, triangular points for arrows. A study of the Jōmon people that lived on the Pacific coast of Honshu during the early Holocene shows that they were conducting individual dog burials and were probably using dogs as tools for hunting sika deer and wild boar, as hunters in Japan still do today.
Hunting dogs make major contributions to forager societies and the ethnographic record shows them being given proper names, treated as family members, and considered separate to other types of dogs. This special treatment includes separate burials with markers and grave-goods, with those that were exceptional hunters or that were killed on the hunt often venerated. A dog's value as a hunting partner gives them status as a living weapon and the most skilled elevated to taking on a "personhood", with their social position in life and in death similar to that of the skilled hunters.
Intentional dog burials together with ungulate hunting is also found in other early Holocene deciduous forest forager societies in Europe and North America, indicating that across the Holarctic temperate zone hunting dogs were a widespread adaptation to forest ungulate hunting.
Dogs from the Near East enter Africa
In 2020, the sequencing of ancient dog genomes indicates that the lineage of modern dogs in sub-Sahara Africa shares a single origin from the Levant, where an ancestral specimen was dated to 7,000 YBP. This finding mirrors the gene flow of humans from the Levant into Africa during the Neolithic, along with cattle. Since then, there has been limited gene flow into African dogs until the past few hundred years. The descendants of a dog from Iran dated 5,800 YBP and dogs from Europe completely replaced the Levant dog lineage 2,300 YBP. This was associated with human migration from Iran and some minor migration from Europe. Today all Near Eastern dogs show 81% ancient Iranian and 19% Neolithic European ancestry.
The oldest dog remains to be found in Africa date 5,900 YBP and were discovered at the Merimde Beni-Salame Neolithic site in the Nile Delta, Egypt. The next oldest remains date 5,500 YBP and were found at Esh Shareinab on the Nile in Sudan. This suggests that the dog arrived from Asia at the same time as domestic sheep and goats. The dog then spread north to south down Africa beside livestock herders, with remains found in archaeological sites dated 925–1,055 YBP at Ntusi in Uganda, dated 950–1,000 YBP at Kalomo in Zambia, and then at sites south of the Limpopo River and into southern Africa. In 2020, the sequencing of ancient dog genomes indicates that the southern African Rhodesian Ridgeback retains 4% pre-colonial ancestry.
Dogs enter South East Asia and Oceania from southern China
In 2020, an mDNA study of ancient dog fossils from the Yellow River and Yangtze River basins of southern China showed that most of the ancient dogs fell within haplogroup A1b, as do the Australian dingoes and the pre-colonial dogs of the Pacific, but in low frequency in China today. The specimen from the Tianluoshan archaeological site, Zhejiang province dates to 7,000 YBP and is basal to the entire lineage. The dogs belonging to this haplogroup were once widely distributed in southern China, then dispersed through Southeast Asia into New Guinea and Oceania, but were replaced in China 2,000 YBP by dogs of other lineages.
See also
Dog breed
Dog type
Domesticated silver fox, a rare domesticated canine derived from a melanistic population of the red fox (Vulpes vulpes)
Fuegian dog, an extinct domesticated canine derived from the culpeo (Lycalopex culpaeus)
Hare Indian Dog, an extinct domesticated canine hypothesized to be derived from the coyote (Canis latrans)''
Dusicyon, an extinct genus of canine hypothesized to be domesticated
References
Bibliography
Dogs
Domesticated animal genetics
Domestication of particular species
Domestic dog
Upper Paleolithic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normandie-class%20battleship
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Normandie-class battleship
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The Normandie class consisted of five dreadnought battleships ordered for the French Navy in 1912–1913. It comprised Normandie, the lead ship, Flandre, Gascogne, Languedoc, and . The design incorporated a radical arrangement for the twelve 340 mm (13.4 in) main battery guns: three quadruple-gun turrets, the first of their kind, as opposed to the twin-gun turrets used by most other navies. The first four ships were also equipped with an unusual hybrid propulsion system that used both steam turbines and triple-expansion steam engines to increase fuel efficiency.
The ships were never completed due to shifting production requirements and a shortage of labor after the beginning of World War I in 1914. The first four ships were sufficiently advanced in construction to permit their launching to clear the slipways for other, more important work. Many of the guns built for the ships were converted for use by the Army. After the war, the French Navy considered several proposals to complete the ships, either as originally designed or modernized to account for lessons from the war. The weak French post-war economy forestalled these plans and the first four ships were broken up.
The last ship, Béarn, which was not significantly advanced at the time work halted, was converted into an aircraft carrier in the 1920s. She remained in service in various capacities until the 1960s and was ultimately scrapped in 1967.
Development
In December 1911, the French Navy's Technical Committee () issued a report that examined the design of the that had been ordered for 1912. They concluded that the amidships gun turret was an unsatisfactory choice, based on previous experiences with blast damage on battleships from their own guns from the 1880s. This position influenced the construction of the next class of dreadnought battleships, for which design work began shortly thereafter.
The French Navy's design staff () submitted the first draft of the new dreadnought design in February 1912. The size of French shipyard facilities significantly affected the design. Length was limited to , beam to , and draft to approximately . These dimensions limited the design to a displacement of around and a speed of , depending on the armament arrangement.
The design staff presented three alternatives, all armed with a secondary armament of twenty guns in a new twin-gun casemate mounting. The first was a design with the same ten 340 mm guns as the Bretagnes, but with a top speed greater than 21 knots. The second was for a ship with a dozen 340 mm guns arranged in two quadruple-gun turrets fore and aft of the superstructure with superfiring twin-gun turrets and a speed of 20 knots. The last proposal was a ship that was armed with sixteen guns in four quadruple turrets and a speed of 20 knots.
The staff also prepared two different designs for the propulsion system. Two sets of direct-drive steam turbines were proposed, as in the Bretagne class; the other option was a hybrid system that used one set of direct-drive turbines on the two inner propeller shafts, and two vertical triple-expansion steam engines (VTE) on the outer shafts for low-speed cruising. This was intended to reduce coal consumption at cruising speeds, as direct-drive turbines are very inefficient at moderate to low speeds. The fifth ship, Béarn, was instead equipped with two sets of turbines to allow her to match the fuel consumption rate of the turbine-equipped Bretagne class.
The General Staff decided in March 1912 to retain the 340 mm gun of the Bretagne class and favored the all-turbine design. They chose the new quadruple turret and preferred an armament of twelve guns in two quadruple and two double turrets. The following month, the Naval Supreme Council () could not reach a decision on the quadruple turret as it was still being developed, but wished to revisit the issue once it was further along. The council rejected the twin-gun casemate mounting proposed for the secondary armament and proposed a mixture of eighteen 138.6 mm and a dozen guns. It did accept the hybrid propulsion system and the armor layout of the Bretagne class was to be retained, though an increase in the thickness of the main belt was to be effected if possible. Théophile Delcassé, the Naval Minister (), accepted the council's recommendations with the proviso that the Bretagne-class arrangement of five twin turrets, including one amidships, would be substituted if the quadruple turrets were not ready in time.
The Technical Department prepared two new designs, A7, which incorporated the five twin turrets, and A7bis, which was armed with three quadruple turrets. The A7bis design was some lighter than the A7 design, and on 6 April, the Navy accepted a quadruple-gun-turret design submitted by Saint-Chamond. On 22 May it realized that the 100 mm gun would not ready by the time construction was scheduled to begin, so the design reverted to the 138.6 mm gun. Further work revealed that two additional guns could be accommodated and the Naval Supreme Council accepted the design with twenty-four 138.6 mm guns on 8 July.
Description
The Normandie-class ships were long at the waterline, and long overall. They had a beam of and a mean draft of at full load. They were intended to displace at normal load and at deep load. The ships were subdivided by transverse bulkheads into 21 watertight compartments.
The first four ships were equipped with one set of steam turbines driving the inner pair of four-bladed, propellers. Normandie and Flandre had license-built Parsons turbines, Gascogne had turbines by Rateau-Bretagne, and Languedocs turbines were built by Schneider-Zoelly. The four ships had a pair of four-cylinder vertical triple-expansion engines that drove the two outer three-bladed, propellers for steaming astern or cruising at low speed. The last ship, Béarn, was equipped with two sets of Parsons turbines, each driving a pair of three-bladed, 3.34 m propellers. Normandie and Gascogne were fitted with 21 Guyot-du Temple-Normand small-tube boilers, Flandre and Languedoc were equipped with 28 Belleville large-tube boilers, while Béarn had 28 Niclausse boilers. All of the boilers operated at a pressure of .
The ships' engines were rated at and were designed to give them a speed of , although use of forced draft was intended to increase their output to and the maximum speed to . The ships were designed to carry of coal and of fuel oil, but up to of coal could be stored in the hull. At a cruising speed of , the ships could steam for ; at , the range fell to , and at top speed, it dropped to . The ships would have had a crew of 44 officers and 1,160 enlisted men when serving as a flagship.
Armament
The main battery of the Normandie class consisted of a dozen 45-caliber Canon de 340 mm Modèle 1912M guns mounted in three quadruple turrets. One turret was placed forward, one amidships, and one aft, all on the centerline. The turrets weighed , and were electrically trained and hydraulically elevated. The guns were divided into pairs and moved together in twin cradles; a thick bulkhead divided the turrets in half. Each pair of guns had its own ammunition hoist and magazine. They could be fired simultaneously or independently. Had the ships been completed, these would have been the first quadruple turrets in the world.
The guns had a range of and had a rate of fire of two rounds per minute. The shells were armor-piercing rounds and were fired with a muzzle velocity of . Each gun was to have been supplied with 100 rounds of ammunition. Five rangefinders provided fire-control for the main battery. Two of the rangefinders were mounted on the conning tower and the other three were placed atop each of the turrets. The turrets also had auxiliary gunnery-control stations.
The ships would also have been armed with a secondary battery of twenty-four 55-caliber 138.6 mm Modèle 1910 guns, each singly mounted in casemates near the main-gun turrets. These guns fired a shell at a muzzle velocity of . The guns would have been supplied with 275 rounds of ammunition each. Six Canon de Modèle 1902 anti-aircraft guns, which were converted from low-angle guns, would also have been carried by the ships. The ships also would have been equipped with six underwater torpedo tubes, three on each broadside. Each ship was to be supplied with 36 torpedoes.
Protection
The armor belt of the Normandie-class ships was made from Krupp cemented armor and extended almost the entire length of the hull (), save at the stern. The belt consisted of two rows of plates that were a total of high, of which was below the waterline. The thickest portion of the armor protected the hull between the barbettes of the end turrets and was thick. Each of the upper plates was tapered to a thickness of at its top edge and the lower plates were tapered to at their bottom edge. From No. 1 barbette to the bow, the plates progressively reduced in thickness from at the bow; the upper edges also progressively reduced from while the bottom edge of these plates was thick. Aft of the rear turret, the armor plates were progressively reduced in thickness from 260 millimeters to 140 millimeters. Their upper edges also progressively thinned from and their lower edges were the same 80 millimeters in thickness as their forward equivalents. The aft belt terminated in a transverse bulkhead.
Above the waterline belt was an upper strake of 160-millimeter armor that extended between the fore and aft groups of casemates for the secondary armament. The portions of the barbettes that extended outside the upper armor were protected by plates while the interior surfaces were only thick to save weight. The turrets were protected with an armor thickness of 300 millimeters on their faces, on the sides, and 100 millimeters on the roof. The sides of the conning tower were thick and its roof was also 100 millimeters thick. The lower armored deck consisted of a single plate of mild steel for a width of along the centerline and another layer of the same thickness was added outboard of that. The deck sloped downwards to meet the bottom of the waterline belt and a plate of armor steel reinforced the sloped portion of the deck to give a total thickness of . Two layers of plating made up the center of the upper armored deck and it was reinforced to a total of along the edges and above the magazine.
The hull of the Normandies had a double bottom deep. Their propulsion machinery spaces and magazines were protected by a torpedo bulkhead that consisted of two layers of nickel-chrome steel plates. The outer side of the bulkhead was lined with a 10-millimeter plate of corrugated flexible steel intended to absorb the force of a torpedo detonation. Another measure intended to dissipate the force were tubes that extended from the double bottom to the upper armored deck that were intended to divert the gases of the detonation away from the torpedo bulkhead. Concerned about the possibility of capsizing after asymmetric flooding, the design incorporated empty compartments below the waterline and outboard of the fore and aft 34-centimeter magazines, the engine rooms and the midships 138.6-millimeter magazines that were intended to be flooded to correct any list.
Ships
Construction and cancellation
Named after provinces of France, Normandie and Languedoc were ordered on 18 April 1913, although neither was formally authorized until the enabling finance bill () was passed on 30 July, and Flandre and Gascogne on that same day. Béarn had been planned to be ordered on 1 October 1914, but it was brought forward to 1 January; the five ships would permit the creation of two four-ship divisions with the three Bretagne-class dreadnoughts then under construction.
Work on the class was suspended at the outbreak of World War I, as all resources were needed for the Army. The mobilization in July greatly impeded construction as those workmen in the reserves were called up and work was effectively halted later that month. The labor force available to work on the Normandies was further reduced by conscription and orders for munitions for the Army. In light of such constraints, the navy decided that only those ships that could be completed quickly would be worked upon, like the Brétagnes, although construction of the first four Normandies was solely authorized to continue to clear the slipways for other purposes. Construction of Béarn had been already halted on 23 July and all further work on her was abandoned.
In July 1915 work on the ships' armament was suspended, save the guns themselves, which could be converted for use by the Army. Four of the completed 340 mm guns were converted into railway guns for the French Army. Nine of the guns built for Languedoc were also mounted on railway carriages in 1919, after the end of the war. Several of the 138.6 mm guns were also modified for service with the Army.
Progress when abandoned
The boilers intended for Normandie and Gascogne were used to replace the worn-out boilers of various destroyers, namely the s purchased from Argentina in 1914 and the three Aetos-class ships seized from the Royal Hellenic Navy in late 1916. Those boilers built for Flandre were installed in new anti-submarine ships. The armor plate and turntables of Gascognes turrets had been ordered from Fives-Lille, whose factory was captured by the Germans in 1914. They were discovered in one of Krupp's factories in Germany in 1921 and returned to the Navy.
In January 1918, a final wartime order specified that the ships remained suspended, but that all material that had been stockpiled for work would remain in place. By that time, some of steel plating that had been earmarked for Gascogne had been taken for other uses.
On 22 November, days after the Armistice with Germany, the design staff sent the General Staff a proposal to complete the first four Normandies to a modified design. The General Staff replied that the ships would need a top speed of and a more powerful main battery. Since the dockyard facilities had not been enlarged during the war, the size of the ships could not be significantly increased. This allowed for only modest improvements, particularly for the installation of anti-torpedo bulges. In February 1919, the General Staff decided that the ships would be completed anyway, because new vessels incorporating the lessons of the war could not be completed for at least six to seven years, due to the lengthy design studies such battleships would require.
The Technical Department created a revised design that incorporated some improvements. The machinery for the four ships that had been launched during the war would be retained; increasing their speed to required a corresponding increase to , which could be obtained by building more powerful turbines. The elevation of the main guns was to be increased to 23–24 degrees, which would increase the range of the guns to lest they be out-ranged by foreign battleships. The need to engage targets at longer ranges was confirmed by the examination of one of the ex-Austrian ships that had been surrendered to France at the end of the war. The main armored deck was to be increased to to increase resistance to plunging fire. The submerged 450 mm torpedo tubes were to be replaced with deck-mounted tubes, and fire-control equipment was to be improved. Equipment for handling a two-seat reconnaissance aircraft and a single-seat fighter was also to be installed.
After the war, Vice Admiral Pierre Ronarc'h became Chief of the General Staff, and in July 1919 he argued that the Italian Navy was the country's primary naval rival, and that they might resume work on the s that had been suspended during the war. He suggested there were three options for the first four Normandies: complete them as designed, increase the range of their guns and improve their armor, or lengthen their hull and install new engines to increase speed. The Technical Department determined that lengthening the hulls by could increase speed by as much as . Nevertheless, by 12 September 1919, Ronarc'h had decided that completing the ships would be too expensive for the fragile French economy. Plans for the first four ships included converting them into cargo ships, oil tankers, or passenger liners, and using them as floating oil depots, but these ideas were ultimately rejected. The ships were formally cancelled in the 1922 construction program, and were laid up in Landevennec and cannibalized for parts before being broken up in 1923–1926. Much of the salvaged material was incorporated into completing Béarn and in modernizing the battleship .
Plans to complete Béarn included replacement of the coal-fired boilers with eight oil-fired Niclausse boilers and new, more powerful turbines. A new quadruple turret that allowed for greater range was considered, along with twin turrets mounting guns. The battleship was launched on 15 April 1920 to clear the slipway. A temporary wooden platform was built atop the lower armored deck later that year to serve as a flight deck for aircraft landing trials. Transverse arresting wires that were weighted by sandbags were improvised and the evaluation successfully took place off Toulon in late 1920. In 1922, the Navy instead decided to complete the ship as an aircraft carrier. Conversion work began in August 1923, and was completed by May 1927 using the hybrid propulsion system from Normandie with a dozen Normand boilers. The ship was the first carrier of the French Navy. She served in the fleet through World War II, generally being used as a ferry for aircraft; she did not see any combat as she spent most of the war in the Caribbean in the island of Martinique. In 1944, she was refitted in the United States and equipped with a battery of modern American anti-aircraft guns. She remained in service through the First Indochina War, still as an aircraft ferry. The ship was ultimately broken up for scrap in 1967.
Notes
References
Further reading
Battleship classes
Proposed ships
Ship classes of the French Navy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand%20Tour%20%28novel%20series%29
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Grand Tour (novel series)
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The Grand Tour is a series of novels written by American science fiction author Ben Bova.
The novels present a theme of exploration and colonization of the Solar System by humans in the late 21st century. Most of the books focus on the exploration of one particular planet or planetary moon.
Several recurring themes are presented throughout the series. In particular, most of the Solar System bodies whose exploration is the focus of a particular novel are presented as having life, either past or present. Many of the expeditions which explore the planets run into serious difficulty. The protagonists of most of these books are presented as initially weak and/or lacking in ability or confidence, and as part of surviving the trials of the story become heroic.
The future humanity as depicted in the Grand Tour novel series is divided between Greens (environmentalists) and wealthy industrialists, as well as between secularists/scientists and religious fundamentalists. These conflicts generally are presented as part of the background and often set up the initial conflicts of each of the books. In addition, several of the books reference, or indeed directly deal with, conflicts between wealthy industrialists and small, independent operators seeking to exploit the Solar System's vast untapped mineral wealth.
A major theme of the series, which takes center stage in several of the novels, is the search for life on other planets in the Solar System. Mars, Mars Life, Jupiter, Venus, Mercury, Saturn, Titan, and Leviathans of Jupiter all deal with this issue. The discovery of life in the Solar System often leads to conflicts between religious fundamentalists and scientists, with the former seeing the existence of such life as conflicting with their religious doctrines.
While each novel can be read independent of the others, and they can be read in any order, there are distinct story arcs within the series. The Moonbase arc (which may also include the Asteroid Wars arc), the Mars books, and the Saturn books, for instance, comprise various sagas within the series.
List of novels, in chronological order
According to Ben Bova's official site, the Grand Tour novels take place in an approximate time sequence with many of the novels overlapping.
Powersat (2005) - CEO Dan Randolph of Astro Corp. has a dream of providing a desperate world with joules of energy; provided by solar satellites located in geosync orbit around the Earth, and wirelessly transferred. However, stubborn politicians and oil companies make the way hard; but Dan has built a space plane that will drastically reduce transportation costs, making way for cheaper and easier constructed Powersats. But when the space plane blows up upon re-entering the atmosphere, Randolph is convinced that it may not be an accident; as a shadowy terrorist group threatens to bankrupt him, and even kill him.
Mars (1992) - Navajo geologist Jamie Waterman is surprised to find that he will be going on the first mission to Mars, as part of the landing crew. They will only have a few months to explore the Red Planet; a few months to prove that this world is worth another mission, as this one took decades to put together. With limited supplies, the six men and women set out to explore the top of Olympus Mons and the bottom of Valles Marineris; having only each other to rely on. As the book draws to an end Waterman makes one of the biggest discoveries in the System, and finds a clue of even a bigger one.
Moonrise (1996; The Moonbase Saga, v. 1) - Moonbase is an old lunar outpost, maintained by Masterson Corporation; it bleeds money, and most members of the Board disapprove of it. However, Paul Stavenger, old astronaut, new husband to Joanna (née Masterson) and CEO of the Masterson Corporation, has a dream of creating a sustainable colony on the Moon; but not everyone agrees with him, or his marriage.
Return to Mars (1999) Jamie Waterman returns to Mars after his historic first visit, but this time there are strings attached to his mission. The new expedition is funded by billionaire Dex Trumball and his father, who have their own agenda. Rather than pursuing scientific discovery, Dex and his father want to turn Mars into an attraction for space tourists. To add to the complications, Jamie and Dex are both vying for the affection of the same female member of the expedition.
Moonwar (1998; The Moonbase Saga, v. 2) - the fanatical group "New Morality", along with their sister organizations the "Holy Disciples" and "Sword of Islam" have gained global support and power; and are dead set against anything to do with nanotechnology, which they call the "Devil's work". So when the last nations on Earth ban the practice, Moonbase is all that is left of a technology that could potentially save the entire Earth; granting asylum for a few runaways. But when the UN starts to send troops over, Director Douglas Stavenger declares independence; and begins a war that will see no one dead or all of them.
Privateers (1985; immediately precedes Empire Builders, with most of the same cast of characters, but with an alternate history including a still-extant Soviet Union, because Bova wrote it before the U.S.S.R. collapsed. This book takes place between 2044 and 2048 (Jane is the 52nd president). As to whether Bova himself considers this book to be retconned from the series due to the discrepancy, he has never said, although the book is missing from the series list on his official website)
Empire Builders (1993) - Young industrialist Dan Randolph still seeks to exploit the mineral wealth of the asteroid belt and explore the Solar System, as he believes that there is a fortune to be made from space-based industry. However, his plans for the future hit a snag when one of his closest friends and employees makes a horrifying discovery; the greenhouse effect will be more sudden and catastrophic in nature than anyone expected. In a few decades, the climate will hit a 'cliff', after which the ecosystem will undergo massive, catastrophic changes which, including terrible coastal flooding. Dan thinks the only way to avert this is to move all industry into space, removing the polluting effects of manufacturing and power generation from the Earth. However, the powerful Global Economic Council has also become aware of this dark future. They have their own response planned, and do not intend to allow Randolph to get in the way.
The Precipice (2001; The Asteroid Wars, v. 1) - when Billionaire Martin Humphries comes to CEO of Astro Corp, Dan Randolph, and freely offers him a fusion space propulsion design, Dan is at the very least curious; but with his company near bankruptcy, the "bold astronaut" has no choice. Fusion rockets will allow Randolph to realize his dream of mining asteroids at a cost-effective level. However, Dan realizes that he may have gone too far this time. But Dan is uniquely motivated; the disastrous greenhouse cliff predicted years ago (see Empire Builders above) has hit. Dan, now more than ever, believes that man must harness the resources of space if humanity is to survive.
Farside (novel) (2013) - Farside, the side of the Moon that never faces Earth, is the ideal location for an astronomical observatory. It is also the setting for a tangled web of politics, personal ambition, love, jealousy, and murder. Telescopes on Earth have detected an Earth-sized planet circling a star some thirty light-years away. Now the race is on to get pictures of that distant world, photographs and spectra that will show whether or not the planet is truly like Earth, and if it bears life. Some people, however, would rather Farside observatory not get the images.
The Rock Rats (2002; The Asteroid Wars, v. 2) - Picks up right after The Precipice. Martin Humphries returns to complete his conquest of the Asteroid Belt, along with it riches of water and metal ores; but first, two rivals stand in his way. The first being Pancho Lane, new member on the Board of Astro Corp. The second being Lars Fuchs, an independent miner who has a dream of building a space habitat in orbit above Ceres. Each begins to raise the ante, and none are willing to back down.
Jupiter (2001) - Takes place at least 20 years after the events of The Rock Rats. Astrophysicist Grant Archer dreams of studying black holes and pulsars, hoping to unlock the secrets of the universe. But in a world where many people are divided between being religious fundamentalists and die hard secularists, Grant is an oddity; a believer who is also a scientist. This puts him in the uncomfortable position of being recruited by the 'New Morality' as a spy. They wish to send him to Jupiter station, where the International Astronautical Authority mines the fuel for fusion power. Grant has no desire to go to Jupiter, as there is no purpose for someone of his discipline at the station, but he is in no position to refuse. Making things even more difficult, Grant has no idea what, exactly, he is being sent there to find out in the first place.
Saturn (2003) - the space habitat Goddard is launched from Earth, on a two-year journey to Saturn; twice as far from the Sun as anyone has gone or lived before. The habitat is made up of ten thousand people; most of whom are exiles from Earth, thrown out by the New Morality, Holy Disciples or Sword of Islam. As the habitat goes further into deep space, some begin to plot and scheme; to create a new society in their eyes. However, most do not realize that they are all part of an experiment.
The Silent War (2004; The Asteroid Wars, v. 3) Picks up about ten years after The Rock Rats. The battle for the belt continues, as hostilities flare up once again between Astro and HSS, with Lars Fuchs still caught in the middle. Things become even more dangerous, however, as the powerful Yamagata Corporation seeks to manipulate Astro and Humphries into all-out war, with the intent of taking over the badly damaged winner and claiming the belt for themselves.
Titan (2006, John W. Campbell Memorial Award) Goddard has arrived in orbit around Saturn, and the task of exploring the moon Titan begins. At the same time, scientist Nadia Wunderly seeks to prove that there are lifeforms living in the rings of Saturn. On top of this, scheming amongst the population complicates matters even further.
The Aftermath (2007; The Asteroid Wars, v. 4) - The novel begins at the destruction of the original Chrysalis habitat at Ceres; but with the view from the family aboard the Syracuse. As the family's ship is attacked, Victor the father separates the command module from the rest of the ship to draw the attackers away; but leaves his family no way of getting home, as they drift on a five-year orbital journey. After life-altering changes, Dorn and Elverda travel the Asteroid Belt searching for the bodies of the dead who perished in the Asteroid Wars; but Martin Humphries is bent on destroying both of them. Kao Yuan is the captain of the spacecraft Viking, which is on the mission to kill Dorn and Elverda; however, Humphries' former lover, Tamara, is the real commander, and she begins to have plans of her own. Eventually, Fate brings all these people together at the right moments in order to restore Humanity, and bring justice.
Mars Life (2008) - Jamie Waterman is back as Director of the Mars Program; along with his wife Vijay, the beautiful Indian-Aussie, and Dex Trumball, the Director of the Board in charge of Mars financing. The death of his son bring Waterman and his wife back to Earth, and puts them both in a slump. Over the years, the New Morality has slowly been taking over the American government, and gaining power; the NM restricts and censors anything that is a threat to them, and hide behind religion. One of their biggest concerns is the Mars program, which is taking money away from projects that would benefit the dystopian-style Earth. As money is slowly cut off from Mars, Dex & Jamie rush to find a solution to keeps the exploration of Mars open; however both have different views. Waterman wants to preserve the Martian life and culture, while Dex is willing to open Mars up to wealthy tourists. The Navajo scientist and Vijay return to Mars in time of great discovering; a Martian village and relics have been found, as well as what might be a graveyard, holding remains of an ancient, intelligent Martian race. Jamie struggles to find the balance of things, as time and money begin to run out; and the answer could be found in his dreams.
Venus (2000) - Van Humphries is the younger of the two sons of Martin Humphries; a man who ultimately despises him, and regards him as a weakling. Van's older brother, Alex, was always there to protect him, until his death on the first crewed mission sent to touch down on Venus. Now three years later, Martin Humphries is offering a 10-billion dollar reward to anyone who can bring his elder son's body home from the surface of Venus. Van is bent on proving his father view of him wrong, while rescuing his beloved brother's body; and 10-billion dollars, which he desperately needs, as his father has cut off his "allowance". But as Van and his crew near Venus, Lars Fuchs comes racing out of the belt; determined to find Alex's body, and receive the reward from his nemesis M. Humphries. Unpredicted problems, and grand discoveries are made and prove disastrous, as the two crews are brought together.
Mercury (2005) - Industrialist and founder of Yamagata Corporation Saito Yamagata dreams of transforming the planet Mercury into a launching point for deep space missions. He has the knowledge, the funding, and the power to realize this dream, but an unexpected plot related to a disaster that occurred over a decade ago may derail his efforts. Further, evidence has been discovered that life may exist on a planet which was thought to be utterly uninhabitable to even the most elementary, and hardy, forms of life.
Leviathans of Jupiter (Feb 2011) - Grant Archer is now director of Jupiter Station, and his mind is consumed with his one driving ambition; twenty years ago, he descended into the seas of Jupiter and encountered the massive, city sized lifeforms known as the Leviathans. Now, Grant wishes to prove what he has long suspected; that the amazing creatures are intelligent. The IAA, however, has other plans.
The Return - The fourth and final book of the Voyagers saga bridges the Grand Tour with the Voyagers novels, as Keith Stoner, along with his wife and children, return to Earth to find it ruined by the greenhouse flooding and out of control religion. Stoner's efforts to save the Earth become intertwined with the life of Raoul Tavalera, as well as numerous other figures. (It is somewhat unclear when this novel occurs in relation to Leviathans of Jupiter, as Leviathans occurs twenty years after Jupiter, whereas the Return seemingly takes place no more than a few years after the events of Titan, which does not seem to take place more than a decade or less after Jupiter.)
Uranus (July 2020)
Neptune (August 2021) - The events of Uranus and Neptune appear to take place some time before New Earth but after The Return as the discovery of New Earth is announced as being a new discovery towards the end of Neptune and humans are not aware of interstellar life yet.
New Earth (July 2013) - The world is thrilled by the discovery of an Earthlike planet on which advanced imaging shows oceans of liquid water and a breathable, oxygen-rich atmosphere. A human exploration team is dispatched to explore the planet, now nicknamed New Earth, but those on the ship know their journey will take 80 years one way, meaning all friends and family will be deceased before they can return.
Death Wave (July 2014)
Apes and Angels (November 2016)
Survival (December 2017)
Earth (July 2019)
Tales of the Grand Tour (2004) (short story collection. This work contains stories that span much of the timeline of the Grand Tour)
Official Grand Tour Chronology:
Powersat (2005)
Privateers (1985)
Empire Builders (1993)
Mars (1992)
Moonrise (1996; The Moonbase Saga, v. 1)
Moonwar (1998; The Moonbase Saga, v. 2)
Return to Mars (1999)
The Precipice (2001; The Asteroid Wars, v. 1)
Jupiter (2001)
The Rock Rats (2002; The Asteroid Wars, v. 2)
The Silent War (2004; The Asteroid Wars, v. 3)
The Aftermath (2007; The Asteroid Wars, v. 4)
Saturn (2002)
Leviathans of Jupiter (Feb 2011)
Titan (2006, John W. Campbell Memorial Award)
Mercury (2005)
Mars Life (2008)
Venus (2000)
The Return (2009)
Farside (novel) (2013)
New Earth (2014)
Death Wave (2015; Star Quest Trilogy v. 1)
Apes and Angels (2016; Star Quest Trilogy v. 2)
Survival (2017; Star Quest Trilogy v. 3)
Earth (2019; Star Quest Trilogy v.4)
Uranus (2020; Outer Planets Trilogy v.1)
Neptune (2021; Outer Planets Trilogy v.2)
Prominent/recurring characters
Due to the overlapping and chronological connection of these books, certain characters appear several times throughout the Grand Tour, becoming main characters in books that are seemingly unrelated.
George Ambrose - appeared first as a "stowaway", living in the small temporary shelters on the Moon; it was in one such shelter that he met Dan Randolph, CEO and recent pirate & fugitive. Years later, he appeared at Dan's side as his bodyguard; until the CEO's death. Afterwards, George stayed permanently in the Belt, and soon became well known and respected throughout the region. Before long, he became Head of the Ceres government, guiding the small government through the Asteroid Wars, the Chrysalis Massacre, and eventually the construction of Chrysalis II.
Kris Cardenas - possibly the most frequently appearing character in all of the Grand Tour, she is a nanotechnologist, the best in the System. She started off very successful in her field, winning a Nobel; but when Zealots and fanatics begin calling a ban for the technology, she has no choice but to escape to the Moon. It was here that she perfected her research, and helped Selene become independent; programming nanobots to extract oxygen and helium-3 from the surface, and to construct Clipperships. Despite Selene's independence, Kris is forever banned from Earth (due to nanobots in her body that constantly heal and rejuvenate her), and can never see her husband and children again. For years this bitterness boiled, until she helped Martin Humphries design a batch of nanobot that would disable Randolph's ship, thus preventing him from helping the Earth that was in dire need of materials. Kris was eventually caught and convicted, and soon left the Earth-Moon system for the Asteroid Belt, where she never practiced nanotechnology. She would stay here for a few years, until the space habitat Goddard passed by; picking her up at Holly Lane's request, and taking her out to Saturn. From there she began to uptake nanotechnology again to help the new colony.
Malcom Eberly - Though he only appeared in Saturn and Titan, he played the leading role as a power-mad mastermind who brilliantly negotiated his way to the top of the government of Habitat Goddard.
Lars Fuchs - Champion of the Rock Rats, he was introduced as a nervous college student in The Precipice, where he met his wife Amanda. After the death of Dan Randolph, the newly weds became one of the first prospectors of the Belt, and eventually started a business to supply miners. The company is then driven out of business by Martin Humphries, as Fuchs reacts by hunting down and destroying the Billionaire's ships of ore, leading to the First Asteroid War. For decades Fuchs would play cat-and-mouse games out in the Belt with Humphries' hired assassins; until the 10-billion dollar rewards for the return of Alex Humphries body from Venus appeared. Bent on getting the reward, a sort of payment for all that M. Humphries has done to him. He dies shortly after succeeding his mission, due to the help of his long-lost son, he never knew he had.
Martin Humphries - the ultimate antagonist of the Solar System, he is a cold-hearted, utterly oppressive and dominant, multi-billionaire that destroys or takes over corporations in order to add more money to his massive hoard. He was behind the death of Dan Randolph, created an aerospace industry just to thwart Astro Corporation when it was run by Pancho Lane, stole Lars Fuchs' wife, Amanda Cunningham, and hoped that his "own" son would die in a self-righteous mission to Venus. Also known by several names including Humpy, Marty, 'The Humper' and 'The Hump'. He is somewhat famous in the Grand Tour universe for his massive underground palace on the moon, where he will often hold extravagant parties.
Priscilla "Pancho" Lane - Playing a large role in the entire Asteroid Series, she was aboard the first crewed ship to reach the Asteroid Belt, and acted as the guardian of her sister, Holly Lane, who became the main character of Saturn and Titan. Pancho herself was a large part of the novel Titan, and appeared several times throughout the Grand Tour, following The Precipice, where she first appeared.
Dan Randolph - protagonist in Powersat, Empire Builders, and The Precipice, creator of Astro Corp. He was arguably the ignition for the entire Grand Tour. A somewhat cantankerous but good-hearted industrialist and idealist who believes that the future of humanity can be assured by tapping the resources of the Solar System, particularly the mineral wealth of the asteroid belt.
Douglas "Doug" Stavenger - Founder and leader of Selene, a self-sufficient country on the Moon. He was injected with experimental, general-purpose, healing nanomachines after a massive overdose of radiation, and thus could not return to Earth for fear of assassination by "The New Morality". He appeared in Moonrise, was a prime protagonist in Moonwar and continued to have a say in many off-Earth affairs well into the Asteroid Series. Even after stepping down from his position in Selene and no longer holding any official position of authority, he still held considerable power and influence through the entire Solar System.
Raoul Tavalera - appearing in Jupiter, Saturn and Titan, he played several quiet, backstage roles, seemingly always finding himself caught in the worst situations. He takes on a more prominent role than usual in The Return.
Jane Thornton - Appeared in Powersat and Empire Builders, mentioned in other books, wife of Morgan Scanwell and love interest of Dan Randolph. She eventually becomes President of the United States. She is killed at the start of the Asteroid Wars series.
Jamie Waterman - An underdog Native American geologist who became the recognized leader of all things related to Mars, acting as the protagonist of the three "Mars" novels.
Recurring organizations
A number of groups and organizations appear multiple times in the series, particularly the large corporations that often serve as antagonists.
Corporations
Astro Corporation - A large aerospace company founded by Dan Randolph, which has developed space planes, and was involved in the development of fusion rockets along with assistance from Humphries Space Systems. Astro pioneers asteroid mining and the colonization of the asteroid belt. After the death of Randolph, Astro was given to astronaut Pancho Lane.
Humphries Space Systems - A large, powerful corporation owned by industrialist Martin Humphries. Often portrayed as ruthless and amoral, Humphries Space Systems will go to great lengths to take over other corporations. The primary rival to Astro Corporation and often at odds with the government of Selene. As the series progresses, HSS becomes, arguably, the most powerful entity in the Solar System.
Yamagata Corporation - A Japanese corporation founded by Saito Yamagata, and later headed by his son. The company is involved in a number of ventures, including asteroid mining and, indirectly, the attempt to develop Powersats in orbit of Mercury. The corporation was also connected to the destruction of Mance Bracknell's space elevator.
Government, political and economic organizations
Global Economic Council - A large global economic entity that serves as one of the antagonists in Empire Builders. The GEC is one of the first groups to become aware of the coming ecological crisis, and attempts to use it to gain control of the governments and economies of the Earth, which is largely successful. A line in the novel 'Silent War' refers to the GEC as Earth's world government in all but name.
International Astronautical Authority. - A global organization that regulates and manages efforts to explore and colonize space. They also seem to have considerable authority on the various resources sent from across the Solar System, including the fusion fuel from Jupiter and elsewhere.
International Consortium of Universities - A loose body that attempts to coordinate scholarly efforts among the worlds research universities. They will often send representatives to verify various claims made by scientists, such as the claim that life had been discovered on Mercury. Depicted as somewhat fractious and prone to infighting.
International Green Party - A large transnational social and political movement with considerable visibility, influence and power. The Greens seek to levy massive taxes against the global corporations and gain as much economic and political power as possible, hoping to stop the greenhouse effect from becoming worse, as well as addressing other environmental problems. They are often at odds with the global corporations, particularly Humphries Space Systems. They play a major role in Venus.
Selene - The Moon colony and its governing body, headed by Doug Stavenger. Selene is well known for its use of nanotechnology in various industrial and medical ventures, and is often in conflict with the governments of Earth and various corporations.
Religious movements
Flower Dragon - An Asian group that is analogous to the New Morality and Sword of Islam. They wield influence in Korea, Thailand, and China, as well as other Asian nations. They seem to have originated in Japan. Their exact belief system is unclear, though they appear to be Buddhistic in nature. They have followers in the asteroid belt and have apparently infiltrated even the highest levels of the New Morality. This group was recruited by Yamagata Corporation to carry out the sabotage of Mance Bracknell's space elevator.
Holy Disciples - A religious group in Europe which gained influence during the greenhouse floods. While given less attention in the novels than the New Morality, they played an indirect role in Saturn, as one of their agents was sent to undermine the efforts made in the Goddard habitat.
New Dao Movement - Another of the various religious movements active in the later 21st century. Based in Asia and presumably based primarily on Daoism, although they play no role in the novels other than being part of the backdrop.
New Morality - A fundamentalist religious group that exerts much influence in the United States. Although not a political group, they wield considerable power and attempt to send representatives and advisers to various other bodies and projects. While they often try to interfere with the operations of scientific projects, as well as other aspects of society, their legal authority seems to be somewhat limited. They are not, however, above resorting to illegal and unethical methods to achieve their goals.
Sword of Islam - A fundamentalist Muslim movement in the Middle East, similar to the New Morality. They are frequently mentioned, but rarely play any role in the novels.
References
External links
Science fiction novel series
Fiction about the Solar System
Novels by Ben Bova
Novels set on Mars
Novels set on Mercury (planet)
Novels set on the Moon
Fiction set on Jupiter
Fiction set on Saturn
Fiction set on Titan (moon)
Novels set on Venus
Hard science fiction
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon%20J.%20Bronner
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Simon J. Bronner
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Simon J. Bronner (born April 7, 1954 in Haifa, Israel) is an American folklorist, ethnologist, historian, sociologist, educator, college dean, and author.
Life and career
Bronner's parents were Polish-Jewish Holocaust survivors who immigrated to the United States from Israel in 1960. His childhood in the U.S. was spent in Chicago and New York City. His undergraduate study was in political science, history, and folklore (mentored by European and American folklorist W.F.H. Nicolaisen and political-social theorists Harold L. Nieburg and Louis C. Gawthrop) at Binghamton University (B.A., 1974) and then he received his M.A. in American Folk Culture at the Cooperstown Graduate Programs of the State University of New York (1977), where he also studied social history, ethnology, and museum studies (including work with historically oriented ethnologists Louis C. Jones, Bruce Buckley, and Roderick Roberts). He stayed in Cooperstown to work for the New York State Historical Association as director of the Archive of New York State Folklife, before moving to Indiana University, Bloomington, where he completed his Ph.D. in Folklore and American Studies (1981) and worked for the Indiana University Museum of History, Anthropology, and Folklore (now the Mathers Museum of World Cultures), and was assistant to Richard M. Dorson on the Journal of the Folklore Institute (now the Journal of Folklore Research). In 1981, he became assistant professor of American Studies and folklore at the Pennsylvania State University in the graduate American Studies Program at Harrisburg, and was promoted to the rank of Distinguished University Professor in 1991. He has also taught as Walt Whitman Distinguished Chair in American Cultural Studies at Leiden University in the Netherlands (2006), Visiting Professor of Folklore and the History of American Civilization at Harvard University (1997–1998), Fulbright Professor of American Studies at Osaka University in Japan (1996–1997), and Visiting Distinguished Professor of American Studies at the University of California at Davis (1991). He was a scholar-in-residence at the Latvian Academy of Culture, Riga, Latvia, in fall 2017. In 2018-2019, he held the Maxwell C. Weiner distinguished professorship in humanities at the Missouri University of Science and Technology, part of the University of Missouri system.
In 1990, he was founding director of the Center for Pennsylvania Culture Studies (now the Pennsylvania Center for Folklore) and in 2007, the Center for Holocaust and Jewish Studies at thePennsylvania State University, Harrisburg. He served as Coordinator of the American Studies Program at the college from 1987 to 2002, founding director of the college's doctoral program in American Studies in 2008 (and subsequently chair of the expanding program that included B.A., M.A., Ph.D., and two certificate programs in folklore and ethnography and heritage and museum studies), and received the Mary Turpie Prize from the American Studies Association in recognition of his program building, teaching, and advising. The American Folklore Society bestowed a similar award on him, the Kenneth Goldstein Lifetime Achievement Award for Academic Leadership, and Penn State honored him with its Graduate Program Leadership Award. From 2002 to 2004, he served as interim director of the School of Humanities at the college. He also received awards in the areas of research, teaching, and service from the college. He received a teaching and advising award in doctoral education from the Northeast Association of Graduate Schools. He has edited the journals Folklore Historian (1983–1989), Material Culture (1983–1986), and book series Studies in Folklore and Ethnology (Lexington Books), American Material Culture and Folklife (UMI Research Press), Material Worlds (University Press of Kentucky), Pennsylvania German History and Culture (Pennsylvania State University Press), and Jewish Cultural Studies (Littman Library of Jewish Civilization), recipient in 2021 of the National Jewish Book Award for education and identity. In 2011, he was named the editor of the Encyclopedia of American Studies online (published by Johns Hopkins University Press). He was elected to the Fellows of the American Folklore Society in 1994 and received the Wayland Hand Prize for best article on history and folklore and the Peter and Iona Opie Prize for best book on children’s folklore from the Society. In 2017, he received the lifetime achievement medal from the American Folklore Society for his work on children's folklore, sociology, and ethnography, followed by the Society's award for lifetime scholarly achievement in 2018. In 2020, his book The Practice of Folklore: Essays Toward a Theory of Tradition received the Chicago Folklore Prize for the best book-length work of folklore scholarship for the year; the prize is the oldest international award recognizing excellence in folklore scholarship. He also received the John Ben Snow Foundation Prize and Regional Council of Historical Societies Award of Merit for Old-Time Music Makers of New York State and the Encyclopedia of American Folklife was designated an outstanding academic title by Choice and "Editor's Choice" by Booklist/Reference Books Bulletin for 2006. He received a National Endowment for the Humanities Research Fellowship in 1984 at the Winterthur Museum, Rockefeller Foundation Fellowship (1978–1981), and two Fulbright Program lecturing awards (1996–1997, 2006). In 2019, he became Dean of the College of General Studies and distinguished professor of social sciences at the University of Wisconsin Milwaukee.
Academic and public focus
Much of Bronner's scholarship has been on the issue of tradition, especially in relation to modernity, folk culture and popular culture, and creativity. He has been an advocate of "structuralist" and "symbolist" approaches to the interpretation of cultures integrating historical, ethnographic, sociological, and psychological perspectives with particular attention to developmental issues across the life course and ethnic process and practice. He has also highlighted the politics of tradition and culture and the ways that contested public debates can be symbolically analyzed in behavioral, material, and verbal rhetoric to show systems of belief and communication in conflict. Examples are the animal rights protest movement, the national campaign of Joseph Lieberman for vice-president, and anti-hazing campaigns in the Navy. He has proposed in Grasping Things and The Practice of Folklore: Essays Toward a Theory of Tradition a folkloristic perspective on practice theory using an analytical perspective on cultural "praxis," i.e., cultural practices and processes that symbolize socially shared ways of thinking and draw attention to tradition as an adaptive strategy. Many of his essays raise questions about traditions regarding the personal motivations and psychological states, historical conditions and precedents, social identities, and underlying mental processes that explain the function and persistence of cultural expressions.
Bronner's main area of study has been the United States and he has been a figure in the academic development of American cultural studies with attention to ethnic, religious, occupational, and age groups, particularly Jews, Pennsylvania Germans, and African Americans. His work in Jewish studies includes founding the Jewish Cultural Studies Series for the Littman Library of Jewish Civilization (6 volumes), and authoring Jewish Cultural Studies (Wayne State University Press, 2021) with a practice-theory perspective on folklore and literature, Jewish humor, scholarship on Yiddish, Jewish material culture, adapted and invented rituals, and Holocaust memorialization and social history. He has also promoted international comparative studies, with field research in Japan, Poland, England, Israel, and the Netherlands. Bronner’s major scholarly contributions have been in the topics of material culture and folklife (particularly in folk art and architecture) in books such as American Material Culture and Folklife, Folk Art and Art Worlds, The Carver’s Art, and Grasping Things, consumer culture (Consuming Visions), history and theory of folklore studies (Folklore: The Basics, Explaining Traditions: Folk Behavior in Modern Culture, Following Tradition: Folklore in the Discourse of American Culture, and American Folklore Studies: An Intellectual History), ethnic studies (particularly for Jews, Pennsylvania Germans, and African Americans), ritual and belief (Crossing the Line), masculinity studies (Manly Traditions), American roots music (blues and old-time music) in Old-Time Music Makers of New York State, animal-human relations (in practices such as hunting and gaming), and developmental psychology and culture across the life course (particularly in childhood and old age) in American Children’s Folklore, Piled Higher and Deeper: The Folklore of Student Life, and Chain Carvers: Old Men Crafting Meaning. He followed work in material culture with studies in physical culture, the analysis of the body and social processes of embodiment in sports and strength athletics. Another scholarly trajectory arising from his studies of technology and media is in digital culture and its social psychology. He has also contributed to the study of literary journalism with Lafcadio Hearn's America and articles offering a psychological profile of the famous nineteenth century writer Lafcadio Hearn who worked in America and Japan. He edited the most comprehensive reference work in American folklife studies, Encyclopedia of American Folklife, in 4 volumes (2006) and followed with the methodogical reference work Oxford Handbook of American Folklore and Folklife Studies for Oxford University Press (2018).
As a prominent educator and academic administrator involved in restructuring higher education to meet cultural and technological changes in the twenty-first century, Bronner has been a frequent consultant and presenter on curricular reform, general and interdisciplinary education, online delivery of academic programs, enhancing cultural diversity, and community outreach. Universities he has served and for which he has created reports include the University of Texas, University of Iowa, University of North Carolina, Trinity College, University of Mt. Union, Roger Williams University, and Hong Kong University.
Bronner has been active in community institutions serving the public, serving as consultant and curator for many museums, festivals, and historical and cultural organizations. In 2018 he received a fellowship from the Smithsonian Institution's Lemelson Center for the Study of Invention and Innovation related to his work on physical culture and previously he was a NEH fellow at the Winterthur Museum. He received a lifetime achievement award for his contributions to public folklore and folklife from the New Jersey Folk Festival in 2015. These activities combine with his development of the academic field of heritage studies, also called "public heritage," focusing on issues of public presentations of history, art, society, and culture, especially as communities interpret their legacies for themselves. His book Popularizing Pennsylvania (1996), for example, examined the links of Progressive politics, environmental conservation, and public history and folklore in the career of Henry W. Shoemaker (1880–1958), America’s first official state folklorist, chairman of the Pennsylvania Historical Commission, ambassador to Bulgaria (1930–1933), and prominent newspaper publisher. Bronner has been the project scholar for the Pennsylvania House of Representatives Oral History Project, chair of the Cultural Heritage Advisory Board for the Pennsylvania Heritage Affairs Commission, and Commonwealth Speaker for the Pennsylvania Humanities Council. In 2018, the American Folklore Society bestowed its Lifetime Scholarly Achievement Award on Bronner.
Books
Americaness: Inquiries into the Thought and Culture of the United States. New York: Routledge, 2021.
Jewish Cultural Studies. Detroit: Wayne State University Press, 2021.
The Practice of Folklore: Essays Toward a Theory of Tradition. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2019.
(ed.) Oxford Handbook of American Folklore and Folklife Studies. New York: Oxford University Press, 2019.
(ed.) Contexts of Folklore: Festschrift for Dan Ben-Amos. New York: Peter Lang, 2019 (with Wolfgang Mieder).
(ed.) Connected Jews: Expressions of Community in Analogue and Digital Culture. London: Liverpool University Press, 2018 (with Caspar Battegay).
Folklore: The Basics. New York: Routledge, 2017.
(ed.) Youth Cultures in America. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood-ABC-CLIO, 2016 (with Cindy Dell Clark).
Whirligigs: The Art of Peter Gelker. Fullerton, CA: Grand Central Press, 2014 (with Lynn Gamwell).
(ed.) Framing Jewish Culture: Boundaries and Representations. Oxford, UK: Littman, 2013.
Campus Traditions: Folklore from the Old-Time College to the Modern Mega-University. Jackson: University Press of Mississippi, 2012.
Explaining Traditions: Folk Behavior in Modern Culture. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2011.
(ed.) Revisioning Ritual: Jewish Traditions in Transition. Oxford: Littman, 2011.
(ed.) Jews at Home: The Domestication of Identity. Oxford: Littman, 2010.
Greater Harrisburg's Jewish Community. Charleston, SC: Arcadia, 2010.
Killing Tradition: Inside Hunting and Animal Rights Controversies. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2008.
Steelton.Charleston: Arcadia, 2008 (with Michael Barton).
(ed.)Jewishness: Expression, Identity, and Representation. Oxford, UK, and Portland, OR: Littman, 2008.
(ed.)The Meaning of Folklore: The Analytical Essays of Alan Dundes. Logan: Utah State University Press, 2007, 2nd edition with new preface 2021.
(ed.)Encyclopedia of American Folklife. 4 vols. Armonk, NY: M.E. Sharpe, 2006.
Crossing the Line: Violence, Play, and Drama in Naval Equator Traditions. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2006.
(ed.)Manly Traditions: The Folk Roots of American Masculinities. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005.
Folk Nation: Folklore in the Creation of American Tradition. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 2002.
(ed.) Lafcadio Hearn’s America. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 2002.
(ed.) The Meanings of Tradition. Los Angeles: California Folklore Society, 2000.
Following Tradition: Folklore in the Discourse of American Culture. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1998.
Popularizing Pennsylvania: Henry W. Shoemaker and the Progressive Uses of Folklore and History. University Park: Penn State Press, 1996.
Ethnic Ancestry in Pennsylvania: An Analysis of Self-Identification. Middletown: Pennsylvania State Data Center, 1996.
The Carver’s Art: Crafting Meaning from Wood. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1996.
Piled Higher and Deeper: The Folklore of Student Life. Little Rock: August House Publishers, 1995.
(ed.) Creativity and Tradition in Folklore: New Directions. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1992.
(ed.) American Material Culture and Folklife. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1992.
(ed.) Folk Art and Art Worlds. Logan: Utah State University Press, 1992 (with John Michael Vlach).
Piled Higher and Deeper: The Folklore of Campus Life. Little Rock: August House Publishers, 1990.
American Children's Folklore. Little Rock, August House Publishers, 1988. Annotated Edition, 1989.
(ed.) Consuming Visions: Accumulation and Display of Goods in America, 1880–1920. New York: W. W. Norton, 1989.
(ed.) Folklife Studies from the Gilded Age: Object, Rite, and Custom in Victorian America. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1988.
Old-Time Music Makers of New York State. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1987.
Grasping Things: Folk Material Culture and Mass Society in America. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1986.
(ed.) Folk Art and Art Worlds. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1986 (with John Michael Vlach).
American Folklore Studies: An Intellectual History. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1986.
Chain Carvers: Old Men Crafting Meaning. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1985.
(ed.) American Material Culture and Folklife: A Prologue and Dialogue. Ann Arbor: UMI Research Press, 1985.
(ed.) American Folk Art: A Guide to Sources. New York: Garland Publishing, 1984.
References
Contemporary Authors Online, Thomson Gale, 2006. PEN (Permanent Entry Number): 0000012419
"Melting Pot or Mosaic? A Nation's Folklore Reflects Its Values and Concerns." Binghamton Alumni Journal 11, no. 1 (Fall 2002),Online Edition.
Penn State University faculty blog.
External links
Pennsylvania Folklore: Woven Together - video that features Simon Bronner discussing textile arts
Interview with Simon J. Bronner in the Journal of Ethnology and Folkloristics, 2018
1954 births
Living people
People from Haifa
Israeli Jews
Israeli people of Polish-Jewish descent
American people of Polish-Jewish descent
21st-century American historians
21st-century American male writers
American folklorists
Israeli folklorists
Jewish American historians
American male non-fiction writers
Harvard University staff
Pennsylvania State University faculty
Binghamton University alumni
21st-century American Jews
American ethnologists
Israeli ethnologists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentry%20%28Robert%20Reynolds%29
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Sentry (Robert Reynolds)
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Sentry (Robert "Bob" Reynolds) is a superhero appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Created by Paul Jenkins and Jae Lee, with uncredited conceptual contributions by Rick Veitch, the character first appeared in The Sentry #1 (September 2000).
Publication history
Creation
In the late 1990s, Paul Jenkins and Rick Veitch developed an idea by Jenkins' about "an over-the-hill guy, struggling with an addiction, who had a tight relationship with his dog" into a proposal for Marvel Comics' Marvel Knights line. Jenkins conceived of the character "a guardian type, with a watchtower", and came up with the name "Sentry" (after previously considering "Centurion"). Veitch suggested that the character could be woven into the history of the Marvel Universe, with versions of the character from the 1940s depicted in artistic styles matching the comics of each period. Veitch also suggested that due to some cataclysmic event, all recollection of the Sentry would have been removed from everyone's memory (including his own). Jenkins and Veitch decided that they would create not only a fictional history for the Sentry within the Marvel Universe, but also a fictional publication history in the real world, complete with imaginary creators ("Juan Pinkles" and "Chick Rivet", anagrams of Paul Jenkins and Rick Veitch). Jenkins pitched the concept to Marvel Knights editor Joe Quesada. Quesada decided to commission a miniseries written by Jenkins with art by Jae Lee, with whom Jenkins had previously worked on an Inhumans miniseries.
Publication
The Sentry was first introduced in his 2000 eponymous Marvel Knights miniseries written by Paul Jenkins with art by Jae Lee. The miniseries ran for five issues and then segued directly into a series of flashback one-shots in which the Sentry teamed up with the Fantastic Four, Spider-Man, Angel of the X-Men, and the Hulk. These one-shots led to The Sentry vs. the Void, an additional one-shot that wrapped up the story of the miniseries and one-shots. In 2005, writer Brian Michael Bendis reused the Sentry by making him a member of the New Avengers. The Sentry played a minor role in the first arc, Breakout (issues #1–6), and was the focus of the second arc, The Sentry (issues #7–10) : Jenkins himself was featured as a character in the second one. Also in 2005, the Sentry received another miniseries, written by Paul Jenkins and drawn by John Romita, Jr., which ran for eight issues. The Sentry appeared in The Mighty Avengers as a member of that team, and later in Dark Avengers in a similar capacity, and as protagonist in The Age of the Sentry miniseries. He appeared as a regular character in the Dark Avengers series from issue #1 (March 2009) until the time of his death in the Siege limited series.
On March 6, 2018, it was announced that the character would be given an ongoing series written by Jeff Lemire and with art by Joshua Cassara and Kim Jacinto. The series ended after five issues.
Fictional character biography
Sentry and the Marvel Universe
Middle-aged, overweight Bob Reynolds remembers that he is Sentry, a superhero whose "power of one million exploding suns" is derived from a special serum. Realizing that his archenemy the Void is returning, Reynolds seeks out several prominent Marvel characters to warn them and to discover why no one remembers the Sentry.
The characters' memories of the Sentry and the Void resurface when Reynolds talks with them. The Sentry had taught Angel how to conquer his fear of falling. Peter Parker's photograph of the Sentry earned him a Pulitzer Prize and fame. Hulk had never forgotten the Sentry, whom he called "Golden Man". Under the Sentry's influence, Hulk had been a force for good which had redeemed his violent actions and won the adoration of the public. Mister Fantastic remembered the Sentry was his best friend and that the Fantastic Four had teamed up with him on many adventures. Meanwhile, the general public gradually came to remember the Sentry, as did Reynolds' old sidekick, Billy Turner who was formerly known as the Scout (now scarred and missing a forearm, due to an attack from the Void).
During the course of his investigation, Reynolds and Mister Fantastic discovered what had happened: as the Void had threatened the Earth, the heroes learned that the Sentry and the Void were two halves of the same person. To save the world, Robert Reynolds erased his memory from the mind of nearly every person on Earth, even his own. As the heroes stood along the United States' East Coast, united against the coming Void, Reynolds realized that he had to make the sacrifice again. With the help of his mechanical servant CLOC, Mister Fantastic, and Doctor Strange, Reynolds erased the Sentry from the world's memories once more. However, in the final panels of the final one shot, it's left ambiguous as to whether or not Reynolds actually remembers who he is despite Richards' and Strange's work.
Avengers
Reynolds reappears inside the supervillain prison the Raft, voluntarily imprisoned for murdering his wife Lindy Lee. Electro shuts down the security system, causing a massive jail break in which 42 villains escape. Several of the escaping villains are caught, while Matt Murdock is entering to talk to the Sentry. The Sentry defends several other characters from Carnage, whom he flies to space and rips in half.
Eventually, the Avengers learn that Mastermind, under the direction of an enemy of the Sentry known only as the General, implanted a psychic "virus" in Reynolds' mind that created delusions and the existence of the Void, which is actually Reynolds' repressed persona. The virus impairs Reynolds' ability to remember his life accurately, and, as a cry for help, he subconsciously implants his memories into the mind of comic book writer Paul Jenkins, who then transferred those memories to comic books. The Avengers track him down and show him that his wife, who he confessed to murdering, is alive and well. The Sentry flees, and he finds himself waking up in the small suburban house he shares with Lindy. His appearance has changed in an instant, and he appears to be living the life of an ordinary man. But the Avengers have tracked him down again, and, with the support of The Fantastic Four, the X-Men, the Inhumans, Namor, Doctor Strange, and S.H.I.E.L.D., they confront and attempt to reason with him. But Robert tearfully insists that the Void is coming, who will destroy them all, and that he can't help it. The Void arrives, a separate entity from Robert, and it takes on several different monstrous forms as it attacks. Though a vicious battle ensues, no one is actually killed. As they are still having their dialogue, and start getting through to him, the Void slows down to a stop. Finally, the powerful telepath Emma Frost is able to release Reynolds from the virus and restore his memories, and the Sentry joins the Avengers. The world in general, however, does not regain their memories of the Sentry or the Void. In an astounding coincidence, or twist of fate, the Sentry's Watchtower appears atop Stark Tower, where it had been all along. "Guess I was hiding it as part of my crazy," Robert explains.
The Sentry, returned as a hero, captures the hearts of the public while newspapers refer to him as "the Golden Guardian of Good", and he saves hundreds of lives on a daily basis.
Reynolds' psychological problems, however, have worsened. Unable to reconcile that Robert Reynolds, the Sentry, and the Void are the same being, the Sentry contains the Void in a vault in the Watchtower. At CLOC's urging, Reynolds' psychiatrist Dr. Cornelius Worth enters the vault and finds only a chair and a mirror. Dr. Worth realizes that the Void is not imprisoned at all. Later, during an office visit, Cornelius confronts Robert with this fact, showing him newspaper articles that indicate that the Sentry's heroic exploits are seemingly balanced in equal measure to other horrific deeds committed by the Void. Dr. Worth asked Robert to manifest the Sentry, so he can speak to him, but Robert refuses. Reynolds becomes angry and confused, changing forms back and forth between the Sentry and the Void, before leaping through (and breaking) an office window. Dr. Worth follows Robert, finding him at the fairgrounds where he first gained his powers. The fairgrounds have been destroyed, and all the patrons evacuated, running out screaming.
Dr. Worth confronts Reynolds, who is holding a gun, and Reynolds warns the doctor to leave. Dr. Worth is undeterred, asking Reynolds to put the gun away, advising that he knows that Reynolds, despite his actions as the Void, is still trying to do good. Reynolds then simultaneously manifests both his Sentry and Void personas, who split into two separate entities. Notably, when the Void peels back his pitch black mask, his face is that of Robert Reynolds. Reynolds tells Dr. Worth that he was always the Void, indicating that the Void is actually Reynold's true persona, and describes the Sentry as a separate entity. Having revealed his deepest secret to Dr. Worth, Reynolds (still in his Void persona and holding a gun to Dr Worth's head), tells him that he must kill him now. Holding the gun just inches away from Dr. Worth's temple, Reynolds mockingly asks the Sentry if he is faster than a bullet. And with that he pulls the trigger and fires the gun at Dr. Worth.
After a bright muzzle flash, Dr. Worth notices that he is still alive, and the Sentry, having seemingly remained still, opens his hand to reveal the fired bullet. The Sentry chides Reynolds that he knew Sentry was fast enough to stop the bullet from reaching Dr. Worth's head and that the entire ploy was in vain, with Reynolds never intending to hurt Dr Worth after all. Reynolds dons the Void's black mask/visage, and accuses the Sentry of lying, declaring at first that Sentry isn't real, and then ranting that Sentry is the true manifestation of Robert Reynolds. The Sentry, addressing the Void as Robert, points out that Robert created the Sentry to tell no lies, and further clarifies that Robert hired Dr Worth so that he could bring his secret out in the open to justify destroying the world. The Void then attacks the Sentry, and the two fly up into the sky.
As Dr. Worth is watching the two entities fight in the air, the Sentry appears standing behind him, with cuts and bruises on his face and no further sign of The Void. The Sentry explains to Dr. Worth that Reynolds hired him because he subconsciously wanted someone to reveal that he is the Void to the world, so he would no longer have to hide that truth. Dr. Worth asked the Sentry if he too is Robert Reynolds, but the Sentry advised that he is merely an aspect of Robert. Cornelius then asked him to clarify which of the two aspects (The Void or the Sentry) is the real Robert Reynolds. The Sentry explained that neither he, nor the Void, represent the entirety of Robert Reynolds, as the two aspects do not even share memories. Sentry then tells Dr. Worth how Reynolds really gained his powers as a teenager: by stealing the Professor's serum and ingesting it to get high. He also pretended to be insane, knowing all along that the Void was never really in the Watchtower's vault, so that Robert Reynolds would keep the Void dormant, and also not wipe Sentry from existence. Dr. Worth tells the Sentry that he is not sure if Robert Reynolds can still do that. The Sentry then bids Dr Worth farewell, telling him that he's going to seek out help to answer his existential questions.
The Sentry then flies off and meets up with Doctor Strange. Doctor Strange uses his magic to peer into Sentry's memories and his life force. Doctor Strange finds that Sentry's life force is incomplete. While Strange and Sentry dialogue, a third voice can be heard speaking – though only the Sentry can hear it. The third voice tells Sentry that he is not real, and that he does not exist. Doctor Strange, oblivious to the third voice, peers deeper into the Sentry's memories, and reveals that even the Sentry's own understanding of his origins are flawed. Doctor Strange finally uncovers a deep memory of a secret fortress-like building, that Sentry recognizes as the Professor's base of operations. Doctor Strange, suddenly overcome by panic and fear, shuts down the magic mind probe and begs the Sentry not to pursue this any further.
The Sentry determines to seek out the base revealed in Doctor Strange's magic mind probe, as he can still hear the third voice telling him that "none of this is real". Before Sentry embarks on his journey, he returns to Dr. Cornelius Worth's home, posting Watchdog to guard the doctor's family and Lindy Lee, who is present at the home as well. Sentry wonders if he is truly Lindy Lee's husband, as he may not be the true Robert Reynolds. Dr. Worth begs Sentry to heal his sick daughter, who is in a catatonic state. Sentry declines his request, citing that if he showed preference for Dr. Worth's daughter, he would ethically have to do this for everyone. Sentry sets off to find the base and, after a short moment, Dr. Worth's daughter comes out of her catatonic state and speaks to her father – shocking the doctor, who realizes that Sentry had healed her anyhow.
The Sentry finds the base in his memories, but it is destroyed. As he enters, the third voice in his mind grows louder and louder, telling him that none of this is real, that he is a murderer, and that he is not a hero. As he enters the base, the Sentry suddenly finds himself sitting in locked, padded room, frothing at the mouth, and in a straitjacket. Suddenly, a man's voice through a loud speaker tells him that he is a mental patient who has undergone shock therapy and has awakened from a deep slumber, and that his name is John Victor Williams.
Sentry is told that his memories are false, and that he is, in fact, a crazed patient who brutally killed his next door neighbor, Melinda Jensen – whom the Sentry at first recognized as his wife Lindy Lee. After a time, the Sentry seemingly accepts this new version of reality, believing himself to possibly be John Victor Williams, and a prisoner in a psychiatric care facility. The Professor is at the facility, treating him as his doctor. Sentry, now appearing in the body and form of Robert Reynolds, manifests aspects of his old memories, which the Professor dismisses as part of his delusions. Eventually, Sentry realizes that this version of reality is entirely a false mental construct, and that in reality he is strapped to a table, locked in a machine that is keeping him sedated and implanting these false memories. Sentry breaks out of the machine, and sees that he is deep inside the base he had sought out – which turned out to be a secret S.H.I.E.L.D. facility. Nick Fury is present, as is the Professor and Doctor Strange, who was revealed to be the author of the false mental constructs. Doctor Strange tries to explain that he was doing this for Sentry's own good, but Sentry refuses to hear it. He grabs the Professor, begging for an explanation. The Professor reveals that he has a thermo-nuclear device implanted inside him that will detonate if he reveals the true secret of Sentry's origin. When the Professor decides to tell him, Nick Fury activates the bomb, forcing Sentry to fly the Professor up into the stratosphere. Before the Professor detonates, he tells Sentry to seek out the Void in Antarctica, advising that the Void knows the truth. The Professor dies in the explosion, and the Sentry heads back to Earth, heading for Antarctica.
In a final battle at the Void's base in Antarctica (which he calls the 'Hidey-hole' ... the opposite of the Watchtower, just as COLC, its 'Computer for Obliterating Life Completely', is the opposite of CLOC), the Void claims that Reynolds had actually ingested a super-saturated, exponentially more potent version of the Super-Soldier formula that created Captain America. This was considered dangerous by the government because Sentry's blood could be used to create more of the serum, enough for the entire world. Several failed attempts were made to kill him. Enraged by this revelation, the Sentry throws the Void into the Sun, telling his enemy that he no longer needs him to balance his own actions of good. The Void promises to return.
Next, Yelena Belova attacks the Avengers and absorbs the Sentry's powers. After Belova defeats each of the Avengers, she is defeated by the manifestation of the Void, which envelops and incapacitates her. The Sentry tells Belova that absorbing his powers has exposed her to the Void, but if she answers his questions, he can send the Void away.
The U.S. government sends Sentry to apprehend Iron Man, who has been mind-controlled to assassinate a number of high-profile former terrorists. Unable to find any physical weaknesses or outrun the Sentry, Iron Man attacks the Sentry's mind; he remotely hacks CLOC and has Sentry barraged with unfiltered warnings about multiple devastating disasters occurring simultaneously throughout the world. Unable to prioritize which alarm to deal with first, Sentry collapses to the ground in tears, utterly incapacitated.
Civil War
The Sentry sides with Iron Man's Pro-Registration program. He has been seen in a promotional poster labeled "Civil War: The Final Battle," again on Iron Man's side. He accompanies a S.H.I.E.L.D. squad to battle Wolverine and tells him that he doesn't want to get involved but sees no choice; he claims he has to stop the ugly business even if that means becoming part of it for a while. He then knocks Wolverine unconscious and hands him over to S.H.I.E.L.D.
Trying to escape from the battle, believing that every path he can choose will ultimately lead to the death of people he knows (one of his thoughts at this point consists of himself and Hulk triumphantly returning to Earth and 'ending' the war via killing all the heroes), Sentry retreats to the moon, where he is confronted by the Inhumans living there. Believed a threat, he is ordered to follow them to Black Bolt's presence. Then after a discussion of the Civil War events with the (still unaware) Inhumans, he rekindles his friendship with them and almost resumes his past relationship with Crystal. He is then confronted by Iron Man himself who finally convinces a still reluctant Sentry to join him.
It is stated that the Sentry publicly announces his support of the Registration Act three days after the climactic battle of the Civil War limited series.
Mighty Avengers
The Sentry is recruited by Tony Stark to be part of the Mighty Avengers, the newest incarnation of the Avengers team. While at first there is some dispute between the Sentry and his wife, Robert joins the team while Tony Stark and Ms. Marvel offer him assistance to battle his mental issues. He is described to be the most powerful member of the team, but lacks proper training on how to use his abilities, usually apologizing for his mistakes (apologizing for damage to a building and being thrown into a blimp).
In the battle against Ultron's female form, the two prove to be evenly matched. Neither is able to win until Ultron uses a virus to down the Helicarrier. Ultron then initiates "Plan B" and kills Lindy, the Sentry's wife.
An enraged Sentry attacks Ultron once more. In an exchange of blows, Sentry is knocked away as Ares and Ant-Man proceed to infect Ultron with a virus intended to destroy it. Soon after, the Sentry once again attacks Ultron, almost compromising the Avengers plan, nearly destroying Ultron by tearing its head off. Before he can finish, he is knocked away by Ms. Marvel. After Ultron's defeat he returns to the Watchtower to find his wife Lindy alive and well—having apparently revived her himself. Stark is later shocked when a terrified Lindy secretly requests that he find a way to either depower or kill her husband.
The Sentry then aids the team when they attack Latveria but ends up stuck in the past with Doctor Doom and Tony. He is amazed to see his former self and the Void. He angrily attacks Doctor Doom until Tony explains what has happened. The Sentry finds them and Stark sends Bob into the Baxter Building so that they can use Mister Fantastic's time machine; since all memory of his past actions were erased by his 'spell', he can do anything in the past and be sure that it won't impact the present. The Sentry gets to it, first having to deal with the Thing, whom he easily defeats. After he returns to present time along with Iron Man, he finds the rest of the Avengers engaged in battle with Doctor Doom. The Sentry quickly subdues Doom, who is then taken into S.H.I.E.L.D. custody.
World War Hulk
A confrontation between Iron Man and the Hulk ends up with Sentry's Watchtower being dropped straight down through Stark Tower/Avengers headquarters, destroying it. Mister Fantastic tries to build a machine that will cast a projection of the Sentry and recreates his calming aura, hoping that it would calm the Hulk, but the Hulk sees through the illusion.
Later in a confrontation between the Hulk and the Fantastic Four, Invisible Woman tries to call the real Sentry for help, but he does not answer the call and is sitting in his apartment watching television. The President of the United States tries to convince the Sentry to fight against his longtime friend the Hulk. The President stumbles over the pre-fed words of persuasion and tries to improvise a plea for help. The Sentry refuses.
After the Hulk turns Madison Square Garden into a gladiatorial arena and forces Illuminati members Mister Fantastic, Doctor Strange, Black Bolt, and Iron Man to fight one another, the military turns to the Sentry for help once again. The Sentry admits to his fear of his tremendous power mixed with his agoraphobia, stating,
After watching the events on TV and witnessing the Hulk apparently deciding, in Roman-style, to force Mister Fantastic to kill Iron Man, he leaves his home stating that, "It's time to play god".
The Sentry engages the Hulk who is now strong enough to destroy the Earth in his stampede, and unleashes his power. During the prolonged fight they both expend massive amounts of energy, nearly destroying Manhattan and disintegrating entire buildings. Sentry begins to lose control and Banner is forced to stop him before the energy Sentry releases consumes the city. After Banner delivers the final punch, the broken-faced Robert Reynolds thanks him before immediately collapsing before his feet, both reverting to human form.
Secret Invasion
When a Skrull spacecraft is discovered approaching Earth's atmosphere, the Mighty Avengers and New Avengers simultaneously head to its predicted crash area in the Savage Land with numerous superheroes dressed in their old costumes. The Sentry fights a Skrull who transforms into the Void, blaming the entire situation on the Sentry's hidden desires. Panicking, the Sentry flees. At the same time, a full-scale Skrull invasion begins with the Watchtower where Lindy is being attacked, but the Void appears, defends Lindy, and tells her that the Sentry can't handle the situation and that "Whatever he can't do, I can."
Dark Avengers
Sentry joins the Dark Avengers, Norman Osborn's personal team of Avengers, stating that Osborn is helping him in return after Osborn confides his own mental deficiency in Bob. Upon confronting the sorceress Morgan le Fay, the Sentry kills her only to have her come back to life and kill him in turn. After the Dark Avengers and Doctor Doom defeat Morgan, the team returns to New York City to find the Sentry reappears alive and well. After a terrorist attack by an Atlantean cell, Norman Osborn demands to speak to the Void and tells him to kill all the terrorists. The Sentry obliges but is seen with black eyes, indicating the return of the Void within the Sentry persona.
When anti-mutant riots break out in San Francisco, the Dark Avengers and H.A.M.M.E.R. move in to contain the situation. The Sentry watches as the riots are quelled, when the Dark Avengers team up with Norman's Dark X-Men against the X-Men, Emma Frost frees the Void from Sentry to take him off the battlefield. However, a sliver of the Void becomes contained in her mind, forcing Emma to shift into her diamond form to keep it contained. When Psylocke, Professor X, and Cyclops attempt to help Emma, she subsequently passes the Void sliver to Cyclops, whom the Void felt could be of more use to it. However, after years of dating and being married to the world's most powerful mutant telepath Jean Grey, Cyclops uses all that she taught him to successfully lock the Void inside an unbreakable psychic prison within his own mind.
When Sentry returns to Avengers Tower, Lindy shoots him because she fears his mindset, but he returns unharmed.
The Avengers are sent to investigate disappearances in Dinosaur, Colorado, and the Sentry is disintegrated when he approaches the area. The team find that Molecule Man, secluding himself, is responsible. Reece is losing touch with reality, and struggles to differentiate between the real and his creations. After the other Dark Avengers have been defeated, Osborn's aide Victoria Hand convinces Owen to restore reality to be left to his own devices. The Sentry returns mid-conversation and attacks Molecule Man only to be destroyed again. The Sentry reforms once more, but this time under the Void's influence. When a missile distracts Owen, Sentry takes control of Reece's body and tells Owen to restore reality or die. Reece seemingly obliges him, but is killed, which causes Bob/Void to believe they cannot die. Bob regains control of his body, but doesn't seem to recall killing Molecule Man. Ms. Marvel muses that the Scarlet Witch's reality-rewriting nervous breakdown was negligible in comparison to the threat posed by the Sentry losing control.
Sentry finds a runaway Noh-Varr in the streets of Manhattan. A battle breaks out and Sentry is distracted when a girl named Annie uses one of Noh-Varr's weapons. This creates enough time for Noh-Varr to get away.
After shooting Robert, apparently killing him, Lindy records Sentry's origins as a drug addict (previously revealed) and that he found the Professor's super serum by accident. After drinking the serum, Bob accidentally destroys the lab, killing his partner and two guards. As the Sentry, Bob lives a hero's life, forgetting about his past as a thief and addict, blaming them on "a boogeyman" that would become the Void. Lindy knew that Osborn's orders and replica of the serum were unlocking the Void again (Osborn calls him "his secret weapon"). When Bob recovers, his Void persona tries to kill Lindy while claiming to be Galactus, only to be stopped by the Sentry one, who tries to destroy the Void (and himself) in the Sun, only to survive and be convinced to return home.
Upon his return, the Void has now taken control of Robert's body. With black tendrils raining from the sky, the Void severely damages multiple buildings, killing some innocents. As the Iron Patriot, Osborn flies to the Void, claiming that he was breaking their "deal". Norman then has Bullseye murder Lindy.
Siege
During the 2010 storyline "Siege", when Osborn attacks the city of Asgard, Sentry, who serves Osborn, is pitted against the Avengers and others who rebel against Osborn. At Osborn's request, the Sentry destroyed Asgard. The Void then takes complete control, Sentry kills Ares much to the surprise of the combatants. After defeating the entire Avengers contingent, Sentry is eventually reverted to human form following Loki's revival of the Avengers using the stones of Norn. He then asks to be killed and following a brief outburst from the Void, his wish is granted by Thor. Thor respectfully carries Reynolds' body to the sun and cremates him there.
At a memorial service for Bob Reynolds, CLOC remarks he would rebuild the Watchtower (which vanished at the moment of Bob's apparent death) at an undisclosed location in preparation for the return of the Sentry, and that no one would be allowed to approach it. CLOC then gives Mister Fantastic the Sentry's diary and instructs him to read the final sentence of page nineteen, the contents of which Reynolds knew that only Mister Fantastic would understand. When asked about it, Mister Fantastic keeps the information to himself.
Horseman of Apocalypse
The Sentry is later resurrected by the Apocalypse Twins, who use a Celestial Death Seed to transform him into a member of their new Horsemen of Death. The Sentry claims he became trapped in the sun after his previous death at Thor's hands, dying and regenerating over and over again, and that the Void became 'bored' and has left him. He attacks the Avengers and initially captures Thor, but in a later confrontation is stymied by a sand worm controlled by Wasp. After the defeat of the Apocalypse Twins, the Sentry takes the dead body of the Celestial Executioner and offers to take it into deep space, far away from Earth. Wasp states that Sentry is trustworthy as he now views himself as the cosmic protector of humanity.
Marvel Legacy
It is revealed that Doctor Strange cured Robert from his condition and put the Void into a chamber of his Sanctum Sanctorum. When Loki became the new Sorcerer Supreme, Stephen asked the Sentry for help, now residing on the top of a mountain. Because of Loki's curiosity about the chamber, Stephen opens it, unleashing the Void. This causes the Void to possess Doctor Strange; however, with the replenishment of his magic by Loki and the help of the Sentry, Strange is freed by his influence and together they lock-in the Void again. An angry and distrustful Robert hits Strange, telling him to leave him alone.
It is later revealed that Doctor Strange created a device called the Confluctor that created a pocket dimension where Robert Reynolds can go to once every 24 hours to be the Sentry and fight the Void with Scout and Watchdog. This will prevent him from turning into the Void in the real world. Robert confides in Billy Turner (formerly The Scout) about the pocket dimension. Unbeknownst to him, Billy devises a plot with one of Sentry's oldest enemies Cranio to duplicate the Sentry formula and trap Robert Reynolds in the pocket dimension, so Cranio can rule there and Billy will be the new Sentry. The plan is foiled when S.H.I.E.L.D. and Iron Man arrest Robert Reynolds for not checking in on his "parole", but he unleashes the Sentry and escapes. Billy takes the Sentry formula and battles Reynolds. They are evenly matched until Reynolds while in his subconscious thoughts decides to stop fighting the Void and become one with him. The newly-merged Sentry easily kills Billy, then removes Cranio from the pocket dimension. Iron Man returns with the Avengers, but they are unable to stop the new Sentry. As Reynolds prepares to leave, Iron Man asks if they're supposed to simply trust he'll do the right thing from now on. Reynolds replies "You don't have a choice" and flies off into space.
During the "King in Black" storyline, Sentry returns in his golden appearance and has been called by the Avengers to help fight Knull. He attempts to fly Knull into space, as he had done to Carnage, only for Knull to break free and tear Sentry in half instead, absorbing the Void emerging from Sentry's body, into his own. Valkyrie Jane Foster then takes Robert’s soul to Valhalla.
The Sentry's corpse is later reassembled and used by Director None and the Blasphemy Cartel to house 100 million screaming ghosts intent on destroying Stephen and Clea Strange, but the pair break the spell keeping the ghosts contained, and the Sentry's corpse explodes from the force of the ghosts' release.
Powers and abilities
Sentry
The Sentry's powers ostensibly derive from the Super-Soldier Serum that "moves his molecules an instant ahead of the current timeline." This was designed to be a hundred thousand times stronger than the original used on Captain America, and was modified by Weapon X. However, in The Age of the Sentry miniseries, it is suggested that Sentry is a sentient life force, a refugee from another universe who attempted to break through to another one for its new home, and that this was merely accommodated by the serum.
Although the character's exact abilities and their limits are unknown and also said to be omnipotent, he has shown a small portion of his powers by lifting a Helicarrier (with assistance from Ms. Marvel and Wonder Man); preventing the Celestial Exitar from crushing the Earth by lifting his foot (with the help of an empowered Rogue) although later seen carrying it alone; also being able to fight Thor and stalemate him. He dismembered Carnage with little effort. Sentry is considered by the mutant Emma Frost to be one of the best telepaths on Earth 616. He is somehow resistant to Rogue's mutate touch. Effortlessly defeating and breaking the handle of the axe of Terrax, a herald of Galactus shown as powerful enough to slice planets in half; severely pummeling and nearly tearing apart the female Ultron; and easily shattering shields of Doctor Doom. During the Sentry's initial miniseries, Spider-Man, in a moment of reflection, recalls that the Sentry fought and stalemated Galactus at one point.
He generally holds back his powers, greatly restraining his full might. On occasion, he has unleashed them, showing the true magnitude of his abilities and strength. On some of these occasions, he overloaded the abilities of the Absorbing Man; and fought an enraged Hulk for a prolonged period of time until both fighters reverted to their human forms, whereupon Reynolds was knocked unconscious by Banner. He possesses superhuman speed, making him easily able to evade or catch bullets; and through flight he can travel to the Sun and back in a matter of minutes. The Sentry is also apparently invulnerable: Spider-Woman's venom blasts, capable of killing even superhumans at full power, have no effect upon him. Nick Fury has stated that S.H.I.E.L.D. has not yet found a way to kill the Sentry. Iron Man's scanners have found no physical weaknesses in his body.
The Sentry also has superhumanly acute senses. He once told an opponent that he could see his nerve centers and on another occasion said he can hear a heartbeat of a butterfly in Africa while he's in the US. He can emit light, which can be used for a pacifying effect. He possesses an ability to absorb energy from any matter/source which provides him limitless energy. Sentry possesses tremendous powers of energy projection, from both his hands and eyes, capable of harming even the Hulk (in his Green Scar incarnation), who has withstood the equivalent of solar flares unharmed, and also released planet-destroying energy against Genis-Vell. The Sentry has also at times demonstrated the ability to instantly teleport himself away in a blinding flash of light.
He was once able to implant his memories inside another person's mind (he also implanted his thoughts on the comic's writer's mind for them to be written in comics), he uses his vast mental powers to maintain control even while in an uneven state caused by his mental illness. After Ultron murdered his wife, Sentry was able to resurrect her by simply touching her.
The Sentry has demonstrated the ability to recreate himself after bodily destruction, up to and including total molecular destruction within seconds (he once tried to commit suicide by flying into the heart of the sun). Dialogue between Reynolds and the Void suggests that this particular capability is automatic, involuntary, and beyond the control of either Reynolds or the Void.
He eventually found out that all his powers apparently derive from abilities similar to those of the virtually omnipotent Molecule Man, which he uses to take control of the latter's body and resurrect himself multiple times after seemingly being annihilated.
During a conversation between Lindy, CLOC, and the Void, it is hinted that the Sentry's powers may come from a cosmic source, or possibly even from the Judeo-Christian God. Lindy believed that his powers were of "maybe Biblical proportions" and theorized that modern-day superheroes were conduits through which such higher power was now being channeled. When Steve Rogers demands that Norman Osborn tell him how the heroes are to stop the Void, Osborn says (albeit possibly figuratively) that the Void was the 'Angel of Death'; an earlier Biblical flashback also revealed that the being that brought the divine plagues down on Egypt was apparently similar in appearance to the Void, who, millennia later, claims to the Sentry when attacking New York that doing so is 'God's way'.
As Sentry's molecules are ahead of the current timeline, this states that he simultaneously exists in the future, present and past altogether. His long time foe Cranio stated that Time bends for Sentry, and every situation that happens all works in his favor, sort of Probability manipulation but in his case it's Time.
Void
Robert Reynolds projects an entity as a dark side effect of his powers. It has been claimed that for every benevolent act the Sentry performs, the Void corresponds with attempting an act of malevolence. He was formerly unaware that the Void was a false personality, but has since been informed otherwise. In the 2009 storyline "Utopia", it was temporarily separated from his being, with a "shard" of its essence placed within Emma Frost which is later transferred to Scott Summers and currently resides locked away in his mind.
Several reasons for the existence of the Void have been given: the innate division between good and evil in any nominally normal person; a "mind virus" put into place by the mutant Mastermind by order of the crazed General; the idea that the Void is in fact the true personality of Rob Reynolds and the Sentry is the false one; as mentioned above, the result of covering up his past; and, according to Norman Osborn the Sentry's superhumanity eroded his humanity, leading to a 'void' in his life. During the Siege storyline, the Void exhibits a more demonic form, capable of nearly slaughtering Thor, bringing down the entire city of Asgard, and striking down every immortal and mortal hero set against it simultaneously, killing the Norn Stone-powered Loki in seconds, and even tearing the god of war, Ares, in half. Norman Osborn claims that it is the Angel of Death, tying into an earlier prelude which showed the Void's presence in biblical times.
The Void possesses the ability to shape-shift, and through its control over the weather and darkness it can create destructive storms and deadly "infini-tendrils" that attack the mind. Victims impaled on the tendrils experience traumatic visions of the past, present, and future. Its regular appearance varies between a shadowy, trench-coat-wearing villain to a massive hurricane of darkness. It can also assume powers dependent on shape, like a flame form that breathes fire, alternately an armored monster with superstrength and toughness. It is at its strongest during the night and in the Negative Zone (which is also Blue Marvel's source of his strength & power), where it has shown itself capable of easily overpowering the Hulk by breaking every single bone in his body in moments. Coincidentally, Sentry is at his weakest in the Negative Zone. A mere physical assault required much effort to hold off, even with the combined force fields of Iron Man, Doctor Strange, and the Invisible Woman, while the united forces of the New Avengers, Fantastic Four, X-Men, Inhumans, Illuminati, and heavily armed S.H.I.E.L.D. agents simultaneously attacked it.
Team
Joining Sentry to take on the Void are his sidekick, Scout, his loyal canine companion Watchdog and his equal, Sentress, a woman named Jenny.
Scout
Billy Turner is the loyal sidekick and partner of the Sentry. After the Sentry made the entire world forget of his existence with the help of Mister Fantastic and Doctor Strange to stop the Void, Billy went on to live a normal life. He lived with his mother and worked at a fast food restaurant. When the Sentry first re-emerged, Billy's memories of his life as Scout returned. He suited up on his old costume and joined the Sentry and numerous other heroes at the Statue of Liberty to take a stand against the Void. When the Sentry saw himself forced to return to obscurity, Billy returned again to his normal life.
Scout's powers are similar to Sentry's (superhuman strength, speed, and stamina; regenerative healing; flight; etc.) and were also obtained by drinking the super serum.
Watchdog
Watchdog is a super-powered Welsh Corgi. He takes verbal orders from the Sentry. The orders are given by the prefix Watchdog, directly followed by commands, such as, Guard, Stay, etc. Watchdog always obeys.
Reception
Accolades
In 2015, Entertainment Weekly ranked Sentry 44th in their "Let's rank every Avenger ever" list.
In 2017, CBR.com ranked Sentry 2nd in their "15 Most Overpowered Avengers" list.
In 2017, Den of Geek ranked Sentry 10th in their "Guardians of the Galaxy 3: 50 Marvel Characters We Want to See" list.
In 2018, CBR.com ranked Sentry 4th in their "25 Fastest Characters In The Marvel Universe" list.
In 2021, Collider ranked Sentry 7th in their "20 Most Powerful Marvel Characters" list.
In 2021, CBR.com ranked Sentry 1st in their "Marvel: The 10 Strongest Male Avengers" list.
In 2022, Screen Rant included Sentry in their "10 Most Powerful Avengers In Marvel Comics" list and in their "X-Men: 10 Most Powerful Horsemen Of Apocalypse" list.
In 2022, Sportskeeda ranked Sentry 5th in their "10 most overpowered superheroes in the Marvel Universe" list.
In 2022, CBR.com ranked Sentry 1st in their "8 Fastest Avengers" list and 2nd in their "10 Scariest Avengers" list.
Literary reception
Volumes
Sentry - 2000
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Sentry #1 was the 31st best selling comic book in July 2000.
David Harth of CBR.com ranked the Sentry comic book series 10th in their "10 Best Things About Marvel Comics From The 2000s," writing, "The Sentry told the story of the forgotten hero, a story about a man with too much power wrestling with his own demons and hidden history as one of Marvel's greatest superheroes. It was a great way to kick off the decade for the publisher." Rosie Knight of Nerdist included the Sentry comic book series in their "8 Must-Read Marvel Knights Stories," asserting, "This meta-text on superheroes from The Inhumans‘ Jae Lee and Paul Jenkins is one of the more unique takes that Marvel Knights had to offer, focusing on a middle aged man named Bob Reynolds who one day remembers he is in fact a hero named Sentry. This miniseries follows Bob as he attempts to warn other Marvel characters about the return of his foe, whilst also figuring out why no one can remember his superhero alter-ego. If you’re not aware of the Sentry, then the big reveal here will be a real gut punch as Lee and Jenkins create a seminal Sentry story in just five issues."
Sentry - 2005
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Sentry #1 was the 17th best selling comic book in September 2005. Sentry #2 was the 30th best selling comic book in October 2005.
Sentry - 2018
According to Diamond Comic Distributors, Sentry #1 was the 63rd best selling comic book in June 2018.
Joshua Davison of Bleeding Cool wrote, "Sentry #1 is another excellent self-conscious superhero title from Jeff Lemire, and it does so without going fully meta, which is an overused tactic in modern comics. The story is compelling, and Bob Reynolds is made to be an interesting character to follow. This one gets a recommendation. Give it a read." Adam Barnhardt of ComicBook.com gave Sentry #1 a grade of 5 out of 5, saying, "Lemire's ability to write the internal conflicts his protagonists face is second to none and after his iconic run on Moon Knight, a comic with Robert Reynolds was a long time coming. He's able to craft tales where the readers struggle to separate fact and fiction, yet everything eventually falls into place, and that's exactly the type of writer a character like Robert Reynolds needs. Lemire and The Sentry are a match made in heaven."
Other versions
Age of Apocalypse
A zombie Sentry appears as a member of the Black Legion in the Age of Apocalypse reality.
House of M
After Wanda Maximoff changes the world in House of M #1, Robert Reynolds is seen briefly with Doctor Strange in a therapy session. He tells Strange about a dream in which he sees an immense darkness (the Void) coming down on him.
Marvel Zombies
A version of the Sentry is responsible for the zombie outbreak depicted in Ultimate Fantastic Four and Marvel Zombies. A costumed hero resembling the Sentry appears from another universe, looking for food. The Avengers attempt to intercept him, and are immediately infected. The zombie virus rapidly spreads to nearly every super-powered character in that world. The costumed hero responsible for the outbreak is never called by name, and is only distinguishable by his outfit. What happens to him after his initial contact with this universe is unknown.
In Marvel Zombies vs. The Army of Darkness, it is revealed that the zombie Sentry was undead in the afterlife, eating everyone that came into the "light" and knocking Ash into the not yet infected world of superheroes. Unfortunately, the Sentry finds its way through the same portal and infects the Avengers who came to tackle him in the first place. He joins them in decimating the city and consuming civilians. However, he is not seen after
In Marvel Zombies Return, it is revealed that the Sentry's infection and universal travel is a predestination paradox. When the Giant-Man of the Marvel Zombies universe comes to a past version of the Marvel Universe, he infects the Hulk, who then infects the Sentry. At the conclusion of the story, Sentry is sent through the multiverse by that Earth's version of Uatu the Watcher and infects the Avengers, setting off the entire series of events while 'containing' the infection between these two universes so that it will essentially 'devour itself'. In the one-shot Marvel Zombies: Evil Evolution, Zombie Reed Richards speculates that a dimensional teleporter he was testing may have pulled the Sentry from his reality, though whether this was from the Gates of Heaven or was the other end of Uatu's teleporter is not revealed.
Age of Sentry
This version of Sentry is mostly identical to the mainstream counterpart, becoming a hero and battling villains alongside Scout, Watchdog and the Sentress and falling in love with Lindy Lee. Afterwards, the villainous brain-like alien Gorax was able to take away the powers of Sentry, resulting in Robert and Lindy going back in time and regaining his powers. Then, the two villains known as Phineas Mason and the Mad Thinker started posing as two film-makers who were using their machinery to drain Sentry's power which ultimately failed.
Deadpool: Killustrated
In Deadpool: Killustrated, the corpse of a Sentry is seen along with other deceased heroes after being killed by Dreadpool.
What If?
The Sentry has appeared in some issues of What If:
In What If the Skrulls succeeded in their Secret Invasion?, Sentry is allied with the Skrulls, along with the Thunderbolts, and fights the Avengers Alliance For Freedom when the Skrulls invade Wakanda after Marvel Boy destroys a Conversion Temple with a suicide attack. During the battle against the Avengers Alliance, Sentry destroys the vaccine cannon built for spreading a modified Legacy virus around the planet, which was meant to reverse human conversion into Skrulls. After the destruction of the cannon, Sentry continues fighting Thor, who gains the upper hand and regretfully declares Sentry too dangerous to let live. Thor kills Sentry by snapping his neck.
In What If Osborn Won Siege?, Sentry kills Ares prior to the assault on Asgard and as a result is able to focus on the other heroes present. Sentry kills most of the heroes, allowing the Dark Avengers to murder the rest. Afterwards, a cabal led by Dr. Doom confronts Sentry with the knowledge that Bullseye killed his wife Lindy in the hopes that Sentry will turn on Osborn. However, it sends Sentry over the edge and he allows the Void to take complete control. As the Void, he kills the Cabal, Bullseye, Osborn and eventually destroys the Earth, with foreshadowing that he would begin moving through the universe wreaking destruction.
In other media
Video games
The Sentry appears in the Nintendo DS version of Marvel: Ultimate Alliance 2, voiced by Nolan North.
The Sentry appears as a playable character in Marvel Super Hero Squad Online, voiced by Charlie Adler.
The Sentry and The Void appear as playable characters in Marvel: Contest of Champions.
The Sentry appears as a playable character in Marvel Puzzle Quest.
The Sentry appears in Lego Marvel's Avengers.
The Sentry appears as a playable character in Marvel Future Fight.
The Sentry appears in the digital collectible card game Marvel Snap.
Merchandise
Marvel Legends released Sentry (featuring bearded and non bearded variants) in the Giant Man Series (Wal-Mart exclusive) in and in 2015 Marvel released Sentry in the Avengers Infinite Series. In 2022, Hasbro released a new Sentry as a Walgreens exclusive in the US, a GameStop exclusive in Canada, and a fan-channel exclusive in the United Kingdom.
Music
The lyrics of the song "A Million Exploding Suns" by Horse the Band draw on the duality of the Sentry's lifestyle.
Seth Marton, better known as Seth Sentry, is an Australian rapper from Victoria, Australia whose stagename is a reference to Sentry, as he was Marton's favorite superhero growing up.
Collected editions
See also
Metafiction
References
External links
Sentry (Robert Reynolds) at Marvel.com
Sentry at Comic Vine
2000 comics debuts
Avengers (comics) characters
Characters created by Paul Jenkins (writer)
Comics characters introduced in 2000
Fictional characters from New York (state)
Fictional characters who can manipulate light
Fictional characters who can manipulate darkness or shadows
Fictional characters who can manipulate reality
Fictional characters who can manipulate time
Fictional characters who can turn intangible
Fictional characters who can turn invisible
Fictional characters with dissociative identity disorder
Fictional characters with absorption or parasitic abilities
Fictional characters with immortality
Fictional characters with elemental transmutation abilities
Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities
Fictional characters with death or rebirth abilities
Fictional characters with X-ray vision
Fictional drug addicts
Fictional murderers
Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds
Marvel Comics characters who can teleport
Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman senses
Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength
Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters
Marvel Comics male superheroes
Marvel Comics characters who have mental powers
Marvel Comics telekinetics
Marvel Comics telepaths
Merged fictional characters
S.H.I.E.L.D. agents
Marvel Comics mutates
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Italian fascism
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Italian fascism (), also known as classical fascism or simply fascism, is the original fascist ideology as developed in Italy by Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini. The ideology is associated with a series of two political parties led by Benito Mussolini: the National Fascist Party (PNF), which ruled the Kingdom of Italy from 1922 until 1943, and the Republican Fascist Party (PFR) that ruled the Italian Social Republic from 1943 to 1945. Italian fascism is also associated with the post-war Italian Social Movement (MSI) and subsequent Italian neo-fascist movements.
Italian fascism was rooted in ultranationalism, Italian nationalism, national syndicalism, revolutionary nationalism, and the desire to restore and expand Italian territories, which Italian Fascists deemed necessary for a nation to assert its superiority and strength and to avoid succumbing to decay. Italian Fascists also claimed that modern Italy was the heir to ancient Rome and its legacy, and historically supported the creation of an imperial Italy to provide spazio vitale ("living space") for colonization by Italian settlers and to establish control over the Mediterranean Sea.
Italian fascism promoted a corporatist economic system, whereby employer and employee syndicates are linked together in associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. This economic system intended to resolve class conflict through collaboration between the classes.
Italian fascism opposed liberalism, especially classical liberalism, which fascist leaders denounced as "the debacle of individualism". Fascism was opposed to socialism because of the latter's frequent opposition to nationalism, but it was also opposed to the reactionary conservatism developed by Joseph de Maistre. It believed the success of Italian nationalism required respect for tradition and a clear sense of a shared past among the Italian people, alongside a commitment to a modernised Italy.
Originally, many Italian fascists were opposed to Nazism, as fascism in Italy did not espouse Nordicism nor, initially, the antisemitism inherent in Nazi ideology; however, many fascists, in particular Mussolini himself, held racist ideas (specifically anti-Slavism) that were enshrined into law as official policy over the course of fascist rule. As Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany grew politically closer in the latter half of the 1930s, Italian laws and policies became explicitly antisemitic due to pressure from Nazi Germany (even though antisemitic laws were not commonly enforced in Italy), including the passage of the Italian racial laws. When the fascists were in power, they also persecuted some linguistic minorities in Italy. In addition, the Greeks in Dodecanese and Northern Epirus, which were then under Italian occupation and influence, were persecuted.
Principal beliefs
Nationalism
Italian fascism is based upon Italian nationalism and in particular seeks to complete what it considers as the incomplete project of Risorgimento by incorporating Italia Irredenta (unredeemed Italy) into the state of Italy. The National Fascist Party (PNF) founded in 1921 declared that the party was to serve as "a revolutionary militia placed at the service of the nation. It follows a policy based on three principles: order, discipline, hierarchy".
It identifies modern Italy as the heir to the Roman Empire and Italy during the Renaissance and promotes the cultural identity of Romanitas (Roman-ness). Italian fascism historically sought to forge a strong Italian Empire as a Third Rome, identifying ancient Rome as the First Rome and Renaissance-era Italy as the Second Rome. Italian fascism has emulated ancient Rome and Mussolini in particular emulated ancient Roman leaders, such as Julius Caesar as a model for the fascists' rise to power and Augustus as a model for empire-building. Italian fascism has directly promoted imperialism, such as within the Doctrine of Fascism (1932), ghostwritten by Giovanni Gentile on behalf of Mussolini:
Irredentism and expansionism
Fascism emphasized the need for the restoration of the Mazzinian Risorgimento tradition that followed the unification of Italy, that the fascists claimed had been left incomplete and abandoned in the Giolittian-era Italy. Fascism sought the incorporation of claimed "unredeemed" territories into Italy.
To the east of Italy, the fascists claimed that Dalmatia was a land of Italian culture whose Italians (Dalmatian Italians), including those of Italianized South Slavic descent, had been driven out of Dalmatia and into exile in Italy, and supported the return of Italians of Dalmatian heritage. Mussolini identified Dalmatia as having strong Italian cultural roots for centuries via the Roman Empire and the Republic of Venice. The fascists especially focused their claims based on the Venetian cultural heritage of Dalmatia, claiming that Venetian rule had been beneficial for all Dalmatians and had been accepted by the Dalmatian population. The fascists were outraged after World War I, when the agreement between Italy and the Entente Allies in the Treaty of London of 1915 to have Dalmatia join Italy was revoked in 1919. The fascist regime supported the annexation of Yugoslavia's region of Slovenia into Italy that already held a portion of the Slovene population, whereby Slovenia would become an Italian province, resulting in a quarter of Slovene ethnic territory and approximately 327,000 out of a total population of 1.3 million Slovenes being subjected to forced Italianization. The fascist regime imposed mandatory Italianization upon the German and South Slavic populations living within Italy's borders. The fascist regime abolished the teaching of minority German and Slavic languages in schools, German and Slavic language newspapers were shut down and geographical and family names in areas of German or Slavic languages were to be Italianized. This resulted in significant violence against South Slavs deemed to be resisting Italianization. The fascist regime supported the annexation of Albania, claimed that Albanians were ethnically linked to Italians through links with the prehistoric Italiotes, Illyrian and Roman populations and that the major influence exerted by the Roman and Venetian empires over Albania justified Italy's right to possess it. The fascist regime also justified the annexation of Albania on the basis that—because several hundred thousand people of Albanian descent had been absorbed into society in southern Italy already—the incorporation of Albania was a reasonable measure that would unite people of Albanian descent into one state. The fascist regime endorsed Albanian irredentism, directed against the predominantly Albanian-populated Kosovo and Epirus, particularly in Chameria inhabited by a substantial number of Albanians. After Italy annexed Albania in 1939, the fascist regime endorsed assimilating Albanians into Italians and colonizing Albania with Italian settlers from the Italian Peninsula to gradually transform it into an Italian land. The fascist regime claimed the Ionian Islands as Italian territory on the basis that the islands had belonged to the Venetian Republic from the mid-14th until the late 18th century.
To the west of Italy, the fascists claimed that the territories of Corsica, Nice and Savoy held by France were Italian lands. During the period of Italian unification in 1860 to 1861, Prime Minister of Piedmont-Sardinia, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, who was leading the unification effort, faced opposition from French Emperor Napoleon III who indicated that France would oppose Italian unification unless France was given Nice and Savoy that were held by Piedmont-Sardinia, as France did not want a powerful state having control of all the passages of the Alps. As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia was pressured to concede Nice and Savoy to France in exchange for France accepting the unification of Italy. The fascist regime produced literature on Corsica that presented evidence of the italianità (Italianness) of the island. The fascist regime produced literature on Nice that justified that Nice was an Italian land based on historic, ethnic and linguistic grounds. The fascists quoted Medieval Italian scholar Petrarch who said: "The border of Italy is the Var; consequently Nice is a part of Italy". The fascists quoted Italian national hero Giuseppe Garibaldi who said: "Corsica and Nice must not belong to France; there will come the day when an Italy mindful of its true worth will reclaim its provinces now so shamefully languishing under foreign domination". Mussolini initially pursued promoting annexation of Corsica through political and diplomatic means, believing that Corsica could be annexed to Italy through first encouraging the existing autonomist tendencies in Corsica and then the independence of Corsica from France, that would be followed by the annexation of Corsica into Italy.
To the north of Italy, the fascist regime in the 1930s had designs on the largely Italian-populated region of Ticino and the Romansch-populated region of Graubünden in Switzerland (the Romansch are a people with a Latin-based language). In November 1938, Mussolini declared to the Grand Fascist Council: "We shall bring our border to the Gotthard Pass". The fascist regime accused the Swiss government of oppressing the Romansch people in Graubünden. Mussolini argued that Romansch was an Italian dialect and thus Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. Ticino was also claimed because the region had belonged to the Duchy of Milan from the mid-fourteenth century until 1515, as well as being inhabited by Italian speakers of Italian ethnicity. Claim was also raised on the basis that areas now part of Graubünden in the Mesolcina valley and Hinterrhein were held by the Milanese Trivulzio family, who ruled from the Mesocco Castle in the late 15th century. Also during the summer of 1940, Galeazzo Ciano met with Hitler and Ribbentrop and proposed to them the dissection of Switzerland along the central chain of the Western Alps, which would have left Italy also with the canton of Valais in addition to the claims raised earlier.
To the south, the regime claimed the archipelago of Malta, which had been held by the British since 1800. Mussolini claimed that the Maltese language was a dialect of Italian and theories about Malta being the cradle of the Latin civilization were promoted. Italian had been widely used in Malta in the literary, scientific and legal fields and it was one of Malta's official languages until 1937 when its status was abolished by the British as a response to Italy's invasion of Ethiopia. Italian irredentists had claimed that territories on the coast of North Africa were Italy's Fourth Shore and used the historical Roman rule in North Africa as a precedent to justify the incorporation of such territories to Italian jurisdiction as being a "return" of Italy to North Africa. In January 1939, Italy annexed territories in Libya that it considered within Italy's Fourth Shore, with Libya's four coastal provinces of Tripoli, Misurata, Benghazi and Derna becoming an integral part of metropolitan Italy. At the same time, indigenous Libyans were given the ability to apply for "Special Italian Citizenship" which required such people to be literate in the Italian language and confined this type of citizenship to be valid in Libya only. Tunisia that had been taken by France as a protectorate in 1881 had the highest concentration of Italians in North Africa and its seizure by France had been viewed as an injury to national honour in Italy at what they perceived as a "loss" of Tunisia from Italian plans to incorporate it. Upon entering World War II, Italy declared its intention to seize Tunisia as well as the province of Constantine of Algeria from France.
To the south, the fascist regime held an interest in expanding Italy's African colonial possessions. In the 1920s, Italy regarded Portugal as a weak country that was unbecoming of a colonial power due to its weak hold on its colonies and mismanagement of them and as such Italy desired to annexe Portugal's colonies. Italy's relations with Portugal were influenced by the rise to power of the authoritarian conservative nationalist regime of Salazar, which borrowed fascist methods, though Salazar upheld Portugal's traditional alliance with Britain.
Racism
Until Benito Mussolini's alliance with Adolf Hitler, he had always denied any antisemitism within the National Fascist Party (PNF). In the early 1920s, Mussolini wrote an article which stated that Fascism would never elevate a "Jewish Question" and that "Italy knows no antisemitism and we believe that it will never know it" and then elaborated "let us hope that Italian Jews will continue to be sensible enough so as not to give rise to antisemitism in the only country where it has never existed". In 1932 during a conversation with Emil Ludwig, Mussolini described antisemitism as a "German vice" and stated: "There was 'no Jewish Question' in Italy and could not be one in a country with a healthy system of government". On several occasions, Mussolini spoke positively about Jews and the Zionist movement. Mussolini had initially rejected Nazi racism, especially the idea of a master race, as "arrant nonsense, stupid and idiotic".
Initially, Fascist Italy did not enact comprehensive racist policies like those policies which were enacted by its World War II Axis partner Nazi Germany. Italy's National Fascist Party leader, Benito Mussolini, expressed different views on the subject of race over the course of his career. In an interview conducted in 1932 at the Palazzo di Venezia in Rome, he said "Race? It is a feeling, not a reality: ninety-five percent, at least, is a feeling. Nothing will ever make me believe that biologically pure races can be shown to exist today". By 1938, however, he began to actively support racist policies in the Italian Fascist regime, as evidenced by his endorsement of the "Manifesto of Race", the seventh point of which stated that "it is time that Italians proclaim themselves to be openly racist", although Mussolini said that the Manifesto was endorsed "entirely for political reasons", in deference to Nazi German wishes. The "Manifesto of Race", which was published on 14 July 1938, paved the way for the enactment of the Racial Laws. Leading members of the National Fascist Party (PNF), such as Dino Grandi and Italo Balbo, reportedly opposed the Racial Laws. Balbo, in particular, regarded antisemitism as having nothing to do with fascism and staunchly opposed the antisemitic laws. After 1938, discrimination and persecution intensified and became an increasingly important hallmark of Italian Fascist ideology and policies. Nevertheless, Mussolini and the Italian military did not consistently apply the laws adopted in the Manifesto of Race. In 1943, Mussolini expressed regret for the endorsement, saying that it could've been avoided. After the Second Italo-Ethiopian War, the Italian Fascist government implemented strict racial segregation between white people and black people in Ethiopia.
Totalitarianism
In 1925, the PNF declared that Italy's fascist state would be totalitarian. The term "totalitarian" had initially been used as a pejorative accusation by Italy's liberal opposition that denounced the fascist movement for seeking to create a total dictatorship. However, the fascists responded by accepting that they were totalitarian, but presented totalitarianism from a positive viewpoint. Mussolini described totalitarianism as seeking to forge an authoritarian national state that would be capable of completing Risorgimento of the Italia Irredenta, forge a powerful modern Italy and create a new kind of citizen – politically active fascist Italians.
The Doctrine of Fascism (1932) described the nature of Italian fascism's totalitarianism, stating the following:
American journalist H. R. Knickerbocker wrote in 1941: "Mussolini's Fascist state is the least terroristic of the three totalitarian states. The terror is so mild in comparison with the Soviet or Nazi varieties, that it almost fails to qualify as terroristic at all." As example he described an Italian journalist friend who refused to become a fascist. He was fired from his newspaper and put under 24-hour surveillance, but otherwise not harassed; his employment contract was settled for a lump sum and he was allowed to work for the foreign press. Knickerbocker contrasted his treatment with the inevitable torture and execution under Stalin or Hitler, and stated "you have a fair idea of the comparative mildness of the Italian kind of totalitarianism".
However, since World War II historians have noted that in Italy's colonies Italian fascism displayed extreme levels of violence. The deaths of one-tenth of the population of the Italian colony of Libya occurred during the fascist era, including from the use of gassings, concentration camps, starvation and disease; and in Ethiopia during the Second Italo-Ethiopian War and afterwards by 1938 a quarter of a million Ethiopians had died.
Corporatist economics
Italian fascism promoted a corporatist economic system. The economy involved employer and employee syndicates being linked together in corporative associations to collectively represent the nation's economic producers and work alongside the state to set national economic policy. Mussolini declared such economics as a "Third Alternative" to capitalism and Marxism that Italian fascism regarded as "obsolete doctrines". For instance, he said in 1935 that orthodox capitalism no longer existed in the country. Preliminary plans as of 1939 intended to divide the country into 22 corporations which would send representatives to Parliament from each industry.
State permission was required for almost any business activity, such as expanding a factory, merging a business, or to fire or lay off an employee. All wages were set by the government, and a minimum wage was imposed in Italy. Restrictions on labor increased. While corporations still could earn profits, Italian fascism supported criminalization of strikes by employees and lockouts by employers as illegal acts it deemed as prejudicial to the national community as a whole.
Age and gender roles
The Italian fascists' political anthem was called Giovinezza (Youth). Fascism identifies the physical age period of youth as a critical time for the moral development of people that will affect society.
Italian fascism pursued what it called "moral hygiene" of youth, particularly regarding sexuality. Fascist Italy promoted what it considered normal sexual behaviour in youth while denouncing what it considered deviant sexual behaviour. It condemned pornography, most forms of birth control and contraceptive devices (with the exception of the condom), homosexuality and prostitution as deviant sexual behaviour. Fascist Italy regarded the promotion of male sexual excitation before puberty as the cause of criminality amongst male youth. Fascist Italy reflected the belief of most Italians that homosexuality was wrong. Instead of the traditional Catholic teaching that it was a sin, a new approach was taken, based on the contemporary psychoanalysis, that it was a social disease. Fascist Italy pursued an aggressive campaign to reduce prostitution of young women.
Mussolini perceived women's primary role to be childbearers while men were warriors, once saying that "war is to man what maternity is to the woman". In an effort to increase birthrates, the Italian fascist government initiated policies designed to reduce a need for families to be dependent on a dual-income. The most evident policy to lessen female participation in the workplace was a program to encourage large families, where parents were given subsidies for a second child, and proportionally increased subsidies for a third, fourth, fifth, and sixth child. Italian fascism called for women to be honoured as "reproducers of the nation" and the Italian fascist government held ritual ceremonies to honour women's role within the Italian nation. In 1934, Mussolini declared that employment of women was a "major aspect of the thorny problem of unemployment" and that for women working was "incompatible with childbearing". Mussolini went on to say that the solution to unemployment for men was the "exodus of women from the work force". Although the initial Fascist Manifesto contained a reference to universal suffrage, this broad opposition to feminism meant that when it granted women the right to vote in 1925 it was limited purely to voting in local elections.
Tradition
Italian fascism believed that the success of Italian nationalism required a clear sense of a shared past amongst the Italian people along with a commitment to a modernized Italy. In a famous speech in 1926, Mussolini called for fascist art that was "traditionalist and at the same time modern, that looks to the past and at the same time to the future".
Traditional symbols of Roman civilization were utilized by the fascists, particularly the fasces that symbolized unity, authority and the exercise of power. Other traditional symbols of ancient Rome used by the fascists included the she-wolf. The fasces and the she-wolf symbolized the shared Roman heritage of all the regions that constituted the Italian nation. In 1926, the fasces was adopted by the fascist government of Italy as a symbol of the state. In that year, the fascist government attempted to have the Italian national flag redesigned to incorporate the fasces on it. This attempt to incorporate the fasces on the flag was stopped by strong opposition to the proposal by Italian monarchists. Afterwards, the fascist government in public ceremonies rose the national tricolour flag along with a fascist black flag. Years later, and after Mussolini was forced from power by the King in 1943 only to be rescued by German forces, the Italian Social Republic founded by Mussolini and the fascists did incorporate the fasces on the state's war flag, which was a variant of the Italian tricolour national flag.
The issue of the rule of monarchy or republic in Italy was an issue that changed several times through the development of Italian fascism, as initially Italian fascism was republican and denounced the Savoy monarchy. However, Mussolini tactically abandoned republicanism in 1922 and recognized that the acceptance of the monarchy was a necessary compromise to gain the support of the establishment to challenge the liberal constitutional order that also supported the monarchy. King Victor Emmanuel III had become a popular ruler in the aftermath of Italy's gains after World War I and the army held close loyalty to the King, thus any idea of overthrowing the monarchy was discarded as foolhardy by the fascists at this point. Importantly, fascism's recognition of monarchy provided fascism with a sense of historical continuity and legitimacy. The fascists publicly identified King Victor Emmanuel II, the first King of a reunited Italy who had initiated the Risorgimento, along with other historic Italian figures such as Gaius Marius, Julius Caesar, Giuseppe Mazzini, Camillo Benso, Count of Cavour, Giuseppe Garibaldi and others, for being within a tradition of dictatorship in Italy that the fascists declared that they emulated. However, this compromise with the monarchy did not yield a cordial relationship between the King and Mussolini. Although Mussolini had formally accepted the monarchy, he pursued and largely achieved reducing the power of the King to that of a figurehead. The King initially held complete nominal legal authority over the military through the Statuto Albertino, but this was ended during the fascist regime when Mussolini created the position of First Marshal of the Empire in 1938, a two-person position of control over the military held by both the King and the head of government that had the effect of eliminating the King's previously exclusive legal authority over the military by giving Mussolini equal legal authority to the King over the military. In the 1930s, Mussolini became aggravated by the monarchy's continued existence due to envy of the fact that his counterpart in Germany Adolf Hitler was both head of state and head of government of a republic; and Mussolini in private denounced the monarchy and indicated that he had plans to dismantle the monarchy and create a republic with himself as head of state of Italy upon an Italian success in the then-anticipated major war about to erupt in Europe.
After being removed from office and placed under arrest by the King in 1943, with the Kingdom of Italy's new non-fascist government switching sides from the Axis to the Allies, Italian fascism returned to republicanism and condemnation of the monarchy. On 18 September 1943, Mussolini made his first public address to the Italian people since his rescue from arrest by allied German forces, in which he commended the loyalty of Hitler as an ally while condemning King Victor Emmanuel III of the Kingdom of Italy for betraying Italian fascism. On the topic of the monarchy removing him from power and dismantling the fascist regime, Mussolini stated: "It is not the regime that has betrayed the monarchy, it is the monarchy that has betrayed the regime" and that "When a monarchy fails in its duties, it loses every reason for being. ... The state we want to establish will be national and social in the highest sense of the word; that is, it will be fascist, thus returning to our origins". The fascists at this point did not denounce the House of Savoy in the entirety of its history and credited Victor Emmanuel II for his rejection of "scornfully dishonourable pacts" and denounced Victor Emmanuel III for betraying Victor Emmanuel II by entering a dishonourable pact with the Allies.
The relationship between Italian fascism and the Catholic Church was mixed, as originally the fascists were highly anti-clerical and hostile to Catholicism, though from the mid to late 1920s anti-clericalism lost ground in the movement as Mussolini in power sought to seek accord with the Church as the Church held major influence in Italian society with most Italians being Catholic. In 1929, the Italian government signed the Lateran Treaty with the Holy See, a concordat between Italy and the Catholic Church that allowed for the creation of a small enclave known as Vatican City as a sovereign state representing the papacy. This ended years of perceived alienation between the Church and the Italian government after Italy annexed the Papal States in 1870. Italian fascism justified its adoption of antisemitic laws in 1938 by claiming that Italy was fulfilling the Christian religious mandate of the Catholic Church that had been initiated by Pope Innocent III in the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, whereby the Pope issued strict regulation of the life of Jews in Christian lands. Jews were prohibited from holding any public office that would give them power over Christians and Jews were required to wear distinctive clothing to distinguish them from Christians.
Doctrine
The Doctrine of Fascism (La dottrina del fascismo, 1932) by the actualist philosopher Giovanni Gentile is the official formulation of Italian fascism, published under Benito Mussolini's name in 1933. Gentile was intellectually influenced by Hegel, Plato, Benedetto Croce and Giambattista Vico, thus his actual idealism philosophy was the basis for fascism. Hence, the Doctrines Weltanschauung proposes the world as action in the realm of humanity – beyond the quotidian constrictions of contemporary political trend, by rejecting "perpetual peace" as fantastical and accepting Man as a species continually at war; those who meet the challenge, achieve nobility. To wit, actual idealism generally accepted that conquerors were the men of historical consequence, e.g. the Roman Julius Caesar, the Greek Alexander the Great, the Frank Charlemagne and the French Napoleon. The philosopher–intellectual Gentile was especially inspired by the Roman Empire (27 BC – AD 476, 1453), from whence derives fascism:
In 1925, Mussolini assumed the title Duce (Leader), derived from the Latin dux (leader), a Roman Republic military-command title. Moreover, although fascist Italy (1922–1943) is historically considered an authoritarian–totalitarian dictatorship, it retained the original "liberal democratic" government façade: the Grand Council of Fascism remained active as administrators; and King Victor Emmanuel III of Italy could—at the risk of his crown—dismiss Mussolini as Italian Prime Minister as in the event he did.
Gentile defined fascism as an anti-intellectual doctrine, epistemologically based on faith rather than reason. Fascist mysticism emphasized the importance of political myths, which were true not as empirical facts, but as "metareality". Fascist art, architecture and symbols constituted a process which converted Fascism into a sort of a civil religion or political religion. La dottrina del fascismo states that fascism is a "religious conception of life" and forms a "spiritual community" in contrast to bourgeois materialism. The slogan Credere Obbedire Combattere ("Believe, Obey, Fight") reflects the importance of political faith in fascism.
According to historian Zeev Sternhell, "most syndicalist leaders were among the founders of the fascist movement", who in later years gained key posts in Mussolini's regime. Mussolini expressed great admiration for the ideas of Georges Sorel, who he claimed was instrumental in birthing the core principles of Italian fascism. J. L. Talmon argued that fascism billed itself "not only as an alternative, but also as the heir to socialism".
La dottrina del fascismo proposed an Italy of greater living standards under a one-party fascist system than under the multi-party liberal democratic government of 1920. As the leader of the National Fascist Party (PNF, Partito Nazionale Fascista), Mussolini said that democracy is "beautiful in theory; in practice, it is a fallacy" and spoke of celebrating the burial of the "putrid corpse of liberty". In 1923, to give Deputy Mussolini control of the pluralist parliamentary government of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946), an economist, the Baron Giacomo Acerbo, proposed—and the Italian Parliament approved—the Acerbo Law, changing the electoral system from proportional representation to majority representation. The party who received the most votes (provided they possessed at least 25 percent of cast votes) won two-thirds of the parliament; the remaining third was proportionately shared among the other parties, thus the fascist manipulation of liberal democratic law that rendered Italy a one-party state.
In 1924, the PNF won the election with 65 percent of the votes, yet the United Socialist Party refused to accept such a defeat—especially Deputy Giacomo Matteotti, who on 30 May 1924 in Parliament formally accused the PNF of electoral fraud and reiterated his denunciations of PNF Blackshirt political violence and was publishing The Fascisti Exposed: A Year of Fascist Domination, a book substantiating his accusations. Consequently, on 24 June 1924, the Ceka (ostensibly a party secret police, modelled on the Soviet Cheka) assassinated Matteotti and of the five men arrested, Amerigo Dumini, also known as Sicario del Duce (The Leader's Assassin), was sentenced to five years' imprisonment, but served only eleven months and was freed under amnesty from King Victor Emmanuel III. Moreover, when the King supported Prime Minister Mussolini the socialists quit Parliament in protest, leaving the fascists to govern unopposed. In that time, assassination was not yet the modus operandi norm and the Italian fascist Duce usually disposed of opponents in the Imperial Roman way: political arrest punished with island banishment.
Conditions precipitating fascism
Nationalist discontent
After World War I (1914–1918), despite the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946) being a full-partner Allied Power against the Central Powers, Italian nationalism claimed Italy was cheated in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919), thus the Allies had impeded Italy's progress to becoming a "Great Power". Thenceforth, the PNF successfully exploited that "slight" to Italian nationalism in presenting fascism as best-suited for governing the country by successfully claiming that democracy, socialism and liberalism were failed systems. The PNF assumed Italian government in 1922, consequent to the fascist Leader Mussolini's oratory and Blackshirt paramilitary political violence.
At the Paris Peace Conference in 1919, the Allies compelled the Kingdom of Italy to yield to Yugoslavia the Croatian seaport of Fiume (Rijeka), a mostly Italian city of little nationalist significance, until early 1919. Moreover, elsewhere Italy was then excluded from the wartime secret Treaty of London (1915) it had concorded with the Triple Entente; wherein Italy was to leave the Triple Alliance and join the enemy by declaring war against the German Empire and Austria-Hungary in exchange for territories at war's end, upon which the Kingdom of Italy held claims (see Italia irredenta).
In September 1919, the nationalist response of outraged war hero Gabriele D'Annunzio was declaring the establishment of the Italian Regency of Carnaro. To his independent Italian state, he installed himself as the Regent Duce and promulgated the Carta del Carnaro (Charter of Carnaro, 8 September 1920), a politically syncretic constitutional amalgamation of right-wing and left-wing anarchist, proto-fascist and democratic republican politics, which much influenced the politico-philosophic development of early Italian fascism. Consequent to the Treaty of Rapallo (1920), the metropolitan Italian military deposed the Regency of Duce D'Annunzio on Christmas 1920. In the development of the fascist model of government, D'Annunzio was a nationalist and not a fascist, whose legacy of political–praxis ("Politics as Theatre") was stylistic (ceremony, uniform, harangue and chanting) and not substantive, which Italian Fascism artfully developed as a government model.
At the same time, Mussolini and many of his revolutionary syndicalist adherents gravitated towards a form of revolutionary nationalism in an effort to "identify the 'communality' of man not with class, but with the nation". According to A. James Gregor, Mussolini came to believe that "Fascism was the only form of 'socialism' appropriate to the proletarian nations of the twentieth century" while he was in the process of shifting his views from socialism to nationalism. Enrico Corradini, one of the early influences on Mussolini's thought and later a member of his administration, championed the concept of proletarian nationalism, writing about Italy in 1910: "We are the proletarian people in respect to the rest of the world. Nationalism is our socialism". Mussolini would come to use similar wording, for instance referring to fascist Italy during World War II as the "proletarian nations that rise up against the plutocrats".
Labor unrest
Given Italian fascism's pragmatic political amalgamations of left-wing and right-wing socio-economic policies, discontented workers and peasants proved an abundant source of popular political power, especially because of peasant opposition to socialist agricultural collectivism. Thus armed, the former socialist Benito Mussolini oratorically inspired and mobilized country and working-class people: "We declare war on socialism, not because it is socialist, but because it has opposed nationalism". Moreover, for campaign financing in the 1920–1921 period the National fascist Party also courted the industrialists and (historically feudal) landowners by appealing to their fears of left-wing socialist and Bolshevik labor politics and urban and rural strikes. The fascists promised a good business climate of cost-effective labor, wage and political stability; and the fascist Party was en route to power.
Historian Charles F. Delzell reports: "At first, the fascist Revolutionary Party was concentrated in Milan and a few other cities. They gained ground quite slowly, between 1919 and 1920; not until after the scare, brought about by the workers "occupation of the factories" in the late summer of 1920 did fascism become really widespread. The industrialists began to throw their financial support behind Mussolini after he renamed his party and retracted his former support for Lenin and the Russian Revolution. Moreover, toward the end of 1920, fascism began to spread into the countryside, bidding for the support of large landowners, particularly in the area between Bologna and Ferrara, a traditional stronghold of the Left, and scene of frequent violence. Socialist and Catholic organizers of farm hands in that region, Venezia Giulia, Tuscany, and even distant Apulia, were soon attacked by Blackshirt squads of fascists, armed with castor oil, blackjacks, and more lethal weapons. The era of squadrismo and nightly expeditions to burn Socialist and Catholic labor headquarters had begun. During this time period, Mussolini's fascist squads also engaged in violent attacks against the Church where "several priests were assassinated and churches burned by the fascists".
Fascism empowered
Italy's use of daredevil elite shock troops, known as the Arditi, beginning in 1917, was an important influence on fascism. The Arditi were soldiers who were specifically trained for a life of violence and wore unique blackshirt uniforms and fezzes. The Arditi formed a national organization in November 1918, the Associazione fra gli Arditi d'Italia, which by mid-1919 had about twenty thousand young men within it. Mussolini appealed to the Arditi and the Fascists' squadristi, developed after the war, were based upon the Arditi.
World War I inflated Italy's economy with great debts, unemployment (aggravated by thousands of demobilised soldiers), social discontent featuring strikes, organised crime and anarchist, socialist and communist insurrections. When the elected Italian Liberal Party Government could not control Italy, the fascist leader Mussolini took matters in hand, combating those issues with the Blackshirts, paramilitary squads of First World War veterans and ex socialists when Prime Ministers such as Giovanni Giolitti allowed the fascists taking the law in hand. The violence between socialists and the mostly self-organized squadristi militias, especially in the countryside, had increased so dramatically that Mussolini was pressured to call a truce to bring about "reconciliation with the Socialists". Signed in early August 1921, Mussolini and the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) agreed to the Pact of Pacification, which was immediately condemned by most ras leaders in the squadrismo. The peace pact was officially denounced during the Third Fascist Congress on 7–10 November 1921.
The Liberal government preferred fascist class collaboration to the Communist Party of Italy's class conflict should they assume government as had Vladimir Lenin's Bolsheviks in the recent Russian Revolution of 1917, although Mussolini had originally praised Lenin's October Revolution and publicly referred to himself in 1919 as "Lenin of Italy".
The Manifesto of the Fascist Struggle (June 1919) of the PFR presented the politico-philosophic tenets of fascism. The manifesto was authored by national syndicalist Alceste De Ambris and Futurist movement leader Filippo Tommaso Marinetti. The manifesto was divided into four sections, describing the movement's objectives in political, social, military and financial fields.
By the early 1920s, popular support for the fascist movement's fight against Bolshevism numbered some 250,000 people. In 1921, the fascists metamorphosed into the PNF and achieved political legitimacy when Mussolini was elected to the Chamber of Deputies in 1922. Although the Liberal Party retained power, the governing prime ministries proved ephemeral, especially that of the fifth Prime Minister Luigi Facta, whose government proved vacillating.
To depose the weak parliamentary democracy, Deputy Mussolini (with military, business and liberal right-wing support) launched the PNF March on Rome (27–29 October 1922) coup d'état to oust Prime Minister Luigi Facta and assume the government of Italy to restore nationalist pride, restart the economy, increase productivity with labor controls, remove economic business controls and impose law and order. On 28 October, whilst the "March" occurred, King Victor Emmanuel III withdrew his support of Prime Minister Facta and appointed PNF Leader Benito Mussolini as the sixth Prime Minister of Italy.
The March on Rome became a victory parade: the fascists believed their success was revolutionary and traditionalist.
Economy
Until 1925, when the liberal economist Alberto de' Stefani, although a former member of the squadristi, was removed from his post as Minister of Economics (1922–1925), Italy's coalition government was able to restart the economy and balanced the national budget. Stefani developed economic policies that were aligned with classical liberalism principles as inheritance, luxury and foreign capital taxes were abolished; and life insurance (1923) and the state communications monopolies were privatised and so on. During Italy's coalition government era, pro-business policies apparently did not contradict the State's financing of banks and industry. Political scientist Franklin Hugh Adler referred to this coalition period between Mussolini's appointment as prime minister on 31 October 1922 and his 1925 dictatorship as "Liberal-Fascism, a hybrid, unstable, and transitory regime type under which the formal juridical-institutional framework of the liberal regime was conserved", which still allowed pluralism, competitive elections, freedom of the press and the right of trade unions to strike. Liberal Party leaders and industrialists thought that they could neutralize Mussolini by making him the head of a coalition government, where as Luigi Albertini remarked that "he will be much more subject to influence".
One of Prime Minister Mussolini's first acts was the 400-million-lira financing of Gio. Ansaldo & C., one of the country's most important engineering companies. Subsequent to the 1926 deflation crisis, banks such as the Banco di Roma (Bank of Rome), the Banco di Napoli (Bank of Naples) and the Banco di Sicilia (Bank of Sicily) also were state-financed. In 1924, a private business enterprise established Unione Radiofonica Italiana (URI) as part of the Marconi company, to which the Italian fascist Government granted official radio-broadcast monopoly. After the defeat of fascism in 1944, URI became Radio Audizioni Italiane (RAI) and was renamed RAI — Radiotelevisione Italiana with the advent of television in 1954.
Given the overwhelmingly rural nature of Italian economy in the period, agriculture was vital to fascist economic policies and propaganda. To strengthen the domestic Italian production of grain, the fascist Government established in 1925 protectionist policies that ultimately failed (see the Battle for Grain).
From 1926 following the Pact of the Vidoni Palace and the Syndical Laws, business and labour were organized into 12 separate associations, outlawing or integrating all others. These organizations negotiated labour contracts on behalf of all its members with the state acting as the arbitrator. The state tended to favour big industry over small industry, commerce, banking, agriculture, labour and transport even though each sector officially had equal representation. Pricing, production and distribution practices were controlled by employer associations rather than individual firms and labour syndicates negotiated collective labour contracts binding all firms in the particular sector. Enforcement of contracts was difficult and the large bureaucracy delayed resolutions of labour disputes.
After 1929, the fascist regime countered the Great Depression with massive public works programs, such as the draining of the Pontine Marshes, hydroelectricity development, railway improvement and rearmament. In 1933, the Istituto per la Ricostruzione Industriale (IRI – Institute for Industrial Reconstruction) was established to subsidize failing companies and soon controlled important portions of the national economy via government-linked companies, among them Alfa Romeo. The Italian economy's Gross National Product increased 2 percent; automobile production was increased, especially that of the Fiat motor company; and the aeronautical industry was developing. Especially after the 1936 League of Nations sanctions against Italian invasion of Ethiopia, Mussolini strongly advocated agrarianism and autarchy as part of his economic "battles" for Land, the Lira and Grain. As Prime Minister, Mussolini physically participated with the workers in doing the work; the "politics as theatre" legacy of Gabriele D' Annunzio yielded great propaganda images of Il Duce as "Man of the People".
A year after the creation of the IRI, Mussolini boasted to his Chamber of Deputies: "Three-fourths of the Italian economy, industrial and agricultural, is in the hands of the state". As Italy continued to nationalize its economy, the IRI "became the owner not only of the three most important Italian banks, which were clearly too big to fail, but also of the lion's share of the Italian industries". During this period, Mussolini identified his economic policies with "state capitalism" and "state socialism", which later was described as "economic dirigisme", an economic system where the state has the power to direct economic production and allocation of resources. By 1939, fascist Italy attained the highest rate of state–ownership of an economy in the world other than the Soviet Union, where the Italian state "controlled over four-fifths of Italy's shipping and shipbuilding, three-quarters of its pig iron production and almost half that of steel".
Relations with the Catholic Church
In the 19th century, the forces of Risorgimento (1815–1871) had conquered Rome and taken control of it away from the Papacy, which saw itself henceforth as a prisoner in the Vatican. In February 1929, as Italian Head of Government, Mussolini concluded the unresolved Church–State conflict of the Roman Question (La Questione romana) with the Lateran Treaty between the Kingdom of Italy and the Holy See, establishing the Vatican City microstate in Rome. Upon ratification of the Lateran Treaty, the papacy recognized the state of Italy in exchange for diplomatic recognition of the Vatican City, territorial compensations, introduction of religious education into all state funded schools in Italy and 50 million pounds sterling that were shifted from Italian bank shares into a Swiss company Profima SA. British wartime records from the National Archives in Kew also confirmed Profima SA as the Vatican's company which was accused during WW II of engaging in "activities contrary to Allied interests". Cambridge historian John F. Pollard wrote in his book that this financial settlement ensured the "papacy [...] would never be poor again".
Not long after the Lateran Treaty was signed, Mussolini was almost "excommunicated" over his "intractable" determination to prevent the Vatican from having control over education. In reply, the Pope protested Mussolini's "pagan worship of the state" and the imposition of an "exclusive oath of obedience" that obligated everyone to uphold fascism. Once declaring in his youth that "religion is a species of mental disease", Mussolini "wanted the appearance of being greatly favoured by the Pope" while simultaneously "subordinate to no one". Mussolini's widow attested in her 1974 book that her husband was "basically irreligious until the later years of his life".
Influence outside Italy
The fascist government's model was very influential beyond Italy. In the twenty-one-year interbellum period, many political scientists and philosophers sought ideological inspiration from Italy. Mussolini's establishment of law and order to Italy and its society was praised by Winston Churchill, Sigmund Freud, George Bernard Shaw and Thomas Edison as the fascist government combated organised crime and the Sicilian Mafia.
Italian fascism was copied by Adolf Hitler's Nazi Party, the Russian Fascist Organization, the Romanian National Fascist Movement (the National Romanian Fascia, National Italo-Romanian Cultural and Economic Movement) and the Dutch fascists were based upon the Verbond van Actualisten journal of H. A. Sinclair de Rochemont and Alfred Haighton. The Sammarinese Fascist Party established an early fascist government in San Marino and their politico-philosophic basis essentially was Italian fascism. In the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, Milan Stojadinović established his Yugoslav Radical Union. They wore green shirts and Šajkača caps and used the Roman salute. Stojadinović also adopted the title of Vodja. In Switzerland, pro-Nazi Colonel Arthur Fonjallaz of the National Front became an ardent Mussolini admirer after visiting Italy in 1932 and advocated the Italian annexation of Switzerland whilst receiving fascist foreign aid. The country was host for two Italian politico-cultural activities: the International Centre for Fascist Studies (CINEF — Centre International d' Études Fascistes) and the 1934 congress of the Action Committee for the Universality of Rome (CAUR — Comitato d' Azione della Università de Roma). In Spain, the writer Ernesto Giménez Caballero in Genio de España (The Genius of Spain, 1932) called for the Italian annexation of Spain, led by Mussolini presiding an international Latin Roman Catholic empire. He then progressed to close associated with Falangism, leading to discarding the Spanish annexation to Italy.
Italian fascist intellectuals
Benito Mussolini
Massimo Bontempelli
Giuseppe Bottai
Enrico Corradini
Carlo Costamagna
Julius Evola
Enrico Ferri
Giovanni Gentile
Corrado Gini
Agostino Lanzillo
Curzio Malaparte
Filippo Tommaso Marinetti
Robert Michels
Angelo Oliviero Olivetti
Sergio Panunzio
Giovanni Papini
Giuseppe Prezzolini
Alfredo Rocco
Edmondo Rossoni
Margherita Sarfatti
Ardengo Soffici
Ugo Spirito
Giuseppe Ungaretti
Gioacchino Volpe
Italian fascist slogans
Me ne frego ("I don't give a damn!"), the Italian fascist motto.
Libro e moschetto, fascista perfetto ("Book and musket, perfect fascist").
Tutto nello Stato, niente al di fuori dello Stato, nulla contro lo Stato ("Everything in the State, nothing outside the State, nothing against the State").
Credere, obbedire, combattere ("Believe, Obey, Fight").
Chi si ferma è perduto ("He who hesitates is lost").
Se avanzo, seguitemi; se indietreggio, uccidetemi; se muoio, vendicatemi ("If I advance, follow me. If I retreat, kill me. If I die, avenge me"). Borrowed from French Royalist General Henri de la Rochejaquelein.
Viva il Duce ("Long live the Leader").
La guerra è per l'uomo come la maternità è per la donna ("War is to man as motherhood is to woman").
Boia chi molla ("Who gives up is a rogue"); the first meaning of "boia" is "executioner, hangman", but in this context it means "scoundrel, rogue, villain, blackguard, knave, lowlife" and it can also be used as an exclamation of strong irritation or disappointment or as a pejoratively superlative adjective (e.g. tempo boia, "awful weather").
Molti nemici, molto onore ("Many enemies, much Honor").
È l'aratro che traccia il solco, ma è la spada che lo difende ("The plough cuts the furrow, but the sword defends it").
Dux mea lux ("The Leader is my light"), Latin phrase.
Duce, a noi ("Duce, to us").
Mussolini ha sempre ragione ("Mussolini is always right").
Vincere, e vinceremo ("To win, and we shall win!").
See also
Definitions of fascism
Economy of Italy under fascism
Fascism
Fascist architecture
Fascist syndicalism
Italian fascist states
Kingdom of Italy (1922–1943; as a fascist state)
Italian Social Republic (1943–1945)
Model of masculinity under fascist Italy
National Fascist Party
Propaganda in Fascist Italy
Italian fascism and racism
Italian racial laws
Neo-fascism
Nazism
Antisemitism in 21st-century Italy
Racism in Italy
Sicilian mafia during the Fascist regime
Squadrismo
Shōwa Statism
Totalitarianism
References
Sources
"Labor Charter" (1927–1934).
Mussolini, Benito. Doctrine of Fascism, which was published as part of the entry for fascismo in the Enciclopedia Italiana, 1932.
Sorel, Georges. Reflections on Violence.
Further reading
General
Acemoglu, Daron; De Feo, Giuseppe; De Luca, Giacomo; Russo, Gianluca. 2022. "War, Socialism, and the Rise of Fascism: An Empirical Exploration". The Quarterly Journal of Economics
De Felice, Renzo. 1977. Interpretations of Fascism, translated by Brenda Huff Everett, Cambridge; London: Harvard University Press .
Eatwell, Roger. 1996. Fascism: A History. New York: Allen Lane.
Hughes, H. Stuart. 1953. The United States and Italy. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, .
Payne, Stanley G. 1995. A History of Fascism, 1914–45. Madison, Wisc.: University of Wisconsin Press .
Reich, Wilhelm. 1970. The Mass Psychology of Fascism. New York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux.
Seldes, George. 1935. Sawdust Caesar: The Untold History of Mussolini and Fascism. New York and London: Harper and Brothers.
Smith, Denis Mack. "Mussolini, Artist in Propaganda: The Downfall of Fascism". History Today (Apr 1959) 9#4 pp. 223–232.
Alfred Sohn-Rethel. Economy and Class Structure of German Fascism, London, CSE Bks, 1978 .
Adler, Frank, and Danilo Breschi, eds. Special Issue on Italian Fascism, Telos 133 (Winter 2005).
Fascist ideology
De Felice, Renzo. 1976. Fascism: An Informal Introduction to Its Theory and Practice: An Interview with Michael Ledeen, New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Books .
Fritzsche, Peter. 1990. Rehearsals for Fascism: Populism and Political Mobilization in Weimar Germany. New York: Oxford University Press. .
Gregor, A. James "Mussolini's Intellectuals: Fascist Social and Political Thought". Princeton, N. J.: Princeton University Press, 2005. .
Griffin, Roger. 2000. "Revolution from the Right: Fascism", chapter in David Parker (ed.) Revolutions and the Revolutionary Tradition in the West 1560–1991, Routledge, London.
Laqueur, Walter. 1966. Fascism: Past, Present, Future, New York: Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.
Schapiro, J. Salwyn. 1949. Liberalism and The Challenge of Fascism, Social Forces in England and France (1815–1870). New York: McGraw-Hill.
Laclau, Ernesto. 1977. Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory: Capitalism, Fascism, Populism. London: NLB/Atlantic Highlands Humanities Press.
Sternhell, Zeev with Mario Sznajder and Maia Asheri. [1989] 1994. The Birth of Fascist Ideology, From Cultural Rebellion to Political Revolution. Trans. David Maisei. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
International fascism
Coogan, Kevin. 1999. Dreamer of the Day: Francis Parker Yockey and the Postwar Fascist International. Brooklyn, N.Y.: Autonomedia.
Gregor, A. James. 2006. "The Search for Neofascism: The Use and Abuse of Social Science". New York: Cambridge University Press.
Griffin, Roger. 1991. The Nature of Fascism. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Paxton, Robert O. 2004. The Anatomy of Fascism. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Weber, Eugen. [1964] 1985. Varieties of Fascism: Doctrines of Revolution in the Twentieth Century, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, contains chapters on fascist movements in different countries.
Wallace, Henry. "The Dangers of American Fascism". The New York Times, Sunday, 9 April 1944.
Trotsky, Leon. 1944. "Fascism, What it is and how to fight it" Pioneer Publishers (pamphlet).
External links
"Fascist Italy and the Jews: Myth versus Reality" , an online lecture by Iael Nidam-Orvieto of Yad Vashem.
"Fascism Part I – Understanding Fascism and Anti-Semitism".
"The Functions of Fascism", a radio lecture by Michael Parenti.
"The Political and Social Doctrine of Fascism" (1933), authorized translation.
"Italian Fascism".
Authoritarianism
Fascism
Political movements
Politics of Italy
Right-wing populism in Italy
Totalitarianism
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Huff
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Robert Huff
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Robert Peter Huff (born 25 December 1979) is a British professional racing driver. He currently competes in the World Touring Car Cup (WTCR) driving for Zengő Motorsport. He was the 2012 World Touring Car Championship champion and the 2020 Scandinavian Touring Car Championship champion.
Racing career
Early years
A Christmas Day birth in 1979 in Cambridge, Huff had a long junior career in karting. He attended St Faith's School and The Leys School, Cambridge, from 1993 to 1996. He won the 2000 Formula Vauxhall championship, and class B of the 2001 Ethyl MG Championship (also finishing as runner-up in this series in 2000). His father's Chartered Surveying firm has been one of his main sponsors.
British Touring Car Championship
Huff entered the big time by winning the inaugural SEAT Cupra Challenge in 2003, winning a paid drive in the British Touring Car Championship (BTCC) for the next season alongside former champion Jason Plato as a result. He battled on track with Plato in the second race at Thruxton but later lost his front splitter and retired, doing so again in the third race of the day. Huff started fifth at Brands Hatch and he was leading just before the safety car came out. He led away at the restart but was demoted to second by Matt Neal on the following lap and those position stuck until the end of the race, Huff claimed his first BTCC podium. He started round 8 at Silverstone on the reversed grid pole but second placed starter Kelvin Burt took the lead straight away and Huff soon fell victim to the Vauxhall of James Thompson. A collision with Michael Bentwood in the second race at Mondello Park meant Huff was disqualified and he started race three from the back. Huff eventually fell down to 7th place but he scored his second podium of the season in the third race. He claimed his first BTCC race win in round 24 at Brands Hatch and he repeated this success a fortnight later at Snetterton. He adjusted well, finishing 7th overall in the championship. In 2017, Huff made a return with Vauxhall at Silverstone as a step in for Tom Chilton after he got ruled out on medical grounds. He led for a majority of race 3, but eventually dropped behind Matt Neal late in the race and finished second, scoring the team's best result of the season.
World Touring Car Championship
Chevrolet (2005–2012)
The SEAT BTCC team was run by Ray Mallock in 2004, and when his company took on the fledgling Chevrolet WTCC project, they retained Huff. At the season opening Race of Italy, he finished ahead of his more experienced teammates Alain Menu and Nicola Larini in race one. He collided with the BMW of Antonio García in his home race at Silverstone, forcing him to retire. In what was a difficult season with the new car, Huff's best result of 2005 was a sixth place in Mexico and with it he took the first points for the Lacetti in the WTCC. He finished the year joint 20th with Stéphane Ortelli in the drivers' championship with only the three points scored in Mexico. That year he also did a one off in the guest car of the Porsche Carrera Cup GB, but collided with championship contender Tim Harvey in race one.
In 2006 he finished fourth at Brands Hatch, which was his best result of the first half of the season. He was taken to hospital after an accident at Puebla. At the following event at Brno in the Czech Republic, Huff started 24th due to two 10-place grid penalties, but he fought through to eighth place in the first race, which gave him pole for race 2 – giving him a lead he never relinquished en route to a first WTCC win, and the first for Chevrolet in the dry. However, the rest of the season was short on results, he finished 16th in the final standings.
There was an improvement in form once again from the Chevrolet team in 2007, Huff took a further win at the Scandinavian Raceway in Sweden, plus three more podiums, including his part in a Chevrolet 1–2–3 at Porto. These results ultimately left him ninth overall in the series, but behind team-mates Larini and Menu. The team took a win at every new circuit introduced for the 2007 season.
He opened 2008 with four pointless races, but came in first and second in the two races at Valencia. He was disqualified from the second race of the FIA WTCC Race of the Czech Republic due to his car having an illegal anti-roll bar linkage. At Brands Hatch he made his 100th WTCC start, qualifying third and taking the lead after a lap one collision between Menu and pole sitter Augusto Farfus. He led until a puncture three laps from the end. He finished the season third in the championship, behind SEAT drivers Yvan Muller and Gabriele Tarquini.
For 2009, Chevrolet switched to the Cruze chassis. Huff did not make the best of starts to the season, failing to progress through to Q2 at the Race of Brazil and scoring no points. It was not until the Race of Morocco when things picked up; Huff took pole position and won the first race to take his first points of the season and the first win for the Chevrolet Cruze. He qualified fifth at the Race of France but a good start meant he passed pole sitter Andy Priaulx and then Farfus on the second lap to take his second win of the season. Huff qualified on the front row for his home event, the Race of UK. He passed pole sitter Menu and led away from the restart after the safety car but was re-passed Menu, depriving Huff of a home win and putting him under pressure from the BMW of Priaulx. Huff qualified sixth for the Race of Germany but dropped to sixteenth on the grid after an engine change incurred a ten-place grid penalty. A first lap incident in the first race eliminated Huff along with Jörg Müller, Jordi Gené and Farfus. Gené caused an accident in the first race of the Race of Italy, making contact with Huff under braking who then made contact with SEAT of Rickard Rydell. Huff escaped any serious damage to hold onto third. He took pole position for the season finale at Macau and dominated the first race. Huff finished the season ranked fifth in the championship, ahead of teammates Alain Menu and Nicola Larini.
In 2010, he finished the championship third behind new teammate Yvan Muller and Tarquini.
The Chevrolet Cruze was the dominant car in 2011, winning all but three races. The Chevrolet drivers were in a title battle all of their own, with Huff leading the championship early in the season. Muller took the lead later on, taking the battle right down to the last event at Macau. Huff won both races but this was not enough to stop Muller taking the title, his second with Chevrolet and his third in total.
In 2012, Chevrolet announced this to be their last season in WTCC. The Chevy Cruze "blue train" with Huff, Yvan Muller and Alain Menu was again dominant over the field, taking 20 wins out of 24 races in the season. Muller took nine wins and led the championship for most of the season, Huff showed consistency and finished in the points for all the races except two. Finishing behind Muller did not seem enough until Muller tagged Menu from the lead in Shanghai, the penultimate round of the championship, sending Menu into a big slide and letting Huff through to overtake both of them and win the race. Menu lost a vital race win and Muller was given a penalty after the race, putting him out of the points altogether, giving Huff a big lead in the points. Menu was furious with Muller, saying "Yvan ruined both of their championships". In the final round in Macau, Huff was a clear favourite with a 37-point lead over Menu and 42 over Muller after qualifying on pole. In the first race though, drama unfolded. Huff lost the lead to Muller on lap one and overtook him on lap four to regain the lead but right after made a driving error and touched the barrier twice, forcing him to retire with damage. Muller won the race ahead of Menu, both reviving their chances for the championship. Huff's car got repaired for race two, with the help of both Menu's and Muller's crews in Chevrolet. Huff started the race eighth and had to finish fifth to secure the championship. On lap four, Yvan Muller ran into the back of Alex MacDowall's Chevrolet coming out of Mandarin, the fastest corner in the WTCC calendar, which spun MacDowall into the wall hard. The race was effectively finished with two safety car periods. Huff finished the race second behind Menu and ahead of Muller, with Chevrolet's campaign in World Touring Cars ending on another 1–2–3 finish for the team. Second place points were more than enough for Huff to win his first World Touring Car title and the first title for a British driver since Andy Priaulx in 2007.
Münnich Motorsport (2013)
Huff joined ALL-INKL.COM Münnich Motorsport in February 2013, driving one of the team's SEAT León WTCCs and replacing Markus Winkelhock in their line-up for the 2013 season. He failed to set a time in qualifying for the Race of Italy having collided with the Wiechers-Sport car of Fredy Barth in the first few minutes of Q1 and breaking his suspension. He was allowed to start the races from the back and climbed up to sixth place at the end of race one. His car received further attention prior to the start of race two and he started from the pit lane and finished tenth.
Lada Sport (2014–2015)
At the 2013 FIA WTCC Race of China it was announced Huff would join Lada Sport for the 2014 World Touring Car Championship season, having signed a two–year deal with the team.
Robert Huff was the driver who did not drive the dominating Citroën C-Elysée and who won the most numerous races in 2014 : two races, thanks to the inverted grid departure for the race 2 and a 60 kg lower compensation weight. In spite of these advantages, he proved thus his level of driving performances.
Lada introduced a new car for the 2015 WTCC season : the Lada Vesta, developed mainly by the French company Oreca.
Racing record
Complete British Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position – 1 point awarded in first race) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap – 1 point awarded all races) (* signifies that driver lead race for at least one lap – 1 point given all races)
Complete World Touring Car Championship results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:85%"
! Year
! Team
! Car
! 1
! 2
! 3
! 4
! 5
! 6
! 7
! 8
! 9
! 10
! 11
! 12
! 13
! 14
! 15
! 16
! 17
! 18
! 19
! 20
! 21
! 22
! 23
! 24
! DC
! Points
|-
| 2005
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Lacetti
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ITA1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| ITA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| FRA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| FRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GBR1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| GBR2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| SMR1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| SMR2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| MEX1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MEX2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| BEL1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| BEL2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| TUR1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| TUR2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| ESP1
|style="background:#ffffff;"| ESP2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MAC1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MAC2
|
|
|
|
! 21st
! 3
|-
| 2006
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Lacetti
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ITA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ITA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| FRA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| FRA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GBR1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| GBR2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| BRA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BRA2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MEX1
|style="background:#ffffff;"| MEX2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| CZE1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| CZE2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| TUR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| TUR2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| ESP1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ESP2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| MAC1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MAC2
|
|
|
|
! 16th
! 20
|-
| 2007
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Lacetti
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BRA1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| BRA2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| NED1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| NED2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| ESP1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ESP2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| FRA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| FRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| CZE1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| CZE2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| POR1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| POR2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| SWE1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| SWE2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GER2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GBR1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| GBR2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ITA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ITA2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| MAC1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MAC2
|
|
! 9th
! 57
|-
| 2008
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Lacetti
|style="background:#efcfff;"| BRA1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| BRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| MEX1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| MEX2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| ESP1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ESP2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| FRA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| FRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| CZE1
|style="background:#000000; color:white"| CZE2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| POR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| POR2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GBR1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GBR2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GER1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| GER2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| EUR1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| EUR2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ITA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ITA226†
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| MAC1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC2
!style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3rd
!style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 87
|-
| 2009
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Cruze LT
|style="background:#efcfff;"| BRA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| BRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| MEX1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| MEX2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAR1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| MAR2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| FRA1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| FRA2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ESP1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ESP2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| CZE1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| CZE2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| POR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| POR2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GBR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GBR2
|style="background:#efcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ITA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| ITA2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| JPN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| MAC2
! 5th
! 80
|-
| 2010
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Cruze LT
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| BRA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BRA1|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| MAR1
|style="background:#efcfff;"| MAR2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ITA1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ITA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BEL1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| BEL1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| POR1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| POR1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GBR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GBR2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| CZE1|style="background:#dfffdf;"| CZE2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| GER1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GER2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ESP1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ESP2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| JPN1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| JPN2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC1|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| MAC2
|
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!style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 3rd
!style="background:#ffdf9f;"| 276
|-
| 2011
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Cruze 1.6T
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| BRA1|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BRA2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| BEL1|style="background:#dfffdf;"| BEL2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| ITA1|style="background:#ffffbf;"| ITA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| HUN1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| HUN2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| CZE1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| CZE2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| POR1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| POR2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GBR1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GBR2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| GER1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| GER2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ESP2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ESP2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| JPN1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| JPN2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| CHN1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| CHN2|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC1|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC2
!style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 2nd
!style="background:#dfdfdf;"| 430
|-
| 2012
! Chevrolet
! Chevrolet Cruze 1.6T
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| ITA1
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| ITA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ESP1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ESP2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| MAR1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| MAR2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| SVK1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| SVK2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| HUN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| HUN2
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| AUT1|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| AUT2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| POR1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| POR2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| BRA1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| BRA2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| USA1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| USA2
|style="background:#ffdf9f;"| JPN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN2
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| CHN1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| CHN2
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAC1|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| MAC2
!style="background:#ffffbf;"| 1st
!style="background:#ffffbf;"| 413
|-
| 2013
! ALL-INKL.COM Münnich Motorsport
! SEAT León WTCC
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ITA1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ITA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| MAR1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAR2
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| SVK1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| SVK2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| HUN1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| HUN2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| AUT1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| AUT2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| RUS1
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| RUS2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| POR1
|style="background:#dfdfdf;"| POR2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| ARG1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ARG2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| USA1
|style="background:#cfcfff;"| USA2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| JPN2
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| CHN1
|style="background:#dfffdf;"| CHN2
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| MAC1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC2
! 4th
! 215
|-
| 2014
! Lada Sport Lukoil
! Lada Granta 1.6T
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAR1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAR2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| FRA1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| FRA2
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| HUN1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| HUN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| SVK1
|style="background:#FFFFFF;"| SVK2
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| AUT1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| AUT2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| RUS1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| RUS2
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| BEL1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| BEL2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ARG1
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ARG2|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| BEI1
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| BEI2|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| CHN1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| CHN2
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| JPN1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| JPN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| MAC1
|style="background:#ffffbf;"| MAC2
! 10th
! 93
|-
| 2015
! Lada Sport Rosneft
! Lada Vesta WTCC
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ARG1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| ARG2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| MAR1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAR2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| HUN1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| HUN2
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| GER1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| GER2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| RUS1
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| RUS2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| SVK1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| SVK2
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| FRA1
|style="background:#FFFFFF;"| FRA2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| JPN1
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| JPN2
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| CHN1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| CHN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| THA1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| THA2
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| QAT1
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| QAT2
! 10th
! 103
|-
| 2016
! Castrol Honda World Touring Car Team
! Honda Civic WTCC
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| FRA1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| FRA2
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| SVK1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| SVK2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| HUN1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| HUN2
|style="background:#000000; color:white"| MAR1
|style="background:#000000; color:white"| MAR2|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| GER1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| GER2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| RUS1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| RUS2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR2
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ARG1
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ARG2
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| JPN1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| JPN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| CHN1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| CHN2
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| QAT1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| QAT2
|
|
! 6th
! 199
|-
| 2017
! Münnich Motorsport
! Citroën C-Elysée WTCC
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| MAR1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| MAR2
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| ITA1
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| ITA2
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| HUN1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| HUN2|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| GER1
|style="background:#FFDF9F;"| GER2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| POR2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ARG1
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| ARG2
|style="background:#EFCFFF;"| CHN1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| CHN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| JPN1
|style="background:#CFCFFF;"| JPN2
|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| MAC1
|style="background:#FFFFBF;"| MAC2|style="background:#DFFFDF;"| QAT1
|style="background:#DFDFDF;"| QAT2
|
|
|
|
! 7th
! 215
|}
†Did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
Complete TCR International Series results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
Complete World Touring Car Cup results
(key) (Races in bold indicate pole position) (Races in italics indicate fastest lap)
† Driver did not finish the race, but was classified as he completed over 90% of the race distance.
Complete STCC TCR Scandinavia Touring Car Championship results
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Complete TCR China Touring Car Championship results
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* Season still in progress.
Complete TCR Europe Touring Car Series results
(key) (Races in bold' indicate pole position) (Races in italics'' indicate fastest lap)
‡ Driver was a World Tour full-time entry and was ineligible for points.
* Season still in progress.
Britcar 24 Hour results
References
External links
Profile at fiawtcc.com
Robert Huff profile on Stapleford website where he was born and bred
1979 births
Living people
English racing drivers
British Formula Renault 2.0 drivers
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5142812
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish%20meditation
|
Jewish meditation
|
Jewish meditation includes practices of settling the mind, introspection, visualization, emotional insight, contemplation of divine names, or concentration on philosophical, ethical or mystical ideas. Meditation may accompany unstructured, personal Jewish prayer, may be part of structured Jewish services, or may be separate from prayer practices. Jewish mystics have viewed meditation as leading to devekut (cleaving to God). Hebrew terms for meditation include hitbodedut (or hisbodedus, literally "self-seclusion") or hitbonenut/hisbonenus ("contemplation").
Through the centuries, meditation practices have been developed in many movements, including among Maimonideans (Moses Maimonides and Abraham Maimonides), Kabbalists (Abraham Abulafia, Isaac the Blind, Azriel of Gerona, Moses Cordovero, Yosef Karo and Isaac Luria), Hasidic rabbis (Baal Shem Tov, Schneur Zalman of Liadi and Nachman of Breslov), Musar movement rabbis (Israel Salanter and Simcha Zissel Ziv), Conservative movement rabbis (Alan Lew), Reform movement rabbis (Lawrence Kushner and Rami Shapiro), and Reconstructionist movement rabbi (Shefa Gold).
What is Jewish Meditation
In his book Meditation and Kabbalah, Rav Aryeh Kaplan suggests that meditation is a practice that is meant to bring spiritual liberation through various methods that can loosen the bond of the physical, allowing the practitioner to reach the transcendental, spiritual realm and attain Ruach HaKodesh (Holy spirit), which he associates with enlightenment.
More recently Tomer Persico presented the lack of a proper definition of the word meditation. He suggests that the word has many different meanings and uses, and that only a few attempts have been made to provide a comprehensive definition. He therefore suggests meditation should be defined as “A voluntary act aiming to generate an alteration in the individuals consciousness, which they perceive as therapeutic or redemptive”. Based on that definition, he further presents a five elements typology with wich the various Jewish meditative traditions could be distinguishable from one another:
Fundamental Structure- Whether the meditation in general cultivates awareness, concentration or automation.
Orientation, or Intentional Stance- Whether the meditation is inward or outward bent, introverted or extroverted.
The Emotive Effect- Whether the meditation brings about an enraptured surge of feelings and sense impressions or an equilibrious quieting of the mind, whether it is ecstatic or enstatic.
The Corporal Locus- Whether it is focused on the mind-consciousness domain, or on the body-emotional arena, whether it is mind and “awareness”-centered or body and “energy”-centered,
Relationship with the Acknowledged Tradition- Whether the methods are superimposed on the traditional religious practices or whether they are complete innovations being added to them, whether (in the Jewish case specifically) they are nomian or anomian.
Bible
Aryeh Kaplan sees indications throughout the Hebrew Bible that Judaism always contained a central meditative tradition, going back to the time of the patriarchs. For instance, in the book of Genesis, the patriarch Isaac is described as going "lasuach" (Hebrew: לָשׂוּחַ lāśūaḥ, "to meditate") in the field (Genesis 24:63), understood by many commentators to refer to some type of meditative practice.
Merkavah-Heichalot mysticism
Some scholars see Merkavah-Heichalot mysticism as using meditative methods, built around the biblical vision of Ezekiel and the creation in Genesis. According to Michael D. Swartz: "the texts do not, however, provide any instructions for meditation techniques. Nor do they betray any evidence of consciousness of an interior self, such as the soul or mind, which accomplishes the journey to heaven."
Maimonides
Moses Maimonides, often considered the greatest Jewish philosopher of his time, suggests in The Guide for the Perplexed (3.32), that intellectual meditation is a higher form of worship than either sacrifice or prayer.
He later (3:51) teaches that those who are "perfect" in their intellectual perception of God can "enjoy the presence
of Divine Providence", but only while they "meditate on God". He offers a parable that suggests that purely intellectual, private meditation is the highest form of worship.
That chapter of the Guide (3:51) is dedicated to what Maimonides refers to as: "the worship peculiar to those who have apprehended the true realities". According to Maimonides, after acquiring the knowledge of the Divine, we should turn our awareness to Him, something that is usually accomplished in self-seclusion:It has thus been shown that it must be man’s aim, after having acquired the knowledge of God, to deliver himself up to Him, and to have his heart constantly filled with longing after Him. He accomplishes this generally by seclusion and retirement. Every pious man should therefore seek retirement and seclusion, and should only in case of necessity associate with others.This practice includes love and longing for God, a subject Maimonides discusses in length at the beginning of his other great book, The Mishne Torah: What is the path [to attain] love and fear of Him? When a person contemplates His wondrous and great deeds and creations and appreciates His infinite wisdom that surpasses all comparison, he will immediately love, praise, and glorify [Him], yearning with tremendous desire to know [God's] great name. Abraham Maimonides, son of Moses Maimonides, also recommended private meditative practices that were designed to rid the mind of desires and allow for communion with God. Abraham Maimonides developed a Jewish Sufi meditation practice that was influential in medieval Cairo.
In his book, The Guide to Serving God, he provides an elaborative meditative practice based on his father’s teachings:Inward retreat (Hitbodedut) is the complete focus of the heart.. to empty the heart and mind of all besides God and to fill and occupy them with Him. This is accomplished by totally or partially quieting the sensitive soul, detaching the appetitive (i.e. desiring) soul from the rest of one’s worldly occupations and reorienting it toward God; filling the rational soul with God; and using the imaginative soul to assist the intelligence in its contemplation of Gods magnificent creations, which testify to their Creator: the majesty and awe of the sea, with its wondrous creatures, the rotation of the great c"elestial sphere, the nature of the stars, and such.”
Kabbalah
Kabbalists of different schools have been concerned with a range of esoteric encounters with divinity mediated by different meditative practices, ranging from ecstatic mystical cleaving to God, or prophetic visual and auditory disclosing of the divine, to theurgic manipulation of theosophical divine emanations. Practices included meditation on the names of God in Judaism, combinations of Hebrew letters, and kavanot (esoteric "intentions").
The main concern of the Theosophical Kabbalah such as the Zohar and Isaac Luria was on theurgic harmonisation of the sephirot (Divine attributes), though recent phenomenological scholarship has uncovered the prophetic visualisation of the sephirot as a Divine Anthropos in the imagination of the medieval theosophical practitioners. In contrast, the main concern of the medieval Ecstatic Kabbalah, exemplified most fully in Abraham Abulafia's "Prophetic Kabbalah", was on unio mystica and drawing down the influx of prophecy upon the practitioner. Abulafia opposed interpreting the sephirot as theosophical-theurgical hypostases, seeing them in Maimonidean negative theology psychological terms, while viewing his meditation mysticism as a superior Kabbalah. The ethic of meditation mysticism in Abulafia and other Ecstatic Kabbalists was a minority tradition to the Theosophical Kabbalah mainstream, but later aspects of it became incorporated in the 16th century Theosophical compendiums of Cordovero and Vital, such as drawing down divine influx, and subsequently influenced the psychologisation of Kabbalah in Hasidic self-absorption in God. Ecstatic traditions were at a disadvantage for normative Judaism, as they made classic meditation their central preoccupation; as with Moses Maimonides the mitzvot (Jewish observances) were a means to the end purpose of mystical or philosophical cleaving to God (or the Active intellect). In contrast, Theosophical traditions centred around the theurgic power and cosmic centrality importance of normative Jewish worship and Halakha observance, especially when carried out with elite Kavanot (mystical intentions).
Pinchas Giller questions the usage of the term "meditation" for Theosophical (mainstream) Kabbalah's theurgic kavanot (intentions), where deveikut (cleaving to God) was secondary, preferring the term more accurately for Ecstatic Kabbalah's unio mystica methods and goal. He sees generalising the term in reference to all Kabbalistic intentions as a reflection of the contemporary zeitgeist, promoted by Aryeh Kaplan and others. He recommends Ecstatic Kabbalah, the Jewish Sufism of Abraham Maimonides, or Chabad Hasidic prayer contemplation as paths more suited to develop a future ethic of Jewish meditation (unio mystica). However, as mitzvot are the primary centre of traditional Judaism, Giller sees Jewish prayer, rather than classic meditation akin to Eastern Religions, as the true central expression of Judaism. Theosophical Kabbalists and later Hasidism were deeply concerned to develop mystical approaches to prayer, whether theurgic in the case of Kabbalah, or devotional and self-nullifying in the case of Hasidism.
In contrast to rationalist Jewish philosophy's progressively anti-metaphysical interpretation of Jewish observance, Theosophical Kabbalists reinterpreted Judaism's prayer and mitzvot as cosmic metaphysical processes, especially when carried out in particular ways that could channel the mystical flow between the Divine sephirot on high and from the divine realm to this world. They reinterpreted standard Jewish liturgy by reading it as esoteric mystical meditations and the ascent of the soul for elite practitioners. Through this, the border between supplicatory prayer and theurgic practice blurs if prayer becomes viewed as a magical process rather than Divine response to petitions. However, Kabbalists censored directly magical Practical Kabbalah willed control of angels for only the most holy, and justified their theurgic prayer as optimising the divine channels through which their prayerful supplication to God ascends. Kabbalists declare one prayers only "to Him (God's essence, "male" here solely in Hebrew's gendered grammar), not to His attributes (sephirot)". To pray to a Divine attribute introduces the cardinal idolatrous sin of division and plurality among the sephirot, separating them from their dependence and nullification in the Absolute Ein Sof Unity. Instead, Kabbalist prayer, following the liturgy, is only to God ("Blessed are You, Lord our God" - the Divine Essence expressed though different Names of God in Judaism). However, each traditional Name of God corresponds in Kabbalah to a different manifestation of the sephirot. Moses Cordovero, who systemised Kabbalah, explains that the sephirot names (Keter, Chokhmah, Binah, etc.) are the vessels of each attribute; to pray to the vessel is idolatry. The corresponding Names of God (Eheye, Yah, Havayah, etc) relate to the inner Divine Unity dimension of each sephira, expressing the forms the unified Infinite light takes as it illuminates within each vessel; prayer to traditional liturgy Divine Names is prayer to God's Essence, expressed through particular sephirot supernal channels on high. Corresponding with the traditional words of prayer, the Kabbalist intentionally contemplates each Divine Name sephirot channel with theurgic Kavanot meditations to open the Divine flow so prayer supplication to God's hidden innermost Will (concealed within the innermost dimensions of the first sephirah Keter, where it merges into the Ein Sof) is optimised, as the traditional prayer relates, "May it be Your Will that... your Kindness overrides Judgment" etc.
Aryeh Kaplan described what he termed "meditative kabbalah", shared across academic divisions between Theosophical and Ecstatic Kabbalists, as a midpoint on the spectrum between "practical kabbalah" and "theoretical kabbalah".
Ecstatic Kabbalists
Abraham Abulafia
Abraham Abulafia (1240–1291), a leading medieval figure in the history of Meditative Kabbalah and the founder of the school of Prophetic/Ecstatic Kabbalah, wrote meditation manuals using meditation on Hebrew letters and words to achieve ecstatic states.
His teachings embody the non-Zoharic stream in Spanish Kabbalism, which he viewed as alternative and superior to the theosophical Kabbalah which he criticised. Abulafia's work was surrounded in controversy because of the edict against him by Shlomo ben Aderet, a contemporary leading scholar. However, according to Aryeh Kaplan, the Abulafian system of meditations forms an important part of the work of Hayim Vital, and in turn his master Isaac Luria.
Aryeh Kaplan's pioneering translations and scholarship on Meditative Kabbalah trace Abulafia's publications to the extant concealed transmission of the esoteric meditative methods of the Hebrew prophets.
While Abulafia remained a marginal figure in the direct development of Theosophical Kabbalah, recent academic scholarship on Abulafia by Moshe Idel reveals his wider influence across the later development of Jewish mysticism.
In the 16th century Judah Albotini continued Abulafian methods in Jerusalem.
Isaac of Acco
Isaac ben Samuel of Acre (1250-1340) also wrote about meditative techniques. One of Isaac's most important teachings involves developing hishtavut, which Aryeh Kaplan describes as equanimity, stoicism, and a total indifference to outside influences. Rabbi Isaac sees hishtavut as a prerequisite for meditation:You should constantly keep the letters of the Unique Name in your mind as if they were in front of you, written in a book with Torah (Ashurit) script. Each letter should appear infinitely large.
When you depict the letters of the Unique Name (י-ה-ו-ה) in this manner, your mind's eye should gaze on them, and at the same time, your heart should be directed toward the Infinite Being (Ain Sof). Your gazing and thought should be as one.
This is the mystery of true attachment, regarding which the Torah says, “To Him you shall attach yourself” (Deuteronomy 10:20).
Joseph Tzayach
Joseph Tzayach (1505-1573), influenced by Abulafia, taught his own system of meditation. Tzayach was probably the last Kabbalist to advocate use of the prophetic position, where one places his head between his knees. This position was used by Elijah on Mount Carmel, and in early Merkabah mysticism. Speaking of individuals who meditate (hitboded), he says:
They bend themselves like reeds, placing their heads between their knees until all their faculties are nullified. As a result of this lack of sensation, they see the Supernal Light, with true vision and not with allegory.
Theosophical Kabbalists
Moses ben Jacob Cordovero
Moses ben Jacob Cordovero (1522-1570) taught that when meditating, one does not focus on the Sefirot (divine emanations) per se, but rather on the light from the Infinite (Atzmus-essence of God) contained within the emanations. Keeping in mind that all reaches up to the Infinite, his prayer is "to Him, not to His attributes." Proper meditation focuses upon how the Godhead acts through specific sefirot. In meditation on the essential Hebrew name of God, represented by the four letter Tetragrammaton, this corresponds to meditating on the Hebrew vowels which are seen as reflecting the light from the Infinite-Atzmus.
Isaac Luria
Isaac Luria (1534–1572), the father of modern Kabbalah, systemised Lurianic Kabbalistic theory as a dynamic mythological scheme. While the Zohar is outwardly solely a theosophical work, for which reason medieval Meditative Kabbalists followed alternative traditions, Luria's systemisation of doctrine enabled him to draw new detailed meditative practices, called Yichudim, from the Zohar, based on the dynamic interaction of the Lurianic partzufim. This meditative method, as with Luria's theosophical exegesis, dominated later Kabbalistic activity. Luria prescribed Yichudim as Kavanot for the prayer liturgy, later practiced communally by Shalom Sharabi and the Beit El circle, for Jewish observances, and for secluded attainment of Ruach Hakodesh. One favoured activity of the Safed mystics was meditation while prostrated on the graves of saints, in order to commune with their souls.
Hayim Vital
Haim Vital (c. 1543-1620), major disciple of Isaac Luria, and responsible for publication of most of his works. In Etz Hayim and the Eight Gates he describes the theosophical and meditative teachings of Luria. However, his own writings cover wider meditative methods, drawn from earlier sources. His Shaarei Kedusha (Gates of Holiness) was the only guidebook to Meditative Kabbalah traditionally printed, though its most esoteric fourth part remained unpublished until recently. In the following account Vital presents the method of R. Yosef Karo in receiving his Heavenly Magid teacher, which he regarded as the soul of the Mishna (recorded by Karo in Magid Mesharim):
Meditate alone in a house, wrapped in a prayer shawl. Sit and shut your eyes, and transcend the physical as if your soul has left your body and is ascending to heaven. After this divestment/ascension, recite one Mishna, any Mishna you wish, many times consecutively, as quickly as you can, with clear pronunciation, without skipping one word. Intend to bind your soul with the soul of the sage who taught this Mishna.
" Your soul will become a chariot. .."
Do this by intending that your mouth is a mere vessel/conduit to bring forth the letters of the words of this Mishna, and that the voice that emerges through the vessel of your mouth is [filled with] the sparks of your inner soul which are emerging and reciting this Mishna. In this way, your soul will become a chariot within which the soul of the sage who is the master of that Mishna can manifest. His soul will then clothe itself within your soul.
At a certain point in the process of reciting the words of the Mishna, you may feel overcome by exhaustion. If you are worthy, the soul of this sage may then come to reside in your mouth. This will happen in the midst of your reciting the Mishna. As you recite, he will begin to speak with your mouth and wish you Shalom. He will then answer every question that comes into your thoughts to ask him. He will do this with and through your mouth. Your ears will hear his words, for you will not be speaking from yourself. Rather, he will be speaking through you. This is the mystery of the verse, "The spirit of God spoke to me, and His word was on my lips". (Samuel II 23:2)
Hasidism
The Baal Shem Tov
The Baal Shem Tov, founder of Hasidic Judaism, took the Talmudic phrase that "God desires the heart" and made it central to his love of the sincerity of the common folk. Advocating joy in the omnipresent divine immanence, he encouraged emotional devekut (fervour), especially through attachment to the Hasidic figure of the Tzaddik. He also encouraged his close disciples to find devekut through seclusion (hisbodedus) from others and by meditating on select kabbalistic unifications (yichudim) of Yitzchak Luria. As Hasidism developed and became a popular revival movement, use of esoteric Kabbalistic Kavanot (intentions) on Divine names was seen as an impediment to direct emotional Devekut (cleaving to God), and was dropped in favour of new meditative and contemplative practices of Divine consciousness. This downplaying of the theurgic role of Theosophical Kabbalah, the psychologisation of Kabbalistic symbolism, and emphasis on Divine Omnipresence, began with the Baal Shem Tov. In a parable he related that knowing each of the detailed Kabbalistic Kavanot in prayer unlocked individual gates in Heaven, but tears break through all barriers to reach the King Himself.
Chabad Hasidism
Dovber Schneuri, the second leader of the Chabad Dynasty, wrote several works explaining the Chabad approach. In his works, he explains that the Hebrew word for meditation is hisbonenus (alternatively transliterated as hitbonenut). The word hisbonenut derives from the Hebrew word Binah (lit. understanding) and refers to the process of understanding through analytical study. While the word hisbonenus can be applied to analytical study of any topic, it is generally used to refer to study of the Torah, and particularly in this context, the explanations of Kabbalah in Chabad Hasidic philosophy, in order to achieve a greater understanding and appreciation of God.
In the Chabad presentation, every intellectual process must incorporate three faculties: Chochma, Binah, and Daat. Chochma (lit. wisdom) is the mind's ability to come up with a new insight into a concept that one did not know before. Binah (lit. understanding) is the mind's ability to take a new insight (from Chochma), analyze all of its implications and simplify the concept so it is understood well. Daat (lit. knowledge), the third stage, is the mind's ability to focus and hold its attention on the Chochma and the Binah.
The term hisbonenus represents an important point of the Chabad method: Chabad Hasidic philosophy rejects the notion that any new insight can come from mere concentration. Chabad philosophy explains that while Daat is a necessary component of cognition, it is like an empty vessel without the learning and analysis and study that comes through the faculty of Binah. Just as a scientist's new insight or discovery (Chochma) always results from prior in-depth study and analysis of his topic (Binah), likewise, to gain any insight in godliness can only come through in-depth study of the explanations of Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy. In this view, enlightenment is commensurate with one's understanding of the Torah and specifically the explanations of Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy. Prolonged concentration devoid of intellectual content, or hallucinations of the imagination, should not be mistaken for spiritual enlightenment.
Chabad accepts and endorses the writings of Kabbalists such as Moses Cordovero and Haim Vital and their works are quoted at length in the Hasidic texts. However, the Chabad masters say that their methods are easily misunderstood without a proper foundation in Hasidic philosophy.
Breslav Hasidism
Rebbe Nachman of Breslov used the term hisbodedus (alternatively transliterated as hitbodedut, from the root "boded" meaning "self-seclusion") to refer to an unstructured, spontaneous and individualized form of prayer and meditation. It may involve speaking to God in one's own words, although Rebbe Nachman teaches that if one does not know what to say, one should repeat the words "Ribbono Shel Olam," which will create a heightened state of awareness. The goals of hitbodedut may include establishing a close, personal relationship with God and a clearer understanding of one's personal motives and goals or (as in Likutey Moharan I, Lesson 52) the transformative realization of God as the "Imperative Existent," or Essence of Reality.
The Musar Movement
The Musar (ethics) movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the 19th century, encouraged meditative practices of introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character. Focusing on the truthful psychological self-evaluation of one's spiritual worship, the Musar movement institutionalized the classic musar literature tradition as a spiritual movement within the Lithuanian Yeshiva academies. Many meditation techniques were described in the writings of Salanter's closest disciple, Rabbi Simcha Zissel Ziv.
According to Geoffrey Claussen of Elon University, some forms of Musar meditation are visualization techniques which "seek to make impressions upon one's character—often a matter of taking insights of which we are conscious and bringing them into our unconscious." Other forms of Musar meditation are introspective, "considering one's character and exploring its tendencies—often a matter of taking what is unconscious and bringing it to consciousness." A number of contemporary rabbis have advocated such practices, including "taking time each day to sit in silence and simply noticing the way that one's mind wanders." Alan Morinis, the founder of the Mussar Institute, recommends morning meditation practices that can be as short as four minutes. One of the meditations especially recommended by Morinis is the practice of focusing on a single word: the Hebrew word Sh'ma, meaning "listen."
Orthodox Judaism
Recent Orthodox Judaism teachers of Jewish mystical meditation methods include Aryeh Kaplan and Yitzchak Ginsburgh. Kaplan especially, published scholarly and popular books that reinterpreted and revived historic Jewish mystical contemplation techniques in terms of the late 20th century zeitgeist for meditation.
Conservative Judaism
Conservative Rabbi Alan Lew has been credited with teaching Jewish meditation to thousands of people. His synagogue Congregation Beth Sholom in San Francisco, California, includes a meditation center, the first meditation center connected to a Conservative synagogue. By 1997, Lew noted that almost all of the largest Conservative synagogues in northern California had regular meditation groups. Conservative rabbi Geoffrey Claussen has encouraged Conservative Judaism to adopt meditation practices from the Musar movement. Conservative synagogues that promote meditation practices in the 21st century sometimes describe these practices as helping people to create space in their lives to be present.
Reconstructionist Judaism
Reconstructionist rabbis such as Sheila Peltz Weinberg and Shefa Gold have been noted for their Jewish meditation teachings.
Reform Judaism
Meditation activities have become increasingly common at Reform synagogues in the twenty-first century. Rabbis Lawrence Kushner and Rami Shapiro are among the Reform rabbis who encourage Jewish meditation practices.
See also
Fear of God (religion)
Jewish views on love
Love of God
Nigun
Ohr
Teshuvah
Tzedakah
References
Bibliography
Abulafia, Abraham, The Heart of Jewish Meditation: Abraham Abulafia's Path of the Divine Names, Hadean Press, 2013.
Davis, Avram. Meditation from the Heart of Judaism: Today's Teachers Share Their Practices, Techniques, and Faith, 1997.
Jacobs, Louis, Jewish Mystical Testimonies, Schocken, 1997,
Jacobs, Louis, Hasidic Prayer, Littman Library, 2006,
Jacobs, Louis (translator), Tract on Ecstasy by Dobh Baer of Lubavitch, Vallentine Mitchell, 2006,
Kaplan, Aryeh, Jewish Meditation: A Practical Guide, Schocken, New York, 1995,
Kaplan, Aryeh, Meditation and the Bible, Weiser Books, 1995, ASIN B0007MSMJM
Kaplan, Aryeh, Meditation and Kabbalah, Weiser Books, 1989,
Lew, Alan. Be Still and Get Going: A Jewish Meditation Practice for Real Life, 2005.
Pinson, Rav DovBer, Meditation and Judaism, Jason Aronson, Inc, 2004.
Pinson, Rav DovBer, Toward the Infinite, Jason Aronson, Inc, 2005.
Pinson, Rav DovBer, Eight Lights: Eight Meditations for Chanukah, IYYUN, 2010.
Roth, Rabbi Jeff, Jewish Meditation Practices for Everyday Life, Jewish Lights Publishing, 2009, 978-1-58023-397-2
Russ-Fishbane, Elisha. Judaism, Sufism, and the Pietists of Medieval Egypt: A Study of Abraham Maimonides and His Times. Oxford University Press, 2015,
Schneuri, Dovber, Ner Mitzva Vetorah Or, Kehot Publication Society, 1995/2003,
Seinfeld, Alexander, The Art of Amazement: Discover Judaism's Forgotten Spirituality, JSL Press 2010,
External links
The Heart of Jewish Meditation: Abraham Abulafia's Path of the Divine Names
Hasidic thought
Jewish mysticism
Kabbalah
Meditation
Musar movement
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Ecclesiastical titles and styles
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Ecclesiastical titles are the formal styles of address used for members of the clergy.
Catholic Church
Latin Church clergy
Pope: Pope (Regnal Name); His Holiness; Your Holiness; Holy Father.
Patriarch of an autonomous/particular church: Patriarch (Given Name); His Beatitude; Your Beatitude.
Cardinal: Cardinal (Full Name); His Eminence; Your Eminence.
Cardinal who is also an archbishop: Cardinal (Full Name), Archbishop of (Place); His Eminence; Your Eminence.
Archbishop: The Most Reverend (Full Name), (any postnominals), Archbishop of (Place); bishops in the U.S. commonly indicate their terminal degree(s) as postnominals, e.g., J.C.D. or S.T.D., or Ph.D. or D.D.; His Excellency; Your Excellency. Titular archbishops almost never indicate their respective sees in their titles.
Bishop: The Most Reverend (Full Name), (any postnominals), Bishop of (Place); bishops in the U.S. commonly indicate their terminal degree(s) as postnominals, e.g., J.C.D., S.T.D., or Ph.D. or D.D.; His Excellency; Your Excellency. Titular bishops almost never indicate their respective sees in their titles.
Abbot: The Right Reverend (Full Name), (any religious order's postnominals); The Right Reverend Abbot; Abbot (Given Name); Abbot (Surname); Dom (Given Name); Father (Given Name). The custom for address depends on personal custom and custom in the abbey.
Abbess, Prioress, or other superior of a religious order of women or a province thereof: The Reverend Mother (Full Name), (any religious order's postnominals); Mother (Given Name). The title of women religious superiors varies greatly, and the custom of a specific order should be noted.
Protonotary Apostolic, Honorary Prelate, or Chaplain of His Holiness: The Reverend Monsignor (Full Name); Monsignor (Surname). The postnominals P.A. are often added for protonotaries apostolic. Postnominals are rarely added for honorary prelates or chaplains of His Holiness.
Vicar General: The Very Reverend (Full Name), V.G.; The Reverend (Full Name), V.G.; Father (Surname).
Judicial Vicar, Ecclesiastical Judge, Episcopal Vicar, Vicar Forane, Dean, Provincial Superior, or Rector: The Very Reverend (Full Name); Father (Surname).
Prior, both superiors of or in monasteries, or of provinces or houses of a religious order: The Very Reverend (Full Name), (any religious order's postnominals); Father (Surname).
Pastor of a parish, Parochial Vicar, Chaplain, or Priest: The Reverend (Full Name); Father (Surname).
Permanent Deacon: The Reverend Deacon (Full Name); Deacon (Surname); Deacon (Given Name) (informal).
Transitional Deacon, i.e., a deacon who is studying for the priesthood: The Reverend Mr. (Full Name); Deacon (Full Name); Deacon (Surname).
Brother: Brother (Full Name), (any religious order's postnominals); Brother (Given Name). In some teaching orders Brother (Surname) is customary.
Religious sister or nun: Sister (Full Name), (any religious order's postnominals); Sister (Full Name); Sister (Given Name) (informal).
Candidate for priestly ministry (seminarian): The Reverend Seminarian (Full Name); Mr. (Full Name); Mr. (Surname).
Candidate for diaconal or lay ministry (deacon candidate or lay ecclesial minister candidate): Mr. (Full Name); Mr. (Surname).
United Kingdom and some other English-speaking countries
The major difference between U.S. practice and that in several other English-speaking countries is the form of address for archbishops and bishops. In Britain and countries whose Roman Catholic usage it directly influenced:
Archbishop: the Most Reverend (Most Rev.); addressed as Your Grace rather than His Excellency or Your Excellency.
Bishop: "the Right Reverend" (Rt. Rev.); formally addressed as My Lord rather than Your Excellency. This style is an ancient one, and has been used in the western church for more than a thousand years; it corresponds to, but does not derive from, the Italian Monsignore and the French Monseigneur. However, most bishops prefer to be addressed simply as Bishop (Bp.).
In Ireland, and in other countries whose Roman Catholic usage it influenced, all bishops, not archbishops alone, are titled the Most Reverend (Most Rev.).
Clergy are often referred to with the title Doctor (Dr.), or have D.D. (Doctor of Divinity) placed after their name, where justified by their possession of such degree.
Italy
Similar to, and the source of, most of the U.S. English titles, with some variation:
Diocesan priest: The Reverend Lord (Dominus in Latin) (abbreviated as Rev. Do.); Don.
Religious priest: Padre; Father (Fr.).
Religious sister: The Reverend Sister (Rev. Sr.).
(Permanent) Deacon: Deacon (Dcn.).
The Philippines
In the predominantly Catholic Philippines, ecclesiastical addresses are adapted from American custom but with modifications. The titles listed below are only used in the most formal occasions by media or official correspondence, save for the simpler forms of address. Post-nominals that indicate academic degree or membership in a religious order are usually included.
The Pope is always titled "Ang Kaniyáng Kabanalan" (Filipino for "His Holiness"). As such, the Pope is styled "Ang Kaniyáng Kabanalan Papa Francisco".
A cardinal is formally styled and addressed as "Ang Kaniyáng Kabunyian", literally denoting "His Illustriousness" (Philippine English for "His Eminence"). Cardinals are informally addressed as "Cardinal" followed by their names; for example, "Cardinal Juan". Unlike in the United States, Ireland or Commonwealth nations, the name of a cardinal is always inscribed in the formula first name, "Cardinal", and last name; for example, "Juan Cardinal de la Cruz", similar to the syntax in German.
An archbishop is titled "Ang Mahál na Arsobispo" ("His Excellency, the Archbishop"). Archbishops are often addressed as "Archbishop" followed by their names; for example, "Archbishop Juan de la Cruz".
A bishop is titled "Ang Mahál na Obispo" ("His Excellency, the Bishop"), in similar fashion to archbishops, and more commonly as "Ang Lubháng Kagalanggalang" ("The Most Reverend"). Also similar to archbishops, bishops are often addressed as "Bishop" followed by their names; for example, "Bishop Juan de la Cruz".
A monsignor is titled "Reberendo Monsenyor" ("Reverend Monsignor"), although if he holds extra administrative office he is titled according to his office. Vicars general, forane, and episcopal are titled "Very Reverend". Monsignori are colloquially addressed as "Monsignor" (abbreviated as "Msgr."). As defined, the inscribed title is "Monsignor" followed by first and then last name, or "The Reverend Monsignor" followed by first and then last name, while the spoken address is "Monsignor" followed by only last name.
Priests, both diocesan and those of a religious order, are titled "Reberendo Padre" ("Reverend Father", abbreviated as "Rev. Fr.") before their first and then last names. Priests are colloquially addressed as "Father" (abbreviated as "Fr.") before either their true name or last name, even their nickname. Reverend Father as a full title is similar to Anglican or Eastern Orthodox usage, in contrast to practice in some other English-speaking nations. However, "The Rev." alone before priests' names is usually found in articles sourced from the United States, like the Associated Press (AP), in Philippine newspapers.
A deacon is titled "Reberendo" ("Reverend"); for example, "Reverend Juan de la Cruz". Deacons are rarely titled "Deacon" followed by their names as in the United States, except when addressing them formally. Instead, they are colloquially addressed as "Rev." in contrast to priests who are addressed as "Father".
Consecrated persons:
Religious sisters are titled "Sister" (abbreviated as "Sr."). Superiors are optionally titled "Mother" (abbreviated as "Mo.") and are usually addressed formally as "Reverend Sister/Mother" (abbreviated as "Rev. Sr./Mo."); for example, "Rev. Sr. Juana de la Cruz, OP" or "Rev. Mo. Juana de la Cruz, OSB". Contemplative nuns are formally and colloquially titled "Sor", a truncation of "Soror", which is Latin for "Sister". Prioresses and abbesses are formally addressed as "Reverend Mother".
Religious brothers who are not priests are titled "Brother" (abbreviated as "Br."); for example, "Br. Juan de la Cruz, OFM". Having been influenced by the Spaniards, members of mendicant orders may be called "Fray"; for example, "Fray Juan de la Cruz, OSA". Since there are also mendicant orders whose missionaries are from Italy they opt to be addressed as "Fra", a truncation of "Frater", which is Latin for "Brother". Monks are called "'Dom'", an abbreviation of "Dominus" which means "Lord".
Eastern Catholic clergy
Although the styles and titles of Eastern Catholic clergy varies from language to language, in the Greek and Arabic-speaking world the following would be acceptable, but is by no means a full list of appropriate titles. It is notable that surnames are never used except in extra-ecclesial matters or to specify a particular person where many share one Christian name or ordination name. Where not noted, Western titles may be supposed. The following are common in Greek Melkite Catholic usage and in Greek Orthodox usage in the United States.
Archbishop or Bishop: In Arabic, a bishop is titled "Sayedna", while in churches of Syriac tradition he is titled "Mar". If an Eastern Catholic archbishop or patriarch is made a cardinal he may be addressed as "His Eminence" and "Your Eminence", or the hybrid "His Beatitude and Eminence" and "Your Beatitude and Eminence".
Priest: In Arabic, "Abouna" and in Greek "Pappas".
Deacon: Identical to that of a priest in all ways except sometimes in the use of "Father Deacon" (in Arabic "Abouna Shammas" and in Greek "Pappas Diakonos").
Subdeacon: "Reverend Subdeacon" in inscribed address, and the Christian name with or without "Brother" is usually used, except in some traditions that use "Father Subdeacon". In Arabic, this is confused by "Shammas" being used for both the subdiaconate and the diaconate, the distinction being a "Deacon of the Letter" and a "Deacon of the Gospel" respectively. Often a deacon will be addressed as "Father" and a subdeacon as "Brother" to distinguish them.
Reader: "Reader" or "Brother" depending on the preference of the addresser.
Seminarians: "Brother" and "Brother Seminarian" are the most common titles; the appellations "Father Seminarian" and "Father Student" are used only by rural Greek- and Arabic-speaking laity.
Tonsured persons without a title: "Brother".
Eastern Orthodox Church
Usage varies somewhat throughout the Eastern Orthodox Communion, and not every church uses every clerical rank. Surnames are typically not used for archpastors (rank of bishop or above) or monastics.
Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople: Ecumenical Patriarch John II, His All-Holiness, Your All-Holiness
Patriarch: Patriarch John II of Terirem, Patriarch John, His Beatitude, Your Beatitude
Note: Some Patriarchs use the honorific "His/Your Holiness"
Archbishop / Archiepiscope
of an independent Church: The Most Reverend (Rev.) Archbishop John of Terirem, Archbishop John
of a sub-national Church: The Most Reverend (Rev.) Archbishop John of Terirem, Archbishop John, His Eminence, Your Eminence
Metropolitan: The Most Reverend (Rev.) Metropolitan John of Terirem, Metropolitan John, His Eminence, Your Eminence
Titular Metropolitan: The Most Reverend (Rev.) Metropolitan John of Terirem, His Eminence, Your Eminence
Note: Some Metropolitans use the style "The Very Most Reverend" (V. Most Rev.)
Bishop / Episcope: The Right Reverend (Rt. Rev.) Bishop John of Terirem, Bishop John, His Grace, Your Grace
Titular/Auxiliary Bishop: same as for Bishops, above Other Languages: Sayedna (Arabic), Despota (Greek), Vladika (Russian, Serbian)
Priest (Presbyter): The Reverend Father (Rev. Fr.) John Smith, Father John
Protopriest: The Very Reverend (V. Rev.) Protopriest John Smith, Father (Fr.) John
Archpriest: The Very Reverend (V. Rev.) Archpriest John Smith, Father (Fr.) John
Archimandrite: The Very Reverend (V. Rev.) Archimandrite John, or The Right Reverend (Rt. Rev.) Archimandrite John, Father John
Hieromonk (Priest-monk): The Reverend (Rev.) Hieromonk John, Father (Fr.) John
Other Languages: Abouna (Arabic), Pappas (Greek), Batushka (Russian)
Priest's Wife: Presbytera Mary (Greek), Khouria Mary (Arabic), Matushka Mary (Russian), Popadiya Mary (Serbian), Panimatushka Mary (Ukrainian), Preoteasa Mary (Romanian)
Deacon: The Reverend Father (Rev. Fr.) John Smith, Deacon (Dn.) John Smith, Father John, Deacon Father (Dn. Fr.) John, Deacon (Dn.) John
Protodeacon: The Reverend (Rev.) Protodeacon John Smith, Father (Fr.) John, Deacon Father (Dn. Fr.) John, Deacon (Dn.) John
Archdeacon: The Reverend (Rev.) Archdeacon John Smith, Father (Fr.) John, Deacon Father (Dn. Fr.) John, Deacon (Dn.) John
Hierodeacon (Deacon-monk): The Reverend (Rev.) Hierodeacon John, Father (Fr.) John
Deacon's Wife: Diakonissa Mary (Greek), or the same titles as a priest's wife
Abbot: The Right Reverend (Rt. Rev.) Abbot John, Abbot John, Father (Fr.) John
Abbess: The Reverend (Rev.) Mother Superior Mary, The Very Reverend (V. Rev.) Abbess Mary, Reverend Mother Mary, Mother Mary
Monk: Monk John, Father (Fr.) John
Rassophore Monk: Rassophore Monk John, Father (Fr.) John
Stavrophore Monk: Stavrophore Monk John, Father (Fr.) John
Schemamonk: Schemamonk John, Father (Fr.) John
Novice: Novice John, John; or Brother (Br.) John
Note: the title "Brother" is a result of Latin influence; the title is only given to some novices with a special blessing.
Nun: Nun Mary, Mother Mary
Rassophore Nun: Rassophore Nun Mary, Sister Mary
Novice: Sister Mary
Anglican Church
Anglican and Episcopal
In the Anglican and Episcopal Church, added titles are referred to as "preferments" and are ordered by bishops. Such appointments that place a preferment title in front of "Reverend" are normally a permanent preferment, while those after "Reverend" are not. For example, a bishop or an archdeacon retain their titles even after leaving their ministry posts. Generally, the preferment of "canon", which can be given to either ordained or laity, is not a permanent preferment. However, Bishops have been known to prefer a lifetime honorific of "Canon" to lay canons. For religious orders, all preferments, except that of a mitred abbot, are temporary and associated with the role, not the individual.
Deacons are styled as The Reverend, The Reverend Deacon, or The Reverend Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms.
Priests are usually styled as The Reverend, The Reverend Father/Mother (even if not a religious; abbreviated Fr/Mthr) or The Reverend Mr/Mrs/Miss.
Heads of some women's religious orders are styled as The Reverend Mother (even if not ordained).
Canons are often styled as The Reverend Canon when ordained, or simply The Canon Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms when laity.
Deans are usually styled as The Very Reverend.
Archdeacons are usually styled as The Venerable (The Ven).
Priors of monasteries may be styled as The Very Reverend.
Abbots of monasteries may be styled as The Right Reverend.
Bishops are styled as The Right Reverend or His Lordship.
Archbishops and primates, including the Archbishop of Canterbury, and (for historical reasons) the Bishop of Meath and Kildare are styled as The Most Reverend, and addressed as Your Grace.
Protestantism
Lutheranism
Archbishops/Presiding Bishops: the Most Reverend (Most Rev.); Archbishop (Abp.; Arch.; Archbp.)/Presiding Bishop (P.B.).
Bishops: Bishop (Bp.); Reverend Bishop (Rev. Bp.); the Right Reverend (Rt. Rev.).
Pastors: the Reverend (Rev.); Pastor (Pr.).
Kantors: the Reverend Kantor (Rev. Kantor)
Deacons: Deacon (Dcn.).
Vicars: Vicar (Vic.).
Seminarians: the Reverend Seminarian (Rev. Sem.).
Ecclesiastical Doctors (Dr. eccl.), e.g., Ph.D. (Doctor of Philosophy), Dr. sc. rel. (Doctor of Religious Sciences/Studies), Dr. mph. (Doctor of Christian Metaphysics), Dr. sc. bs. (Doctor of Biblical Studies), et al.: Reverend Doctor.
Methodism
Deacons, Ordained Elders, and Methodist Licensed Local Pastors are addressed as Reverend, unless they hold a doctorate, in which case they are often addressed in formal situations as The Reverend Doctor. The Reverend, however, is used in more formal or in written communication, in addition to His/Her Reverence or Your Reverence. In informal situations Reverend is used.
Bishops are styled as Bishop or Your Grace.
Religious brothers and sisters are styled as Br. or Sr.; for example, if their name was John Smith and they belonged to a religious order, they would be addressed as Brother John Smith.
References
Footnotes
Citations
Further reading
Catholic Encyclopedia (1913). Ecclesiastical Addresses.
Merriam-Webster (1997 HTML edition). Handbook of Style - Clerical and Religious forms of address.
Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America. Etiquette and Protocol.Orthodox Christian Information Center. Clergy Etiquette.''
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History of Christianity in Romania
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The history of Christianity in Romania began within the Roman province of Lower Moesia, where many Christians were martyred at the end of the 3rd century. Evidence of Christian communities has been found in the territory of modern Romania at over a hundred archaeological sites from the 3rd and 4th centuries. However, sources from the 7th and 10th centuries are so scarce that Christianity seems to have diminished during this period.
The vast majority of Romanians are adherent to the Eastern Orthodox Church, while most other populations that speak Romance languages follow the Catholic Church. The basic Christian terminology in Romanian is of Latin origin, though the Romanians, referred to as Vlachs in medieval sources, borrowed numerous South Slavic terms due to the adoption of the liturgy officiated in Old Church Slavonic. The earliest Romanian translations of religious texts appeared in the 15th century, and the first complete translation of the Bible was published in 1688.
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river Danube is a papal bull of 1234. In the territories east and south of the Carpathian Mountains, two metropolitan sees subordinate to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople were set up after the foundation of two principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia in the 14th century. The growth of monasticism in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century Hesychast revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in Eastern Europe. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where Roman Catholic dioceses were established within the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the Principality of Transylvania in the 16th century, four "received religions" – Catholicism, Calvinism, Lutheranism, and Unitarianism – were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the union with Rome in 1698.
The autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church was canonically recognized in 1885, years after the union of Wallachia and Moldavia into Romania. The Orthodox Church and the Romanian Church United with Rome were declared national churches in 1923. The Communist authorities abolished the latter, and the former was subordinated to the government in 1948. The Uniate Church was reestablished when the Communist regime collapsed in 1989. Now the Constitution of Romania emphasizes churches' autonomy from the state.
Pre-Christian religions
The religion of the Getae, an Indo-European people inhabiting the Lower Danube region in antiquity, was characterized by a belief in the immortality of the soul. Another major feature of this religion was the cult of Zalmoxis; followers of Zalmoxis communicated with him by human sacrifice.
Modern Dobruja – the territory between the river Danube and the Black Sea – was annexed to the Roman province of Moesia in 46 AD. Cults of Greek gods remained prevalent in this area, even after the conquest. Modern Banat, Oltenia, and Transylvania were transformed into the Roman province of "Dacia Traiana" in 106. Due to massive colonization, cults originating in the empire's other provinces entered Dacia. Around 73% of all epigraphic monuments at this time were dedicated to Graeco-Roman gods.
The province of "Dacia Traiana" was dissolved in the 270s. Modern Dobruja became a separate province under the name of Scythia Minor in 297.
Origin of the Romanians' Christianity
The oldest proof that an Orthodox church hierarchy existed among the Romanians north of the river Danube is a papal bull of 1234. In the territories east and south of the Carpathian Mountains, two metropolitan sees subordinate to the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople were set up after the foundation of two principalities, Wallachia and Moldavia in the 14th century. The growth of monasticism in Moldavia provided a historical link between the 14th-century Hesychast revival and the modern development of the monastic tradition in Eastern Europe. Orthodoxy was for centuries only tolerated in the regions west of the Carpathians where Roman Catholic dioceses were established within the Kingdom of Hungary in the 11th century. In these territories, transformed into the Principality of Transylvania in the 16th century, four "received religions" – Calvinism, Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Unitarianism – were granted a privileged status. After the principality was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, a part of the local Orthodox clergy declared the union with Rome in 1698.
The core religious vocabulary of the Romanian language originated from Latin. Christian words that have been preserved from Latin include a boteza ("to baptize"), Paște ("Easter"), preot ("priest"), and cruce ("cross"). Some words, such as biserică ("church", from basilica) and Dumnezeu ("God", from Domine Deus), are independent of their synonyms in other Romance languages.
The exclusive presence in Romanian language of Latin vocabulary for concepts of Christian faith may indicate the antiquity of Daco-Roman Christianity; some examples are:
The same is true for the Christian denominations of the main Christian holidays: Crăciun ("Christmas") (from or rather from ) and Paște ("Easter") (from ); Several archaic or popular saint names, sometimes found as elements in place names, also seem to derive from Latin: , and . Today, sfânt, of Slavic origin, is the usual way to refer to saint.
The Romanian language also adopted many Slavic religious terms. For example, words like duh ("soul, spirit"), iad ("hell"), rai ("paradise"), grijanie ("Holy Communion"), popă ("priest"), slujbă ("church service") and taină ("mystery, sacrament") are of South Slavic origin. Even some terms of Greek and Latin origin, such as călugar ("monk") and Rusalii ("Whitsuntide"), entered Romanian through Slavic. Several terms relating to church hierarchy, such as episcop ("bishop"), arhiepiscop ("archbishop"), ierarh ("hierarch"), mitropolit ("archbishop"), came from Medieval or Byzantine Greek, sometimes partly through a South Slavic intermediate A smaller number of religious terms were borrowed from Hungarian, for instance mântuire (salvation) and pildă (parable).
Several theories exist regarding the origin of Christianity in Romania. Those who think that the Romanians descended from the inhabitants of "Dacia Traiana" suggest that the spread of Christianity coincided with the formation of the Romanian nation. Their ancestors' Romanization and Christianization, a direct result of the contact between the native Dacians and the Roman colonists, lasted for several centuries. According to historian Ioan-Aurel Pop, Romanians were the first to adopt Christianity among the peoples who now inhabit the territories bordering Romania. They adopted Slavonic liturgy when it was introduced in the neighboring First Bulgarian Empire and Kievan Rus' in the 9th and 10th centuries. According to a concurring scholarly theory, the Romanians' ancestors turned to Christianity in the provinces to the south of the Danube (in present-day Bulgaria and Serbia) after it was legalized throughout the Roman Empire in 313. They adopted the Slavonic liturgy during the First Bulgarian Empire before their migration to the territory of modern Romania began in the 11th or 12th century.
Roman times
Christian communities in Romania date at least from the 3rd century. According to an oral history first recorded by Hippolytus of Rome in the early 3rd century, Jesus Christ's teachings were first propagated in "Scythia" by Saint Andrew. If "Scythia" refers to Scythia Minor, and not to the Crimea as has been claimed by the Russian Orthodox Church, Christianity in Romania can be considered of apostolic origin.
The existence of Christian communities in Dacia Traiana is disputed. Some Christian objects found there are dated from the 3rd century, preceding the Roman withdrawal from the region. Vessels with the sign of the cross, fish, grape stalks, and other Christian symbols were discovered in Ulpia Traiana, Porolissum, Potaissa, Apulum, Romula, and Gherla, among other settlements. A gem representing the Good Shepherd was found at Potaissa. On a funerary altar in Napoca the sign of the cross was carved inside the letter "O" of the original pagan inscription of the monument, and pagan monuments that were later Christianized were also found at Ampelum and Potaissa. A turquoise and gold ring with the inscription "" ("I am Jupiter's scourge against the dissolute Christians") was also found and may be related to the Christian persecutions during the 3rd century.
In Scythia Minor, a large number of Christians were martyred during the Diocletianic Persecution at the turn of the 3rd and 4th centuries. Four martyrs' relics were discovered in a crypt at Niculițel, with their names written in Greek on the crypt's inner wall. Thirty-five basilicas built between the 4th and 6th centuries have been discovered in the main towns of the province. The earliest basilica, built north of the Lower Danube, was erected at Sucidava (now Celei), in one of the Roman forts rebuilt under Justinian I (527–565). Burial chambers were built in Callatis (now Mangalia), Capidava, and other towns of Scythia Minor during the 6th century. The walls were painted with quotes from Psalms.
Clerics from Scythia Minor were involved in the theological controversies debated at the first four Ecumenical Councils. Saint Bretanion defended the Orthodox faith against Arianism in the 360s. The metropolitans of the province who supervised fourteen bishops by the end of the 5th century had their See in Tomis (modernly Constanța). The last metropolitan was mentioned in the 6th century, before Scythia Minor fell to the Avars and Sclavenes who destroyed the forts on the Lower Danube. John Cassian (360–435), Dionysius Exiguus (470–574) and Joannes Maxentius (leader of the so-called Scythian Monks) lived in Scythia Minor and contributed to its Christianization.
Early Middle Ages
East Roman Empire period
Most Christian objects from the 4th to 6th centuries found in the former province of Dacia Traiana were imported from the Roman Empire. The idea that public edifices were transformed into Christian cult sites at Slăveni and Porolissum has not been unanimously accepted by archaeologists. One of the first Christian objects found in Transylvania was a pierced bronze inscription discovered at Biertan. A few 4th century graves in the Sântana de Mureș–Chernyakhov necropolises was arranged in a Christian orientation. Clay lamps bearing depictions of crosses from the 5th and 6th centuries were also found here.
Dacia Traiana was dominated by "Taifali, Victuali, and Tervingi" around 350. Christian teachings among the Tervingi who formed the Western Goths started in the 3rd century. For instance, the ancestors of Ulfilas, who was consecrated "bishop of the Christians in the Getic land" in 341, had been captured in Capadocia (Turkey) around 250. During the first Gothic persecution of Christians in 348, Ulfilas was expelled to Moesia, where he continued to preach Greek, Latin, and Gothic languages. During the second persecution between 369 and 372, many believers were martyred, including Sabbas the Goth. The remains of twenty-six Gothic martyrs were transferred to the Roman Empire after the invasion of the Huns in 376.
Following the collapse of the Hunnic Empire in 454, the Gepids "ruled as victors over the extent of all Dacia". A gold ring from a 5th-century grave at Apahida is ornamented with crosses. Another ring from the grave bears the inscription "", probably in reference to Omharus, one of the known Gepid kings. The Gepidic kingdom was annihilated in 567–568 by the Avars.
The presence of Christians among the "barbarians" has been well documented. Theophylact Simocatta wrote of a Gepid who "had once long before been of the Christian religion". The author of the Strategikon documented Romans among the Sclavenes, and some of those Romans may have been Christians as well. The presence and proselytism of these Christians does not go so far as to explain how artifacts with Christian symbolism appeared on sites to the south and east of the Carpathians in the 560s. Such artifacts have been found at Botoșana and Dulceanca. Casting molds for pectoral crosses were found in the space around Eastern and Southern Carpathian mountains, starting with the 6th century.
Outer-Carpathian regions and the Balkans
Burial assemblages found in 8th-century cemeteries to the south and east of the Carpathians, for instance at Castelu, prove that local communities practiced cremation The idea that local Christians incorporating pre-Christian practices can also be assumed among those who cremated their dead is a matter of debate among historians. Cremation was replaced by inhumation by the beginning of the 11th century.
For the period from the 9th to 11th centuries, in the regions from the East of Carpathians there are known more than 52 discoveries of Christian origin (moulds, brackets, pendants, groundsels, pottery with Christian signs, rings with Christian signs), many of them locally made; some of these discoveries and the content and the orientation of graves show that local people practised the Christian burial ceremony before the Christianization of Bulgars and Slavs.
The territories between the Lower Danube and the Carpathians were incorporated into the First Bulgarian Empire by the first half of the 9th century. Boris I (852–889) was the first Bulgarian ruler to accept Christianity, in 863. By that time differences between the Eastern and the Western branches of Christianity had grown significantly. Boris I allowed the members of the Eastern Orthodox clergy to enter his country in 864, and the Bulgarian Orthodox Church adopted the Bulgarian alphabet in 893. An inscription in Mircea Vodă from 943 is the earliest example of the use of Cyrillic script in Romania.
The First Bulgarian Empire was conquered by the Byzantines under Basil II (976–1025). He soon revived the Metropolitan See of Scythia Minor at Constanța, but this put Christian Bulgarians under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Ohrid. The Metropolitan See of Moesia was reestablished in Dristra (now Silistra, Bulgaria) in the 1040s when a mission of mass evangelization was dispatched among the Pechenegs who had settled in the Byzantine Empire. The Metropolitan See of Dristra was taken over by the bishop of Vicina in the 1260s.
The Vlachs living in Boeotia, Greece were described as false Christians by Benjamin of Tudela in 1165. However, the brothers Peter and Asen built a church in order to gather Bulgarian and Vlach prophets to announce that St Demetrius of Thessaloniki had abandoned their enemies, while arranging their rebellion against the Byzantine Empire. The Bulgarians and the Vlachs revolted and created the Second Bulgarian Empire. The head of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church was elevated to the rank of "Primate of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs" in 1204.
Catholic missionaries among the Cumans, who had controlled the territories north of the Lower Danube and east of the Carpathians from the 1070s, were first conducted by the Teutonic Knights, and later by the Dominicans, after 1225. A new Catholic diocese was set up in the region in 1228 by Archbishop Robert of Esztergom, the papal legate for "Cumania and the Brodnik lands". A letter written by Pope Gregory IX revealed that many of the inhabitants of this diocese were Orthodox Romanians, who also converted Hungarian and Saxon colonists to their faith.
Intra-Carpathian regions
Christian objects disappeared in Transylvania after the 7th century. Most local cemeteries had cremation graves by this point, but inhumation graves with west–east orientation from the late 9th or early 10th century were found at Ciumbrud and Orăștie. The territory was invaded by the Hungarians around 896.
The second-in-command of the Hungarian tribal federation, known as the gyula, converted to Christianity in Constantinople around 952. The gyula was accompanied back to Hungary by the Greek Hierotheos, who was the bishop of Tourkia (Hungary) appointed by the Ecumenical Patriarch. Pectoral crosses of Byzantine origin from this period have been found at the confluence of the Mureș and Tisa Rivers. A bronze cross from Alba Iulia, and a Byzantine pectoral cross from Dăbâca from the 10th century have been found in Transylvania. Additionally, a Greek monastery was founded at Cenad by a chieftain named Achtum who was baptized according to the Greek rite around 1002.
Gyula's territory was incorporated with Achtum's territory into the Kingdom of Hungary under Stephen I, who was baptized according to the Latin rite. Stephen I introduced the tithe, a church tax assessed on agricultural products. Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Alba Iulia, Roman Catholic Diocese of Szeged–Csanád, and Roman Catholic Diocese of Oradea Mare were the first three Roman Catholic dioceses in Romania and all became suffragans of the archbishop of Kalocsa in Hungary. The provostship of Sibiu was transferred, upon the local Saxons's request, under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of Esztergom (Hungary) in 1212.
Large cemeteries developed around churches after church officials insisted on churchyard burials. The first Benedictine monastery in Transylvania was founded at Cluj-Manăștur in the second half of the 11th century. New monasteries were established during the next few centuries in Almașu, Herina, Mănăstireni, and Meseș. When the Cistercian abbey at Cârța was founded in the early 13th century, its estates were created on land belonging to the Vlachs. The enmity between the Eastern and Western Churches also increased during the 11th century.
Middle Ages
Orthodox Church in the intra-Carpathian regions
Although the Council of Buda prohibited the Eastern schism from erecting churches in 1279, numerous Orthodox churches were built in the period starting in the late 13th century. These churches were mainly made of wood, though some landowners erected stone churches on their estates. Most of these churches were built on the plan of a Greek cross. Some churches also display elements of Romanesque or Gothic architecture. Many churches were painted with votive portraits illustrating the church founders.
Local Orthodox hierarchies were often under the jurisdiction of the Metropolitan Sees of Wallachia and Moldavia by the late 14th century. For instance, the Metropolitan of Wallachia also styled himself "Exarch of all Hungary and the borderlands" in 1401. Orthodox monasteries in Romania, including Șcheii Brașovului, were centers of Slavonic writing. The Bible was first translated into Romanian by monks in Maramureș during the 15th century.
In 1356, Pope Innocent VI streghtened a previous bull addressed to the prior of the Dominican Order of Hungary, where he was instructed to preach the crusade “against all the inhabitants of Transylvania, Bosnia and Slavonia, which are heretics” (contra omnes Transilvanos, Bosnenses et Sclavonie, qui heretici fuerint).
Treatment of Orthodox Christians worsened under Louis I of Hungary, who ordered the arrest of Eastern Orthodox priests in Cuvin and Caraș in 1366. He also decreed that only those who "loyally follow the faith of the Roman Church may keep and own properties" in Hațeg, Caransebeș, and Mehadia. However, conversion was infrequent in this period; the Franciscan Bartholomew of Alverna complained in 1379 that "some stupid and indifferent people" disapprove of the conversion of "the Slavs and Romanians". Both Romanians and Catholic landowners objected to this command. Romanian chapels and stone churches built on the estates of Catholic noblemen and bishops were frequently mentioned in documents from the late 14th century.
A special inquisitor sent against the Hussites by the pope also took forcible measures against "schismatics" in 1436. Following the union of the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches at the Council of Florence in 1439, the local Romanian Church was considered to be united with Rome. Those who opposed the Church union, such as John of Caffa, were imprisoned.
Although the monarchs only insisted on the conversion of the Romanians living in the southern borderlands, many Romanian noblemen converted to Catholicism in the 15th century. Transylvanian authorities made systematic efforts to convert Romanians to Calvinism in the second half of the 16th century, and the expulsion of priests who did not convert to the "true faith" was ordered in 1566. Orthodox hierarchy was only restored under Stephen Báthory with the appointment of the Moldavian monk, Eftimie, as Orthodox bishop in 1571.
Orthodox Church in Moldavia and Wallachia
An unknown Italian geographer wrongly described the "Romanians and the Vlachs" as pagans in the early 14th century. For instance, Basarab I (c. 1310–1352), the Romanian ruler who achieved the independence of Wallachia in the territories between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube, was mentioned as "schismatic" by a royal diploma of 1332, referring to the Orthodox Church. The Metropolitan See of Wallachia was established in 1359 when the Ecumenical Patriarch assigned Hyakinthos, the last metropolitan of Vicina, to lead the local Orthodox Church. Although a second Metropolitan See, with jurisdiction over Oltenia, was set up in Severin (now Drobeta-Turnu Severin) in 1370, there was again only one Metropolitan in the principality after around 1403. The local Church was reorganized under Radu IV the Great (1496–1508) by Patriarch Nephon II of Constantinople, the former Ecumenical Patriarch who founded two suffragan bishoprics.
A second principality, Moldavia, achieved its independence in the territories to the east of the Carpathians under Bogdan I (1359 – c. 1365), but it still remained under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox hierarch of Halych (Ukraine). Although the metropolitan of Halych consecrated two bishops for Moldavia in 1386, the Ecumenical Patriarch objected to this. The patriarch established a separate metropolitan see for Moldavia in 1394, but his appointee was refused by Stephen I of Moldavia (1394–1399). The conflict was solved when the patriarch recognized a member of the princely family as metropolitan in 1401. In Moldavia, two suffragan bishoprics in Roman, and Rădăuți were first recorded in 1408 and 1471.
From the second half of the 14th century, Romanian princes sponsored the monasteries of Mount Athos (Greece). First, the Koutloumousiou monastery received donations from Nicholas Alexander of Wallachia (1352–1364). In Wallachia, the monastery at Vodița was established in 1372 by the monk Nicodemus from Serbia, who had embraced monastic life at Chilandar on Mount Athos. Monks fleeing from the Ottomans founded the earliest monastery in Moldavia at Neamț in 1407. From the 15th century the four Eastern patriarchs and several monastic institutions in the Ottoman Empire also received landed properties and other sources of income, such as mills, in the two principalities.
Many monasteries, such as Cozia in Wallachia, and Bistrița in Moldavia, became important centers of Slavonic literature. The earliest local chronicles, such as the "Chronicle of Putna", were also written by monks. Religious books in Old Church Slavonic were printed in Târgoviște under the auspices of the monk Macaria from Montenegro after 1508. Wallachia in particular became a leading center of the Orthodox world, which was demonstrated by the consecration of the cathedral of Curtea de Argeș in 1517 in the presence of the Ecumenical Patriarch and the Protos of Mount Athos. The painted monasteries of Moldavia are still an important symbol of cultural heritage today.
The extensive lands owned by monasteries made the monasteries a significant political and economic force. Many of these monasteries also owned Romani and Tatar slaves. Monastic institutions enjoyed fiscal privileges, including an exemption from taxes, although 16th-century monarchs occasionally tried to seize monastic assets.
Wallachia and Moldavia maintained their autonomous status, though the princes were obliged to pay a yearly tax to the sultans starting during the 15th century. Dobruja was annexed in 1417 by the Ottoman Empire, and the Ottomans also occupied parts of southern Moldavia in 1484, and Proilavia (now Brăila) in 1540. These territories were under the jurisdiction of the metropolitans of Dristra and Proilavia for several centuries following the annexation.
Other denominations
The Diocese of Cumania was destroyed during the Mongol invasion of 1241–1242. After this, Catholic missions to the East were carried on by the Franciscans. For example, Pope Nicholas IV sent Franciscan missionaries to the "country of the Vlachs" in 1288. In the 14th and 15th centuries new Catholic dioceses were established in the territories to the east and south of the Carpathians, mainly due to the presence of Hungarian and Saxon colonists. Local Romanians also sent a complaint to the Holy See in 1374 demanding a Romanian-speaking bishop. Alexander the Good of Moldavia (1400–1432) also founded an Armenian bishopric in Suceava in 1401. In Moldavia, however, many Catholic believers were forced to convert to Orthodoxy under Ștefan VI Rareș (1551–1552) and Alexandru Lăpușneanu (1552–1561).
In the Kingdom of Hungary parish organization became fully developed in the 14th to 15th centuries. In the 1330s, according to a papal tithe-register, the average ratio of villages with Catholic parishes was around forty percent in the entire kingdom, but in the territory of modern Romania there was a Catholic church in 954 settlements out of 2100 and 2200 settlements. The institutional and economic power of the Catholic Church in Transylvania was systematically dismantled by the authorities in the second half of the 16th century. The extensive lands of the bishopric of Transylvania were confiscated in 1542. The Catholic Church soon became deprived of its own higher local hierarchy and subordinate to a state governed by Protestant monarchs and Estates. Some of the local noblemen, including a branch of the powerful Báthory family and many Székelys, remained Catholics.
Reformation
First the Hussite movement for religious reform began in Transylvania in the 1430s. Many of the Hussites moved to Moldavia, the only state in Europe outside Bohemia where they remained free of persecution.
The earliest evidence that Lutheran teachings "were known and followed" in Transylvania is a royal letter written to the town council of Sibiu in 1524. The Transylvanian Saxons' assembly decreed the adoption of the Lutheran creed by all the Saxon towns in 1544. Municipal authorities also tried to influence the ritual of the Orthodox services. A Romanian Catechism was published in 1543, and a Romanian translation of the four Gospels in 1560.
Calvinist preachers first became active in Oradea in the early 1550s. The Diet recognized the existence of two distinct Protestant churches in 1564 after the Saxon and Hungarian clergy had failed to agree on the contested points of theology, such as the nature of communion services. The government also exerted pressure on the Romanians in order to change their faith. The Diet of 1566 decreed that a Romanian Calvinist bishop, Gheorghe of Sîngeorgiu, be their sole religious leader.
A faction of Hungarian preachers raised doubts over the doctrine of the Trinity in the 1560s. In a decade Cluj became the center of the Unitarian movement. The four "received religions" was recognized in 1568 by the Diet of Turda which also gave ministers the right to teach according to their own understanding of Christianity. Although a ban on further religious innovation was enacted in 1572, many Székelys turned to Sabbatarianism in the 1580s.
The process of giving up pre-Reformation traditions was extremely slow in Transylvania. Although all or some of the images were eliminated in the churches, sacred vessels were kept. Protestant denominations also kept the strict observance of holidays and fasting periods.
Early Modern and Modern Times
Orthodox Church in Moldavia, Wallachia, and Romania
The use of Romanian in church service was first introduced in Wallachia under Matei Basarab (1632–1654), and in Moldavia under Vasile Lupu (1634–1652). During Vasile Lupu's reign a pan-Orthodox synod adopted the "Orthodox Confession of Faith" in Iași in 1642 in order to reject any Calvinist influence over Orthodox hierarchy. The first complete Romanian "Book of Prayer" was published in 1679 by Metropolitan Dosoftei of Moldavia (1670–1686). A team of scholars also completed the Romanian translation of the Bible in 1688.
The two principalities suffered the highest degree of Ottoman exploitation during the "Phanariot century" (1711–1821) when princes appointed by the sultans ruled in both of them. The second half of the 18th century, brought a spiritual renaissance, initiated by Paisius Velichkovsky. His influence led to a resurgence of Hesychastic prayer in the monasteries in Moldavia. In this period Romanian theological culture benefited from new translations from patristic literature. In the first decades of the 19th century theological seminaries were established in both principalities, such as in the Socola Monastery in 1803, and in Bucharest in 1836.
A new archbishopric subordinated to the Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church was created in Chișinău when the Russian Empire annexed Bessarabia in 1812. The Russian authorities soon forbade its archbishop from having any connections with the Orthodox Church in the Romanian principalities.
Romanian society embarked upon a rapid development following the reinstallation of native princes in 1821. For instance, the Romani slaves owned by the monasteries were freed in Moldavia in 1844, and in Wallachia in 1847. The two principalities were united under Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1859–1866), and the new state adopted the name of Romania in 1862. In his reign, the estates of the monasteries were nationalized. He also endorsed the use of Romanian in the liturgy, and replaced the Cyrillic alphabet with the Romanian alphabet. In 1860, the first Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded at the University of Iași.
The Orthodox churches of the former principalities, the Metropolitan of Ungro-Wallachia and the Metropolitan of Moldavia, merged to form the Romanian Orthodox Church. In 1864, the Romanian Orthodox Church was proclaimed independent, but the Ecumenical Patriarch pronounced the new ecclesiastic regime contrary to the holy canons. Henceforth all ecclesiastic appointments and decisions were subject to state approval. The Metropolitan of Wallachia, who received the title of Primate Metropolitan in 1865, became the head of the General Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church. The 1866 Constitution of Romania recognized the Orthodox Church as the dominant religion in the kingdom. A law passed in 1872 declared the church to be "autocephalous". After a long period of negotiations with the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the latter finally recognized the Metropolis of Romania in 1885.
Following the Romanian War of Independence, Dobruja was awarded to Romania in 1878. At that time the majority of Dobruja's population was Muslim, but a massive colonization effort soon began. The region had also been inhabited from the late 17th century by a group of Russian Old Believers called Lipovans.
The Great Powers recognized Romania's independence in 1880, after Romania's constitution was modified to allow the naturalization of non-Christians. In order to solemnize Romania's independence, in 1882 the Orthodox hierarchy performed the ceremony of blessing the holy oil, a privilege that had thereto been reserved for the ecumenical patriarchs. The new conflict with the patriarch delayed the canonical recognition of the autocephaly of the Romanian Orthodox Church for three years, until 1885.
Orthodox Church in Transylvania and the Habsburg Empire
The 16th-century Calvinist princes of Transylvania insisted on the Orthodox clergy's unconditional subordination to the Calvinist superintendents. For instance, when an Orthodox synod adopted measures for regulation of church life Gabriel Bethlen (1613–1630) removed the local metropolitan. By forcing the use of Romanian instead of Old Church Slavonic in the liturgy, the authorities also contributed to the development of the Romanians' national consciousness. Local Orthodox believers remained without their own religious leader after the integration of Transylvania into the Habsburg Empire, when a synod led by the metropolitan declared the union with Rome in 1698.
The first movement for the reestablishment of the Orthodox Church was initiated in 1744 by Visarion Sarai, a Serbian monk. The monk Sofronie organized Romanian peasants to demand a Serbian Orthodox bishop in 1759–1760. In 1761 the government consented to the establishment of an Orthodox diocese in Sibiu under the jurisdiction of the Serbian Metropolitan of Sremski Karlovci. The Serbian Metropolitan was also granted authority, in 1781, over the diocese of Cernăuți (now Chernivtsi, Ukraine) in Bukovina that had been annexed from Moldavia by the Habsburg Empire.
In 1848 Andrei Șaguna became the bishop of Sibiu and worked to free the local Orthodox Church from the control of the Serbian Metropolitan. He succeeded in 1864, when a separate Orthodox Church with its Metropolitan See in Sibiu was established with the consent of the government. In the second half of the 19th century, the local Romanian Orthodox Church supervised the activity of four high schools, and over 2,700 elementary schools. The Orthodox Church in Bukovina also became independent of the Serbian Metropolitan in 1873. A Faculty of Orthodox Theology was founded in the University of Cernăuți in 1875. However, many Romanian priests were deported or imprisoned for propagating the union of the lands inhabited by Romanians after Romania declared war on Austria–Hungary in 1916.
Romanian Church united with Rome
After the Principality of Transylvania was annexed by the Habsburg Empire, the new Catholic rulers tried to attract the Romanians' support in order to strengthen their control over the principality governed by predominantly Protestant Estates. For the Romanians, the Church Union proposed by the imperial court nurtured the hope that the central government would assist them in their conflicts with local authorities.
The union of the local Romanian Orthodox Church with Rome was declared in Alba Iulia, after years of negotiations, in 1698 by Metropolitan Atanasie Anghel and thirty-eight archpriests. This union was based on the four points adopted by the Council of Florence, including the recognition of papal primacy. Atanasie Anghel lost his title of metropolitan and was re-ordained as a bishop subordinated to the archbishop of Esztergom in 1701.
The Orthodox world considered the union with Rome as apostasy. Metropolitan Theodosie of Wallachia referred to Atanasie Anghel as "the new Judas". Since many of the local Romanians opposed the Church union, it also created discord among them.
Uniate Romanians assumed a leading role in the struggle for the Romanians' political emancipation in Transylvania for the next century. Bishop Inocențiu Micu-Klein demanded in dozens of memoranda their recognition as the fourth "political nation" in the province. The Uniate bishopric in Transylvania was raised to the rank of a Metropolitan See and became independent of the archbishop of Esztergom in 1855.
Other denominations
Calvinism was popular in Transylvania during the 17th century. Over sixty Unitarian ministers were expelled from their parishes in the Székely Land in the 1620s due to the influence of Calvinist Church leaders. Although Transylanian Diets also enacted anti-Sabbatarian decrees, Sabbatarian communities survived in some Székely villages, such as Bezid.
The Saxon communities' religious life was characterized by both differentiation from Calvinism, and by an increased number of worship services. Traditional Lutheranism, due to its concern for individual spiritual needs, always remained more popular than Crypto-Calvinism. The assets of the local Catholic Church were administered by the "Catholic Estates", a public body consisting of both laymen and priests. A report on church visitations conducted around 1638 revealed that there were numerous Catholic villages without clergymen in the Székely Land.
The Principality of Transylvania, following its integration into the Habsburg Empire, was administered according to the principles established by the Leopoldine Diploma of 1690, which confirmed the privileged status of the four "received religions". In practice the new regime gave preference to the Roman Catholic Church. Between 1711 and 1750, the apogee of the Counter-Reformation, the government ensured that Catholics would get preference in appointments to high offices. The preeminent status of the Roman Catholic Church was not weakened under Joseph II (1780–1790), despite his issuance of the 1781 Edict of Tolerance. Catholics who wished to convert to any of the other three "received religions" were still required to undergo an instruction. The equal status of the Churches was not declared until the union of Transylvania with the Kingdom of Hungary in 1868.
In the Kingdom of Romania, a new Roman Catholic archbishopric was organized in 1883 with its See in Bucharest. Among the new Protestant movements, the first Baptist congregation was formed in 1856, and the Seventh-day Adventists were first introduced in Pitești in 1870.
Greater Romania
Following World War I, ethnic Romanians in Banat, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania voted for the union with the Kingdom of Romania. The new borders were recognized by international treaties in 1919–1920. Thus, a Romania that had thereto been a relatively homogeneous state now included a mixed religious and ethnic population. According to the 1930 census, 72 percent of its citizens were Orthodox, 7.9 percent Greek Catholic, 6.8 percent Lutheran, 3.9 percent Roman Catholic, and 2 percent Reformed.
The constitution adopted in 1923 declared that "differences of religious beliefs and denominations" do not constitute "an impediment either to the acquisition of political rights or to the free exercise thereof". It also recognized two national churches by declaring the Romanian Orthodox Church as the dominant denomination and by according the Romanian Church united with Rome "priority over other denominations". The 1928 Law of Cults granted a fully recognized status to seven more denominations, among them the Roman Catholic, the Armenian, the Reformed, the Lutheran, and the Unitarian Churches.
All Orthodox hierarchs in the enlarged kingdom became members of the Holy Synod of the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1919. New Orthodox bishoprics were set up, for instance, in Oradea, Cluj, Hotin (now Khotyn, Ukraine), and Timișoara. The head of the church was raised to the rank of patriarch in 1925. Orthodox ecclesiastical art flourished in this period due to the erection of new Orthodox churches especially in the towns of Transylvania. The 1920s also witnessed the emergence of Orthodox revival movements, among them the "Lord's Army" founded in 1923 by Iosif Trifa. Conservative Orthodox groups who refused to use the Gregorian calendar adopted by the Romanian Orthodox Church in 1925 formed the separate Old Calendar Romanian Orthodox Church.
In this period, the preservation of ethnic minorities' cultural heritage became a primary responsibility of the traditional Protestant denominations. The Reformed Church became closely identified with a large segment of the local Hungarian community, and the Lutheran Church perceived itself as the bearer of Transylvanian Saxon culture. Among the new Protestant denominations, the Pentecostal movement was declared illegal in 1923. The intense hostility between the Baptist and Orthodox communities also culminated in the temporary closing of all Baptist churches in 1938.
Communist regime
According to the armistice signed between Romania and the Allied Powers in 1944, Romania lost Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina to the Soviet Union. Consequently, the Orthodox dioceses in these territories were subordinated to the patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church. In Romania, the Communist Party used the same tactics as in other Eastern European countries. The Communist Party supported a coalition government, but in short time drove out all other parties from power.
The 1948 Law on Religious Denominations formally upheld freedom of religion, but ambiguous stipulations obliged both priests and believers to conform to the constitution, national security, public order, and accepted morality. For example, priests who voiced anti-communist attitudes could be deprived of their state-sponsored salaries. The new law acknowledged fourteen denominations, among them the Old Rite Christian, Baptist, Adventist, and Pentecostal churches, but the Romanian Church united with Rome was abolished.
Although the Orthodox church was completely subordinated to the state through the appointment of patriarchs sympathetic to the Communists, over 1,700 Orthodox priests of the 9,000 Orthodox priests in Romania were arrested between 1945 and 1964. The Orthodox theologian Dumitru Stăniloae whose three-volume Dogmatic Theology presents a synthesis of patristic and contemporary themes was imprisoned between 1958 and 1964. The first Romanian saints were also canonized between 1950 and 1955. Among them, the 17th-century Sava Brancovici was canonized for his relations with Russia.
Some other denominations met an even more tragic fate. For instance, four of the five arrested Uniate bishops died in prison. Religious dissident movements became especially active between 1975 and 1983. For instance, the Orthodox priest Gheorghe Calciu-Dumitreasa spent sixteen years in prison for involvement with the fascist Iron Guard and was later condemned to ten more because of his sermons on the relationship of atheism, faith, and Marxism. The crisis that led to the regime's fall in 1989 also started with the staunch resistance of the Reformed pastor László Tőkés, whom the authorities wanted to silence.
Romania since 1989
The Communist regime came to an abrupt end on 22 December 1989. The poet Mircea Dinescu, who was the first to speak on liberated Romanian television, began his statement with the words: "God has turned his face toward Romania once again". The new constitution of Romania, adopted in 1992, guarantees the freedom of thought, opinion, and religious beliefs when manifested in a spirit of tolerance and mutual respect. Eighteen groups are currently recognized as religious denominations in the country. Over 350 other religious associations has also been registered, but they do not enjoy the right to build houses of worship or to perform rites of baptism, marriage, or burial.
Since the fall of Communism, about fourteen new Orthodox theology faculties and seminaries have opened, Orthodox monasteries have been reopened, and even new monasteries have been founded, for example, in Recea. The Holy Synod has canonized new saints, among them Stephen the Great of Moldavia (1457–1504), and declared the second Sunday after Pentecost the "Sunday of the Romanian Saints".
The Greek Catholic hierarchy was fully restored in 1990. The four Roman Catholic dioceses in Transylvania, composed primarily of Hungarian-speaking inhabitants, hoped to be united into a distinct ecclesiastical province, but only Alba Iulia was raised to an archbishopric and placed directly under the jurisdiction of the Holy See in 1992. After the exodus of the Transylvanian Saxons to Germany, only 30,000 of the members of the German Lutheran Church remained in Romania by the end of 1991. According to the 2002 census, 86.7 percent of Romania's total population was Orthodox, 4.7 percent Roman Catholic, 3.2 percent Reformed, 1.5 percent Pentecostal, 0.9 percent Greek Catholic, and 0.6 percent Baptist.
Footnotes
References
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1993%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1993 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1993 in the United Kingdom.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative)
Parliament – 51st
Events
January
1 January
Carlton Television, Meridian, Westcountry and GMTV begin broadcasting. Teletext Ltd. launches a new Teletext service on ITV and Channel 4, replacing the 14-year-old ORACLE teletext service.
Ben Silcock, an inadequately treated schizophrenic patient, enters the lion enclosure in London Zoo.
5 January – Oil tanker runs aground on the South Mainland of Shetland, spilling 84,700 tonnes of crude oil into the sea.
6 January – The first episode of the children's series The Animals of Farthing Wood begins on BBC One.
8 January – Ford unveils its new Mondeo, a range of large family hatchbacks, saloons and estates which will reach showrooms on 22 March as a replacement for the long-running Sierra.
10 January
British newspapers carry reports that The Princess of Wales wants a divorce from The Prince of Wales, despite the announcement of their separation (issued the previous month) stating that there were no plans for a divorce.
Braer Storm at peak intensity across the British Isles, breaking up the wrecked tanker Braer.
11 January – British Airways admits liability and apologises "unreservedly" for a "dirty tricks" campaign against Virgin Atlantic.
13 January – Wayne Edwards, a 26-year-old Lance corporal, becomes the first British fatality in the conflict in Bosnia, former Yugoslavia.
17 January – Bookmakers cut their odds on the monarchy being abolished by the year 2000 from 100 to 1 to 50 to 1.
21 January – Unemployment has increased for the 31st month running, but is still just short of the 3,000,000 total that was last seen nearly six years ago. Economists warn that it could hit a new high of more than 3,500,000 by the end of this year. However, the Conservatives have still managed to cut Labour's lead in the opinion polls from 13 points to eight points, according to the latest MORI poll.
26 January – The Bank of England lowers interest rates to 6% – the lowest since 1978.
February
1 February – Economists warn that unemployment could reach a new high of 3,400,000 this year.
12 February – Murder of James Bulger: a 2-year-old is murdered by two ten-year-old boys on Merseyside.
14 February – Unemployment is reported to be rising faster in Conservative seats than in Labour ones.
15 February – The number of unfit homes in Britain is reported to have increased from 900,000 to more than 1,300,000 between 1986 and 1991.
17 February – Shadow Chancellor Gordon Brown claims that a Labour government could reduce taxation – a dramatic turn for a party known for high taxation.
18 February – Unemployment has reached 3,000,000 (and a rate of 10.6%) for the first time in six years.
19 February – Judith Chaplin, Conservative MP for Newbury in Berkshire, dies suddenly at the age of 53 after less than a year in parliament.
20 February – Economists are now warning that unemployment could rise as high at 3,500,000 within the next year.
25 February – A MORI poll shows that 80% of Britons are dissatisfied with the way that John Major is running the country, and nearly 50% believe that the economy will get worse during this year.
25–26 February – Warrington bomb attacks: Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) bombs are planted and explode at gas holders in Warrington, Cheshire.
March
4 March – Former Cabinet minister Nicholas Ridley dies from lung cancer less than a year after retiring from the House of Commons, aged 64.
16 March – Chancellor Norman Lamont unveils a budget plan which is centred on economic recovery, together with phased introduction of Value Added Tax on domestic fuel bills (8% for 1994). This will be the last Spring budget.
19 March – Unemployment has fallen for the first time since May 1990, now standing at 2,970,000, sparking hopes that the recession is nearly over.
20 March – Warrington bomb attacks: IRA bombs in the town centre of Warrington claim the life of 3-year-old Jonathan Ball and injure more than 50 other people. On 25 March the blasts claim a second fatality when 12-year-old Timothy Parry dies in hospital from his injuries.
22 March – The Ford Mondeo goes on sale.
April
April – Staples, an American office superstore chain, opens its first store in Britain in Swansea.
2 April – Vauxhall launches its all-new Corsa supermini, the replacement for the long-running Nova which like its predecessor is built at the Zaragoza plant in Spain.
3 April – A false start forces the Grand National to be cancelled. The race results are made void for the first time in history.
5 April
Child Support Agency begins operation.
Royal Logistic Corps formed within the British Army by union of five former corps: the Royal Engineers Postal and Courier Service, Royal Corps of Transport, Royal Army Ordnance Corps, Royal Pioneer Corps and Army Catering Corps.
22 April – Black London teenager Stephen Lawrence is stabbed to death at Eltham in south London while waiting for a bus.
24 April – Bishopsgate bombing. A massive IRA truck bomb explodes at Bishopsgate in the City of London. The blast destroys the medieval St Ethelburga's church, and badly damages the NatWest Tower and Liverpool Street tube station. A newspaper photographer is killed.
26 April – Government declares official end of the recession after revealing that the economy grew by 0.6% in the first three months of this year. The recession began nearly three years ago and lasted much longer than most economists expected.
29 April – The Queen announces that Buckingham Palace will open to the public for the first time.
May
2 May - Manchester United become the first champions of the new FA Premier League after their last remaining title contenders, Aston Villa, lose 1–0 at home to Oldham Athletic. It is the first time in 26 years that Manchester United have been champions of the top division of English football.
7 May
The Conservatives lose a 12,357 majority in the Newbury by-election, with the Liberal Democrats gaining the seat by 22,055 votes under new MP David Rendel. The Conservative majority now stands at 19 seats.
Grimethorpe Colliery in South Yorkshire is closed.
13 May – Robert Adley, Conservative MP for Christchurch in Dorset, dies from a heart attack aged 58.
14 May – The economic recovery continues as business failures are reported to have fallen for the second quarter running.
20 May – The latest MORI poll shows that the Conservative government has yet to benefit from bringing the economy out of recession, as they trail Labour (who have 44% of the vote) by 16 points.
22 May – Inflation reaches a 29-year low of 1.3%.
27 May – Kenneth Clarke succeeds Norman Lamont as Chancellor of the Exchequer.
June
Sunday newspaper The Observer is acquired by Guardian Media Group.
3–5 June – Hollbeck Hall Hotel in Scarborough collapses into the sea following a landslide.
10 June – Comedian and TV presenter Les Dawson dies suddenly from a heart attack during a medical check-up in Greater Manchester hospital at the age of 62.
11 June – Actor and comedian Bernard Bresslaw dies suddenly from a heart attack following a collapse in his dressing room at London's Open Air Theatre at the age of 59.
17 June – Unemployment now stands at less than 2,900,000 after the fourth successive monthly fall.
20 June – A high speed train makes the first journey from France to England via the Channel Tunnel, which will open to the public next year.
21 June – Andrew Wiles announces a proof to Fermat's Last Theorem at the Isaac Newton Institute. The proof is slightly flawed, but Wiles announces a revised proof the following year.
24 June
Northern Ireland Minister Michael Mates resigns over links with fugitive tycoon Asil Nadir.
Despite the recent end of the recession, support for the Conservative government has failed to recover, with the latest MORI poll showing that Labour has an 18-point lead over them with 46% of the vote.
30 June – Michael Hunt, former deputy chairman of Nissan UK, is jailed for eight years for his involvement in Britain's worst case of tax fraud.
July
July – The public sector trade union UNISON is formed by merger of the National and Local Government Officers Association (NALGO), the National Union of Public Employees (NUPE) and the Confederation of Health Service Employees (COHSE).
12 July – The British-Kenyan journalist Dan Eldon, 22, is attacked and killed by the natives in Somalia following the Abdi House raid, during the Somali Civil War.
16 July – MI5 publishes a booklet, The Security Service, revealing publicly for the first time its activities, operations and duties, as well as the identity and photographs of Stella Rimington as Director General.
22 July – Government almost defeated by "Maastricht Rebels", however a vote of no confidence does not succeed.
29 July – Conservative Party loses the Christchurch by-election to the Liberal Democrats – a seat they have held since 1910. New MP Diana Maddock gains more than 60% of the vote – twice as many as the Conservative candidate Robert Hayward. This sees the Conservative parliamentary majority fall to 17 seats.
August
4 August – Labour Party leader John Smith opens Millwall F.C.'s New Den stadium in Bermondsey, London, which cost £16million to build and is the largest new football stadium to be built in England since before World War II.
11 August – The Department of Health reveals that the number of people on hospital waiting lists has reached 1,000,000 for the first time.
September
3 September – The UK Independence Party, which supports breakaway from the European Union, is formed by members of the Anti-Federalist League, which itself was formed two years earlier by opponents of Britain's involvement in the Maastricht Treaty.
16 September – Unemployment has risen for the second month running, now standing at 2,922,100 (10.4% of the workforce), sparking fears that the economic recovery could be stalling and the economy could soon slide back into recession just months after coming out of it.
17 September – The British National Party wins its first council seat, in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets.
19 September – Production of the Ford Orion compact saloon ends.
30 September – The Queen approves an honorary knighthood for General Colin Powell, who the day before retired as chief of United States Armed Forces.
October
1 October – QVC launches the first television shopping channel in the UK.
3 October – The Northern Irish journalist Rory Peck, 36, is shot and killed outside the Ostankino TV Centre in Moscow by Boris Yeltsin's loyalists while covering the Russian constitutional crisis.
8 October – John Major launches his Back to Basics campaign.
16 October – Demonstration against the British National Party in Welling, where it has its headquarters.
Unemployment falls this month by 49,000 – the biggest monthly fall since April 1989 – as the economic recovery continues.
November
1 November – Women's Royal Naval Service disbanded, its members being fully absorbed into the regular Royal Navy.
5 November – Civil servants stage a one-day strike.
9 November – Princess Diana sues the Daily Mirror over photographs that were taken of her at a gym.
17 November – The England national football team fails to qualify for the World Cup in America next summer, despite winning their final qualifying match 7–1 against San Marino. National manager Graham Taylor is expected to leave the job imminently. The Welsh national side also missed out on a place in the World Cup after Paul Bodin misses a penalty in a 2–1 defeat at home to Romania. At the Welsh game, a 67-year-old fan is killed by a rocket flare let off in the stands at Cardiff Arms Park.
18 November – M40 minibus crash: In the early hours of the morning, ten children and a woman teacher from Hagley RC High School in Worcestershire are killed in a minibus crash on the M40 motorway near Warwick. An eleventh child dies in hospital several hours later and a twelfth in hospital as a result of their injuries on the following day, leaving just two girls surviving.
24 November – Graham Taylor resigns as manager of the England football team after three years in charge.
25 November – TV entertainer Roy Castle, 61, announces that he is suffering from a recurrence of the lung cancer which he was believed to have overcome one year ago.
29 November – The Conservative government comes under a vitriolic attack in the House of Commons over allegations that it has secret contacts with the Provisional Irish Republican Army.
December
3 December – Diana, Princess of Wales, announces her withdrawal from public life.
9 December – Despite the steady economic recovery, the Conservative government is now 18 points behind Labour (who have 47% of the vote) in the latest MORI poll. The Liberal Democrats have also eaten into their support and now have 20% of the vote.
10 December
Richard J. Roberts wins the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine jointly with Phillip Allen Sharp "for their discoveries of split genes".
Last shift at Monkwearmouth Colliery, ending coal mining in the Durham Coalfield after at least 700 years.
14 December – Yasser Arafat, Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, makes his first official visit to Britain.
15 December – The Downing Street Declaration on the future of Northern Ireland is signed between the UK and Irish governments.
25 December – The Queen speaks of her hopes for peace in Northern Ireland in her Christmas Day speech.
29 December – The Provisional IRA vows to fight on against the British presence in Northern Ireland.
Undated
Completion of Thames Water Ring Main beneath London (80 km).
New car sales enjoy an increase this year for the first time since 1989. The Ford Escort is Britain's best selling car for the second year running, while the new Ford Mondeo and Vauxhall Corsa enjoy strong sales in their first year on the British market.
With the economy growing for the first time since spring 1990, inflation is at a 33-year low of 1.6%.
Publications
Simon Armitage's poetry collection Book of Matches.
Iain Banks' novel Complicity.
Iain M. Banks' novel Against a Dark Background.
Pat Barker's novel The Eye in the Door.
Terry Deary's The Terrible Tudors, first in the Horrible Histories series.
Sebastian Faulks' novel Birdsong.
John McCarthy and Jill Morrell's account of his more than five years as a hostage in Lebanon Some Other Rainbow.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novel Men at Arms and his Johnny Maxwell novel Johnny and the Dead.
Minette Walters' novel The Sculptress.
Irvine Welsh's novel Trainspotting.
Births
1 January – Jon Flanagan, footballer
5 January – Franz Drameh, actor
10 January – Jacob Scipio, actor and writer
11 January – Michael Keane, footballer
12 January – Zayn Malik, pop singer-songwriter, member of One Direction
13 January – Max Whitlock, gymnast
21 January – John Cofie, footballer
22 January – Tommy Knight, actor
28 January – Will Poulter, actor
30 January – Katy Marchant, track cyclist
4 February – Sam Hoskins, footballer
10 February
Jack Butland, English footballer
Greg Kaziboni, Zimbabwe-born footballer
12 February – Benik Afobe, English footballer
15 February – Ben Foakes, English cricketer
11 March – Jodie Comer, actress
13 March – Tyrone Mings, footballer
16 March – George Ford, England rugby union player
24 March – Grace Cassidy, actress
8 April – TBJZL, YouTuber
9 April – Will Merrick, actor
18 April – Nathan Sykes, singer
19 April – Sebastian de Souza, English actor
24 April – Abigail Thorn, actress and YouTuber
6 May – Naomi Scott, actress, singer and musician
9 May – Laura Muir, Scottish middle-distance runner
12 May – Ali Price, Scotland rugby union player
13 May – Finn Harries, vlogger, designer and entrepreneur
16 May – Josephine Gordon, jockey
22 May – Edward Bluemel, actor
28 May – Jonnie Peacock, sprinter
14 June – Callum McGregor, Scottish footballer
19 June – KSI, YouTube personality
23 June – Syndicate, YouTuber and Twitch streamer
25 June – Barney Clark, actor
29 June – Fran Kirby, footballer
George Sampson, English street dancer, presenter, dancer, singer and actor
6 July – Melissa Steel, singer
16 July – Katie McGlynn, actress
18 July – Alex Esmail, actor and wrestler
22 July – Amber Beattie, actress
26 July – Stormzy (Michael Ebenazer Kwadjo Omari Owuo Jr.), grime rapper
27 July
Alexandra Mardell, actress
Max Power, footballer
George Shelley, actor and singer
28 July
Harry Kane, footballer
Cher Lloyd, pop singer
Moses Odubajo, footballer
2 August – Joivan Wade, actor
15 August – Alex Oxlade-Chamberlain, footballer
29 August – Liam Payne, pop singer-songwriter, member of One Direction
13 September – Niall Horan, Irish-born pop guitarist, member of One Direction
15 September – Fady Elsayed, actor
17 September – Alfie Deyes, vlogger
18 September – Charlie Taylor, footballer
20 October – David Bolarinwa, sprinter
9 November – Pete Dunne, wrestler and promoter
25 November – Danny Kent, motorcycle racer
30 November – Cherry Valentine, drag queen (died 2022)
19 December – Hermione Corfield, actress
27 December – Olivia Cooke, actress
Deaths
January
1 January – Cathie Marsh, sociologist and statistician (born 1951)
2 January – Sean Devereux, missionary and aid worker (born 1964); murdered in Somalia
7 January – Sir John Cowley, Army lieutenant-general (born 1905)
8 January – George Rudé, Marxist historian (born 1910)
9 January
Bruce Campbell, ornithologist (born 1912)
Janet Vaughan, physiologist (born 1899)
11 January – Tommy Walker, Scottish footballer (born 1915)
14 January – Victor Warrender, 1st Baron Bruntisfield, politician (born 1899)
15 January – Arthur Wallis Exell, botanist (born 1901)
16 January – Florence Desmond, actress (born 1905)
17 January – Albert Hourani, historian (born 1915)
18 January
Eleanor Alice Burford, novelist (born 1906)
Gordon Higginson, spiritual medium (born 1918)
19 January – Sir Reginald Hewetson, Army general (born 1908)
20 January – Audrey Hepburn, actress (born 1929); died in Switzerland
24 January – Sir Henry Abel Smith, British Army officer and World War II veteran (born 1900)
28 January
Sir Donald Douglas, academic surgeon (born 1911)
Oliver Poole, 1st Baron Poole, politician and businessman (born 1911)
31 January – John Poulson, businessman (born 1900)
February
2 February – Bernard Braden, actor and comedian (born 1916, Canada)
5 February
Sidney Bernstein, Baron Bernstein, businessman, founder of Granada Television (born 1899)
Tip Tipping, stuntman and actor (born 1958); parachute accident
Jack Young, English cricketer (born 1912)
6 February – Sir George Bellew, herald (born 1899)
9 February – Bill Grundy, journalist (born 1923)
13 February
G. H. Diggle, chess player (born 1902)
Willoughby Gray, actor (born 1916)
14 February – Eric Lionel Mascall, Anglican priest and theologian (born 1905)
17 February – Leslie Townsend, English cricketer (born 1903)
18 February
Jacqueline Hill, actress (born 1929)
Leslie Norman, film director (born 1911)
19 February – Judith Chaplin, politician (born 1939)
21 February
Alison Fairlie, scholar (born 1917)
Dick White, intelligence officer, Director-General of MI5 (1953–1956) (born 1906)
24 February – Bobby Moore, English footballer (born 1941)
25 February – Dave Cook, communist activist (born 1941); road accident in Turkey
28 February – Joyce Carey, actress (born 1898)
March
3 March – Tony Bland, football supporter injured in Hillsborough disaster in 1989 allowed to die after a landmark legal challenge by his family (born 1970)
4 March – Nicholas Ridley, Baron Ridley of Liddesdale, politician, Secretary of State for Transport (1983–1986), Secretary of State for the Environment (1986–1989) and Secretary of State for Trade and Industry (1989–1990) (born 1929)
5 March – Robert McCance, paediatrician, biochemist and nutritionist (born 1898)
6 March – Andrew Gilchrist, diplomat (born 1910)
7 March
Richard Fortescue, 7th Earl Fortescue, peer (born 1922)
Patricia Lawrence, actress (born 1925)
Jeremy Tree, racehorse trainer (born 1925)
9 March – C. Northcote Parkinson, historian (born 1909)
13 March – Ann Way, actress (born 1915)
14 March – Harold Soref, politician (born 1916)
16 March – Gordon Donaldson, historian (born 1913)
17 March
Charlotte Hughes, longest-lived person ever documented in the UK (born 1877)
Sir Edward Warburton Jones, lawyer, judge and politician (born 1912)
21 March – Digby Tatham-Warter, British Army officer (born 1917)
24 March
Alice Bacon, Baroness Bacon, politician (born 1909)
Karen Gershon, author and poet (born 1923, Germany)
29 March – Sir John Rodgers, 1st Baronet, politician (born 1906)
31 March – Ailwyn Fellowes, 3rd Baron de Ramsey, peer (born 1910)
April
1 April – Solly Zuckerman, Baron Zuckerman, zoologist and public servant (born 1904)
4 April – Charles Elworthy, Baron Elworthy, British Royal Air Force commander (born 1911)
6 April – Charles Burkill, mathematician (born 1900)
7 April – Terry Price, Welsh rugby player (born 1945); road accident
9 April – Jess Yates, television presenter (born 1918)
10 April – Donald Broadbent, psychologist (born 1926)
15 April
Leslie Charteris, novelist and screenwriter (born 1907)
Robert Westall, children's fiction writer (born 1929)
18 April – Dame Elisabeth Frink, sculptor (born 1930)
20 April – Rowland Hilder, artist (born 1905)
22 April – Stephen Lawrence, student (born 1974); murdered
23 April – Daniel Jones, composer (born 1912)
24 April – Sir Ian Jacob, Army general and broadcasting executive (born 1899)
26 April – Bob Broadbent, cricketer (born 1924)
29 April
Mick Ronson, guitarist (The Spiders from Mars) (born 1946)
Robert Bertram Serjeant, scholar, traveller and Arabist (born 1915)
30 April – Tommy Caton, footballer (born 1962)
May
1 May – Gerry Fowler, politician (born 1935)
5 May – Sir Dermot Boyle, British Royal Air Force commander (born 1904)
6 May
Ivy Benson, bandleader (born 1913)
Ian Mikardo, politician (born 1908)
8 May – Edward Ward, 7th Viscount Bangor, peer (born 1905)
9 May
Penelope Gilliatt, novelist and screenwriter (born 1932)
Maggie Hemingway, novelist (born 1946)
Dame Freya Stark, explorer and travel writer (born 1893)
12 May – John Treasure Jones, naval captain, last master of RMS Queen Mary (born 1905)
13 May
Robert Adley, politician and writer (born 1935)
Bede Griffiths, Benedictine monk (born 1906)
17 May – Elizabeth Wilmot, costume designer (born 1902)
21 May – John Frost, British Army officer and Battle of Arnhem veteran (born 1912)
22 May – David Rees, author (born 1936)
27 May – Roger MacDougall, screenwriter and playwright (born 1910)
28 May
Duncan Browne, singer-songwriter (born 1947)
Derek Hersey, rock climber (born 1956); climbing accident
30 May – Mel Rees, footballer (born 1968)
June
1 June – Austin Robinson, economist (born 1897)
4 June
Molly Drake, poet and musician (born 1915)
Eric Trist, social scientist (born 1909)
5 June – George Strauss, Baron Strauss, politician, Father of the House of Commons (1974–1979) (born 1901)
6 June – Sir Richard Norman, chemist (born 1932)
9 June – Samuel Finer, historian (born 1915)
10 June
Les Dawson, comedian (born 1931)
Archie Macaulay, Scottish footballer and manager (born 1915)
11 June
M. C. Bradbrook, literary scholar (born 1909)
Bernard Bresslaw, actor (born 1934)
15 June – James Hunt, racing driver and media commentator (born 1947)
19 June – William Golding, novelist, Nobel Prize laureate (born 1911)
21 June
Colin Dixon, Welsh rugby player (born 1943)
Al Fairweather, jazz trumpeter (born 1927)
22 June – Victor Maddern, actor (born 1928)
23 June – Flora Bramley, actress and comedian (born 1904)
July
1 July – Tom Berry, rugby union player and manager (born 1911)
6 July
John Gatenby Bolton, astronomer (born 1922)
Ruth Roche, Baroness Fermoy, lady-in-waiting and maternal grandmother of Diana, Princess of Wales (born 1908)
Michael Rothenstein, painter, printmaker and art teacher (born 1908)
8 July – John Riseley-Pritchard, racing driver (born 1924)
12 July – Dan Eldon, journalist (born 1970); murdered in Somalia
15 July – Bert Greeves, motorcycle pioneer (born 1906)
18 July – Michael Winstanley, Baron Winstanley, politician (born 1918)
19 July – Gordon Gray, Scottish cardinal (born 1910)
21 July – John Crichton-Stuart, 6th Marquess of Bute, peer and art collector (born 1933)
23 July
Florence Nightingale David, statistician (born 1909)
Megan Taylor, Olympic figure skater (born 1920)
25 July – Margaret Campbell, Duchess of Argyll, Scottish noblewoman (born 1912)
27 July – T. Dan Smith, politician (born 1915)
28 July – Jack Browne, Baron Craigton, politician (born 1904)
August
1 August – Gerry Sundquist, actor (born 1955); suicide
2 August – Sir Nigel Henderson, British Royal Navy admiral, Chairman of the NATO Military Committee (1968–1971) (born 1909)
3 August – James Donald, actor (born 1917)
7 August – Roy Budd, jazz pianist and composer (born 1947)
10 August – Diana Holman-Hunt, writer and art critic (born 1913)
15 August – Patricia St. John, novelist (born 1919)
16 August
Ernest Fernyhough, politician (born 1908)
Stewart Granger, actor (born 1913)
Joan Hughes, test pilot (born 1918)
18 August – Tony Barwick, television scriptwriter (born 1934)
20 August – Tony Barton, English footballer, coach and manager (born 1937)
24 August – George Cansdale, zoologist, writer and television presenter (born 1909)
25 August – Mildred Creak, child psychiatrist (born 1898)
28 August
George Appleton, Anglican prelate and writer (born 1902)
Rene Ray, Countess of Midleton, actress (born 1911)
E. P. Thompson, historian and peace activist (born 1924)
30 August
Ian Folley, English cricketer (born 1963); accident while playing
Sir Anthony Plowman, judge (born 1905)
September
1 September
Thomas Brodie, Army major-general (born 1903)
Hew Lorimer, sculptor (born 1907)
Michael Sobell, businessman and breeder of racehorses (born 1892)
2 September – Eric Berry, actor (born 1913)
4 September – Tommy Cheadle, English footballer (born 1919)
5 September – Edwin Malindine, politician (born 1910)
6 September – A. L. F. Rivet, archaeologist and cartographer (born 1915)
12 September – Harold Innocent, actor (born 1933)
14 September
Adrianne Allen, actress (born 1907)
Sheelagh Murnaghan, Northern Irish politician (born 1924)
Peter Tranchell, composer (born 1932)
19 September – Helen Adam, poet, collagist and photographer (born 1909)
20 September – Leonard Parkin, television newsreader (born 1929)
23 September – Myer Galpern, politician (born 1903)
24 September – Tamara Talbot Rice, art historian (born 1904, Russian Empire)
25 September – Sir John Moores, businessman, founder and chairman of Littlewoods 1923-1977 and 1980-1982 (born 1896)
30 September
Ronnie Aldrich, jazz musician (born 1916)
Alex Lyon, politician (born 1931)
October
3 October – Rory Peck, journalist (born 1956); murdered in Russia
4 October – Jim Holton, Scottish footballer (born 1951)
7 October – Ivor Bulmer-Thomas, journalist and scientific writer (born 1905)
8 October – Peter Conder, ornithologist and conservationist (born 1919)
10 October
John Bindon, actor and bodyguard (born 1943)
Keith Murray, Baron Murray of Newhaven, academic (born 1903)
11 October – Andy Stewart, singer and musician (born 1933)
12 October – Patrick Holt, actor (born 1912)
22 October – Innes Ireland, soldier and motor racing driver (born 1930)
23 October – Wilhelm Feldberg, physiologist and biologist (born 1900, German Empire)
24 October – Jo Grimond, politician, Leader of the Liberal Party (1956–1967) (born 1913)
26 October – Maurice Henry Dorman, diplomat (born 1912)
27 October
Peter Quennell, writer, biographer and literary historian (born 1905)
Peter Tizard, paediatrician and professor (born 1916)
30 October
Peter Kemp, Spanish Civil War veteran and writer (born 1913)
Margaret Vyner, model and actress (born 1914, Australia)
November
1 November
Freda Corbet, politician (born 1900)
Loelia Lindsay, socialite and magazine editor (born 1902)
A. N. Sherwin-White, ancient historian (born 1911)
3 November
H. G. Callan, zoologist and cytologist (born 1917)
Aidan Crawley, journalist, television executive and politician (born 1908)
Duncan Gibbins, film director and screenwriter (born 1952); accidentally burnt
5 November – Michael Bilton, actor (born 1919)
8 November – James Moffat, novelist (born 1922, Canada)
9 November
Godfrey Lienhardt, anthropologist (born 1921)
Angus Maude, Baron Maude of Stratford-upon-Avon, politician (born 1912)
Stanley Myers, film composer (born 1930)
Anne Smith, Olympic athlete (1964) (born 1941)
13 November – Sir George Taylor, botanist, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens (1956–1971) (born 1904)
19 November – Christopher Frank, British-born French screenwriter (born 1942)
21 November
Margaret Boyd, lacrosse player and schoolteacher (born 1913)
Richard Wordsworth, actor (born 1915)
22 November – Anthony Burgess, novelist and composer (born 1917)
24 November – John Blythe, actor (born 1921)
28 November
Kenneth Connor, comic actor (born 1918)
Tommie Connor, songwriter (born 1904)
Bruce Turner, jazz musician (born 1922)
29 November
Alan Clare, jazz pianist and composer (born 1921)
Sir Jack Longland, educator, mountain climber and broadcaster (born 1905)
30 November – Wogan Philipps, 2nd Baron Milford, only Communist member of the House of Lords (born 1902)
December
1 December
Lynette Davies, actress (born 1948); suicide
Edwin Flavell, Army brigadier-general (born 1898)
Mary Lobel, historian (born 1900)
2 December
Harry Julius Emeléus, organic chemist (born 1903)
John Kershaw, screenwriter (born 1931)
4 December – Hugh Moore, police officer (born 1929)
6 December – Bryson Graham, rock drummer (born 1952)
9 December
Danny Blanchflower, footballer, manager and writer (born 1926)
John Wisdom, philosopher (born 1904)
12 December – Joan Cross, opera singer (born 1900)
14 December – Francis Jones, historian and herald (born 1908)
18 December – Joe Carstairs, power boat racer (born 1900)
19 December – Owain Owain, Welsh novelist (born 1929)
20 December – Sir Philip Christison, Army general (born 1893)
24 December – Ralph Downes, organist and music director (born 1904)
28 December – Jennifer Lash, novelist and painter (born 1938)
See also
1993 in British music
1993 in British television
List of British films of 1993
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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5143513
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swan%20Lake%20Nature%20Sanctuary
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Swan Lake Nature Sanctuary
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Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature Sanctuary is a nature reserve located in Saanich, British Columbia. The sanctuary includes a lake, adjacent marshy lowlands, and the Nature House, as well as a good part of the summit regions of Christmas Hill.
The nature sanctuary consists of two physically and ecologically distinct areas: the low wetland area surrounding Swan Lake, and the rocky Garry oak-forested hilltop of Christmas Hill. The two areas are joined by a connecting corridor trail along the Nelthorpe Road allowance, crossing McKenzie Avenue at a pedestrian-controlled crosswalk. Portions of the corridor trail are on the roadside, and are identified by signs with a hiker symbol and arrow to indicate the direction.
The sanctuary land surrounding the lake covers in addition to the lake. In the winter flooding stage, the lake can cover up to of the low-lying lands around the lake.
Sanctuary grounds
All of the nature sanctuary lands are owned by Saanich, except for the two parcels identified on the map (Swan lake map, below) as Nature Trust BC Lands, covering . All of the lands are managed by the Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature Sanctuary Society under the terms of a land management agreement between the society and the Municipality of Saanich.
Lake surface area:
Winter flood lake area:
Land area excluding lake:
Land area including lake:
The Swan Lake portion of the nature sanctuary is bordered on the west by the Pat Bay Highway; on the east by Saanich Road; on the north by Ralph Street, Sevenoaks and Nelthorpe; and on the south by the Lockside Regional Trail. On the east side of Saanich Road, the vegetated area under the Lochside trestle is also part of the sanctuary lands. Blenkinsop Creek flows through this area on its way to Swan Lake.
The Christmas Hill portion of the nature sanctuary is bordered on the west by a community greenway trail linking Rainbow Street with Rogers Avenue and Rogers Elementary School, and on the south, east and north by mixed residential lands.
History
Pre-contact human history
First Nations people have lived in coastal B.C. areas for at least 8–9,000 years, though the oldest documented archaeological sites in the Victoria area are about 4,150 years old.
Grant Keddie, Royal BC Museum archaeologist, describes Swan Lake as an important hunting and gathering area for the Songhees people. Over the years, a number of arrowheads and spear tips have been found in the fields and hillsides surrounding the lake, indicating a high level of hunting in the region.
Over a hundred species of plants were known and used by the Songhees for food, medicines and for numerous items used in food gathering and preparation, shelter and ceremony. Important food plants include the Camas lily, wild onion, western crab apple, chocolate lily bulbs, Oregon grape, salmonberry, elderberry, Pacific blackberry, red huckleberry, thimbleberry and fern rhizomes. A variety of cat-tails and swamp rushes were harvested from the lake shore and used in weaving shelters, mats, baskets and clothing.
The lake and streams would have provided a variety of fish, including salmon, rainbow trout, steelhead trout and perch, caught by trolling, jigging, spearing and the placement of wooden basket traps.
All varieties of large birds were hunted and their eggs collected, especially in the winter and during the spring migrations when bird populations soared. Remains of food found in ancient villages show that species of ducks and seagulls represent a large number of the birds consumed. Scoters, grebes, geese, swans, sandhill craness, loons and cormorants, grouse, pigeons, and predator birds such as eagles and hawks were consumed.
Pole nets would have been used extensively at Swan Lake to catch waterfowl. A net stretched between two tall poles would be suddenly raised into the flight path of ducks as they swooped towards the lake in the evening.
Bird parts were used for many things, often related to spiritual or ceremonial use. Women plucked waterfowl and mixed the down with twisted pieces of goose skin and stinging nettle fiber twine to make a textile used for shirts and robes. Bird down was stored in a bag made of swan skin. Feathers were used on masks, headdresses, clothing, and many small ritual objects. Bird skulls, beaks and wings were carried as charms associated with special spirit powers.
Deer would have been plentiful around the lake area, providing an important source of food. Clothing was made from deer hides, and a variety of tools were made from the antlers, including wedges, tool shafts, harpoon, spear and arrow points, awls, chisels, needles, blanket pins, combs, scrapers and fish hook barbs.
The rocky Garry Oak-forested slopes of Christmas hill would likely have been used by the Songhees for the cultivation of the Camas bulb, an important part of the First Nations people's diet. They practiced a wide variety of cultivation techniques, including prescribed burning, to preserve the open landscape favored by the Camas lily. It is thought that the predominance and persistence of Garry oak ecosystems across much of Greater Victoria prior to European settlement was a direct result of centuries of burning and harvesting Camas bulbs.
European settlers
Purchase of land from First Nations
The Songhees people included a tribal group called the Sahsum, or Kosampson. Their village was centered around Craigflower Park and Admirals Road. By 1843, the Kosampson moved to the village of Kala on Esquimalt Harbour, which became part of the Esquimalt Indian Reserve in 1853.
In 1850, the title to the territory deemed to be owned by the Kosampson people was sold to James Douglas of the Hudson's Bay Company.
Origin of names – Swan Lake and Christmas Hill
The origin of Swan Lake's name is not clear. It is listed as such on a map of Victoria in 1885. There is speculation that it was named after James Gilchrist Swan, an American journalist, reservation schoolteacher, lawyer, judge, school superintendent, railroad promoter, natural historian, and ethnographer. Though based in Port Townsend, Swan visited on occasion in the early 1880s.
The more popular belief is that the name refers to the trumpeter swans that would have visited the lake regularly.
Similarly, there are many conflicting reports about the origin of the name Christmas Hill. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, the hill was variously called Lake Hill and Christmas Hill.
One source (Saanich Municipality) indicates that Christmas Hill was named after Hudson's Bay Company factor Joseph William McKay discovered it on Christmas Day in the early 1840s.
Numerous sources recount the legend of Christmas Hill. Purportedly, on Christmas Eve in 1855, a large bird, which was thought to be a Thunderbird by the Lekwungen peoples of the time, swooped down and carried away a small Lekwungen child from the Fort Victoria area. Men from the fort apparently searched until the child was found playing happily on Lake Hill (as Christmas Hill was called then) on December 25. Because of this Christmas miracle, the hill's name was changed.
The names Swan Lake and Christmas Hill were finally officially confirmed by the Geographic Board of Canada on May 1, 1934.
Murder on Christmas Hill
On November 5, 1852, Peter Brown, a shepherd of the Hudson's Bay Company, was murdered on Christmas Hill. The suspects were a "leading Cowichan Brave and the son of a Nanaimo chief" who had stayed with him the night before.
Sir James Douglas, then governor, led the chase himself, sailing to the Cowichan River aboard HMS Beaver. Here, following a confrontation with over 200 members of the Cowichan tribe, Douglas apprehended the first suspect. They proceeded north to Nanaimo, where they gave chase to the second suspect, apprehending him at what was subsequently known as Chase River (just south of Nanaimo). The two suspects were tried in Nanaimo Harbour in the first trial by jury to take place on Vancouver Island. Both were declared guilty, and were sentenced to hang on Protection Island, at a place that became known as Gallows Point.
Farming history
Swan Lake and Christmas Hill have a long history of farming, beginning with a sheep farm on the west slopes of Christmas Hill established by Kenneth McKenzie in 1857, and continuing through to the closing of the Pendray dairy farm at Swan Lake in 1978.
An 1885 map of the area shows three land owners, with 100 to 150 acres each:
John Caspar Von Allman, from the summit of Christmas Hill north
Kenneth McKenzie, from the summit south to the middle of Swan Lake
James Stockend, south from the middle of the lake
Little is known about the Von Allman farm, other than a suggestion that it was largely fruit orchards. Vanalman Avenue, just west of the Pat Bay Highway, was named after him.
McKenzie farm
Kenneth McKenzie and his family arrived in Victoria in 1853; he was an employee of the Hudson's Bay Company. While he was developing the Craigflower area, he established a sheep station on Christmas Hill, and subsequently purchased the lands extending from the summit of Christmas Hill to the middle of the lake. In 1866, he moved his family to a newly built home on the west slope of Christmas Hill. He continued to tend his sheep, cattle and horses, and raise vegetables until his death in April 1874. In April 1884, the property was subdivided into 110 lots of 5 acres each, and sold for $110/acre. Kenneth's daughters, Agnes and Wilhemena, lived in the farmhouse until their deaths in 1928 and 1929, respectively.
Rogers farm
George Rogers Senior came to Victoria in 1886, and worked as a tenant farmer. He leased, and later purchased, in 1903, the Von Allman farm on the north side of the hill. At first it was known as the Alderlea Farm, but because another farmer claimed prior use of the name, Rogers renamed his farm Chesterlea. George Junior took over his father's duties, and in 1925 he constructed his family house on Rogers Avenue. At this time, the dairy farm was .
A portion of the Rogers farm is now occupied by Rogers Elementary School. A large portion of the farm was sold to Saanich for the nature sanctuary, and a small part of the farm was subdivided for residential development. The Rogers family's role in this area is commemorated in the nearby road names - Rogers Avenue, Lily Avenue (George Senior's wife), Genevieve Road (George Junior's wife) and Chesterlea Road.
Pendray dairy farm
One of the first major parcels of land around the lake that was purchased for the nature sanctuary was the 12-hectare Pendray farm, on the east side of the lake. Joel Pendray began operating the dairy farm there in 1917. His son Tom continued after Joel's death in 1954. This was the last dairy in Victoria to sell raw (unpasteurized) milk. The farm was in operation until March 1978 when the land was turned over to the nature sanctuary.
Girling farm
In October 1912, the Girling family established a small hobby farm at Swan Lake, between Ralph Street and the lake, bordered by Lancaster Road to the west. Anne Alice Girling, one of the daughters, had studied photography in England before they came to Victoria, and left a treasure of photographs at Swan Lake and Christmas Hill in the early 1900s. Her collection has been preserved and stored at the Saanich Archives.
Swan Lake Hotel
The Swan Lake Hotel was located on the south side of the lake in 1864, on Saanich Road opposite Falmouth, directly above the south wharf. The hotel was reputed to be excellent for fishing, spring and summer, and perfect for ice skating in the winter. This was Saanich's first year-round recreational resort. In January 1894, the hotel burned to the ground. As it was a popular and successful resort, it was quickly rebuilt. It burned to the ground again in October 1897, with the occupants barely escaping with their lives. However, it was never rebuilt after the 1897 mishap.
Other historical notes
James Baker of the Victoria Ice Company and Baker's Brick Yard harvested ice from Swan Lake between 1889 and the early 1900s. The ice was packed in sawdust to keep it frozen and would be sold throughout the year to households for their kitchen iceboxes.
Lake pollution and eutrophication
By the 1960s, Swan Lake was becoming eutrophic and polluted. The lake was gradually filling with sediment, making it more shallow. It was also receiving an influx of nutrients, causing it to become more productive over time.
As the city expanded around the lake area, the lake went through a period that has been referred to as "rampaging cultural eutrophication," greatly accelerating the natural processes of the lake. Three "cultural" sources of nutrients were added to the inflow of the watershed: fertilizers from the Blenkinsop Valley and Swan Lake farms, effluent from a sewage treatment plant at Quadra and McKenzie (serving almost 500 homes), and two wineries, which between them discharged more than 2,000 kilograms of sludge from the fermentation process into the inflow stream each year.
This gross overloading of nutrients into the shallow, warm lake led to problems. These conditions supported huge amounts of plant and planktonic growth. Swan Lake became thick with algae during the summer months. As all this material died and was broken down by bacteria, large amounts of oxygen were consumed, and the lower water levels of the lake became devoid of oxygen, or anoxic. The warm temperatures and lack of oxygen made survival impossible for cold-water fish such as trout. Large fish kills were reported as early as 1952.
The other problem associated with an abundance of growth is the production of methane and hydrogen sulfide gases by anoxic bacteria. The lake, stratified into various levels by variations in water temperature during the summer, would "turn over" in the fall, bringing these foul-smelling gases to the surface. This was an occurrence for nearly twenty years, giving Swan Lake the reputation for being a cesspool, shunned by anyone with a sense of smell.
In 1963, the Municipality of Saanich announced plans to clean up the lake. In 1975, the entire Swan Lake area was connected to the city sewer system, at least diverting, if not solving, the problem. The lake continues to turn green and thick with duckweed in the summer, and will likely always return to this state, because of its location and size. Oxygen levels are still low in the deeper waters of the lake, but trout coming up from the Colquitz river are able to survive for much of the year now. The lake is gradually returning to a state of equilibrium, and is currently being monitored for its oxygen and eutrophication levels.
Saanich land acquisition
The Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature Sanctuary Society was formed and officially incorporated under the BC Society Act on June 16, 1975.
The sanctuary's story actually began over a decade earlier. In the early 1960s, the Municipality of Saanich began acquiring lands around Swan Lake and Christmas Hill with the aim of retaining the area in its natural state, for the use and enjoyment of the public.
By 1973, the municipality felt that it was time to start opening and operating the site. An imaginative proposal was produced and published by Saanich's Planning Department, which called for extensive development work on what would be a sanctuary which would preserve the unique ecological assets of the site and provide excellent educational facilities.
The 1973 proposal also advocated completion of acquisition of lands around the lake, the upper parts of Christmas Hill, and a connecting corridor of land between the two sites. Thanks to substantial investments of funds by the National Second Century Fund of B.C. and the provincial Greenbelt Fund, the remaining lands around the lake were bought. Only a small number of lots around the edge remained out of public control. Both the organizations mentioned leased their purchases to the Municipality of Saanich on long-term leases at nominal rents, on conditions that the land be used for a nature sanctuary. By 1980, the municipality had also secured sufficient land to assure the availability of the connecting corridor to Christmas Hill. More than half of the land required on the hill had also been bought. Between 1965 and 1978, approximately $650,000 was spent on buying land around Swan Lake for the proposed nature sanctuary.
Nature Sanctuary Society
After consultation with local naturalists, school districts, the University of Victoria and the Regional and Provincial Governments, the municipality decided to assist with the formation of a society under the Societies Act of B.C. to develop and operate the site. It was named the "Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature Centre Society" and was duly incorporated in June 1975. Many of the organizations consulted along the way became members of the board, and sent representatives to serve on the board, making the sanctuary a community effort.
Since its humble beginnings in 1975, the society has enjoyed a close relationship with the Victoria Natural History Society. The VHNS is a member of the Nature Sanctuary Society and sends a representative to serve on the board. In this way, the VNHS maintains direct input into the decisions that have shaped the sanctuary over the past 40 years. The VNHS also provides an annual grant of towards the maintenance of a safe trail system and the control of invasive exotic plants. In 2015 the VNHS made a donation to assist with the replacement of the aging floating boardwalk system.
Site development
The society hired its first staff in the summer of 1975 to carry out an extensive survey of the lands and the lake, and to produce the first site development plans. In the fall of 1975, under a Federal Labour Grant, the first site development projects were undertaken, with the construction of the first section of trail and floating boardwalk, the initial efforts at tree planting and the beginnings of the sanctuary's education program.
The loops trail around the lake was the first priority for site development. The north wharf below the Nature House was built and installed in 1976, followed by the floating walkway across the lake and finally the south wharf.
As the society did not have a building in which to base its operations, the site crew was given a back corner office space on the main floor of the Municipal Hall. In the spring of 1976, the crew moved into a farmhouse on Ralph Street.
This building served until 1977, when a residence at the end of Swan Lake Road - the current Nature House site - became available. The bedrooms were converted into offices, the dining room and living room transformed into the display area/classroom, and the one bathroom (with one toilet) had to meet the needs of staff and classes of children. This house was the headquarters for staff and program activities for ten years.
In 1986, the society began developing plans for a new Nature House facility. The decision was to remove the original house and build a new base of operations on the original house's foundation. Beginning with a grant from the Municipality of Saanich, the Society mounted a fundraising campaign, and by the spring of 1988 had raised another from the community and the Provincial Government, to build and furnish the Nature House and provide some of the displays. The new Nature House was officially opened in September 1988.
In the meantime, work began on the Christmas Hill trail, including the connecting corridor trail from the Swan Lake parking lot to the loop trail on the hilltop. Construction of the trail began in 1987, and was completed and officially opened in October 1992.
Educational programs
Nature education has always been a prime directive for the nature sanctuary. Programs began in 1976 with 850 participants attending in the first year. Participation has since grown to over 20,000 taking part in the Nature House's program per year.
The programs focus on the natural history and ecology of Southern Vancouver Island and are designed to be engaging, accessible and fun. The aim of the programs is to create a deeper public understanding of the living lands and waters of the community to ensure public support for their proper use and care.
The main focus of the programs have been designed to cater to the educational needs of students between kindergarten and grade 7, but programs are also offered for pre-school aged children, family groups and seniors. Naturalists from the Nature House offer educational opportunities and travelling, in-class programs. Longer term educational programs are also offered on a seasonal basis.
Educational events are hosted at the Nature House on a monthly basis on a wide range of relevant topics. Naturalists from the education department also host birthday party events for local children on the weekends.
Volunteers
Volunteers have always played a key role in the development and management of the nature sanctuary. They were heavily responsible for the initial creation and development of the sanctuary site, and continue to contribute hundreds of hours a year to ensure the safety and maintenance of both the site and the Nature House. Volunteers are on hand to assist with nature education programs, stream restoration activities, invasive plant removal, trail building, working in the native plant garden, providing office assistance, and even leading groups of bird watchers.
Membership
The Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature Sanctuary derives a portion of its funding from community membership. Membership fees directly support the many conservation, research and education initiatives that take place in the sanctuary, and provide a valuable link between the community and the sanctuary's activities. Members receive a member discount when visiting the gift shop or registering for programs and birthday parties, and get to go behind the scenes at members-only events. Members are invited to take part in shaping the future of the Nature Sanctuary by voting at the Annual General Meeting.
Facilities
Swan Lake Christmas Hill Nature House
The Nature House is open seven days a week, and admission is by donation. It contains a library, a bee colony, offices, a classroom, nature exhibits, two snakes, and a turtle. Classroom space is available for rent after opening hours, and many community events are hosted there.
Boardwalks and trails
The sanctuary has a total of 3.75 km of trails, consisting of 2.5 kilometres of gravel-surfaced loop trail around Swan Lake and 1.25 km in the Christmas Hill portion of the sanctuary. There is one wharf, several wooden bridges, and a boardwalk across one end of the lake.
The wharves and floating boardwalk were originally built by members of the Canadian military. The floating boardwalk offered an unprecedented level of access to the lake water, a facility unique in the Capital Region. It quickly became the focus of many of the education programs, providing opportunities for bird-watching and lake water studies. The original floating boardwalk was in place until 2018, when it was decided that in order to accommodate the winter water levels in the lake and keep visitors safe, a new, longer boardwalk was to be constructed in two phases. The new boardwalk was unveiled in October 2018 to a fanfare of community support. In 2020, the South Wharf was removed.
Native plant garden
A native plant garden was completed near the nature house in 1998, after four years of work. The garden houses 70 types of flowers and shrubs, all native to Southern Vancouver Island, and includes stone steps leading up to the nature house, a drip fountain, several benches, and a hidden area with bird feeders. The native plant garden was specially designed to keep the plant species hydrated.
Rules and regulations for the sanctuary
Some regulations governing activities and behaviors arise from Board policy, and some are under municipal bylaw authority.
Saanich Bylaws:
1) Dog Bylaw (Regulation of Animals Bylaw No. 8556)
Because of the designation of the Swan Lake Sanctuary space as a migrating bird refuge, no dogs are permitted on any of the trails surrounding the lake.
2) Bike Bylaw (Parks Management and Control Bylaw, No. 7753)
Due to the narrow and rocky nature of the trails, bikes are not permitted on the trails around the lake area, except for in the parking lot or paved roadway.
The Sanctuary Board policies for land use also prohibit recreational boating, fishing and swimming in the lake.
References
External links
Trail map (PDF)
Nature reserves in British Columbia
Nature centres in British Columbia
Parks in British Columbia
Saanich, British Columbia
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5143660
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midway%20City%2C%20California
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Midway City, California
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Midway City is a census-designated place in the United States that forms part of the county land controlled by Orange County, California. The only area in Orange County that incorporates its chamber of commerce and homeowners association to act in concert like a city council, the area mostly is surrounded by Westminster with Huntington Beach bordering it on the southwest. Midway City was so named because it is horizontally midway between Seal Beach, to the west, and Santa Ana, to the east. The 2010 census listed the population as 8,485.
Midway City is one of Orange County's oldest communities, and many of its homes are 1950s construction. The area includes two mobile home parks and the residents who live here are of moderate income, with many of them senior citizens. As described by Midway City local historian in 2008, "Midway City is desirable because of its large lots – typically over 8,000 square feet with many larger lots as well.... The trend is that buyers are scraping the lots and building big homes or adding large additions onto the original home." The community fits within a area and takes up of land.
Being an unincorporated county area, municipal annexation by cities bordering Midway City is an ongoing issue for Midway City. Attempts at complete annexation have met fierce resistance from Midway's residents, who would rather have their community remain an unincorporated area of Orange County to maintain water and property tax rates that are lower than neighboring communities.
However, Midway City's land adjacent to its borders has slowly been annexed by Westminster over time, particularly for public schools sites, to transfer decision making and government school funds from the county to the city. Annexation has also occurred along the heavily traveled Beach Boulevard/California State Route 39, where that annexed land could be redeveloped to generate significant business tax revenue for Westminster. As a result, Midway City presently is composed of four anemic sections, or "islands", that have stepped boundaries which include mostly residential property, small businesses, and not-for-profit businesses such as churches, American Legion Post 555, and the Brothers of Saint Patrick order.
History
1880s to 1930s
Two miles directly to the east of Midway City was the now-defunct Town of Bolsa, which was established in 1870. Midway City's northernmost boundary, Hazard Avenue, is named after the great-grandparents of Clyde Hazard: early American pioneers Robert Samuel and Betsy Ann (née White) Hazard, who moved from Hitchcock County, Nebraska with their children to the Westminster district in August 1881 and subsequently purchased forty acres northwest of the Town of Bolsa on February 6, 1882. Ann was a direct descendant of the White family, who, in 1620, sailed from England to Plymouth, Massachusetts on the Mayflower. In 1891, Midway City received its post office from Bolsa. In 1915, one of the top United States poultry judges, W. M. Wise, moved from Michigan to perform breeding and service work for Pacific Southwest Poultry Farm in Midway City. Seven years later, Midway City began to take shape in 1922 when John H. Harper purchased of land based on the location of a local stagecoach stop and needs of the workers in the Huntington Beach Oil Field located west of the stagecoach stop. Harper subsequently subdivided his land by laying out streets, building sidewalks, and, in 1923, started selling lots. As the Huntington Beach Oil Field expanded, the homes in that area that stood in the path of drawing oil from the ground were physically relocated to Harper's lots in Midway City, which "started Midway City." The area, which currently includes four unincorporated, "anemic" sections as a result of annexation for the Westminster business district, is known as Midway City; the largest section looks like a crooked letter "P". Midway City is six miles from Santa Ana, six miles from Huntington Beach, and seven miles from Long Beach, giving rise to the Midway City name. Harper Street, which vertically bisects the largest of the four Midway City sections, is named after John Harper.
Prior to 1927, Zenith Corporation manufactured farm implements in Midway City. After learning of American aviator Charles Lindbergh's famed May 20–21, 1927 first solo transatlantic flight via non-stop fixed-wing aircraft flight between America and mainland Europe, Zenith Corporation owners Charles Rocheville and Albin Peterson formed the Zenith Aircraft Corporation. Three months later, by August 1927, Zenith Aircraft Corporation built a huge, lightweight tri-motor aircraft named Schofield Albatross in a hangar/factory at Midway City Airport. To make its maiden flight some time in the fall of 1927, the Albatross, identified as Zenith Albatross Z-12, had an externally braced wing spanning 90-ft and a fuselage designed to carry 14 passengers and baggage at a maximum speed of 100-mph. With no market for the then-largest aircraft in the world, the Zenith Albatross Z-12 eventually was sold to Hollywood and used to represent a crashed Fokker in the 1928 film Conquest directed by filmmaker Roy Del Ruth. Zenith manufactured a second airplane, the Zenith Albatross Z-6, before the 1930s Great Depression affected the corporation and Zenith went back to manufacturing farm equipment in 1932.
In 1928, American aviator Charles Lindbergh and some investors stopped off at Eddie Martin Airport looking for another airfield field in what was to become Midway City to see Zenith's Albatross. That same year, the politically powerful Ladies Social and Civic Club of Midway City built a community clubhouse at the corner of Bolsa Avenue and Monroe Street from land donated by Harper that the Chamber of Commerce and other organizations subsequently used. The proactive women's group, which originally met at John Harper's house and included Harper's wife, also worked to keep out roadhouses and landfills from the Midway City lands. The next year, 1929, the Methodist Episcopal Church's Latin American Mission outreach began holding services and marriage ceremonies in Midway City for Mexican field workers who had come to the area after the end of the Mexican Revolution. In 1932, the Ladies Social and Civic Club of Midway City renamed itself as the Midway City Women's Club. The Long Beach earthquake of March 10, 1933 had such a significant impact on Midway City that it still was a topic of interest for the residents in August 1933. Three years after renaming itself, in 1935, the club established a Midway City branch of the Orange County Public Library and joined the General Federation of Women's Clubs. The clubhouse for the Midway City Women's Club eventually was moved in 1989 to Leaora L. Blakey Park at 8612 Westminster Boulevard.
In 1936, seven families that made up the Midway City Dairy Association received a loan of $7,850 in June from the Resettlement Administration, a New Deal U.S. federal agency that, between April 1935 and December 1936, relocated struggling urban and rural families to communities planned by the federal government. The loan stood out in that it was the first loan by the Resettlement Administration to a self-help cooperative and led to other cooperatives seeking money from the Resettlement Administration. The seven families used the money to rehabilitate the Midway City Dairy Association: "The plant was immediately renovated, and better equipment procured by trade. Bidding tactics of competitors were studied with all the zeal of poker experts, means of developing consumer cooperative markets were explained, and all plans laid to take full advantage of their new capital and condition as free producers in an open market." In obtaining the loan, Henry Lotz noted, "This Resettlement loan, it's a future to us from the bidding platform for old age labor."
The 1930s also brought additional services to Midway City. The United States Postal Service opened a post office on Jackson Street in 1930. The Midway City Volunteer Fire Department was formed in 1935. The Midway City Sanitary District, which presently provides sewer and solid waste services to the residents of Midway City and others in its district, was established in January 1939 when its Governing Board held the first meeting at the Fire Hall in Midway City. The Midway City Volunteer Fire Department received a fire station in 1952—Orange County Fire Authority Station #25—and eventually became a permanent part of Division I of the Orange County Fire Authority. However, after 80 years of operation, by 2011, the Midway City Post Office was identified by the U.S. Postal Service as one of 112 California post office locations "that have not seen enough postal customers to generate the revenue necessary to keep them open." In December 2011, the U.S. Postal Service delayed the closure of Midway's post office until Congress first passed legislation to overhaul the United States Postal Service.
1940s to 1980s
In 1942, local landmark Midway City Feed Store open to service horse owners in the surrounding areas and also began selling rabbits, guinea pigs, baby chicks, ducklings, and goslings from its large yellow barn. Six years later in 1948, the Brothers of Saint Patrick order was established in Midway City as the United States foundation and headquarters of Patrician Brothers, an Ireland-based Roman Catholic congregation for the religious and literary education of youth and the instruction of the faithful in Christian piety. The brothers work extended in the Diocese of Orange County and Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Los Angeles. They also began a celebration tradition that has become one of Orange County's biggest St. Patrick's Day celebrations. At the end of the decade, in 1949, Dick Riedel and Midway City's Bill Barris of Fullerton Air Service, sponsored by the Fullerton Chamber of Commerce, set a world flight endurance record from Fullerton Municipal Airport, keeping their modified Aeronca Sedan, the Sunkist Lady aloft for 1,008 hours and 2 minutes. Seven years later in 1956, the city of Westminster sought to incorporate Midway City, Barber City, and Westminster into a new city called Tri-City. Prior to the March 1957 creation date of Tri-City, California, Midway City had dropped out, citing fears of high taxes. In September 1957, voters in the former Westminster and Baraber City areas voted to change the name Tri-City to Westminster.
In 1981, the Orange County Local Agency Formation Commission, a government agency that makes decisions regarding boundaries for cities and unincorporated territory (land not located within a city) within Orange County, California, added Midway City to the Westminster sphere of influence, a commission method to designate future boundaries and service areas of Westminster. The commission's addition of Midway City to the Westminster sphere of influence was a political move towards Westminster's annexation of the unincorporated Midway City and to prevent Huntington Beach from being able to annex one of the last commercially valuable strips of Midway City along Beach Boulevard. After Midway's Chamber of Commerce protested, Midway was removed from Westminster's sphere. In 1986, Orange County used money from the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development to purchase about five acres of land from Southern California Edison and develop part of the land as Midway Meadows, a Midway City project consisting of 92-one bedroom apartment units for senior citizens. In 1987, the county built a park on the 1986 acquired Southern California Edison land. Three years later in 1989, the county added Midway City back in Westminster's sphere and renamed the 1987 built park Stanton Park, after Roger R. Stanton, a supervisor on the Orange County Board of Supervisors. Later that same year, the county selected Midway City's Interval House, a shelter for abused women, to receive part of a $1-million grant for expansion.
1990s to present
Celtic Gold Academy of Irish Dance was founded at Brother's of St. Patrick in 1990. In March 1993, Orange County Supervisor Don Roth admitted to violating California state ethics laws, agreed to pay $50,000 in fines, and do 200 hours of community service work in connection with his 1990–1992 role in overruling a 1990 Orange County Planning Commission decision and approving a $5-million condominium project on land in Midway City. In 1994, the Ocean View School District banned the game POGs, a game played with decorated milk caps known as POGs, from Midway City and other elementary and middle school campuses, asserting that POGs was akin to gambling. The Brothers of St. Patrick Division of the Ancient Order of Hibernians in America was established at Brother's of St. Patrick in 1995. Three years later in 1998, freed Nigerian political prisoner Beko Ransome-Kuti spoke at Midway City's the Brother's of St. Patrick's to thank residents of Midway City who joined a letter-writing and Shell Oil boycott campaign on his behalf. In September 1999, workers repairing broken water lines in the Midway City 15000 block of Cedarwood Avenue () dug up a 500-year-old human skull and teeth, and seashells when they reached about three feet down.
In 2001, American Legion Post 555 in Midway City renamed itself the Albert E. Schwab American Legion Post after Private First Class Albert Earnest Schwab (July 17, 1920 – May 7, 1945), the brother of a Legion Post 555 member and a United States Marine who was posthumously awarded the United States' highest military honor — the Medal of Honor — for his heroic actions during the Battle of Okinawa. That same year, Midway City resident Ruben Hipolito attained the rank of Eagle Scout at age 12, which the national Boy Scouts of America office in Irving, Texas identified as a rare event. Eight years after attaining the rank of Eagle Scout, Hipolito was selected in 2009 from among 3.5 million scouts nationwide as one of six scouts to represent the Boy Scouts of America organization before the U.S. president and Congress. Hipolito later receive a special commendation from the mayor of the City of Huntington Beach for representing the city on the trip to Washington, D.C. to meet with President Barack Obama.
In January 2003, H.O.M.E.S., Inc. opened Midway City's Jackson Aisle Apartments, a 29 unit, $2.8 million apartment complex that provides affordable housing to low income individuals who additionally are mentally ill. H.O.M.E.S. selected Midway City for its housing complex site because the area is county owned, which made it easier to buy property than had they selected an area incorporated into a city. By agreement, Jackson Aisle Apartments is to remain affordable housing through 2058. About four years later in July 2007, the 1989 inclusion of Midway City in the Westminster sphere of influence was reaffirmed and the 1989 inclusion was deemed to date back to 1981. Eight months later, noting how Westminster received no payment from Midway City for the nearly 500 Midway City matters handled by Westminster police, Tami Piscotty, Westminster city economic development manager stated how it would help Westminster significantly if Midway City were part of Westminster, but also notes, "We're not going to take them against their will."
In January 2010, Orange County supervisors approve a $350,000 memorial dedicated to Vietnamese and American history to installed in Roger Stanton Park in Midway City. The memorial was to feature U.S. history and important events in the history of the Vietnamese American community. Critics felt that "plaques in a wall" did not justify spending so much money.
Geography
Midway City is located at (33.7447, −117.987). Under the United States Census Bureau's most recent survey, the area had a total area of (404 acres), all land. According to the June 2012 land records published by the Orange County Public Works, Midway City occupies about 391 acres within an 832-acre rectangular boundary, where the four islands measure approximately: the northeast island: 296.6 acres, the southwest island: 40.5 acres, the southeast island: 33 acres, and the northwest island: 21.1 acres.
Demographics
2010
The 2010 United States Census reported that Midway City had a population of 8,485. The population density was . The racial makeup of Midway City was 2,884 (34.0%) White (20.9% Non-Hispanic White), 71 (0.8%) African American, 65 (0.8%) Native American, 3,994 (47.1%) Asian, 40 (0.5%) Pacific Islander, 1,165 (13.7%) from other races, and 266 (3.1%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2,467 persons (29.1%).
The Census reported that 8,382 people (98.8% of the population) lived in households, 103 (1.2%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 0 (0%) were institutionalized.
There were 2,428 households, out of which 1,013 (41.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 1,204 (49.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 339 (14.0%) had a female householder with no husband present, 181 (7.5%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 91 (3.7%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 20 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 495 households (20.4%) were made up of individuals, and 236 (9.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.45. There were 1,724 families (71.0% of all households); the average family size was 3.99.
The population was spread out, with 2,106 people (24.8%) under the age of 18, 820 people (9.7%) aged 18 to 24, 2,379 people (28.0%) aged 25 to 44, 2,093 people (24.7%) aged 45 to 64, and 1,087 people (12.8%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37.1 years. For every 100 females, there were 98.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.8 males.
There were 2,574 housing units at an average density of , of which 1,001 (41.2%) were owner-occupied, and 1,427 (58.8%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 0.6%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.2%. 3,985 people (47.0% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 4,397 people (51.8%) lived in rental housing units.
According to the 2010 United States Census, Midway City had a median household income of $44,595, with 20.9% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
2000
As of the census of 2000, there were 8,934 people, 2,672 households, and 1,982 families residing in the unincorporated area. The population density was 12,512.7/mi2. There were 2,672 housing units at an average density of 3,821.8/mi2. The racial makeup was 33.20% White, 1.50% Black or African American, 0.10% Native American, 9.34% Asian, 37.70% Pacific Islander, 1.80% from other races, and 1.80% from two or more races. 25.70% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 2,672 households, out of which 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 64.1% were married couples living together, 8.6% had a female householder with no husband present, and 28.0% were non-families. 19.3% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.3 and the average family size was 3.28.
The median income for a household was $42,218, and the median income for a family was $48,258. Adult males had a median income of $33,250 versus $29,184 for adult females. The per capita income was $12,793. About 14.3% of families and 20.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 17.9% of those under age 18 and 26.3% of those age 65 or over.
Many Vietnamese have moved into the area, often running businesses in Westminster's Little Saigon District.
Economy
Midway City is a mixture of rural, retirement, and Vietnamese businesses. Dakao Poultry is niche market on Bolsa Avenue in Midway's Little Saigon that sells prepared chicken, roosters, ducks, and other animals selected at the store by customers while the animals are living and prepared while the customer waits. Dakao Poultry's fresh-poultry-for-consumption competitor, Baladi Poultry, is located only about 350 yards away east on Bolsa Avenue. Live pet animal seller Midway City Feed Store, which has been selling rabbits, guinea pigs, baby chicks, ducklings, and goslings from its large yellow barn in Midway City since 1942, resides between the two food animal sellers just off Bolsa Avenue north on Jackson Street, and the Animal Assistance League of Orange County, a nonprofit, no-kill humane society that aids lost and homeless pets, also resides in Midway City between the two food animal sellers just off Bolsa Avenue, but south on Jackson Street.
Points of interest
Although unincorporated, Midway City has a variety of points of interest. The Albert E. Schwab American Legion Post had an original lifeguard's tower from Huntington Beach as an unusual landmark in its parking lot, but not anymore. In addition, the interior of the Legion Post's club includes several 40-foot-wide murals commemorating U.S. World War II military history events such as the Attack on Pearl Harbor, the Battle of Midway, and the dropping of the atomic bomb on Nagasaki. Stanton Park includes a $350,000 memorial dedicated to Vietnamese American and general American history. In addition, at Midway City Feed Store, a local landmark built in 1942, visitors can buy farm implements and rabbits, guinea pigs, baby chicks, ducklings, and goslings from the stores large yellow barn. Moreover, visitors can enjoy one of Orange County's biggest St. Patrick's Day celebrations at Brothers of Saint Patrick, which has been in Midway City since 1948.
Parks and recreation
In 1989, the county renamed a park built in Midway City in 1987 as Stanton Park, after Roger R. Stanton, a supervisor on the Orange County Board of Supervisors.
Government
Midway City incorporates its chamber of commerce and homeowners association to act in concert like a city council. The council discusses municipal topics such as lights, water supply, zoning, and neighborhood watch. Monthly meetings take place at the Midway City Community Center in Stanton Park on Bolsa Avenue, where citizens often bring homemade cakes and other food dishes to be shared among the group to these potlucks meetings. The Midway City representatives typically discuss street lights, water supply, zoning, and neighborhood watch and their decisions usually are made final by the Orange County Board of Supervisors.
Law enforcement services are provided by the Orange County Sheriff's Department, while the California Highway Patrol is responsible for traffic enforcement. Fire protection in Midway City is provided by the Orange County Fire Authority with ambulance transport by Care Ambulance Service.
Education
Though the unincorporated city does not have a school district of its own, the Westminster School District operates two public schools in Midway City – DeMille and Jessie Hayden Elementary School. The Ocean View School District also operates public schools within this unincorporated county area, including Star View Elementary School located in the South East area of Midway City.
Infrastructure
For its water needs, Midway City is divided into four areas, each of which receive water from one of the following four sources: (1) South Midway City Mutual Water Company, Inc. ("South Midway"), (2) Eastside Water Association, Inc. ("Eastside"), and (3) Midway City Water Company ("Midway"), which are three water mutuals formed in the 1930s to supply domestic water from underground water wells to residents, and (4) Westminster Water Department. The three wells are operated and funded by local residents and work via hydro pneumatic pumps drawing 300 to 750 gallons per minute of water above ground to onsite water tanks at three separate locations: 8301 Madison Ave, 14731 Jackson St, and 14582 Hunter Lane. The water is distributed through four inch underground steel pipe and six inch (C900) plastic pipe. The water provided by the Eastside Water Association to 300 Midway City homeowners is award-winning water. The water is a flat rate fee in the area that are serviced by the three wells.
Orange County Transportation Authority provides mass transit services for Midway City and other Orange County locations.
Notable people
Pham Duy, Vietnamese songwriter
Montell Griffin, American boxer
Randy Steven Kraft, American serial killer
Quang Le, a Vietnamese American singer
Dedee Pfeiffer, actress
Michelle Pfeiffer, actress
Francis Townsend, author of the Great Depression era "Townsend Plan" that influenced the establishment of the United States Social Security system.
Municipal annexation
Being an unincorporated county area, municipal annexation by cities which border with Midway City' border is an ongoing issue for Midway City. Attempts at complete annexation have met fierce resistance from Midway's residents, who would rather have their community remain an unincorporated area of Orange County to maintain water and property tax rates that are lower than neighboring communities. However, Midway City's land adjacent to its borders slowly has been annexed by Westminster over time, particularly along the heavily traveled Beach Boulevard/California State Route 39 where that annexed land could be redeveloped to generate significant business tax revenue for Westminster. As a result, Midway City presently is composed of four anemic sections, or "islands", that are having stepped boundaries.
Islands with less than 150 acres can be annexed without a vote by the annexation targeted island. According to the June 2012 land records published by the Orange County Public Facilities and Resources Department, Midway City occupies about 391 acres within an 832-acre rectangular boundary, where the four islands approximately measure as follows: the northeast island 296.6 acres, the southwest island 40.5 acres, the southeast island 33 acres, and northwest island 21.1 acres. Of these, Midway City's southwest island includes land along the heavily traveled Beach Boulevard/California State Route 39 that could be redeveloped to generate significant business tax revenue for Westminster.
See also
List of neighborhoods and unincorporated communities in Orange County
References
Bibliography
Census-designated places in Orange County, California
Populated places established in the 1920s
Census-designated places in California
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio%20in%20the%20American%20Civil%20War
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Ohio in the American Civil War
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During the American Civil War, the State of Ohio played a key role in providing troops, military officers, and supplies to the Union army. Due to its central location in the Northern United States and burgeoning population, Ohio was both politically and logistically important to the war effort. Despite the state's boasting a number of very powerful Republican politicians, it was divided politically. Portions of Southern Ohio followed the Peace Democrats and openly opposed President Abraham Lincoln's policies. Ohio played an important part in the Underground Railroad prior to the war, and remained a haven for escaped and runaway slaves during the war years.
The third most populous state in the Union at the time, Ohio raised nearly 320,000 soldiers for the Union army, third behind only New York and Pennsylvania in total manpower contributed to the military and the highest per capita of any Union state. Several leading generals were from Ohio, including Ulysses S. Grant, William T. Sherman, and Philip H. Sheridan. Five Ohio-born Civil War officers would later serve as the President of the United States. The Fighting McCooks gained fame as the largest immediate family group ever to become officers in the U.S. Army.
The state was spared many of the horrors of war as only two minor battles were fought within its borders. Morgan's Raid in the summer of 1863 spread fear but little damage. Ohio troops fought in nearly every major campaign during the war. Nearly 7,000 Buckeye soldiers were killed in action. Its most significant Civil War site is Johnson's Island, located in Sandusky Bay of Lake Erie. Barracks and outbuildings were constructed for a prisoner of war depot, intended chiefly for officers. Over three years more than 15,000 Confederate men were held there. The island includes a Confederate cemetery where about 300 men were buried.
History
Ohio politics during the War
Much of southern Ohio's economy depended upon trade with the South across the Ohio River, which had served for years as passage and a link with the slave states of Virginia and Kentucky. The culture of southern Ohio was closer to those states than it was to northern parts of the state, owing to many settlers coming from the South and being formerly territory of the state of Virginia as part of the Virginia Military District. Most of the state's population was solidly against secession. During the 1860 Presidential Election, Ohio voted in favor of Abraham Lincoln (231,709 votes or 52.3% of the ballots cast) over Stephen Douglas (187,421; 42.3%), John C. Breckinridge (11,406; 2.6%), and John Bell (12,194; 2.8%).
A number of men with Ohio ties would serve important roles in Lincoln's Cabinet and administration, including Steubenville's Edwin M. Stanton as Attorney General and then Secretary of War, and former Ohio U.S. Senator and Governor Salmon P. Chase as Secretary of the Treasury. Prominent Ohio politicians in Congress included Senators John Sherman and Benjamin F. Wade.
During the war, three men would serve as Governor of Ohio– William Dennison, David Tod and John Brough. Without being asked by the War Department, Dennison sent Ohio troops into western Virginia, where they guarded the Wheeling Convention. The convention led to the admission of West Virginia as a free state. Tod became known as "the soldier's friend," for his determined efforts to help equip and sustain Ohio's troops. He was noted for his quick response in calling out the state militia to battle Confederate raiders. Brough strongly supported the Lincoln Administration's war efforts and was key to persuading other Midwestern governors to raise 100-day regiments, such as the 131st Ohio Infantry in early 1864, to release more seasoned troops for duty in Gen. Ulysses S. Grant's spring campaign.
Copperheads
Through the middle of the war, the Copperhead movement had appeal in Ohio, driven in part by noted states rights advocate, Congressman Clement Vallandigham, a leading Peace Democrat. After General Ambrose E. Burnside issued General Order Number 38 in early 1863, warning that the "habit of declaring sympathies for the enemy" would not be tolerated in the Military District of Ohio, Vallandigham gave a major speech charging the war was being fought not to save the Union, but to free blacks and enslave whites.
Burnside ordered his arrest and took Vallandigham to Cincinnati for trial. At the trial, Vallandigham was found guilty. The court sentenced him to prison for the duration of the war. President Lincoln attempted to quiet the situation by writing the Birchard Letter, which offered to release Vallandigham if several Ohio congressmen agreed to support certain policies of the Administration. To try to prevent political backlash and preserve authority of Gen. Burnside, Abraham Lincoln changed Vallandigham's sentence to banishment to the South. The threat was imprisonment if Vallandigham returned to northern soil. The South allowed Vallandigham to migrate to Canada, from where he ran an unsuccessful campaign for governor against Brough in 1863. Vallandigham's campaign bitterly divided much of Ohio, Vallandigham's votes were especially heavy in central and northwestern Ohio. He lost his home county of Montgomery (Dayton) but by a narrow margin.
1864 election
Public sentiment shifted more in favor of the Lincoln Administration, particularly as Ohio generals rose in prominence, with military successes in the Atlanta Campaign, the Siege of Petersburg, and Sheridan's Valley Campaigns. In the 1864 Presidential Election, Ohio strongly supported Lincoln's reelection. The state gave the president 265,674 votes (56.4% of the total) versus 205,609 votes (43.6%) for General George McClellan.
En route to Washington, D.C. for his inauguration, President Lincoln passed through Ohio by train, with brief stops in numerous cities. His first formal speech given after his election was in Hudson, Ohio, a stop he made en route to Cleveland. Although Lincoln had visited the state several times before the war, he would not return during the Civil War. In 1865 his funeral train carried his body through the state, bound for Springfield, Illinois.
Newspapers engaged in very lively discussion of war issues, from the Republican, War Democrat and Copperhead perspectives.
Military recruitment
At the outbreak of the Civil War in 1861, in response to a call to arms by President Lincoln, Ohio raised 23 volunteer infantry regiments for three months' service, 10 more regiments than the state's quota. When it became evident that the war would not end quickly, Ohio began raising regiments for three-year terms of enlistment. At first the majority were stocked with eager volunteers and recruits. Before the war's end, they would be joined by 8,750 draftees.
319,189 Ohioans served in the Union army, more than any other northern state except New York and Pennsylvania. Of these, 5,092 were free blacks. Ohio had the highest percentage of population enlisted in the military of any state. Sixty percent of all the men between the ages of 18 and 45 were in the service. Ohio mustered 230 regiments of infantry and cavalry, as well as 26 light artillery batteries and 5 independent companies of sharpshooters. Total casualties among these units numbered 35,475 men, more than 10% of all the Buckeyes in uniform during the war. There were 6,835 men killed in action, including 402 officers.
Dozens of small camps were established across the state to train and drill the new regiments. Two large military posts were created: Camp Chase in Columbus and Camp Dennison near Cincinnati. The 1st Regiment, Ohio Volunteer Infantry (OVI) would eventually be joined on the muster rolls by more than 100 additional infantry regiments.
Ohioans first had military action at the Battle of Philippi Races in June 1861, where the 14th and 16th Ohio Infantry participated in the Union victory. Ohioans comprised one-fifth of the Union army at the April 1862 Battle of Shiloh, where 1,676 Buckeyes suffered casualties. Ohio would suffer its highest casualty count at the Battle of Chickamauga in September 1863, with 3,591 killed or wounded. Another 1,351 men were taken prisoner of war by the Confederates. Among these prisoners, 36 men from the 2nd Ohio Infantry would perish in the infamous Andersonville prison, as did hundreds more Buckeye soldiers there.
Several Buckeye regiments played critical roles in other important battles. The 8th OVI was instrumental in helping repulse Pickett's Charge at the Battle of Gettysburg. At the same battle, the 66th OVI flanked repeated Confederate assaults and helped secure the crest of Culp's Hill. George Nixon, great-grandfather of President Richard Nixon, died at Gettysburg in the 73rd OVI.
John Clem, celebrated as "Johnny Shiloh" and "The Drummer Boy of Chickamauga," became the youngest person to become a noncommissioned officer in United States Army history. More than 100 soldiers from Ohio units earned the Medal of Honor during the conflict. Several were awarded it for the ill-fated Great Locomotive Chase.
President Lincoln had a habit on the eve of a battle of asking how many Ohio men would participate. When someone inquired why, Lincoln remarked, "Because I know that if there are many Ohio soldiers to be engaged, it is probable we will win the battle, for they can be relied upon in such an emergency."
Small-scale riots broke out in ethnic German and Irish districts, and in areas along the Ohio River with many Copperheads. Holmes County, Ohio was an isolated localistic areas dominated by Pennsylvania Dutch and some recent German immigrants. It was a Democratic stronghold and few men dared speak out in favor of conscription. Local politicians denounced Lincoln and Congress as despotic, seeing the draft law as a violation of their local autonomy. In June 1863, small scale disturbance broke out; but ended when the Army sent in armed units.
John A. Gillis, a corporal from the 64th Ohio Infantry, gave his reasons for fighting for the Union in the war, stating in his diary that "We are now fighting to destroy the cause of these dangerous diseases, which is slavery and the slave power."
Military actions in Ohio
Unlike its neighbors West Virginia, Kentucky, and Pennsylvania, Ohio was spared from serious military encounters. In September 1862, Confederate forces under Brig. Gen. Henry Heth marched through northern Kentucky and threatened Cincinnati (see Defense of Cincinnati). They turned away after encountering strong Union fortifications south of the Ohio River. Not long afterwards, Brig. Gen. Albert G. Jenkins briefly passed through the extreme southern tip of Ohio during a raid.
It was not until the summer of 1863 that Confederates arrived in force, when John Hunt Morgan's cavalry division traversed southern and eastern Ohio during Morgan's Raid. His activities culminated in Morgan's capture in Columbiana County at the Battle of Salineville. The Battle of Buffington Island was the largest fought in Ohio during the Civil War.
Notable Civil War leaders from Ohio
Numerous leading generals and army commanders hailed from Ohio. The General-in-Chief of the Union armies, Ulysses S. Grant, was born in Clermont County in 1822. Among the 19 major generals from Ohio were William T. Sherman, Philip H. Sheridan, Don Carlos Buell, Jacob D. Cox, George Crook, George Armstrong Custer, James A. Garfield, Irvin McDowell, James B. McPherson, William S. Rosecrans, and Alexander M. McCook (of the "Fighting McCook" family, which sent a number of generals into the service). The state would contribute 53 brigadier generals.
A handful of Confederate generals were Ohio-born, including Bushrod Johnson of Belmont County and Robert H. Hatton of Steubenville. Charles Clark of Cincinnati led a division in the Army of Mississippi during the Battle of Shiloh and then became the late war pro-Confederate Governor of Missouri. Noted Confederate guerrilla Capt. William Quantrill was also born and raised in Ohio.
In addition to Grant and Garfield, three other Ohio Civil War veterans would become President of the United States in the decades following the war: William McKinley of Canton, Rutherford B. Hayes of Fremont, and Benjamin Harrison of the greater Cincinnati area.
Civil War sites in Ohio
The only battlefield of significance in Ohio is Buffington Island. Today it is threatened by development. This was the site of the largest fight of the July 1863 dash across Ohio by Confederate cavalry under John Hunt Morgan. The incursion was immortalized as "Morgan's Raid". A lesser engagement was the Battle of Salineville, which resulted in the capture of General Morgan. He and a number of his officers were incarcerated in the Ohio Penitentiary before escaping. Extreme south-central Ohio had previously been briefly invaded in early September 1862 by cavalry under Albert G. Jenkins.
Two important cemeteries for the dead from the Confederate States Army can be found in the Buckeye State. One is at the prisoner-of-war camp on Johnson's Island, the most significant Civil War site in the state and intended mostly for officers. Estimates are that 10,000–15,000 Confederate officers and soldiers were incarcerated during the camp's three years of operations, with 2,500–3,000 at any one time. About 300 Confederates died and were buried there. A museum about Johnson's Island is located in Marblehead on the mainland. The Civil War buildings were dismantled shortly after the war. Archeological work by Heidelberg University has revealed the boundaries of the camp and new materials. At one time part of the island was used for a pleasure resort. Another cemetery is located at Camp Chase, where more than 2,000 Southerners were interred. Union Cemetery in Steubenville, Ohio, is the final resting place of Civil War soldiers, including several generals and colonels, including several of the "Fighting McCooks".
Monuments in Cincinnati and Mansfield commemorate the hundreds of Ohio soldiers who had been liberated from Southern prison camps, such as Cahaba and Andersonville, but perished in the Sultana steamboat tragedy. In the aftermath of war, women's groups were instrumental in raising money and organizing activities to create the memorials.
Many Ohio counties have Civil War monuments, statues, cannons, and similar memorials of their contributions to the Civil War effort. These are frequently located near the county courthouses. The Ohio State Capitol has a display of Civil War guns on its grounds. In downtown Cleveland's Public Square is the impressive Soldiers' and Sailors' Monument. Other large monuments are in Dayton, Hamilton, and Columbus. A large equestrian statue of General Sheridan is in the center of Somerset. New Rumley has a memorial to George Armstrong Custer. A number of Ohio Historical Markers throughout the state commemorate places and people associated with the Civil War.
Some of the homes of noted Civil War officers and political leaders have been restored and are open to the public as museums. Among these are the Daniel McCook House in Carrollton, Ohio. The Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center and Library in Fremont contains a number of Civil War relics and artifacts associated with General Hayes. Similarly, "Lawnfield", the home of James A. Garfield in Mentor, has a collection of Civil War items associated with the assassinated President.
The Ohio Historical Society maintains many of the archives of the war, including artifacts and many battle flags of individual regiments and artillery batteries. More relics can be found in the Western Reserve Historical Society's museum in Cleveland.
Prisons
Camp Chase Prison was a Union Army prison in Columbus. There was a plan among prisoners to revolt and escape in 1863. The prisoners expected support from Copperheads and Vallandigham, but never did revolt.
See also
List of Ohio Civil War units
List of Ohio's American Civil War generals
Cincinnati in the American Civil War
Cleveland in the American Civil War
Johnson's Island
Uriah Brown, U.S. Medal of Honor winner
Ephraim C. Dawes, Major in the 53rd Ohio Volunteer Infantry
References
Baumgartner, Richard A., Buckeye Blood: Ohio at Gettysburg. Huntington, West Virginia: Blue Acorn Press, 2003. .
Bissland, James "Blood, Tears, and Glory: How Ohioans Won the Civil War." Wilmington, Ohio: Orange Frazer Press, 2007. .
Harper, Robert S., Ohio Handbook of the Civil War. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio Historical Society, 1961.
Reid, Whitelaw, Ohio in the War: Her Statesmen, Her Generals, and Soldiers. 2 vol. Cincinnati: Moore, Wilstach, & Baldwin, 1868.
U.S. War Department, The War of the Rebellion: A Compilation of the Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies, 70 volumes in 4 series. Washington, D.C.: United States Government Printing Office, 1880–1901.
Notes
Further reading
Endres, David J. "An Ohio 'Holy Joe': Chaplain William T. O'Higgins' Wartime Correspondence with Archbishop Purcell of Cincinnati, 1863." Ohio Civil War Genealogy Journal (2009) 13#2 pp 73–78, Letters between a Catholic army chaplain and his bishop.
Hall, Susan, Appalachian Ohio and the Civil War, 1862–1863. (McFarland & Co., 2000). .
Harper, Robert S., Ohio Handbook of the Civil War. Columbus, Ohio: The Ohio Historical Society, 1961.
Harper, Robert S. "The Ohio Press in the Civil War." Civil War History 3.3 (1957): 221–252. excerpt
Jackson, W. Sherman. "Emancipation, negrophobia and Civil War politics in Ohio, 1863-1865." Journal of Negro History 65.3 (1980): 250–260. online
Klement, Frank L. The Limits of Dissent: Clement L. Vallandigham & the Civil War (Fordham Univ Press, 1970).
Porter, George H. Ohio politics during the Civil War period (1911) online.
Reid, Whitelaw, Ohio in the War: Her Statesmen, Her Generals, and Soldiers. 2 vol. (1868). online
Rockenbach, Stephen I. War upon Our Border: Two Ohio Valley Communities Navigate the Civil War (University of Virginia Press, 2016) .
Roseboom, Eugene. History of Ohio: The Civil War Era, 1850-1873, vol. 4 (1944) online, The most detailed scholarly history of the home front
Simms, Henry Harrison. Ohio Politics on the Eve of Conflict. (Ohio State University Press for the Ohio Historical Society, 1961).
Smith, Lisa Marie. "Netta Taylor and the Divided Ohio Home Front, 1861–1865" (PhD Diss. The University of Akron, 2011); online, bibliography pp. 129–36.
Porter, George H. Ohio politics during the civil war period (1911) online.
Van Tassel, David D., and John Vacha. "Behind Bayonets": The Civil War in Northern Ohio (Kent State University Press, 2006) online.
Van Tassel, David D. and Grabowski, John J. (editors), The Encyclopedia Of Cleveland History Cleveland: Cleveland Bicentennial Commission, . online edition
Wheeler, Kenneth H. "Local Autonomy and Civil War Draft Resistance: Holmes County, Ohio." Civil War History 45.2 (1999): 147–159. excerpt
Wheeler, Kenneth W. For the Union: Ohio Leaders in the Civil War (The Ohio State University Press, 1998) online.
Military units and personnel
Fritsch, James T. The Untried Life: The Twenty-Ninth Ohio Volunteer Infantry in the Civil War. Ohio University Press, 2012, also known as the Giddings Regiment or the Abolition Regiment, after its founder, radical abolitionist Congressman JR Giddings.
Bissland, James, Blood, Tears, and Glory: How Ohioans Won the Civil War. Wilmington, Ohio: Orange Frazer Press, 2007. .
Dyer, Frederick Henry, A Compendium of the War of the Rebellion. New York: T. Yoseloff, 1908. 3 vol.
Ivy Jr, Major Jack Morris. Camp Chase, Columbus, Ohio, 1861–1865: A Study Of The Union's Treatment Of Confederate Prisoners (Pickle Partners Publishing, 2014).
Leeke, Jim, editor. A Hundred Days to Richmond: Ohio's "Hundred Days" Men in the Civil War. (Indiana University Press, 1999).
Pickenpaugh, Roger. Camp Chase and the Evolution of Union Prison Policy (University of Alabama Press, 2007).
Quinlin, Bradley and Joshua Haugh. Duty Well Performed: The Twenty-First Ohio Volunteer Infantry in the Civil War (2011).
Staats, Richard J. History of the 6th Ohio Volunteer Cavalry 1861–1865: A Journal of Patriotism, Duty and Bravery (2006).
Stephens, Gail. "'This City Must Not Be Taken,'" Traces of Indiana & Midwestern History, Spring 2010, 22#2 pp 4–17, on the defense of Cincinnati by Gen. Wallace in 1862.
Tafel, Gustav. "The Cincinnati Germans in the Civil War." Translated and edited with Supplements on Germans from Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana in the Civil War by Don Heinrich Tolzmann. Milford, Ohio: Little Miami Publishing Co., 2010.
Tucker, Louis Leonard, Cincinnati during the Civil War. Columbus: Ohio State University Press for the Ohio Historical Society, 1962.
Waits, Bert K.; Linder, J. D.; Miller, Pat; Nevel, Bonnie. "John Henry Waite and Daniel Linder, 96th OVI, in the Vicksburg Campaign," Ohio Civil War Genealogy Journal (Dec 2012), 16#4 pp 171–190.
Historiography and memory
George, Harold A. Civil War monuments of Ohio (2006), 87pp
Miller, Richard F. States at War, Volume 5: A Reference Guide for Ohio in the Civil War (2015). excerpt
Riesenberg, Michael. "Cincinnati's Civil War Resources: Preparing for the Sesquicentennial Anniversary of the Civil War." Ohio Valley History 10#4 (2010): 46–65.
Primary sources
Brown, Curt. Leaving Home in Dark Blue: Chronicling Ohio's Civil War Experience through Primary Sources and Literature (University of Akron Press, 2012).
Dee, Christine, ed. Ohio's war: the Civil War in documents (2006)
Dornbusch, C. E., Regimental Publications & Personal Narratives of the Civil War., Vol I Northern States, Part V Indiana and Ohio. New York: The New York Public Library, 1962.
Engs, Robert Francis, and Corey M. Brooks, eds. Their Patriotic Duty: The Civil War Letters of the Evans Family of Brown County, Ohio (Fordham Univ Press, 2007).
Ohio Roster Commission. Official Roster of the Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War on the Rebellion, 1861–1865, compiles under the direction of the Roster commission. 12 vol. Akron: Werner Co., 1886–95.
External links
Ohio in the Civil War by Larry Stevens
Civil War Monuments in Ohio by the Cincinnati Historical Society Library
Ohio in the Civil War Archive & Network: A Complete User Built Database
Johnson's Island - National Park Service
Ohio Civil War Attractions
National Park Service map of Civil War sites in Ohio
Vol 1 Roster of Ohio Soldiers 1893 {3 months Regiments of 1861; also includes Roster of the 5th {127th OVI} and 27th USCT Regiments }
Vol II Roster of Ohio Soldiers 1st-20th Infantry 1886
VOL III Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 21st-36th Infantry 1886
Vol IV Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 37th-53rd Infantry 1887
Vol V Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 54-69th Infantry 1887
Vol VI Official Roster of Soldiers of the State Of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 70-86th Infantry 1888
Vol VII Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 87th-108th Infantry 1888
Vol VIII Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 1861–1866 110-140th Infantry 1888. (Note 109th OVI failed to complete organization and men transferred to 113th OVI; the 119th OVI failed to complete organization and men transferred to 124th OVI; the 127th OVI became the 5th USCT and is listed in Volume 1)
Vol IX Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 141-184th Infantry 1889
Vol X Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 185th-198th Infantry + 1 & 2 Heavy Artillery; 1st Light Artillery 1889
Vol XI Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion 1861–1866 1-13th Cavalry; 2 battalions cavalry; 2 companies Cavalry; Squadron of Cavalry; 2nd Mo Cav; 11th PA Cav 1891
Vol XII Official Roster of Soldiers of the State of Ohio in the War of the Rebellion War with Mexico/War of the Rebellion 1895
1860s in the United States
American Civil War by state
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1992%20in%20the%20United%20Kingdom
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1992 in the United Kingdom
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Events from the year 1992 in the United Kingdom. This year was the Ruby Jubilee of Queen Elizabeth II.
This year is notable for a fourth-term general election victory for the Conservative Party; "Black Wednesday" (16 September), the suspension of the UK's membership of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism; and an annus horribilis for the Royal Family.
Incumbents
Monarch – Elizabeth II
Prime Minister – John Major (Conservative)
Parliament
50th (until 16 March)
51st (starting 27 April)
Events
January
January – Statistics show that economic growth returned during the final quarter of 1991 after five successive quarters of contraction.
9 January
Liberal Democrat leader Paddy Ashdown proposes a £3billion package which would create 400,000 jobs in 12 months.
Alison Halford, the UK's most senior policewoman, is suspended from duty for a second time following a police authority meeting.
10 January – The first full week of 1992 sees some 4,000 jobs lost across the UK, as the nation's recession continues. Almost 20% of those job cuts have been by GEC, the UK's leading telecommunications manufacturer, where 750 redundancies are announced today.
14 January – The Bank of Credit and Commerce International goes into liquidation.
17 January
Eight people are killed in the Teebane bombing.
The first MORI poll of 1992 shows the Conservatives three points ahead of Labour on 42%, while the Liberal Democrats have their best showing yet with 16% of the vote.
29 January – The Department of Health reveals that AIDS cases among heterosexuals increased by 50% between 1990 and 1991.
30 January – John Major agrees a weapons control deal with new Russian premier Boris Yeltsin at 10 Downing Street.
February
2 February – Neil Kinnock, Labour leader, denies reports that he had a "Kremlin connection" during the 1980s.
6 February – The Queen commemorates her Ruby Jubilee, the first British monarch to do so since her great-great-grandmother Queen Victoria in 1877.
7 February – Signing of the Maastricht Treaty.
8–23 February – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Winter Olympics in Albertville, France, but do not win any medals.
9 February – Prime Minister John Major speaks of his hopes that the recession will soon be over as the economy is now showing signs of recovery.
15 February – Neil Kinnock, Labour Party leader, speaks of his belief that the Conservative government's failure to halt the current recession will win his party the forthcoming general election.
18 February – David Stevens, head of community relations, blames the recession for the recent rise in crime across the UK – most of all in deprived areas.
20 February – Hopes of an end to the recession are dashed by government figures which reveal that GDP fell by 0.3% in the final quarter of 1991.
23 February – The London Business School predicts an economic growth rate of 1.2% for this year, sparking hopes that the recession is nearing its end.
March
March
The Saatchi Gallery in London stages the Young British Artists exhibition, featuring Damien Hirst's "shark", The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living.
Toyota launches the Carina E large family hatchback, saloon and estate range which will initially be imported from Japan before production of European market models commences later this year at the new Burnaston plant near Derby.
6 March – Parliament passes the Further and Higher Education Act, allowing polytechnics to become new universities. Legislation passed under the Act on 4 June allows them to award degrees of their own, and they thus reopen in September for the new academic year with the status of universities. In addition, sixth form colleges are to become independent of local education authority control.
11 March
John Major announces a general election for 9 April.
Shadow Chancellor John Smith condemns the recent Budget as a "missed opportunity" by the Conservatives, saying that they did "nothing" for jobs, training, skills, construction or economic recovery.
13 March – The first ecumenical church in Britain, the Christ the Cornerstone Church in Milton Keynes is opened.
17 March – Shadow Chancellor John Smith announces that there will be no tax reductions this year if Labour win the election.
19 March
Buckingham Palace announces that Duke and Duchess of York are to separate after six years of marriage.
Unemployment has reached 2,647,300 – 9.4% of the British workforce, the highest level since late 1987.
24 March
Election campaigning becomes dominated by the "War of Jennifer's Ear".
The editors of Punch, the UK's oldest satirical magazine, announce that it will be discontinued due to massive losses. In circulation since 1841, it publishes its last issue on 8 April.
25 March – Aldershot F.C., bottom of the Football League Fourth Division, are declared bankrupt and become the first Football League club in 30 years to resign from the league.
26 March – Television entertainer Roy Castle (59), who currently presents Record Breakers, announces that he is suffering from lung cancer.
29 March – John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer and father of Princess Diana, dies suddenly from pneumonia at the age of 68.
April
April – Statistics show that the first quarter of this year saw the economy grow for the second quarter running, the sequel to five successive quarters of detraction, though the growth is still too narrow for the recession to be declared over.
1 April – The latest opinion polls show a narrow lead for Labour, which would force a hung parliament in the election next week.
4 April – Party Politics becomes the tallest horse to win the Grand National.
5 April – At his pre-election speech, Neil Kinnock promises a strong economic recovery if he leads the Labour party to election victory on Thursday.
6 April – Women's Royal Army Corps disbanded, its members being fully absorbed into the regular British Army.
7 April – The final MORI poll before the general election shows Labour one point ahead of the Conservatives on 39%, while the Liberal Democrats continue to enjoy a surge in popularity with 20% of the vote. Most opinion polls show a similar situation, hinting at either a narrow Labour majority or a hung parliament.
9 April – General election: the Conservative Party are re-elected for a fourth successive term, in their first election under John Major's leadership. Their majority is reduced to 21 seats but they have attracted more than 14,000,000 votes – the highest number of votes ever attracted to a party in a general election. Notable retirements from parliament at this election include former prime minister Margaret Thatcher and former Labour leader Michael Foot.
10 April
Three people are killed in the Baltic Exchange bombing.
With the government's victory in the election confirmed, John Major assures the public that he will lead the country out of recession that has blighted it for nearly two years.
11 April – Publication of The Sun newspaper's iconic front-page headline 'It's The Sun Wot Won It', as the tabloid newspaper claims it won the general election for the Conservatives with its anti-Kinnock front-page headline on election day.
12 April – Manchester United win the Football League Cup for the first time with a 1–0 win over Nottingham Forest in the Wembley final. Brian McClair scores the only goal of the game.
13 April
Neil Kinnock resigns as leader of the Labour Party following the defeat of his party in the General Election. he had led the party for eight-and-a-half years since October 1983, and is the longest serving opposition leader in British political history.
The Princess Royal announces her divorce from Capt Mark Phillips after 19 years of marriage, having separated in 1989.
16 April – Unemployment has now risen 23 months in succession, but the March rise in unemployment is the smallest monthly rise so far.
17–20 April – Lost Gardens of Heligan in Cornwall first opened to the public.
19 April – Comedian and actor Frankie Howerd dies suddenly from a heart attack, aged 75.
20 April – Comedian and actor Benny Hill dies suddenly from a heart attack at his home in Teddington, London, aged 68.
27 April – Betty Boothroyd, 62-year-old Labour MP for West Bromwich West in the West Midlands, is elected as Speaker of the House of Commons, the first woman to hold the position.
May
5 May – UEFA awards the 1996 European Football Championships to England, who will be hosting a major tournament for the first time since the 1966 World Cup.
6 May – John Major promises British voters improved services and more money to spend.
9 May – Liverpool win the FA Cup for the fifth time, beating Sunderland 2–0 in the Wembley final. Ian Rush and Michael Thomas score Liverpool's goals.
12–15 May – Rioting breaks out on the Wood End housing estate in Coventry, and spreads to the Willenhall district.
12 May – Plans are unveiled for a fifth terminal at Heathrow Airport, which is now the busiest airport in the world.
17 May – Nigel Mansell gains the 26th Grand Prix win of his racing career at Imola, San Marino. He is now the most successful British driver in Grand Prix races, and the fourth worldwide.
22 May – Twenty-two "Maastricht Rebels" vote against the government on the second reading of the European Communities (Amendment) Bill.
22–29 May – A week-long rave festival in Castlemorton Common in the Malvern Hills is held, causing media outrage due to drug-use and noise complaints from neighbours.
June
June – Cones Hotline introduced enabling members of the public to complain about traffic cones being deployed on a road for no apparent reason.
3 June – Actor Robert Morley dies of a stroke at Reading, aged 84.
7 June – A controversial new biography of the Princess of Wales, Diana: Her True Story, written by Andrew Morton, is published, revealing that she has made five suicide attempts following her discovery that the Prince of Wales (now Charles III) had resumed an affair with his previous girlfriend Mrs Parker Bowles (now Queen Camilla) shortly after Prince William's birth in 1982.
17 June
Almost 2.7 million people are now out of work as unemployment continues to rise.
The England national football team are eliminated from the European Championships in Sweden after losing 2–1 to the host nation in their final group game.
24 June – Ravenscraig steelworks, the largest hot strip steel mill in Western Europe, closes, ending steelmaking in Scotland.
25 June – GDP is reported to have fallen by 0.5% in the first quarter of this year as the recession continues.
30 June – Margaret Thatcher enters the House of Lords as Baroness Thatcher.
July
July – Statistics show that the economy contracted during the second quarter of this year.
2 July – The IRA admits to murdering three men whose bodies were found by the army at various locations around Armagh last night. The men are believed to have been informers employed by MI5.
9 July – Riots break out in Ordsall, Greater Manchester.
10 July – Another sign of economic recovery is shown as inflation falls from 4.3% to 3.9%.
15 July – Killing of Rachel Nickell: a 23-year-old mother is stabbed to death in broad daylight while out walking her dog on Wimbledon Common; her murderer, Robert Napper, will not be convicted until 2008.
16 July – Riots break out in Hartcliffe, Bristol, following the deaths of two local men who died when the stolen police motorcycle they were riding was hit by a police car.
17 July
John Smith is elected leader of the Labour Party.
Official opening of Manchester Metrolink, the first new-generation light rail system with street running in the British Isles.
21 July – British Airways announces a takeover of USAir.
22 July – Riots break out in Blackburn, Burnley and Huddersfield.
23 July – Three months after losing the general election, Labour finish four points ahead of the Conservatives in a MORI poll, with 43% of the vote.
25 July–9 August – Great Britain and Northern Ireland compete at the Olympics in Barcelona and win 5 gold, 3 silver and 12 bronze medals.
26 July – Riots break out in the Peckham and Southwark districts of South London.
27 July – Alan Shearer becomes England's most expensive footballer in a £3.6 million transfer from Southampton to Blackburn Rovers. Shearer, who turns 22 next month, was a member of England's Euro 92 national squad, having scored on his debut in a friendly international against France in February this year.
August
August – Graham Norton debuts at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe.
6 August – Lord Hope, the Lord President of the Court of Session, Scotland's most senior judge, permits the televising of appeals in both criminal and civil cases, the first time that cameras have been allowed into courts in the United Kingdom.
10 August – Nissan commences production of its British built Micra supermini, which goes on sale in Britain and the rest of Europe at the end of this year.
15 August – The new FA Premier League commences.
16 August – English driver Nigel Mansell comes in second in the Hungarian Grand Prix and wins the 1992 Formula One season with five races still remaining. Mansell becomes the first Briton to win the title since James Hunt in the 1976 Formula One season.
17 August – Five months after the demise of Aldershot FC, Maidstone United resign from the Football League due to large debts and being unable to fulfill their fixtures for the new Division Three season.
20 August – Intimate photographs of Sarah, Duchess of York and a Texan businessman, John Bryan, are published in the Daily Mirror.
September
5 September – Italian supercar manufacturer Ferrari announces that its Formula One division will be designing and manufacturing cars in the UK.
7 September – Britain's first national commercial radio station, Classic FM, launches, broadcasting classical music.
13 September – Nigel Mansell announces his retirement from Formula One racing.
16 September – "Black Wednesday" sees the government suspending the UK's membership of the European Exchange Rate Mechanism following a wave of speculation against the Pound.
17 September – There is more bad news for the economy as unemployment is at a five-year high of 2,845,508, and experts warn that it will soon hit 3,000,000 for the first time since early 1987.
18 September – The latest MORI poll shows the Labour Party four points ahead of the Conservatives at 43%, following the events of Black Wednesday two days earlier.
19 September – Opera singer Sir Geraint Evans dies in Bronglais Hospital, Aberystwyth, aged 70.
24 September – David Mellor resigns as Heritage Minister amid tabloid press speculation that he had been conducting an adulterous affair with actress Antonia de Sancha.
30 September – The Royal Mint introduces a new 10-pence coin which is lighter and smaller than the previous coin.
October
October
First Cochrane Centre opens.
Statistics show a return to economic growth for the third quarter of this year.
7 October – Nikki Allan, a seven-year-old girl is murdered in Sunderland. It would go unsolved until May 2023.
9 October – Two suspected IRA bombs explode in London, but there are no injuries.
13 October – The government announces the closure of a third of Britain's deep coal mines, with the loss of 31,000 jobs.
14 October – The England football team begins its qualification campaign for the 1994 FIFA World Cup with a 1–1 draw against Norway at Wembley Stadium.
15 October – The value of the pound sterling is reported to have dipped further as the recession deepens.
16 October – The government attempts to tackle the recession by cutting the base interest rate to 8% – the lowest since June 1988.
19 October – John Major announces that only ten deep coal mines will be closed.
21 October – Commodore UK release the new Amiga 1200 computer.
25 October – Around 100,000 people protest in London against the government's pit closure plans.
26 October – British Steel Corporation announces a 20% production cut as a result in falling demand from its worldwide customer base.
30 October – IRA terrorists force a taxi driver to drive to Downing Street at gunpoint and once there they detonate a bomb, but there are no injuries.
November
11 November – The Church of England votes to allow women to become priests.
12 November
British Telecom reports a £1.03 billion profit for the half year ending 30 September – a fall of 36.2% on the previous half year figure, as a result of the thousands of redundancies it has made this year due to the recession.
Unemployment has continued to climb and is now approaching 2,900,000. It has risen every month since June 1990, when it was below 1,700,000. The current level has not been seen since mid-1987.
16 November – The Hoxne Hoard is discovered by metal detectorist Eric Lawes in Suffolk.
19 November – The High Court rules that doctors can disconnect feeding tubes from Tony Bland, a young man who has been in a coma since the Hillsborough disaster in 1989. Bland, of Liverpool, suffered massive brain damage in the disaster and doctors treating him say that there is no reasonable possibility that he could recover consciousness and in his current condition would be unlikely to survive more than five years.
20 November – Part of Windsor Castle is gutted in a fire, causing millions of pounds worth of damage.
23 November – Ford unveils the new Mondeo, which succeeds the long-running Sierra and goes on sale in March 1993.
24 November – The Queen describes this year as an Annus Horribilis (horrible year) due to various scandals damaging the image of the Royal Family, as well as the Windsor Castle fire.
26 November
The Queen is to be taxed from next year, marking the end of almost 60 tax-free years for the British monarchy.
Pepper v Hart, a landmark case, is decided in the House of Lords on the use of legislative history in statutory interpretation, establishing the principle that when primary legislation is ambiguous then, under certain circumstances, the courts may refer to statements made during its passage through parliament in an attempt to interpret its intended meaning, an action previously regarded as a breach of parliamentary privilege.
29 November – Ethnic minorities now account for more than 3,000,000 (over 5%) of the British population.
December
3 December – Two bombings take place in Manchester.
9 December – The separation of the Prince and Princess of Wales (Charles and Diana) is announced following months of speculation about their marriage, but there are no plans for a divorce and John Major announces that Diana could still become Queen.
11 December – The last MORI poll of 1992 shows Labour thirteen points ahead of the Conservatives on 47%, just three months after several polls had shown a Conservative lead. Black Wednesday, which has damaged much of the government's reputation for monetary excellence, is largely blamed for the fall in Conservative support.
12 December – The marriage of Anne, Princess Royal, and Timothy Laurence takes place.
16 December
Four people are injured by IRA bombs in Oxford Street, London.
Japanese carmaker Toyota opens a factory at Burnaston, near Derby, which produces the Carina family saloon.
17 December
The national unemployment level has risen to more than 2.9 million, with the unemployment rate in the south-east of England now above 10% for the first time.
Jonathan Zito is stabbed to death by Christopher Clunis, a partially treated schizophrenic patient.
23 December – The Queen's Royal Christmas Message is leaked in The Sun newspaper, 48 hours ahead of its traditional Christmas Day broadcast on television.
31 December
Thames Television, TVS, TSW and TV-am broadcast for the last time. The ORACLE teletext service is discontinued on ITV and Channel 4 to be replaced by a new service operated by the Teletext Ltd. consortium, having been launched on ITV in 1978 and used by Channel 4 since its inception in 1982.
The economy has grown in the final quarter of this year – the second successive quarter of economic growth – but the recovery is still too weak for the end of the recession to be declared.
Undated
Inflation has fallen to a six-year low to 3.7%.
Stella Rimington is appointed as the first female Director General of MI5.
Barbara Mills is appointed as the first female Director of Public Prosecutions (England and Wales).
Palawan Press is founded in London.
Most leading retailers, including WH Smith, withdraw vinyl records from stock due to a sharp decline in sales brought on by the rising popularity of compact discs and audio cassettes.
Publications
Douglas Adams' novel Mostly Harmless.
Iain Banks' novel The Crow Road.
Louis de Bernières' novel The Troublesome Offspring of Cardinal Guzman.
Alasdair Gray's novel Poor Things
Nick Hornby's novel Fever Pitch.
Ian McEwan's novel Black Dogs.
Terry Pratchett's Discworld novels Small Gods and Lords and Ladies; and his Johnny Maxwell novel Only You Can Save Mankind.
Adam Thorpe's novel Ulverton.
Barry Unsworth's novel Sacred Hunger.
Births
January
1 January
Corey Barnes, footballer
Andrai Jones, footballer
Jack Wilshere, footballer
3 January – Daniel McLay, New Zealand born racing cyclist
4 January – Jamie Griffiths, footballer
5 January
Louis Almond, footballer
Suki Waterhouse, model and actress
8 January – Kenny McLean, footballer
12 January – Georgia May Jagger, model
14 January – Tom Eaves, footballer
15 January – John Bostock, footballer
16 January – Josh Dawkin, footballer
22 January – Reece Connolly, footballer
24 January – Becky Downie, gymnast
30 January – Tom Ince, footballer
31 January – James Hurst, footballer
31 January – Amy Jackson, model and actress
February
1 February
Kamil Ahmet Çörekçi, footballer
Lewis Horner, footballer
2 February – Ben Cox, cricketer
7 February – Jose Baxter, footballer
8 February – Carl Jenkinson, footballer
9 February – Josh Fuller, footballer
11 February
Blair Dunlop, actor and musician
Georgia Groome, actress
14 February – Freddie Highmore, actor
17 February – Reiss Beckford, gymnast
18 February – Rhys Owen Davies, actor
20 February – Sam Mantom, footballer
21 February
Chris Brown, footballer
Phil Jones, footballer
27 February
Ryan Jack, footballer
Jonjo Shelvey, footballer
Callum Wilson, footballer
March
2 March – Maisie Richardson-Sellers, actress
4 March
Kieran Duffie, footballer
Daniel Lloyd, racing car driver
5 March – Amber Anderson, actress
7 March – Bel Powley, actress
10 March – Andy Hutchinson, footballer
12 March – Chris Atkinson, footballer
13 March
George MacKay, actor
Antoni Sarcevic, footballer
Kaya Scodelario, actress and model
15 March – Anna Shaffer, actress
16 March
Danny Ings, footballer
Michael Perham, youngest person to sail the Atlantic Ocean single-handed
17 March
Eliza Hope Bennett, actress and singer
John Boyega, British film actor
22 March – Luke Freeman, footballer
23 March – Lewis Burton, tennis player and model
24 March – Billy Bodin, footballer
25 March – Craig Lynch, footballer
27 March – Mark Gillespie, footballer
April
4 April – Lucy May Barker, stage and screen actress
10 April – Daisy Ridley, actress
11 April – Rod McDonald, footballer
13 April – George North, rugby union player
14 April – Shaun Jeffers, footballer
15 April – Kayleden Brown, footballer
19 April – Nick Pope, footballer
20 April – Andy Halls, footballer
21 April
George Burgess, English rugby league player
Tom Burgess, English rugby league player
Mark Cullen, footballer
22 April – Thomas James Longley, actor
24 April – Laura Trott, track and road cyclist
26 April – Danielle Hope, actress and singer
28 April – Abdulai Bell-Baggie, footballer
May
1 May
James Hasson, Irish-Australian rugby league player
5 May – Craig Clay, footballer
8 May – Ana Mulvoy-Ten, actress
9 May – Dan Burn, footballer
14 May – Jerome Federico, footballer
16 May
John Marquis, footballer
19 May
Sam Smith, singer
Eleanor Tomlinson, actress
Heather Watson, tennis player
24 May
Aidan Chippendale, footballer
Lewis Gregory, cricketer
Ryan Leonard, footballer
25 May – Callum McNish, footballer
26 May – Nathan Koranteng, footballer
28 May – Tom Carroll, footballer
29 May – Gregg Sulkin, actor
June
1 June
Felix Drake, actor and bass guitar
Lateef Elford-Alliyu, Nigeria-born footballer
3 June – Chris Kendall, rugby league referee
4 June
Carl Forster, rugby league player
Brooke Vincent, actress
5 June – Nathan Byrne, footballer
9 June – Lucien Laviscount, actor and recording artist
11 June – Jordanne Whiley, English tennis player
12 June – Laura Jones, gymnast
20 June – Curtis Main, footballer
23 June – Harry Reid, actor
24 June – Stuart Hogg, Scottish rugby union player
28 June – Tom Fisher, footballer
July
1 July
Theo Cowan, actor
Ben Greenhalgh, footballer
Hannah Whelan, gymnast
5 July – Max Brick, diver
8 July
Kelsey-Beth Crossley, actress
Benjamin Grosvenor, classical pianist
9 July – Douglas Booth, actor
13 July – Bryan Parry, Welsh actor
17 July – Adam Davies, Welsh footballer
21 July – Jessica Barden, actress
23 July – Danny Ings, footballer
25 July – Peter Gregory, footballer
27 July – Tom Bradshaw, footballer
28 July – George Spencer-Churchill, Earl of Sunderland
30 July – Kevin Grocott, footballer
August
2 August – Greg Austin, actor
10 August – Oliver Rowland, racing driver
12 August – Cara Delevingne, model and actress
13 August – Keanu Marsh-Brown, footballer
17 August – Paige, professional wrestler
18 August – Amy Willerton, model
21 August – Brad Kavanagh, actor and singer-songwriter
25 August – Angelica Mandy, actress
30 August – Jessica Henwick, actress
31 August – Holly Earl, actress
September
2 September – Cameron Darkwah, footballer
4 September – Zerkaa, YouTuber
7 September – Simon Minter, YouTuber
9 September – Cameron Crighton, actor
12 September – Jordan Burrow, footballer
16 September – Jake Roche, actor and singer
17 September – William Buller, driver
20 September – Will Addison, rugby union player
21 September – Arlissa, Germany-born singer-songwriter
22 September – Philip Hindes, Germany-born cyclist
23 September
Matthew Harriott, footballer
Finn Russell, rugby union player
28 September
Kristian Cox, footballer
Keir Gilchrist, actor
30 September – Cyrus Christie, footballer
October
7 October – Kane Ferdinand, footballer
9 October – Kofi Lockhart-Adams, footballer
10 October
Gabrielle Aplin, singer and songwriter
Ben Phillips, YouTuber
22 October
21 Savage, British-born rapper based in the U.S.
Carrie Hope Fletcher, actress
26 October – Johnny Gorman, footballer
29 October
Jacqueline Jossa, actress
Brad Singleton, rugby league player
November
November – Maia Krall Fry, actress and director
1 November – Alexander Davidson, rugby league player
5 November – Cameron Lancaster, footballer
6 November – Robert Aramayo, actor
14 November – Nathan Fox, English footballer
15 November – Tom Coulton, footballer
20 November – Michael Doughty, footballer
22 November – Lauren Bruton, female football striker
28 November – Sophie Moulds, Welsh television host, model, and beauty queen
29 November – Steph Fraser, pop-folk singer-songwriter
30 November – Samson Lee, Welsh rugby union player
December
2 December
Reece Lyne, rugby league player
Michael Gothard, actor (b. 1939)
3 December – Joseph McManners, actor
6 December – Percy Herbert, actor (b. 1920)
15 December – Jesse Lingard, footballer
17 December – Thomas Law, actor
18 December – Connor Goldson, footballer defender
21 December
Dale Jennings, footballer striker
Isobel Pooley, high jumper
24 December – Melissa Suffield, actress
26 December – Jade Thirlwall, recording artist, member of Little Mix
30 December – Lacey Banghard, model
Deaths
January
1 January – James W. B. Douglas, social researcher (born 1914)
2 January
Joyce Butler, Labour Co-operative member of parliament (born 1910)
Virginia Field, actress (born 1917)
4 January – Patrick Gallacher, Scottish footballer (born 1909)
8 January – Anthony Dawson, actor (born 1916)
9 January – Bill Naughton, playwright (born 1910)
10 January – Barbara Couper, actress (born 1903)
11 January – W. G. Hoskins, historian (born 1908)
15 January – Dee Murray, bassist (Elton John Band) (born 1946)
16 January – Shelagh Roberts, politician (born 1924)
23 January
Freddie Bartholomew, actor (born 1924)
Harry Mortimer, musician and composer (born 1902)
25 January – Kay Beauchamp, communist activist and feminist (born 1899)
27 January – Dame Gwen Ffrangcon-Davies, actress (born 1891)
30 January – George Frederick James Temple, mathematician (born 1901)
February
2 February – Theodor Gaster, biblical scholar (born 1906)
4 February – Alan Davies, footballer (born 1961); suicide
8 February – Denny Wright, jazz guitarist (born 1924)
6 February – John Greenstock, English cricketer (born 1905)
9 February – Leon Clore, film producer (born 1918)
16 February
Angela Carter, novelist and journalist (born 1940)
George MacBeth, poet and novelist (born 1932)
Charles Carnegie, 11th Earl of Southesk, peer (born 1893)
17 February – John Fieldhouse, Baron Fieldhouse, First Sea Lord (born 1928)
18 February – Robert Gittings, author, playwright and poet (born 1911)
24 February
Clarrie Jordan, English footballer (born 1922)
Doreen Montgomery, screenwriter (born 1913)
25 February – Guy Deghy, actor (born 1912, Austria-Hungary)
27 February – John Rothenstein, art historian (born 1902)
29 February – Ruth Pitter, poet (born 1897)
March
1 March – Howard Payne, hammer thrower (born 1931)
2 March – Jackie Mudie, footballer (born 1930)
3 March – G. L. S. Shackle, economist (born 1903)
5 March – Peter Hadland Davis, botanist (born 1918)
6 March – Hugh Gibb, musician, father of the Bee Gees (born 1916)
12 March
Max Catto, playwright and novelist (born 1907)
Sir Harold Hobson, drama critic and author (born 1904)
Phyllis Stanley, actress (born 1914)
14 March – Elfrida Vipont, children's author (born 1902)
18 March
Arnold Diamond, actor (born 1915); road accident
Jack Kelsey, footballer (born 1929)
19 March – Oscar Gugen, diver (born 1910)
22 March
Gruffydd Evans, Baron Evans of Claughton, politician and solicitor (born 1928)
Melissa Stribling, actress (born 1926)
26 March – Arthur Lees, golfer (born 1928)
27 March – Leueen MacGrath, actress (born 1914)
29 March
Christopher Hawkes, archaeologist (born 1905)
John Spencer, 8th Earl Spencer, peer and father of Diana, Princess of Wales (born 1924)
30 March – Winnie Shaw, tennis player (born 1947)
April
1 April
Michael Havers, Baron Havers, lawyer and politician (born 1923)
Nigel Preston, drummer (The Cult) (born 1962); drug overdose
Edward Smouha, athlete (born 1908)
6 April – Sir Peter Hayman, diplomat and paedophile (born 1914)
8 April – Ronald Eyre, theatre director (born 1929)
10 April – Peter D. Mitchell, biochemist (born 1920)
11 April – Adele Dixon, actress and singer (born 1908)
13 April
C. P. Fitzgerald, writer and historian (born 1902)
Brian Oulton, actor (born 1908)
16 April – Gilbert Alsop, English footballer (born 1908)
18 April – H. V. Kershaw, television scriptwriter (born 1918)
19 April – Frankie Howerd, comedian and actor (born 1917)
20 April
Benny Hill, comedian and actor (born 1924)
Peter Murray, art historian (born 1920)
Llewellyn Thomas, physicist and applied mathematician (born 1903)
21 April – Nigel Williams, conservator (born 1944)
26 April – Julian Amyes, film director (born 1917)
27 April – James Maude Richards, architectural writer (born 1907)
28 April – Francis Bacon, artist (born 1909, Ireland)
29 April – Stephen Oliver, composer (born 1950)
May
4 May
Gregor Mackenzie, Labour politician (born 1927)
Lyn Marshall, yoga teacher, ballerina and actress (born 1944)
13 May
Stan Hugill, musician (born 1906)
F. E. McWilliam, sculptor (born 1909)
15 May – Bartlett Mullins, actor (born 1904)
16 May
Eric James, Baron James of Rusholme, educator (born 1909)
Sir Robert Grainger Ker Thompson, RAF officer and counter-insurgency expert (born 1916)
18 May – Eleanor Mears, medical practitioner and campaigner (born 1917)
22 May – Elizabeth David, cookery writer (born 1913)
24 May
Francis Thomas Bacon, chemical engineer (born 1904)
Joan Sanderson, actress (born 1912)
26 May – Terence Clarke, Army officer and politician (born 1904)
27 May – Peter Jenkins, journalist (born 1934)
29 May – Ollie Halsall, guitarist (born 1949)
June
1 June – Eve Gardiner, beautician and remedial make-up artist (born 1913)
3 June – Robert Morley, character actor (born 1908)
5 June – Laurence Naismith, actor (born 1908)
6 June – Richard Eurich, painter (born 1903)
10 June – Glyn Smallwood Jones, colonial administrator (born 1908)
16 June – Peter Legh, 4th Baron Newton, peer and politician (born 1915)
19 June – Kitty Godfree, tennis player, Wimbledon winner (1924, 1926) (born 1896)
20 June – Sir Charles Groves, conductor (born 1915)
22 June – Reg Harris, cyclist (born 1920)
23 June – John Spencer-Churchill, artist (born 1909)
24 June – Jo Spence, photographer (born 1934)
25 June – James Stirling, architect (born 1926)
27 June – Bessie Watson, child suffragette and piper (born 1900)
28 June – John Piper, artist (born 1903)
29 June – Elie Kedourie, historian (born 1926, Iraq)
30 June
Henry Thynne, 6th Marquess of Bath, peer and politician (born 1905)
Massey Lopes, 2nd Baron Roborough, peer and Army officer (born 1903)
July
1 July – Jack Hood, boxer (born 1902)
3 July – Anne Parsons, Countess of Rosse, socialite (born 1902)
4 July – David Abercrombie, phonetician (born 1909)
5 July – Georgia Brown, singer and actress (born 1933)
6 July – Bryan Guinness, 2nd Baron Moyne, peer (born 1909)
10 July – Albert Pierrepoint, hangman (born 1905)
12 July
Reginald Beck, film editor (born 1902)
Ted Fenton, footballer and manager (born 1914); traffic accident
Sir Basil Smallpeice, businessman (b. 1906)
13 July – Christopher Ironside, painter and designer of the reverse of the original decimal coinage (born 1913)
14 July – Barbara Comyns, writer and artist (born 1907)
16 July – Jack Surtees, footballer (born 1911)
20 July – John Bratby, painter (born 1928)
22 July – Alexander McKee, journalist, military historian and diver, discoverer of the Mary Rose (born 1918)
23 July
Maxine Audley, actress (born 1923)
Robert Liddell, literary critic, biographer, novelist, travel writer and poet (born 1908)
Ian Proctor, boat designer (born 1918)
Rosemary Sutcliff, children's historical novelist (born 1920)
25 July – Gary Windo, jazz saxophonist (born 1941)
26 July
Janet Key, actress (born 1945)
Richard Martin Bingham, Member of Parliament and judge (born 1915)
29 July – William Mathias, composer (born 1934)
31 July – Leonard Cheshire, RAF pilot (born 1917)
August
1 August – Leslie Fox, mathematician (born 1918)
3 August – Don Lang, trombonist and singer (born 1925)
9 August
Patrick Devlin, Baron Devlin, judge (born 1905)
David Llewellyn, politician (born 1916)
12 August – Patricia Harmsworth, Viscountess Rothermere, peer and actress (born 1929)
14 August – Harry Allen, hangman (born 1911)
17 August
John Maclay, 1st Viscount Muirshiel, politician (born 1905)
Tommy Nutter, fashion designer (born 1943)
18 August – Simon Hartog, filmmaker (born 1940)
23 August
Sir David Hallifax, Royal Navy admiral, Constable and Governor of Windsor Castle (born 1927)
Donald Stewart, Scottish National Party Member of Parliament (born 1920)
25 August – Cyril Stanley Smith, metallurgist (born 1903)
28 August – Bedwyr Lewis Jones, scholar, literary critic and linguist (born 1933)
29 August
Mary Norton, author (born 1903)
Teddy Turner, actor (born 1917)
September
2 September – Johnnie Mortimer, television scriptwriter (born 1931)
5 September – Christopher Trace, actor and television presenter (born 1933)
6 September
Mervyn Johns, actor (born 1899)
John Sutton, geologist (born 1919)
7 September – Cyril Bence, toolmaker and politician (born 1902)
8 September
Sir Guy Grantham, Royal Navy admiral (born 1900)
Donald Guthrie, theologian (born 1916)
9 September
Maurice Burton, zoologist (born 1898)
Imre König, chess master (born 1901, Austria-Hungary)
10 September – Evelyn Wellings, English cricketer (born 1909, Egypt)
19 September – Sir Geraint Evans, opera singer (born 1922)
28 September
William Douglas-Home, tank officer, writer and dramatist, and brother of former prime minister Alec Douglas-Home (born 1912)
John Leech, mathematician (born 1926)
29 September – Bill Rowe, sound engineer (born 1931)
October
3 October – Ken Wilmshurst, triple jumper (born 1931)
6 October – Denholm Elliott, actor (born 1922)
8 October – Ian Graham Gass, geologist (born 1926)
14 October – Willie Waddell, Scottish footballer (born 1921)
15 October – Oliver Franks, Baron Franks, public figure (born 1905)
18 October – Gerald Ellison, former Bishop of London (born 1910)
19 October – Magnus Pyke, scientist and television presenter (born 1908)
20 October – Stanley McMaster, Northern Irish politician (born 1926)
21 October – Bob Todd, comedy actor (born 1921)
22 October
Eric Ashby, Baron Ashby, botanist and educator (born 1904)
Wilson Humphries, Scottish footballer and football manager (born 1928)
27 October – Roy Marshall, cricketer (born 1930, Barbados)
29 October – Kenneth MacMillan, ballet dancer and choreographer (born 1929)
31 October – Brian MacCabe, athlete (born 1914)
November
3 November
Allanah Harper, writer and journalist (born 1904)
Haydn Hill, English footballer (born 1913)
7 November – Henri Temianka, Scottish-born violinist (born 1906)
10 November – John Summerson, architectural historian (born 1904)
11 November
Giles Bullard, diplomat (born 1926)
John Samuel Forrest, physicist (born 1907)
Sir Peter Gretton, Royal Navy vice-admiral (born 1912)
13 November – Ronnie Bond, drummer (The Troggs) (born 1940)
16 November – Phyllis Harding, swimmer (born 1907)
25 November
Charles Mott-Radclyffe, politician (born 1911)
Sir Hugh Wontner, hotelier and Lord Mayor of London (born 1908)
26 November
Joby Blanshard, actor (born 1919)
John Sharp, actor (born 1920)
29 November – Paul Ryan, singer-songwriter (born 1948)
30 November – Graham Vearncombe, Welsh footballer (born 1934)
December
1 December – Don Allum, oarsman, first person to row across the Atlantic Ocean in both directions (born 1937)
2 December
Michael Gothard, actor (born 1939); suicide
Ralph Izzard, journalist, author and adventurer (born 1910)
4 December – Sidney Schofield, politician (born 1911)
5 December – Hilary Tindall, actress (born 1938)
6 December – Percy Herbert, actor (born 1920)
9 December – Thomas Bottomore, Marxist sociologist (born 1920)
10 December – Dan Maskell, tennis coach and commentator (born 1908)
11 December
Ronald Good, botanist (born 1896)
Michael Robbins, actor (born 1930)
16 December – Erica Brausen, art dealer and founder of the Hanover Gallery (born 1908, German Empire)
19 December
H. L. A. Hart, legal philosopher (born 1907)
Reggie Ingle, English cricketer (born 1903)
22 December
Milo Sperber, actor, director and writer (born 1911, Poland)
Ted Willis, Baron Willis, television dramatist (born 1914)
25 December
Ted Croker, former Secretary of The Football Association (born 1924)
Monica Dickens, author and great-granddaughter of Charles Dickens (born 1915)
Sandra Dorne, actress (born 1924)
26 December
Constance Carpenter, actress (born 1904)
Edmund Davies, Baron Edmund-Davies, judge (born 1906)
Anthony Huxley, botanist (born 1920)
28 December – Cardew Robinson, comic actor (born 1917)
31 December
Sir Denis Barnett, RAF chief marshal (born 1906)
Cyril Peacock, racing cyclist (born 1929)
See also
1992 in British music
1992 in British television
List of British films of 1992
References
Years of the 20th century in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen%20Coughlan
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Stephen Coughlan
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Stephen Coughlan (26 December 1910 – 20 December 1994) was an Irish Labour Party politician who served for sixteen years as Teachta Dála (TD) for the Limerick East constituency. During the 1930s and 40s he was a member of the Irish Republican Army but in the post-World War 2 period he moved into politics, first with the Republican Clann na Poblachta party and then later with the Labour Party. After becoming extremely politically powerful in his home of Limerick City, Coughlan was criticised as being an extremely parochial politician who jealously guarded his power base against any challenger, even those in his own party, which resulted in a number of local splits and rivalries that ultimately corroded his support. Politically and socially conservative, Coughlan was frequently at odds with the rest of the Labour party, while his "colourful" behaviour often drew national attention.
Background
Coughlan was born in Limerick City, to a father Coughlan described as highly religious and to a mother Coughlan recalled as being a staunch Irish Republican. Coughlan educated at the local Presentation Sisters’ school before later boarding at Blackrock College, Dublin. He moved to Tralee in County Kerry in 1928 to become an insurance clerk. It was while Coughlan was in Tralee that he was recruited in the Irish Republican Army, with whom he remained a member until 1945. Coughlan claimed that during his time in the IRA he was involved in an unsuccessful assassination attempt upon Eoin O'Duffy, leader of the Blueshirts, with whom the IRA was engaged in a bitter feud with around 1933. It is also claimed that one of Coughlan's final acts in the IRA was an unsuccessful attempt to prevent O'Duffy and his Irish Brigade departing for the Spanish Civil War by ship from Limerick.
In December 1944, Charlie Kerins of Tralee, with whom Coughlan had developed a friendship, was executed for his role as a Chief of Staff of the IRA. His death prompted Coughlan to turn towards constitutional politics.
Political career
Clann na Poblachta
Through his Republican and IRA connections, Coughlan became a founding member of Clann na Poblachta, a Republican party founded by Seán MacBride that attempted to overtake Fianna Fáil from the political left. Coughlan became chairman of Clann na Poblachta and in 1951 became represented the party when he became a member of Limerick Corporation. That same year he was named Mayor of Limerick for the first time. He stood for election as a Clann na Poblachta candidate at the 1954 general election, when he won the second-highest number of first-preference votes, but in later counts missed out on a seat by a margin of just five votes. A recount still left only a difference of 29 votes. He stood again for Clann na Poblachta at the 1957 general election, but his vote had fallen significantly and he was again unsuccessful.
Labour TD
As Clann na Poblachta declined in support in the late 1950s, Coughlan left them and joined the Labour Party. He was elected as a Labour candidate at the 1961 general election, taking his seat in the 17th Dáil. In doing so Coughlan beat out former Clann party member, veteran campaigner and stalwart of Limerick politics Ted Russell.
As a new member of Labour, Coughlan joined an existing rural republican wing of the party that included the likes of Dan Spring, Sean Treacy and Thomas Kyne. In 1963, Coughlan helped bring former Clann na Poblachta comrade Noël Browne into the Labour party, an action he supposedly regretted the rest of his life.
In order to make headway in politics, Coughlan more or less had to abandon his previous profession as a local bookmaker and publican in order to campaign. Once he broke through, however, Coughlan was noted, even by his critics, as a fiercely active politician in tune with his constituents. As a TD, instead of using the position to discuss national politics in Dáil Eireann, Coughlan's contributions in the 1960s were almost exclusively related to local Limerick issues.
It was in 1966 that Coughlan first began to clash with fellow Limerick labour member Jim Kemmy, something that would go on to become a reoccurring feature of both men's careers. Kemmy was a Limerick bricklayer who had self-taught himself about socialism before joining the Labour party in 1963. Kemmy proved to be an energetic organiser and it didn't take him long to recruit 100 working-class locals as new branch members. Coughlan, however, was not impressed. When Kemmy's group organised a press conference to announce some plans they had and to push for more members, Coughlan arrived at the press meeting flanked by a number of former Clann na Poblachta members, barred the doors to journalists, seized all printed materials and effectively shut the conference down. The incident prompted an internal investigation by Labour, who sent high profile members Brendan Corish and Michael O'Leary. A public meeting was called between all involved, which saw Kemmy's faction of mainly urban limerick members pitted against Coughlan's mostly rural supporters. Coughlan attempted to have Kemmy expelled but didn't have enough votes to carry the motion. Nothing was settled and the acrimony between Coughlan and Kemmy was to continue for years to come.
Coughlan was also known for his considerable thirst for publicity. One anecdote recalls that in 1968, upon learning a Limerick mother was due to give birth to triplets, Coughlan rushed over to the hospital to be there. Coughlan had his picture taken with them before then later in the Dáil demanding that state benefits for triplets be increased. Another recalls that in 1967, following the closure of a meat factory in Limerick, Coughlan showed up at the Dáil at the wrong debate looking dishevelled and began interrupting the proceedings to try to turn the subject to the factory. Fellow members of the Dáil accused Coughlan of being drunk as well as out of order before he was escorted away by Dáil ushers. Although the stunt was not received well by fellow politicians, Coughlan's support base back in Limerick were pleased.
For the Christmas of 1968, Coughlan sent out 23,000 Christmas cards to his constituents that read as follows:
A devout Catholic, Coughlan was known for his social conservatism. During a debate in the Dáil in March 1971, Coughlan summed up his mentality by stating "If we resort to the despicable practices of contraception, divorce and abortion, we shall be finished as a nation." Over the years when those issues would come up in the Dáil, Coughlan would find himself conspicuously absent when it came time to vote in order to avoid losing the party whip.
Second term as Mayor of Limerick
In 1969 Coughlan was still a TD when he became Mayor of Limerick (head of the Corporation) for a second time ("Dual mandate" in Ireland was not abolished until 1991), and it was this period that was marked by some of the most high-profile controversies of Coughlan's career.
1969 general election
By 1969, the Labour party was experiencing a major upswing in the number of members interested in socialism as the political trend of the New Left swept across western countries. Indeed, Labour party leader Brendan Corish announced the party's slogan for that year's general election would be "The seventies will be socialist!". This attracted a number of "intellectuals" to stand for the party as candidates, such as Justin Keating, Conor Cruise O'Brien, David Thornley and Noël Browne. Coughlan was not happy with the new direction of the party nor these candidates. At this time Coughlan had developed a new relationship with the editor of the main local newspaper the Limerick Leader. Using this connection, Coughlan managed to have an "anonymous" leader published on the front page of the Limerick Leader on election day 1969 in which the author laments the new direction of the labour party as well as its new batch of candidates, but still implored the readers to vote for Coughlan. The letter was also designed to erode support for some of Coughlan's local rivals; Michael Lipper and Tony Pratschke ran alongside Coughlan in the '69 election on the labour ticket, but both were considerably more left-wing than Coughlan and had embraced the party's new direction.
South African Rugby team in Limerick
In late 1969, the South African Rugby team has been touring the United Kingdom. The tour had been marked by a number of Anti-Apartheid protests. Going into 1970, the team was due to continue the tour on into Ireland, including games to be held in Limerick. However, the protests in the UK had prompted the Irish left into action as well. Jim Kemmy, himself a longstanding rugby fan as well as the chairman of a local anti-apartheid group, promised to organise opposition to the South Africans playing in Limerick. However, there was little consensus in Limerick about what the reaction to the team should be. Unlike other parts of Ireland, all social classes supported Rugby in Limerick, and thus many citizens of the city feared to "politicise" the sport for fear of breaking that unity. As the Irish left ramped up efforts to create a boycott against the team (including by the Irish Labour party of whom Coughlan was a member), the Limerick Leader opined that while Apartheid was "indefensible", so too was Communism and suggested that the Anti-Apartheid campaign was going to be overtaken by Communists.
Coughlan took a similar line at first; in December 1969 he declared he would not meet with the South African team, but stated that he feared "revolutionary communist groups" would use the boycott as an excuse to "stir up trouble". He also said that in relation to the boycott, some of his colleagues in Labour had "gone haywire". When Barry Desmond TD announced that Labour as a party would back the boycott, Coughlan was furious and declared "the damn cheek for this jumped up overnight politician to come to us in Limerick to tell us how to act".
The matter of the South African game quickly became a national issue. Taoiseach Jack Lynch made it known he would not be in attendance. The Ulster Unionist Party began threatening to hold a counter-protest in favour of the South Africans, while the Ulster Volunteer Force also threatened action if the South Africans were interfered with. On Saturday 10 January, the South Africans played at Lansdowne Road in Dublin. Over 6,000 people peacefully protested against the match, including numerous high profile Labour members. Despite the Dublin match passing without major incident, the Limerick Leader ran panicked articles about the upcoming Limerick match, suggesting "thousands" of outsiders and "extreme left-wingers" were due to descend on the city.
On 14 January the South African game went ahead in Limerick. Wet weather conditions and local attitudes meant that the protests were small in number, with 350 protesters standing out Thomond Park. Minor scuffles took place on O'Connell Street. Coughlan himself attended the match.
In the wake of the match, there was unease about Coughlan nationally in the Labour party for not actively protesting as well the fact he had publicly criticised high profile Labour members for doing so.
Anti-Communist Campaign
In the days after the match, a local priest in Limerick claimed that a group of Maoists had physically threatened him and told him they were intent on destroying some of the local Catholic orders in the city. In response, the Limerick Labour claimed there were 200 Maoists operating in Limerick, mostly under the banner of the "Irish Revolutionary Youth Movement". Irish socialist historian Brian Hanley suggests there would have been no more than a grand total of six Maoists in Limerick at the time. They were, however, becoming more visible in Limerick after they had opened a socialist book store in the city. With tensions in the city highly elevated due to the South African tour, this group quickly became a focus of anger. On 26 January, the Limerick Leader called for the group to be "driven out" of the city, "the sooner the better".
Coughlan took up the cause. He became a letter campaign asking Limerick business not to sell radical literature. He began touring Limerick schools to lecture students on "the red menace". At one school, Crescent College, Coughlan directly accused one student of being a communist and demanded they be expelled. He also accused his former running mate and fellow Labour member Tony Pratschke, a teacher at the school, of also being a communist and called for him to be sacked. Only a threatened strike by the students prevented either action being taken.
Coughlan's endorsement of the idea that Limerick was being infiltrated by communists sent the city into a panic. Priests at the Augustinian Church began calling for the Maoists to be removed during mass. The Maoist book shop had its windows smashed out several times before in gunshots were fired into it in March. There was also an attempted firebombing. Commenting on the violence, Coughlan declared "Any fellow with one eye open, and the other closed could see this coming. I am vehemently opposed to [these communists]".
A small, allegedly neo-nazi group, "The National Movement", which had paraded around the city to welcome the South African team, began parading again and campaigning for Coughlan, declaring "he stood by you, now stand by him" as they asked for signatures on a petition aimed at shutting down the bookshop. When the National Movement presented their petition to Limerick Corporation, two labour councillors called for a vote on a motion to thank them. In response, Jim Kemmy demanded that the national leadership of the Labour party take Coughlan to task.
Comments about Jews
The current affairs magazine Nusight, edited by Vincent Browne, ran an article on the situation in Limerick. The article compared Coughlan to American segregationist George Wallace and speculated that Coughlan was veering towards fascism. The article made mention of the 1904 boycott in Limerick of Jews in the city, as well as attacks on Jehovah Witnesses in the 1950s.
In response to the article, Coughlan publicly declared that he was proud of what the Limerick people had done in those instances, and claimed his own parents had been involved. He defended the priest behind the boycott, stating "Fr Creagh, in a most courageous way, declared war on the Jews of Collooney Street" who had "been bleeding the working people of Limerick dry 70 years before". Coughlan's comments drew national attention and controversy. Coughlan tried to clarify that he "only" meant the Jews in the area who were exploiting money lending practices. Jewish Fianna Fáil TD Ben Briscoe lent Coughlan some credibility when he dismissed the idea of Coughlan being anti-semite.
Sensing that his political career could be hanging by a thread, Coughlan delivered a public speech in Limerick where he called for a new Ireland under a liberal constitution. An amazed Irish Times commented that "Never before had such sentiment been uttered before by Mr Coughlan". They were not mentioned afterwards either. At a meeting of the Labour Party Administrative council, trade union leader Matthew Merrigan moved a motion to expel Coughlan from Labour over his comments. It was defeated 10 votes to 16. As a result, both Merrigan and Jim Kemmy quit the administrative council, with Kemmy leaving the labour party entirely and taking a number of supporters with him.
Kemmy supporters put out a statement condemning Coughlan, stating that he "faithfully and consistently served the interests of the enemies of the workers...The anti-democratic and antisocialist campaigns, actions and speeches of the party deputy for east Limerick has made Limerick and the Labour Party a byword for bigotry and witch-hunting"
Kemmy would go on to form the Limerick Socialist Organisation in 1972, which later became the Democratic Socialist Party, which became a powerful force in Limerick politics in its own right.
Political decline and retirement
The early 70s period had left Coughlan a diminishing star in Limerick politics. Michael Lipper, who had been the one to propose Coughlan as Mayor in '69, was chosen as a Labour candidate for the 1973 general election in Limerick and served as a rallying point for Anti-Coughlan labour members. Although Lipper was not successful, he performed much better than expected and demonstrated the scales were beginning to tip against Coughlan. The 1977 general election pitted Coughlan directly against Lipper when Lipper choose to run as an Independent. When all the votes were counted, Coughlan lost his seat to Lipper aided by the fact the Bishop of Limerick Jeremiah Newman threw his support behind Lipper, something that deeply annoyed Coughlan. Lipper was quickly readmitted back into Labour following the election as the Labour party itself saw that Coughlan was done for. In response, in April 1979 Coughlan and his son, also named Stephan Coughlan, both quit the Labour party, with Stephen senior effectively retiring from politics.
The bitterness apparently continued for many years afterwards; In March 1981 Coughlan (then 70 years old) and Lipper (then 49) happened to encounter each other while applying for medical cards. The two quickly got into an argument, with Lipper supposedly yelling at Coughlan "I’ll blow your fucking head off if I can prove what you’re saying about me", at which Coughlan claims Lipper then punched him in the chest three times. Lipper denied he ever touched Coughlan, telling Coughlan's solicitor "I have these hands for blessing myself and eating my food, and I pray for Mr Coughlan each day." The matter went to court but was dismissed by the judge.
Despite their differences, many years after their 70s feud Jim Kemmy stated "I felt no bitterness towards Stevie Coughlan and I can recognise the good work he did"
Personal life
Coughlan considered Seán MacBride a lifelong friend, and made him Godfather to his daughter Nellie. Coughlan also had two sons, Thady and Stephen. Thady served with him on Limerick Corporation during the 1970s and later became mayor.
Coughlan died at the Regional Hospital, Limerick, after a long illness, 20 December 1994.
Notes
References
1910 births
1994 deaths
Clann na Poblachta candidates in Dáil elections
Irish Republican Army (1922–1969) members
Irish anti-communists
Irish republicans
Labour Party (Ireland) TDs
Local councillors in County Limerick
Mayors of Limerick (city)
Members of the 17th Dáil
Members of the 18th Dáil
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
People educated at Blackrock College
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roderick%20Alleyn
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Roderick Alleyn
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Roderick Alleyn (pronounced "Allen") is a fictional character who first appeared in 1934. He is the policeman hero of the 32 detective novels of Ngaio Marsh. Marsh and her gentleman detective belong firmly in the Golden Age of Detective Fiction, although the last Alleyn novel, Light Thickens, was published in 1982.
Marsh mentions in an introduction that she named her detective Alleyn after the Elizabethan actor Edward Alleyn, founder of Dulwich College, where her father had been a pupil. She started a novel with Alleyn in 1931, after reading a detective story by Agatha Christie or Dorothy L. Sayers on a wet Saturday afternoon in London and wondering if she could write something in the genre. So she bought six exercise books and a pencil at a local stationer and started A Man Lay Dead, involving a Murder Game, which was then popular at English weekend parties.
Background and early life
Roderick Alleyn (pronounced 'Allen', and known as Rory to friends) is a gentleman detective, whose family and educational background may be deduced from comments in the novels. In brief, Alleyn was apparently born around 1892-1894, graduated from Oxford around 1915, served in the army for three years in World War I, then spent a year (1919–1920) in the British Foreign Service. He finally joined the Metropolitan Police as a constable in about 1920 or 1921.
Marsh's Alleyn novels form a chronological series that follows his detective career. When the series opens (A Man Lay Dead, 1934), Alleyn is aged about 40 and is already a Detective Chief-Inspector in the CID at Scotland Yard.
In the early novels he is described several times as looking like a cross “between a monk and a grandee.” He is very tall, dark and good looking; the press have given him the nickname “Handsome Alleyn.” He has a habit of quoting Shakespeare, among others. As the series progresses, Alleyn marries and has a son, and eventually rises to the rank of Chief Superintendent.
He spends the years of the Second World War in the antipodes, engaged in counter-espionage work, often under an assumed name. When he returns to England, to his wife, Agatha Troy—and to a murder case—in Final Curtain (1947), Alleyn observes that they have been apart for “three years, seven months and twenty-four days”.
Family background
Throughout the novels, Alleyn is clearly a member of the gentry. He is the younger brother of a baronet, and was raised in Buckinghamshire where his mother, Lady Alleyn, continued to live. Lady Alleyn is unseen until the sixth novel, Artists in Crime (1938). In Surfeit of Lampreys (1941) Alleyn states that his mother's maiden name was Blandish.
From the beginning of the series, Alleyn's father is dead: his older brother, Sir George Alleyn, is already enjoying the baronetcy. Their late father, also named George (Death in a White Tie, 1938) implicitly had at least one brother (Alleyn's paternal uncle), because the first novel (A Man Lay Dead, 1934) mentions a cousin, Christina Alleyn, who remains an unseen character. Christina is a chemist who trained at Newnham College, Cambridge. In 1934, Christina Alleyn is in her mid-twenties.
Alleyn is on tolerably good terms with his older brother, Sir George Alleyn, the current baronet, who throughout most of the series is an unseen character. In Artists in Crime (1938), their mother indicates that Sir George is more conventional and less intelligent than his detective younger brother. The novel Death in a White Tie features Sarah Alleyn, a daughter of Sir George, and mentions that Sir George's wife (Alleyn's sister-in-law) is named Grace and that the elder Lady Alleyn is called Helena (at least, she is addressed as such by Lady Lorrimer). Like his younger brother, Sir George entered the Foreign Service: Death in a White Tie implies that Sir George is the Governor of Fiji in the late 1930s, as he writes to Alleyn from Government House in Suva. In the much later novel, When in Rome (1970), Alleyn remarks that his older brother was once the British Ambassador there. Sir George finally appears in person, but only briefly, at an embassy function in Black As He's Painted (1974).
In the earliest five novels, Alleyn is single—and quite attracted to actresses, as described in both Enter a Murderer (1935) and Vintage Murder (1937). In Artists in Crime (1938), Alleyn meets renowned painter Agatha Troy on a ship leaving Fiji and again back in England after a model is murdered in Troy's studio. During the investigation he “loses his heart” but Troy cannot, at first, return his love. She finally accepts his proposal in the penultimate scene in Death in a White Tie (1938).
Troy is a famous painter, particularly of portraits, and features in many later novels either in person or in the letters Alleyn writes to her. According to one of a series of letters in Overture to Death (1939), their marriage was planned for April the following year. The actual event takes place “off stage,” as does the birth of their son, also named Roderick but generally called Ricky; Ricky plays major roles as a child in Spinsters in Jeopardy (1954) and as a young adult in Last Ditch (1977).
The 33 Alleyn novels
The following descriptions are taken with acknowledgment from the rear cover blurbs on the Harper Collins Diamond Anniversary Collection of 2009.
A Man Lay Dead (1934) Sir Hubert Handesley's extravagant weekend house-parties are deservedly famous for his exciting Murder Game. But when the lights go up this time, there is a real corpse with a real dagger in the back. All seven suspects have skilful alibis - so Chief Detective Inspector Roderick Alleyn has to figure out the whodunit.
Enter a Murderer (1935)The crime scene was the stage of the Unicorn Theatre, when a prop gun fired a very real bullet; the victim was an actor clawing his way to stardom using bribery instead of talent; and the suspects included two unwilling girlfriends and several relieved blackmail victims. The stage is set for one of Roderick Alleyn's most baffling cases.
The Nursing Home Murder (1935)A Harley Street surgeon and his attractive nurse are almost too nervous to operate. Their patient is the Home Secretary - and they both have very good personal reasons to want him dead. The operation is a complete success - but he dies within hours, and Inspector Alleyn must find out why.
Death in Ecstasy (1936)Who slipped cyanide into the ceremonial wine of ecstasy at the House of the Sacred Flame? The other initiates and the High Priest claim to be above earthy passions. But Roderick Alleyn discovers that the victim had provoked lust and jealousy, and he suspects that more evil still lurks behind the Sign of the Sacred Flame.
Vintage Murder (1937)New Zealand theatrical manager Alfred Meyer is planning a surprise for his wife's birthday - a jeroboam of champagne descending gently onto the stage after the performance. But, as Roderick Alleyn witnesses, something goes horribly wrong. Is the death the product of Maori superstitions - or something more down to earth?
Artists in Crime (1938)It starts as an art exercise - the knife under the drape, the pose outlined in chalk. But when Agatha Troy returns to her class, the scene has been re-enacted: the model is dead, fixed in the most dramatic pose Troy has ever seen. It's a difficult case for Chief Detective Inspector Alleyn. Is the woman he loves really a murderess?
Death in a White Tie (1938)The Season has begun. Débutantes and chaperones are planning their gala dinners - and the blackmailer is planning strategies to stalk his next victim. Chief Detective Inspector Roderick Alleyn knows that something is up and has already planted his friend Lord Robert Gospell at the dinner, but someone else has got there first.
Overture to Death (1939)It was planned as an act of charity: a new piano for the parish hall, and an amusing evening's entertainment to finance the gift. But all is doomed when Miss Campanula sits down to play. A chord is struck, a shot rings out, and Miss Campanula is dead. It seems to be a case of sinister infatuation for Roderick Alleyn .
Death at the Bar (1940)A midsummer evening - darts night at the Plume of Feathers, a traditional Devonshire public house. A distinguished painter, a celebrated actor, a woman graduate, a plump lady from County Clare and a local farmer all play their parts in a fatal experiment which calls for the investigative expertise of Inspector Alleyn.
Surfeit of Lampreys (1941), published in USA as Death of a PeerThe Lampreys were a peculiar family. They entertained their guests with charades - like rich Uncle Gabriel, who was always such a bore. The Lampreys thought if they jollied him up he would bail them out of poverty again. But Uncle Gabriel meets a violent end, and Chief Inspector Alleyn has to work out who in the household killed him.
Death and the Dancing Footman (1942)It begins as an entertainment. Eight people, many of them adversaries, gathered for a winter weekend by a host with a love for theatre. It ends in snowbound disaster. Everyone has an alibi - and a motive as well. But Roderick Alleyn soon realizes that it all hangs on Thomas, the dancing footman.
Colour Scheme (1943)It was a horrible death - lured into a pool of boiling mud and left to die. Roderick Alleyn, far from home on a wartime quest for enemy agents, knows that any number of people could have killed him: the English exiles he'd hated, the New Zealanders he'd despised, or the Maoris he'd insulted. Even the spies he'd thwarted.
Died in the Wool (1945)One summer evening in 1942 Flossie Rubrick, MP, one of the most formidable women in New Zealand, goes to her husband's wool shed to rehearse a patriotic speech - and disappears. Three weeks later she turns up at an auction - packed inside one of her own bales of wool and very, very dead .
Final Curtain (1947)Just as Agatha Troy, the world famous painter, completes her portrait of Sir Henry Ancred, the Grand Old Man of the stage, the old actor dies. The dramatic circumstances of his death are such that Scotland Yard is called in - in the person of Troy's long-absent husband, Chief Detective Inspector Roderick Alleyn.
Swing Brother Swing (1949), published in USA as A Wreath for RiveraThe music rises to a climax, Lord Pastern aims his revolver and fires. The figure in the spotlight falls - and the coup-de-théatre has become murder ... Has the eccentric peer let hatred of his future son-in-law go too far? Or will a tangle of jealousies and blackmail reveal to Inspector Alleyn an altogether different murderer?
Opening Night (1951), published in USA as Night at the VulcanDreams of stardom lured Martyn Tarne from faraway New Zealand to a soul-destroying round of West End agents and managers in search of work. Now, driven by sheer necessity, she accepts the humble job of dresser to the Vulcan Theatre's leading lady. But the eagerly awaited opening night brings a strange turn of the wheel of fortune - and sudden unforeseen death.
Spinsters in Jeopardy (1954), published in the US in 1953 and later in an abridged version as The Bride of Death (1955)High in the mountains stands an historic Saracen fortress, home of the mysterious Mr Oberon, leader of a coven of witches. Roderick Alleyn, on holiday with his family, suspects that a huge drugs ring operates from within the castle. When someone else stumbles upon the secret, Mr Oberon decides his strange rituals require a human sacrifice.
Scales of Justice (1955)The inhabitants of Swevenings are stirred only by a fierce competition to catch a monster trout known to dwell in their beautiful stream. Then one of their small community is found brutally murdered; beside him is their freshly killed trout. Chief Detective Inspector Roderick Alleyn's murder investigation seems to be much more interested in the fish.
Off With His Head (1957), published in USA as Death of a FoolWhen the pesky Anna Bünz arrives at Mardian to investigate local folk-dancing, she quickly antagonizes the villagers. Bur Mrs Bünz is not the only source of friction. When the sword dancers' traditional mock beheading of the Winter Solstice becomes horribly real, Superintendent Roderick Alleyn finds himself faced with a complex case of gruesome proportions.
Singing in the Shrouds (1959)On a cold February London night the police find a corpse on the quayside, covered with flower petals and pearls. The killer, who walked away singing, is known to be one of nine passengers on the cargo ship, Cape Farewell. Superintendent Roderick Alleyn joins the ship on the most difficult assignment of his career.
False Scent (1960)Mary Bellamy, darling of the London stage, holds a 50th birthday party, a gala for everyone who loves her and fears her power. Then someone uses a deadly insect spray on Mary instead of the azaleas. The suspects, all very theatrically, are playing the part of mourners. Superintendent Alleyn has to find out which one played the murderer.
Hand in Glove (1962)The April Fool's Day was a roaring success for all, it seemed - except for poor Mr Cartell who ended up in the ditch - for ever. Then there was the case of Mr Percival Pyke Period's letter of condolence, sent before the body was found - not to mention the family squabbles. It's all a puzzling crime for Superintendent Alleyn.
Dead Water (1964)Times are good in the Cornish village of Portcarrow, as hundreds flock to taste the healing waters of Pixie Falls. When Miss Emily Pride inherits this celebrated land, she wants to put an end to the villagers' exploitation of miracle cures, especially Miss Elspeth Cost's gift shop. But someone puts an end to Miss Cost, and Roderick Alleyn finds himself literally on the spot.
Death at the Dolphin (1967), published in USA as Killer DolphinThe bombed-out Dolphin Theatre is given to Peregrine Jay by a mysterious oil millionaire, who also gives him a glove that belonged to Shakespeare to display in the dockside theatre. But then a murder takes place, a boy is attacked, and the glove is stolen. Inspector Roderick Alleyn doesn't think oil and water are a good mix.
Clutch of Constables (1968)According to Chief Superintendent Roderick Alleyn, 'the Jampot' is an international crook who regards murder as 'tiresome and regrettable necessities'. But Alleyn's wife Troy has shared close quarters with the Jampot on a pleasure cruise along the peaceful rivers of 'Constable country' and knows something is badly wrong even before the two murders on board.
When in Rome (1970)When their guide disappears mysteriously in the depths of a Roman Basilica, the members of Sebastian Mailer's tour group seem strangely unperturbed. But when a body is discovered in an Etruscan sarcophagus, Superintendent Alleyn, in Rome on the trail of an international drug racket, is very much concerned.
Tied Up in Tinsel (1972)When a much disliked visiting servant disappears without trace after playing Santa Claus, foul play is at once suspected - only suspicion falls not on the staff but on the unimpeachably respectable guests. When Superintendent Roderick Alleyn returns unexpectedly from a trip overseas, it is to find his beloved wife in the thick of an intriguing mystery.
Black As He's Painted (1974)Called in to help with security arrangements for a presidential reception at a London embassy, Chief Superintendent Alleyn ensures the house and grounds are stiff with police. Nevertheless, an assassin strikes, and Alleyn finds no shortage of help, from Special Branch to a tribal court - and a small black cat named Lucy Lockett.
Last Ditch (1977)Young Rickie Alleyn has come to the Channel Islands to write, but village life seems tedious - until he finds the stablehand in a ditch, dead from an unlucky jump. But Rickie notices something strange and his father, Chief Superintendent Roderick Alleyn, is discreetly summoned to the scene, when Rickie disappears.
Grave Mistake (1978)With two husbands dead', a daughter marrying the wrong man and a debilitating disease, it is no wonder that Sybil Foster took her own life. But Chief Superintendent Roderick Alleyn doesn't believe she was the type to kill herself - and he thinks someone else has made a very grave mistake.
Photo Finish (1980)The luxury mansion on the shore of New Zealand's Lake Waihoe is the ideal place for a world-famous soprano to rest after her triumphant tour. Among the guests are Chief Superintendent Alleyn and his wife - but theirs is not a social visit. When tragedy strikes, and isolated by one of the lake's sudden storms, Alleyn faces one of his trickiest cases.
Light Thickens (1982)Peregrine Jay, owner of the Dolphin Theatre, is putting on a magnificent production of Macbeth, the play that, superstition says, always brings bad luck. But one night the claymore swings and the dummy's head is more than real: murder behind the scenes. Luckily, Chief Superintendent Roderick Alleyn is in the audience.
There is also Money in the Morgue, a manuscript started by Marsh and completed by Stella Duffy.
In addition, three Alleyn stories are contained in the short story collection Death on the Air and Other Stories, first published in Great Britain by HarperCollinsPublishers in 1995. The three Alleyn stories are:
Death on the Air (1936)
I Can Find My Way Out (1946 - USA)
Chapter and Verse: The Little Copplestone Mystery (1974 - USA)
The collection, besides seven non-Alleyn stories, also includes two "biographical" essays written by Ngaio Marsh: Roderick Alleyn and Portrait of Troy.
The script of a television play by Ngaio Marsh, featuring Alleyn and set in New Zealand, is due to be published in 2020.
Birth, education and early career
Alleyn was reportedly educated at Eton and Oxford, and worked in the British Foreign Service for a year (1919–1920) before joining the Metropolitan Police. A much later novel, Scales of Justice (1955), gives sketchy details of this period in Alleyn's life. The reasons for the switch in careers are never made explicit.
Early in his police career, Alleyn wrote a textbook that became widely admired: Principles and Practice of Criminal Investigations, by Roderick Alleyn, M.A. (Oxon), C.I.D. (Sable and Murgatroyd, 21s), which is mentioned in a footnote to Chapter 6 of Vintage Murder (1937).
In the first few novels, Alleyn is in his early forties. In the first, A Man Lay Dead (1934), Nigel Bathgate (Alleyn's future Watson) is clearly stated to be twenty-five, and Alleyn is much older, judging by the tone of his remarks to Bathgate. In the second, Enter a Murderer (1935), there is a minor inconsistency, in that Bathgate appears to be slightly younger than before. Bathgate says that he has been working as a journalist for only 15 months, ever since he 'came down' (that is, graduated) from Trinity College, Cambridge. However, Alleyn comments that it is almost 20 years since he (Alleyn) came down from Oxford. Assuming both gentlemen graduated with a typical three-year Oxbridge degree at around age 21, then in 1934 or 1935 Bathgate is about 22 or 23 and Alleyn is about 20 years older, indicating his birth was around 1893 or 1894.
The fifth novel, Vintage Murder (1937), is explicitly set in New Zealand in June 1936—according to an epilogue dated September 1936 and set three months after the novel's action. In Chapter 16, Alleyn states his age, while speaking to a teenager: 'Rude you think? I'm twenty-five years older than you. Old gentlemen of forty-two are allowed to be impertinent. Especially when they are policemen.'
Vintage Murder (1937) also indicates Alleyn spent three years in the army after graduating, presumably during World War I. Nowhere in the series are details of this military service ever given. Immediately after the army, he spent a year in the British Foreign Service.
The sixth novel, Artists in Crime (1938), rapidly follows the action of Vintage Murder (that is, occurs in late 1936), and contains letters between Lady Alleyn and her younger son during his return to England. These show that Alleyn's mother turns 65 in 1936, and that Alleyn is about 20 years younger. The same correspondence shows that Lady Alleyn's birthday is on the seventh of September, and that Alleyn's (forty-third) birthday follows soon after. Hence, from information in the fifth and sixth novels, Alleyn was probably born in September or October, 1893.
It is clear that later novels take some liberties with Alleyn's age. In Black as He's Painted (1974), Alleyn is clearly not 80 years old, as he would have to be if his birth was in 1893. The setting of the novel is identified as being contemporary with its writing, i.e. the early 1970s, and while Alleyn is clearly a senior member of CID, he is still relatively young and fit enough to be "sprinting" down alleyways after perpetrators.
Adaptations
Television
Several of the Roderick Alleyn novels have been adapted for television, though none as yet for mainstream cinema release. Two novels were adapted as episodes for the 1960s BBC anthology series Detective; Death in Ecstasy in 1964 with Geoffrey Keen as Alleyn, and Artists in Crime in 1968 with Michael Allinson as Alleyn.
Four novels were adapted for New Zealand television in 1977 under the series title Ngaio Marsh Theatre, with Alleyn played by George Baker. Colour Scheme, Died in the Wool and Vintage Murder are set in New Zealand, while Opening Night is set in London. The theme of Opening Night involves a New Zealand actress with a startling resemblance to the lead actor.
Nine novels with British settings were adapted for British television as The Inspector Alleyn Mysteries. In the pilot, Artists in Crime (1990), Alleyn was played by Simon Williams, and then by Patrick Malahide in eight more tales (1993–94): A Man Lay Dead, The Nursing Home Murder, Final Curtain (the second TV adaptation), Death at the Bar, Death in a White Tie, Hand in Glove, Dead Water and Scales of Justice.
BBC Radio
Death in Ecstasy was adapted for Saturday Night Theatre in 1969. Peter Howell portrayed Alleyn, with his name being pronounced "Al-lain".
A series of adaptations were made starring Jeremy Clyde as Alleyn. Four stories were recorded between 2001 and 2006; A Man Lay Dead (2001), A Surfeit of Lampreys (2001), When in Rome (2003), and Opening Night (2006)
DVD release
The Inspector Alleyn Mysteries (the 1990s British productions) are available on Region Two DVD as a four disc pack.
References
External links
Fictional British police detectives
Fictional gentleman detectives
Fictional World War I veterans
Fictional people educated at Eton College
Literary characters introduced in 1934
Characters in British novels of the 20th century
Characters in mystery novel series of the 20th century
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanssouci
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Sanssouci
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Sanssouci () is a historical building in Potsdam, near Berlin. Built by Prussian King Frederick the Great as his summer palace, it is often counted among the German rivals of Versailles. While Sanssouci is in the more intimate Rococo style and is far smaller than its French Baroque counterpart, it, too, is notable for the numerous temples and follies in the surrounding park. The palace was designed and built by Georg Wenzeslaus von Knobelsdorff between 1745 and 1747 to meet Frederick's need for a private residence where he could escape the pomp and ceremony of the royal court. The palace's name is a French phrase (sans souci) that translates as "without concerns", meaning "without worries" or "carefree", emphasising that the palace was meant as a place of relaxation, rather than a seat of power.
Sanssouci is little more than a large, single-storey villa—more like the Château de Marly than Versailles. Containing just ten principal rooms, it was built on the brow of a terraced hill at the centre of the park. The influence of King Frederick's personal taste in the design and decoration of the palace was so great that its style is characterised as "Frederician Rococo", and his feelings for the palace were so strong that he conceived it as "a place that would die with him". Because of a disagreement about the site of the palace in the park, Knobelsdorff was fired in 1746. Jan Bouman, a Dutch architect, finished the project.
During the 19th century, the palace became a residence of Frederick William IV. He employed the architect Ludwig Persius to restore and enlarge the palace, while Ferdinand von Arnim was charged with improving the grounds and thus the view from the palace. The town of Potsdam, with its palaces, was a favourite place of residence for the German imperial family until the fall of the Hohenzollern dynasty in 1918.
After World War II, the palace became a tourist attraction in East Germany. Following German reunification in 1990, Frederick's body was returned to the palace and buried in a new tomb overlooking the gardens he had created. Sanssouci and its extensive gardens became a World Heritage Site in 1990 under the protection of UNESCO; in 1995, the Prussian Palaces and Gardens Foundation Berlin-Brandenburg was established to care for Sanssouci and the other former imperial palaces in and around Berlin. These palaces are now visited by more than two million people each year from all over the world.
Ethos of Sanssouci
The location and layout of Sanssouci above a vineyard reflected the pre-Romantic ideal of harmony between man and nature, in a landscape ordered by human touch. Winemaking, however, was to take second place in the design of the palace and pleasure gardens. The hill on which Frederick created his terrace vineyard was to become the focal point of his demesne, crowned by the new, but small, palace—"mein Weinberghäuschen" ("my little vineyard house"), as Frederick called it. With its extensive views of the countryside in the midst of nature, Frederick wanted to reside there sans souci ("without a care") and to follow his personal and artistic interests. Hence, the palace was intended for the use of Frederick and his private guests—his sketch (illustration) indicated the balanced suites "pour les etrangers" and "pour le roy"— only during the summer months, from the end of April to the beginning of October.
Twenty years following his creation of Sanssouci, Frederick built the New Palace (Neues Palais) in the western part of the park. This far larger palace was in direct contrast to the relaxed ethos behind Sanssouci, and displayed Frederick's power and strength to the world, in the Baroque style. The design of the New Palace was intended to demonstrate that Prussia's capabilities were undiminished despite its near defeat in the Seven Years' War. Frederick made no secret of his intention, even referring to the new construction as his "fanfaronnade" ("showing off").
This concept of a grand palace designed to impress has led to the comparison of the palaces of Potsdam to Versailles, with Sanssouci being thrust into the role of one of the Trianons. This analogy, though easy to understand, ignores the original merits of the concept behind Sanssouci, the palace for which the whole park and setting were created. Unlike the Trianons, Sanssouci was not an afterthought to escape the larger palace, for the simple reason that the larger palace did not exist at the time of Sanssouci's conception; and once it did, Frederick almost never stayed in the New Palace except on rare occasions when entertaining diplomats he wished to impress. It is true, however, that Sanssouci was intended to be a private place of retreat rather than display of power, strength and architectural merit. Unlike the Trianons, Sanssouci was designed to be a whole unto itself.
Sanssouci is small, with the principal block (or corps de logis) being a narrow single-storey enfilade of just ten rooms, including a service passage and staff rooms behind them. Frederick's amateur sketch of 1745 (illustrated above) demonstrates that his architect, Knobelsdorff, was more a draughtsman at Sanssouci than complete architect. Frederick appears to have accepted no suggestions for alteration to his plans, refusing Knobelsdorff's idea that the palace should have a semi-basement storey, which would not only have provided service areas closer at hand, but would have put the principal rooms on a raised piano nobile. This would have given the palace not only a more commanding presence, but also would have prevented the problems of dampness to which it has always been prone. However, Frederick wanted an intimate palace for living: for example, rather than scaling a large number of steps, he wanted to enter the palace immediately from the garden. He insisted on a building on the ground level, of which the pedestal was the hill: in short, this was to be a private pleasure house. His recurring theme and requirement were for a house with close connections between its style and free nature. The principal rooms, lit by tall slender windows, face south over the vineyard gardens; the north façade is the entrance front, where a semicircular cour d'honneur was created by two segmented Corinthian colonnades.
In the park, east of the palace, is the Sanssouci Picture Gallery, built from 1755 to 1764 under the supervision of the architect Johann Gottfried Büring. It stands on the site of a former greenhouse, where Frederick raised tropical fruit. The Picture Gallery is the oldest extant museum built for a ruler in Germany. Like the palace itself, it is a long, low building, dominated by a central domed bow of three bays.
To the west is the New Chambers, built between 1771 and 1775 as accommodation for guests and with rooms to entertain them. The building mirrors the Picture Gallery externally, thus adding to the symmetry of the Sanssouci ensemble.
Following the death of Frederick a new era began, a visible sign of which was the change in architectural styles. Neo-Classicism, popular elsewhere in Europe but ignored by Frederick, now found its way to Potsdam and Berlin during the reign of the new king Frederick William II. He ordered the construction of a new palace, the Marmorpalais, in the new more fashionable style, and stayed at Sanssouci only occasionally.
The reception and bedrooms were renovated and completely altered immediately after Frederick's death. Frederick William von Erdmannsdorff received the commission for the refurbishment. While Frederick had been constructing the New Palace in the Baroque style between 1763 and 1769, Erdmannsdorff, an advocate of the new neo-classical style, had created Schloss Wörlitz in Wörlitz Park, the first neo-classical palace in Germany. As a result of his influence, Sanssouci became the first of the palaces in Potsdam and Berlin to be remodelled with a neo-classical interior. In 1797, Frederick William II was succeeded by Frederick William III; he visited Sanssouci even less frequently than his father, preferring to spend the summer months in Paretz Palace or on the Pfaueninsel in Berlin.
Architecture
It was no coincidence that Frederick selected the Rococo style of architecture for Sanssouci. The light, almost whimsical style then in vogue exactly suited the light-hearted uses for which he required this retreat. The Rococo style of art emerged in France in the early 18th century as a continuation of the Baroque style, but in contrast with the heavier themes and darker colours of the Baroque, the Rococo was characterised by an opulence, grace, playfulness, and lightness. Rococo motifs focused on the carefree aristocratic life and on light-hearted romance, rather than on heroic battles and religious figures. They also revolve around natural and exterior settings; this again suited Frederick's ideal of nature and design being in complete harmony. The palace was completed much as Frederick had envisaged in his preliminary sketches (see illustration above).
The palace has a single-storey principal block with two flanking side wings. The building occupies almost the entire upper terrace. The potential monotony of the façade is broken by a central bow, its dome rising above the hipped roof, with the name of the palace—remarkably, written with a comma and a full stop, viz. Sans, Souci.— on it in gilded bronze letters. The secondary side wings on the garden front are screened by two symmetrical rows of trees each terminating in free-standing trellised gazebos, richly decorated with gilded ornaments.
The garden front of the palace is decorated by carved atlantes and caryatids; grouped in pairs between the windows, these appear to support the balustrade above. Executed in sandstone, these figures of both sexes represent Bacchants, the companions of the wine god Bacchus, and originate from the workshop of the sculptor Friedrich Christian Glume. The same workshop created the vases on the balustrade, and the groups of cherubs above the windows of the dome.
By contrast, the north entrance façade is more restrained. Segmented colonnades of 88 Corinthian columns—two deep—curve outwards from the palace building to enclose the semicircular cour d'honneur. As on the south side, a balustrade with sandstone vases decorates the roof of the main corps de logis.
Flanking the corps de logis are two secondary wings, providing the large service accommodation and domestic offices necessary to serve an 18th-century monarch, even when in retreat from the world. In Frederick's time, these single-storey wings were covered with foliage to screen their mundane purpose. The eastern wing housed the secretaries', gardeners' and servants' rooms, while the west wing held the palace kitchen, stables and a remise (coach house).
Frederick regularly occupied the palace each summer throughout his lifetime, but after his death in 1786 it remained mostly unoccupied and neglected until the mid-19th century. In 1840, 100 years after Frederick's accession to the throne, his great-grandnephew Frederick William IV and his wife moved into the guest rooms. The royal couple retained the existing furniture and replaced missing pieces with furniture from Frederick's time. The room in which Frederick had died was intended to be restored to its original state, but this plan was never executed because of a lack of authentic documents and plans. However, the armchair in which Frederick had died was returned to the palace in 1843.
Frederick William IV, a draftsman interested in both architecture and landscape gardening, transformed the palace from the retreat of his reclusive great uncle into a fully functioning and fashionable country house. The small service wings were enlarged between 1840 and 1842. This was necessary because, while Frederick philosophised and played music at Sanssouci, he liked to live modestly without splendour. As he aged, his modesty developed into miserliness. He would not permit repairs to the outer façade and allowed them in the rooms only with great reluctance. This was ascribed to his wish that Sanssouci should only last his lifetime.
The additions included a mezzanine floor to both wings. The kitchen was moved into the east wing. Frederick the Great's small wine cellar was enlarged to provide ample store rooms for the enlarged household, while the new upper floor provided staff bedrooms.
The west wing became known as "The Ladies' Wing", providing accommodation for ladies-in-waiting and guests. This was a common arrangement in mid-19th-century households, which often had a corresponding "Bachelor's Wing" for unmarried male guests and members of the household. The rooms were decorated with intricate boiseries, panelling and tapestries. This new accommodation for ladies was vital: entertaining at Sanssouci was minimal during the reign of Frederick the Great, and it is known that women were never entertained there, so there were no facilities for them. Frederick had married Elisabeth Christine of Brunswick-Bevern in 1733, but separated from his wife after his accession to the throne in 1740. The Queen resided alone at Schönhausen Palace in Berlin after the separation, and Frederick preferred Sanssouci to be "sans femmes" (without women).
Interior of the palace
In the Baroque tradition, the principal rooms (including the bedrooms and toilets) are all on the piano nobile, which at Sanssouci was the ground floor by Frederick's choice. While the secondary wings have upper floors, the corps de logis occupied by the King occupies the full height of the structure. Comfort was also a priority in the layout of the rooms. The palace expresses contemporary French architectural theory in its apartement double ideals of courtly comfort, comprising two rows of rooms, one behind the other. The main rooms face the garden, looking southwards, while the servant's quarters in the row behind are on the north side of the building. An apartement double thus consists of a main room and a servant's chamber. Doors connect the apartments with each other. They are arranged as an "enfilade", so that the entire indoor length of the palace can be assessed at a glance.
Frederick sketched his requirements for decoration and layout, and these sketches were interpreted by artists such as Johann August Nahl, the Hoppenhaupt brothers, the Spindler brothers and Johann Melchior Kambly, who all not only created works of art, but decorated the rooms in the Rococo style. While Frederick cared little about etiquette and fashion, he also wanted to be surrounded by beautiful objects and works of art. He arranged his private apartments according to his personal taste and needs, often ignoring the current trends and fashions. These "self-compositions" in Rococo art led to the term "Frederician Rococo".
The principal entrance area, consisting of two halls, the "Entrance Hall" and the "Marble Hall", is at the centre, thus providing common rooms for the assembly of guests and the court, while the principal rooms flanking the Marble Hall become progressively more intimate and private, in the tradition of the Baroque concept of state rooms. Thus, the Marble Hall was the principal reception room beneath the central dome. Five guest rooms adjoined the Marble Hall to the west, while the King's apartments lay to the east - an audience room, music room, study, bedroom, library, and a long gallery on the north side.
The palace is generally entered through the Entrance Hall, where the restrained form of the classical external colonnade was continued into the interior. The walls of the rectangular room were subdivided by ten pairs of Corinthian columns made of white stucco marble with gilded capitals. Three overdoor reliefs with themes from the myth of Bacchus reflected the vineyard theme created outside. Georg Franz Ebenhech was responsible for gilded stucco works. The strict classical elegance was relieved by a painted ceiling executed by the Swedish painter Johann Harper, depicting the goddess Flora with her acolytes, throwing flowers down from the sky.
The white-and-gold oval Marmorsaal ("Marble Hall"), as the principal reception room, was the setting for celebrations in the palace, its dome crowned by a cupola. White Carrara marble was used for the paired columns, above which stucco putti dangle their feet from the cornice. The dome is white with gilded ornament, and the floor is of Italian marble intarsia inlaid in compartments radiating from a central trelliswork oval. Three arch-headed windows face the garden; opposite them, in two niches flanking the doorway, figures of Venus Urania, the goddess of free nature and life, and Apollo, the god of the arts, by the French sculptor François Gaspard Adam, established the iconography of Sanssouci as a place where art was joined with nature.
The adjoining room served as both an audience room and the Dining Room. It is decorated with paintings by French 18th-century artists, including Jean-Baptiste Pater, Jean François de Troy, Pierre-Jacques Cazes, Louis Silvestre, and Antoine Watteau. However, here, as in the majority of the rooms, the carved putti, flowers and books on the overdoor reliefs were the work of Glume, and the ceiling paintings emphasise the rococo spirit of the palace. This exuberant form of ornamentation of rococo, Rocaille, was used in abundance on the walls and ceiling in the music room. Much of the work was by the sculptor and decorator Johann Michael Hoppenhaupt (the elder). A 1746 fortepiano by Gottfried Silbermann which once belonged to Frederick the Great remains as a nostalgic reminder of the room's original purpose.
The King's study and bedroom, remodelled after Frederick's death by Frederick William von Erdmannsdorff in 1786, is now in direct contrast to the rococo rooms. Here, the clean and plain lines of classicism now rule. However, Frederick's desk and the armchair in which he died were returned to the room in the middle of the 19th century. Portraits and once missing pieces of furniture from Frederick's time have also since been replaced.
The circular library deviated from the spatial structure of French palace architecture. The room is almost hidden, accessed through a narrow passageway from the bedroom, underlining its private character. Cedarwood was used to panel the walls and for the alcoved bookcases. The harmonious shades of brown augmented with rich gold-coloured Rocaille ornaments were intended to create a peaceful mood.
The bookcases contained approximately 2,100 volumes of Greek and Roman writings and historiographies and also a collection of French literature of the 17th and 18th centuries with a heavy emphasis on the works of Voltaire. The books were bound in brown or red goat leather and richly gilded.
The north facing gallery overlooked the forecourt. Here, again, Frederick deviated from French room design, which would have placed service rooms in this location. Recessed into the inner wall of this long room were niches containing marble sculptures of Greco-Roman deities. Five windows alternating with pier glasses on the outer wall reflect the paintings by Nicolas Lancret, Jean-Baptiste Pater and Antoine Watteau hung between the niches opposite.
To the west were the guest rooms in which were lodged those friends of the King considered intimate enough to be invited to this most private of his palaces. Two of Frederick's visitors were sufficiently distinguished and frequent that the rooms they occupied were named after them. The Rothenburg room is named after the Count of Rothenburg, who inhabited his circular room until his death in 1751. This room balances the palace architecturally with the library. The Voltaire Room was frequently occupied by the philosopher during his stay in Potsdam between 1750 and 1753. The Voltaire Room was remarkable for its decoration, which gave it the alternative name of the "Flower Room". On a yellow lacquered wall panel were superimposed, colourful, richly adorned wood carvings. Apes, parrots, cranes, storks, fruits, flowers, garlands gave the room a cheerful and natural character. designed the room between 1752 and 1753 from sketches made by Frederick.
The terraced gardens
The panoramic vista of the garden of Sanssouci is the result of Frederick the Great's decision to create a terraced vineyard on the south slope of the hills of Bornstedt. The area had previously been wooded, but the trees were felled during the reign of the "soldier-king" Frederick William I to allow the city of Potsdam to expand.
On 10 August 1744, Frederick ordered the bare hillside to be transformed into terraced vineyards. Three wide terraces were created, with convex centres to maximise the sun light (see plan). On the partitions of the supporting walls, the brickwork is pierced by 168 glazed niches. Trellised vines from Portugal, Italy, France, and also from nearby Neuruppin, were planted against the brickwork, while figs grew in the niches. The individual parts of the terrace were further divided by strips of lawn, on which were planted yew trees. Low box hedging surrounded trellised fruit, making a circular ornamental parterre. In the middle of this "wheel", 120 steps (now 132) led downward further dividing the terraces into six.
Below the hill, a Baroque ornamental garden, modelled on the parterre at Versailles, was constructed in 1745. The Great Fountain was built at the centre of this garden in 1748. Frederick never saw the fountain playing because the engineers employed in the construction had little understanding of the hydraulics involved. From 1750, marble statues were placed around the basin of the fountain. This again was a feature copied from Versailles: figures of Venus, Mercury, Apollo, Diana, Juno, Jupiter, Mars and Minerva, as well as allegorical portrayals of the four elements Fire, Water, Air and Earth. Venus and Mercury, the works of the sculptor Jean Baptiste Pigalle, and two groups of hunters, allegories of the elements (wind and water) by Lambert Sigisbert Adam, were presented by Versailles's owner, the French King Louis XV. The remaining figures came from the workshop of François Gaspard Adam, a renowned sculptor in Berlin. By 1764, the French Rondel, as it came to be known, was completed.
Nearby was a kitchen garden, which Frederick William I had laid out sometime prior to 1715. The Soldier King jokingly gave this simple garden the name "My Marly", in reference to the very similar garden at the summer residence of Louis XIV in Marly-le-Roi.
In his plans for the grounds, Frederick attached great importance on the combination of both an ornamental and a practical garden, thus demonstrating his belief that art and nature should be united.
The Park
Following the terracing of the vineyard and the completion of the palace, Frederick turned his attention to the landscaping of the greater vicinity of the palace and thus began the creation of Sanssouci Park. In his organisation of the park, Frederick continued what he had begun in Neuruppin and Rheinsberg. A straight main avenue was laid out, ultimately 2.5 km long, beginning in the east at the 1748 obelisk and extended over the years to the New Palace, which marks its western end.
Continuing the horticultural theme of the terraced gardens, 3,000 fruit trees were planted in the park, and greenhouses and nurseries laid out, producing oranges, melons, peaches and bananas. Statuary and obelisks were also erected, with representations of the goddesses Flora and Pomona. Frederick had several temples and follies erected in the same rococo style as the palace itself. Some were small houses which compensated for the lack of reception rooms in the palace itself.
Frederick invested heavily in a vain attempt to introduce a fountain system in Sanssouci Park, attempting to emulate the other great Baroque gardens of Europe. Hydraulics at this stage were still in their infancy, and despite the building of pumping houses and reservoirs, the fountains at Sanssouci remained silent and still for the next 100 years. The invention of steam power solved the problems a century later, and thus the reservoir finally fulfilled its purpose. From around 1842, the Prussian Royal family were finally able to marvel at such features as the Great Fountain below the vineyard terraces, shooting jets of water to a height of 38 metres. The pumping station itself became another garden pavilion, disguised as a Turkish mosque, with its chimney becoming a minaret.
The park was expanded under Frederick William III, and later under his son Frederick William IV. The architects Karl Friedrich Schinkel and Ludwig Persius built Charlottenhof Palace in the park on the site of a former farm house, and Peter Joseph Lenné was commissioned with the garden design. Broad meadows created visual avenues between Charlottenhof, the Roman Baths and the New Palace, and incorporated the follies such as the Temple of Friendship of Frederick the Great.
History after World War I
After the First World War, and despite the end of the German monarchy, the palace remained in the possession of the Hohenzollern dynasty. It eventually came under the protection of the Prussian "Verwaltung der Staatlichen Schlösser und Gärten" (Administration of National Palaces and Gardens) on 1 April 1927.
When air raids on Berlin began in the Second World War, the most notable works of art of the former imperial palaces were transferred for safety to Rheinsberg (Brandenburg) and Bernterode (near Worbis, Thuringia). The structure of the palace remained unscathed despite fierce fighting in the vicinity in 1945, but the ancient windmill, retained in the park by Frederick to add rustic charm, was destroyed.
Following the end of the war, most of the items that had been moved to Rheinsberg were transferred as bounty to the Soviet Union; only a small fraction were returned to the palace in 1958. The artistic pieces from Bernterode found by American soldiers were first shipped to Wiesbaden to the "Central Art Collecting Point" and in 1957 went to Charlottenburg palace in West Berlin.
Compared to many similar buildings, the palace fared well during almost 50 years under Communist jurisdiction in East Germany. The Church of St. Saviour in Sacrow and the centre of Potsdam were neglected, and some of the historic centre of Potsdam was demolished. The City Palace, Potsdam, containing architectural work by Knobelsdorff was demolished in 1960, but Sanssouci survived unscathed and the East German government endeavoured to have Sanssouci placed on the list of World Heritage Sites. This was achieved in 1990 with the following citation:
The palace and park of Sanssouci, often described as the "Prussian Versailles", are a synthesis of the artistic movements of the 18th century in the cities and courts of Europe. That ensemble is a unique example of the architectural creations and landscape design against the backdrop of the intellectual background of monarchic ideas of the state.
In 1991, following German reunification, Frederick's casket was interred in the terrace of the vineyard of Sanssouci – in the still existing crypt he had built there – after dark, without pomp, in accordance with his will.
The library of Frederick was returned in 1992 to its former home at Sanssouci. Thirty-six oil paintings followed between 1993 and 1995. In 1995, the Foundation of Prussian Palaces and Gardens in Berlin-Brandenburg was formed. The organisation's job is to administer and care for Sanssouci and the other former royal palaces in Berlin and Brandenburg.
See also
Palaces and Parks of Potsdam and Berlin
List of Baroque residences
List of sights of Potsdam
Notes and references
External links
Official website
ICOMOS evaluation of the World Heritage Site
Images from Sanssouci
Interactive Panorama: Sanssouci Garden
360° foto
Official flyer of Palaces and Gardens in Berlin and Brandenburg
Virtual tour of the Sanssouci provided by Google Arts & Culture
1747 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Buildings and structures in Potsdam
Castles in Brandenburg
Frederick the Great
Landmarks in Germany
Palaces in Brandenburg
Parks in Germany
Royal residences in Brandenburg
World Heritage Sites in Germany
Rococo architecture in Germany
Houses completed in 1747
Prussian cultural sites
Tourist attractions in Potsdam
Museums in Potsdam
Historic house museums in Germany
Baroque architecture in Potsdam
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20University%20of%20California%2C%20Santa%20Cruz%20people
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List of University of California, Santa Cruz people
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This page lists notable alumni and faculty of the University of California, Santa Cruz; alumni may have attended without graduating.
Notable alumni
Academia
William Drea Adams – President of Colby College, Waterville, Maine
Michelle Anderson, B.A. 1989 – (born 1967) – President of Brooklyn College, and a scholar on rape law
Stefano Bloch, B.A. 2001 - Author, graffiti artist, and professor of cultural geography at the University of Arizona
Hume A Feldman, BA 1984 – Professor and Chair, Department of Physics & Astronomy, University of Kansas, APS Fellow
Gabriel Filippelli, Ph.D, 1994 - biogeochemist and climate change researcher, IUPUI
Yoav Freund, Ph.D. 1994 – professor of computer science at the University of California San Diego, winner of the Gödel prize
Kristen R. Ghodsee, B.A. 1993 – Professor of Gender and Women's Studies at Bowdoin College; winner of 2012 Guggenheim Fellowship
Alexander Gonzalez, Ph.D. 1979 – President of California State University, Sacramento
Thyrza Nichols Goodeve, artist and writer, School of Visual Arts
Victor Davis Hanson, B.A. 1975 – historian, Professor Emeritus of Classics at California State University, Fresno; Hoover Institution Fellow; 2007 National Humanities Medal recipient
Eva Simone Hayward, Women's Studies researcher on faculty at University of Arizona
Caren Kaplan, Ph.D. – Professor of American Studies at UC Davis
Steven G. Krantz, B.A – Professor of Mathematics at Washington University in St. Louis; winner of the Chauvenet Prize
Andrew Jolivette; Ph.D. – Professor of Ethnic Studies, senior specialist Native American and Indigenous Studies at University of California, San Diego
Annette Lareau, B.A. 1974 – Professor of Sociology at University of Pennsylvania
Lisa Lowe, Ph.D. – Professor of American Studies at Yale
Patricia Nelson Limerick – Professor of History at University of Colorado and a leading historian of the American West
Tod Machover – MIT Media Lab
Austin E. Quigley, Ph.D. – Dean of Columbia College of Columbia University
John R. Rickford, B.A. 1971 – Professor of Linguistics at Stanford University and African American Vernacular English or Ebonics expert
Sally Sedgwick, B.A. 1978 – Distinguished Professor of Philosophy at University of Illinois at Chicago
Jeffrey C. Stewart, B.A. 1971 – Professor of Black Studies at University of California, Santa Barbara
Bret Weinstein, B.A. – American biologist and evolutionary theorist
Arts and letters
Will Bagley, BA 1971 – historian of 1800s American West
Michael A. Bellesiles, BA 1975 – author of a book "Arming America: The origins of a National Gun Culture" which won the Bancroft Prize in 2001; the prize was rescinded by Columbia University in 2002 as for having "violated basic norms of scholarship and the high standards expected of Bancroft Prize winners."
Susie Bright – writer, sex activist and sex therapy focus leader
Dean Byington, BA 1980 – visual artist
Gail Carriger, MA 2008 – steampunk author
Maya Chinchilla, BA 2000 – Guatemalan-American poet
Fred Cohen, BA 1980 — Director of the School of Music & Dance, San Jose State University
David Farley- BA 1995 – Author of "An Irreverent Curiosity", food and travel writer
William Finnegan- BA 1974 – 2016 Pulitzer prize author of "Barbarian Days", journalist
Laurie Garrett, BA 1975 – Newsday science reporter and author, Pulitzer Prize winner
Philip Kan Gotanda – playwright
Reyna Grande, BA 1999 – author, American Book Award winner
Kira Lynn Harris, MFA 1998 – artist
bell hooks, PhD 1983 – feminist social critic
Miranda July – filmmaker and writer
Lori Kay, BA 1986 – artist, sculptor
Persis Karim, BA 1985 – poet, editor, educator, scholar of Iranian-Americans
Jayne Ann Krentz, BA 1970 – New York Times bestselling author
Katerina Lanfranco, BA 2001 – artist
Deborah Madison, BA 1968 – cookbook author, founding chef of the Greens Restaurant
Steve Martini, BA 1968 – bestselling mysteries author
Lou Mathews, BA 1973 – writer, "Best Book" of 1999 for L.A. Breakdown (L.A. Times)
Omar Musa – award-winning Australian author, poet and rapper
Kent Nagano, BA 1974 – conductor of the Los Angeles Opera and the Montreal Symphony Orchestra
Catherine Newman, PhD, memoirist and novelist
Jenny Parks – comics artist, fan artist, and scientific illustrator
Larry Polansky, BA – composer
Johanna Poethig, BA 1980 – visual, public and performance artist
Dana Priest, BA 1981 – Washington Post reporter and author; winner of the 2006 Pulitzer Prize for Beat Reporting and 2008 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service
Tanya Ragir, BA 1976 – artist
Tlaloc Rivas, BA 1995 – theatre director, writer, and professor
Joe Safdie, BA 1975 - poet
Michael Schennum, BA 2000 – photojournalist
Andrea Smith, PhD 2002 – Cherokee activist and author
David Talbot, BA – founder of Salon.com, author, journalist
Mark Teague, BA 1985 – author and illustrator of children's books
Hector Tobar, BA – Los Angeles Times columnist, author, winner of Pulitzer Prize in 1992
Bernt Wahl, BA 1984, BS 1986 – author and entrepreneur, Fulbright Fellow. November 1985 coined UC Santa Cruz motto "Fiat Slug"
Annie Wells, BA 1981 – photographer, filmmaker, winner of Pulitzer Prize for Spot News Photography in 1997
Lawrence Weschler, 1974 – author
Richard White – historian of American West, Native American history, and environmental history; MacArthur Foundation fellowship, 1995
Daniel James Wolf, BA 1983 – composer
Laurence Yep – author
Sahar Khoury, BA 1996 – Sculptor
Business
Mike Hilton - Co-founder of Concur Technologies which is now SAP Concur.
Lee Holloway - Co-founder of Cloudflare
Bo Hong, PhD - Founding Engineer of Pure Storage
Shel Kaphan - Employee no.1 of Amazon, former CTO and VP at Amazon
Jonah Peretti, BS 1996 – founder of BuzzFeed and Huffington Post
Feng Wang, PhD - Founding Engineer of Pure Storage
Sage Weil, PhD 2007, founder of Ceph
Susan Wojcicki, MS – CEO of YouTube
Economics
Andréa M. Maechler, PhD - Swiss Economist. The first woman to join the board of directors of the Swiss National Bank
Alvaro Rojas - Economist in IMF board. He represented Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Uruguay
Zhang Tao, PhD - Deputy Managing Director of the IMF who represents China
Entertainment and broadcasting
Lorin Ashton, aka Bassnectar – free-form electronic music artist and DJ
Juliet Bashore, BA English Literature/Film, award-winning filmmaker (Kamikaze Hearts, The Battle of Tuntenhaus)
Jello Biafra, singer and songwriter of the Dead Kennedys
Matt Bettinelli-Olpin, BA, filmmaker (V/H/S, Southbound) and guitarist for Link 80
Brannon Braga – award-winning film writer for Star Trek Generations and an executive producer of 24
Bill Carter, BA Politics, Economics – documentary film director and author
Rick Carter, BA, Oscar-winning art director and production designer
John Craigie, BA Mathematics 2002 – folk singer
Dennis Delaney, BA Anthropology 1976 – writer and actor
Brett Dennen – singer, songwriter
Jacob Aaron Estes, BA 1994 – film screenwriter and director
Sven Gamsky, aka Still Woozy BA 2014 – musician, songwriter
Anne Flett-Giordano, BA 1976 – television writer and producer (Kate & Allie, Frasier, Desperate Housewives)
Cary Joji Fukunaga, BA 1999 – Award-winning filmmaker and showrunner (Sin Nombre, True Detective, Beasts of No Nation)
Matthew Gray Gubler, BA – actor (Criminal Minds') and director
Richard Gunn, BA 1997 – actor (Dark Angel, Granite Flats, and For the Love of Money)
Richard Harris – National Public Radio science reporter
Antony Hegarty – attended in late 1980s – Composer and singer for Antony and the Johnsons, and visual artist
Alice Inoue – former television presenter and author
Ethan Klein, BA English Literature 2009 – YouTube video blogger and satirist known for h3h3ProductionsElissa Knight, BA Theater & English Literature 1997 - voice actress
Victor Krummenacher – bassist for Camper Van Beethoven, Monks of Doom
Gretchen Lieberum – singer, songwriter
David Lowery, BA 1984 – singer and songwriter for Camper Van Beethoven and Cracker
Camryn Manheim, BA 1984 – actress
Barry Mendel – film producer (Rushmore, Sixth Sense, Munich, Funny People)
Stephen Mirrione, BA – Academy Award-winning film editor
Dacoury Natche, aka DJ Dahi – Grammy nominated Hip-hop producer
Bradley Nowell, singer and songwriter with Sublime
Marti Noxon, BA – TV producer
Joe Palca, PhD 1982 – National Public Radio science reporter
Jack Passion, BA 2006 – competitive beard grower and star of IFC's Whisker WarsStephanie Foo, BA 2008 – Radio producer for This American Life.
Rebecca Romijn – supermodel, actress
Maya Rudolph, BA 1995 – SNL cast member
Andy Samberg, BA – Saturday Night Live cast member
Tim Schafer – game designer for LucasArts and founder of Double Fine Productions
Akiva Schaffer, BA – Saturday Night Live writer, filmmaker
Stuart Schuffman, aka Broke-Ass Stuart, BA 2003 – travel writer, poet, host of IFC's Young Broke & BeautifulAmber Sealey, BA - film director and actress
Jonathan Segel, BA 1985 – composer, multi-instrumentalist for Camper Van Beethoven
Nikki Silva, BA 1973 – one half of The Kitchen Sisters, who are regularly featured on NPR
Julie Snyder, BA 1995 – producer of NPR's Serial (podcast) and S-TownChris Tashima – actor, Academy Award-winning filmmaker
Jesse Thorn, BS – host of NPR's Bullseye with Jesse Thorn and co-host of Jordan, Jesse, Go!Omi Vaidya - American actor in Bollywood films known for role in 3 Idiots
Rubén Valtierra, BA – keyboardist for "Weird Al" Yankovic
Ally Walker, BS – actress known for roles in Profiler, Sons of Anarchy, and The ProtectorGillian Welch, BA 1990 – singer and songwriter
Kennedy Ashlyn Wenning, musician under the name SRSQ
Rich Wilkes, BA 1988 – writer, filmmaker (Billy Madison, Stoned Age, Beer Money, XXX, Airheads)
Law
Nate Cardozo, BA 2003 – privacy and civil rights attorney, currently managing privacy at WhatsApp
Vince Girdhari Chhabria, BA 1991 – judge, United States District Court for the Northern District of California
Joan E. Donoghue, BA 1978 – judge, International Court of Justice
Ricardo García, BA 1991 – public defender for Los Angeles County
Rachel Goslins, BA 1991 – copyright attorney, Director of the Smithsonian's Arts and Industries Museum, former executive director of the President's Committee on the Arts and Humanities
Charles Harder, BA 1991 – entertainment and civil lawyer known for representing President Donald Trump, Melania Trump, and many celebrities.
Ellen Leonida, BA 1993 – defense attorney for Scott Dyleski
Politics and public life
Jamus Lim, MA 2006, PhD 2006 – Member of the 14th Parliament of Singapore, member of the opposition Workers’ Party of Singapore and associate professor at ESSEC Business School
Bettina Aptheker, PhD – leader in the Berkeley Free Speech Movement
Claire Pierangelo, BA 1982 — Current US Ambassador to the Republic of Madagascar and Union of Comoros
Katherine Canavan, BA – former United States Ambassador to Botswana and United States Ambassador to Lesotho
Rebecca Cokley, BA – Former director of the Disability Justice Initiative at the Center for American Progress (CAP)
John Doolittle, BA 1972 – Member, U.S. House of Representatives, California's 4th Congressional District
Eli Erlick, PhD – writer, transgender activist, founder of Trans Student Educational Resources
Ron Gonzales, BA – Mayor of San Jose, California, 1999–2006
Victor Davis Hanson, BA 1975 – Senior Fellow at the Hoover Institution
James Charles Kopp, BA Biology 1976 – murderer of Buffalo abortion doctor Barnett Slepian in 1998; convicted in 2003 and serving sentence of 25 years to life
John Laird, BA 1972 – California Natural Resources Agency Secretary, former California Assemblyman, and Mayor of Santa Cruz
Don Lane, former mayor of Santa Cruz, California
Azadeh Moaveni, BA – journalist and writer
Huey P. Newton, BA 1974, PhD 1980 – Co-founding member of the Black Panther Party
Aaron Peskin, San Francisco Board of Supervisors member
Drummond Pike, BA 1970 – Tides Foundation founder, philanthropist, and social entrepreneur
Art Torres, BA 1968 – California Democratic Party Chairman, former California State Senator
Yvette Quiroga, 1995 BA Psychology, Mayor of Mendota
Science
Richard Bandler, MA 1975 – co-creator of neuro-linguistic programming
Joseph DeRisi, BA 1992 – molecular biologist, professor at UC San Francisco, MacArthur Fellow, known for work on SARS and malaria
Alan Dressler, PhD 1976, staff astronomer at the Carnegie Institution for Science, member of the National Academy of Sciences, cosmologist, author
J. Doyne Farmer, PhD 1981 – pioneer in chaos theory, Prediction Company, Santa Fe Institute
Judy Fierstein, multiple - American geologist
Debra Fischer, PhD 1998, Professor of Astronomy at Yale University, planet finder
Yoav Freund, PhD 1993 – computer scientist, professor at University of California, San Diego, inventor of AdaBoost
John Grinder, PhD 1971 – linguist, co-creator of neuro-linguistic programming
Howard Hang, BS 1998 – Professor of Chemistry at Rockefeller University
Steven Hawley, PhD 1977 – astronaut, Professor of Physics at the University of Kansas
Holly Jones, BS – restoration ecologist and conservation biologist, associate professor at Northern Illinois University
Stacy Jupiter, PhD 2003 — Director of the Melanesia Program for the Wildlife Conservation Society, MacArthur Fellows Program
Geoffrey Marcy, PhD 1982 – Professor of Astronomy at UC Berkeley, planet finder, and member of the National Academy of Sciences
Lara Mahal, BA 1996 – Professor of Chemistry at New York University
Marc Okrand, BA 1972 – linguist, creator of the Klingon language
Julie Packard, BA 1974, MA 1978 — Founder and executive director of the Monterey Bay Aquarium
Mark M. Phillips, PhD 1978 – staff astronomer at Las Campanas Observatory, inventor of the Phillips relationship, pioneer in supernova cosmology
Rob Shaw, PhD 1980 – MacArthur Award for work on chaos theory, 1988
Pamela Silver, BA 1974 – Professor of Systems Biology at Harvard Medical School, first Director of Harvard University Systems Biology Graduate Program, synthetic biologist
Deborah Steinberg, PhD 1973 – biological oceanographer, Antarctic researcher
Kathryn D. Sullivan, BS 1973 – astronaut, science museum CEO (COSI Columbus), Under Secretary of Commerce for Oceans and Atmosphere, NOAA Administrator
Nicholas B. Suntzeff, PhD 1980 – Professor of Astronomy at Texas A&M University; cosmologist; co-founder of High-Z Supernova Search Team, which discovered dark energy
Bill Woodcock, BA 1993, - best known for his 1989 origination of the anycast routing technique that is now ubiquitous in Internet content distribution networks and the domain name system
Sports
Anton Peterlin – soccer player
Notable faculty
Martin Abadi - Professor Emeritus, Computer Science and Engineering. Known for Burrows–Abadi–Needham logic and Baby Modula-3
Ralph Abraham – professor emeritus of mathematics, notable for founding the Visual Mathematics Institute and for his pioneering work on chaos theory
Bettina Aptheker – professor of feminist studies and history
Elliot Aronson – professor emeritus of psychology; author of The Social Animal and Nobody Left to Hate: Teaching Compassion after Columbine; creator of the Jigsaw Classroom model; one of the few psychologists to win the American Psychological Association's highest honor in all three fields
John Backus – late adjunct professor of Computer Science; Won Turing Award for creating Fortran
Reyner Banham – late professor of art history and a preeminent architectural historian, in particular of the modern era
Tom Banks – professor of physics. Known for work on string theory, elementary particle physics, and cosmology
Gregory Bateson – late lecturer and fellow of Kresge College; anthropologist, social scientist, linguist, visual anthropologist, semiotician and cyberneticist
George R. Blumenthal – professor of astronomy and astrophysics, and chancellor of the University of California, Santa Cruz
Bakthan Singaram – professor of organic chemistry and former researcher
Norman O. Brown – late professor emeritus of humanities
William L. Burke – late professor of physics (cosmologist); chaos theory "godfather"
James H. Clark – assistant professor of information science, founder of Silicon Graphics and Netscape
James Clifford – professor of history of consciousness, known for publications of postmodernist and postcolonial interpretations of anthropology and ethnography
David Cope – professor of music; notable for his experiments in A.I. and computer-created musical compositions
Angela Davis – professor of history of consciousness, writer, activist
Nathaniel Deutsch – professor and Baumgarten Endowed Chair in Jewish Studies
John Dizikes – professor emeritus of American studies, author, won the 1993 National Book Critics Circle Award
Frank Drake – professor emeritus of astronomy and astrophysics; proposed the Drake Equation; member of the AAAS (elected 1974)
William Everson – late lecturer and poet-in-residence
Sandra M. Faber – professor of astronomy and astrophysics; instrumental in inventing cold dark matter theory and fundamental work in the field of galaxy formation and evolution; member of the NAS (elected 1985), the AAAS (elected 1989), and the American Philosophical Society (elected 2001)
Alison Galloway – forensic anthropologist who worked in identifying the physical remains of Laci Peterson in the trial of Scott Peterson
Shelly Grabe – associate professor of social psychology and scholar-activist in women's human rights
Craig Haney – professor of psychology and instrumental researcher in the Stanford Prison Experiment
Donna Haraway – professor of history of consciousness; doctorate in biology; often-cited author of feminist history of science and culture studies of cyborg
David Haussler – professor of biomolecular engineering; he and his team assembled the public draft human genome and developed the Genome Browser as part of the Human Genome Project; member of the AAAS (elected 2006) and the National Academy of Sciences
George Herbig – emeritus professor of astronomy and astrophysics, pioneer in the study of star formation, discoverer of the Herbig Ae/Be stars and Herbig-Haro Objects, member of the National Academy of Sciences
George Hitchcock – late lecturer, poetry and theater
David A. Huffman – deceased; founding faculty of the Information and Computer Science Board; developed Huffman coding
Harry Huskey – deceased; Professor of Computer Science; advised many countries on how to establish an academic Computer Science program
Frederic Jameson – professor of history of consciousness; cultural critic and theorist of the post-modern; published the essay "Postmodernism, or, the Cultural Logic of Late Capitalism", a significant investigation into contemporary culture and the political economy
Jim Kent – associate research scientist in the Department of Biomolecular Engineering; directs the genome browser development and quality assurance staff of the UCSC Genome Bioinformatics Group; created the computer program that assembled the first working draft of the human genome sequence; participates in the public consortium efforts to produce, assemble, and annotate genomes
Robert P. Kraft – professor of astronomy and astrophysics, stellar astronomer, member of the National Academy of Sciences
Cynthia Ling Lee – professor of theatre arts, known for postmodern and classical Indian dance
Tom Lehrer – lecturer in American studies and mathematics; known for his satire and songwriting
Darrell Long – professor of computer science and engineering, fellow of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
Chip Lord – professor of film and digital media; member of Ant Farm, a groundbreaking, experimental art and architecture collective he founded in 1968 with fellow architect Doug Michels
Nathaniel Mackey – poet and editor
Dominic W. Massaro – professor of psychology and computer engineering; originator of the fuzzy logical model of perception, one of the leading theories of speech perception
Claire Ellen Max – professor of astronomy and astrophysics, member of the AAAS (elected 2002) and the National Academy of Sciences
Gordon Mumma – professor emeritus of music, composer
Richard Abel Musgrave – member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1961)
Jerry Nelson – professor of astronomy and astrophysics; pioneered the use of mirror segments, making the Keck telescopes possible; member of the NAS
Harry Noller – professor of biology. RNA research; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1969) and the National Academy of Sciences (elected 1992)
Donald E. Osterbrock – member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1968) and the National Academy of Sciences (elected 1966)
Micah Perks – fiction writer and memoirist
Larry Polansky – professor of music, composer and performing artist
Joel Primack – professor of physics, noted cosmologist; renowned for Cold Dark Matter Theory proposed along with Sandra Faber (see above) and Sir Martin Rees
Geoffrey Pullum – professor of linguistics and distinguished professor of humanities; co-author of Cambridge Grammar of the English Language''; member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 2003)
Adrienne Rich – late professor, poet and essayist
Constance M. Rockosi – chair of the astronomy and astrophysics department
Page Smith – Historian
Michael Ellman Soule – member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 2005)
Ben Stein – former professor of economics, more notable for his work as a comedian, actor and political commentator
Stephen Thorsett – professor of astronomy and astrophysics; dean of physical and biological science; known for work on properties of compact stars
Anna Tsing – professor of anthropology; Guggenheim Fellow and Niels Bohr Professorship
Noah Wardrip-Fruin – associate professor of computer science, digital media and interactive fiction researcher
Manfred K. Warmuth - Professor of Computer Science, known for Weighted Majority Algorithm
Hayden White – member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 1991)
Jim Whitehead – chair of Computer Science and creator of WebDAV
Harold Widom – member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 2006)
Stanford E. Woosley – professor of astronomy and astrophysics; noted for his work on supernova gamma ray bursts; member of the NAS (elected 2006) and American Academy of Arts and Sciences (elected 2001)
Karen Tei Yamashita – author and playwright, recipient of the National Book Award's Medal for Distinguished Contribution to American Letters in 2021
Notes and references
Santa Cruz people
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reproductive%20isolation
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Reproductive isolation
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The mechanisms of reproductive isolation are a collection of evolutionary mechanisms, behaviors and physiological processes critical for speciation. They prevent members of different species from producing offspring, or ensure that any offspring are sterile. These barriers maintain the integrity of a species by reducing gene flow between related species.
The mechanisms of reproductive isolation have been classified in a number of ways. Zoologist Ernst Mayr classified the mechanisms of reproductive isolation in two broad categories: pre-zygotic for those that act before fertilization (or before mating in the case of animals) and post-zygotic for those that act after it. The mechanisms are genetically controlled and can appear in species whose geographic distributions overlap (sympatric speciation) or are separate (allopatric speciation).
Pre-zygotic isolation
Pre-zygotic isolation mechanisms are the most economic in terms of the natural selection of a population, as resources are not wasted on the production of a descendant that is weak, non-viable or sterile. These mechanisms include physiological or systemic barriers to fertilization.
Temporal or habitat isolation
Any of the factors that prevent potentially fertile individuals from meeting will reproductively isolate the members of distinct species. The types of barriers that can cause this isolation include: different habitats, physical barriers, and a difference in the time of sexual maturity or flowering.
An example of the ecological or habitat differences that impede the meeting of potential pairs occurs in two fish species of the family Gasterosteidae (sticklebacks). One species lives all year round in fresh water, mainly in small streams. The other species lives in the sea during winter, but in spring and summer individuals migrate to river estuaries to reproduce. The members of the two populations are reproductively isolated due to their adaptations to distinct salt concentrations.
An example of reproductive isolation due to differences in the mating season are found in the toad species Bufo americanus and Bufo fowleri. The members of these species can be successfully crossed in the laboratory producing healthy, fertile hybrids. However, mating does not occur in the wild even though the geographical distribution of the two species overlaps. The reason for the absence of inter-species mating is that B. americanus mates in early summer and B. fowleri in late summer.
Certain plant species, such as Tradescantia canaliculata and T. subaspera, are sympatric throughout their geographic distribution, yet they are reproductively isolated as they flower at different times of the year. In addition, one species grows in sunny areas and the other in deeply shaded areas.
Behavioral isolation
The different mating rituals of animal species creates extremely powerful reproductive barriers, termed sexual or behavior isolation, that isolate apparently similar species in the majority of the groups of the animal kingdom. In dioecious species, males and females have to search for a partner, be in proximity to each other, carry out the complex mating rituals and finally copulate or release their gametes into the environment in order to breed.
Mating dances, the songs of males to attract females or the mutual grooming of pairs, are all examples of typical courtship behavior that allows both recognition and reproductive isolation. This is because each of the stages of courtship depend on the behavior of the partner. The male will only move onto the second stage of the exhibition if the female shows certain responses in her behavior. He will only pass onto the third stage when she displays a second key behavior. The behaviors of both interlink, are synchronized in time and lead finally to copulation or the liberation of gametes into the environment. No animal that is not physiologically suitable for fertilization can complete this demanding chain of behavior. In fact, the smallest difference in the courting patterns of two species is enough to prevent mating (for example, a specific song pattern acts as an isolation mechanism in distinct species of grasshopper of the genus Chorthippus).
Even where there are minimal morphological differences between species, differences in behavior can be enough to prevent mating. For example, Drosophila melanogaster and D. simulans which are considered twin species due to their morphological similarity, do not mate even if they are kept together in a laboratory. Drosophila ananassae and D. pallidosa are twin species from Melanesia. In the wild they rarely produce hybrids, although in the laboratory it is possible to produce fertile offspring. Studies of their sexual behavior show that the males court the females of both species but the females show a marked preference for mating with males of their own species. A different regulator region has been found on Chromosome II of both species that affects the selection behavior of the females.
Pheromones play an important role in the sexual isolation of insect species. These compounds serve to identify individuals of the same species and of the same or different sex. Evaporated molecules of volatile pheromones can serve as a wide-reaching chemical signal. In other cases, pheromones may be detected only at a short distance or by contact.
In species of the melanogaster group of Drosophila, the pheromones of the females are mixtures of different compounds, there is a clear dimorphism in the type and/or quantity of compounds present for each sex. In addition, there are differences in the quantity and quality of constituent compounds between related species, it is assumed that the pheromones serve to distinguish between individuals of each species. An example of the role of pheromones in sexual isolation is found in 'corn borers' in the genus Ostrinia. There are two twin species in Europe that occasionally cross. The females of both species produce pheromones that contain a volatile compound which has two isomers, E and Z; 99% of the compound produced by the females of one species is in the E isomer form, while the females of the other produce 99% isomer Z. The production of the compound is controlled by just one locus and the interspecific hybrid produces an equal mix of the two isomers. The males, for their part, almost exclusively detect the isomer emitted by the females of their species, such that the hybridization although possible is scarce. The perception of the males is controlled by one gene, distinct from the one for the production of isomers, the heterozygous males show a moderate response to the odour of either type. In this case, just 2 'loci' produce the effect of ethological isolation between species that are genetically very similar.
Sexual isolation between two species can be asymmetrical. This can happen when the mating that produces descendants only allows one of the two species to function as the female progenitor and the other as the male, while the reciprocal cross does not occur. For instance, half of the wolves tested in the Great Lakes area of America show mitochondrial DNA sequences of coyotes, while mitochondrial DNA from wolves is never found in coyote populations. This probably reflects an asymmetry in inter-species mating due to the difference in size of the two species as male wolves take advantage of their greater size in order to mate with female coyotes, while female wolves and male coyotes do not mate.
Mechanical isolation
Mating pairs may not be able to couple successfully if their genitals are not compatible. The relationship between the reproductive isolation of species and the form of their genital organs was signaled for the first time in 1844 by the French entomologist Léon Dufour. Insects' rigid carapaces act in a manner analogous to a lock and key, as they will only allow mating between individuals with complementary structures, that is, males and females of the same species (termed co-specifics).
Evolution has led to the development of genital organs with increasingly complex and divergent characteristics, which will cause mechanical isolation between species. Certain characteristics of the genital organs will often have converted them into mechanisms of isolation. However, numerous studies show that organs that are anatomically very different can be functionally compatible, indicating that other factors also determine the form of these complicated structures.
Mechanical isolation also occurs in plants and this is related to the adaptation and coevolution of each species in the attraction of a certain type of pollinator (where pollination is zoophilic) through a collection of morphophysiological characteristics of the flowers (called pollination syndrome), in such a way that the transport of pollen to other species does not occur.
Gametic isolation
The synchronous spawning of many species of coral in marine reefs means that inter-species hybridization can take place as the gametes of hundreds of individuals of tens of species are liberated into the same water at the same time. Approximately a third of all the possible crosses between species are compatible, in the sense that the gametes will fuse and lead to individual hybrids. This hybridization apparently plays a fundamental role in the evolution of coral species. However, the other two-thirds of possible crosses are incompatible. It has been observed that in sea urchins of the genus Strongylocentrotus the concentration of spermatocytes that allow 100% fertilization of the ovules of the same species is only able to fertilize 1.5% of the ovules of other species. This inability to produce hybrid offspring, despite the fact that the gametes are found at the same time and in the same place, is due to a phenomenon known as gamete incompatibility, which is often found between marine invertebrates, and whose physiological causes are not fully understood.
In some Drosophila crosses, the swelling of the female's vagina has been noted following insemination. This has the effect of consequently preventing the fertilization of the ovule by sperm of a different species.
In plants the pollen grains of a species can germinate in the stigma and grow in the style of other species. However, the growth of the pollen tubes may be detained at some point between the stigma and the ovules, in such a way that fertilization does not take place. This mechanism of reproductive isolation is common in the angiosperms and is called cross-incompatibility or incongruence. A relationship exists between self-incompatibility and the phenomenon of cross-incompatibility. In general crosses between individuals of a self-compatible species (SC) with individuals of a self-incompatible (SI) species give hybrid offspring. On the other hand, a reciprocal cross (SI x SC) will not produce offspring, because the pollen tubes will not reach the ovules. This is known as unilateral incompatibility, which also occurs when two SC or two SI species are crossed.
Post-zygotic isolation
A number of mechanisms which act after fertilization preventing successful inter-population crossing are discussed below.
Zygote mortality and non-viability of hybrids
A type of incompatibility that is found as often in plants as in animals occurs when the egg or ovule is fertilized but the zygote does not develop, or it develops and the resulting individual has a reduced viability. This is the case for crosses between species of the frog order, where widely differing results are observed depending upon the species involved. In some crosses there is no segmentation of the zygote (or it may be that the hybrid is extremely non-viable and changes occur from the first mitosis). In others, normal segmentation occurs in the blastula but gastrulation fails. Finally, in other crosses, the initial stages are normal but errors occur in the final phases of embryo development. This indicates differentiation of the embryo development genes (or gene complexes) in these species and these differences determine the non-viability of the hybrids.
Similar results are observed in mosquitoes of the genus Culex, but the differences are seen between reciprocal crosses, from which it is concluded that the same effect occurs in the interaction between the genes of the cell nucleus (inherited from both parents) as occurs in the genes of the cytoplasmic organelles which are inherited solely from the female progenitor through the cytoplasm of the ovule.
In Angiosperms, the successful development of the embryo depends on the normal functioning of its endosperm.
The failure of endosperm development and its subsequent abortion has been observed in many interploidal crosses (that is, those between populations with a particular degree of intra or interspecific ploidy), and in certain crosses in species with the same level of ploidy. The collapse of the endosperm, and the subsequent abortion of the hybrid embryo is one of the most common post-fertilization reproductive isolation mechanism found in angiosperms.
Hybrid sterility
A hybrid may have normal viability but is typically deficient in terms of reproduction or is sterile. This is demonstrated by the mule and in many other well known hybrids. In all of these cases sterility is due to the interaction between the genes of the two species involved; to chromosomal imbalances due to the different number of chromosomes in the parent species; or to nucleus-cytoplasmic interactions such as in the case of Culex described above.
Hinnies and mules are hybrids resulting from a cross between a horse and a donkey or between a mare and a donkey, respectively. These animals are nearly always sterile due to the difference in the number of chromosomes between the two parent species. Both horses and donkeys belong to the genus Equus, but Equus caballus has 64 chromosomes, while Equus asinus only has 62. A cross will produce offspring (mule or hinny) with 63 chromosomes, that will not form pairs, which means that they do not divide in a balanced manner during meiosis. In the wild, the horses and donkeys ignore each other and do not cross. In order to obtain mules or hinnies it is necessary to train the progenitors to accept copulation between the species or create them through artificial insemination.
The sterility of many interspecific hybrids in angiosperms has been widely recognised and studied.
Interspecific sterility of hybrids in plants has multiple possible causes. These may be genetic, related to the genomes, or the interaction between nuclear and cytoplasmic factors, as will be discussed in the corresponding section. Nevertheless, it is important to note that in plants, hybridization is a stimulus for the creation of new species – the contrary to the situation in animals.
Although the hybrid may be sterile, it can continue to multiply in the wild by asexual reproduction, whether vegetative propagation or apomixis or the production of seeds.
Indeed, interspecific hybridization can be associated with polyploidia and, in this way, the origin of new species that are called allopolyploids. Rosa canina, for example, is the result of multiple hybridizations. or there is a type of wheat that is an allohexaploid that contains the genomes of three different species.
Multiple mechanisms
In general, the barriers that separate species do not consist of just one mechanism. The twin species of Drosophila, D. pseudoobscura and D. persimilis, are isolated from each other by habitat (persimilis generally lives in colder regions at higher altitudes), by the timing of the mating season (persimilis is generally more active in the morning and pseuoobscura at night) and by behavior during mating (the females of both species prefer the males of their respective species). In this way, although the distribution of these species overlaps in wide areas of the west of the United States of America, these isolation mechanisms are sufficient to keep the species separated. Such that, only a few fertile females have been found amongst the other species among the thousands that have been analyzed. However, when hybrids are produced between both species, the gene flow between the two will continue to be impeded as the hybrid males are sterile. Also, and in contrast with the great vigor shown by the sterile males, the descendants of the backcrosses of the hybrid females with the parent species are weak and notoriously non-viable. This last mechanism restricts even more the genetic interchange between the two species of fly in the wild.
Hybrid sex: Haldane's rule
Haldane's rule states that when one of the two sexes is absent in interspecific hybrids between two specific species, then the sex that is not produced, is rare or is sterile is the heterozygous (or heterogametic) sex. In mammals, at least, there is growing evidence to suggest that this is due to high rates of mutation of the genes determining masculinity in the Y chromosome.
It has been suggested that Haldane's rule simply reflects the fact that the male sex is more sensitive than the female when the sex-determining genes are included in a hybrid genome. But there are also organisms in which the heterozygous sex is the female: birds and butterflies and the law is followed in these organisms. Therefore, it is not a problem related to sexual development, nor with the sex chromosomes. Haldane proposed that the stability of hybrid individual development requires the full gene complement of each parent species, so that the hybrid of the heterozygous sex is unbalanced (i.e. missing at least one chromosome from each of the parental species). For example, the hybrid male obtained by crossing D. melanogaster females with D. simulans males, which is non-viable, lacks the X chromosome of D. simulans.
Genetics
Pre-copulatory mechanisms in animals
The genetics of ethological isolation barriers will be discussed first. Pre-copulatory isolation occurs when the genes necessary for the sexual reproduction of one species differ from the equivalent genes of another species, such that if a male of species A and a female of species B are placed together they are unable to copulate. Study of the genetics involved in this reproductive barrier tries to identify the genes that govern distinct sexual behaviors in the two species. The males of Drosophila melanogaster and those of D. simulans conduct an elaborate courtship with their respective females, which are different for each species, but the differences between the species are more quantitative than qualitative. In fact the simulans males are able to hybridize with the melanogaster females. Although there are lines of the latter species that can easily cross there are others that are hardly able to. Using this difference, it is possible to assess the minimum number of genes involved in pre-copulatory isolation between the melanogaster and simulans species and their chromosomal location.
In experiments, flies of the D. melanogaster line, which hybridizes readily with simulans, were crossed with another line that it does not hybridize with, or rarely. The females of the segregated populations obtained by this cross were placed next to simulans males and the percentage of hybridization was recorded, which is a measure of the degree of reproductive isolation. It was concluded from this experiment that 3 of the 8 chromosomes of the haploid complement of D. melanogaster carry at least one gene that affects isolation, such that substituting one chromosome from a line of low isolation with another of high isolation reduces the hybridization frequency. In addition, interactions between chromosomes are detected so that certain combinations of the chromosomes have a multiplying effect.
Cross incompatibility or incongruence in plants is also determined by major genes that are not associated at the self-incompatibility S locus.
Post-copulation or fertilization mechanisms in animals
Reproductive isolation between species appears, in certain cases, a long time after fertilization and the formation of the zygote, as happens – for example – in the twin species Drosophila pavani and D. gaucha. The hybrids between both species are not sterile, in the sense that they produce viable gametes, ovules and spermatozoa. However, they cannot produce offspring as the sperm of the hybrid male do not survive in the semen receptors of the females, be they hybrids or from the parent lines. In the same way, the sperm of the males of the two parent species do not survive in the reproductive tract of the hybrid female. This type of post-copulatory isolation appears as the most efficient system for maintaining reproductive isolation in many species.
The development of a zygote into an adult is a complex and delicate process of interactions between genes and the environment that must be carried out precisely, and if there is any alteration in the usual process, caused by the absence of a necessary gene or the presence of a different one, it can arrest the normal development causing the non-viability of the hybrid or its sterility. It should be borne in mind that half of the chromosomes and genes of a hybrid are from one species and the other half come from the other. If the two species are genetically different, there is little possibility that the genes from both will act harmoniously in the hybrid. From this perspective, only a few genes would be required in order to bring about post copulatory isolation, as opposed to the situation described previously for pre-copulatory isolation.
In many species where pre-copulatory reproductive isolation does not exist, hybrids are produced but they are of only one sex. This is the case for the hybridization between females of Drosophila simulans and Drosophila melanogaster males: the hybridized females die early in their development so that only males are seen among the offspring. However, populations of D. simulans have been recorded with genes that permit the development of adult hybrid females, that is, the viability of the females is "rescued". It is assumed that the normal activity of these speciation genes is to "inhibit" the expression of the genes that allow the growth of the hybrid. There will also be regulator genes.
A number of these genes have been found in the melanogaster species group. The first to be discovered was "Lhr" (Lethal hybrid rescue) located in Chromosome II of D. simulans. This dominant allele allows the development of hybrid females from the cross between simulans females and melanogaster males. A different gene, also located on Chromosome II of D. simulans is "Shfr" that also allows the development of female hybrids, its activity being dependent on the temperature at which development occurs. Other similar genes have been located in distinct populations of species of this group. In short, only a few genes are needed for an effective post copulatory isolation barrier mediated through the non-viability of the hybrids.
As important as identifying an isolation gene is knowing its function. The Hmr gene, linked to the X chromosome and implicated in the viability of male hybrids between D. melanogaster and D. simulans, is a gene from the proto-oncogene family myb, that codes for a transcriptional regulator. Two variants of this gene function perfectly well in each separate species, but in the hybrid they do not function correctly, possibly due to the different genetic background of each species. Examination of the allele sequence of the two species shows that change of direction substitutions are more abundant than synonymous substitutions, suggesting that this gene has been subject to intense natural selection.
The Dobzhansky–Muller model proposes that reproductive incompatibilities between species are caused by the interaction of the genes of the respective species. It has been demonstrated recently that Lhr has functionally diverged in D. simulans and will interact with Hmr which, in turn, has functionally diverged in D. melanogaster to cause the lethality of the male hybrids. Lhr is located in a heterochromatic region of the genome and its sequence has diverged between these two species in a manner consistent with the mechanisms of positive selection. An important unanswered question is whether the genes detected correspond to old genes that initiated the speciation favoring hybrid non-viability, or are modern genes that have appeared post-speciation by mutation, that are not shared by the different populations and that suppress the effect of the primitive non-viability genes. The OdsH (abbreviation of Odysseus) gene causes partial sterility in the hybrid between Drosophila simulans and a related species, D. mauritiana, which is only encountered on Mauritius, and is of recent origin. This gene shows monophyly in both species and also has been subject to natural selection. It is thought that it is a gene that intervenes in the initial stages of speciation, while other genes that differentiate the two species show polyphyly. Odsh originated by duplication in the genome of Drosophila and has evolved at very high rates in D. mauritania, while its paralogue, unc-4, is nearly identical between the species of the group melanogaster. Seemingly, all these cases illustrate the manner in which speciation mechanisms originated in nature, therefore they are collectively known as "speciation genes", or possibly, gene sequences with a normal function within the populations of a species that diverge rapidly in response to positive selection thereby forming reproductive isolation barriers with other species. In general, all these genes have functions in the transcriptional regulation of other genes.
The Nup96 gene is another example of the evolution of the genes implicated in post-copulatory isolation. It regulates the production of one of the approximately 30 proteins required to form a nuclear pore. In each of the simulans groups of Drosophila the protein from this gene interacts with the protein from another, as yet undiscovered, gene on the X chromosome in order to form a functioning pore. However, in a hybrid the pore that is formed is defective and causes sterility. The differences in the sequences of Nup96 have been subject to adaptive selection, similar to the other examples of speciation genes described above.
Post-copulatory isolation can also arise between chromosomally differentiated populations due to chromosomal translocations and inversions. If, for example, a reciprocal translocation is fixed in a population, the hybrid produced between this population and one that does not carry the translocation will not have a complete meiosis. This will result in the production of unequal gametes containing unequal numbers of chromosomes with a reduced fertility. In certain cases, complete translocations exist that involve more than two chromosomes, so that the meiosis of the hybrids is irregular and their fertility is zero or nearly zero. Inversions can also give rise to abnormal gametes in heterozygous individuals but this effect has little importance compared to translocations. An example of chromosomal changes causing sterility in hybrids comes from the study of Drosophila nasuta and D. albomicans which are twin species from the Indo-Pacific region. There is no sexual isolation between them and the F1 hybrid is fertile. However, the F2 hybrids are relatively infertile and leave few descendants which have a skewed ratio of the sexes. The reason is that the X chromosome of albomicans is translocated and linked to an autosome which causes abnormal meiosis in hybrids. Robertsonian translocations are variations in the numbers of chromosomes that arise from either: the fusion of two acrocentric chromosomes into a single chromosome with two arms, causing a reduction in the haploid number, or conversely; or the fission of one chromosome into two acrocentric chromosomes, in this case increasing the haploid number. The hybrids of two populations with differing numbers of chromosomes can experience a certain loss of fertility, and therefore a poor adaptation, because of irregular meiosis.
In plants
A large variety of mechanisms have been demonstrated to reinforce reproductive isolation between closely related plant species that either historically lived or currently live in sympatry. This phenomenon is driven by strong selection against hybrids, typically resulting from instances in which hybrids suffer reduced fitness. Such negative fitness consequences have been proposed to be the result of negative epistasis in hybrid genomes and can also result from the effects of hybrid sterility. In such cases, selection gives rise to population-specific isolating mechanisms to prevent either fertilization by interspecific gametes or the development of hybrid embryos.
Because many sexually reproducing species of plants are exposed to a variety of interspecific gametes, natural selection has given rise to a variety of mechanisms to prevent the production of hybrids. These mechanisms can act at different stages in the developmental process and are typically divided into two categories, pre-fertilization and post-fertilization, indicating at which point the barrier acts to prevent either zygote formation or development. In the case of angiosperms and other pollinated species, pre-fertilization mechanisms can be further subdivided into two more categories, pre-pollination and post-pollination, the difference between the two being whether or not a pollen tube is formed. (Typically when pollen encounters a receptive stigma, a series of changes occur which ultimately lead to the growth of a pollen tube down the style, allowing for the formation of the zygote.) Empirical investigation has demonstrated that these barriers act at many different developmental stages and species can have none, one, or many barriers to hybridization with interspecifics.
Examples of pre-fertilization mechanisms
A well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism comes from study of Louisiana iris species. These iris species were fertilized with interspecific and conspecific pollen loads and it was demonstrated by measure of hybrid progeny success that differences in pollen-tube growth between interspecific and conspecific pollen led to a lower fertilization rate by interspecific pollen. This demonstrates how a specific point in the reproductive process is manipulated by a particular isolating mechanism to prevent hybrids.
Another well-documented example of a pre-fertilization isolating mechanism in plants comes from study of the 2 wind-pollinated birch species. Study of these species led to the discovery that mixed conspecific and interspecific pollen loads still result in 98% conspecific fertilization rates, highlighting the effectiveness of such barriers. In this example, pollen tube incompatibility and slower generative mitosis have been implicated in the post-pollination isolation mechanism.
Examples of post-fertilization mechanisms
Crosses between diploid and tetraploid species of Paspalum provide evidence of a post-fertilization mechanism preventing hybrid formation when pollen from tetraploid species was used to fertilize a female of a diploid species. There were signs of fertilization and even endosperm formation but subsequently this endosperm collapsed. This demonstrates evidence of an early post-fertilization isolating mechanism, in which the hybrid early embryo is detected and selectively aborted. This process can also occur later during development in which developed, hybrid seeds are selectively aborted.
Effects of hybrid necrosis
Plant hybrids often suffer from an autoimmune syndrome known as hybrid necrosis. In the hybrids, specific gene products contributed by one of the parents may be inappropriately recognized as foreign and pathogenic, and thus trigger pervasive cell death throughout the plant. In at least one case, a pathogen receptor, encoded by the most variable gene family in plants, was identified as being responsible for hybrid necrosis.
Chromosomal rearrangements in yeast
In brewers' yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, chromosomal rearrangements are a major mechanism to reproductively isolate different strains. Hou et al. showed that reproductive isolation acts postzygotically and could be attributed to chromosomal rearrangements. These authors crossed 60 natural isolates sampled from diverse niches with the reference strain S288c and identified 16 cases of reproductive isolation with reduced offspring viabilities, and identified reciprocal chromosomal translocations in a large fraction of isolates.
Incompatibility caused by microorganisms
In addition to the genetic causes of reproductive isolation between species there is another factor that can cause post zygotic isolation: the presence of microorganisms in the cytoplasm of certain species. The presence of these organisms in a species and their absence in another causes the non-viability of the corresponding hybrid. For example, in the semi-species of the group D. paulistorum the hybrid females are fertile but the males are sterile, this is due to the presence of a Wolbachia in the cytoplasm which alters spermatogenesis leading to sterility. It is interesting that incompatibility or isolation can also arise at an intraspecific level. Populations of D. simulans have been studied that show hybrid sterility according to the direction of the cross. The factor determining sterility has been found to be the presence or absence of a microorganism Wolbachia and the populations tolerance or susceptibility to these organisms. This inter population incompatibility can be eliminated in the laboratory through the administration of a specific antibiotic to kill the microorganism. Similar situations are known in a number of insects, as around 15% of species show infections caused by this symbiont. It has been suggested that, in some cases, the speciation process has taken place because of the incompatibility caused by this bacteria. Two wasp species Nasonia giraulti and N. longicornis carry two different strains of Wolbachia. Crosses between an infected population and one free from infection produces a nearly total reproductive isolation between the semi-species. However, if both species are free from the bacteria or both are treated with antibiotics there is no reproductive barrier. Wolbachia also induces incompatibility due to the weakness of the hybrids in populations of spider mites (Tetranychus urticae), between Drosophila recens and D. subquinaria and between species of Diabrotica (beetle) and Gryllus (cricket).
Selection
In 1950 K. F. Koopman reported results from experiments designed to examine the hypothesis that selection can increase reproductive isolation between populations. He used D. pseudoobscura and D. persimilis in these experiments. When the flies of these species are kept at 16 °C approximately a third of the matings are interspecific. In the experiment equal numbers of males and females of both species were placed in containers suitable for their survival and reproduction. The progeny of each generation were examined in order to determine if there were any interspecific hybrids. These hybrids were then eliminated. An equal number of males and females of the resulting progeny were then chosen to act as progenitors of the next generation. As the hybrids were destroyed in each generation the flies that solely mated with members of their own species produced more surviving descendants than the flies that mated solely with individuals of the other species. In the adjacent table it can be seen that for each generation the number of hybrids continuously decreased up to the tenth generation when hardly any interspecific hybrids were produced. It is evident that selection against the hybrids was very effective in increasing reproductive isolation between these species. From the third generation, the proportions of the hybrids were less than 5%. This confirmed that selection acts to reinforce the reproductive isolation of two genetically divergent populations if the hybrids formed by these species are less well adapted than their parents.
These discoveries allowed certain assumptions to be made regarding the origin of reproductive isolation mechanisms in nature. Namely, if selection reinforces the degree of reproductive isolation that exists between two species due to the poor adaptive value of the hybrids, it is expected that the populations of two species located in the same area will show a greater reproductive isolation than populations that are geographically separated (see reinforcement). This mechanism for "reinforcing" hybridization barriers in sympatric populations is also known as the "Wallace effect", as it was first proposed by Alfred Russel Wallace at the end of the 19th century, and it has been experimentally demonstrated in both plants and animals.
The sexual isolation between Drosophila miranda and D. pseudoobscura, for example, is more or less pronounced according to the geographic origin of the flies being studied. Flies from regions where the distribution of the species is superimposed show a greater sexual isolation than exists between populations originating in distant regions.
On the other hand, interspecific hybridization barriers can also arise as a result of the adaptive divergence that accompanies allopatric speciation. This mechanism has been experimentally proved by an experiment carried out by Diane Dodd on D. pseudoobscura. A single population of flies was divided into two, with one of the populations fed with starch-based food and the other with maltose-based food. This meant that each sub population was adapted to each food type over a number of generations. After the populations had diverged over many generations, the groups were again mixed; it was observed that the flies would mate only with others from their adapted population. This indicates that the mechanisms of reproductive isolation can arise even though the interspecific hybrids are not selected against.
See also
Species problem
History of evolutionary thought
History of speciation
Notes
a. The DNA of the mitochondria and chloroplasts is inherited from the maternal line, i.e. all the progeny derived from a particular cross possess the same cytoplasm (and genetic factors located in it) as the female progenitor. This is because the zygote possesses the same cytoplasm as the ovule, although its nucleus comes equally from the father and the mother.
References
Sources
Reproduction
Pollination
Genetics
Evolutionary biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sandi%20Thom
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Sandi Thom
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Alexandria "Sandi" Thom () (born 11 August 1981) is a Scottish singer-songwriter and multi-instrumentalist from Banff, Scotland. She became widely known in 2006 after her debut single, "I Wish I Was a Punk Rocker (With Flowers in My Hair)", topped the UK Singles Chart in June of that year, as well as in Australia, Ireland, and her native Scotland. The single became the biggest-selling single of 2006 in Australia, where it spent ten weeks at the top of the ARIA Singles Chart.
Thom has released six studio albums throughout her career, Smile... It Confuses People (2006), The Pink & the Lily (2008), Merchants and Thieves (2010), Flesh and Blood (2012), The Covers Collection (2013), and Ghosts (2019).
Early life
Thom was born in Banff. She attended Robert Gordon's College in Aberdeen. Thom spent three years playing piano and singing in a band from Gourdon in Aberdeenshire, called The Residents.
Thom became the youngest student ever to be accepted at the prestigious Liverpool Institute of Performing Arts (LIPA). In 2003, Thom graduated from LIPA with a BA in Performing Arts.
Thom has assisted many charity appeals for Oxfam's work in Malawi and across east Africa.
Career
2004–07: Signing with Sony BMG and Smile... It Confuses People
In 2004, Thom moved to London to pursue her songwriting career, working with three co-writers: Jake Field, Duncan Thompson and Tom Gilbert. Thom signed to Windswept Pacific Music in 2005, an independent music publishing company, and its UK arm, P&P Songs, and received £25,000. She signed a record contract with the record label Viking Legacy, where her mother was director, who released her début single, "I Wish I Was a Punk Rocker (With Flowers in My Hair)" in late 2005. The song failed to garner major airplay or sales and release of her début was delayed.
21 Nights from Tooting was a "tour" consisting of 21 performances from the basement of her Tooting flat, from 24 February to 16 March. These were recorded and then webcast by professional hosting company Streaming Tank. Tickets were sold, but the venue had a capacity of "six people" ("10 including the band"). The MySpace post announcing the gigs was posted in the early hours of 22 February. Thom's website states that "the idea ... popped into her head" after her car broke down travelling from a gig in York (on the 22nd) to one in Wales (on the 23rd) and following the very first live webcast she did at a gig in Edinburgh organized by her PR manager, Paul Boyd from Polar Flame Music. Thom's first video webcast was at the Edinburgh Left Bank venue in October 2005.
Prompted by a contact from Thom's manager's Ian Brown and John Black, news services noted Thom's promotion efforts. Her management and music PR team, Quite Great Communications and Polar Flame Music UK, claim to have conducted a large publicity campaign, including a million "virtual flyers" (unsolicited emails). In a story first published in March 2006, The Sunday Times ran a piece. This was quickly reported on by other news sources. It was claimed that the audience for the first day was around 60 or 70, before rising to 70,000. A Reuters story the same month mentioned that "I Wish I Was a Punk Rocker" was being re-released the following week, with the album following in April. The publicity surrounding the tour led to major label interest, with music label representatives attending the gigs in question, and the release of the records was put back until a deal was signed. Craig Logan, the managing director of RCA Records UK, said that the label was "drawn to" Thom after hearing of the webcasting, as has Thom herself. Thom subsequently accepted an offer by RCA, which led to the single re-release being delayed until May, when it was released via the major label. The news of this broke on 3 April 2006, the official signing itself being webcast. The single was placed on Music Week Daily's playlist that day.
Paul Kelly of The Independent and others have questioned how Thom was able to sustain production of the webcast, and its viewership figures, and noted that internet traffic monitors such as Alexa and Technorati show no unusual surge of interest in Thom until she began to be covered by mainstream media.
Following her online webcast concerts from her basement in Tooting, and accompanied by increasing airplay exposure, "I Wish I Was a Punk Rocker" was re-released on 22 May 2006 by RCA Records UK and debuted at number 1 on the UK Singles Chart. Thom performed on Top of the Pops, making her major terrestrial television début, and in June the song reached number one on the singles chart. The song was later nominated at the Brit Awards for Best British Single. In the Republic of Ireland, "I Wish I Was a Punk Rocker" also reached number one, and in Australia, it was number one for ten consecutive weeks, becoming Australia's highest selling single of 2006. Thom's début album, Smile... It Confuses People was released in the United Kingdom the same month and débuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart, eventually selling over one million copies worldwide. The follow-up single "What If I'm Right" reached the lower reaches of the charts, but "Lonely Girl", the third single from the album, failed to enter any charts.
2007–09: The Pink & the Lily and The Best of Sandi Thom
In May 2008, Thom released her second album, The Pink & the Lily, preceded by the first single, "The Devil's Beat". Before the release, journalists were doubtful about its appeal. The album and single received extensive airplay on BBC Radio 2. In the UK, the album entered the chart at 25 for one week before dropping out of the top 100. Thom said:
I feel like my second album was too rushed. I felt under quite a lot of pressure when I was making it. I was out on the road and my label was really hassling me to get it finished. I admit I was disappointed with it and now, when I look back, it was released too soon. There were some things that were overlooked. It wasn't thought out properly. So, with my next album, I'm going to put my foot down and spend as long as it takes to make it.
In February 2009, Thom told the press that she would be making her third album as an independent artist after it had been announced that RCA had dropped her from their label without her prior knowledge and who she then claimed pressured her during the making of her second album.
A compilation album, The Best of Sandi Thom, was released in July 2009 to fulfil contractual obligations without Thom's consent by the Sony BMG label Camden. The 18 track collection was compiled from Thom's two previous albums and various B-sides.
2010–2012: Merchants and Thieves and Flesh and Blood
Thom's third studio album, Merchants and Thieves, was released independently in May 2010 with "This Ol' World" (featuring guitarist and then-boyfriend Joe Bonamassa) as the lead single. The album was released by Thom on her own label Guardian Angels, which she formed after her split with RCA. Musically it moves from pop folk towards blues and roots influences. Thom's cover version of the track "House of the Rising Sun" was released as a download-only single and extra track on the deluxe edition of the album. It was also given away as a free download to readers of the Scottish Mail newspaper. Merchants and Thieves was nominated for Best Album at the British Blues Awards 2011, and for Best Jazz/Blues Recording of the Year at the Scottish Music Awards. Thom was also nominated for Artist of the Year and her label Guardian Angel Recordings was nominated for Record Label of the Year.
Thom's fourth studio album, Flesh and Blood, was released in September 2012. The album was recorded in Nashville's 16 Ton Studios and features The Black Crowes guitarist Rich Robinson as guest producer, and other musicians such as Audley Freed and Rolling Stones saxophonist Bobby Keys. Thom then released her first live concert DVD, which featured a guest performance from former boyfriend Joe Bonamassa.
2013–2014: The Covers Collection
Her fifth studio album, The Covers Collection, was released in November 2013 and was publicised as an acoustic collection of songs that Thom listened to as a teenager, including Nirvana, Guns N' Roses, Pearl Jam, Heart, and Fleetwood Mac. Thom played all instruments on the record and produced the album, which failed to chart.
2015–2019: "Earthquake" controversy
In 2015, it was reported that Thom had signed to the independent label MITA Records for the release of her sixth studio album. Later that year, she attracted publicity after uploading a video to her Facebook page in which she criticised BBC Radio 2 and Bauer Media Group's radio stations for not playlisting her single "Earthquake". She said in the video, "Honest to God I'm fucking sick to death of the bullshit this industry pulls on people like me and I've had it. Enough I'm done. Fuck you Radio 2. Fuck you Bauer network and fuck the lot of you. There is no reason why you need to do this to me once again". The video was deleted shortly after attracting comment. In a subsequent interview, she accused the BBC of a bias against Scottish recording artists. Despite these comments, "Earthquake" was playlisted by many regional BBC stations and BBC Radio Scotland. In the event, MITA Records did not release Thom's album. Thom self-released the charity single "Tightrope" in March 2017 through The Famous Company, and said in an interview that no release date had been set for her next album, but she hoped it would be out by the end of 2017; however this did not eventuate.
In February 2018, Thom stated "There is no money in releasing albums any longer unless you have a bottomless pit of funding" and that "The only way to make a living through music would be through volume of output" and she would forthwith write a song a week and release it in the most basic form on the digital platform.
2019–present: Ghosts
Thom released the album Ghosts in 2019.
Concert tours
Nationwide tours
Before the 21 Nights from Tooting, Thom had been actively touring in the UK in 2005. Thom made an appearance at the Northsound Radio to 40,000 Free at the Dee festival in Aberdeen on 4 September 2005; a charity gig in Edinburgh later in September 2005, and was described as "tipped" by the Daily Record. Thom supported The Proclaimers on their UK tour in December 2005 and toured with Nizlopi. She and her band continued to tour, playing the Pocklington Arts Centre near York on 22 February 2006, supported by Edwina Hayes, and the Queen's Hall Narberth in Wales on 23 February 2006.
In 2008, Thom was invited by The Who's Pete Townshend to perform for the Teenage Cancer Trust at the Royal Albert Hall in London.
Thom performed two more times at the Royal Albert Hall: at the Sunflower Jam alongside Queen's Brian May, Led Zeppelin's John Paul Jones (musician), and Alice Cooper.
Thom has played live in several unconventional venues. She had previously performed at the opening of the World Skiing Championships in Sweden, where the stage was set up at the top of a mountain range; she performed at the top of the BT tower in London on behalf of the DMA's (Digital Music Awards), where she was nominated; she also performed for a Children in Need auction winner who paid the charity £17,000 for Thom to play her living room. She played the Main Stage at T in the Park 2006, having previously been booked for the lowest billed stage. She headlined the acoustic tent at the 2006 V Festival with Kasabian. In early 2007, Thom spent 6 weeks in France performing in every city across the country alongside a French artist at a free concert called the Ricard Live Tour to crowds of approximately 35,000 a night. She has performed at festivals such as Glastonbury, Guilfest and Redbourne; and in Scotland, the Wizard festival and the Belladrum Heart festival. Other festivals further afield included the Oxegen music festival and the World Fleadh in Ireland, and the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan. Thom supported George Michael on his stadium tour in Denmark in 2008. The same year, she performed a free 50-minute acoustic gig in front of 200 people at the broadcast centre of WDR radio station in Cologne, Germany; the gig was broadcast twice during the course of the month. Thom performed at the Blackpool Illuminations Christmas lights switch-on concert alongside presenters of the TV series Top Gear presenters, who were taking part in a race to beat one another to Blackpool.
Hogmanay celebrations
On New Year's Eve 2008, Thom headlined the stage at the Aberdeen's Hogmanay celebrations followed by an appearance on the BBC Hogmanay show from Edinburgh where she sang one song. Thom was transferred by citation jet from Aberdeen's Hogmanay street party to Edinburgh's Castle to make both performances possible that night. Thom has also performed "By Afton Water" at the official Burns Supper in celebration of Robert Burns's 250th birthday in front of Scotland's First Minister. The event was held in Alloway, Ayrshire, where Burns was born. Thom then went on to perform in the Library of Congress alongside Sir Sean Connery and a host of Scottish congress members in January 2009.
Homecoming Scotland 2009
Thom dedicated her tour of 2009 to the Homecoming Scotland campaign. The support acts for each show were local artists with special guests ranging from Phil Cunningham in Inverness, Leon Jackson at the Clyde Auditorium in Glasgow and her original guitarist Marcus Bonfanti appearing at the final show of the English leg of the tour in Milton Keynes. A duet with the first minister of Scotland, Alex Salmond, took place at one of the shows in Banff where he is the Member of Parliament, Thom has widely made her political views known and is an avid supporter of Scottish independence.
During the tour Thom released two EPs: a "Live EP" featuring recordings from the Aberdeen Castlegait Hogmanay celebrations and the "Caledonia EP" featuring a series of covers including "Patience of Angels" (originally by Eddi Reader) and the official Homecoming Scotland 2009 song "Caledonia" (written by Dougie MacLean). These recordings were only available to purchase at concerts performed on the Homecoming Tour.
Further touring
Thom appeared at the SXSW festival in Texas in March 2009. In April, a sold-out performance took place at the 200 capacity Crown Hotel Ballroom as part of the Nantwich Jazz Festival. Thom was invited to play a filmed set at Switzerlands Avo Session Basel, supporting Snow Patrol. This was followed by an extensive support slot for Joe Bonamassa on his UK and Irish tour dates.
Thom appeared at the Stirling Castle Hogmanay celebrations 2009. She performed alongside The MacDonald Brothers, The Shermans and Gary Mullen. Thom toured the UK in April and May 2010 to showcase new material from her album Merchants and Thieves and made a number of appearances at Festivals in the UK including The Tiree festival in Scotland and The Great British Rhythm & Blues Festival in Colne Lancashire in England. A second Merchants and Thieves tour took place in September and early October. Thom announced a tour of "intimate" venues in the UK for early 2011 as well as details of a record to be recorded in Nashville in 2011. Festival appearances, including Rhythm Festival, were also added for 2011.
In 2012, Thom returned to Australia to perform a series of concerts alongside blues singer/harmonica player Chris Wilson. Performances included Melbourne's Recital Centre. Following the release of Flesh and Blood, Thom performed an exclusive set at London's Gibson showroom and was the first artist to play the brand new 12 string Les Paul. She also made several guest appearances with Joe Bonamassa including the Usher Hall in Edinburgh. She had performed with him some years earlier at a Blues Festival in Nice, France providing lead vocals throughout, when Bonamassa was forced to rest his voice. In 2013 Thom performed a series of concerts all over the world including Australia, UK, Holland and ending in Scandinavia late December 2013. She changed her live show and went out as a solo act simultaneously playing 12 string guitar, stomp box, vocals and harmonica.
Royal Albert Hall
In April 2014, Thom made a guest performance at the Royal Albert Hall, She also performed a series of US concerts including Chicago, Nashville, NYC's BB Kings Blues club, Charlotte, LA and Portland, ME. Thom booked and promoted all the shows herself. In late 2014, Thom undertook a six-week tour of Australia and for the first time performed a series of concerts in New Zealand, mainly in the South Island. Thom performed at the Narooma Blues Festival in Australia in 2014, and then went on to perform a four-week tour of the UK.
Thom Announced in August 2018 that she was taking up a Friday night Residency for the foreseeable future in the Privee Jazz Lounge Bar at the Domain Hotel Bahrain.
Discography
Studio albums
Smile... It Confuses People (2006)
The Pink & the Lily (2008)
Merchants and Thieves (2010)
Flesh and Blood (2012)
The Covers Collection (2013)
Ghosts (2019)
Compilation albums
The Best of Sandi Thom (2009)
References
External links
Thom Exclusive Interview
MITA Records
1981 births
Living people
Alumni of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts
People from Banff, Aberdeenshire
People educated at Robert Gordon's College
21st-century Scottish women singers
Scottish women singer-songwriters
Scottish singer-songwriters
Scottish pop singers
Scottish women guitarists
Scottish women songwriters
21st-century British guitarists
21st-century women guitarists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/96th%20Grey%20Cup
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96th Grey Cup
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The 96th Grey Cup was held in Montreal, Quebec at Olympic Stadium on November 23, 2008. The East Division champion Montreal Alouettes hosted the West Division champion Calgary Stampeders. The Stampeders won the game 22–14, with quarterback Henry Burris winning the MVP award. It was the first time Montreal had hosted the Grey Cup since 2001, the first time since the 2002 Grey Cup that the host city played for the Grey Cup, and the first time since the 58th Grey Cup in 1970 that the Alouettes and Stampeders had met for the national championship. Hoping to break the record for highest attendance for a Grey Cup game, the organizers expanded Olympic Stadium to almost 70,000 seats. A crowd of 66,308 attended the game, failing to break the record of 68,318 set in 1977, but good enough to be the second-highest attended Grey Cup game of all time. Montreal has now played host to the four highest-attended Grey Cup games in history. It was the last time a Western-based team has won the Grey Cup in Eastern Canada until the Winnipeg Blue Bombers won the 108th Grey Cup against the Hamilton Tiger-Cats at Tim Hortons Field in Hamilton in 2021.
Broadcast
This was the first Grey Cup not to be broadcast on CBC Television since they started broadcasting the Grey Cup in 1952. In Canada, the game was telecast solely on the cable channel TSN and its French-language sister network RDS. Internationally, both Versus, telecasting in the United States, and Canadian Forces Radio and Television, broadcasting to Canadian forces internationally, used the TSN feed and graphics.
The game was available in HD on both TSN HD and RDS HD and shown in HD in the United States on Voom HD Networks's WorldSport. It was also seen online at ESPN360.com.
Events
Much like in 2001, there was a Grey Cup Village at the Dorchester Square. Musical events included Porn Flakes, Kellylee Evans, Rock Story, Véronique Labbé, Guy Bélanger, Take the Boys, White Faze, Marc Parent et Wang Dang Doodle, Angel Forrest, Young Soul, and Sylvie Desgroseilliers (Motown Show). There also was the annual Montreal Christmas Santa Claus Parade on Saturday November 22/2008.
The Montreal Canadiens' decision to retire the jersey of Patrick Roy the same weekend caused controversy, as some felt that the hockey team — the city's dominant sports franchise — was trying to take attention away from the Montreal Alouettes and the CFL during their championship game weekend.
Attendance
The organizers of the 96th Grey Cup hoped to break the 70,000 attendance mark. The current record for highest attendance was set at the 1977 Grey Cup, also at the Big O in Montreal (68,318). The attendance was reported at 66,308 during the TSN broadcast of the game. In so doing, the 2008 game displaced the 2001 Grey Cup, for second-best attendance (65,255 in 2001, also played in Montreal).
Tickets were priced from $84 in the balcony to $274 in the platinum section. Tickets had three pre-sale days, one during the 95th Grey Cup, one in December and one during Super Bowl XLII. Regular tickets went on sale in March 2008.
Game summary
Calgary Stampeders (22) - TDs, Brett Ralph; FGs Sandro DeAngelis (5); cons., DeAngelis (1).
Montreal Alouettes (14) - TDs, Avon Cobourne; FGs Damon Duval (2); single Duval (1); cons., Duval (1).
First Quarter
MTL – FG Duval 14-yard field goal (4:34)
Second Quarter
CGY – FG DeAngelis 44-yard field goal (1:12)
MTL – TD Cobourne 16-yard run (7:18) (Duval convert)
MTL – FG Duval 19-yard field goal (12:08)
CGY – TD Ralph 20-yard pass from Burris (14:16) (DeAngelis convert)
Third Quarter
CGY – FG DeAngelis 12-yard field goal (8:22)
MTL – Single Duval 63-yard kick went out-of-bounds 9 yards deep in end zone (11:13)
CGY – FG DeAngelis 21-yard field goal (15:00)
Fourth Quarter
CGY – FG DeAngelis 30-yard field goal (2:46)
CGY – FG DeAngelis 50-yard field goal (10:48)
Calgary quarterback, Henry Burris threw for 328 yards and one touchdown, leading all rushers with 79 yards, while kicker Sandro DeAngelis kicked five field goals as the Calgary Stampeders rallied for a 22–14 victory over the Montreal Alouettes to win the Grey Cup, in front of the 66,305 Montreal faithful at Olympic Stadium.
For his efforts, Henry Burris was named the game's Grey Cup's Most Valuable Player, while kicker Sandro DeAngelis kicked five field goals, connecting from 44, 12, 21, 30 and 50 yards out and took home the Grey Cup's Most Valuable Canadian honours.
The game got off to a slow start with a Damon Duval 14 yard chip shot field goal for Montreal representing all the scoring in the first quarter. The drive was highlighted by a 55-yard completion from Alouettes' quarterback Anthony Calvillo to Jamel Richardson. Sandro DeAngelis answered back in the second quarter with a 44-yard field goal to put the Calgary Stampeders back on even terms at 3-3.
However, the Montreal Alouettes responded when Montreal linebacker, Reggie Hunt intercepted a Henry Burris pass, giving the Alouettes the ball near midfield. The Alouettes offence drove the ball deep into Calgary territory before running back, Avon Cobourne scored the game's first touchdown in the second quarter on a 16-yard run. Then, special teams standout Larry Taylor gave the Alouettes great field position again with a 42-yard punt return. Duval again stepped in and made good on his 19-yard attempt to extend the Montreal lead to 13–3.
With momentum on the home team's side, the Calgary Stampeders responded late in the first half when Henry Burris threw a 20-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver Brett Ralph, cutting the Montreal lead to 13-10 heading into halftime and taking momentum away from Montreal.
In the second half of the game, it was all Calgary Stampeders. In the third quarter, Sandro DeAngelis kicked his second field goal of the game to tie the game 13-13. Montreal took a 14–13 lead after Damon Duval added a punt single, but that was all the offence that Montreal was able to muster in the second half of the game.
On Calgary's next possession, Henry Burris put together a 75-yard drive, including runs of 14 and 29 yards for first downs, which led to a short field goal kick from DeAngelis to give Calgary a 16–14 lead.
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Montreal's offence started to threaten, but the Calgary defence responded. On the first play of the fourth quarter, Anthony Calvillo was intercepted by Calgary's Dwight Anderson that led to another field goal by DeAngelis to give the Stampeders a 19–14 advantage. Then midway through the game, the Alouettes threatened to regain the lead before an errant Calvillo pass was intercepted by Shannon James, which quieted the Olympic Stadium crowd. Sandro DeAngelis then kicked a 50-yard field goal to extend the Calgary lead to eight points and seal their victory, becoming Grey Cup champions for the first time since 2001.
Stampeders wide receiver, Nikolas Lewis chipped in with 11 catches for 122 yards for the Calgary offence, while Montreal's Jamel Richardson led all receivers with 123 yards and Ben Cahoon was able to catch for 95 yards through the air. However, Anthony Calvillo, who edged out Henry Burris to become the regular season's Most Outstanding Player threw for no touchdowns, got intercepted twice and dropped to a 1–5 record in his Grey Cup appearances.
Notable game facts
Referee Jake Ireland officiated in his 15th Grey Cup game. This also marked his final game as an official after calling 555 games in his 30-year CFL career.
2008 CFL playoffs
Division Semi-finals
East Semi-Final
Date and time: Saturday, November 8, 12:00 PM Central Standard TimeVenue: Canad Inns Stadium, Winnipeg, Manitoba
The Edmonton Eskimos claimed the victory on a cold, windy afternoon at Canad Inns Stadium before 27,493 spectators by defeating the Winnipeg Blue Bombers, 29–21 to become the first West Division team to earn a playoff win as a crossover squad since the CFL adopted the concept in 1997.
In the first quarter, Winnipeg would take an early 8–0 lead when quarterback Kevin Glenn threw a 78-yard touchdown pass to Romby Bryant, while kicker Alexis Serna earned one point on a missed 23-yard field goal attempt. Before the end of the first quarter, Noel Prefontaine would kick a 23-yard field goal to make it 8-3 Blue Bombers, which would eventually lead to the Eskimos offensive burst.
The Eskimo charge began in the second quarter after a poor Serna punt into a gusting 30-km/h wind caused a 25-yard return by Tristan Jackson to the Blue Bombers' 32-yard line, which eventually led to an A.J. Harris 1-yard rushing touchdown to make it a 10-8 Edmonton lead. Two minutes after Edmonton would take the lead, the Blue Bombers would answer back with a touchdown on a Jason Armstead 93-yard punt return, which became a franchise record to give Winnipeg a 15–10 lead, however the Eskimos would eventually take the game over after that point. Right after a 28-yard field goal by Noel Prefontaine, Eskimos' defensive end Fred Perry would tip and intercept a Kevin Glenn pass for a 31-yard interception return to give the Eskimos a 20–15 lead, which proved to be the turning point in the game. At the end of the second quarter the Eskimos ended up scoring 18 unanswered points and never looked back.
At the 6 minute mark of the third quarter, A.J. Harris would score his second rushing touchdown of the game, which ended Edmonton's scoring in the game and gave them a 29–15 lead. In the game, Eskimos' quarterback Ricky Ray effectively used a short passing strategy to finish the game going 27-of-37 for 303 yards with no interceptions and ran for 25 yards. Ray's favourite weapons in the game were running backs A.J. Harris who rushed for 33 yards on 13 carries and made four receptions for 38 yards, while Calvin McCarty had seven catches for 52 yards. However, the Eskimos defence was the main reason for their victory on Saturday.
Going into the game, the Blue Bomber rushing duo of Fred Reid and Joe Smith was touted to give the home team an edge in the game, but neither of them were able to find the end zone after rushing for a combined 119 rushing yards (Reid, 80; Smith, 39). Even when Winnipeg had a promising drive going late in the third, the Eskimo defence were able to snuff it out after Lenny Williams forced Joe Smith to fumble the ball after a 21-yard gain, which was eventually recovered by Edmonton's Jason Goss. In addition, when Winnipeg had the wind advantage in the fourth quarter they would only manage two Serna field goals to round up their score to 21.
Winnipeg quarterback, Kevin Glenn would only manage 15 completions on 34 attempts for 233 yards and threw for one touchdown and the costly interception to Fred Perry, while Milt Stegall managed 56 receiving yards on 5 receptions, which could possibly be his final appearance in the CFL.
While the Winnipeg season comes to an end, Edmonton will now head to Montreal to face their long-time Grey Cup rivals, the Montreal Alouettes, but this time it is for the right to play in the Grey Cup.
West Semi-Final
Date and time: Saturday, November 8, 3:30 PM Central Standard TimeVenue: Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field, Regina, Saskatchewan
Buck Pierce and Stefan Logan lead the BC Lions to victory on Saturday, defeating the defending Grey Cup champions, in front of a sold out and ravenous "Rider Nation" crowd at Mosaic Stadium at Taylor Field, 33–12 in the West Semi-Final.
On offence, Lions' quarterback, Buck Pierce completed 23 of 31 passes for 221 yards and threw a 14-yard touchdown pass to fullback, Lyle Green for the game's first touchdown score with just two minutes left in the second quarter. The second Lions' touchdown occurred with just one minute left in the third quarter when quarterback Jarious Jackson, who would come in on 1-yard situations made a trick play and completed a 31-yard touchdown pass to wide receiver, Geroy Simon, who was left wide open. In addition, Lions' running back, Stefan Logan ran for 153 yards on 18 carries in the win.
While the Lions' offence was successful, the same could not be said for the Roughriders who turned over the ball seven times in the game. In addition, quarterback, Michael Bishop struggled by only completing 14 of 27 passes for only 172 yards and threw three interceptions and fumbled the ball twice. Bishop would eventually be replaced by Darian Durant after he threw an interception, which led to the third Lions' touchdown on a 54-yard interception return by Ryan Phillips who recorded two interceptions in the game. Furthermore, running back Wes Cates only rushed for 23 yards on nine carries, while all the scores for the Roughriders came from field-goals as kicker, Luca Congi went four for four in the game.
With the victory, the Lions now head to Calgary to face the Stampeders in the West Final.
Two days later, Riders QB Michael Bishop would be placed on waivers.
Division Finals
East Final
Date and time: Saturday, November 15, 1:00 PM Eastern Standard TimeVenue: Olympic Stadium, Montreal, Quebec
Montreal's wide receiver, Larry Taylor was hardly the name on everyone's lips as the CFL's East final got underway on Saturday afternoon, since this game was billed as a showdown between quarterbacks Anthony Calvillo and Edmonton's Ricky Ray, both of whom are regarded as the league's best pivots with the winner playing in the Grey Cup finals. However, Larry Taylor would rush two punt returns to score two touchdowns and lead the Montreal Alouettes to a 36–26 win to play in front of their home fans in the 98th Grey Cup.
Although, in the early stages of the game, the Edmonton Eskimos had the early advantage as they put the opening points on the board using a play that had nothing to do with either quarterback. As Montreal lined up to punt on their own 24, Edmonton lineman, Justin Cooper blew right through a hole that opened when the snapper and right guard blocked opposite directions and there was no one in the backfield to pick up the rush. Cooper almost caught Montreal kicker, Damon Duval's kick right off the foot, but was still able to deflect the football which eventually bounced into the Montreal end zone in which Cooper would recover for a touchdown to give the Eskimos a 7–0 lead.
After a Damon Duval field goal made it 7–3, Edmonton's Ricky Ray came back with his own drive that led to a Noel Prefontaine 45-yard field goal, which gave Edmonton a 10–3 lead. Prefontaine would eventually would add another field goal kicking a 22-yarder, five minutes into the second quarter for a 13-3 Edmonton lead. However, the Eskimos were unable to generate any momentum with their opening lead. Despite outplaying the hosts for about 21 of the 24 minutes, Edmonton would see their early lead disappear.
Trailing 13-5 after Edmonton surrendered a safety, the Alouettes offence finally got on track as Anthony Calvillo began to get the protection that he is used to from the line that led to a nine-play, 75-yard drive ending in an eight-yard toss off a post pattern to Alouettes' wide receiver, Jamel Richardson to score the first touchdown of the game for Montreal. Then the Montreal defence would hold the Edmonton offence to a quick two and out, which forced Noel Prefontaine to punt the ball away that landed into the hands of Larry Taylor who was able to get a couple of key blocks and made a nice cut back to run the ball for 62 yards for the touchdown, giving the Alouettes its first lead with 1:07 left in the second quarter. All of a sudden an eight-point Edmonton lead evaporated into a 19-13 Montreal lead heading into halftime.
In the third quarter, the Montreal offence continued their scoring surge, first on a long, strange drive that included two drops of perfect passes from Anthony Calvillo and seemed to end with a touchdown run by backup quarterback Adrian McPherson. However, the touchdown was called back due to an inadvertent whistle, but Montreal running back, Avon Cobourne would run into the endzone to give the Alouettes a 26–13 lead. The other key moment in that drive for the Alouettes, was an injury to Eskimos defensive back, Jason Goss that forced Edmonton to make a couple of changes to their defensive setup, which the Alouettes offence were able to exploit. Damon Duval would also kick his second field goal of the game to give the Montreal Alouettes a comfortable 29–13 lead heading into the fourth quarter.
Leading 29–13 in the fourth quarter, the Montreal Alouettes would add to their lead when Larry Taylor scored his second punt reception touchdown when he received a Noel Prefontaine punt on the Alouettes 13-yard line after four perfect blocks opened a huge hole up in the middle to give Montreal a 23-point lead. The Eskimos tried to mount a comeback after scoring two touchdowns with the first, being from Ricky Ray who put together a 55-yard passing play for a touchdown to Kelly Campbell, and then Tristan Jackson was able to close the gap to 10 points after he scored a touchdown on a long punt return. But a missed two-point conversion would seal the victory for the Montreal Alouettes, despite an Edmonton recovery on an on-side kick that set up a last gasp, which quickly ran out of steam.
Anthony Calvillo finished the day 20-for-32, 295 yards and a touchdown as the Eskimos' defence did a good job of keeping him under control, although, Montreal received a superb 140 yards in total offence from running back, Avon Cobourne, working off a sore ankle, including 52 on the ground. Ricky Ray, meanwhile, tossed the ball an astonishing 49 times (26 receptions for 339 yards and a touchdown) as part of an offensive game plan that simply ignored a running game completely. Already boasting the league's worst ground attack, Edmonton's coaching staff put Ray in a tactical straitjacket by running just three times all game for just three yards.
West Final
Date and time: Saturday, November 15, 2:30 PM Mountain Standard TimeVenue: McMahon Stadium, Calgary, Alberta
The BC Lions inability to defeat the Calgary Stampeders in 2008, continued in the Western Final as the Lions inability to take advantage of numerous offensive opportunities proved to be their undoing as the Calgary Stampeders advanced to the Grey Cup championship game for the first time in seven years. The Stampeders bend-but-not-break defence limited the BC Lions to six field goals earning a 22–18 win at McMahon Stadium.
The BC Lions did a great job moving the ball in the first half as they had 229 yards of total offence compared to only Calgary's 89, which was also helped by running back, Stefan Logan who was outstanding in the first half, rushing for 94 yards on 13 carries against a Stampeder defence that was specifically designed to stop the run. However, the BC Lions were not able to finish, which would come back to hurt them before halftime.
Already leading 3–0, Lions quarterback, Buck Pierce led his club on a long first-quarter drive that should have produced a touchdown, but a hard throw into the end zone bounced in and out of receiver, Ryan Grice-Mullen's hands that resulted in a 30-yard field goal by Paul McCallum, to increase the Lions lead to 6–0. After another Calgary punt, the BC Lions put together another impressive offensive drive that was highlighted by a 12-yard run from backup quarterback, Jarious Jackson, who was in for one play and was complemented with nice receptions by receivers, Jason Clermont and Geroy Simon. But the Stampeders defence again stood their ground and the Lions would take another McCallum (35-yarder) field goal to increase their lead, 9–0. After giving up a safety, the BC Lions put another impressive offensive drive as Buck Pierce had a favourable situation with a first down on the Calgary 23-yard line. However, after a Stefan Logan three-yard run and an overthrow in the end zone for Jason Clermont, McCallum had to come in to kick his fourth field goal of the first half for a 12-2 Lions lead.
With one minute remaining in the second quarter, Stampeders quarterback, Henry Burris, would put together a quick five-play drive that resulted in a touchdown pass to receiver, Ken-Yon Rambo who pulled the ball in behind Lions cornerback, Dante Marsh with nine seconds left on the clock to cut the lead to 12-9 into halftime and giving Calgary the momentum.
In the third quarter, the BC Lions again threatened to score a touchdown to increase their lead, however, Calgary's defensive end, Mike Labinjo made two consecutive tackles on the goal line to prevent a Lions touchdown early in the second half, which caused Paul McCallum to kick a 12-yard field goal, his fifth of the game to make it 15–9, Lions. However, Calgary kicker, Sandro DeAngelis would kick two field goals in the third quarter to tie the game 15-15, heading into the fourth quarter.
The Stampeders would build on that momentum, when quarterback, Henry Burris and the Calgary offence would put together an eight-play drive in the fourth quarter that was capped by Burris's one-yard touchdown run at 11:57 to give the Stampeders its first lead of the game, 22–15. A few minutes later, Paul McCallum would kick his sixth field goal of the game from 30 yards to cut Calgary's lead to four points, but the Lions would not be able to score anymore points as they were held in check for the remainder of the game by the Stampeders' stellar defence, especially cornerback, Brandon Browner who intercepted a Buck Pierce pass with 1:19 remaining in the game. However, the star of the game was Mike Labinjo, who not only made two key tackles to prevent a BC Lions touchdown in the third quarter, but he recorded two sacks and forced a fumble in the game.
Although Lions' quarterback, Buck Pierce started strong and completed 16-of-29 passes for 262 yards, his inability to get a touchdown for the Lions' offence proved to be costly, especially throwing an interception at the late stages of the game. His counterpart and finalist for this year's most outstanding player award, Henry Burris had a slow start in the first half and threw for one interception, as well, but was able to bounce back and complete 17-of-27 passes for 236 yards and was able to throw one touchdown completion and rushed in for the winning touchdown that proved to be the difference in the game.
With the win, the Calgary Stampeders will head to Montreal and play against the hometown, Montreal Alouettes for the chance to win their sixth Grey Cup in team history.
References
External links
Official website
Official Grey Cup Festival website
Grey Cup
Canadian football competitions in Montreal
Montreal Alouettes
Calgary Stampeders
2008 in Canadian football
2000s in Montreal
2008 in Quebec
2008 sports awards
2008 in Canadian television
November 2008 sports events in Canada
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FTA%20Show
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FTA Show
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The FTA Show (or FTA Tour or Free The Army tour), a play on the common troop expression "Fuck The Army" (which in turn was a play on the army slogan "Fun, Travel and Adventure"), was a 1971 anti-Vietnam War road show for GIs designed as a response to Bob Hope's patriotic and pro-war USO tour. The idea was first conceived by Howard Levy, an ex-US Army doctor who had just been released from 26 months in Fort Leavenworth military prison for refusing orders to train Green Beret medics on their way to the Vietnam War. Levy convinced actress Jane Fonda who recruited a number of actors, entertainers, musicians and others, including the actors Donald Sutherland, Peter Boyle, Garry Goodrow and Michael Alaimo, comedian and civil rights activist Dick Gregory and soul and R&B singer Swamp Dogg (Jerry Williams Jr). Alan Myerson, of San Francisco improv comedy group The Committee, agreed to direct, while cartoonist and author Jules Feiffer and playwrights Barbara Garson and Herb Gardner wrote songs and skits for the show. Fred Gardner, the originator of the antiwar GI Coffeehouse movement, became the Tour's "stage manager and liaison to the coffeehouse staffs." At various times other actors, writers, musicians, comedians and entertainers were involved (see infobox). The United States Servicemen's Fund (USSF), with Dr. Levy as one of its principal organizers, became the official sponsor of the tour. The anti-Vietnam War USSF promoted free speech within the US military, funded and supported independent GI newspapers and coffeehouses, and worked to defend the legal rights of GIs. Sponsorship was later taken over by a group called the Entertainment Industry for Peace & Justice (EIPJ).
Anti-Bob Hope USO Tour
For many years the USO organized patriotic pro-military shows at US overseas military bases. Bob Hope became the most famous symbol of these shows through annual Christmas shows and a yearly nationally broadcast TV special. Hope "unequivocally supported the American mission in Vietnam", and praised General Westmoreland at the end of his 1965 Christmas show for "giving of all his military genius trying to preserve American lives and principles." As anti-Vietnam War sentiment increased in the U.S., Hope admitted in 1966 that "'a few' performers had turned down his invitation to join his Christmas tour for servicemen in South Vietnam because they disapproved of United States policy", but confirmed his own commitment to the war, saying "We ought to move a little faster – hawk style." Further, Hope's old fashioned vaudeville-rooted style and jokes "began to fall flat for audiences of young GIs, who often found [his] show corny at best, offensive at worst." His retro comedy often "objectified his female co-stars" and included "racist jokes." "During one show he infamously joked that the bombing of North Vietnam was 'the best slum clearance project they ever had,' insulting the humanity of Vietnamese and denigrating American minorities who lived in so-called slums." In 1970 The New York Times quoted one of Hope's writers, "He just doesn't understand how the G.I. of today feels." The writer jokingly continued, "When he sees a V sign in his audience he thinks two guys want to go to the bathroom." The Times also cited a Newsweek magazine report: "Hope was met by 'a barrage of boos' last December when he said President Nixon had asked him to tell the troops he had 'a solid plan for ending the war.'" At a Saigon USO show in 1970, an opening act of GI musicians dedicated their first song to "Mr. Bob Hope" and proceeded to play the heavy metal antiwar classic by Black Sabbath, "War Pigs".
The FTA Show is formed
These contending views intensified and by 1970 both The New York Times and The Washington Post were taking note of U.S. troop "disillusionment with Hope's humor and prowar message". Fonda told reporters that the FTA Show was inspired by "articles in The Washington Post and The New York Times about soldiers in Vietnam who were dissatisfied with the typical USO shows." She told a reporter from the Times that the show would reinforce "what the soldiers already know. They know that the war is insane. They know what GIs have to contend with better than we do. We're simply saying, 'We know what you're up against and we support you.'" Fonda was convinced "The military is filled with men who are against the war!" She explained:
The same reporter pointed out that Fonda had a lot to lose and asked whether she feared "for her career in movies?" Fonda responded, "if, because of my political activities, I were prevented from working in Hollywoodand there are no indications that that is likely to happenI would work elsewhere. That's all."
By the time the FTA Show had travelled around the continental U.S. and was headed to Hawaii and then Asia, they had developed a more official statement of purpose:
By the end of 1971 when the tour ended, in addition to its clear anti-Vietnam War thrust, the "racially-inclusive and pro-feminist messages of FTA stood in sharp contrast to Bob Hope's show. Whereas Hope made racist jokes, FTA embraced racial equality and took seriously the grievances of non-whites. While Hope joked about sexual assault and unapologetically objectified the women in his cast, FTA endorsed women's liberation and featured women as full participants in the show – without forcing them to don sexually provocative clothing."
The tour
By the spring of 1971, a three-hour program had been developed, which was "rehearsed in New York City for a few weeks before taking the show on the road." The tour, referred to as "political vaudeville" by Fonda and The New York Times, began to visit military towns throughout the U.S. and then Asia with the goal of establishing a dialogue with soldiers about their upcoming deployments to Vietnam. At a press conference in New York City, Fonda and Dr. Levy announced their plans to kick off the FTA Tour in Fayetteville, North Carolina, near the Fort Liberty Army base. The initial plans were for "an ambitious twenty-stop tour" of U.S. military bases, and the final results were even more impressive. According to Fonda in her autobiography, they performed "for some fifteen thousand GIs near major U.S. military bases" before heading overseas where they "did twenty-one performances". All told, "between March and December of 1971, the show toured to over 64,000 troops, playing near, but never on, bases in North Carolina, California, Washington, Texas, Idaho, New Jersey, Okinawa, Japan, the Philippines, and Hawaii." And this, even when GIs "might risk official or unofficial discipline for attending an antiwar show". One historian, quoting a The Washington Post reporter, described the show's popularity as "notable, considering the fact that 'it wasn't easy' for active-duty military personnel to attend FTA. Military authorities routinely 'put out misinformation about the time and place,' and GIs had to travel at their own expense (though the show itself was free). They also risked being photographed and harassed; Fonda recalls that the CID, 'the military equivalent of the CIA, was always around taking snapshots.'"
Fort Liberty
Before arriving in Fayetteville, near Fort Liberty (formerly Fort Bragg), tour organizers sent the show's script to the base's commanding General asking for permission to perform on the base. Dr. Levy told the press with a straight face, "We expect his full cooperation", noting they had "contingency plans" to perform in the local Haymarket GI Coffeehouse off base, which is, of course, where they ended up. They also applied to use the Fayetteville municipal auditorium and sued when pro-military city officials turned them down. A federal judge overruled the city, which then demanded a $150,000 insurance policy for the performance, a "prohibitive" expense for the Tour. The coffeehouse could hold less than 500 people, so "the troupe put on a series of performances, to packed houses of GIs, over the course of two days and nights" starting on March 14, 1971. The initial cast included Fonda, Sutherland, Boyle, Gregory, Gould, Dane, Goodrow, Swamp Dogg and Johnny Rivers.
The New York Times reported that the "antiwar, anti-military" show "clearly went over well" with the "exuberantly shouting" GIs. Their chants of "Join the GI Movement, boys, join the GI movement." could be heard out on the street. The historian, David L. Parsons, wrote, "By most media accounts, the FTA show's premier in Fayetteville was a huge hit among the soldiers who crowded into the coffeehouse."
Fort Ord
The FTA's second stop took place on May 8 and 9 near Fort Ord, at the Monterey County Fairgrounds in California. There were three shows with over 900 attendees at each, most "coming from among Fort Ord's 25,000 personnel". Many of the GIs who attended indicated they were "attending an antiwar event for the first time." The organizers had again unsuccessfully requested permission to stage the show on base. The cast included Goodrow, Fonda, Sutherland and Hesseman, while musical entertainment was provided by Big Brother and the Holding Company and, on Saturday night, Johnny Rivers. Starting with the Monterey shows the "folksinger Len Chandler first joined the group" staying for the rest of the tour. Chandler particularly impressed the local underground GI newspaper, Every GI is a P.O.W., which called him "absolutely fantastic". "The music he played and the social connotations blended very well to send a fantastic feeling thru the crowd." The crowd "really ate it up", they wrote. The paper also praised a local Monterey women's group which put on a skit "drawing on the similarities of women's oppression to the GI's oppression." P.O.W. also complained that the commander at Fort Ord had allowed Canned Heat on the base, but not the FTA Show. They told him to get off his fat ass "and take a look around you." "And don't try and rack your brain trying to figure out what FTA stands for because it's not in any army code book. It means Fuck the Army."
San Diego Navy and Marine bases
One week later, on May 15 and 16, the FTA performed at Russ Auditorium in San Diego, California to capacity crowds of almost 5,000 sailors and marines from the area's numerous military bases. This time, the organizers had first requested to perform not on a base but on the deck of an aircraft carrier, the U.S.S. Constellation. As described by historian David Cortright:
Each show opened with California Country, a local rock group, followed by Teatro Mestizo, a Chicano theater group from San Diego State, who "performed a hard-hitting play about the life and death of a young Chicano soldier killed in Vietnam." A local GI underground newspaper, Liberty Call, reported, "There was little question that the audience was in full agreement with the anti-war theme of the show. As in Monterey, the paper was very impressed with Len Chandler", describing him as "one of those rare singers who combine a wonderful voice, excellent musicianship and witty songs with incredible warmth and rapport." Liberty Call also wrote that after the first show, "many private citizens opened their homes to servicemen so that they might spend the night and avoid the dreariness of returning to bases and ships." On Sunday, before the second show, many sailors and marines joined the cast of the show in Balboa Park for a picnic. One of the authors of the Liberty Call article, James Skelly, became the advance person for the next two FTA Shows outside military bases in Tacoma, Washington and Mountain Home, Idaho. Fred Gardner, the show's first advance person, described him as a likable "big guy" with a big mustache.
Fort Lewis and McChord Air Force Base
The next shows were on August 7 and 8 in Tacoma, Washington near the Fort Lewis Army base and the McChord Air Force Base, and they twice filled the 3,000-seat Tacoma Sports Arena with cheering soldiers, despite the fact that basic trainees at the bases had been denied weekend passes. Again, the organizers had unsuccessfully tried to get permission to perform on base, and were also turned down when they attempted to run an ad for the show in the Fort Lewis official base newspaper. Several new performers joined the troupe in Tacoma, including the Broadway actor and dancer, Ben Vereen and the rocker Country Joe McDonald who received standing ovations at both shows. Country Joe was already famous among GIs for his song "The "Fish" Cheer/I-Feel-Like-I'm-Fixin'-to-Die Rag" whose chorus "One, two, three, what are we fighting for?" had become an anthem of the antiwar movement. He always started the song with the "Fish Cheer", a call-and-response with the audience spelling the word "fish", although by the time of these performances it had evolved into the "Fuck Cheer", which the GIs loved. Knowing what the GIs most wanted to hear, Country Joe, teased them by singing three or four other songs before smiling, looking straight at the audience and shouting, "Give me an F!" The thunderous response was explosive. The local GI underground newspaper, the Lewis-McChord Free Press, reported that the show was "very funny" and "the crowd was beautiful".
Mountain Home Air Force Base
The FTA then moved on to the Covered Wagon coffeehouse just outside the Mountain Home Air Force Base near Boise, Idaho on August 14 and 15. The Covered Wagon shows were completely sold out, as were two shows the day before at Boise State College's Liberal Arts Auditorium. While in town, several members of the cast went with staff from the local GI Coffeehouse, the Covered Wagon, to the base cafeteria on the Air Force Base. Since the civilians were the guests of coffeehouse staff who were in the military, they couldn't be kicked out. According to a GI underground newspaper, CAMP News, the Air Force military intelligence agents from the Office of Special Investigations "had a busy day as over 100 GIs and officers filled the cafeteria" to see the cast. The "agents took notes" and "made a film record of the event". Some soldiers made sure the Air Force knew how they felt by going up "to the agents and offer[ing] their names."
Fort Cavazos and San Antonio
On September 18 and 19 the FTA performed in Killeen, Texas just outside Fort Cavazos Army base (formerly Fort Hood) and then in San Antonio on the 20th. Again the organizers had applied for permission to perform on base and had been denied. They then applied to rent the local high school auditorium and, when that was turned down, took the issue to court. The day before the first scheduled show the court denied their petition forcing the performances into the relatively small local GI Coffeehouse, the Oleo Strut, whose maximum legal capacity was 250. With people "sitting on the floor as tightly as possible", they played five shows over two days "to packed houses and enthusiastic crowds", with others standing "outside to listen or catch a glimpse of the show."
The local GI underground newspaper, Fatigue Press reported that Fonda spoke to the audience at the last show on Sunday the 19th. She "explained that the purpose of the FTA Show was to entertain and show support for the GI movement." She said they were "not alone in our struggle as places and groups such as these exist at almost every military installation in the U.S." She expressed her solidarity with the GIs and their families and said that by "uniting we resist, we end the war, we attain our denied rights, we end racism and sexism in the military and we FREE THE ARMY." Also on Sunday, the cast went to a picnic at the a local park with many of the GIs who weren't able to get into the shows. In another indication of the sentiments of local government officials, when cast members began to put on some of their skits from the show, the town's police forced them to stop. In San Antonio, "the show filled a downtown club with over 2,300 spectators, 'military, front to back […] Less than 50 tickets were sold to civilians,' according to the San Antonio Light.
Lincoln Center
On November 21, 1971, prior to departing for U.S. military bases in the Pacific, the FTA held a benefit performance in New York City at Lincoln Center's Philharmonic Hall before a civilian audience of 2,000. The performance, which was billed as "the first performance for civilians", earned a "Special Citation" Obie for the 1971–72 season. A few new entertainers joined the cast, including poet and activist Pamela Donegan, singer Holly Near, comedian Paul Mooney, and pianist Yale Zimmerman. Other celebrities came to show support, including Nina Simone, Dick Gregory, Ossie Davis, Faye Dunaway, and Eli Wallach, all of whom participated in an opening "Broadway salute to the GI movement". The New York Times reviewer commented, "the audience was asked to pretend that it was in the Army", but "[t]here was no need for fantasizing. By any measure, this is an easily enjoyable show although certainly Army experience would make it seem more impertinent."
Hawaii military bases
In Hawaii, the show performed at the Civic Auditorium in Honolulu on Thanksgiving Day. More than 4,000 people attended the show, including approximately 2,500 GIs and "several hundred crew members" from the USS Coral Sea, which had just arrived from San Francisco where many of its crew had been involved in and influenced by the significant Stop Our Ship movement then taking place in California. After the show, approximately 50 crewmen met with the show's cast and when the ship pulled out of port to continue to Southeast Asia, 53 sailors were missing.
U.S. military bases in the Philippines
Six shows were scheduled in the Philippines between November 28 and December 6, 1971, four near U.S. military bases. The first two performances on November 28 and 29 were held at YAP Park near Clark Air Force Base in Angeles City. According to military intelligence records submitted to a Congressional investigation by the House Committee on Internal Security, over 2,000 people attended the two shows, the majority of whom "appeared to be either young USAF members or USAF dependents." The next show on December 1 was in the auditorium at Saint Louis University in Baguio where the John Hay Air Force Base was located. The auditorium was packed with over 5,000 people, mostly "college-age Filipinos", again according to military intelligence. The next two shows were on December 4 and 5 in Olongapo City where the U.S. Naval Base at Subic Bay was located. Subic Bay at the time was the U.S. Seventh Fleet's main base for repair and replenishment. Two other shows were scheduled to be presented in Manila, but it's unclear whether they occurred. For these shows skits were added depicting "the history of US colonialism in the Philippines and...explicitly linking the oppression of Filipinos with that of African Americans in the United States."
U.S. military bases in Japan
When the FTA show arrived in Japan they ran into difficulties with the Japanese government. They arrived in Tokyo on December 7 from the Philippines and were initially denied entry into the country by Japan's Immigration Office on the grounds that they "possessed only tourist visas and no work permits." After a three-and-a-half-hour tense standoff in the airport, "the group was permitted to proceed to a hotel as the Office considered an appeal to its decision." Fonda immediately called a press conference at the hotel and, "in a tense and tired voice" stated:
A Board of Immigration spokesman told the press that "as tourists, they could not engage in theatrical performances or political activity of any kind." At another press conference a representative of the Japan Committee for Peace in Vietnam, who had welcomed the FTA Show to Japan, "claimed the Government action was prompted by 'fear that the entry of the FTA troupe might give impetus to antiwar activities by U.S. servicemen at U.S. military bases in Japan.'" Very soon immigration authorities agreed to allow the troupe to stay.
On December 10, they performed "to over 800 GIs in a hall meant to hold 520" at Fussa Citizens Hall, Fussa-Shi, Tokyo, about two blocks from the Yokota U.S. Air Force Base. During the Vietnam War, Yokota was a staging ground for B-52 bombing runs over Southeast Asia and a base for Air Force fighter squadrons. A troupe member reported in an article in the GI newspaper Cry Out that the "brass had warned Airmen not to go to the show but the hall was packed." A Military intelligence report observed, "Audience reception of the show was warm and many joined in the singing and handclapping. The cast was given a standing ovation at the conclusion, despite the rather amateurish presentation." This report went on to say, "The use of profanity in the show was frequent and many of the songs and skits were crude, apparently being aimed at the young, first term enlisted man."
The next night they performed just outside Yokosuka Naval Base before "an audience of nearly 1,400 included some 500 GIs." Some pro-Vietnam War hecklers tried to disrupt the show and were quoted as saying "they liked to go to Vietnam to kill people because they made $65 extra a month in combat pay." Soon other members of the audience began to heckle the hecklers and then Donald Sutherland spoke to the crowd, "If you want them to leave, would you tell them?" The audience erupted in "noisy agreement" while a number of sailors from the USS Oklahoma City "slowly but surely, confidently but peacefully" escorted the hecklers out of the auditorium while Len Chandler led the crowd in shouting "Out! Out! Out!" There has been some speculation that the pro-war hecklers were "undercover agents and provocateurs", which was not an uncommon tactic used by police agencies during the Vietnam War era, but no proof has emerged either way.
Their next show in Japan, just outside the Iwakuni Marine Corps Air Station, occurred after they had returned from scheduled shows in Okinawa. At the end of this show, "two Marines read a petition calling for the end to discrimination of GIs on the basis of race or political belief and for the return of the base to the Japanese people." As the Marines read, "hundreds of GIs and Japanese raised their fists after each demand."
The last show in Japan was on December 22 at the Misawa City Civic Center, Misawa City, Japan, near the Misawa U.S. Air Base. Military intelligence reported "approximately 1,000 persons attended the show", estimating that 60 percent were Japanese and the rest GIs. Misawa is in northern Japan and the heater in the auditorium was broken with December temperatures well below freezing. Even so, a cast member reported that "we only shivered for the first few minutes the unity of all the people singing together, fists raised...gave us warmth that we will never forget."
U.S. military bases in Okinawa
The FTA Show performed twice in Okinawa near the U.S. military bases. The first night, on December 13, "an overflow crowd of GIs" watched the normal show, plus an Okinawan folk song group that told the crowd, "We do not like the American military but we know there is a difference between you, the GIs, and the brass." The next day the troupe put on an outdoor show in a bullring.
The shows
Much of the content for the shows came from GI newspapers. Often, the skits were based on antiwar and anti-military comic strips which had been reprinted in the GI underground press.
Highlights of the various shows included:
Jane Fonda and Gary Goodrow
A comedy skit with Fonda, playing Richard Nixon's wife, telling Gary Goodrow as Nixon that protesters were storming the Capitol:
At each show the performers would use a military unit from the nearby base so GIs from the imagined unit storming the Capitol (or sometimes the White House) were sitting in the audience. According to Bragg Briefs, the base underground GI newspaper at Fort Liberty, when this routine was done there "The GI's response...was a tremendous roar of clenched fists raised in solidarity."
Donald Sutherland and Michael Alaimo
This skit had Michael Alaimo as an Army "lifer" (slang for a gung ho military type) worried about the loyalty of his own troops an increasingly common concern as the Vietnam War continued.
Peter Boyle
Another skit had Peter Boyle imitating a tough Nixon confronting his troops:
Again, according to Bragg Briefs, when this was done for the Fort Liberty troops, "The cheer that followed this was more than a cheer, it was a spontaneous cry that burst from the throats."
Country Joe McDonald
Country Joe McDonald's "Fish Cheer", really "Fuck Cheer" at these shows, always brought every crowd to its feet. Here's the first verse and chorus that followed the cheer:
Len Chandler
Len Chandler would perform a revised version of "John Brown's Body" with the rousing chorus:
The women in the cast
As the tour continued, new material was added into the show, addressing other issues swirling in the political currents of the early 1970s, including women's issues, racism and labor solidarity. One example was the song "Tired of Bastards Fucking Over Me" written by Beverley Grant. The song, sung in the F.T.A. film by Fonda, Near, Martinson and Donegan, describes experiences of everyday sexism from a woman's point of view, "with each brief narrative punctuated by a chorus":
Rita Martinson
When Rita Martinson, an African American, sang her moving ballad, "Soldier, We Love You", GIs were always powerfully moved:
Swamp Dogg
Swamp Dogg's "10-piece rock band was always a bit hit playing God Bless America for What and other songs.
Dick Gregory
Dick Gregory always got laughs with jokes like the one he did calling for the draft age to be raised to 75 so "all them older cats" will be sent "to Vietnam with John Wayne leading them."
The FTA Song
Every show included at least one performance of the show's theme song, "The Lifer's Song" (or "The FTA Song"), with most of the cast singing. The song is an irreverent ditty written around the common troop expression FTA, which really meant "Fuck The Army". During the Vietnam War, FTA was often scrawled on the side of walls and scratched onto bathroom stalls. The song tells the story of a pro-military "lifer" who is trying to figure out what FTA means. He hears it in "Leesville", "Waynesville", "Fayetteville", and "a Texas paradise called Killeen" all towns with major military bases. Just "three little words" he complains, "but I can't find out what they mean." Is it "Future Teachers of American", "Free The Antarcticans", "Free The Army?" Help me, the singers appeal to the audience. When the troupe got to the last line they always hesitated, encouraging the audience to supply the real meaning of FTA, which the GIs invariably did with a thundering "FUCK the Army". "Extra letters and words were added as needed, depending upon the composition of the audience. FTA would become 'FTAF' or 'FTN,' or 'FTM' or all four at once, spelled out in a triumphant, expletive-filled list." In the documentary of the tour, F.T.A., we see "the singers exaggeratedly trying to contain themselves" as they reach the first word in the last line. "[I]t seems the singers want the audience to understand that they really want to say 'Fuck the Army,' but they perform the pretense that they can't quite or won't, for whatever reason, bring themselves to do it the first time through. The second time, as they are making the long, drawn-out beginning of the word, Len Chandler turns and says quietly (but the mic picks it up) 'say it!' and they do..., they shout 'Fuck the Army.'"
Donald Sutherland reads Johnny Got His Gun
Each performance ended with Donald Sutherland reading from Dalton Trumbo's 1938 novel Johnny Got His Gun:
The film
In 1972 a U.S. documentary film called F.T.A. and directed by Francine Parker was released, which followed the show as it stopped in Hawaii, the Philippines, Okinawa, and Japan. Footage from the film and discussion of the FTA Show is included in the 2005 documentary film Sir! No Sir!.
Since then, the director of Sir! No Sir!, David Zeiger, has been involved in resurrecting the original documentary film F.T.A.. It was shown publicly in Los Angeles in early 2009 at the American Cinematheque with a panel that included two of the original performers in the show. F.T.A. also had its broadcast premiere on the Sundance Channel on February 23, 2009. The DVD of F.T.A. is now sold on the Sir! No Sir! website.
See also
Concerned Officers Movement
Court-martial of Howard Levy
Donald W. Duncan, Master Sergeant U.S. Army Special Forces early register to the Vietnam War
Fort Cavazos Three
G.I. Coffeehouses
GI Underground Press
GI's Against Fascism
Movement for a Democratic Military
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
Presidio mutiny
Stop Our Ship (SOS) anti-Vietnam War movement in and around the U.S. Navy
United States Servicemen's Fund
Vietnam Veterans Against the War
Waging Peace in Vietnam
Winter Soldier Investigation
References
External links
Sir! No Sir!, a film about GI resistance to the Vietnam War
A Matter of Conscience - GI Resistance During the Vietnam War
Waging Peace in Vietnam - US Soldiers and Veterans Who Opposed the War
Rita Martinson sings Soldier We Love You at the performance in Okinawa
Lyrics to Soldier We Love You by Rita Martinson
Michael Alaimo Internet Movie Database (IMDB) page
Country Joe McDonald at Woodstock doing the FUCK Cheer Song
Trailers From Hell hosts David Zeiger reviewing F.T.A.
Opposition to United States involvement in the Vietnam War
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sikhism
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History of Sikhism
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Guru Nanak founded the Sikh faith in the Punjab region of the northern part of the Indian subcontinent in the end of fifteenth century. He was first of the ten Sikh Gurus. The tenth, Guru Gobind Singh, formalised its practices on 13 April 1699. He baptised five Sikh people from different parts of India, with different social backgrounds, to form Khalsa fauj (ਖ਼ਾਲਸਾ ਫੌਜ). Those five Beloved Ones, the Pañj Piārē, then baptised him into the Khalsa fold. This gives the order of Khalsa a history of around 500 years. Historical theory and analysis suggests that Sikhism came into existence during the early Medieval period of the Bhakti movement and also after repeated invasions by Muslim rulers upon the Hindu community during Mughal rule, which lasted between (1526–1857 A.D) especially in the region of North India.
The history of the Sikh faith is closely associated with the history of Punjab and the socio-political situation in the north-west of the Indian subcontinent during the 17th century. From the rule of India by the Mughal Emperor Jahangir (), Sikhism came into conflict with Mughal laws, because they were affecting political successions of Mughals while cherishing sufi saints from Islam. Mughal rulers killed many prominent Sikhs for refusing to obey their orders, and for opposing the persecution of Sikhs. Of the total ten Sikh gurus, two, Guru Arjan Dev and Guru Tegh Bahadur, were tortured and executed, and close kin of several gurus (such as the seven and nine-year old sons of Guru Gobind Singh), were brutally killed, along with numerous other main revered figures of Sikhism (such as Banda Bahadur (1716), Bhai Mati Das, Bhai Sati Das and Bhai Dayala), who were also tortured and killed by Mughal rulers for refusing their orders, and for opposing the persecution of Sikhs and Hindus. Subsequently, Sikhism militarised itself to oppose Mughal hegemony. The emergence of the Sikh Confederacy under the misls and Sikh Empire under the reign of the Maharajah Ranjit Singh () was characterised by religious tolerance and pluralism with Christians, Muslims and Hindus in positions of power. The establishment of the Sikh Empire in 1799 is commonly considered the zenith of Sikhism in the political sphere, during its existence (from 1799 to 1849) the Sikh Empire came to include Kashmir, Ladakh, and Peshawar. A number of Hindu and Muslim peasants converted to Sikhism. Hari Singh Nalwa, the Commander-in-chief of the Sikh army along the northwest Frontier from 1825 to 1837, took the boundary of the Sikh Empire to the very mouth of the Khyber Pass. The Sikh Empire's secular administration integrated innovative military, economic and governmental reforms.
Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, strongly opposed the partition of India, viewing the possibility of the creation of Pakistan as inviting persecution. The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947, saw heavy conflict in the Punjab between Sikhs and Muslims, which saw the effective religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab and organized ethnic cleansing of Punjabi Muslims from East Punjab. Currently, most Sikhs live in the Indian state of Punjab, where they formed about 60 percent of the state population.
Early Modern (1469 CE –1708 CE)
Guru Nanak
Guru Nanak Dev (1469–1539), founder of Sikhism, was born to Mehta Kalu and Mata Tripta, in the village of Talwandi, now called Nankana Sahib, near Lahore. His father, named Mehta Kalu, was a Patwari, an accountant of land revenue in the government. Nanak's mother was Mata Tripta, and he had one older sister, Bibi Nanki.
From an early age, Guru Nanak Dev Ji seemed to have acquired a questioning and enquiring mind and refused as a child to wear the ritualistic "sacred" thread called a Janeu and instead said that he would wear the true name of God in his heart as protection, as the thread which could be broken, be soiled, burnt or lost could not offer any security at all. From early childhood, Bibi Nanki saw in her brother the Light of God but she did not reveal this secret to anyone. She is known as the first disciple of Guru Nanak.
Even as a boy, his desire to explore the mysteries of life eventually led him to leave home. Nanak married Sulakhni, daughter of Moolchand Chona, a trader from Batala, and they had two sons, Sri Chand and Lakhmi Chand.
His brother-in-law, Jai Ram, the husband of his sister Nanki, obtained a job for him in Sultanpur as the manager of the government granary. One morning, when he was twenty-eight, Guru Nanak Dev went as usual down to the river to bathe and meditate. It was said that he was gone for three days. When he reappeared, it is said he was "filled with the spirit of God". His first words after his re-emergence were: "There is no Hindu, there is no Muslim". With this secular principle he began his missionary work. He made four distinct major journeys, in the four different directions, which are called Udasis, spanning many thousands of kilometres, preaching the message of God.
Guru Nanak spent the final years of his life in Kartarpur where Langar free blessed food was available. The food would be partaken of by Hindus, rich, poor, both high and so-called low castes. Guru Nanak worked in the fields and earned his livelihood. After appointing Bhai Lehna as the new Sikh Guru, on 22 September 1539, aged 70, Guru Nanak died.
Guru Angad
In 1538, Guru Nanak chose Lehna, his disciple, as a successor to the Guruship rather than one of his sons. Bhai Lehna was named Guru Angad and became the successor of Guru Nanak. Bhai Lehna was born in the village of Harike in Ferozepur district in Punjab, on 31 March 1504. He was the son of a small trader named Pheru. His mother's name was Mata Ramo (also known as Mata Sabhirai, Mansa Devi, Daya Kaur). Baba Narayan Das Trehan was his grandfather, whose ancestral house was at Matte-di-Sarai near Muktsar.
Under the influence of his mother, Bhai Lehna began to worship Durga (A Hindu Goddess). He used to lead a group of Hindu worshippers to Jwalamukhi Temple every year. He married Mata Khivi in January 1520 and had two sons, (Dasu and Datu), and two daughters (Amro and Anokhi). The whole Pheru family had to leave their ancestral village because of the ransacking by the Mughal and Baloch military who had come with Emperor Babur. After this, the family settled at the village of Khadur Sahib by the River Beas, near Tarn Taran Sahib, a small town about 25 km from Amritsar city.
One day, Bhai Lehna heard the recitation of a hymn of Guru Nanak from Bhai Jodha (a Sikh of Guru Nanak Sahib) who was in Khadur Sahib. He was thrilled and decided to proceed to Kartarpur to have an audience (darshan) with Guru Nanak. So while on the annual pilgrimage to Jwalamukhi Temple, Bhai Lehna left his journey to visit Kartarpur and see Baba Nanak. His very first meeting with Guru Nanak completely transformed him. He renounced the worship of the Hindu Goddess, dedicated himself to the service of Guru Nanak and so became his disciple, (his Sikh), and began to live in Kartarpur.
His devotion and service (Sewa) to Guru Nanak and his holy mission was so great that he was instated as the Second Nanak on 7 September 1539 by Guru Nanak. Earlier Guru Nanak tested him in various ways and found an embodiment of obedience and service in him. He spent six or seven years in the service of Guru Nanak at Kartarpur.
When Guru Nanak died on 22 September 1539, Guru Angad left Kartarpur for the village of Khadur Sahib (near Goindwal Sahib). He carried forward the principles of Guru Nanak both in letter and spirit. Yogis and Saints of different sects visited him and held detailed discussions about Sikhism with him.
Guru Angad introduced a new alphabet known as Gurmukhi Script, modifying the old Punjabi script's characters. Soon, this script became very popular and started to be used by the people in general. He took great interest in the education of children by opening many schools for their instruction and thus increased the number of literate people. For the youth, he started the tradition of Mall Akhara, where physical, as well as spiritual exercises, were held. He collected the facts about Guru Nanak's life from Bhai Bala and wrote the first biography of Guru Nanak. He also wrote 63 Saloks (stanzas), which are included in the Guru Granth Sahib. He popularized and expanded the institution of Guru ka Langar that had been started by Guru Nanak.
Guru Angad travelled widely and visited all important religious places and centres established by Guru Nanak for the preaching of Sikhism. He also established hundreds of new Centres of Sikhism (Sikh religious Institutions) and thus strengthened the base of Sikhism. The period of his Guruship was the most crucial one. The Sikh community had moved from having a founder to a succession of Gurus and the infrastructure of Sikh society was strengthened and crystallised – from being an infant, Sikhism had moved to be a young child and ready to face the dangers that were around.
Guru Amar Das
Guru Amar Das became the third Sikh guru in 1552 at the age of 73. Goindwal became an important centre for Sikhism during the Guruship of Guru Amar Das. He continued to preach the principle of equality for women, the prohibition of Sati and the practise of Langar. In 1567, Emperor Akbar sat with the ordinary and poor people of Punjab to have Langar. Guru Amar Das also trained 140 apostles, of which 52 were women, to manage the rapid expansion of the religion. Before he died in 1574 aged 95, he appointed his son-in-law Jetha as the fourth Sikh Guru.
It is recorded that before becoming a Sikh, Bhai Amar Das, as he was known at the time, was a very religious Vaishanavite Hindu who spent most of his life performing all of the ritual pilgrimages and fasts of a devout Hindu. One day, Bhai Amar Das heard some hymns of Guru Nanak being sung by Bibi Amro, the daughter of Guru Angad, the second Sikh Guru. Bibi Amro was married to Bhai Amar Das' brother, Bhai Manak Chand's son who was called Bhai Jasso. Bhai Amar Das was so impressed and moved by these Shabads that he immediately decided to go to see Guru Angad at Khadur Sahib. It is recorded that this event took place when Amar Das was 61 years old.
In 1535, upon meeting Guru Angad, Amar Das was so touched by the Guru's message that he became a devout Sikh. Soon he became involved in Sewa (Service) to the Guru and the Community. Under the impact of Guru Angad and the teachings of the Gurus, Bhai Amar Das became a devout Sikh. He adopted Guru as his spiritual guide (Guru). Amar Das began to live at Khadur Sahib, where he used to rise early in the morning and bring water from the Beas River for the Guru's bath; he would wash the Guru's clothes and fetch wood from the jungle for 'Guru ka Langar'. He was so dedicated to Sewa and the Guru and had completely extinguished pride and was totally lost in this commitment that he was considered an old man who had no interest in life; he was dubbed Amru, and generally forsaken.
However, as a result of Amar Das' commitment to Sikh principles, dedicated service, and devotion to the Sikh cause, Guru Angad Sahib appointed Bhai Amar Das as the third Nanak in March 1552 at the age of 73. He established his headquarters in the newly built town of Goindwal, which Guru Angad had established.
Soon large numbers of Sikhs started flocking to Goindwal to see the new Guru. Here, Guru Amar Das propagated the Sikh faith in a vigorous, systematic and planned manner. He divided the Sikh Sangat area into 22 preaching centres or Manjis, each under the charge of a devout Sikh. He himself visited and sent Sikh missionaries to different parts of India to spread Sikhism.
Guru Amar Das was impressed with Bhai Gurdas' thorough knowledge of Hindi and Sanskrit and the Hindu scriptures. Following the tradition of sending out Masands across the country, Guru Amar Das deputed Bhai Gurdas to Agra to spread the gospel of Sikhism. Before leaving, Guru Amar Das prescribed the following routine for Sikhs:
Guru Ji strengthened the tradition of 'Guru ka Langar' and made it compulsory for the visitor to the Guru to eat first, saying that 'Pehle Pangat Phir Sangat' (first visit the Langar then go to the Guru). Once Mughal emperor Akbar came to see the Guru and he had to eat the coarse rice in the Langar before he could have an audience with the Guru. The emperor was so impressed with this system that he expressed his desire to grant some royal property for 'Guru ka Langar', but the Guru declined it with respect.
He introduced new birth, marriage, and death ceremonies. Thus he raised the status of women and protected the rights of female infants who were killed without question as they were deemed to have no status. These teachings were met with stiff resistance from the Orthodox Hindus.
Guru Amar Das not only preached the equality of people irrespective of their caste but also fostered the idea of women's equality. He preached strongly against the practice of Sati (a Hindu wife burning on her husband's funeral pyre). Guru Amar Das also disapproved of a young widow remaining unmarried for the rest of her life.
Guru Amar Das constructed "Baoli" at Goindwal Sahib having eighty-four steps and made it a Sikh pilgrimage centre for the first time in the history of Sikhism. He reproduced more copies of the hymns of Guru Nanak and Guru Angad. He also composed 869 (according to some chronicles these were 709) verses (stanzas) including Anand Sahib, and then later on Guru Arjan (fifth Guru) made all the Shabads part of Guru Granth Sahib.
When the time came for the Guru's younger daughter Bibi Bhani to marry, he selected a pious and diligent young follower of his called Jetha from Lahore. Jetha had come to visit the Guru with a party of pilgrims from Lahore and had become so enchanted by the Guru's teachings that he had decided to settle in Goindwal. Here he earned a livelihood selling boiled chickpeas and would regularly attend the services of Guru Amar Das in his spare time.
Guru Amar Das did not consider anyone of his sons fit for Guruship and chose instead his son-in-law (Guru) Ram Das to succeed him. Guru Amar Das Sahib at the age of 95 died on 1 September 1574 at Goindwal in District Amritsar, after giving the responsibility of Guruship to the Fourth Nanak, Guru Ram Das.
Guru Ram Das
Guru Ram Das (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਰਾਮ ਦਾਸ) (Born in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan on 24 September 1534 – 1 September 1581, Amritsar, Punjab, India) was the fourth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, and he became Guru on 30 August 1574, following in the footsteps of Guru Amar Das. He was born in Lahore to a Sodhi family of the Khatri clan. His father was Hari Das and his mother Anup Devi, and his name was Jetha, meaning 'first born'. His wife was Bibi Bhani, the younger daughter of Guru Amar Das, the third guru of the Sikhs. They had three sons: Prithi Chand, Mahan dev, and Arjan Dev.
As a Guru one of his main contributions to Sikhism was organising the structure of Sikh society. Additionally, he was the author of Laava, the hymns of the Marriage Rites, the designer of the Harmandir Sahib, and the planner and creator of the township of Ramdaspur (later Amritsar).
A hymn by Guru Ram Das from Ang 305 of the Guru Granth Sahib:
"One who calls himself a Sikh of the True Guru shall get up early morning and meditate on the Lord's Name. Make effort regularly to cleanse, bathe and dip in the ambrosial pool. Upon Guru's instructions, chant Har, Har singing which, all misdeeds, sins, and pains shall go away."
Guru Ram Das nominated Guru Arjan, his youngest son, as the next Guru of the Sikhs.
Guru Arjan Dev
In 1581, Guru Arjan — the youngest son of the fourth guru — became the Fifth Guru of the Sikhs. In addition to being responsible for building the Golden Temple, he prepared the Sikh Sacred text and his personal addition of some 2,000 plus hymns in the Gurū Granth Sāhib. He compiled and composed the most hymns. He even added many Sufi Saints, Bhagats, Bhatts and Gursikhs verses such as Sheik Farid, Sant Kabir, Bhagat Namdev and Bhai Mardana.
In 1604 he installed the Ādi Granth for the first time as the Holy Book of the Sikhs. He is known as Shaheedan-De-Saraaj or Crown of Martyrs because he gave Jehangir's son langer and made him hear Kirtan, his son, Khusrau, was revolting against Jehangir. Guru Arjan Dev Ji refused to convert to Islam when he was given the choice.
Guru Hargobind
Guru Hargobind became the sixth guru of the Sikhs. He carried two swords — one for Spiritual reasons and one for temporal (worldly) reasons. From this point onward, the Sikhs became a military force and always had a trained fighting force to defend their independence, establishing the Akal Sena.
Guru Hargobind fixed two Nishan Sahibs at Akal Bunga in front of the Akal Takht. One flag is towards the Harmandir Sahib and the other shorter flag is towards Akal Takht. The first represents the reins of the spiritual authority while the later represents temporal power stating temporal power should be under the reins of the spiritual authority.
Guru Har Rai
Guru Har Rai (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਰਾਇ) (26 February 1630 – 6 October 1661) was the seventh of the ten Gurus of Sikhism, becoming Guru on 8 March 1644, following in the footsteps of his grandfather, Guru Har Gobind, who was the sixth guru. Before Guru Har Rai died, he nominated Guru Har Krishan, his youngest son, as the next Guru of the Sikhs.
As a very young child, he got disturbed by the suffering of a flower damaged by his robe in passing. Though such feelings are common with children, Guru Har Rai would throughout his life be noted for his compassion for life and living things. His grandfather, who was famed as an avid hunter, is said to have saved the Moghul Emperor Jahangir's life during a tiger's attack. Guru Har Rai continued the hunting till the age 31, Guru followed the tradition of his grandfather, but he would allow no animals to be killed on his grand Shikars. The Guru instead captured the animal and added it to his zoo. He made several tours to the Malwa and Doaba regions of Punjab.
His son, Ram Rai, seeking to assuage concerns of Aurangzeb over one line in Guru Nanak's verse (Mitti Mussalmaan ki paerrai pai kumihaar) suggested that the word Mussalman was a mistake on the copyist's part, therefore distorting Bani. The Guru refused to meet with him again. The Guru is believed to have said, "Ram Rai, you have disobeyed my order and sinned. I will never see you again on account of your infidelity." It was also reported to the Guru that Ram Rai had also worked miracles in the Mughal's court against his father's direct instructions. Sikhs are constrained by their Gurus to not believe in magic and myth or miracles. Just before his death at age 31, Guru Har Rai passed the Gaddi of Nanak on to his younger son, the five-year-old – Guru Har Krishan.
Guru Har Rai was the son of Baba Gurdita and Mata Nihal Kaur (also known as Mata Ananti Ji). Baba Gurdita was the son of the sixth Guru, Guru Hargobind. Guru Har Rai married Mata Kishan Kaur (sometimes also referred to as Sulakhni), daughter of Sri Daya Ram of Anoopshahr (Bulandshahr) in Uttar Pradesh on Har Sudi 3, Samvat 1697. Guru Har Rai had two sons: Baba Ram Rai and Sri Har Krishan.
Although Guru Har Rai was a man of peace, he never disbanded the armed Sikh Warriors (Saint Soldiers), who earlier were maintained by his grandfather, Guru Hargobind. He always boosted the military spirit of the Sikhs, but he never himself indulged in any direct political and armed controversy with the contemporary Mughal Empire. Once, Dara Shikoh (the eldest son of emperor Shah Jahan), came to Guru Har Rai asking for help in the war of succession with his brother, the murderous Aurangzeb. The Guru had promised his grandfather to use the Sikh Cavalry only in defense. Nevertheless, he helped him to escape safely from the bloody hands of Aurangzeb's armed forces by having his Sikh warriors hide all the ferry boats at the river crossing used by Dara Shikoh in his escape.
Guru Har Krishan
Guru Har Krishan born in Kirat Pur, Ropar (Punjabi: ਗੁਰੂ ਹਰਿ ਕ੍ਰਿਸ਼ਨ) (7 July 1656 – 30 March 1664) was the eighth of the Ten Gurus of Sikhism, becoming the Guru on 7 October 1661, following in the footsteps of his father, Guru Har Rai. Before Har Krishan died of complications of Smallpox, he nominated his granduncle, Guru Teg Bahadur, as the next Guru of the Sikhs. The following is a summary of the main highlights of his short life:
When Har Krishan stayed in Delhi there was a smallpox epidemic and many people were dying. According to Sikh history at Har Krishan's blessing, the lake at Bangla Sahib provided cure for thousands. Gurdwara Bangla Sahib was constructed in the Guru's memory. This is where he stayed during his visit to Delhi. Gurdwara Bala Sahib was built in south Delhi besides the bank of the river Yamuna, where Har Krishan was cremated at the age of about 7 years and 8 months. Guru Har Krishan was the youngest Guru at only 7 years of age. He did not make any contributions to Gurbani.
Guru Tegh Bahadur
Guru Tegh Bahadur was the ninth of the Sikh Gurus. The eight Sikh Guru, Guru Har Krishan, nominated him, his grand-uncle as the next Guru before he died. Guru Tegh Bahadur was actually the son of the sixth Sikh Guru, Guru Hargobind.
He sacrificed himself to protect Hindus. Aurungzeb was forcibly converting Hindus to Muslims. Hindus from Kashmir came to Guru Teg Bahadur for protection and requested for assistance. Guru asked them to tell Aurungzeb that if he will be able to convert Guru Teg Bahadur to Islam then they all become Muslim. He was asked by Aurungzeb, the Mughal emperor, under coercion by conservative Naqshbandi clerics, to convert to Islam or to sacrifice himself. The exact place where he died is in front of the Red Fort in Delhi (Lal Qila) and the gurdwara is called Sisganj. This marked a turning point for Sikhism. His successor, Guru Gobind Singh further militarised his followers.
While, Bhai Mati Das along with his younger brother Bhai Sati Das were martyrs of early Sikh history. Bhai Mati Das, Bhai Dayala, and Bhai Sati Das were executed at a kotwali (police-station) in the Chandni Chowk area of Delhi, under the express orders of Emperor Aurangzeb just before the martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur. Bhai Mati Das was executed by being bound between two pillars and cut in two.
Guru Gobind Singh
Birth and Childhood
Guru Gobind Singh was the tenth guru of Sikhs. He was born in 1666 at Patna (Capital of Bihar, India).and did his basic schooling there. Along with the religious scriptures, he also studied the Bihari language at Patna. His Uncle, Bhai Kripal, trained him in archery and swordsmanship and soon he became a great marksman. When Guru Tegh Bahadur returned from Dhaka (now Bangladesh‘s Capital) to Patna he saw his five years old child for the first time, and kissed and embraced his divine boy. The Guru blossomed under the spiritual guidance of his father, but it was short-lived since Guru Tegh bahadur had to leave Patna for Anandpur.
Gobind Rai, as he was called then, was beloved of many people in Patna including a large number of Muslims. The child had a charming personality which attracted everyone he met, even for a short while. When he was six years old he had learnt Hindi, Marathi and Gurumukhi. He was a very bold and courageous boy, and had all the qualities of a great man and a natural leader.
A Raja's childless Queen had developed special fondness for the young Guru Gobind Singh, who, too, often came here to sit in the Queen's lap giving her immense delight and spiritual solace. She fed the Child Gobind and his playmates, at his demand, with boiled and salted gram.
In Kashmir
In 1675 Pundits from Kashmir in India came to Anandpur Sahib pleading to Guru Teg Bahadur (father of Guru Gobind Singh) about Aurangzeb forcing them to convert to Islam. Guru Teg Bahadur told them that martyrdom of a great man was needed. His son, Guru Gobind Singh said "Who could be greater than you", to his father. Guru Teg Bahadur told pundits to tell Aurangzeb's men that if Guru Teg Bahadur will become Muslim, they all will.
Stay at Paotana Sahib and Anandpur Sahib
After Guru Tegh Bahadur ji's martyrdom Guru Gobind Singh Ji created many poems compositions and letters, including Zafarnama, Ugardandis, Lakhi Jungle Khalsa, Hikayatan, Akal Ustat, Japji Sahib etc., these were incorporated into the Dasam Granth and Sarbloh Granth respectively. He stayed at Anandpur Sahib for most of his life and the Hindu Hill Chieftains were jealous of his riches so the Kingdoms of Kahlur, Bilaspur, Garhwal and common Hindus made an alliance to fight him. He and the kingdom of Una allied and won the Battle of Bhangani. The even more Himachali states allied and still lost. This showed the Guruji's influence and military strength in the area.
Mughal-Sikh Wars and Death of the Sahibzadas
They allied with Wazir Khan of Sirhind and the Subedar of Lahore and together they still lost and one day Guruji started retreating from Anandpur Sahib and he got separated with his two sons aged 5 and 9 due to the cold Satluj River. He entrusted his Brahmin cook, Gangu Brahmin, to take care of them but he sold them to Wazir Khan. In the meantime Aurangzeb dispatched 50,000-75,000 troops to attack the Guruji. after he sent his elder sons and 42 others to fight only 17,000 Mughals came back alive, his elder sons died on the battlefield with bravery and honour. The younger sons and their grandmother remained trapped in the same week that their brothers died. Wazir Khan said that he would give them riches if they convert and immurement if they do not, they chose death, till now Sahibzada Fateh Singh is the youngest Martyr in the history of the World. Guru Gobind Singh Ji sent his letter of victory to Aurangzeb and they signed a treaty. Later when Aurangzeb Died and the Guru was in Rajputana there was a war of succession between Muhammad Azam Shah and Bahadur Shah I and Guru Gobind Singh Ji sided with Bahadur Shah I who was secular in his views. On his way to Aurangabad he was stabbed three times in his lungs and killed the assassin. He survived for three more weeks and but later died from his wounds.
Shortly before passing away Guru Gobind Singh ordered that the Guru Granth Sahib (the Sikh Holy Scripture), would be the ultimate spiritual authority for the Sikhs and temporal authority would be vested in the Khalsa Panth – the Sikh Nation. The first Sikh Holy Scripture was compiled and edited by the Fifth Guru, Guru Arjan in AD 1604, although some of the earlier gurus are also known to have documented their revelations. This is one of the few scriptures in the world that has been compiled by the founders of faith during their own lifetime. The Guru Granth Sahib is particularly unique among sacred texts in that it is written in Gurmukhi script but contains many languages including Punjabi, Hindustani, Sanskrit, Bhojpuri, Arabic and Persian. Sikhs consider the Guru Granth Sahib the last, perpetual living guru.
Late Modern Age (1708–1748 CE)
Banda Singh Bahadur
Banda Singh Bahadur was chosen to lead the Sikhs by Guru Gobind Singh. He was successful in setting up a Sikh Empire that spread from Uttar Pradesh to Punjab. He fought the Mughal state tyranny and gave the common people of Punjab courage, equality, and rights. On his way to Punjab, Banda Singh punished robbers and other criminal elements making him popular with the people. Banda Singh inspired the minds of the non-Muslim people, who came to look upon the Sikhs as defenders of their faith and country. Banda Singh possessed no army but Guru Gobind Singh in a Hukamnama called to the people of Punjab to take arms under the leadership of Banda Singh overthrow and destroy the oppressive Mughal rulers, oppressed Muslims and oppressed Hindus also joined him in the popular revolt against the tyrants.
Banda Singh Bahadur camped in Khar Khoda, near Sonipat from there he took over Sonipat and Kaithal. In 1709 Banda Singh captured the Mughal city of Samana with the help of revolting oppressed Hindu and common folk, killing about 10,000 Muslims. Samana which was famous for minting coins, with this treasury the Sikhs became financially stable. The Sikhs soon took over Saraswati Nagar and Sadhora (near Jagadhri). The Sikhs then captured the Cis-Sutlej areas of Punjab including Ghurham, Kapori, Banoor, Malerkotla, and Nahan. The Sikhs captured Sirhind in 1710 and killed the Governor of Sirhind, Wazir Khan who was responsible for the death of the two youngest sons of Guru Gobind Singh at Sirhind. Becoming the ruler of Sirhind Banda Singh gave order to give ownership of the land to the farmers and let them live in dignity and self-respect. Petty officials were also satisfied with the change. Dindar Khan, an official of the nearby village, took Amrit and became Dinder Singh and the newspaper writer of Sirhind, Mir Nasir-ud-din, became Mir Nasir Singh
Banda Singh developed the village of Mukhlisgarh, and made it his capital He then renamed the city it to Lohgarh (fortress of steel) where he issued his own mint. The coin described Lohgarh: "Struck in the City of Peace, illustrating the beauty of civic life, and the ornament of the blessed throne." He briefly established a state in Punjab for half a year. Banda Singh sent Sikhs to the Uttar Pradesh and Sikhs took over Saharanpur, Jalalabad, Saharanpur, and other areas nearby bringing relief to the repressed population. In the regions of Jalandhar and Amritsar, the Sikhs started fighting for the rights of the people. They used their newly established power to remove corrupt officials and replace them with honest ones.
Banda Singh is known to have abolished or halted the Zamindari system in time he was active and gave the farmers proprietorship of their own land. It seems that all classes of government officers were addicted to extortion and corruption and the whole system of regulatory and order was subverted. Local tradition recalls that the people from the neighborhood of Sadaura came to Banda Singh complaining of the iniquities practices by their landlords. Banda Singh ordered Baj Singh to open fire on them. The people were astonished at the strange reply to their representation, and asked him what he meant. He told them that they deserved no better treatment when being thousands in number they still allowed themselves to be cowed down by a handful of Zamindars.
The rule of the Sikhs over the entire Punjab east of Lahore obstructed the communication between Delhi and Lahore, the capital of Punjab, and this worried Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah He gave up his plan to subdue rebels in Rajasthan and marched towards Punjab. The entire Imperial force was organised to defeat and kill Banda Singh. All the generals were directed to join the Emperor’s army. To ensure that there were no Sikh agents in the army camps, an order was issued on 29 August 1710 to all Hindus to shave off their beards.
Banda Singh was in Uttar Pradesh when the Moghal army under the orders of Munim Khan marched to Sirhind and before the return of Banda Singh, they had already taken Sirhind and the areas around it. The Sikhs therefore moved to Lohgarh for their final battle. The Sikhs defeated the army but reinforcements were called and they laid siege on the fort with 60,000 troops. Gulab Singh dressed himself in the garments of Banda Singh and seated himself in his place. Banda Singh left the fort at night and went to a secret place in the hills and Chamba forests. The failure of the army to kill or catch Banda Singh shocked Emperor, Bahadur Shah and On 10 December 1710 he ordered that wherever a Sikh was found, he should be murdered. The Emperor became mentally disturbed and died on 18 February 1712.
Banda Singh Bahadur wrote Hukamnamas to the Sikhs telling them to get themselves reorganised and join him at once. In 1711 the Sikhs gathered near Kiratpur Sahib and defeated Raja Bhim Chand, who was responsible for organising all the Hill Rajas against Guru Gobind Singh and instigating battles with him. After Bhim Chand’s dead the other Hill Rajas accepted their subordinate status and paid revenues to Banda Singh.
While Bahadur Shah's 4 sons were killing themselves for the throne of the Mughal Emperor Banda Singh Bahadur recaptured Sadhura and Lohgarh. Farrukh Siyar, the next Moghal Emperor, appointed Abdus Samad Khan as the governor of Lahore and Zakaria Khan, Abdus Samad Khan's son, the Faujdar of Jammu. In 1713 the Sikhs left Lohgarh and Sadhura and went to the remote hills of Jammu and where they built Dera Baba Banda Singh. During this time Sikhs were being hunted down especially by pathans in the Gurdaspur region.
Banda Singh came out and captured Kalanaur and Batala which rebuked Farrukh Siyar to issue Mughal and Hindu officials and chiefs to proceed with their troops to Lahore to reinforce his army.
In March 1715, Banda Singh Bahadur was in the village of Gurdas Nangal, Gurdaspur, Punjab, when the army under the rule of Samad Khan, the Mogual king of Delhi laid siege to the Sikh forces. The Sikhs fought and defended the small fort for eight months. On 7 December 1715 Banda Singh starving soldiers were captured.
Execution
On 7 December 1715 Banda Singh Bahadur was captured from the Gurdas Nangal fort and put in an iron cage and the remaining Sikhs were captured, chained. The Sikhs were brought to Delhi in a procession with the 780 Sikh prisoners, 2,000 Sikh heads hung on spears, and 700 cartloads of heads of slaughtered Sikhs used to terrorise the population. They were put in the Delhi fort and pressured to give up their faith and become Muslims.
On their firm refusal all of them were ordered to be executed. Every day, 100 Sikhs were brought out of the fort and murdered in public daily, which went on approximately seven days.After 3 months of confinement On 9 June 1716, Banda Singh’s eyes were gouged, his limbs were severed, his skin removed, and then he was killed.
Sikhs retreat to jungles
In 1716 Farrukh Siyar, the Mughal Emperor, issued all Sikhs to be converted to Islam or die, an attempt to destroy the power of the Sikhs and to exterminate the community as a whole. A reward was offered for the head of every Sikh. For a time it appeared as if the boast of Farrukh Siyar to wipe out the name of Sikhs from the land was going to be fulfilled. Hundreds of Sikhs were brought in from their villages and executed, and thousands who had joined merely for the sake of booty cut off their hair and went back to the Hindu fold again. Besides these there were some Sikhs who had not yet received the baptism of Guru Gobind Singh, nor did they feel encouraged to do so, as the adoption of the outward symbols meant courting death.
After a few years Adbus Samad Khan, the Governor of Lahore, Punjab and other Mughal officers began to pursue Sikhs less and thus the Sikhs came back to the villages and started going to the Gurdwaras again, which were managed by Udasis when the Sikhs were in hiding. The Sikhs celebrated Bandhi Chorh Diwas and Vaisakhi at Harmandir Sahib.
The Khalsa had been split into two major factions Bandia Khalsa and Tat Khalsa and tensions were spewing between the two.
Under the authority of Mata Sundari Bhai Mani Singh become the Jathedar of the Harminder Sahib and a leader of the Sikhs and the Bandia Khalsa and Tat Khalsa joined by Bhai Mani Singh into the Tat Khalsa and after the event from that day the Bandeis assumed a quieter role and practically disappeared from the pages of history. A police post was established at Amritsar to keep a check on the Sikhs.
Mani Singh was killed by cutting each of his body joint .
Abdus Samad Khan, was transferred to Multan in 1726, and his more energetic Son, Zakaria Khan, also known as Khan Bahadur, was appointed to take his place as the governor of Lahore. In 1726, Tarra Singh of Wan, a renowned Sikh leader, and his 26 men was killed after Governor Zakaria Khan, sent 2200 horses, 40 zamburaks, 5 elephants and 4 cannons, under the command of his deputy, Momin Khan. The murder of Tarra Singh spread across the Sikhs in Punjab and the Sikhs. Finding no Sikhs around, the government falsely announced in each village with the beat of a drum, that all Sikhs had been eliminated but the common people knew the truth that this was not the case. The Sikhs did not face the army directly, because of their small numbers, but adopted dhai phut guerrilla warfare (hit and run) tactics.
Under the leadership of Nawab Kapoor Singh and Jathedar Darbara Singh, in attempt to weaken their enemy looted many of the Mughals caravans and supplies and for some years no money from revenue could reach the government treasury. When the forces of government tried to punish the outlaws, they were unable to contact them, as the Sikhs did not live in houses or forts, but ran away to their rendezvous in forests or other places difficult to access.
Nawab Kapur Singh
Nawab Kapur Singh was born in 1697 in a village near Sheikhupura in what is today Punjab, Pakistan. He was a volunteer at Darbar Sahib Amritsar. His was cleaning shoes of Sangat that come to pay their respect to Darbar Sahib, work in the kitchen to feed the Sangat. He was given a jagir in 1733 when the Governor of Punjab offered the Sikhs the Nawabship (ownership of an estate) and a valuable royal robe, the Khalsa accepted it all in the name of Kapur Singh. Henceforth, he became known as Nawab Kapur Singh. In 1748 he would organise the early Sikh Misls into the Dal Khalsa (Budda Dal and Tarna Dal).
Nawab Kapur Singh’s father was Chaudhri Daleep Singh as a boy he memorised Gurbani Nitnem and was taught the arts of war. Kapur Singh was attracted to the Khalsa Panth after the execution of Bhai Tara Singh, of the village of Van, in 1726.
Extensive looting of the Mughal government
The Khalsa held a meeting to make plans to respond to the state repression against the people of the region and they decided to take possession of government money and weapons in order to weaken the administration, and to equip themselves to face the everyday attacks. Kapur Singh was assigned to plan and execute these projects.
Information was obtained that money was being transported from Multan to the Lahore treasure; the Khalsa looted the money and took over the arms and horses of the guards. They then took over one lakh rupees from the Kasoor estate treasury going from Kasur to Lahore. Next they captured a caravan from Afghanistan region which resulted in capturing numerous arms and horses.
The Khalsa seized a number of vilayati (Superior Central Asian) horses from Murtaza Khan was going to Delhi in the jungle of Kahna Kachha. Some additional war supplies were being taken from Afghanistan to Delhi and Kapur Singh organised an attack to capture them. In another attack, the Khalsa recovered gold and silver which was intended to be carried from Peshawar to Delhi by Jaffar Khan, a royal official.
Government sides with the Khalsa
The Mughal rulers and the commanders alongside the Delhi government lost all hope of defeating the Sikhs through repression and decided to develop another strategy, Zakaria Khan, the Governor of Lahore, went to Delhi where it was decided to befriend the Sikhs and rule in cooperation with them and in 1733 the Delhi rulers withdrew all orders against the Khalsa. The Sikhs were now permitted to own land and to move freely without any state violence against them. To co-operate with the Khalsa Panth, and win the goodwill of the people, the government sent an offer of an estate and Nawabship through a famous Lahore Sikh, Subeg Singh. The Khalsa did not wanted to rule freely and not to be under the rule of a subordinate position. However this offer was eventually accepted and this title was bestowed on Kapur Singh after it was sanctified by the touch of Five Khalsas feet. Thus Kapur Singh became Nawab Kapur Singh. Kapur Singh guided the Sikhs in strengthening themselves and preaching Gurmat to the people. He knew that peace would be short-lived. He encouraged people to freely visit their Gurdwaras and meet their relatives in the villages.
Dal Khalsa
The Khalsa reorganised themselves into two divisions, the younger generation would be part of the Taruna Dal, which provided the main fighting force, while the Sikhs above the age of forty years would be a part of the Budha Dal, which provided the responsibility of the management of Gurdwaras and Gurmat preaching. The Budha Dal would be responsible to keep track of the movements of government forces, plan their defense strategies, and they provide a reserve fighting force for the Taruna Dal.
The following measures were established by Nawab Kapur Singh:
All money obtained from anywhere by any Jatha should be deposited in the Common Khalsa Fund.
The Khalsa should have their common Langer for both the Dals.
Every Sikh should respect the orders of his Jathedar. Anyone going anywhere would get permission from him and report to him on his return.
5 Sikh Misls of the Dal Khalsa
The Taruna Dal quickly increased to more than 12,000 recruits and it soon became difficult to manage the house and feeding of such a large number of people at one place.
It was then decided to have five divisions of the Dal, each to draw rations from the central stocks and cook its own langar. These five divisions were stationed around the five sarovars (sacred pools) around Amritsar they were Ramsar, Bibeksar, Lachmansar, Kaulsar and Santokhsar. The divisions later became known as Misls and their number increased to eleven. Each took over and ruled a different region of the Punjab. Collectively they called themselves the Sarbat Khalsa.
Preparing Jassa Singh Ahluwalia for leadership
Being the leader of the Khalsa Nawab Kapur Singh was given an additional responsibility by Mata Sundari, the wife of Guru Gobind Singh sent Kapur Singh the young Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and told him that Ahluwalia was like a son to her and that the Nawab should raise him like an ideal Sikh. Ahluwalia under the guidance of Kapur Singh, was given a good education in Gurbani and thorough training in managing the Sikh affairs.
Later Jassa Singh Ahluwalia would become an important role in leading the Sikhs to self-rule.
State oppression
In 1735, the rulers of Lahore attacked and repossessed the jagir (estate) given to the Sikhs only two years before however Nawab Kapur Singh in reaction decided the whole Punjab should be taken over by the Sikhs. This decision was taken against heavy odds but was endorsed by the Khalsa and all the Sikhs assured him of their full cooperation in his endeavor for self-rule. Zakariya Khan Bahadur sent roaming squads to hunt and kill the Sikhs. Orders were issued to all administrators down to the village level officials to seek Sikhs, murder them, get them arrested, or report their whereabouts to the governments. One year's wages were offered to anyone who would murder a Sikh and deliver his head to the police station.
Rewards were also promised to those who helped arrest Sikhs. Persons providing food or shelter to Sikhs or helping them in any way were severely punished.
This was the period when the Sikhs were sawed into pieces, burnt alive, their heads crushed with hammers
and young children were pierced with spears before their mother’s eyes. To keep their morale high, the Sikhs developed their own high-sounding terminologies and slogans: For example. Tree leaves boiled for food were called ‘green dish’; the parched chickpeas were called ‘almonds’; the Babul tree was a ‘rose’; a blind man was a ‘brave man’, getting on the back of a buffalo was ‘riding an elephant’.
The army pursued the Sikhs hiding near the hills and forced them to cross the rivers and seek safety in the Malwa tract. When Kapur Singh reached Patiala he met Maharaja Baba Ala Singh who then took Amrit and Kapur Singh helped him increase the boundaries of his state. In 1736 the Khalsa attacked Sirhind, where the two younger sons of Guru Gobind Singh were killed. The Khalsa took over the city, the took over the treasury and they established the Gurdwaras at the historical places and withdrew.
While near Amritsar the government of Lahore sent troops to attack the Sikhs. Kapur Singh entrusted the treasury to Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, while having sufficient amount of Sikhs with him to keep the army engaged. When Jassa Singh was reached a considerable distance the Khalsa safely retreated to Tarn Taran Sahib. Kapur Singh sent messages to the Tauna Dal asking them to help them in the fight. After a day of fighting Kapur Singh from the trenches dug by the Khalsa surprisingly attacked the commanding posts killing three generals alongside many Mughal officers. The Mughal army thus retreated to Lahore.
Zakaria Khan called his advisers to plan another strategy to deal with the Sikhs. It was suggested that the Sikhs should not be allowed to visit the Amrit Sarovar, which was believed to be the fountain of their lives and source of their strength. Strong contingents were posted around the city and all entries to Harmandir Sahib were checked. The Sikhs, however, risking their lives, continued to pay their respects to the holy place and take a dip in the Sarovar (sacred pool) in the dark of the night. When Kapur Singh went to Amritsar he had a fight with Qadi Abdul Rehman. He had declared that Sikhs the so-called lions, would not dare to come to Amritsar and face him. In the ensuing fight Abdul Rehman was killed. When his son tried to save him, he too died. In 1738 Bhai Mani Singh was executed.
Sikhs attack Nader Shah
In 1739 Nader Shah of the Turkic Afsharid dynasty invaded and looted the treasury of the Indian subcontinent. Nader Shah killed more than 100,000 people in Delhi and carried off all of the gold and valuables. He added to his caravan hundreds of elephants and horses, along with thousands of young women and Indian artisans. When Kapur Singh learned of this, he decided to warn Nader Shah that if not the local rulers, then the Sikhs would protect the innocent women of Muslims and Hindus from being sold as slaves. While crossing The river Chenab, the Sikhs attacked the rear end of the caravan, freed many of the women, freed the artisans, and recovered part of the treasure.
Sikhs kill Massa Rangar
Massa Ranghar, the Mughal official, had seized Amritsar. While smoking and drinking in the Harmandir Sahib, he watched the dances of nautch girls. The Sikhs who had moved to Bikaner, a desert region, for safety, were outraged to hear of this desecration. In 1740 Sukha Singh and Mehtab Singh, went to Amritsar disguised as revenue collectors. They tied their horses outside, walked straight into the Harmandir Sahib, cut off his head, and took it with them. It was a lesson for the ruler that no tyrant would go unpunished.
Sikhs loot Abdus Samad Khan
Abdus Samad Khan, a senior Mughal royal commander, was sent from Delhi to subdue the Sikhs. Kapur Singh learned of this scheme and planned his own strategy accordingly. As soon as the army was sent out to hunt for the Sikhs, a Jatha of commandos disguised as messengers of Khan went to the armory. The commander there was told that Abdus Samad Khan was holding the Sikhs under siege and wanted him with all his force to go and arrest them. The few guards left behind were then overpowered by the Sikhs, and all the arms and ammunition were looted and brought to the Sikh camp.
Age of Revolution (1748–1799 CE)
Mughals increase persecution
Abdus Samad Khan sent many roaming squads to search for and kill Sikhs. He was responsible for the torture and murder of Bhai Mani Singh, the head Granthi of Harmandir Sahib. Samad Khan was afraid that Sikhs would kill him so he remained far behind the fighting lines. Kapur Singh had a plan to get him. During the battle Kapur Singh ordered his men to retreat drawing the fighting army with them. He then wheeled around and fell upon the rear of the army. Samad Khan and his guards were lying dead on the field within hours. The Punjab governor also took extra precautions for safety against the Sikhs. He started to live in the fort. He would not even dare to visit the mosque outside the fort for prayers.
On the request of the Budha Dal members, Kapur Singh visited Patiala. The sons of Sardar Ala Singh, the founder and Maharajah of the Patiala state, gave him a royal welcome. Kapur Singh subdued all local administrators around Delhi who were not behaving well towards their people.
Zakaria Khan died in 1745. His successor tightened the security around Amritsar. Kapur Singh planned to break the siege of Amritsar. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was made the commander of the attacking Sikh forces. In 1748, the Sikhs attacked. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, with his commandos behind him, dashed to the army commander and cut him into two with his sword. The commander's nephew was also killed.
The Khalsa strengthen military developments
The Sikhs built their first fort Ram Rauni at Amritsar in 1748. In December 1748, Governor Mir Mannu had to take his forces outside of Lahore to stop the advance of Ahmad Shah Abdali. The Sikhs quickly overpowered the police defending the station in Lahore and confiscated all of their weapons and released all the prisoners. Nawab Kapur Singh told the sheriff to inform the Governor that, the sheriff of God, the True Emperor, came and did what he was commanded to do. Before the policemen could report the matter to the authorities, or the army could be called in, the Khalsa were already riding their horses back to the forest.
Nawab Kapur Singh died in 1753.
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia
Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was born in 1718. His father, Badar Singh, died when Ahluwalia was only four years old. His mother took him to Mata Sundari, the wife of Guru Gobind Singh when Ahluwalia was young. Mata Sundri was impressed by his melodious singing of hymns and kept the Ahluwalia near her. Later Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was adopted by Nawab Kapoor Singh, then the leader of the Sikh nation. Ahluwalia followed all Sikh qualities required for a leader Ahluwalia would sing Asa di Var in the morning and it was appreciated by all the Dal Khalsa and Ahluwalia kept busy doing seva (selfless service). He became very popular with the Sikhs. He used to tie his turban in the Mughal fashion as he grew up in Delhi. Ahluwalia learned horseback riding and swordsmanship from expert teachers.
In 1748 Jassa Singh Ahluwalia became the supreme commander of all the Misls. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was honored with the title of Sultanul Kaum (King of the Nation). Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was the head of the Ahluwalia Misl and then after Nawab Kapoor Singh become the leader of all the Misls jointly called Dal Khalsa. He played a major role In leading the Khalsa to self-rule in Punjab. In 1761 The Dal Khalsa under the leadership of Ahluwalia, would take over Lahore, the capital of Punjab, for the first time. They were the masters of Lahore for a few months and minted their own Nanakshahi rupee coin in the name of 'Guru Nanak – Guru Gobind Singh'.
Chhota Ghalughara (The Lesser Massacre)
In 1746 about seven thousand Sikhs were killed and three thousand to fifteen thousand Sikhs were taken prisoners during by the order of the Mughal Empire when Zakaria Khan, The Governor of Lahore, and Lakhpat Rai, the Divan (Revenue Minister) of Zakaria Khan, sent military squads to kill the Sikhs.
Jaspat Rai, a jagirdar (landlord) of the Eminabad area and also the brother of Lakhpat Rai, faced the Sikhs in a battle one of the Sikhs held the tail of his elephant and got on his back from behind and with a quick move, he chopped off his head. Seeing their master killed, the troops fled. Lakhpat Rai, after this incident, committed himself to destroying the Sikhs.
Through March–May 1746, a new wave of violence was started against the Sikhs with all of the resources available to the Mughal government, village officials were ordered to co-operate in the expedition. Zakaria Khan issued the order that no one was to give any help or shelter to Sikhs and warned that severe consequences would be taken against anyone disobeying these orders. Local people were forcibly employed to search for the Sikhs to be killed by the army. Lakhpat Rai ordered Sikh places of worship to be destroyed and their holy books burnt. Information about including Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and a large body of Sikhs were camping in riverbeds in the Gurdaspur district (Kahnuwan tract). Zakaria Khan managed to have 3,000 Sikhs of these Sikhs captured and later got them beheaded in batches at Nakhas (site of the horse market outside the Delhi gate). Sikhs raised a memorial shrine known as the Shahidganj (the treasure house of martyrs) at that place latter.
In 1747, Shah Nawaz took over as Governor of Lahore. To please the Sikhs, Lakhpat Rai was put in prison by the new Governor. Lakhpat Rai received severe punishment and was eventually killed by the Sikhs.
Reclaiming Amritsar
In 1747 Salabat Khan, a newly appointed Mughal commander, placed police around Amritsar and built observation posts to spot and kill Sikhs coming to the Amrit Sarovar for a holy dip. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia and Nawab Kapoor Singh led the Sikhs to Amritsar, and Salabat Khan was killed by Ahluwalia, and his nephew was killed by the arrow of Kapur Singh.
The Sikhs restored Harmandir Sahib and celebrated their Diwali gathering there.
Reorganisation of the Misls
In 1748 all the Misls joined themselves under one command and on the advice of the aging Jathedar Nawab Kapoor Singh Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was made the supreme leader. They also decided to declare that the Punjab belonged to them and they would be the sovereign rulers of their state. The Sikhs also built their first fort, called Ram Rauni, at Amritsar.
Khalsa side with the Government
Adina Beg, the Faujdar (garrison commander) of Jalandhar, sent a message to the Dal Khalsa chief to cooperate with him in the civil administration, and he wanted a meeting to discuss the matter. This was seen as a trick to disarm the Sikhs and keep them under government control. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia replied that their meeting place would be the battleground and the discussion would be carried out by their swords. Beg attacked the Ram Rauni fort at Amritsar and besieged the Sikhs there. Dewan Kaura Mal advised the Governor to lift the siege and prepare the army to protect the state from the Durrani invader, Ahmed Shah Abdali. Kaura Mal had a part of the revenue of Patti area given to the Sikhs for the improvement and management of Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar.
Kaura Mal had to go to Multan to quell a rebellion there. He asked the Sikhs for help and they agreed to join him. After the victory at Multan, Kaura came to pay his respects to the Darbar Sahib, and offered 11,000 rupees and built Gurdwara Bal-Leela; He also spent 3,000,000 rupees to build a Sarover (holy water) at Nankana Sahib, the birthplace of Guru Nanak Dev. In 1752, Kaura Mall was killed in a battle with Ahmed Shah Abdali and state policy towards the Sikhs quickly changed. Mir Mannu, the Governor, started hunting Sikhs again. He arrested many men and women, put them in prison and tortured them. In November 1753, when he went to kill the Sikhs hiding in the fields, they showered him with a hail of bullets and Mannu fell from the horse and the animal dragged him to death. The Sikhs immediately proceeded to Lahore, attacked the prison, and got all the prisoners released and led them to safety in the forests.
Harmandir Sahib demolished in 1757
In May 1757, the Afghan Durrani general of Ahmad Shah Abdali, Jahan Khan attacked Amritsar with a huge army and the Sikhs because of their small numbers decided to withdraw to the forests. Their fort, Ram Rauni, was demolished, Harmandir Sahib was also demolished, and the army desecrated the Sarovar (Holy water) by filling it with debris and dead animals. Baba Deep Singh made history when he cut through 20,000 Durrani soldiers and reached Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar.
The Khalsa gain territory
Adina Beg did not pay revenues to the government so the Governor dismissed him and appointed a new Faujdar (garrison commander) in his place. The army was sent to arrest him and this prompted Adina Beg to request Sikh help. The Sikhs took advantage of the situation and to weaken the government, they fought against the army. One of the commanders was killed by the Sikhs and the other deserted. Later, the Sikhs attacked Jalandhar and thus became the rulers of all the tracts between Sutlej and Beas rivers, called Doaba.
Instead of roaming in the forests now they were ruling the cities.
The Sikhs started bringing more areas under their control and realising revenue from them. In 1758, joined by the Mahrattas, they conquered Lahore and arrested many Afghan soldiers who were responsible for filling the Amrit Sarovar with debris a few months earlier. They were brought to Amritsar and made to clean the Sarovar (holy water). After the cleaning of the Sarovar, the soldiers were allowed to go home with a warning that they should not do that again.
Ahmed Shah Abdali came again in October 1759 to loot Delhi. The Sikhs gave him a good fight and killed more than 2,000 of his soldiers. Instead of getting involved with the Sikhs, he made a rapid advance to Delhi. The Khalsa decided to collect revenues from Lahore to prove to the people that the Sikhs were the rulers of the state. The Governor of Lahore closed the gates of the city and did not come out to fight against them. The Sikhs laid siege to the city. After a week, the Governor agreed to pay 30,000 rupees to the Sikhs.
Ahmed Shah Abdali returned from Delhi in March 1761 with much gold and more than 2,000 girls as prisoners who were to be sold to the Afghans in Kabul. When Abdali was crossing the river Beas, the Sikhs swiftly fell upon them. They freed the women prisoners and escorted them back to their homes. The Sikhs seized Lahore in September 1761, after Abdali returned to Kabul.
The Khalsa minted their coins in the name of Guru Nanak Dev. Sikhs, as rulers of the city, received full cooperation from the people. After becoming the Governor of Lahore, Punjab Jassa Singh Ahluwalia was given the title of Sultan-ul-Kaum (King of the Nation).
Wadda Ghalughara (The Great Massacre)
In the winter of 1762, after losing his loot from Delhi to the Sikhs, The Durrani emperor, Ahmad Shah Abdali brought a big, well equipped army to finish the Sikhs forever. Sikhs were near Ludhiana on their way to the forests and dry areas of the south and Abdali moved from Lahore very quickly and caught the Sikhs totally unprepared. They had their women, children and old people with them. As many as 30,000 Sikhs are said to have been murdered by the army. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia himself received about two dozen wounds. Fifty chariots were necessary to transport the heads of the victims to Lahore. The Sikhs call this Wadda Ghalughara (The Great Massacre).
Harmandir Sahib desecrated in 1762
Ahmad Shah Abdali, fearing Sikh retaliation, sent messages that he was willing to assign some areas to the Sikhs to be ruled by them. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia rejected his offers and told him that Sikhs own Punjab and they do not recognise his authority at all. Abdali went to Amritsar and destroyed the Harmandir Sahib again by filling it up with gunpowder hoping to eliminate the source of "life" of the Sikhs. While Abdali was demolishing the Harminder Sahib a he was hit on the nose with a brick; later in 1772 Abdali died of cancer from the 'gangrenous ulcer' that consumed his nose. Within a few months the Sikhs attacked Sirhind and moved to Amritsar.
Sikhs retake Lahore
In 1764 the Sikhs shot dead Zain Khan Sirhindi Durrani Governor of Sirhind, and the regions around Sirhind were divided among the Sikh Misldars and money recovered from the treasury were used to rebuild the Harmandir Sahib. Gurdwara Fatehgarh Sahib was built in Sirhind, at the location the two younger sons of Guru Gobind Singh were killed. The Sikhs started striking Govind Shahi coins and in 1765 they took over Lahore again.
In 1767 when Ahmed Shah Abdali came again he sent messages to the Sikhs for their cooperation. He offered them the governorship of Punjab but was rejected. The Sikhs using repeated guerrilla attacks took away his caravan of 1,000 camels loaded with fruits from Kabul. The Sikhs were again in control of the areas between Sutlej and Ravi. After Abdali’s departure to Kabul, Sikhs crossed the Sutlej and brought Sirhind and other areas right up to Delhi, entire Punjab under their control.
Shah Alam II, the Mughal Emperor of Delhi was staying away in Allahabad, ordered his commander Zabita Khan to fight the Sikhs. Zabita made a truce with them instead and then was dismissed from Alam’s service. Zabita Khan then became a Sikh and was given a new name, Dharam Singh.
Qadi Nur Mohammed, who came to Punjab with Ahmad Shah Abdali and was present during many Sikh battles writes about the Sikhs:
Peace in Amritsar
Ahmad Shah Abdali, fearing the Sikhs, did not follow his normal route through Punjab while he returned to Kabul. Jassa Singh Ahluwalia did not add more areas to his Misl. Instead, whenever any wealth or villages came into the hands of the Sikhs he distributed them among the Jathedars of all the Misls. Ahluwalia passed his last years in Amritsar. With the resources available to him, he repaired all the buildings, improved the management of the Gurdwaras, and provided better civic facilities to the residents of Amritsar. He wanted every Sikh to take Amrit before joining the Dal Khalsa.
Ahluwalia died in 1783 and was cremated near Amritsar. There is a city block, Katra Ahluwalia, in Amritsar named after him. This block was assigned to his Misl in honor of his having stayed there and protected the city of Amritsar.
Sardar Jassa Singh Ramgarhia
Jassa Singh Ramgarhia played an active role in Jassa Singh Alhuwalia’s army. He founded the Ramgarhia Misl and played a major role in the battles of the Khalsa Panth. He suffered about two dozen wounds during the Wadda Ghalughara. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia was the son of Giani Bhagwan Singh and was born in 1723. They lived in the village of Ichogil, near Lahore. His grandfather took Amrit during the lifetime of Guru Gobind Singh, and joined him in many battles; he joined the forces of Banda Singh Bahadur. Ramgarhia was the oldest of five brothers. When Ramgarhia was young he had memorised Nitnem hymns and took Amrit.
Award of an Estate
In 1733, Zakaria Khan, the Governor of Punjab, needed help to protect himself from the Iranian invader, Nader Shah. He offered the Sikhs an estate and a royal robe. The Sikhs in the name of Kapur Singh accepted it. After the battle Zakaria Khan gave five villages to the Sikhs in reward for the bravery of Giani Bhagwan Singh, father of Ramgarhia, who died in the battle. Village Vallah was awarded to Ramgarhia, where Ramgarhia gained the administrative experience required to become a Jathedar (leader) of the Sikhs. During this period of peace with the government, the Sikhs built their fort, Ram Rauni, in Amritsar. Zakaria died in 1745 and Mir Mannu became the Governor of Lahore.
Jassa Singh honored as Jassa Singh Ramgarhia
Mir Mannu (Mu'in ul-Mulk), the Governor of Lahore, was worried about the increasing power of the Sikhs so he broke the peace. Mir Mannu also ordered Adina Beg, the Faujdar (garrison commander) of the Jalandhar region, to begin killing the Sikhs. Adina Beg was a very smart politician and wanted the Sikhs to remain involved helping them. In order to develop good relations with the Sikhs, he sent secret messages to them who were living in different places. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia responded and agreed to cooperate with the Faujdar and was made a Commander. This position helped him develop good relations with Divan Kaura Mal at Lahore and assign important posts to the Sikhs in the Jalandhar division.
The Governor of Lahore ordered an attack on Ram Rauni to kill the Sikhs staying in that fort. Adina Beg was required to send his army as well and Jassa Singh, being the commander of the Jalandhar forces, had to join the army to kill the Sikhs in the fort. After about four months of siege, Sikhs ran short of food and supplies in the fort. He contacted the Sikhs inside the fort and joined them. Jassa Singh used the offices of Divan Kaura Mal and had the siege lifted. The fort was strengthened and named Ramgarh; Jassa Singh Ramgarhia, having been designated the Jathedar of the fort, became popular as Ramgarhia.
Fighting the tyrannical Government
Mir Mannu intensified his violence and oppression against the Sikhs. There were only 900 Sikhs when he surrounded the Ramgarh fort again. The Sikhs fought their way out bravely through thousands of army soldiers. The army demolished the fort. The hunt for and torture of the Sikhs continued until Mannu died in 1753. Mannu's death left Punjab without any effective Governor. It was again an opportune period for the Sikhs to organise themselves and gain strength. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia rebuilt the fort and took possession of some areas around Amritsar. The Sikhs took upon themselves the task of protecting the people in the villages from the invaders. The money they obtained from the people was called Rakhi (protection charges). The new Governor, Taimur, son of Ahmed Shah Abdali, despised the Sikhs. In 1757, he again forced the Sikhs to vacate the fort and move to their hiding places. The fort was demolished, Harmandir Sahib was blown up, and Amrit Sarovar was filled with debris. The Governor decided to replace Adina Beg. Beg asked the Sikhs for help and they both got a chance to weaken their common enemy. Adina Beg won the battle and became the Governor of Punjab. Sikhs rebuilt their fort Ramgarh and repaired the Harmandir Sahib. Beg was well acquainted with the strength of the Sikhs and he feared they would oust him if he allowed them to grow stronger, so he led a strong army to demolish the fort. After fighting valiantly, the Sikhs decided to leave the fort. Adina Beg died in 1758.
Ramgarhia Misl Estate
Jassa Singh Ramgarhia occupied the area to the north of Amritsar between the Ravi and the Beas rivers. He also added the Jalandhar region and Kangra hill areas to his estate. He had his capital in Sri Hargobindpur, a town founded by the sixth Guru. The large size of Ramgarhia's territory aroused the jealousy of the other Sikh Misls.
Conflicts between Misls
A conflict between Jai Singh Kanhaiya and Jassa Singh Ramgarhia developed and the Bhangi Misl sardars also developed differences with Jai Singh Kanhaiya. A big battle was fought between Jai Singh, Charat Singh, and Jassa Singh Ahluwalia on one side and Bhangis, Ramgarhias and their associates on the other side. The Bhangi side lost the battle.
Later, Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, one day while hunting, happened to enter Ramgarhia territory where Jassa Singh Ramgarhia's brother arrested him. Ramgarhia apologised for the misbehaviour of his brother, and returned Ahluwalia with gifts.
Intra-Misl wars
Due to mutual jealousies, fights continued among the Sikh Sardars. In 1776, the Bhangis changed sides and joined Jai Singh Kanhaiya to defeat Jassa Singh Ramgarhia. His capital at Sri Hargobindpur was taken over and he was followed from village to village, and finally forced to vacate all his territory. He had to cross the river Sutlej and go to Amar Singh, the ruler of Patiala. Maharaja Amar Singh welcomed Ramgarhia and who then occupied the areas of Hansi and Hissar which eventually Ramgarhia handed over to his son, Jodh Singh Ramgarhia.
Maharaja Amar Singh and Ramgarhia took control of the villages on the west and north of Delhi, now forming parts of Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh. The Sikhs disciplined and brought to justice all the Hindu Nawabs who were harassing their Muslim population. Jassa Singh Ramgarhia entered Delhi in 1783. Shah Alam II, the Mughal emperor, extended the Sikhs a warm welcome. Ramgarhia left Delhi after receiving gifts from him. Because of the differences arising out of the issue of dividing the Jammu state revenues, longtime friends and neighbors Maha Singh, Jathedar of Sukerchakia Misl and Jai Singh, Jathedar of the Kanheya Misl, became enemies. This resulted in a war which changed the course of Sikh history. Maha Singh requested Ramgarhia to help him. In the battle, Jai Singh lost his son, Gurbaksh Singh, while fighting with Ramgarhias.
Sikhs captured Delhi
After continuous raids, Sikhs under Jassa Singh Ahluwalia, Baba Baghel Singh, Jassa Singh Ramgarhia defeated the Mughals on 11 March 1783, captured Delhi and hoisted the Sikh flag (Nishan Sahib) in Red Fort and Ahluwalia became king but they gave it back to the Mughals after signing peace treaties.
The creation of the United Misl
Jai Singh Kanheya’s widowed daughter-in-law, Sada Kaur, though very young, was a great statesperson. Sada Kaur saw the end of the Khalsa power through such mutual battles but she was able to convince Maha Singh to adopt the path of friendship. For this she offered the hand of her daughter, then only a child, to his son, Ranjit Singh (later the Maharaja of the Punjab), who was then just a boy. The balance of power shifted in favour of this united Misl. This made Ranjit Singh the leader of the most powerful union of the Misls.
When the Afghan invader, Zaman Shah Durrani, came in 1788 the Sikhs, however, were still divided. Ramgarhia and Bhangi Misls were not willing to help Ranjit Singh to fight the invader, so the Afghans took over Lahore and looted it. Ranjit Singh occupied Lahore in 1799 but still the Ramgarhias and Bhangis did not accept him as the leader of all the Sikhs. They got the support of their friends and marched to Lahore to challenge Ranjit Singh. When the Bhangi leader died Jassa Singh Ramgarhia returned to his territory.
Ramgarhia was eighty years old when he died in 1803. His son, Jodh Singh Ramgarhia, developed good relations with Ranjit Singh and they never fought again.
Sikh Empire (1799–1849 CE)
Ranjit Singh was crowned on 12 April 1801 (to coincide with Baisakhi). Sahib Singh Bedi, a descendant of Guru Nanak Dev, conducted the coronation. Gujranwala served as his capital from 1799. In 1802 he shifted his capital to Lahore and Amritsar. Ranjit Singh rose to power in a very short period, from a leader of a single Sikh misl to finally becoming the Maharaja (Emperor) of Punjab.
Formation
The Sikh Empire (from 1801 to 1849) was formed on the foundations of the Punjabi Army by Maharaja Ranjit Singh. The Empire extended from Khyber Pass in the west, to Kashmir in the north, to Sindh in the south, and Tibet in the east. The main geographical footprint of the empire was the Punjab. The religious demography of the Sikh Empire was Muslim (80%), Sikh (10%), Hindu (10%).
The foundations of the Sikh Empire, during the Punjab Army, could be defined as early as 1707, starting from the death of Aurangzeb and the downfall of the Mughal Empire. After fighting off local Mughal remnants and allied Rajput leaders, Afghans, and occasionally hostile Punjabi Muslims who sided with other Muslim forces the fall of the Mughal Empire provided opportunities for the army, known as the Dal Khalsa, to lead expeditions against the Mughals and Afghans. This led to the growth of the army, which was split into different Punjabi Armies and then semi-independent misls. Each of these component armies was known as a misl, each controlling different areas and cities. However, in the period from 1762 to 1799 Sikh rulers of their misls appeared to be coming into their own. The formal start of the Sikh Empire began with the disbandment of the Punjab Army by the time of Coronation of Maharaja Ranjit Singh in 1801, creating the one unified political Empire. All the misldars who were affiliated with the Army were nobility with usually long and prestigious family histories in Punjab's history.
Punjab flourishes in education and arts
The Sikh rulers were very tolerant of other religions; and arts, painting and writings flourished in Punjab. In Lahore alone there were 18 formal schools for girls besides specialist schools for technical training, languages, mathematics and logic, let alone specialised schools for the three major religions, they being Hinduism, Islam, and Sikhism. There were craft schools specialising in miniature painting, sketching, drafting, architecture, and calligraphy. There wasn't a mosque, a temple, a dharmsala that had not a school attached to it. All the sciences in Arabic and Sanskrit schools and colleges, as well as Oriental literature, Oriental law, Logic, Philosophy, and Medicine were taught to the highest standard. In Lahore, Schools opened from 7am and closed at midday. In no case was a class allowed to exceed 50 pupils.
Khalsa Army
The Sikh Fauj-i-Ain (regular army) consisted of roughly 71,000 men and consisted of infantry, cavalry, and artillery units. Ranjit Singh employed generals and soldiers from many countries including Russia, Italy, France, and America.
There was strong collaboration in defense against foreign incursions such as those initiated by Shah Zaman and Timur Shah Durrani. The city of Amritsar was attacked numerous times. Yet the time is remembered by Sikh historians as the "Heroic Century". This is mainly to describe the rise of Sikhs to political power against large odds. The circumstances were hostile religious environment against Sikhs, a tiny Sikh population compared to other religious and political powers, which were much larger in the region than the Sikhs.
Conquests and Generals
In 1834 the Khalsa under Hari Singh Nalwa and Jean-Baptiste Ventura conquered Peshawar and extended the Sikh Raj up to Jamrud, Afghanistan. And Jawahar Singh and Zorawar Singh extended it to West Tibet.
Later the Sikhs under Hari Singh Nalwa Campaigned against the Afghans in the third phase of the Afghan Sikh wars and they took the Winter capital of the Afghans, Peshawar. Hari Singh Nalwa is considered one of the best commanders in history and is compared to Napoleon and Genghis Khan and for conquering and controlling the Khyber Pass, the United States of America wanted to build a statue in his praise. Mothers used to say his name to scare children to sleep in Afghanistan saying 'Sleep fast Nalwa is coming'. They also brought the queen's jewel, the Koh-i-noor diamond from Afghanistan and the gates to the Somnath temple.
The Maharaja Employed many Prussian, French and Italian generals to train Sikhs in a more modern manner. He divided the army into three, the mordern, elite soldiers the Fauj-i-Khas, the regular army including cavalry the Fauj-i-Ain and the irregular Gharcharas and Nihangs the Fauj i be Quawaid.
End of empire
First Anglo-Sikh War
After Maharaja Ranjit Singh's death in 1839, the empire was severely weakened by internal divisions and political mismanagement. This opportunity was used by the East India Company to launch the First Anglo-Sikh War. The Battle of Ferozeshah in 1845 marked many turning points, the British encountered the Punjabi Army, opening with a gun-duel in which the Sikhs "had the better of the British artillery". But as the British made advancements, Europeans in the British army were especially targeted, as the Sikhs believed if the army "became demoralised, the backbone of the enemy's position would be broken". The fighting continued throughout the night earning the nickname "night of terrors". The British position "grew graver as the night wore on", and "suffered terrible casualties with every single member of the Governor General's staff either killed or wounded".
British General Sir James Hope Grant recorded: "Truly the night was one of gloom and forbidding and perhaps never in the annals of warfare has a British Army on such a large scale been nearer to a defeat which would have involved annihilation". The Punjabi ended up recovering their camp, and the British were exhausted. Lord Hardinge sent his son to Mudki with a sword from his Napoleonic campaigns. A note in Robert Needham Cust's diary revealed that the "British generals decided to lay down arms: News came from the Governor General that our attack of yesterday had failed, that affairs were disparate, all state papers were to be destroyed, and that if the morning attack failed all would be over, this was kept secret by Mr. Currie and we were considering measures to make an unconditional surrender to save the wounded...".
However, a series of events of the Sikhs being betrayed by some prominent leaders in the army led to its downfall. Maharaja Gulab Singh and Dhian Singh, were Hindu Dogras from Jammu, and top Generals of the army. Tej Singh and Lal Singh were secretly allied to the British. They supplied important war plans of the Army, and provided the British with updated vital intelligence on the Army dealings, which ended up changing the scope of the war and benefiting the British positions.
Second Anglo-Sikh War
The Punjab Empire was finally dissolved after a series of wars with the British at the end of the Second Anglo-Sikh War in 1849 into separate princely states, and the British province of Punjab that were granted a statehood, and eventually a lieutenant governorship stationed in Lahore as a direct representative of the Royal Crown in London.
Early Colonial Era (1849–1919 CE)
Punjab under the British Raj in India
Impact on Punjabi education
Every village in the Punjab, through the Tehsildar (taxman), had an ample supply of the Punjabi qaida (beginners book), which was compulsory for females and thus, almost every Punjabi woman was literate in the sense that she could read and write the lundee form of Gurmukhi.
The British made Punjab flourish in education and almost everyone was literate. After the State of Bombay and Madras Punjab was the third most literate state and many Books and compositions were written. The Guru Granth Sahib and Dasam Granth were both translated by a British Sikh convert Max Arthur Metcalfe later Max Singh Macaulfe.
Sikhs in the British military
Under the East India Company and then British colonial rule from 1858 Sikhs were feared and respected for their martial ability. After they played a key role in the suppression of the Indian Rebellion of 1857-8. Sikhs were increasingly incorporated into the Indian army because they were not only seen as 'loyal', but because the colonial government believed that they were a 'martial race' whose religious traditions and popular customs made them skilled fighters.
The Sikhs again were honoured in the Battle of Saragarhi where twenty-one Sikhs of the 4th Battalion (then 36th Sikhs) of the Sikh Regiment of British India, died defending an army post from 10,000 Afghan and Orakzai tribesmen in 1897. In the end of Partition Sikhs were 20 percent of the British army despite they 1 percent population.
Settlement outside Punjab
In the late 1800s and early 1900s Punjabi and Sikhs began to immigrate to East Africa, the Far East, Canada, the United States, and the United Kingdom.
Sikhs in the World Wars
In two world wars 83,005 Sikh soldiers were killed and 109,045 were wounded. Sikh soldiers died or were wounded for the freedom of Britain and the world and during shell fire.
At offset of World War I, Sikh military personnel numbered around 35,000 men of the 161,000 troops, which is around 22% of the British Armed Forces, yet the Sikhs only made up less than 2% of the total population in India. Sikhs were known as 'Black Lions' by the German and Chinese forces for their ferocity
Early modern Sikh developments
In 1920 The Akali Party is established to free gurdwaras from corrupt masands (treasurers), and the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SPGC) is founded. In 1925 The Punjab Sikh Gurdwaras Act is passed, which transfers control of the Punjab's historic gurdwaras to the Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee.
Singh Sabha Movement (1880-1919 CE)
The Singh Sabha Movement was a Sikh movement that began in Punjab in the 1870s in reaction to the proselytising activities of Christians, Hindu reform movements (Brahmo Samajis, Arya Samaj) and Muslims (Aligarh movement and Ahmadiyah). The movement was founded in an era when the Sikh Empire had been dissolved and annexed by the East India Company, the Khalsa had lost its prestige, and mainstream Sikhs were rapidly converting to other religions. The movement's aims were to "propagate the true Sikh religion and restore Sikhism to its pristine glory; to write and distribute historical and religious books of Sikhs; and to propagate Gurmukhi Punjabi through magazines and media." The movement sought to reform Sikhism and bring back into the Sikh fold the apostates who had converted to other religions; as well as to interest the influential British officials in furthering the Sikh community. At the time of its founding, the Singh Sabha policy was to avoid criticism of other religions and political matters unlike Hindu, Christian and Muslim protelisers.
The East India Company annexed the Sikh Empire in 1849 after the Second Anglo-Sikh War. Thereafter, Christian missionaries increased proselytising activities central Punjab. In 1853, Maharajah Dalip Singh, the last Sikh ruler, was controversially converted to Christianity. In parallel, Brahmo Samaji and Arya Samaji reform movements of Hinduism began active pursuit of Sikhs into their suddhi ceremonies. Muslim proselytizers formed the Anjuman-i-Islamia midst the Sikhs in Lahore, while the Ahmadiyah movement sought converts to their faith. The British colonial government, after annexing the Sikh empire in mid-19th-century, continue to patronize and gift land grants to these mahants, thereby increasing their strength and helped sustain the idolatry in Sikh shrines.
The annexation of the Punjab to the East India Company in the mid-19th century saw severe deterioration of Gurdwara management.
In this way the Ranjit Singh's army was disbanded and the Punjab demilitarized, and Sikh armies were required to publicly surrender their arms and return to agriculture or other pursuits. Certain groups, however, like those who held revenue-free lands (jagirdars) were allowed to decline, particularly if they were seen as “rebels,” The British were wary of giving the Sikhs unmitigated control of their own gurdwaras, and drew from Sikh factions seen as loyal to the British, like the Sikh aristocracy and Sikhs with noted family lineages, who were given patronage and pensions, and Udasis, who had gained control of historical gurdwaras in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, were allowed to retain proprietary control over lands and gurdwara buildings. The colonial administration went to considerable lengths to insert such loyalists into the Golden Temple in order to exert as much control over the Sikh body-politic as possible. One reason for this was the emergence of Sikh revivalist groups, like the Nirankaris, the Namdharis, and the Singh Sabha movement, shortly after annexation; this revivalism was spurred by a growing disaffection within the ranks of ordinary Sikhs about the perceived decline of proper Sikh practices.
Sikh institutions deteriorated further under the administration of the mahants, supported by the colonial government, who in addition to being considered as ignoring the needs of the Sikh community of the time, allowed the gurdwaras to turn into spaces for societal undesirables like petty thieves, drunks, pimps, and peddlers of unsavory and licentious music and literature, with which they themselves took part in such activities. In addition, they also allowed non-Sikh, Brahmanical practices to take root in the gurdwaras, including idol worship, caste discrimination, and allowing non-Sikh pandits and astrologers to frequent them, and began to simply ignore the needs of the general Sikh community, as they used gurdwara offerings and other donations as their personal revenue, and their positions became increasingly corrupt and hereditary. Some local congregations marshalled popular pressure against them and to relinquish control, but the large revenue derived from gurdwara estates empowered them to resist such pressure.
Later Colonial Era (1919–1947 CE)
Sikh Struggles in British India
Jallianwala Bagh massacre
In 1919 the massacre of Jallianwala Bagh massacre in Amritsar during the festival of Vaisakhi when 4000 peaceful protesters including women, children and the elderly were shot at under the orders of Reginald Dyer.
Sikh revolutionaries
Sohan Singh Bhakna, Kartar Singh Sarabha, alongside many other Punjabi's founded the Ghadar party to overthrow British colonial authority in India by means of an armed revolution. The Ghadar party is closely associated with the Babbar Akali Movement, a 1921 splinter group of "militant" Sikhs who broke away from the mainstream non-violent Akali movement.In 1914 Baba Gurdit Singh led the Komagata Maru ship to the port of Vancouver with 346 Sikhs on board; forced to leave port on 23 July. Bela Singh Jain an informer and agent of Inspector William Hopkinson, pulled out two guns and started shooting at the Khalsa Diwan Society Gurdwara Sahib on West 2nd Avenue. He murdered Bhai Bhag Singh, President of the Society and Battan Singh and Bela Singh was charged with murder, but Hopkinson decided to appear as a witness in his case and made up much of his testimony at his trail and subsequently Bela Singh was acquitted. On 21 October 1914, Bhai Mewa Singh, Granthi of Khalsa Diwan Society shot William Hopkinson in the Assize court corridor with two revolvers because he believed him to be unscrupulous and corrupt, using informers to spy on Indian immigrants. Canadian policeman William Hopkinson shot and killed by Mewa Singh who is later sentenced to death.
In 1926 Six Babar (literally, lion) revolutionary Akalis, are put to death by hanging.
In 1931 Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, and Sukhdev are convicted of murder of police inspector J.P. Saunders and executed; Bhagat Singh is popularly known as Shaheedey Azam (supreme martyr)
In 1940 Udham Singh, an Indian revolutionary socialist, assassinated Michael O'Dwyer to avenge justice for the Jallianwalla Bagh Massacre when 15,000 to 20,000 people including women, children were shot at after a peaceful protest in Amritsar
Bhagat Puran Singh Pingalwara dedicated his life to the 'selfless service of humanity'. He founded Pingalwara in 1947 with only a few patients, the neglected and rejected of the streets of Amritsar. An early advocate of what we today refer to as the 'Green Revolution', Bhagat Puran Singh was spreading awareness about environmental pollution, and increasing soil erosion long before such ideas became popular.
The Sikhs played a pioneering role in the Indian independence movement. They made sacrifices wholly out of proportion to their demographic strength (the Sikhs make up less than 2% of the Indian population).
(Figures below provided by Maulana Abul Azad, President of the Congress Party at the time of Independence.)
Out of 2125 Indians killed during the independence movement, 1550 (73%) were Sikhs.
Out of 2646 Indians deported for life to the Andaman Islands (where the colonial government exiled political and hardened criminals) 2147 (80%) were Sikhs.
Out of 127 Indians sent to the gallows, 92 (80%) were Sikhs.
At Jallianwala Bagh out of the 1302 men, women and children killed, 799 (61%) were Sikhs.
In the Indian Liberation Army, out of the 20,000 ranks and officers, 12,000 (60%) were Sikhs.
Out of 121 persons executed during the independence movement, 73 (60%) were Sikhs.
Indian Independence (1947–1978 CE)
Partition of India
Sikh organizations, including the Chief Khalsa Dewan and Shiromani Akali Dal led by Master Tara Singh, condemned the Lahore Resolution and the movement to create Pakistan, viewing it as inviting possible persecution; the Sikhs largely thus strongly opposed the partition of India.
Post Partition Years
The months leading up to the partition of India in 1947, saw heavy conflict in the Punjab between Sikh and Muslims, which saw the effective religious migration of Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus from West Punjab which mirrored a similar religious migration of Punjabi Muslims in East Punjab. The 1960s saw growing animosity and rioting between Punjabi Sikhs and Hindus in India, as the Punjabi Sikhs agitated for the creation of a Punjabi Sikh majority state, an undertaking which was promised to the Sikh leader Master Tara Singh by Nehru in return for Sikh political support during the negotiations for Indian Independence. Sikhs obtained the Sikh majority state of Punjab on 1 November 1966.
In 1950 the Sikh Rehat Maryada is published.
In 1962 the Punjabi University is inaugurated at Patiala, India
Punjabi Suba Morcha
After the Partition of India Sikhs had been disrespected in many ways. Jawaharlal Nehru and Gandhi had stated that -
"The brave Sikhs of Panjab are entitled to special consideration. I see nothing wrong in an area and a set up in the North wherein the Sikhs can also experience the glow of freedom. (Jawaharlal Nehru, Congress meeting: Calcutta - July, 1944)
But after the partition of India he did not give Sikhs even a state to themselves and this led to further grievances. Many Hindus refused to keep Punjabi as their language and only Sikhs viewed their language as Punjabi.
Sikhs in The Indian Army
Sikhs composed 18 percent of the Indian army and are the most decorated regiment in India. Sikhs composed majority of the Sikh Regiment, Sikh Light Infantry, Jat Regiment and Rajput Regiment. They fought in all Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts and the Sino-Indian War and got many titles and gallantry awards.
Present day (1978–present CE)
Sikh-Nirankari Clash
In 1978 Nirankari Baba Gurbachan Singh had led a parade across Amritsar where he was chanting anti-Sikh slogans and saying that the Gurus were his slaves. He used Amrit to clean his feet and pages from the Guru Granth Sahib to wipe them. Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale sent peaceful protesters against him but Nirankaris started shotgunning the innocent Sikhs.
Operation Blue Star and Sikh Genocide
Sikh missionary Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale heard that in 1982 the government had created a model of the Darbar Sahib in Dehra Dun and were planning an attack. Historians argue that Gandhi's assumption of emergency powers in 1975 resulted in the weakening of the "legitimate and impartial machinery of government" and her increasing "paranoia" of opposing political groups led her to instigate a "despotic policy of playing castes, religions and political groups against each other for political advantage." As a reaction against these actions came the emergence of the Sikh leader Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale who vocalised Sikh sentiment for justice. This accelerated Punjab into a state of peaceful protests.
Sikhs did not get an autonomous region or even a state so following India's independence in 1947, the Punjabi Suba movement led by the Sikh political party Akali Dal trifurcated the Punjab state. Afterwards the government assured the Sikhs that only excess water would go to other states, after 5 years Chandigarh would be the capital and Sikhism would be considered a separate religion as it had been for the past centuries. Those promises were not fulfilled as 83.5% of Punjab's waters were and still are going to other states leading to desertification, Sikhs are still a part of the Hindu Marriage Act and Chandigarh is still a union territory. Subsequently, a section of the Sikh leaders started demanding more autonomy for the states, alleging that the central government was discriminating against Punjab. The early stages of the Sikh agitation for equal rights were peaceful, leading one commentator to note:"...over 100,000 [Sikh] volunteers have been arrested. This high number of arrests is undoubtedly, a national record and so has been the peaceful nature in which the Satyagrahas [protests] of this magnitude have been handled by the Sikhs, with extreme tolerance."On September 1981, Bhindranwale voluntarily offered his arrest in Amritsar, where he was detained and interrogated for twenty-five days, but was released because of lack of evidence. "For all I know, he [Bhindranwale] is completely innocent and is genuinely and exclusively dedicated to the teachings of the Gurus.” In December 1983, a senior officer in Chandigarh confessed: “It’s really shocking that we have so little against him [Bhindranwale] while we keep blaming him for all sorts of things.”
Bhindranwale and his followers were armed with traditional swords, shields and muskets. Few also had Dragunov Rifles, Kashganovs, Ak-74s and Ak-47s. These were licensed and supplied by the Indian Government. It was the peak of the Cold War and India was leaning towards Russia and Pakistan had allied with The United States of America. This is why Bhindranwale was carrying Russian made guns. The Indian Government started alleging that Bhindranwale was killing Hindus and allied with Pakistan to create Khalistan. The first time that the phrase Khalistan came was in the Hind Samachar newspaper group. The Indian secret operation called Black Cats was made by Indira Gandhi to disguise the Punjab Police as terrorists and kill Hindus in the countryside. Bhindranwale condemned these but it was not outlined on any newspapers as they were government controlled. He also made a speech that he did not hate Hindus and he had donated 5 lakhs to restore ald Hindu and Sikh architecture and Mandirs. He even adopted a Hindu women as his daughter.
In June 1984, the Indian Government ordered a military operation, Operation Blue Star to clear Harmandir Sahib, Amritsar and thirty other Gurdwaras of innocent Sikhs led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale who were with many other pilgrims in Gurdwaras. During this operation, the Indian army had around 3000 casualties with 700 injuries, and 200–250 Sikh militants were killed. The handling of the operation, damage to the holy shrine and loss of life on both sides, led to widespread criticism of the Indian Government. The Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi was assassinated by her two Sikh bodyguards in retaliation. Following her death 17,000 of Sikhs were killed in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots. The subsequent Punjab insurgency saw several secessionist militant groups becoming active in Punjab, supported by a section of the Sikh diaspora. Indian security forces suppressed the insurgency in the early 1990s by doing genocide upon the innocent Sikhs; over 2,500,000 Sikhs died, according to Jaswant Sikh Khalra, who was also killed by the police in a fake encounter for being against the Government.
Gandhi's 1984 action to remove Sant Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale led to desecration of the Golden Temple in Operation Blue Star and ultimately led to Gandhi's assassination by her Sikh bodyguards. Many sources state that as much as 5 hundred thousand innocent Sikhs died by Indian police and rioters after June 1984 and Sikh population started decreasing after 1986."Any knowledge of the "Amritdharis" who are dangerous people and pledged to committing murder, arson and acts of terrorism should be immediately brought to the notice of the authorities. These people may appear harmless from outside but they are basically committed to terrorism. In the interest of us all, their identity and whereabouts must always be disclosed.- Indira Gandhi during Operation Woodrose
This led to the Sarbat Khalsa advocating the creation of a Sikh autonomous homeland, Khalistan. This resulted in an explosion of violence against the Sikh community in the Anti Sikh Riots which resulted in the massacre of thousands of Sikhs throughout India; Khushwant Singh described the actions as being a Sikh pogrom in which he "felt like a refugee in my country. In fact, I felt like a Jew in Nazi Germany."In 2002 the claims of the popular right-wing Hindu organisation the RSS, that "Sikhs are Hindus" angered Sikh sensibilities. Many Sikhs still are campaigning for justice for victims; only one person has gone to jail in the 1984 anti-Sikh riots, of the violence and the political and economic needs of the Punjab espoused in the Khalistan movement.
Sikh Equality Movement (1984-1996)
In the wake of the Indian government's repression of Sikhs, some Sikhs formed guerrilla bands to take on the marauding police. At the height of the Sikh resistance movement, hundreds of men fought the so-called security forces in Punjab. Some also engaged in targeted assassinations elsewhere in India, the best known being the killing of General Vaidya, who had led the Indian army in the attack on the Golden Temple. The main groups were the Babbar Khalsa, the Bhindranwala Tigers Force of Khalistan, Khalistan Commando Force, the Khalistan Liberation Force and the All India Sikh Students Federation.
Many members joined the resistance after being radicalized by the army dragnet of the summer of 1984, designated Operation Woodrose, in which youths aged 15–24 were taken away from their homes in large numbers. Most had lost relatives or friends to army or police. Others had witnessed womenfolk being picked up by the police for torture and abuse. Many had been personally tortured before taking up arms against the state
Post-1996
In 1996 the Special Rapporteur for the Commission on Human Rights on freedom of religion or belief, Abdelfattah Amor (Tunisia, 1993–2004), visited India in order to compose a report on religious discrimination. In 1997, Amor concluded, "it appears that the situation of the Sikhs in the religious field is satisfactory, but that difficulties are arising in the political (foreign interference, terrorism, etc.), economic (in particular with regard to sharing of water supplies) and even occupational fields. Information received from nongovernment sources indicates that discrimination does exist in certain sectors of the public administration; examples include the decline in the number of Sikhs in the police force and the absence of Sikhs in personal bodyguard units since the murder of Indira Gandhi." The reduced intake of the Sikhs in the Indian armed forces also attributes to following certain orders issued in the Indian Emergency of 1975/1977.
List of battles fought by Sikhs
Battle of Rohilla
Battle of Kartarpur
Battle of Amritsar (1634)
Battle of Lahira
Battle of Bhangani
Battle of Nadaun
Battle of Guler (1696)
Battle of Basoli
First Battle of Anandpur
Battle of Nirmohgarh (1702)
Second Battle of Anandpur
First Battle of Chamkaur (1702)
First Battle of Anandpur (1704)
Second Battle of Anandpur (1704)
Battle of Sarsa
Second Battle of Chamkaur (1704)
Battle of Muktsar
Battle of Sonepat
Battle of Ambala
Battle of Samana
Battle of Chappar Chiri
Battle of Sadhaura
Battle of Rahon (1710)
Battle of Lohgarh
Battle of Jammu
Battle of Kapuri (1709)
Battle of Jalalabad (1710)
Siege of Gurdaspur or Battle of Gurdas Nangal
Siege of Ram Rauni
Battle of Amritsar (1757)
Battle of Lahore (1759)
Battle of Sialkot (1761)
Battle of Gujranwala (1761)
Sikh Occupation of Lahore
Vadda Ghalughara or Battle of Kup
Battle of Harnaulgarh
Skirmish of Amritsar (1762)
Battle of Sialkot (1763)
Battle of Sirhind (1764)
Rescue of Hindu Girls (1769)
Sikh raids on Delhi
Battle of Delhi (1783)
Battle of Amritsar (1797)
Battle of Gujrat (1797)
Battle of Amritsar (1798)
Gurkha-Sikh War
Battle of Attock
Battle of Multan
Battle of Shopian
Battle of Peshawar (1834)
Battle of Jamrud
Sino-Sikh War
Battle of Mudki
Battle of Ferozeshah
Battle of Baddowal
Battle of Aliwal
Battle of Sobraon
Battle of Chillianwala
Battle of Ramnagar
Siege of Multan (several)
Battle of Gujrat
Battle of Saragarhi
See also
Khalistan movement
Khalsa
Akal Sena
Babbar Khalsa
List of Sikh Martyred
Sikh Ajaibghar
Mehdiana Sahib
Bhat Vahis
Sikh period in Lahore
Sikh art and culture
Sikh architecture
Sikh scriptures
References
History of religion by religion
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Ace%20Attorney%20characters
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List of Ace Attorney characters
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Ace Attorney is a series of legal thriller comedy-drama adventure/visual novel games created by Shu Takumi. Players assume the role of a defense attorney in a fictional courtroom setting in the main series. Published by Capcom, the series includes Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations, Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney, Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth, Ace Attorney Investigations 2, Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Dual Destinies, The Great Ace Attorney: Adventures, Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Spirit of Justice, and The Great Ace Attorney 2: Resolve. Character names for the English release of the series were changed significantly from the original Japanese release.
Main characters
Phoenix Wright
is a defense attorney and the main character of the franchise, and the protagonist in all games in the main series, except for Apollo Justice.
Mia Fey
Voiced by (English): Christina Katano (AA3); Colleen Clinkenbeard (anime)
Voiced by (Japanese): Miyuki Kawahara (AA3); Chie Nakamura (anime)
Mia Fey (綾里 千尋, Ayasato Chihiro) first appears in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, where she is introduced as rookie defense attorney Phoenix Wright's mentor and a member of the Fey clan, a family of spirit mediums living in the isolated mountain town of Kurain Village. After helping Phoenix win his first case, defending his friend Larry Butz, Mia is murdered by billionaire Redd White, and her younger sister Maya is framed and accused of sororicide. However, over the course of the trial, Maya uses her medium abilities to channel Mia's spirit, and Mia is able to guide Phoenix to prove Maya's innocence and White's guilt. In gratitude, Maya becomes Phoenix's legal assistant and partner, allowing him to consult Mia when he needs guidance. Following the conclusion of the game and Maya's temporary return to Kurain Village to take up Mia's intended mantle as Master of Kurain, Phoenix is hired to defend Mia's college friend Lana Skye by her sister Ema Skye.
In Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All, Mia is channeled once again by her younger cousin Pearl Fey, allowing her to continue to guide Phoenix in becoming a defense attorney. After deducing that her aunt Morgan Fey planned to frame Maya for murder in order to claim the mantle of Master of Kurain for Pearl, Mia helps Phoenix prove Maya's innocence once again, finally physically reuniting with her and sharing a hug. Mia also guides Phoenix as to what it truly means to be an attorney after he realises one of his clients is guilty of the crime of which they were accused.
Mia returns in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations, which in addition to featuring her continuing to act as Phoenix's mentor through being channeled by Pearl, delves into Mia's own early years as a rookie defense attorney working for Marvin Grossberg, and how she became Phoenix's mentor. During a case defending death row inmate Terry Fawles for murder, with her coworker Diego Armando acting as her co-counsel and Miles Edgeworth acting as the prosecution, Mia realises that the witness to Terry's crime is the person Terry had been convicted of killing: Mia's cousin (and Pearl's half-sister) Dahlia Hawthorne; however, before Mia can prove Dahlia's guilt as the actual culprit of the current crime in court, Dahlia tricks Terry into committing suicide by poisoning him, forcing the trial to conclude. Sometime later, Diego confronts Dahlia about her past crimes, only for Dahlia to manage to poison Diego and leave him comatose. After Dahlia commits another murder for which she frames her boyfriend, art student Phoenix Wright, Mia successfully defends him and finally proves Dahlia's guilt, leading her to be sentenced to death. In the aftermath of the trial, impressed with Mia's abilities, Phoenix reveals that he has decided to switch his degree from art to law, and states that he hopes to see Mia in court again someday. He later becomes her apprentice. Several years later, Diego awakes from his coma to learn that Mia is dead, and that he himself is blind (forcing him to wear a special mask to see). Angered at Phoenix for failing to protect Mia in life, Diego becomes a prosecutor dubbed "Godot" to test his abilities as an "ace attorney". After Mia's mother Misty channels Dahlia's spirit to prevent Pearl from doing so, as part of another plot by Morgan to have Dahlia kill Maya for her. Diego, blinded revenge, kills Misty as he attempts to kill Dahlia. After admitting his guilt at the subsequent trial, Diego briefly sees Mia's spirit within Phoenix, and admits his proficiency as a lawyer.
Mia thanks Phoenix for saving Diego, declares that he has learned all that she can teach him, and bids him goodbye, saying that they may one day meet again. In the credits of the game, a sketch of Mia, Diego and Misty is seen.
Outside of the main Ace Attorney series, Mia also appears in several other Capcom games, including as an alternate costume for Phoenix in Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3, and as a collectible card in SNK vs. Capcom: Card Fighters DS and Teppen: Ace vs. The People.
Mia has appeared in other media adaptations of Ace Attorney. She is a recurring character in the Ace Attorney manga series published by Kodansha Comics. Mia also appears in the Ace Attorney film, which loosely adapts her role from the first game, and the Ace Attorney anime series, which adapts the events of the original trilogy.
Miles Edgeworth
is Phoenix Wright's long-time friend and first rival in the court room. He is temporarily playable in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations and the main player character in Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth and Ace Attorney Investigations 2. As a child, Edgeworth aspired to become a defense attorney, following in his father Gregory Edgeworth's footsteps. When they were children, Edgeworth successfully defended Phoenix in a classroom trial, where Phoenix was accused of stealing lunch money from Edgeworth himself. However, upon witnessing his father's death and watching in horror as the suspected murderer was let free, he gained a hatred for criminals and began studying to be a prosecutor, learning tactics from his mentor Manfred von Karma to always get a "guilty" verdict. This later earned him the name "demon prosecutor". Miles had not lost a case he was involved with until his first trial against Phoenix, after which he felt a need to defeat Phoenix. By the end of the first game, Miles would undergo some self-reflection, and eventually cast aside his traumas to become a more well-rounded and just prosecutor, instead of just chasing guilty verdicts.
Edgeworth's spin-off game Ace Attorney Investigations was originally going to star Ema Skye, another character from the series, but due to fan response, they went with Miles Edgeworth, a more popular character.
Maya Fey
is a spirit medium and the younger sister of Phoenix's boss, Mia Fey. Maya is introduced in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney, in which she is accused of her sister's murder and defended by Phoenix. She becomes his legal assistant and investigates cases with him in the first three Ace Attorney games. Maya cheerily banters with Phoenix during investigations, and can channel her sister's spirit when Phoenix needs her help. She does not appear in the fourth and fifth games, but returns in the sixth, reuniting with Phoenix in Khura'in as she prepares to complete her channeling training. Maya also appears in other franchise media: the manga, film, anime series, and the spin-off games including the Professor Layton crossover and Ace Attorney Investigations. Maya, alongside Phoenix, also makes cameo appearances in several games across other genres.
Pearl Fey
Voiced by (English): Alexis Tipton (anime)
Voiced by (Japanese): Misaki Kuno (anime)
Pearl Fey (綾里 春美, Ayasato Harumi) first appears in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Justice for All, where she is introduced as the sheltered younger cousin of spirit medium and investigative assistant Maya Fey and a member of the Fey clan, a family of spirit mediums living in the isolated mountain town of Kurain Village. A spirit medium herself, after her mother Morgan Fey attempts to have Maya framed for murder in order to have Pearl succeed Maya as the Master of Kurain, Pearl channels her deceased cousin and defense attorney Mia Fey so she can guide Phoenix Wright in clearing her cousin's name and exposing Morgan's crimes. Afterwards, Pearl often accompanies Phoenix and Maya, whom she views as each holding romantic interest towards the other (as their "special someone"), because of her sheltered upbringing. At one point, they take Pearl to the Berry Big Circus. Nine months after her mother's arrest, Pearl, Maya and Phoenix are invited to an awards show at the Gatewater Imperial Hotel, where Maya is kidnapped by notorious hired hitman Shelly de Killer and Phoenix is made to defend his employer Matt Engarde and have him receive a "not guilty" verdict as ransom. Pearl and Maya subsequently each separately channel Mia to allow her to pass information about where Maya is being held to Phoenix, allowing them to turn De Killer against Engarde during his trial and have Engarde plead "guilty", allowing for Maya's release. Pearl additionally displays her athletic abilities in being able to run from the mountaintop Kurain Village to Los Angeles in under five hours, a distance taking two hours to travel by train.
Pearl returns in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Trials and Tribulations, seeing the Sacred Urn she had previously broken displayed at a department store, before it is stolen by the infamous thief Mask☆DeMasque, a.k.a. Ron DeLite. After Phoenix clears Ron of both his true theft charges and untrue murder charges, Ron's wife Desirée hugs him, leading to Pearl, having just arrived on the scene, knocking Phoenix out, after mistakenly believing him to have been cheating on Maya. Sometime later, after visiting her mother in prison and travelling with Phoenix and Maya to a mountain retreat, Pearl is tricked by her mother into attempting to channel her deceased half-sister Dahlia Hawthorne to have her kill Maya, only to be saved by her aunt, Misty Fey, who had disappeared many years prior, and Mia's former boyfriend Godot, who had been rendered comatose many years prior. Later, while Pearl's other half-sister Iris is accused of Misty's murder, Pearl confronts Franziska von Karma over her poor treatment of Maya, rendering her speechless, before once again channeling Mia to help Phoenix in court. In the aftermath of the trial, Pearl returns to the temple in tears to clean up gravy she had spilled on Misty's portrait; Phoenix and Maya then catch up with her, reassuring her that she is not to blame for the events that occurred.
Pearl does not make a physical appearance in the series' fourth entry; however, she is briefly referenced in dialogue by Phoenix in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney. By Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Dual Destinies, set eight years after Trials and Tribulations, Pearl is a high school student, regularly keeping in touch with Phoenix and his legally adopted daughter Trucy Wright, who sees her as her "big sister." After Phoenix's new protégé Athena Cykes is arrested, Pearl visits Phoenix on her regular route to clean his office and deliver him a letter from Maya, before accompanying him in proving Athena innocent of her mother's murder, and comforts Athena after Phoenix breaks the black Psyche-Locks on her subconscious mind, representing repressed memories of secrets. In the game's DLC case, set several months earlier, Pearl is visiting Shipshape Aquarium with her summer camp before being questioned by police after the aquarium's owner is apparently murdered. Subsequently, Pearl runs into Phoenix and Athena, introducing herself to the latter before recharging Phoenix's magatama, it having finally run out of spiritual energy after she had first charged it for him upon meeting him nine years prior. After an orca and subsequently their trainer are accused of the murder, Pearl assists Phoenix and Athena in their investigation, retrieving forensics equipment Phoenix had previously received from Ema Skye. Months after the trial's conclusion (the death having been proven to be accidental in nature), Pearl revisits the aquarium with Phoenix, Athena, Trucy, and Apollo Justice.
In Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney – Spirit of Justice, Pearl briefly appears in Kurain Village after Apollo visits it with his deceased adoptive father Dhurke Sahdmadhi (channeled by Maya), providing them with directions to a cave they were searching for. After Maya finally returns from her medium studies in the Kingdom of Khura'in, she is greeted by Pearl, who unsuccessfully pitches the concept of allowing clothing stores to set up in the town. In the non-canon DLC case Asinine Attorney, Pearl appears on vacation in the Kingdom of Khu'rain, briefly impersonating royal priestess Rayfa Padma Khura'in to prevent them from being kidnapped.
Outside of the main Ace Attorney series, Pearl makes a brief cameo appearance in the Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth spin-off title, also appearing in several other Capcom titles, including as an unlockable costume in We Love Golf! and as a collectible card in Teppen: Ace vs. The People.
Pearl has appeared in other media adaptations of Ace Attorney. She is a recurring character in the Ace Attorney manga series published by Kodansha Comics, and in a stage play based on the case Farewell, My Turnabout, portrayed by Shiyū Urushibara with understudy Yūna Takano. Pearl also appears in the Ace Attorney anime series, which adapts the events of the original trilogy.
Dick Gumshoe
Portrayed by: Shunsuke Daito (film)Voiced by (English): Bryan Massey
is a homicide detective of the local police department. Despite his occupation, he is a clumsy and forgetful man who is largely seen as incompetent by the prosecutors, frequently resulting in his salary being lowered. As a result, he lives in poor circumstances. Despite this, he is a friendly man who is determined to find the killer and is fiercely loyal to Miles Edgeworth, and eventually comes to be a trusted ally of Phoenix Wright as well.
Franziska von Karma
Voiced by (English): Janet Hsu (AA2-AA3, AAI); Jessica Peterson (anime)Voiced by (Japanese): Yukari Suwabe (AA2-AA3, AAI-AAI2);
is a prosecuting attorney and the daughter of Manfred von Karma.
Franziska first appears in Justice For All as an antagonist to protagonist Phoenix Wright, specifically in the second episode. She is a prodigy prosecuting attorney, becoming an attorney in Germany at the age of 13, going undefeated until she was 18. She seeks to get revenge on Phoenix, who presumes this to be because he defeated her father, Manfred von Karma. She is typically seen holding a whip and using it on others, in and out of court. She tends to use the word "fool" to describe others, and has a cold personality. He defeats her in two trials, causing her great frustration. In the original Japanese version of the game, she lived in the United States rather than Germany.
Ema Skye
Voiced by (English): Erica LindbeckVoiced by (Japanese): Marina Inoue
is the younger sister of Chief Prosecutor and has hopes of becoming a scientific investigator. She first approaches Phoenix's office to obtain a defense attorney for her sister, Lana. Though he ignored most of the cases he received during Maya's two-month absence, he took Ema's due to her resemblance to Maya in personality and appearance. The kanji for her Japanese surname, Hōzuki, translates to "treasured moon" or "jeweled moon". She was included in the video game Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney due to the developers' desire to bring back some familiar faces to it, where she became a homicide detective after failing to qualify for her dream job. As a result, she became moodier and addicted to a chocolate treat called "Snackoos." In Spirit of Justice, she finally passed the test to become a forensic investigator and lightens up. Ace Attorney Investigations: Miles Edgeworth was originally to star Ema Skye, but due to the response from the fanbase, they chose to replace her with Miles Edgeworth, who was a much more popular character. She was featured as a secondary character in it.
Nintendo World Report editor Michael Cole commented that Apollo Justice: Ace Attorneys witnesses are not quite as funny or interesting as the ones in the Phoenix Wright story arc, specifically mentioning Ema Skye, adding that she lacks Dick Gumshoe's "lovable incompetence".
The Judge
Portrayed by: Akira Emoto (film)Voiced by (English): Kent Williams (anime)Voiced by (Japanese): Kanehira Yamamoto (UMvC3); Bunmei Tobayama (AA5); Ben Hiura (anime)
The unnamed
Apollo Justice
Voiced by (English): Orion Acaba (AA5-AA6)Voiced by (Japanese): Kotaro Ogiwara (AA4); Kenn (AA5-AA6)
is the main protagonist in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney and is a major playable character in Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice. He is a defense attorney and was Phoenix Wright's understudy in the three games in which he appears. He was born in 2003 to Jove Justice and Thalassa Gramarye (thus also being Trucy Wright's biological half-brother), though after the former's death in 2005, he was adopted by Dhurke Sahdmadhi, a defense attorney at the time, and was raised alongside Sahdmadhi's son Nahyuta in the Kingdom of Khura'in. In 2012, Justice was sent to a boarding school in America, where he met his best friend Clay Terran, an aspiring astronaut.
In April 2026, he defended his first client, Phoenix Wright, in court under the supervision of his mentor Kristoph Gavin; however, this trial ended in Gavin's conviction as the true perpetrator of the crime. Two months later, he joins the Wright Talent Agency, which is then renamed the Wright Anything Agency, and defends three more clients against his former mentor's brother, prosecutor Klavier Gavin. While defending the last of these clients, Justice proves that Kristoph Gavin was behind the forgery that led to Wright's disbarment, allowing Wright to retake the bar exam and become a defense attorney again in July 2027.
In December 2027, his best friend, Clay Terran, is murdered at the Cosmos Space Center. Suspicious of his coworker, Athena Cykes, Justice temporarily leaves the agency in order to investigate the murder alone. However, after Wright proves Cykes's innocence in court and identifies the true culprit (who is immediately shot by an unidentified sniper), Justice resumes work at the agency.
In April 2028, he meets Nahyuta Sahdmadhi, who is now a prosecutor, for the first time in fourteen years. Justice successfully defends Trucy Wright against Sahdmadhi; however, one month later, after successfully defending Dhurke Sahdmadhi in a civil case against Phoenix Wright, he returns to Khura'in and is once again reunited with the prosecutor. There, he successfully defends his foster father against two counts of murder. However, during the trial, he learns that Dhurke was actually murdered himself just days prior, and was being channeled by Maya Fey in the intervening time. The trial results in Queen Ga'ran's deposition, and Justice decides to stay in Khura'in to run Dhurke's old law office, now known as the Justice Law Offices.
Trucy Wright
Voiced by (English): Kira BucklandVoiced by (Japanese): Chieko Higuchi
, born , is Phoenix Wright's adoptive daughter, introduced in Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney. She is a stage magician and accompanies Apollo on his investigations.
Athena Cykes
Voiced by (English): Wendee LeeVoiced by (Japanese): Megumi Han
is a defense attorney and a specialist in analytical psychology. She first appears in Dual Destinies.
Ryunosuke Naruhodo
Voiced by (English): Mark OtaVoiced by (Japanese): Hiro Shimono
is the protagonist of the Great Ace Attorney games. He is the ancestor of Phoenix Wright.
Susato Mikotoba
Voiced by (English): Rina TakasakiVoiced by (Japanese): Kana Hanazawa
is a judicial assistant who often helps Ryunosuke in his cases. She is described by Capcom as a yamato nadeshiko (a personification of the image of the ideal Japanese woman), a progressive dreamer, and a lover of foreign mystery novels.
Herlock Sholmes
Voiced by (English): Bradley ClarksonVoiced by (Japanese): Shinji Kawada
Iris Wilson
Voiced by (English): Claire MorganVoiced by (Japanese): Misaki Kuno
Barok van Zieks
Voiced by (English): Robert VernonVoiced by (Japanese): Kenjiro Tsuda
Kazuma Asogi
Voiced by (English): Ben DeeryVoiced by (Japanese): Yūichi Nakamura
Others
Recurring characters
Frank Sahwit
Voiced by (English): Ben PhillipsVoiced by (Japanese): Shinya Takahashi
A thief posing as a newspaper salesman, he was witness in Phoenix Wright's first case.
Misty Fey
Voiced by (English): Terri DotyVoiced by (Japanese): Kaori Nakamura
The Mother of Maya and Mia Fey, she was contacted by the police to solve the DL-6 murder and went missing shortly afterwards due being falsely accused of being a fraud
Morgan Fey
Voiced by (English): Stephanie YoungVoiced by (Japanese): Shukuko Tsugawa
Winston Payne
Portrayed by: Seminosuke Murasugi (film)Voiced by (English): David Crislip (AA1-AA4); Gregory Lush (anime)Voiced by (Japanese): Wataru Hama (AA1-AA4); Wataru Yokojima (anime)
Larry Butz
Voiced by (English): Josh Martin (anime)Voiced by (Japanese): Masaya Onosaka (AA6); Tōru Nara (anime)
The childhood friend of Phoenix Wright and Miles Edgeworth who always causes trouble. He was the defendant in Wright's first case as a lawyer.
Manfred von Karma
Portrayed by: Ryo Ishibashi (film)Voiced by (English): Bill JenkinsVoiced by (Japanese): Akio Ōtsuka
is a ruthless perfectionist prosecutor who maintained a perfect trial record for 40 years, von Karma is the mentor of Miles Edgeworth as well as Franziska von Karma. He serves as the prosecutor in charge of the final case of the first game.
Wendy Oldbag
Voiced by (English): Anastasia MuñozVoiced by (Japanese): Yu Sugimoto
Will Powers
Voiced by (English): Chris RagerVoiced by (Japanese): Shota Yamamoto
Lotta Hart
Portrayed by: Mitsuki Tanimura (film)Voiced by (English): Whitney RodgersVoiced by (Japanese): Reiko Takagi
Maggey Byrde
Voiced by (English): Dawn M. BennettVoiced by (Japanese): Yoshiko Ikuta
Shelly de Killer
Voiced by (English): Marcus StimacVoiced by (Japanese): Wataru Yokojima
The third in a line of professional hitmen,
Adrian Andrews
Voiced by (English): Mallorie RodakVoiced by (Japanese): Ayaka Asai
Marvin Grossberg
Voiced by (English): Phil ParsonsVoiced by (Japanese): Ryo Sugisaki
Klavier Gavin
Voiced by (English): Andrew Alfonso (AA4)
Voiced by (Japanese): Ryoji Yamamoto (AA4); Toshiyuki Kusuda (AA5)
Simon Blackquill
Voiced by (English): Troy BakerVoiced by (Japanese): Shunsuke Sakuya
Gregory Edgeworth
Portrayed by: Takehiro Hira (film)Voiced by (English): Anthony BowlingVoiced by (Japanese): Kyunosuke Watanuki
The father of Miles Edgeworth, Gregory Edgeworth was a defense attorney who was killed in the DL-6 incident.
Director Hotti
Kay Faraday
Shi-Long Lang
Tyrell Badd
Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney
April May
Voiced by (English): Jeannie TiradoVoiced by (Japanese): Mariko Honda
Redd White
Portrayed by: Makoto Ayukawa (film)Voiced by (English): Larry BrantleyVoiced by (Japanese): Hiromichi Tezuka
The arrogant CEO of Bluecorp, Redd White is a blackmailer who was witness in Wright's second trial
Sal Manella
Voiced by (English): Tyler Walker
Voiced by (Japanese): Masato Nishino
Dee Vasquez
Portrayed by: Miho Ninagawa (film)Voiced by (English): Janelle LutzVoiced by (Japanese): Yurika Hino
Robert Hammond
Voiced by (English): Blake Shepard
Yanni Yogi
Portrayed by: Fumiyo Kohinata (film)Voiced by (English): R. Bruce ElliottVoiced by (Japanese): Takehiro Hasu
Damon Gant
The chief of police and boss of Lana Skye, he led the investigation into serial killer Joe Darke and was later witness in the DLC case Rise From The Ashes
Lana Skye
In the Japanese musical based on the series, Ace Attorney – Truth Resurrected, staged by the all-female troupe Takarazuka Revue, Asahi Miwa was cast as Leona Clyde, an original character based on Lana, whom Phoenix Wright is featured as having once been in a romantic relationship with in place of Iris/Dahlia Hawthorne. The sequel, Ace Attorney 2 – Truth Resurrected, Again, establishes Leona to have died shortly after the first musical, and he mourns her death.
Jake Marshall
Angel Starr
Mike Meekins
Justice for All
Richard Wellington
Voiced by (English): Ricco FajardoVoiced by (Japanese): Daisuke Kishio
Ini Miney
Voiced by (English): Mikaela KrantzVoiced by (Japanese): Natsue Sasamoto
Acro
Voiced by (English): Clifford ChapinVoiced by (Japanese): Takayuki Nakatsukasa
, known under the stage name
Regina Berry
Voiced by (English): Jad SaxtonVoiced by (Japanese): Yō Taichi
Moe
Voiced by (English): Sonny StraitVoiced by (Japanese): Takeshi Uchida
, known under the stage name
Matt Engarde
Voiced by (English): Dave TroskoVoiced by (Japanese): Yasuaki Takumi
is a television actor and the rival of Juan Corrida, he was the defendant in the final case of Justice for All
Trials and Tribulations
Prosecutor Godot
Voiced by (English): James C. Wilson (AA3); Brandon Potter (anime)Voiced by (Japanese): Hideki Kamiya (AA3); Hiroaki Hirata (anime)
, real name is a mysterious prosecutor with a grudge against Wright who serves as prosecutor on his trials in the third game
Ron DeLite
Voiced by (English): Justin Pate
Voiced by (Japanese): Kōtarō Nishiyama
Desirée DeLite
Voiced by (English): Jamie Marchi
Voiced by (Japanese): Yuka Keichō
Dahlia Hawthorne
Voiced by (English): Dani Chambers
Voiced by (Japanese): Rina Satō
A ruthless serial killer who's the former love interest of Phoenix Wright and the main antagonist of the third game
Luke Atmey
Voiced by (English): Ian Sinclair
Voiced by (Japanese): Toshihiko Seki
The self proclaimed "Ace Detective" who heads the Atmey detective agency and the arch-enemy of the thief Mask DeMasque. He is one of the witnesses in the third game
Jean Armstrong
Voiced by (English): J. Michael Tatum
Voiced by (Japanese): Fukushi Ochiai
Victor Kudo
Voiced by (English): Greg Dulcie
Voiced by (Japanese): Jin Urayama
Furio Tigre
Voiced by (English): Sam Riegel
Voiced by (Japanese): Satoshi Mikami
Viola Cadaverini
Voiced by (English): Madeleine Morris
Voiced by (Japanese): Saori Hayami
Iris
Voiced by (English): Dani Chambers
Voiced by (Japanese): Rina Satō
Apollo Justice: Ace Attorney
Kristoph Gavin
Voiced by (English): Andrew Alfonso
Voiced by (Japanese): Ryoji Yamamoto
Alita Tiala
Daryan Crescend
Vera Misham
Magnifi Gramarye
Thalassa Gramarye
Zak Gramarye
Valant Gramarye
Spark Brushel
Dual Destinies
Gaspen Payne
Voiced by: Hisashi Izumi
is Winston Payne's younger brother who appears as the first prosecutor in Phoenix Wright: Ace Attorney - Dual Destinies. He is a bit more flexible with the law than his brother and is not averse to using dirty tricks in the courtroom; his attitude is rather conceited towards defense attorneys as well. He wears a black suit with sunglasses and has a large quiff hairdo.
Juniper Woods
Voiced by: Eri Ozeki
Bobby Fulbright
Voiced by: Biichi Sato
Ted Tonate
Florent L'Belle
Aristotle Means
Aura Blackquill
Marlon Rimes
Spirit of Justice
Ahlbi Ur'gaid
Voiced by: Emiri Katō
Nahyuta Sahdmadhi
Voiced by: Daisuke Namikawa
Rayfa Padma Khura'in
Voiced by: Saori Hayami
Inga Karkhuul Khura'in
, full name
Dhurke Sahdmadhi
Voiced by: Masashi Ebara
Datz Are'bal
Ga'ran Sigatar Khura'in
Voiced by: Gara Takashima
Jove Justice
Amara Sigatar Khura'in
Pees'lubn Andistan'dhin
Roger Retinz
Tahrust Inmee
Geiru Toneido
Paul Atishon
Pierce Nichody
Ace Attorney Investigations series
Calisto Yew
Voiced by: Yuki Nakamura
Quercus Alba
"Teikun Ō"
Tateyuki Shigaraki
Ryōken Hōinbō
Hakari Mikagami
Yumihiko Ichiyanagi
Voiced by: Kotaro Ogiwara
Bansai Ichiyanagi
Sota Sarushiro
The Great Ace Attorney series
Yujin Mikotoba
Taketsuchi Auchi
Seishiro Jigoku
Mael Stronghart
Tobias Gregson
Gina Lestrade
Klint van Zieks
References
Fictional defense attorneys
Fictional lawyers
Lists of anime and manga characters
Lists of Capcom characters
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5148836
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental%20Protection%20Act%201990
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Environmental Protection Act 1990
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The Environmental Protection Act 1990 (initialism: EPA) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that defines, within England and Wales and Scotland, the fundamental structure and authority for waste management and control of emissions into the environment.
Overview
Part 1: establishes a general regime by which the Secretary of State, the Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, can prescribe any process or substance and set limits on it respective of its emissions into the environment. Authorisation and enforcement was originally in the hands of HM Inspectorate of Pollution and local authorities but in 1996 became the responsibility of the Environment Agency (EA) and Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA). Operation of a prescribed process is prohibited without approval and there are criminal sanctions against offenders.
Part 2: sets out a regime for regulation|regulating and licensing the acceptable disposal of controlled waste on land.
Controlled waste is any household, industrial and commercial waste. Unauthorised or harmful depositing, treatment or disposal of controlled waste is prohibited with prohibition enforced by criminal sanctions. Further, there is a broad duty of care on importers, producers, carriers, keepers, treaters or disposers of controlled waste to prevent unauthorised or harmful activities. Breach of the duty of care is a crime.
The Act demands that the Secretary of State creates a National Waste Strategy for England and Wales, and that SEPA creates a strategy for Scotland. Local authorities have duties to collect controlled waste and to undertake recycling.
There are criminal penalties on households and businesses who fail to co-operate with the local authorities' arrangements. Enforcement of these penalties sometimes proves controversial.
Part 2a: was inserted by the Environment Act 1995 and defines a scheme of identification and compulsory remedial action for contaminated land.
Part 3: defines a class of statutory nuisances over which the local authority can demand remedial action supported by criminal penalties.
Part 4: defines a set of criminal offences concerning litter.
Part 5: defines a regime of statutory notification and risk assessment for genetically modified organisms (GMOs). There are duties with respect to the import, acquisition, keeping, release or marketing of GMOs and the Secretary of State has the power to prohibit specific GMOs if there is a danger of environmental damage.
Part 6: of the Act created three new organisations: the Nature Conservancy Council for England, the Nature Conservancy Council for Scotland, and the Countryside Council for Wales. Since 1990, the English and Scottish councils have been the subject of considerable reorganisation and, as of 2008, only the Welsh council is still governed by the Act.
The Act superseded the requirements under section 1(1)(d) of the Health and Safety at Work etc. Act 1974 in respect of controlling noxious emissions.
In the operating year 2005/ 2006, the brought 880 prosecutions with an average fine of about £1,700, and 736 in 2006/2007 with an average fine of £6,773. There have also been sentences of imprisonment, including two of over sixteen months in 2006/ 2007.
Background
The Act implements the European Union Waste Framework Directive in England and Wales and Scotland.
The Act was intended to strengthen pollution controls and support enforcement with heavier penalties. Before the Act there had been separate environmental regulation of air, water and land pollution and the Act brought in an integrated scheme that would seek the "best practicable environmental option". There was previously no uniform system of licensing or public right of access to information. The split of the Nature Conservancy Council (NCC) into English, Welsh and Scottish bodies was controversial. Purportedly forced on Secretary of State Chris Patten by Secretary of State for Scotland Malcolm Rifkind and forestry minister Lord Sanderson, some saw it as "punishment" for the vigorous opposition the NCC had mounted to afforestation in the Flow Country.
Part I - Prescribed processes and substances
The Secretary of State has the power to prescribe specific processes and substances by statutory instrument. The power was exercised by the Environmental Protection (Prescribed Processes and Substances) Regulations 1991 which have been amended several times. Further, the Secretary of State can make regulations to fix emission standards on prescribed processes and substances.
Once a process is prescribed, it can only be operated on authorisation from the enforcing authority. Applications must be made to the authority and the authority can refuse authorisation or give it subject to conditions. The authorisation is transferable to somebody else who takes over the undertaking provided that the enforcing authority is notified. The enforcing authority can revoke the authorisation or vary its conditions and the operator can apply to have the conditions varied.
The 1991 regulations were revoked for England and Wales by the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2007. Permitting is now regulated by the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010. The 1991 regulations remain in force in Scotland, although they are in practice superseded by the Pollution Prevention and Control (Scotland) Regulations 2000 and 2012 made under the Pollution Prevention and Control Act 1999.
Enforcement
Processes are stipulated as subject to either central control by the or , or local control by the local authority but only with respects to atmospheric pollution. Such an enforcing authority can issue an enforcement notice or prohibition notice on a noncompliant operator and there are criminal penalties including fines and imprisonment for violations.
An operator may appeal a decision about the issue of authorisation, conditions, enforcement or prohibition to the Secretary of State who may hold a hearing or public inquiry.
Enforcing authorities must provide public information on applications, authorisations and enforcement so long as confidentiality and national security are protected.
Part II - Disposal of controlled waste on land
Controlled waste
Waste is defined as any substance or object within very broad categories set out in Schedule 2B "which the holder discards or intends or is required to discard". Controlled waste is "household, industrial and commercial waste or any such waste". The exact definition covers a very broad range of waste.
The meaning of discard was considered by the European Court of Justice in 2002, where it was held:
Unauthorised or harmful deposit, treatment or disposal of controlled waste
No person may "treat, keep or dispose of controlled waste in a manner likely to cause pollution of the environment or harm to human health".
Except in the case of domestic household waste treated or kept or disposed of on the premises, no person may:
Deposit controlled waste, or knowingly cause or knowingly permit controlled waste to be deposited in or on any land unless a waste management licence authorising the deposit is in force and the deposit is in accordance with the licence; or
Treat, keep or dispose of controlled waste, or knowingly cause or knowingly permit controlled waste to be treated, kept or disposed of:
In or on any land; or
By means of any mobile plant;
— except under and in accordance with a waste management licence.
Duty of care in respect of waste
Section 34(1) imposes a duty on "any person who imports, produces, carries, keeps, treats or disposes of controlled waste or, as a broker, has control of such waste, to take all such measures applicable to him in that capacity as are reasonable in the circumstances":
To prevent any contravention by any other person of section 33;
To prevent any contravention of certain (i.e. specific) provisions of the Pollution Prevention and Control Regulations;
To prevent the escape of the waste from his control or that of any other person; and
On the transfer of the waste, to secure:
That the transfer is only to an authorised person or to a person for authorised transport purposes; and
That there is transferred such a written description of the waste as will enable other persons to avoid a contravention section 33 or the Pollution Prevention and Control Regulations.
Under section 34(2) an occupier of domestic property must, as respects the household waste produced on the property, take reasonable steps to secure that any transfer of waste is only to an authorised person or to a person for authorised transport purposes but has none of the other section 34(1) duties.
Authorised persons include local authorities who have responsibility for waste collection, persons licensed to manage or registered to transport waste or otherwise exempt persons.
Section 34(5) allows the Secretary of State to make regulations as to retention of documents and the Environmental Protection (Duty of Care) Regulations 1991 stipulate that:
All transfers of controlled waste must be accompanied by a transfer note;
Copies of all transfer notes must be kept for two years; and
Transfer notes must be available to the enforcement authority.
Waste management licences
Licences are issued by waste management authorities and may be subject to conditions. The Secretary of State may make regulations about what is to be included in the licence as a condition. Licences are transferable and decisions as to refusal to grant a licence or as to conditions can be appealed to the Secretary of State.·
National and local government responsibilities
Sections 44A and 44B were added by the Environment Act 1995 and require the development of national waste strategies for England and Wales, and Scotland respectively.
Section 45 requires waste collection authorities, usually local authorities, to collect household waste unless it is in an isolated location or arrangements can reasonably be expected to be made by the person who controls the waste. They may also collect commercial waste if requested to do so, but are not obliged to provide this service. Industrial waste can only be collected with the consent of the waste disposal authority. No charge is to be made for collecting household waste, unless the Secretary of State makes regulations specifying certain (i.e. specific) collections that must be paid for. A reasonable charge is to be made for commercial waste collection (s.45(4)). Waste collection authorities have responsibilities for emptying privies and cesspools and have the power to lay pipes, sewers and other infrastructure to collect waste. Waste collected by a waste collection authority is the property of the authority.
The authority can give a householder notice that waste must be disposed of in a specified receptacle, and in a specified manner. It is a crime to fail, without reasonable excuse, to observe such requirements. On summary conviction in a magistrates' court, an offender can be fined up to level 3 on the standard scale.
Authorities also have powers over receptacles for commercial and industrial waste. There is a system of fixed penalty notices for offences under these sections. Where controlled waste is deposited on land within their responsibilities, authorities may give notice to the occupier to remove it. It is a crime to disturb or sort over, unless with consent, waste deposited for collection by the waste collection authority. On summary conviction in a magistrates' court, an offender can be fined up to level 5 on the standard scale.
Waste collection authorities must deliver the waste to waste disposal authorities unless they intend to recycle it themselves. Waste disposal authorities must dispose of the waste and also provide facilities for householders to deposit their own waste.
From 31 December 2010, waste collection authorities in England must make arrangements for the separate collection of at least two types of recyclable waste unless it would be unreasonably costly to do so. The Welsh National Assembly has the power to extend this to Wales. Section 55 gives waste disposal authorities and waste collection authorities powers to recycle waste.
A disposal authority may:
Make arrangements to recycle waste;
Make arrangements to use waste to produce heat or electricity;
Buy or otherwise acquire waste with a view to its being recycled;
Use, sell or otherwise dispose of waste, or anything produced from such waste.
A waste collection authority may:
Buy or otherwise acquire waste with a view to recycling it;
Use, or dispose of by way of sale or otherwise to another person, waste belonging to the authority or anything produced from such waste.
Enforcement
Breach of sections 33 and 34 is a crime and penalties for serious offences by businesses can extend to unlimited fines, imprisonment, seizure of vehicles and clean-up costs.
Part IIA - Contaminated land
Contaminated land is "any land which appears to the local authority in whose area it is situated to be in such a condition, by reason of substances in, on or under the land, that":
"Significant harm is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such harm being caused; or
Significant pollution of the water environment is being caused or there is a significant possibility of such pollution being caused."
The Act does not apply to contamination from radioactivity (s.78YC) but similar provisions have been made under subsequent regulations.
Local authorities have a duty periodically to survey their locality and, using guidance defined by the Secretary of State, to designate contaminated land as a special site, advising the or . The authority, EA or SEPA must then serve a remediation notice on the appropriate person.
The appropriate person responsible for remedial work is "any person, or any of the persons, who caused or knowingly permitted the substances" giving rise to the designation "to be in, on or under that land". If no such person can be identified after reasonable enquiries, the present owner or occupier is the appropriate person. Any persons controlling other land to which access is required for remediation must grant such access and may apply to the appropriate person for compensation. The appropriate person is deemed to be responsible for remediation of other land into which substances have escaped.
The appropriate person may appeal a notice within 21 days to:
A magistrates' court, or a sheriff court in Scotland, where the notice was served by the local authority; or
The Secretary of State, where the notice was served by the EA or SEPA.
There is a further right of appeal from the magistrates' court to the High Court. but ultimately it is a crime not to comply with a notice. The local authority, EA or SEPA can perform the remedial work themselves if the appropriate person cannot be found, defaults or requests that they do so. The authority have discretion as to whether to make the appropriate person responsible for the costs.
Local authorities, the EA and SEPA must maintain a register of notices that is publicly available, save for reasons of confidentiality and national security.
Part III - Statutory nuisances
Section 79 defines several statutory nuisances:
Any premises in such a state as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Smoke emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Fumes or gases emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Any dust, steam, smell or other effluvia arising on industrial, trade or business premises and being prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Any accumulation or deposit which is prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Any animal kept in such a place or manner as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance;
Noise emitted from premises so as to be prejudicial to health or a nuisance; and
Noise that is prejudicial to health or a nuisance and is emitted from or caused by a vehicle, machinery or equipment on a highway, road, footway, square or court open to the public.
Some exclusions from these categories exist including contaminated land, activities of the armed forces, some categories of smoke and dark smoke, traffic and demonstrations.
Local authorities have a duty to make periodic inspections of their area or in response to a complaint from the public. The local authority shall serve an offending occupier with an abatement notice to cease the nuisance. The occupier can appeal the notice, within 21 days, to a magistrates' court, in England and Wales, or a sheriff court in Scotland. Otherwise, it is a crime to fail, without reasonable excuse, to comply with the notice, punishable on summary conviction by a fine at level 5 of the standard scale, rising by ten percent for every further day on which the nuisance continues. If the offence is committed by the occupier of business premises, the maximum fine is £40,000. Where the notice is not complied with, the local authority may take reasonable action to abate the nuisance and recover the expenses from the occupier, if necessary by installments or by making a charge on the property.
Any person aggrieved by a statutory nuisance may make a complaint to the magistrates or sheriff. The court can order the occupier to abate the damage and, in England and Wales only, impose a fine of up to level 5 on the standard scale. It is a crime, without reasonable excuse, to disobey such an order, punishable on summary conviction by a fine at level 5 of the standard scale, rising by ten percent for every further day on which the nuisance continues. Sch.3, s.2 provides a power to a magistrates' court to grant a warrant of entry to a local authority for ascertaining whether there exists a statutory nuisance, and taking any action or executing any work to abate it.
Section 84 repeals local authority controls over offensive trades under the Public Health Act 1936.
Part IV - Litter
Section 87 creates the criminal offence of leaving litter.
There are exceptions where the person has lawful authorisation or consent. Offenders can, on summary conviction in a magistrates' court, be sentenced to a fine of up to level 4 on the standard scale.
There is also a system of fixed penalty notices. Local authorities and central government have duties to keep roads, highways and public spaces free from litter. Members of the public who are aggrieved by litter in public places can apply to a magistrates' court for an abatement notice to order the responsible public body to carry out its duties under section 89. Public authorities also have powers to issue litter abatement notices and litter clearing notices on the occupiers of certain (i.e. specific) premises to order clearing of litter. Occupiers can appeal against a notice to the magistrates' court within 21 days but it is otherwise a crime to disobey a notice, punishable on summary conviction to a fine of up to level 4 on the standard scale. A local authority may also issue street litter control notices to occupiers of certain (i.e. specific) premises, such as take away food establishments, to keep the street and public areas near to their premises clear of litter.
Local authorities have the power to designate land in order to prevent the distribution of free printed material, such as advertising flyers. Offenders face summary conviction in a magistrates' court and a fine of up to level 4 on the standard scale, seizure of the material or a fixed penalty notice Local authorities may seize abandoned shopping trolleys and luggage trolleys, returning them to their owner and imposing a statutory fee, or otherwise disposing of them.
Some of the provisions of this part were repealed and superseded by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005.
Part V - Amendment of the Radioactive Substances Act 1960
Part V made a number of amendments to the Radioactive Substances Act 1960, including in relation to the appointment of inspectors and assistant inspectors, fees in respect of registrations, enforcement powers and application of the Act to Crown and United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority premises.
It was repealed by the Radioactive Substances Act 1993, which consolidated the 1960 Act.
Part VI - Genetically modified organisms
Part VI contains provision intended to ensure that "all appropriate measures are taken to avoid damage to the environment which may arise from the escape or release from human control of genetically modified organisms". These include limitations on the import, acquisition, keeping, release or marketing of GMOs.
See also
Environment Agency v Clark
References
Within the Environmental Protection Act
Bibliography
External links
Environmental law in the United Kingdom
Genetic engineering in the United Kingdom
United Kingdom Acts of Parliament 1990
1990 in the environment
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5149026
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital%20subchannel
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Digital subchannel
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In broadcasting, digital subchannels are a method of transmitting more than one independent program stream simultaneously from the same digital radio or television station on the same radio frequency channel. This is done by using data compression techniques to reduce the size of each individual program stream, and multiplexing to combine them into a single signal. The practice is sometimes called "multicasting".
ATSC television
United States
The ATSC digital television standard used in the United States supports multiple program streams over-the-air, allowing television stations to transmit one or more subchannels over a single digital signal. A virtual channel numbering scheme distinguishes broadcast subchannels by appending the television channel number with a period digit (".xx"). Simultaneously, the suffix indicates that a television station offers additional programming streams. By convention, the suffix position ".1" is normally used to refer to the station's main digital channel and the ".0" position is reserved for analog channels. For example, most of the owned-and-operated stations/affiliates of Trinity Broadcasting Network transmit five streams in the following format:
The most of any large broadcaster in the United States, Ion Television stations transmit eight channels (in standard definition) and the Katz Broadcasting subchannel services Court TV, Ion Mystery, Bounce TV, Laff, Grit, Defy TV, and Scripps News. More programming streams can be fit into a single channel space at the cost of broadcast quality. Among smaller stations, KAXT-CD in San Francisco is believed to have the most feeds of any individual over-the-air broadcaster, offering twelve video and several audio feeds (all transmitted in standard definition). WANN-CD in Atlanta, Georgia, with ten video and ten audio feeds, comes at a close second. Several cable-to-air broadcasters, such as those in Willmar, Minnesota and Cortez, Colorado, have multiplexed more than five separate cable television channels into subchannels of one signal.
Operating in a sector traditionally lacking subchannels, digital cable television provider Music Choice packages its nearly 50 music channels (including Music Choice Play) as digital subchannels of one channel. This is possible as the only information sent over each channel are audio feeds and a still slide which rotates every 20 seconds, displaying an advertisement and information about the current playing song on the individual channel. The audio feed and rotating stills occupy significantly less bandwidth than video feeds, leaving space for more multiplexed content.
A broadcaster saves significant costs in power and bandwidth through multiplexing in comparison to the cost of operating additional analog television stations to accommodate the extra programming. In practice, operating extra stations is impossible due to the required channel and distance separations combined with the available number of channels.
Most ATSC tuners will automatically add a new digital subchannel to their internal channel map, once it is tuned to the station carrying the new channel. However, some of these will not delete the channel if the station removes it.
Mobile DTV is also carried on ATSC stations, but as a separate service, according to the ATSC-M/H standard.
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) considers all subchannels carried by a single station to have the same call letters for legal identification purposes. However, within the broadcast sales industry, to differentiate subchannels, the initial letter of a call sign changes per subchannel.
Canada
Although digital television services in Canada use the same ATSC technology as the United States, none of the stations currently broadcasting a digital signal transmit any subchannel other than a possible HD service or a standard definition simulcast of the main channel. Unlike the FCC in the United States, the body that governs Canadian broadcasting licenses, the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC), requires stations to file license amendments in order to be considered for permission to carry digital subchannels (this differs from the commission's rules for premium cable television services, which allow the addition of multiplex channels consistent with the service's license requirements without the need to amend the license). On August 17, 2012, the CRTC gave approval to Leamington, Ontario community station CFTV-TV to broadcast four local subchannels on its digital signal, making it the first station in Canada to launch original content on its multiplex channels.
Mexico
Some Mexican TV stations use digital subchannels as they are used in the United States. The Sistema Público de Radiodifusión del Estado Mexicano, a public broadcaster, operates 26 multiplexed transmitters throughout Mexico carrying five to six public television services, while XHTRES-TDT carries Imagen Radio audio on a subchannel.
One notable experiment involving digital subchannels in Mexico was undertaken by TV Azteca, which used its three muxes in the Mexico City area to broadcast a service called Hi-TV, featuring several channels encoded in H.264 MPEG-4 encoding, which while available in the ATSC standard is not common on TV sets. This use of subchannels as pseudo-restricted signals within non-restricted channels was placed under investigation and litigation with authorities at COFETEL (the Federal Telecommunications Commission), involving a fine of 4,453,150 Mexican pesos. HiTV subchannels began broadcasting on an intermittent basis in 2013 and were almost completely deactivated in late 2014.
Televisa and TV Azteca use subchannels in rural areas in order to ensure national network service. As a result, since 2016, many areas that formerly had only one Azteca or Televisa network now have both from the same transmitter. Additionally, TV Azteca has two national services that are broadcast as subchannels in most areas, a+ and adn40.
In October 2016, the IFT put into effect new guidelines for the numbering of virtual channels. As a result, national networks use consistent numbers nationwide; SPR transmitters now use four or five major channel numbers (11, 14, 20, 22, and 45 in some areas). Prior to this, digital television stations usually used virtual channels corresponding to their former analog positions, still the case for certain local stations.
The IFT enforces minimum bitrates for digital television channels, and as such it is not possible for a station to broadcast two HD feeds in MPEG-2 encoding. Most HD feeds are provided in 1080i with all subchannels in 480i standard definition.
DVB television
Australia
Australian digital subchannels are currently divided between high definition (HD), standard definition (SD) and radio subchannels (the latter type is only carried by the stations of non-commercial networks SBS Television and ABC Television). Each network currently has at least one HD sub channel. All networks use their HD subchannel to provide a simulcast of their primary channel or their multichannels.
Inclusive of their primary standard definition channels (ignoring HD):
SBS Television offers three unique SD subchannels (SBS Food, NITV and SBS WorldWatch) and a HD simulcast of its primary channel (SBS HD); as well as its SBS Viceland and SBS World Movies channels with no SD simulcasts.
ABC Television offers three unique SD subchannels (ABC TV Plus/ABC Kids, ABC Me, and ABC News) and a HD simulcast of its primary channel (ABC HD).
The Seven Network offers two unique SD subchannels (7two and 7flix), a datacasting channel (Racing.com) and a HD version of its primary channel (7HD) as well as its 7two, 7mate and 7Bravo channels, with no SD simulcasts for both 7mate and 7Bravo.
The Nine Network offers four unique SD subchannels (9Go!, 9Rush, 9Gem and 9Life), a datacasting channel (Extra) and a HD simulcast of its primary channel (9HD) as well as a HD simulcast of its 9Gem channel.
Network 10 offers two unique SD subchannels (10 Peach, and 10 Shake), two datacasting channels (TVSN and gecko) and a HD simulcast of its primary channel (10 HD) as well as their 10 Bold channel with no SD simulcast.
Community television stations in Melbourne (C31) and Adelaide (C44) also broadcast digital signals, however they typically only broadcast a single SD subchannel which simulcasts that station's primary channel.
There have been a number of issues surrounding the introduction of digital subchannels in Australia. The first subchannels launched by the ABC – ABC Kids and Fly TV – closed after less than two years in operation in 2003 as a reaction to budget cuts by the conservative Howard government under Communications Minister Alston and low viewership (partly due to the limited distribution of set-top boxes); and commercial broadcasters could not legally air a digital subchannel other than a single high-definition service until 2009.
Colombia
Europe
As most digital services in Europe rely on more complex methods of multiplexing, where a large number of digital channels by many different broadcasters can be broadcast on one single frequency, the concept of a subchannel is instead applied to the variety of channels that are produced by a single company. This can vary widely depending on the country: for example, ITV currently has four of its digital channels (ITV1, ITV2, ITV3 and ITV4) broadcasting on one multiplexed service, while two others (ITV2 +1 and CITV) are each broadcast on another, separate multiplex.
ISDB television
In Japan and Latin America (except Colombia, Mexico and Panama), ISDB (similar to the DVB format) is used, and was specifically designed with physical RF segments that could be split to use for different subchannels. In Brazil, a digital subchannel is only allowed to the public and educational stations.
Tradeoffs
As the amount of data which can be carried on one digital television channel at one time is limited, the addition of multiple channels of programming as digital subchannels comes at the expense of having less available bandwidth for other purposes, such as the ability to transmit high definition content. A station carrying multiple subchannels will normally limit itself to one high-definition channel (or in some cases, two HD channels), with any additional channels being carried in standard definition. Because of the tradeoffs, stations owned by CBS Corporation through its CBS Television Stations subsidiary (which include owned-and-operated stations of CBS and The CW, and some independent stations) generally opted not to carry digital subchannels and transmitted only a 1080i high definition main feed; this changed in 2013 with the addition of dedicated local news channels on CBS O&Os in New York City and Philadelphia (the company later announced the creation of Decades, a multicast network part-owned by CBS which aired on all CBS and CW owned-and-operated stations from 2015 to 2018).
It is possible for stations to carry more than two subchannel feeds in HD, at least nominally. Actual picture quality may be comparable to DVD video. Some examples of stations broadcasting in this format are:
Outside the United States – especially in Europe – high-definition feeds are rarer, and most countries only provide a single high-definition service for each broadcaster. For example, in France, there are only five HD services: one each for TF1, France 2, Canal+, M6 and Arte; in the United Kingdom, four HD services are currently transmitted over terrestrial frequencies: BBC One HD, BBC Two HD, ITV HD and Channel 4 HD (S4C Clirlun is broadcast in Wales instead of Channel 4 HD).
Television applications
Commercial networks
In the United States, digital subchannels have been used to provide programming from multiple major networks on a single television station. This has become prevalent since the late 2000s in smaller markets that have as few as one or two commercial stations, which during the era of analog television, would not have been able to carry the complete programming lineups of all four major commercial networks (CBS, NBC, ABC and Fox) because of the station's own local and syndicated programming commitments, and overlapping network programs that would be tough to schedule outside of regular timeslots. A prime example is the Wheeling, West Virginia/Steubenville, Ohio market, which for decades was home to only two stations (CBS affiliate WTRF-TV and NBC affiliate WTOV-TV; the cable-only WBWO also served the market as a WB and now as a CW affiliate) and had to mostly rely on stations in Pittsburgh (and to a lesser extent Columbus and Youngstown, Ohio) to view programming from other networks. However, the advent of digital television allowed WTRF to launch two digital channels (one as a primary Fox/secondary MyNetworkTV affiliate, the other affiliated with ABC) while still carrying CBS programming in full on its main signal (WTOV later took the Fox affiliation for its second subchannel in September 2014).
Upon their launches in September 2006, The CW and MyNetworkTV were among the first conventional networks to actively utilize subchannel-only affiliations in markets where a standalone station is not available to affiliate with; this is particularly true of The CW's small-market feed, The CW Plus, which originally consisted mostly of cable-only affiliations (by way of inheriting the model and much of the affiliate body of predecessor The WB 100+ Station Group). Since its launch, affiliates of other major networks have taken over the operations of cable-only CW Plus affiliates (or even outright replacing WB 100+ cable channels at the launch of The CW) and began transmitting the service over subchannels to reach viewers who do not subscribe to a pay television service. Some Spanish language networks (such as Estrella TV and Telemundo) have also been carried on digital subchannels, either as subchannel-exclusive services or to provide programming to markets where a main channel affiliation may not be available. Other stations have launched subchannels with an independent station format on their DT2 signals (such as WTTV in Indianapolis, Indiana – a market with enough commercial stations able to support affiliations with all six networks and a standalone independent, although the seventh (WTTK) instead acts as a WTTV satellite – which converted its 4.2 subchannel as an independent station in January 2015 as a result of owner Tribune Media selling the local rights to the CW affiliation that was to move from its main feed on 4.1 to Media General-owned WISH-TV, whose CBS affiliation was assumed by WTTV).
Digital subchannels are also used to relay stations beyond their traditional signal coverage areas to reach an entire market. In the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and northern Minnesota, many of these stations are on duplicate frequencies to cover a large market area. This is used to duplicate network service for stations that are part of duopolies, where transmitters scattered through a large geographical area allow multiple networks and channels to be carried. The most prominent example is the Granite Broadcasting Corporation's virtual quadropoly in Duluth, Minnesota, which consists of two separate full-power stations, NBC affiliate KBJR-TV and CBS affiliate KDLH, which combined carry three subchannels (two affiliated with major networks – CW Plus affiliate "Northland CW 2" on KDLH and MyNetworkTV affiliate "My9" on KBJR – and the third, a local weather subchannel on KBJR). While KDLH carries the CW subchannel on their DT2 feed and KBJR carries the MyNetworkTV subchannel on its DT2 feed on their primary signals, all five channels are carried on satellite station KRII in Chisholm, providing the Iron Range region (located north of Duluth) programming from networks that were previously unavailable over-the-air. In the Traverse City-Cheboygan market in Upper Michigan, NBC affiliate WPBN/WTOM also simulcasts sister station WGTU/WGTQ, providing that station's ABC programming to the entire market; CBS affiliate WWTV/WWUP carries its Fox-affiliated sister WFQX/WFUP on their DT2 subchannel to expand their coverage area further north into the eastern portion of the Upper Peninsula.
In many cases, these "new" channels are existing secondary channels that were carried by a low-power or Class A station or by a cable television channel. Often, the owner of a full-power television station acquires or already owns a low-power secondary station in the same market to carry another network. The use of a digital subchannel on a full-power television station as a replacement for low-power station greatly increases the available coverage area for its programming.
Because of interference issues that stations transmitting on the low VHF band (channels 2 to 6) often experience, some stations broadcasting on these frequencies are relayed on the subchannels of stations that are less prone to interference. An example of this is CBS affiliate WRGB in Albany, New York. While WRGB broadcasts its main digital on VHF channel 6 in high definition, CW-affiliated sister station WCWN relays a standard-definition subchannel feed of WRGB over its digital channel 45.
Since the late 2010s, some station groups have started consolidating major network affiliations onto one signal if they own the non-licensing assets of those channels. Some of this was due to the 2016 United States wireless spectrum auction, but most have been due to companies who use sidecar companies to create virtual duopolies via local marketing agreements when they are not legally able to own a duopoly outright. In the latter scenario, the station whose programming is on an LMA station is moved to a subchannel of a station that is owned outright by the station that own the non-licensed assets of other stations. Many companies such as Sinclair Broadcast Group (via Cunningham Broadcasting, Deerfield Media, & Howard Stirk Holdings), Nexstar Media Group (via Mission Broadcasting & Vaughan Media), and Gray Television (via American Spirit Media & SagamoreHill Broadcasting) have been doing this, partially due to regulation pressure.
Sports programming
Networks dedicated to sports programming have been launched specifically for use on digital subchannels. Until 2010, CBS affiliates often subdivided four temporary subchannels in order to show all of the early round games of the NCAA men's basketball tournament in addition to those broadcast on the main digital channel (this was superseded as a result of a new television agreement with the NCAA that took effect in 2011, which gave cable networks TBS, TNT and TruTV partial rights to the tournament). Most of the major professional sports leagues, however, have strict prohibitions against using subchannels for carrying multiple game broadcasts and only allow one game to be aired in a market at one time (outside of Los Angeles, where if the Rams and Chargers play at the same time, Fox is allowed to broadcast the second game on MyNetworkTV affiliate KCOP-TV, or CBS on independent KCAL-TV, depending on the game's carrier that specific week); all four of the major sports leagues (the NFL, the NBA, Major League Baseball and the NHL) have out-of-market sports packages that require a pay television subscription and generate significant revenue for the leagues.
Most sports programming on digital subchannel broadcasters has been relegated to low-budget content such as amateur athletics, extreme sports, and hunting and fishing programming geared toward outdoorsmen, though minor league baseball, American Hockey League hockey and other minor league sports may also be seen. Prominent team sports programming on digital subchannels is rare; the general trend for sports programming tends to eschew the free-to-air model that digital subchannels use, and the cost of rights fees for most sports requires that they air on channels that air on cable and satellite television services and thus can recuperate costs through retransmission consent. Channels such as Sportsman Channel (and the now-defunct Universal Sports) that began as digital subchannel networks now operate as cable and satellite-exclusive services. There are nonetheless a few multicast channels that have broadcast familiar sports programs: Bounce TV, for instance, carried college football from historically black colleges and universities until 2013.
In January 2016, Sinclair Broadcast Group launched a 24-hour feed of its American Sports Network sports syndication service on subchannels of ten stations owned and/or operated by the group; the ASN multicast network was subsequently replaced by Stadium in August 2017, following the formation of a multi-platform network venture with the Chicago White Sox's Silver Chalice unit and 120 Sports.
2023 saw the moves of two National Hockey League team broadcasts to digital subchannels, in at least part of the team's market. In May 2023, the Vegas Golden Knights and Scripps Sports announced plans to bring the team's broadcasts to over-the-air television in the home market; as part of the deal, Golden Knights games air on the second subchannel of KIVI in Boise, KSAW-LD in Twin Falls, and the Montana Television Network. In October of that year, the Arizona Coyotes moved their broadcasts to Scripps Sports, where the games air on the second subchannel of KNXV in Phoenix and KGUN in Tucson.
Local and informational channels
Although not to the same level as in the late 2000s due to the population of entertainment-based multicast services, many local stations have used or currently use subchannels to carry continuous news or local weather content; in particular, there have been at least four networks that have been created to serve this audience: NBC Weather Plus (a service exclusive to NBC stations that operated from 2004 to 2008), The AccuWeather Channel, WeatherNation TV (which also maintains limited exclusive distribution on pay television services) and TouchVision. Locally programmed news subchannels (such as News 9 Now / News on 6 Now on KWTV in Oklahoma City and KOTV in Tulsa, Oklahoma or NewsChannel 5+ on WTVF in Nashville, Tennessee) often carry rebroadcasts and simulcasts of local news programs seen on the station's main feed, in some cases displaying a ticker with news headlines and weather forecasts to provide updated information.
Subchannels also allow stations to air news programs without fully pre-empting normally scheduled programing on the station's main feed. During significant breaking news or severe weather events, for instance, a station may choose to air extended news coverage on either its main channel or a subchannel and air network programming on the other. Thus, the station can accommodate viewers wanting to watch either regular programming or news coverage. Some sports leagues, most notably the NFL, have strict rules against their game broadcasts airing on a subchannel.
Specialty programming
The first major nationally distributed general entertainment digital multicast television network, or diginet, for use on subchannels was Retro Television Network in 2005. Several new services launched or attempted to launch in 2008, including This TV, utilizing classic TV programming and library movies. This time period also saw the launch of some of the first services for public TV stations in the United States, such as Create.
The field of diginets grew throughout the 2010s. MeTV, once a local service in Chicago and Milwaukee, became nationally distributed in 2010; by 2014, it was the most widely distributed diginet, and it remains the most watched with prime time viewership eclipsing some cable channels. Station groups also increased their presence in the space, most notably the E. W. Scripps Company's 2017 acquisition of Katz Broadcasting, which was seen as giving the sector legitimacy. Ratings and coverage have increased as these channels seek to reach cord cutters who still use antennas to receive broadcast signals.
Diginets generally are reliant on national advertising revenue and, in some cases, pay stations to be carried on their subchannels, prizing lower channel numbers. Some have obtained national distribution on paid and free ad-supported streaming TV services.
Educational programming
Many PBS member stations around the United States broadcast their main channel in high definition and up to three standard definition subchannels; however, a few reconfigure their digital channels depending on daypart, carrying four standard definition channels during the daytime, reducing them to one HD and one SD channel at night due to technical limitations at the station's level that may prevent it from carrying PBS programming in HD full-time and maintain multiple full-time subchannels like other member stations. PBS stations often carry additional national channels such as PBS HD (PBS Satellite Service), PBS Kids, World, and Create. In the Washington, D.C. area, MHz Networks is available as ten subchannels transmitted by two stations, with their virtual channels mapped uniformally, making them appear as if they are transmitted by one station.
In some U.S. states, statewide educational, cultural or public affairs services are carried on a digital subchannel of a PBS member station or network (such as the Minnesota Channel, PBS Wisconsin's Wisconsin Channel, or New York State broadcaster ThinkBright TV). The use of subchannels has also allowed educational television broadcasters to sell off former secondary PBS analogue stations to commercial broadcasters (such as WNEQ in Buffalo, which its sister station WNED-TV sold in 1999 to LIN TV (now owned by Nexstar Media Group) to become WNLO, now a CW affiliate), as the additional educational content these separate stations once provided can now be carried by multiple subchannels of a single parent station. Subchannels also allow some educational stations to devote an entire channel to telecourses, which are recorded by instructors and students for later use, allowing the station's main channel to air a generalized schedule in the morning and overnight hours.
Temporary installations
Subchannels and transmitter reconfigurations have been used to temporarily restore service from a station that is unable to broadcast for technical, weather-related, or other reasons using the facilities of another. This use dates to the early days of digital television: in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks, which destroyed the primary TV transmission site in New York City, WWOR-TV was broadcast as a subchannel of co-owned WNYW-DT. Competing stations in a market have even offered each other support; in 2009, Weigel Broadcasting offered the use of a subchannel to Milwaukee's WTMJ-TV when its transmitter was disabled by lightning, only for WTMJ to reciprocate the next year when flooding took Weigel's WDJT-TV out of service for three days. For five months from October 2019 to 2020, commonly operated WBBH-TV and WZVN-TV in Fort Myers, broadcast from the former's facility on one multiplex to allow for an overhaul of the latter's antenna.
Data, radio and non-public signals
In rare cases, digital television broadcasters have included a service known as DTV radio, in which the audio of a commonly owned broadcast radio station is simulcast over a subchannel (for instance, KPJK in San Mateo, California broadcasts former FM sister KCSM on its DT3 signal). WANN-CD in Atlanta offers six radio stations owned by iHeartMedia, in addition to ten television channels.
Non-broadcast content, subscription television channels or datacasting operations unrelated to the main television programming are also permitted by the digital television standards but are less-commonly used. USDTV was an over-the-air pay television service that used H.264 compression instead of standard MPEG-2. Mobile DTV now uses MPEG-4 compression, which like H.264 yields a much lower bitrate for the same video quality. For example, the Sezmi TV/DVR service uses broadcast digital subchannels (not in the clear) in selected cities to stream a limited number of "cable" channels to its subscribers for an additional fee to supplement its otherwise free digital video recorder (DVR) service allowing recordings of local broadcast channels and free and subscription internet content.
Technical considerations
Digital television supports multiple digital subchannels if the 19.39 Mbit/s (megabits per second) bitstream is divided. Therefore, station managers and broadcast engineers could run any of the following scenarios using one 6 MHz channel (note that the actual bitrate moves up and down, due to usage of variable bitrate encoding):
With improvements in MPEG encoding, and tighter VBR encoding, more subchannels can be combined. 1×720p + 3×480i is becoming more common.
For a frame rate of 30p or 60i, uncompressed DTV channels have the following data rates in megapixels per second:
For ATSC, these must be compressed into 19.4Mbit/s total per physical 6 MHz RF channel over the air, and 38.8Mbit/s for cable.
Digital radio
Various forms of digital radio also allow for multiple program streams.
HD Radio
The primary distinguishing feature of HD Radio has been its ability to multiplex an FM radio signal. As HD Radio never achieved widespread popularity in the United States (unlike television, radio is not required to turn off its analog signals due to HD Radio being in-band on-channel and thus compatible with analog, plus the greater quantity and difficulty in signal conversion of radios compared to fixed-link television sets), its use has largely been to serve as a legal fiction. Since HD Radio was introduced in the United States in the late 2000s (decade), the FCC has allowed American broadcasters to use low-powered translators to transmit HD Radio subchannels in analog FM. This has allowed broadcasters to increase the number of programming choices available in a given media market beyond FCC limits.
AM broadcasting generally lacks the bandwidth to multiplex; though in theory an AM station could transmit two separate channels using C-QUAM AM stereo, there is a limit to how far the two audio channels can be separated, and thus crosstalk is inevitable. HD Radio can be used on AM, but the bandwidth limits the digital signal to a single channel, which under FCC rules must match the analog signal. AM broadcasters have criticized the use of HD Radio on AM due to the increased adjacent-channel interference caused by the greater bandwidth it requires, with little benefit. WWFD has operated as a digital-only station with no analog signal under special dispensation since 2018; in December 2019, it began testing a multiplexed digital signal with two channels. No consumer radio receivers currently have the capability to receive AM multicast signals, and thus (as with FM HD Radio) WWFD's signals have been carried on FM translators (and the Internet) to ensure continued availability. The FCC, in October 2020, concluded from WWFD's experiments: "the record does not establish that an audio stream on an HD-2 subchannel is currently technically feasible(.)" A proposed FCC rule would require stations that wish to multiplex their digital AM signals to request and receive permission to do so.
DAB
See also
In-band on-channel (IBOC), digital radio technology allowing digital subchannels on FM stations
DAB and DVB, international digital radio-television standards in use in Europe, Australia and New Zealand
QAM tuner
References
External links
ATSC
Digital television
High-definition television
Television technology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo%20Bonucci
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Leonardo Bonucci
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Leonardo Bonucci (; born 1 May 1987) is an Italian professional footballer who plays as a centre-back for Bundesliga club Union Berlin and the Italy national team. Considered one of the best defenders of his generation, Bonucci is known for his technique, ball-playing skills, tackling and his ability to play in either a three or four-man defence.
After beginning his career with Inter Milan in 2005, Bonucci spent the next few seasons on loan at Treviso and Pisa, before moving to Bari in 2009. His defensive performances alongside fellow Italian centre-back Andrea Ranocchia earned him a move to Juventus the following season, where he later became a key member of the club's three-man defensive line, alongside Giorgio Chiellini and Andrea Barzagli, establishing himself as one of the best defenders in world football. Among other titles, he went on to win six consecutive Serie A titles with the team between 2012 and 2017, having also played two UEFA Champions League finals in 2015 and 2017. In 2017, he moved to AC Milan, and one season later returned to Juventus, winning two more consecutive league titles.
At the international level, Bonucci has earned over 120 caps since his senior debut in 2010, representing Italy at two FIFA World Cups (2010 and 2014), three European Championships, (2012, 2016, and 2020), and a FIFA Confederations Cup (2013); he won Euro 2020 and earned a runners-up medal at Euro 2012 and a third-place medal at the 2013 Confederations Cup.
Bonucci has also won several individual honours for his performances: he was named to the UEFA Europa League Squad of the season during the 2013–14 and 2017–18 seasons, and is a four-time member of the Serie A Team of the Year. He was named the Serie A Footballer of the Year in 2016, and was also included in the UEFA Team of the Year in the same season. In 2017 and 2021, he was included in the FIFA FIFPro World11 and the IFFHS Men's World Team. He was also selected to the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League Team of the Season and the 2016–17 ESM Team of the Year.
Club career
Inter Milan
Bonucci started his career in the youth ranks of his hometown club Viterbese but was loaned to Inter Milan in the summer of 2005. He played a number of pre-season friendlies for the Inter first team. He then became a member of the Inter U20 team.
On 14 May 2006, Bonucci made his Serie A debut in the last match of the 2005–06 season, in a 2–2 away draw against Cagliari, which was Inter's 3,500th competitive match. On 7 July 2006, Inter bought Bonucci outright.
He played his first Coppa Italia match against Messina on 9 November 2006 when he came off the bench for Fabio Grosso in the 86th minute. Bonucci featured in two more Coppa Italia games for Inter that season when he was brought on for the substituted Walter Samuel at half-time during the quarter-final second leg match against Empoli, and as a starter in the semi-final second leg tie against Sampdoria.
In January 2007, Inter sold 50% of Bonucci's registration rights to Treviso, along with 50% of the registration rights for fellow Primavera team-mate Daniel Maa Boumsong. At that time Bonucci was tagged for a peppercorn fee of €500. Bonucci subsequently remained at Inter until 30 June 2007 while Maa Boumsong returned from Treviso where he spent the first half of the season on loan. During Bonucci's last season with the Inter's youth side, he won the Campionato Nazionale Primavera (the national youth league title).
Treviso and Pisa
On 1 July 2007, Bonucci and Maa Boumsong formally became players of Treviso after their loan contract back to Inter had expired, as well as the renewal of the co-ownerships in June 2007. At Treviso, Bonucci made 20 starts in 27 Serie B appearances as one of the regular starters.
In June 2008, among the other Inter youth products, Bonucci was the only player that was bought back from Treviso. However, he was loaned back to Treviso for the 2008–09 season. According to a Treviso filing named Tabella N°5 – circolare Co.Vi.So.C. prot. N°4051.4/GC/pc del 11 maggio 2005 in their 2007–08 financial report, Bonucci was sold for a €700,000 fee.
Bonucci played 13 Serie B matches for Treviso before leaving for another Serie B struggler Pisa on loan.
Bari
On 8 June 2009, Bonucci underwent a medical examination at Genoa. On 1 July, Inter officially announced that Bonucci, along with Acquafresca, Bolzoni and Meggiorini had been transferred to Genoa, as part of the deal that sent Diego Milito and Thiago Motta to Inter. Moreover, Ivan Fatić who was co-contracted ("co-owned") between Chievo and Inter, became co-contracted between Chievo and Genoa instead, according to a news article by La Gazzetta dello Sport. Bonucci was valued at €3 million at that time.
On 2 July, he was transferred to Bari from Genoa, on a co-ownership deal, for €1.75 million, along with Meggiorini (also on a co-ownership deal), Matteo Paro (on loan), Andrea Ranocchia (on loan) and Giuseppe Greco (on loan).
At Bari he became a first team player in central defence under head coach Gian Piero Ventura, showing a composed yet strong and effective defensive playing style. He formed an extremely strong defensive partnership with Andrea Ranocchia which was so effective that, as of the midway point in the 2009–10 season, Bari had the second best defensive record in Serie A. The strong partnership ended after Ranocchia got injured half-way through the season and was ruled out for the remaining fixtures.
Juventus
On 1 July 2010, Bonucci was signed by Juventus on a four-year contract for a total of €15.5 million fee from Bari; Bari bought Bonucci from Genoa outright for €8 million. However, Genoa and Bari used part of the transfer receivables to sign the remaining 50% registration rights of Domenico Criscito and 50% of the registration rights of Sergio Bernardo Almirón from Juventus. Bonucci was assigned the shirt number 19.
Partnered with Italy teammate Giorgio Chiellini in defence, Bonucci was immediately drafted into the starting line-up for the first matches of the season making his competitive debut at Shamrock Rovers in the Europa League and scoring his first goal for Juventus in the Europa League play-off match against Sturm Graz.
The following season, due to the presence of veteran of Andrea Barzagli, it was expected that Bonucci would compete with him for a starting place alongside Chiellini in a four-man defence, as the club's new manager Antonio Conte was known for his preference for the 4–2–4 formation, a variant upon the 4–4–2 formation. However, after experimenting with several tactical systems, Conte eventually decided to play all three players in a three-man defence aided by wingbacks in a 3–5–2 formation, and Bonucci established himself once again in the starting eleven alongside Chiellini and Barzagli. Due to their performances together, the three-man defence earned the nickname BBC, a reference to the players' initials. Soon, the trio established themselves as one of the best defences in world football during the following seasons. On 2 April 2012 Juventus announced that he had signed a new 5-year contract effective on 1 July 2012. Bonucci won his first major title, the 2011–12 Scudetto, and contributed two goals as Juventus finished the season undefeated and with one of the best defensive records in the top five European leagues. His good form that season earned him a place in the final UEFA Euro 2012 squad.
Bonucci began the season by winning the 2012 Supercoppa Italiana with Juventus. He made his Champions League debut against Chelsea in the group stage and scored his first goal in the competition against Shaktar Donetsk in October 2012 in a 1–1 draw. In December 2012 Bonucci was criticized for diving in a league game against Palermo on which was described by a number of journalists as "the worst dive ever". He was booked by the referee during the game and subsequently given a one-match ban and a €2000 fine by the authorities. Juventus finished the season by winning the 2012–13 Serie A title.
The following season, Bonucci would help Juventus to defend the Supercoppa Italiana and the Serie A title, although Juventus would suffer a group-stage elimination in the UEFA Champions League. Nevertheless, he helped Juventus to reach the semi-finals of the Europa League, scoring a decisive goal against Lyon in the quarter-finals.
During the 2014–15 season, Bonucci made his 200th appearance with Juventus on 25 January 2015, in a 2–0 win over Chievo. On 6 June 2015, Bonucci started for Juventus in the 2015 UEFA Champions League Final, but were defeated 3–1 by Barcelona at Berlin's Olympiastadion. With 52 appearances, he made the most appearances for Juventus that season across all competitions, along with team-mates Claudio Marchisio and Roberto Pereyra. On 24 November 2015, Bonucci was nominated for the 2015 UEFA Team of the Year. On 2 March 2016, he captained Juventus in the absence of Gianluigi Buffon and Chiellini, scoring the decisive penalty in the resulting shoot-out of the second leg of the Coppa Italia semi-finals against Inter, at the San Siro, following a 3–3 draw on aggregate, which allowed Juventus to progress to the final; however, due to the yellow card he received during the match, and having already been booked prior to the fixture, he missed the victorious final against Milan, which saw Juventus capture a domestic double for the second consecutive season, including a record fifth consecutive league title.
During the beginning of the 2016–17 season, Bonucci dedicated time to his ill son Matteo, missing select matches with Juventus and the national team. On 27 November, Bonucci suffered a severe thigh strain in an eventual 3–1 away loss to Genoa, sidelining him for up to 60 days. On 19 December, Bonucci penned a new deal with Juventus, keeping him at the club until 2021. On 5 January 2017, Bonucci was named to the 2016 UEFA Team of the Year. On 30 January, Bonucci was named to the 2015–16 Serie A Team of the Year, and was also named the 2016 Serie A Footballer of the Year. Bonucci made his 300th Juventus appearance in a 4–1 home win over Palermo on 17 February; however, after Palermo scored a late goal, Bonucci had an argument on the touchline with coach Massimiliano Allegri, causing the club to fine and omit him from the squad for the first Champions League round of 16 leg with Porto on 22 February. On 17 May, Bonucci scored the last goal of a 2–0 win in the final of the 2016–17 Coppa Italia over Lazio. On 3 June, Bonucci started in his second Champions League Final in three years, but Juventus were defeated 4–1 by defending champions Real Madrid. On 5 June, he was subsequently named to the UEFA Champions League squad of the season.
AC Milan
On 14 July 2017, Bonucci was signed by AC Milan on a five-year contract for a €42 million fee. On 4 August 2017, Bonucci was named one of the three finalists for the Defender of the 2016–17 UEFA Champions League season award. Milan's manager Vincenzo Montella subsequently named Bonucci as the team's new captain later that month. On 23 October, he was named to the 2017 FIFA FIFPro World11. Although much was expected of Bonucci and Milan, the first half of the 2017–18 season was disappointing both for him and the club, and he drew criticism in the media over the quality of his performances. He scored his first goal for Milan on 6 January 2018, in a 1–0 home win over Crotone. On 31 March, Bonucci scored the equalising goal against his former team away to Juventus, breaking goalkeeper Gianluigi Buffon's record of longest consecutive minutes not conceded in an eventual 3–1 defeat.
Return to Juventus
On 2 August 2018, Bonucci returned to Juventus as part of a swap deal with Milan involving Mattia Caldara; both Bonucci and Caldara were tagged for €35 million transfer fee. He signed a five-year contract until 30 June 2023.
Bonucci made his return for Juventus in their opening Serie A match on 18 August, a 3–2 away win over Chievo, contributing to Juventus's temporary equaliser, an own goal by Mattia Bani. On 29 September 2018, Bonucci scored his first goal for Juventus since his return from Milan, the final goal of a 3–1 home win over Napoli. On 2 October, he made his 50th Champions League appearance in a 3–0 home win over Young Boys.
On 2 April 2019, Bonucci marked his 250th Serie A appearance with Juventus by scoring the opening goal in a 2–0 away win against Cagliari. However, following the match, he was heavily criticised by several prominent figures after stating that teammate Moise Kean was partly to blame for the racial abuse he suffered from the crowd; England international Raheem Sterling deemed the comments 'laughable', while compatriot Mario Balotelli, English singer Stormzy, and former Juventus player Paul Pogba also criticised Bonucci's comments. Bonucci implied that Kean's goal celebration caused further jeers, stating to Sky Sport Italia: "Kean knows that when he scores a goal, he has to focus on celebrating with his teammates. He knows he could've done something differently too. There were racist jeers after the goal, Blaise heard it and was angered. I think the blame is 50–50, because Moise shouldn't have done that and the Curva should not have reacted that way. We are professionals, we have to set the example and not provoke anyone." Later, he made a post on Instagram which read "Regardless of everything, in any case... no to racism." In response to the criticism, the following day, Bonucci posted on Instagram: "After 24 hours I want to clarify my feelings. Yesterday I was interviewed right at the end of the game, and my words have been clearly misunderstood, probably because I was too hasty in the way I expressed my thoughts. Hours and years wouldn't be enough to talk about this topic. I firmly condemn all forms of racism and discrimination. The abuses are not acceptable at all and this must not be misunderstood."
After Chiellini suffered an anterior cruciate ligament injury at the beginning of the 2019–20 season, Bonucci captained Juventus in his absence. In November 2019, he signed a new contract with the club, running until 2024.
On 20 September 2020, Bonucci scored in Juventus's opening match of the 2020–21 season, a 3–0 home win over Sampdoria in Serie A. On 20 November 2021, Bonucci scored his first brace in his career in a 2–0 win against Lazio through two penalties.
On 11 May 2023, he became the sixth player in the history of the club to reach 500 appearances alongside Juve legends Alessandro Del Piero, Gaetano Scirea, Giorgio Chiellini, Giuseppe Furino, and Gianluigi Buffon. Six days later, he announced he would retire when his contract expired in 2024. Following the end of the 2022–23 season, it was reported on 13 July that new director Cristiano Giuntoli personally informed Bonucci that he would not be part of the club's plans among other players for the next season.
Union Berlin
On 1 September 2023, after having been excluded from the first team roster of Juventus, Bonucci signed for German club Union Berlin. On 12 September, it was reported that Bonucci would sue his former club Juventus for damages, related to not providing adequate training conditions in pre-season which affected the player's image. On 20 September, he made debut at the club by starting in a 1–0 away defeat to Real Madrid in the Champions League, which was also his club's first ever match in the competition. Three days later, he played his first Bundesliga match, in which he conceded a penalty in a match which ended in a 2–0 home defeat against Hoffenheim. On 7 October, he scored his first goal for the club via penalty in a 4–2 loss against Borussia Dortmund.
International career
At youth level, Bonucci played for the Italy national under-21 football B team. He was called-up for a friendlies against Renate on 6 November 2007, and against the Under-20 Serie C representative team on 4 December 2007. He was also capped for the team in an internal friendly, which split the Under-21 Serie B team into two on 9 October 2007, on 21 October 2008, on 25 November, and on 24 March 2009, as team captain.
He also received a call-up from the Italy U20 team on 31 May 2007. He was an unused substitute in the 0–1 loss to the Serie D Best XI.
2010–2014: Early senior career
Bonucci made his debut with the Italy senior team on 3 March 2010, under manager Marcello Lippi, in a friendly match against Cameroon played in Monaco, which ended in a 0–0 draw, and became one of the few debutants to have never played an official match for the national youth teams. He was included by manager Marcello Lippi in the starting line-up along with national team regulars Fabio Cannavaro and Giorgio Chiellini, forming a three-man defensive line in Lippi's 3–4–3 formation.
Due to his performances during the 2009–10 season, Bonucci was included in the Italy squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He scored his first international goal on 3 June 2010, in a 1–2 friendly loss against Mexico, in a pre-tournament friendly match in Brussels. In the World Cup, he appeared as an unused substitute for all three of Italy's matches, as they suffered a first-round elimination, failing to win a match.
After the World Cup, under new manager Cesare Prandelli, Bonucci took advantage of the international retirement of Cannavaro and broke into the starting line-up beside Juventus teammate Chiellini. He ended a fine 2011–12 season by earning a place in the final 23-man Italy squad for UEFA Euro 2012, helping Italy to reach the final of the tournament, where they were defeated 4–0 by defending champions Spain. He started in all but one match as Italy reached the finals.
In the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup, he missed his spot-kick in the penalty shoot-out against Spain in the semi-finals, shooting high over the bar as Italy went out of the competition losing 7–6 on penalties; Italy would win the bronze medal match over Uruguay 4–3 on penalties, after a 2–2 draw following extra-time, allowing them to capture third place.
Bonucci was selected by Cesare Prandelli to be part of the Italy squad that would take part at the 2014 FIFA World Cup in Brazil. Although he once again remained an unused substitute for the first two games, he made his World Cup debut on 24 June 2014, in a 0–1 loss to Uruguay; as a result, Italy was eliminated in the first round of the competition for a second consecutive time.
2014–2018: Euro 2016 and failed 2018 World Cup qualification
On 4 September 2014, under new Italy manager Antonio Conte, Bonucci wore the captain's armband for Italy for the first time, following Daniele De Rossi's substitution in a 2–0 friendly win over the Netherlands.
On 31 May 2016, Bonucci was named to Conte's 23-man Italy squad for UEFA Euro 2016. On 13 June he set up Emanuele Giaccherini's goal, Italy's first of the match, with a long ball in a 2–0 win over Belgium in the opening group match of Euro 2016; he was later booked for a tactical foul. After helping Italy to another clean-sheet in a 1–0 victory in the second group match against Sweden on 17 June, Bonucci was once again praised for his defensive performances alongside Chiellini and Barzagli. On 22 June, he captained Italy in Buffon's absence in his nation's final group match, a 1–0 defeat to Ireland. On 27 June he produced a Man of the Match performance in the round of 16 of the tournament as he helped Italy to keep a third clean sheet and defeat defending champions Spain 2–0. In the quarter-final fixture against Germany on 2 July, he scored Italy's equalising goal from a penalty, although his spot-kick was saved by Manuel Neuer in the resulting shoot-out, as the reigning World Cup champions advanced to the semi-finals following a 6–5 shoot-out victory.
In the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifying campaign, Italy finished in second place in Group G behind Spain and advanced to the play-off against Sweden. Italy failed to qualify for the 2018 FIFA World Cup after a 1–0 aggregate loss to the Scandinavians.
2019–2021: Euro 2020 victory
On 12 October 2019, Bonucci made his 92nd international appearance, under manager Roberto Mancini, in a 2–0 home win over Greece, and overtook Alessandro Del Piero as the tenth-most capped player in the history of the Italian national team; the victory sealed Italy's qualification for Euro 2020. He made his 94th appearance for Italy on 15 November, in a 3–0 away win over Bosnia and Herzegovina, in a Euro 2020 qualifier, equalling Giacinto Facchetti as the ninth most-capped Italian player of all time.
On 11 October 2020, Bonucci made his 98th international appearance in a 0–0 away draw against Poland in the UEFA Nations League, equalling Gianluca Zambrotta as the eight–most capped player of all–time for the Italian national team. On 25 March 2021, Bonucci made his 100th appearance for Italy in a 2–0 home win over Northern Ireland, in the team's first 2022 World Cup qualifying match.
In June 2021, Bonucci was included in Italy's squad for UEFA Euro 2020. During the tournament, he served as a temporary captain for Italy following an injury to Giorgio Chiellini in the first round. On 6 July, following a 1–1 draw after extra-time against Spain in the semi-final of the competition, he scored Italy's third spot-kick in an eventual 4–2 penalty shoot-out victory, to send Italy to the final. On 11 July, Bonucci won the European Championship with Italy following a 3–2 victory over England at Wembley Stadium in a penalty shoot-out after a 1–1 draw in extra-time. Bonucci scored Italy's only goal of the game in the 67th minute to tie the match, and later converted Italy's third penalty in the shoot-out; his goal during regulation time made him the oldest player ever to score in a European Championship final, at the age of 34 years and 71 days. For his performance during the final, he was named Star of the Match by UEFA. For his performances throughout the competition, he was later also named to the team of the tournament.
2022–present: Captaincy
On 23 September 2022, Bonucci took over as captain after Chiellini's international retirement, in which Italy defeated England 1–0 during the Nations League A. In June 2023, he was included in the final squad for the Nations League Finals, where he played in the 2–1 defeat against Spain in the semi-finals.
Style of play
A former midfielder who is usually deployed as ball-playing centre-back in a three-man defence (although he is also capable of playing in a four-man defence, both in the centre or out wide), Bonucci is primarily known for his technique, passing range, and his ability to launch an attack from the back with long passes. Although he is not the quickest player over short distances, he is a tall, mobile, and strong defender, with a good positional sense, as well as good anticipation, solid tackling, and an ability to read the game and mark opponents, on top of his ball skills; he also excels in the air, and frequently poses a goal threat from set pieces.
Despite having been considered to be a talented and promising young defender, he was also criticised by certain pundits for being inconsistent and prone to errors or lapses in concentration in his youth, which were dubbed "Bonucciate" in the Italian media, a reference to their similarity to Cesare Maldini's Maldinate; in 2021, the neologism bonucciata was even included in the Italian encyclopedia Treccani. However, he showed notable improvements during the 2014–15 season, and established himself as one of the best defenders in world football, also drawing praise from manager Pep Guardiola, who described Bonucci as one of his "favourite ever players".
In 2016, Mario Sconcerti of Il Corriere della Sera ranked Bonucci among the greatest Italian defenders of all time. His unique playing style has led Giovanni Galli to compare him to former sweeper Gaetano Scirea. In 2012, The Guardian named him the 88th Best Player in the World and in 2016, he was named the 26th Best Player in the World. In 2016, his defensive attributes, as well as his skill on the ball, vision, and accurate passing, moved La Repubblica to dub him as “Beckenbonucci”, a reference to former German sweeper Franz Beckenbauer.
In addition to his defensive, playmaking and technical skills, Bonucci has also been praised for his leadership and ability to organise his back-line. In 2017, he was ranked by some as the best defender in the world. With Andrea Barzagli's retirement, the subsequent Bonucci-Chiellini axis was considered, in terms of longevity and performance at high levels, one of the most solid and complementary in international football, as well as being compared to duets from the past such as Beckenbauer-Schwarzenbeck, Scirea-Gentile or Baresi-Costacurta.
Personal life
On 18 June 2011, Bonucci married Martina Maccari (b. 19 November 1985), a former model and blogger, whom he first met in 2008 through a mutual friend. They have two sons, Lorenzo (b. July 2012) and Matteo (b. May 2014), and one daughter, Matilda (b. February 2019). Although Bonucci played for Juventus for several seasons, his eldest son, Lorenzo, supports Juventus's cross-city rivals, Torino. In July 2016, Bonucci's youngest son, Matteo underwent emergency surgery following the onset of an acute illness. In a 2017 interview with El País, Bonucci revealed that his son's illness had even led him to think about quitting football, commenting:
Bonucci's older brother, Riccardo (b. November 1982), was also a footballer who once played as a central defender in Serie C1 with Viterbese. Their father owns a paint shop in Viterbo.
In May 2012, during the 2011–12 Italian football scandal investigations, Bonucci, along with Juventus teammate Simone Pepe and manager Antonio Conte, as well as many other players, were accused of match-fixing; Bonucci was accused of helping to fix the result of a 3–3 draw against Udinese in May 2010, during his time with Bari, and faced a potential three-and-a-half year ban if found guilty. Bonucci denied any wrongdoing, however, and both he and Pepe were later acquitted in August later that year.
In October 2012, Bonucci and his wife and then five-month-old son were confronted by an armed robber who demanded the defender hand over his watch. As the robber reached out to take the watch, Bonucci reportedly punched him and chased him down the street. The robber escaped with his accomplice on a motorbike.
Bonucci is an anti-bullying activist. In December 2017, he made a cameo appearance in the music video for "Buona fortuna" by Benji & Fede, whose storyline deals with bullying. In October 2019, together with the journalist and editor Francesco Ceniti, he co-wrote and released a book "Il mio amico Leo" (My friend Leo), partially inspired by his own experiences and designed to provide support to bullying victims.
Career statistics
Club
International
Scores and results list Italy's goal tally first, score column indicates score after each Bonucci goal.
Honours
Inter Milan
Serie A: 2005–06
Campionato Nazionale Primavera: 2007
Coppa Italia Primavera: 2006
Juventus
Serie A: 2011–12, 2012–13, 2013–14, 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2018–19, 2019–20
Coppa Italia: 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2020–21
Supercoppa Italiana: 2012, 2013, 2015, 2018, 2020; runner-up: 2014, 2019
UEFA Champions League runner-up: 2014–15, 2016–17
Italy
UEFA European Championship: 2020; runner-up: 2012
FIFA Confederations Cup third place: 2013
UEFA Nations League third place: 2020–21, 2022–23
Individual
FIFA FIFPro World11: 2017, 2021
Serie A Team of the Year: 2014–15, 2015–16, 2016–17, 2019–20
Serie A Footballer of the Year: 2015–16
UEFA Team of the Year: 2016
UEFA Europa League Squad of the Season: 2013–14, 2017–18
UEFA Champions League Team of the Season: 2016–17
ESM Team of the Year: 2016–17
L'Équipe Team of the Year: 2016
IFFHS Men's World Team: 2017, 2021
IFFHS UEFA Team of the Decade: 2011–2020
IFFHS Men's UEFA Team of the Year: 2021
UEFA Euro Final Man of the Match: 2020
UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament: 2020
Globe Soccer Awards Best Defender of the Year: 2021
Orders
5th Class / Knight: Cavaliere Ordine al Merito della Repubblica Italiana: 2021
See also
List of men's footballers with 100 or more international caps
References
External links
Leonardo Bonucci at the 1. FC Union Berlin website
Profile at AIC.Football.it
Profile at Italia1910.com
1987 births
Living people
People from Viterbo
Italian men's footballers
Italy men's international footballers
Men's association football defenders
Inter Milan players
Treviso FBC 1993 players
Pisa SC players
SSC Bari players
Juventus FC players
AC Milan players
1. FC Union Berlin players
Serie A players
Serie B players
Bundesliga players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2012 players
2013 FIFA Confederations Cup players
2014 FIFA World Cup players
UEFA Euro 2016 players
UEFA Euro 2020 players
FIFA Men's Century Club
UEFA European Championship-winning players
European champions for Italy
Knights of the Order of Merit of the Italian Republic
Footballers from Lazio
Sportspeople from the Province of Viterbo
Italian expatriate men's footballers
Italian expatriate sportspeople in Germany
Expatriate men's footballers in Germany
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Utah
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History of Utah
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The History of Utah is an examination of the human history and social activity within the state of Utah located in the western United States.
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence dates the earliest habitation of humans in Utah to about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. Paleolithic people lived near the Great Basin's swamps and marshes, which had an abundance of fish, birds, and small game animals. Big game, including bison, mammoths and ground sloths, also were attracted to these water sources. Over the centuries, the mega-fauna died, this population was replaced by the Desert Archaic people, who sheltered in caves near the Great Salt Lake. Relying more on gathering than the previous Utah residents, their diet was mainly composed of cattails and other salt tolerant plants such as pickleweed, burro weed and sedge. Red meat appears to have been more of a luxury, although these people used nets and the atlatl to hunt water fowl, ducks, small animals and antelope. Artifacts include nets woven with plant fibers and rabbit skin, woven sandals, gaming sticks, and animal figures made from split-twigs. About 3,500 years ago, lake levels rose and the population of Desert Archaic people appears to have dramatically decreased. The Great Basin may have been almost unoccupied for 1,000 years.
The Fremont culture, named from sites near the Fremont River in Utah, lived in what is now north and western Utah and parts of Nevada, Idaho and Colorado from approximately 600 to 1300 AD. These people lived in areas close to water sources that had been previously occupied by the Desert Archaic people, and may have had some relationship with them. However, their use of new technologies define them as a distinct people. Fremont technologies include:
use of the bow and arrow while hunting,
building pithouse shelters,
growing maize and probably beans and squash,
building above ground granaries of adobe or stone,
creating and decorating low-fired pottery ware,
producing art, including jewelry and rock art such as petroglyphs and pictographs.
The ancient Puebloan culture, also known as the Anasazi, occupied territory adjacent to the Fremont. The ancestral Puebloan culture centered on the present-day Four Corners area of the Southwest United States, including the San Juan River region of Utah. Archaeologists debate when this distinct culture emerged, but cultural development seems to date from about the common era, about 500 years before the Fremont appeared. It is generally accepted that the cultural peak of these people was around the 1200 CE. Ancient Puebloan culture is known for well constructed pithouses and more elaborate adobe and masonry dwellings. They were excellent craftsmen, producing turquoise jewelry and fine pottery. The Puebloan culture was based on agriculture, and the people created and cultivated fields of maize, beans, and squash and domesticated turkeys. They designed and produced elaborate field terracing and irrigation systems. They also built structures, some known as kivas, apparently designed solely for cultural and religious rituals.
These two later cultures were roughly contemporaneous, and appear to have established trading relationships. They also shared enough cultural traits that archaeologists believe the cultures may have common roots in the early American Southwest. However, each remained culturally distinct throughout most of their existence. These two well established cultures appear to have been severely impacted by climatic change and perhaps by the incursion of new people in about 1200 CE. Over the next two centuries, the Fremont and ancient Pueblo people may have moved into the American southwest, finding new homes and farmlands in the river drainages of Arizona, New Mexico and northern Mexico.
In about 1200, Shoshonean speaking peoples entered Utah territory from the west. They may have originated in southern California and moved into the desert environment due to population pressure along the coast. They were an upland people with a hunting and gathering lifestyle utilizing roots and seeds, including the pinyon nut. They were also skillful fishermen, created pottery and raised some crops. When they first arrived in Utah, they lived as small family groups with little tribal organization. Four main Shoshonean peoples inhabited Utah country. The Shoshone in the north and northeast, the Gosiutes in the northwest, the Utes in the central and eastern parts of the region and the Southern Paiutes in the southwest. Initially, there seems to have been very little conflict between these groups.
In the early 16th century, the San Juan River basin in Utah's southeast also saw a new people, the Díne or Navajo, part of a greater group of plains Athabaskan speakers moved into the Southwest from the Great Plains. In addition to the Navajo, this language group contained people that were later known as Apaches, including the Lipan, Jicarilla, and Mescalero Apaches.
Athabaskans were a hunting people who initially followed the bison, and were identified in 16th-century Spanish accounts as "dog nomads". The Athabaskans expanded their range throughout the 17th century, occupying areas the Pueblo peoples had abandoned during prior centuries. The Spanish first specifically mention the "Apachu de Nabajo" (Navaho) in the 1620s, referring to the people in the Chama valley region east of the San Juan River, and north west of Santa Fe. By the 1640s, the term Navaho was applied to these same people. Although the Navajo newcomers established a generally peaceful trading and cultural exchange with the some modern Pueblo peoples to the south, they experienced intermittent warfare with the Shoshonean peoples, particularly the Utes in eastern Utah and western Colorado.
At the time of European expansion, beginning with Spanish explorers traveling from Mexico, five distinct native peoples occupied territory within the Utah area: the Northern Shoshone, the Goshute, the Ute, the Paiute and the Navajo.
European exploration
The Spanish explorer Francisco Vázquez de Coronado may have crossed into what is now southern Utah in 1540, when he was seeking the legendary Cíbola.
A group led by two Spanish Catholic priests—sometimes called the Domínguez–Escalante expedition—left Santa Fe in 1776, hoping to find a route to the California coast. The expedition traveled as far north as Utah Lake and encountered the native residents.
Fur trappers (also known as mountain men) including Jim Bridger, explored some regions of Utah in the early 19th century. The city of Provo was named for one such man, Étienne Provost, who visited the area in 1825. The city of Ogden, Utah is named for a brigade leader of the Hudson's Bay Company, Peter Skene Ogden who trapped in the Weber Valley. In 1846, a year before the arrival of members from the Church of Jesus Christ of latter-day Saints, the ill-fated Donner Party crossed through the Salt Lake valley late in the season, deciding not to stay the winter there but to continue forward to California, and beyond.
Settlement by The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, commonly known as Mormon pioneers, first came to the Salt Lake Valley on July 24, 1847. At the time, the U.S. had already captured the Mexican territories of Alta California and New Mexico in the Mexican–American War and planned to keep them, but those territories, including the future state of Utah, officially became United States territory upon the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, February 2, 1848. The treaty was ratified by the United States Senate on March 10, 1848.
Upon arrival in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormon pioneers found no permanent settlement of Indians. Other areas along the Wasatch Range were occupied at the time of settlement by the Northwestern Shoshone and adjacent areas by other bands of Shoshone such as the Gosiute. The Northwestern Shoshone lived in the valleys on the eastern shore of Great Salt Lake and in adjacent mountain valleys. Some years after arriving in the Salt Lake Valley Mormons, who went on to colonize many other areas of what is now Utah, were petitioned by Indians for recompense for land taken. The response of Heber C. Kimball, first counselor to Brigham Young, was that the land belonged to "our Father in Heaven and we expect to plow and plant it." The land was treated by the United States as public domain; no aboriginal title by the Northwestern Shoshone was ever recognized by the United States or extinguished by treaty with the United States.
Colonizing the desert
Upon arriving in the Salt Lake Valley, the Mormons had to make a place to live. They created irrigation systems, laid out farms, built houses, churches, and schools. Access to water was crucially important. Almost immediately, Brigham Young set out to identify and claim additional community sites. While it was difficult to find large areas in the Great Basin where water sources were dependable and growing seasons long enough to raise vitally important subsistence crops, satellite communities began to be formed.
Shortly after the first company arrived in the Salt Lake Valley in 1847, the community of Bountiful was settled to the north. In 1848, settlers moved into lands purchased from trapper Miles Goodyear in present-day Ogden. In 1849, Tooele and Provo were founded. Also that year, at the invitation of Ute chief Wakara, settlers moved into the Sanpete Valley in central Utah to establish the community of Manti. Fillmore, Utah, intended to be the capital of the new territory, was established in 1851. In 1855, missionary efforts aimed at western native cultures led to outposts in Fort Lemhi, Idaho, Las Vegas, Nevada and Elk Mountain in east-central Utah.
The experiences of returning members of the Mormon Battalion were also important in establishing new communities. On their journey west, the Mormon soldiers had identified dependable rivers and fertile river valleys in Colorado, Arizona and southern California. In addition, as the men traveled to rejoin their families in the Salt Lake Valley, they moved through southern Nevada and the eastern segments of southern Utah. Jefferson Hunt, a senior Mormon officer of the Battalion, actively searched for settlement sites, minerals, and other resources. His report encouraged 1851 settlement efforts in Iron County, near present-day Cedar City. These southern explorations eventually led to Mormon settlements in St. George, Utah, Las Vegas and San Bernardino, California, as well as communities in southern Arizona.
Displacement of Native Americans
Prior to establishment of the Oregon and California trails and Mormon settlement, Indians native to the Salt Lake Valley and adjacent areas lived by hunting buffalo and other game, but also gathered grass seed from the bountiful grass of the area as well as roots such as those of the Indian Camas. By the time of settlement, indeed before 1840, the buffalo were gone from the valley, but hunting by settlers and grazing of cattle severely impacted the Indians in the area, and as settlement expanded into nearby river valleys and oases, indigenous tribes experienced increasing difficulty in gathering sufficient food. Brigham Young's counsel was to feed the hungry tribes, and that was done, but it was often not enough. These tensions formed the background to the Bear River massacre committed by California Militia stationed in Salt Lake City during the Civil War. The site of the massacre is just inside Preston, Idaho, but was generally thought to be within Utah at the time.<ref>Pages 6 to 24,
'The Shoshoni Frontier and the Bear River Massacre, Brigham D. Madsen, foreword by Charles S. Peterson, University of Utah Press (1985, paperback 1995), trade paperback, 286 pages, </ref>
State of Deseret (proposed)
Statehood was petitioned for in 1849-50 using the name Deseret. The proposed State of Deseret would have been quite large, encompassing all of what is now Utah, and portions of Colorado, Idaho, Nevada, Wyoming, Arizona, Oregon, New Mexico and California. The name of Deseret was favored by the LDS leader Brigham Young as a symbol of industry and was derived from a reference in the Book of Mormon. The petition was rejected by Congress and Utah did not become a state until 1896.
Utah Territory
In 1850, the Utah Territory was created with the Compromise of 1850, and Fillmore (named after President Fillmore) was designated the capital. In 1856, Salt Lake City replaced Fillmore as the territorial capital.
Slavery
The first group of pioneers brought African slaves with them, making Utah the only place in the western United States to have African slavery. Three slaves, Green Flake, Hark Lay, and Oscar Crosby, came west with this first group in 1847. The settlers also began to purchase Indian slaves in the well-established Indian slave trade, as well as enslaving Indian prisoners of war. In 1850, 26 slaves were counted in Salt Lake County. Slavery didn't become officially recognized until 1852, when the Act in Relation to Service and the Act for the relief of Indian Slaves and Prisoners were passed. Slavery was repealed on June 19, 1862, when Congress prohibited slavery in all US territories.
Utah War
Disputes between the Mormon inhabitants and the federal government intensified after the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints' practice of polygamy became known. The polygamous practices of the Mormons, which were made public in 1854, would be one of the major reasons Utah was denied statehood until almost 50 years after the Mormons had entered the area.
After news of their polygamous practices spread, the members of the LDS Church were quickly viewed by some as un-American and rebellious. In 1857, after news of a possible rebellion spread, President James Buchanan sent troops on the Utah expedition to quell the growing unrest and to replace Brigham Young as territorial governor with Alfred Cumming. The expedition was also known as the Utah War.
As fear of invasion grew, Mormon settlers had convinced some Paiute Indians to aid in a Mormon-led attack on 120 immigrants from Arkansas under the guise of Indian aggression. The murder of these settlers became known as the Mountain Meadows massacre. The Mormon leadership had adopted a defensive posture that led to a ban on the selling of grain to outsiders in preparation for an impending war. This chafed pioneers traveling through the region, who were unable to purchase badly needed supplies. A disagreement between some of the Arkansas pioneers and the Mormons in Cedar City led to the secret planning of the massacre by a few Mormon leaders in the area. Some scholars debate the involvement of Brigham Young.Krakauer, Jon. Under the Banner of Heaven: A Story of Violent Faith. New York: Doubleday, 2003. Print. Only one man, John D. Lee, was ever convicted of the murders, and he was executed at the massacre site.
Express riders had brought the news 1,000 miles from the Missouri River settlements to Salt Lake City within about two weeks of the army's beginning to march west. Fearing the worst as 2,500 troops (roughly 1/3rd of the army then) led by General Albert Sidney Johnston started west, Brigham Young ordered all residents of Salt Lake City and neighboring communities to prepare their homes for burning and evacuate southward to Utah Valley and southern Utah. Young also sent out a few units of the Nauvoo Legion (numbering roughly 8,000–10,000), to delay the army's advance. The majority he sent into the mountains to prepare defenses or south to prepare for a scorched earth retreat. Although some army wagon supply trains were captured and burned and herds of army horses and cattle run off no serious fighting occurred. Starting late and short on supplies, the United States Army camped during the bitter winter of 1857–58 near a burned out Fort Bridger in Wyoming. Through the negotiations between emissary Thomas L. Kane, Young, Cumming and Johnston, control of Utah territory was peacefully transferred to Cumming, who entered an eerily vacant Salt Lake City in the spring of 1858. By agreement with Young, Johnston established the army at Fort Floyd 40 miles away from Salt Lake City, to the southwest.
Transcontinental telegraph
Salt Lake City was the last link of the First Transcontinental Telegraph, between Carson City, Nevada and Omaha, Nebraska completed in October 1861. Brigham Young, who had helped expedite construction, was among the first to send a message, along with Abraham Lincoln and other officials. Soon after the telegraph line was completed, the Deseret Telegraph Company built the Deseret line connecting the settlements in the territory with Salt Lake City and, by extension, the rest of the United States.
Civil War
Because of the American Civil War, federal troops were pulled out of Utah Territory (and their fort auctioned off), leaving the territorial government in federal hands without army backing until General Patrick E. Connor arrived with the 3rd Regiment of California Volunteers in 1862. While in Utah, Connor and his troops soon became discontent with this assignment wanting to head to Virginia where the "real" fighting and glory was occurring. Connor established Fort Douglas just three miles (5 km) east of Salt Lake City and encouraged his bored and often idle soldiers to go out and explore for mineral deposits to bring more non-Mormons into the state. Minerals were discovered in Tooele County, and some miners began to come to the territory. Conner also solved the Shoshone Indian problem in Cache Valley Utah by luring the Shoshone into a midwinter confrontation on January 29, 1863. The armed conflict quickly turned into a rout, discipline among the soldiers broke down, and the Battle of Bear River is today usually referred to by historians as the Bear River Massacre. Between 200 and 400 Shoshone men, women and children were killed, as were 27 soldiers, with over 50 more soldiers wounded or suffering from frostbite.
Beginning in 1865, Utah's Black Hawk War developed into the deadliest conflict in the territory's history. Chief Antonga Black Hawk died in 1870, but fights continued to break out until additional federal troops were sent in to suppress the Ghost Dance of 1872. The war is unique among Indian Wars because it was a three-way conflict, with mounted Timpanogos Utes led by Antonga Black Hawk fighting federal and Utah local militia.
On May 10, 1869, the First transcontinental railroad was completed at Promontory Summit, north of the Great Salt Lake. The railroad brought increasing numbers of people into the state, and several influential businessmen made fortunes in the territory.
Polygamy
During the 1870s and 1880s, federal laws were passed and federal marshals assigned to enforce the laws against polygamy. In the 1890 Manifesto, the LDS Church leadership dropped its approval of polygamy citing divine revelation. When Utah applied for statehood again in 1895, it was accepted. Statehood was officially granted on January 4, 1896.
Women's suffrage
The Mormon issue made the situation for women the topic of nationwide controversy. In 1870 the Utah Territory, controlled by Mormons, gave women the right to vote. However, in 1887, Congress disenfranchised Utah women with the Edmunds–Tucker Act. In 1867–96, eastern activists promoted women's suffrage in Utah as an experiment, and as a way to eliminate polygamy. They were Presbyterians and other Protestants convinced that Mormonism was a non-Christian cult that grossly mistreated women. The Mormons promoted woman suffrage to counter the negative image of downtrodden Mormon women. With the 1890 Manifesto clearing the way for statehood, in 1895 Utah adopted a constitution restoring the right of women's suffrage. Congress admitted Utah as a state with that constitution in 1896.
Vigilante violence
Though less numerous than other intermountain states at the time, several lynching murders for alleged misdeeds occurred in Utah territory at the hand of vigilantes. Those documented include the following, with their ethnicity or national origin noted in parentheses if it was provided in the source:
William Torrington in Carson City (then a part of Utah territory), 1859
Thomas Coleman (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1866
3 unidentified men at Wahsatch, winter of 1868
A Black man in Uintah, 1869
Charles A. Benson in Logan, 1873
Ah Sing (Chinese man) in Corinne, 1874
Thomas Forrest in St. George, 1880
William Harvey (Black man) in Salt Lake City, 1883
John Murphy in Park City, 1883
George Segal (Japanese man) in Ogden, 1884
Joseph Fisher in Eureka, 1886
Robert Marshall (Black man) in Castle Gate, 1925
Other lynchings in Utah territory include multiple instances of mass murder of Native American children, women, and men by White settlers including the Battle Creek massacre (1849), Provo River Massacre (1850), Nephi massacre (1853), and Circleville Massacre (1866).
20th and 21st century
Beginning in the early 20th century, with the establishment of such national parks as Bryce Canyon National Park and Zion National Park, Utah began to become known for its natural beauty. Southern Utah became a popular filming spot for arid, rugged scenes, and such natural landmarks as Delicate Arch and "the Mittens" of Monument Valley are instantly recognizable to most national residents. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, with the construction of the Interstate highway system, accessibility to the southern scenic areas was made easier.
Beginning in 1939, with the establishment of Alta Ski Area, Utah has become world-renowned for its skiing. The dry, powdery snow of the Wasatch Range is considered some of the best skiing in the world. Salt Lake City won the bid for the 2002 Winter Olympics in 1995, and this has served as a great boost to the economy. The ski resorts have increased in popularity, and many of the Olympic venues scattered across the Wasatch Front continue to be used for sporting events. This also spurred the development of the light-rail system in the Salt Lake Valley, known as TRAX, and the re-construction of the freeway system around the city.
During the late 20th century, the state grew quickly. In the 1970s, growth was phenomenal in the suburbs. Sandy was one of the fastest-growing cities in the country at that time, and West Valley City is the state's 2nd most populous city. Today, many areas of Utah are seeing phenomenal growth. Northern Davis, southern and western Salt Lake, Summit, eastern Tooele, Utah, Wasatch, and Washington counties are all growing very quickly. Transportation and urbanization are major issues in politics as development consumes agricultural land and wilderness areas.
In 2012, the State of Utah passed the Utah Transfer of Public Lands Act in an attempt to gain control over a substantial portion of federal land in the state from the federal government, based on language in the Utah Enabling Act of 1894. The State does not intend to use force or assert control by limiting access in an attempt to control the disputed lands, but does intend to use a multi-step process of education, negotiation, legislation, and if necessary, litigation as part of its multi-year effort to gain state or private control over the lands after 2014.
World War II
Utah families, like most Americans everywhere, did their utmost to assist in the war effort. Tires, meat, butter, sugar, fats, oils, coffee, shoes, boots, gasoline, canned fruits, vegetables, and soups were rationed on a national basis. The school day was shortened and bus routes were reduced to limit the number of resources used stateside and increase what could be sent to soldiers.
Geneva Steel was built to increase the steel production for America during World War II. President Franklin D. Roosevelt had proposed opening a steel mill in Utah in 1936, but the idea was shelved after a couple of months. After the attack on Pearl Harbor, the United States entered the war and the steel plant was put into progress. In April 1944, Geneva shipped its first order, which consisted of over 600 tons of steel plate. Geneva Steel also brought thousands of job opportunities to Utah. The positions were hard to fill as many of Utah's men were overseas fighting. Women began working, filling 25 percent of the jobs.
As a result of Utah's and Geneva Steels contribution during the war, several Liberty Ships were named in honor of Utah including the USS Joseph Smith, USS Brigham Young, USS Provo, and the USS Peter Skene Ogden.
One of the sectors of the beachhead of Normandy Landings was codenamed Utah Beach, and the amphibious landings at the beach were undertaken by United States Army troops.
It is estimated that 1,450 soldiers from Utah were killed in the war.
See also
History of African Americans in Utah
History of the Colorado Plateau
History of the Rocky Mountains
History of the Western United States
Territorial evolution of Utah
Notes
References
May, Dean L. Utah: A People's History. Bonneville Books, Salt Lake City, Utah, 1987. .
Further reading
Alford, Kenneth L. ed. Utah and the American Civil War: The Written Record (2017)
Allen, James B. Still the Right Place: Utahs Second Half-Century of Statehood, 1945–1995 (Provo: Charles Redd Center for Western Studies, 2017). 661 pp.
Arrington, Leonard J., Brigham Young: American Moses; University of Illinois Press; , (1985; Paperback, 1986).
Baldridge, Kenneth W. The Civilian Conservation Corps in Utah, 1933–1942: Remembering Nine Years of Achievement (2019) online review
Bancroft, Hubert Howe. History of Utah (1890) online.
Campbell, David E., John C. Green, and J. Quin Monson. Seeking the promised land: Mormons and American politics (Cambridge UP, 2014).
Ching, Jacqueline. Utah: Past and Present (Rosen, 2010).
Flores, Dan L. "Zion in Eden: Phases of the environmental history of Utah." Environmental Review: ER 7.4 (1983): 325–344. online
Iber, Jorge. "El Diablo Nos Esta Llevando': Utah Hispanics and the Great Depression." Utah Historical Quarterly 66 (1998): 159–177.
May, Dean L. Utah: A people's history (U of Utah Press, 1987).
Peterson, Charles S. and Brian Q. Cannon. The Awkward State of Utah: Coming of Age in the Nation, 1896–1945. Salt Lake City: University of Utah Press, 2015. , scholarly survey
Peterson, Charles S. Utah: A history (WW Norton & Company, 1984), popular survey.
Poll, Richard D., and William P. MacKinnon. "Causes of the Utah War Reconsidered." Journal of Mormon History 20.2 (1994): 16–44. online
Rogers, Brent M. Unpopular Sovereignty: Mormons and the Federal Management of Early Utah Territory (U of Nebraska Press, 2017).
Saunders, Richard L. "Placing Juanita Brooks among the Heroes (or Villains) of Mormon and Utah History." Utah Historical Quarterly 87.3 (2019): 218–237. online
Scott, Patricia Lyn, and Linda Thatcher. Women in Utah history: Paradigm or paradox (University Press of Colorado, 2005). online
Tetrault, Lisa. "When Women Won the Right to Vote: A History Unfinished" Utah Historical Quarterly 89.3 (2021): 180–197. online
Turner, John G. Brigham Young: Pioneer Prophet (Belknap, 2012).
Woodbury, Angus M. "A history of southern Utah and its National Parks." Utah Historical Quarterly 12.3/4 (1944): 111–222. online
Historiography
Topping, Gary. Utah historians and the reconstruction of Western history (U of Oklahoma Press, 2003).
Topping, Gary. Leonard J. Arrington: A Historian's Life'' (Arthur H Clark, 2008) on Mormons.
Utah
History of the Rocky Mountains
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1949%2024%20Hours%20of%20Le%20Mans
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1949 24 Hours of Le Mans
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The 1949 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 17th Grand Prix of Endurance, and took place on 25 and 26 June 1949. Luigi Chinetti won the race for a third time in the first Ferrari barchetta by driving 22.5 hours. This race also saw the death of British driver Pierre Maréchal when his Aston Martin DB2 was involved in an accident between Arnage and Maison Blanche around 1:00 a.m. Marechal had attempted to pass another car there and he hit an embankment and the hapless Briton was crushed by the overturning car.
This was the first race held at the circuit following the end of World War II. Even though the war had ended four years prior, major infrastructure reconstruction throughout France meant that the return of the race was of secondary concern, and thus was not run until after France had established itself again. Following the end of the war the circuit needed extensive repairs. During the war the RAF, then the Luftwaffe, had used the airfield by the pits, as well as the 5 km Hunaudières straight as a temporary airstrip (thereby also making it a target for Allied bombing). So it was four years before the Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) was in a position to revive the great race. Assisted with money from the government, the pits and grandstand had been rebuilt, a new 1000-seat restaurant and administration centre built and the whole track was resurfaced. However one section of the hinterland was still off-limits as it had not yet been cleared of landmines. Likewise, in that time the car manufacturers had also been rebuilding.
Regulations
Most of the entry list for this year's race was from cars built or designed before the war. The ACO put preference to those entered in the last, 1939, race for the Biennial Cup. So there were twelve cars from that race back for the Cup. Otherwise, there were fourteen entries from manufacturers - although "works" entries effectively, many were one-car small companies.
The regulations used by the ACO were based on those of the new FIA, created in 1946. There were ten classes, based on engine size, and at least ten cars had to have been produced before the entry was submitted. Supercharged engines’ equivalence was calculated at 2:1 for engine capacity. However, for this new start, sportscar prototypes were now given admission for the first time, "as an exceptional measure to contribute towards a faster revival of automobile manufacture" by the French Service des Mines (Vehicle registration authority), or its foreign equivalent That was, in a sense, just formalising an unofficial practice started in the 1930s, when race-specific cars were entered at Le Mans and other races for the win with no intentions of going into full production. The ACO reserved the right to disqualify a car not entered 'in the spirit of the regulations'.
In days of petrol rationing, there was considerable interest in the Index of Performance - the measure of cars making an improvement on its nominal assigned distance, based on engine size. Entrants had to choose to run on either gasoline (68-Octane), diesel or ‘’ternary’’ fuel (a blend of 60% gasoline, 25% ethanol, 15% benzole). All fuel was supplied by the ACO. Fuel, oil and water could only be topped up after 25 laps had been run, and ACO inspectors sealed the radiator and oil-caps after each refill. A spare wheel, fire extinguisher and toolkit had to be carried in the car and on-circuit repairs could only be done by the driver, with the onboard tools. Night-time (when it was compulsory for lights to be on) was defined as being between 9.30pm and 4.30am.
Finally there was the Hors Course rule, whereby after 12 hours, any car that had not completed 80% of its corresponding Performance Index distance was disqualified. Also, the car had to be running to take the chequered flag with a final lap taking no longer than 30 minutes.
Prizemoney still overwhelmingly favoured the Index of Performance, awarding FF1,000,000 to that competition's winner (equivalent to about €23000 currently), whereas only 10% of that - FF100,000 was awarded to the winners on overall distance and of the Biennial Cup. FF10,000 was awarded to the leader at the end of each hour, increasing to FF25,000 at the 6-hour mark, FF50,000 at 12-hours, FF100,000 at 18-hours and FF200,000 at the 24th hour. So a car leading start-to-finish would still only reap FF675,000 compared to the Index of Performance. There was also a FF50,000 prize with the Coupe des Dames for the top female driver.
Entries
From a staggering initial list of over a hundred prospective entries, the ACO trimmed the field down to 49 starters. There were 18 cars in the S3000 and S5000 categories - 15 French and 3 British cars. These included 3 Talbots, 7 Delahayes, 4 Delages and a Delettrez, driven by its constructor brothers – the first diesel-engined car to compete at Le Mans, using an engine from an American Army GMC truck. The Talbot-Lagos included the two biggest cars in the field: a new SS saloon for André Chambas’ Ecurie Verte team, and a 2-seater sportscar modified from the current T26 grand-prix car for Paul Vallée's works-supported Ecurie France team. Both used the new 4.5L straight-6 engine, developing 240 bhp. The third Talbot was a modified pre-war T150C raced by the very capable father-and-son Rosier team.
Most French hopes rested on the Delahayes: there were two new 4.5L 175 S raced by Parisian car-dealer Charles Pozzi (himself teamed with 1938 winner Eugène Chaboud), as well as five privately entered pre-war type 135 CS (a sports-car version of the 135 S grand prix car, and race-winner in 1938), running the smaller 3.6-litre 160 bhp engine.
Delage was represented by four D6S cars, all privately entered, built just after war's end in the Delahaye factory but based on a pre-war chassis and the old 3.0-litre, 145 bhp engine.
The three British cars were a 2.4L Healey Elliott saloon driven to and from the race from England, a unique 1938 Bentley sedan originally designed for the Greek tycoon Nico Embiricos, and a brand-new Aston Martin DB2 prototype, with a 2.6L Lagonda engine designed by W.O. Bentley
The middle categories (S2000 and S1500) numbered 16 cars. In retrospect, the biggest news was the arrival of an Italian newcomer: Enzo Ferrari was represented by two racing versions of his first production car, with a two-litre V12 developing 140 bhp and a top speed of 210 km/h. He had been Alfa Romeo's team manager in the 1930s but was now a constructor in his own right. However, not confident of the car's reliability, Ferrari had not entered instead the pair were privately entered. Both had recently been purchased after gaining success in the Mille Miglia.
Entered from Great Britain were a new Frazer-Nash ‘High-Speed’, driven by British motorcycle ace Norman Culpan, and company owner Harold Aldington and a works trio of lightened HRG 1500s (co-organised by future Gulf team manager John Wyer). David Brown, who had recently purchased Aston Martin and Lagonda, fielded three works prototypes – the aforementioned 2.6L DB2 and two 2.0L versions. Three privately entered Astons also took the start, including two pre-war models.
A number of small specialist sportscar companies started up in post-war France, and two of the most significant were those of Amédée Gordini, and Charles Deutsch/René Bonnet. Overcommitted in 1949, the 1500cc Gordinis didn’t make the start, but two new DB cars were present – one driven by the team owners themselves.
Finally, there were 15 cars in the small classes (S1100 & S750). A traditional rivalry was started between the Monopoles, Simcas, Gordinis (and later DBs in this class) all using Citroen, Simca or Panhard engines at various times, all vying for the Index of Performance prize. Under the ‘prototype’ provision, a half-dozen Simcas were entered with a variety of bodystyles and one of those (for Mahé/Crovetto ) was installed with the race's first pit/car radio, as pioneered in American motor-racing.
The other new international marque in the race were two Aero-Minors with 745cc two-stroke engines from Czechoslovakia (one of which had to drive all the way to the race from Prague after its truck-transporter broke down). A privately entered Renault 4CV was the first rear-engined car to race at Le Mans.
Practice
As was usual, the cars were numbered in order of their engine size, the big Talbot-Lago of Chambas and Morel having #1. There was no grid based on practice time, instead the cars would be lined up, in echelon, in numerical order for the iconic “Le Mans start”. It was Louis Rosier in his Talbot T150 who recorded the fastest lap in practice. Jean Lucas badly damaged the Dreyfus Ferrari avoiding a child who had wandered onto the circuit during the practice. Tireless work overnight got the car repaired just in time to take the start.
Race
Start
The race started at 4pm in blazing hot sunshine, and Pozzi's new Delahaye sports-cars took off into a handy lead. At the end of the first hour, Chaboud and Flahaut led in the Delahayes, from Dreyfus, Rosier, Chinetti, and Vallée in one of the big Talbots. The pace of the leading Delahayes was frantic; in the second hour André Simon set the fastest lap of the race. Soon after, Rosier came to a stop at Arnage after 21 laps, his car overheating. However, because it was before the 25-lap minimum he was not allowed to refill the water and became an early retirement.
Four hours in, Chaboud still led from Flahault, with the Ferraris of Chinetti (now up to 3rd) & Dreyfus just behind. Yet barely half an hour later, just before dusk, Chaboud, with a big lead, stopped at Mulsanne with an engine fire, burning out the electrics. The sister car of André Simon briefly took over the lead, until he also started having problems with overheating dropping him down to 18th, and was overtaken by the Ferrari.
Night
Chinetti stayed in the car through the night, as Mitchell-Thompson was not feeling well. When he pitted, Dreyfus took over at the front but then just before 10pm Dreyfus crashed heavily and rolled near the Maison Blanche corner when trying to overtake two cars at once. The driver was uninjured but the car was wrecked. This time it was the Talbot-Lago of Mairesse / Vallée that inherited the lead ahead of Chinetti. Through attrition, the Delage of Veuillet/Mouche and the Culpan/Alderton Frazer-Nash had risen to 3rd and 4th respectively.
At midnight, Chinetti had a narrow lead from Mairesse and Veuillet – all on the same lap. Fourth was Louveau's Delage, then the Frazer-Nash, Gérard's Delage and the Delahaye of Tony Rolt (in his first Le Mans). The leading Aston Martin (of Maréchal/Mathieson) was running in 8th and the brand new “works” DB-5 of Deutsch/Bonnet had moved up into 10th.
In the early hours, the Mairesse Talbot retired with engine trouble, and Veuillet's Delage arrived at the pits with an engine-fire, thus allowing Gérard's Delage and the DB to move up the order, and the other big Talbot up into the top-10. Also moving up the leader-board was the Pozzi Delahaye of Simon/Flahaut, having been driven hard though the night back into contention.
Morning
Finally at 4.30am, as dawn broke, Chinetti came into the pits with a three-lap lead and handed over the Ferrari to Mitchell-Thompson. He managed just 72 minutes before having to hand it back to Chinetti for the rest of the race. But the hard racing was taking its toll on the new car, and Chinetti was now having to nurse a slipping clutch. The chasing pack was now led by the Delages of Louveau and Gérard, who gradually closed in on the exhausted Chinetti.
After all the hard work getting back to 5th overall, Flahout's engine finally gave out mid-morning. The little DB-5 had reached as high as sixth but then its camshaft seized at a similar time. Likewise, the Delettrez diesel came to a stop. It had performed steadily, if not quickly, but blocked fuel lines caused its demise when in 23rd place.
Except for Louveau's Delage, all the leading cars were now running under duress: aside from Chinetti's clutch, Gérard's Delage was streaming oil-smoke, the Fraser-Nash had lost its clutch and having fuel-feed issues and Maréchal's Aston Martin was losing its brakes. The last was the most serious and, ultimately, tragic: at 1pm the Aston Martin's brakes failed completely coming into the Maison Blanche curves. In a violent crash, the car rolled, the engine was torn away and the roof crushed. Pierre Maréchal was immediately taken to hospital in a critical condition but died the next day from spinal injuries.
Finish and post-race
Through the day, Louveau chased hard, making back two of the laps on the slowing Ferrari. Right up to the last lap he was pulling spectacular four-wheel drifts on the corners, thrilling the growing crowd sensing a heroic French victory. But it was not to be and the veteran Chinetti carefully nursed his car home with just enough pace. At 4pm Charles Faroux, originator and director of the race since its inception in 1923, was again the man to wave the chequered flag – overseen by the new French President, Vincent Auriol.
Chinetti got home by only 15 km - just over a lap - from the charging Louveau (who matched Delage's best Le Mans result). The Frazer-Nash had moved up to third after midday and, although ten laps behind the leaders, kept it despite gearbox problems and virtually no clutch by the end.
The big #1 Talbot-Lago SS sedan had been running well all race and had comfortably moved into 4th place until the very last lap when it stopped on circuit with engine failure (or out of fuel!). After running strongly Louis Gérard lost time when the engine lost a cylinder, then he was one of the first on the scene and stopped to help poor Maréchal. His Delage inherited the Talbot's fourth place and finished trailing a plume of oil smoke.
Veterans Georges Grignard (who would later buy the stock of the bankrupt Talbot company) and Robert Brunet brought home the first of the Delahayes, in 5th place winning the S5000 class. In sixth came the Bentley of owner Jack Hay and racing journalist Tommy Wisdom, that had not missed a beat all race, apart from two punctures. Having had a night's sleep afterward, Hay then swapped the big fuel tank for the family luggage and they headed off to the Côte d’Azur on holiday.
After the demise of the DB, it was the HRG of Jack Fairman (in his first Le Mans) who inherited the 1500cc class lead despite being 10 laps adrift and he held that to the end of the race. Both Aero-Minor's finished (the only manufacturer to finish a complete team) with one of the cars finishing second in the Index of Performance. Otherwise, it was a rugged race in the weekend's heat – only 16 of the 49 starters being classified. The ‘’ternary’’ fuel was blamed for a number of engine problems affecting the cars during the race.
For the Italian-born Chinetti, who had emigrated to America after the war, this was his third Le Mans victory (the second man to do so after Woolf Barnato’s trio of victories for Bentley). He had driven for nearly 23 hours – no mean feat for the 47-year old – which was the reverse of his first win in 1932, when he had been ill and Raymond Sommer had to do most of the driving. Mitchell-Thompson, after finishing 4th in the 1939 race and victory here, won the Biennial Cup.
It was the first victory for a V12 engine, and until the Porsche victory in 2015 with its 2.0L hybrid-turbo, the Ferrari 1995cc engine was the smallest engine to win Le Mans outright. Such overachievement also meant a clear victory in the Index of Performance, giving a clean sweep to Ferrari of all the silverware – a spectacular effort for a company competing in its very first Le Mans, not matched until McLaren’s comprehensive win at first attempt in 1995. After being repaired, Dreyfus’ Ferrari went on the following weekend to win the Spa 24-Hours race, driven by Chinetti and Simon.
Official results
Results taken from Quentin Spurring's book, officially licensed by the ACO
Note *: Not Classified as car failed to achieve its allotted distance
Did Not Finish
15th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup (1939/1949)
Statistics
Fastest Lap in practice – Louis Rosier, #7 Talbot-Lago T150C Spéciale – 5:02
Fastest Lap – André Simon, #4 Delahaye 175S – 5:12.5
Distance – 3178.299 km (1975.00 miles)
Average Speed – 132.420 km/h
Attendance – 83000. or 183000
Trophy Winners
15th Rudge-Whitworth Biennial Cup – #22 Luigi Chinetti / Peter Mitchell-Thomson, Lord Selsdon
Index of Performance – #22 Luigi Chinetti / Peter Mitchell-Thomson, Lord Selsdon
Notes
References
Spurring, Quentin (2011) Le Mans 1949-59 Sherborne, Dorset: Evro Publishing
Clarke, R.M. - editor (1997) Le Mans 'The Jaguar Years 1949-1957' Cobham, Surrey: Brooklands Books
Clausager, Anders (1982) Le Mans London: Arthur Barker Ltd
Laban, Brian (2001) Le Mans 24 Hours London: Virgin Books
Moity, Christian (1974) The Le Mans 24 Hour Race 1949-1973 Radnor, Pennsylvania: Chilton Book Co
External links
Racing Sports Cars – Le Mans 24 Hours 1949 entries, results, technical detail. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
Le Mans History – Le Mans History, hour-by-hour (incl. pictures, YouTube links). Retrieved 15 July 2016.
Formula 2 – Le Mans 1949 results & reserve entries. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
Ultimate Car Page – The Bentley Embiricos special. Retrieved 17 July 2016.
24 Hours of Le Mans races
1949 in French motorsport
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5150308
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric%20Menk
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Eric Menk
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Eric Conrad Padua Menk (born August 24, 1974) is a Filipino-American former professional basketball player who played in the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA) and the ASEAN Basketball League. Known as Major Pain, Menk is a four-time PBA champion and was the 2004–05 PBA Most Valuable Player.
Menk had played for the Barangay Ginebra franchise for twelve seasons before being waived and signed by the San Miguel Beermen of the ASEAN Basketball League. He was eventually picked up by the Aces of the PBA, playing for them for two seasons before retiring.
Early life
Menk was born in Grand Rapids; his family moved to Charlotte when he was six. His mother, Lucia Padua, was born in Lawa-an, Eastern Samar and met Al, his father, in Angeles City while he served in the United States Air Force. They got married in 1969. Before him, she had previously given birth to twin boys, but one was stillborn, and the other died within 24 hours. His sister was born a year later. His father began teaching him how to play basketball at the age of seven. When he turned 10, Al started to bring him to high school basketball games. He was often bullied because of his lineage.
High school and college career
Menk attended Charlotte High School in the state of Michigan from 1988 to 1992. In his junior year, he scored 45 points in a win over Battle Creek Lakeview, missing only two shots from the field. As a senior, he was named First Team All-State in Class A by the Associated Press and an Honorable Mention All-American by USA Today and McDonald's. He scored 28 points and grabbed 14 rebounds in a marquee matchup against the #1-ranked high-school player in the country, Chris Webber. In 2018, he was honored as a part of Charlotte's inaugural Hall of Fame class, along with Wayne Terwilliger, Brock Gutierrez, and many other alumni.
Menk decided to attend Lake Superior State University from 1992 to 1996. It was the only school from Michigan that offered him a scholarship. It was also close to his home. There, he was a 3-time All-Great Lakes Intercollegiate Athletic Conference performer and an NCAA Division II All-American. As a senior, he captained a team that won the schools only GLIAC tournament championship. That year, 1996, he was GLIAC Player of the Year and MVP of the GLIAC tournament. He finished his career at LSSU with 1,800 points in 105 games.
Professional career
European career
Menk played a year in Denmark. He was an import for HIC (Horsens Idraets Club), in the Danish Elite Division in 1996-97, averaging 19 points per game.
PBL career
After his stint in Denmark, Menk had offers to play in England and Ireland. His Filipino agent, Sam Unera, gave him an offer to play in the Philippines. He arrived in the Philippine basketball scene in 1997 when he played for the Tanduay Rhum Masters in the Philippine Basketball League (PBL). After adjusting to the league's physicality, he quickly made an impact in the PBL being the first Rookie of the Year Awardee and Most Valuable Player Awardee. Aside from that, he also won two more Most Valuable Player Awards and piloted Tanduay to a couple of championships. During his final PBL conference, Menk and Blu Detergent's Asi Taulava was considered one of the best rivalries at the time.
PBA career
Tanduay Rhum Masters
After Tanduay made its return to the PBA, the Rhum Masters were allowed to nab six players from their PBL squad. Menk headlined the list of those elevated to the pro ranks. Also, Tanduay drafted Filipino-American Sonny Alvarado as the top pick, making Menk and Alvarado as one of the strongest frontlines in the league.
Menk would struggle in his early games in the PBA. However, Menk made a strong showing in the 1999 All-Filipino Conference, leading Tanduay to a Finals appearance in their maiden season. While Menk was named as the Best Player of the Conference, the Rhum Masters were upset by the veteran-laiden Formula Shell Zoom Masters of eventual-MVP Benjie Paras. He scored 43 points in a Game 3 loss during that Finals. Menk continued his strong performance in the Commissioner and Governors Cup tournaments, leading him to numerous awards. As a rookie, he also led all locals in scoring for that season.
In 2000, Menk had another strong season for the Rhum Masters, as the team became one of the strongest teams in the league, acquiring Dondon Hontiveros and Jeffrey Cariaso. This included a career-high 45 points in a win over the Sta. Lucia Realtors. The team became a threat to corporate rival San Miguel Beermen. However, disappointment came for the team as Alvarado was deported for falsification of documents. The Rhum Masters, who won Games 2 and 3 of the semifinals series against Purefoods during that year's All-Filipino Cup, were eliminated from the series after its games won with Alvarado on the team were forfeited. Menk's citizenship came in question as well during the Commissioner's Cup, after the league scrutinized most of the Filipino-foreign cagers' documents. Menk was unable to further prove his Filipino lineage and was suspended indefinitely, forcing Menk to end his season early. During this time, he was courted by the Negros Slashers and the Cebu Gems to transfer to the Metropolitan Basketball Association (MBA).
Menk got frustrated not being able to play and considered leaving the country. Tanduay considered bringing him back not as a local, but as an import. His return to the pro league came more than a year later, when he was able to prove his citizenship. He played five games for Tanduay in the 2001 Governor's Cup, as the Rhum Masters bowed out of the tournament early and he suffered a strained calf injury.
Barangay Ginebra Kings
First seasons with Ginebra (2001–2003)
After the 2001 PBA season, Tanduay was finalizing its sale to FedEx when Menk was traded to the crowd-favorite Barangay Ginebra Kings for Elmer Lago and a draft pick.
Menk's debut with the team was delayed, as he spent his time with the Philippine National Team for the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea. In the All-Filipino Cup, Menk finally made his Ginebra debut. In a win over the San Miguel Beermen, he exploded for 26 points. In his third game with Ginebra, he had a double-double of 14 points and 14 rebounds. He was unable to lead the Kings into the quarterfinals.
In 2003, Menk had strong performances during the season, however, Barangay Ginebra failed to enter the semi-finals of the All-Filipino Cup. His strong performances included a 45 point and 18 rebound double double against the Talk 'N Text Phone Pals that was nullified and a 38 point, 17 rebound double-double against FedEx. He also played in the 2003 PBA All-Star Game. He then had to sit out for a month due to a hamstring injury. Ginebra qualified for the quarterfinals in his return with import Rosell Ellis leading the way.
2004–05 season
The 2004-2005 season marked Menk's biggest season yet. He led the Ginebra Kings to two consecutive PBA titles, winning the transition Fiesta Conference and the Philippine Cup. He also won the Best Player of the Conference honors during the two said tournaments. His 2004 Fiesta Conference championship was his first as a PBA player after leading Tanduay to numerous crowns in the PBL. He also got one of the highest votes to play in that year's All-Star game. During the 2005 Fiesta Conference, he was suspended indefinitely by the league for failure to show additional documents of his citizenship on time. Despite this, Menk still won that season's Most Valuable Player Award. He averaged 17.5 points and a league-best 11.8 rebounds in 71 total games.
2005–06 season
Menk would return for Ginebra during the middle stages of the 2005–06 Fiesta Conference. In his first game back, he scored 17 points in a loss to Talk 'N Text. He got another double-double of 17 points and 17 rebounds as Ginebra won their fifth straight. He missed a game as he was suspended by the team for missing a practice without notice. While he led the Kings to the semifinals of the tournament, they were eliminated by eventual champion Red Bull Barako in seven grueling games. Throughout the Philippine Cup, he was hampered by an ankle sprain. He had three clutch free throws in a win over the Coca-Cola Tigers. During the 2006 PBA All-Star Game, his team, the PBA South All-Stars, won against the PBA North All-Stars, however, he didn't play due to a bruised knee. He missed several more games due to bone spurs. Still, he was able to help Ginebra make the quarterfinals, where in Game 2 of that series, he scored a season-high 35 points, 16 rebounds, two assists, and a block in a performance that helped them tie up the series. They eventually lost to Red Bull once again in that series, three games to two.
2006–07 season
Going into the 2006–07 season, most pegged Ginebra as the team to beat, as they had acquired more frontcourt firepower with Billy Mamaril, Rafi Reavis, and Rudy Hatfield. In Ginebra's first game of the season, they beat the Welcoat Dragons 102–69, with him contributing 12 points. He then scored 20 points and 14 rebounds in a win over the Alaska Aces. Later in the 2006–07 Philippine Cup, Menk suffered calf and toe injuries in a bar fight, causing him to miss the rest of the tournament. Ginebra, led by Coach Jong Uichico and Jayjay Helterbrand, was able to win that conference's title in a Finals series against the Beermen. This would be Ginebra's last All-Filipino title until 2020.
2007–08 season
In 2008, the Ginebra Kings would return to the finals against Air21 in that year's Fiesta Conference. It was a long, grueling series where Ginebra lost several players to injury. Despite their losses, Ginebra stretched the series to seven games and eventually won their 4th championship in 4 years. Menk performed well in the series, especially in Game 7, in front of a record-setting 22,000 plus crowd at the legendary Araneta Coliseum. He finished with 21 points and 14 rebounds, while earning his 3rd PBA Finals MVP accolade.
2008–09 season
Menk started the 2008–09 season unable to play due to injuries. He got back to his old self when he led his team with 17 points, and a game-winning follow-up basket over Alaska. They lost in the Philippine Cup quarterfinals to the Beermen. He was selected to play in the All-Star Game during the 2009 All-Star Weekend as a member of a PBA selection that went up against the Philippine national team. During the 2009 Fiesta Conference, he scored 22 points and six rebounds in a win over the Burger King Whoppers. They made the Finals once again, but were defeated by the Beermen in seven games.
2009–10 season
In 2009, Menk missed two weeks due to a fractured toe. In Game 3 of the 2009–10 Philippine Cup quarterfinals against Talk 'N Text, he had 20 points, seven rebounds, and three assists as Ginebra survived Talk 'N Text's attempt to eliminate them that game. Ginebra moved on to the semis, where they were swept by Alaska. At age 35, he was selected to another All-Star Game appearance. Later in the 2010 Fiesta Conference, he scored 19 points and eight rebounds in a win over Air21. He then had a conference-high 20 points the following game, which led to a win over Barako. With those performances, he earned Player of the Week honors. In a win over Alaska, he battled foul trouble to produce 25 points. He then missed six games due to a calf injury. Ginebra was eliminated in the first round by Alaska.
2010–11 season
After losing the first game of the 2010–11 season to the Meralco Bolts, Menk contributed nine points against the Tigers for Ginebra's first win of the season. The Ginebra Kings made it all the way to the semifinals of the Philippine Cup, where they lost to the Beermen in six games. He then was selected to play in the 2011 All-Star Game. In the 2011 Commissioner's Cup, they made it to the Finals against Talk 'N Text, and even managed to tie the series 1–1. Talk 'N Text however, went on to win the series. They also fell a win short of making it to the Governors' Cup Finals.
2011–12 season
In the offseason, Ginebra changed head coaches, replacing Coach Uichico with Coach Siot Tanquingcen. Menk also signed a one-year extension deal worth P4.2 million. In 2012 however, Ginebra made him an unrestricted free agent, and let him go. This was because Ginebra had drafted two Fil-Ams, Chris Ellis and Keith Jensen, reaching the five Fil-Am limit.
ASEAN Basketball League
Menk then played for the San Miguel Beermen in the ABL along with former national teammate and rival Asi Taulava in 2013. In the first game of the season, Menk and Taulava combined for 22 points and 10 rebounds in a road loss to the Saigon Heat. The team bounced back the following game, a rematch against Saigon, where this time he had nine points, three rebounds, an assist and they got the win. He then fractured his nose, causing him to be out for a month. They won the championship that season.
Return to PBA
GlobalPort Batang Pier
In the 2013–14 PBA season, at age 39, Menk signed with the GlobalPort Batang Pier. He got his first double-double with Globalport in an overtime win over Alaska in which he had 10 points and 11 rebounds. For the Commissioner's Cup, new head coach Pido Jarencio made him the team captain. However, he hurt his hamstring during practice, causing him to miss the entire conference as the Batang Pier finished with a league-worst 1–8 record.
Alaska Aces
After a brief stint with the GlobalPort, Menk was traded to the Alaska Aces for two second round picks in the 2014 draft. There, he was expected to be backup center for Sonny Thoss. He played with the Aces for 2 seasons.
After missing Alaska's first four games due to a groin injury, Menk made his season debut with six rebounds in a win over the Kia Sorento. With Thoss injured, he started and led the team with 14 points and 13 rebounds in 27 rebounds in a win over the Blackwater Elite. He then contributed eight points and six rebounds in a win over Taulava's team, the NLEX Road Warriors. In the semifinals against RoS, he had 18 points and seven rebounds in a Game 2 loss, and a double-double of 13 points and 11 rebounds in a Game 3 win. Alaska then moved on to the Finals. There they lost to the Beermen in seven games.
In the 2015–16 Philippine Cup, Menk had 12 points in a win over the Batang Pier. The next game, his nose was broken before halftime due to an accidental elbow from Marc Pingris, and he couldn't finish the game. No surgery was needed and he played the next game without a face mask, contributing nine points and six rebounds in a win over NLEX. That conference, they made it all the way to the Finals, and even grabbed a 3–0 lead, but they lost once again to the Beermen. In the Commissioner's Cup playoffs, he stepped up in the absence of starting power forward Vic Manuel, and contributed 10 points and five rebounds to send Alaska to the semifinals. They would lose once again in the Finals, this time to RoS.
Retirement
During the 2017 PBA Commissioner's Cup, he announced his retirement after playing for 17 seasons. The Aces made a tribute for his contributions in the PBA.
Career statistics
PBA season-by-season averages
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Tanduay
| 48 || 44.6 || .478 || .303 || .679 || 13.2 || 2.7 || .5 || .5 || 20.1
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Tanduay
| 27 || 43.8 || .438 || .261 || .706 || 13.1 || 2.9 || .4 || .8 || 24.2
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Tanduay
| 5 || 36.2 || .478 || .444 || .840 || 11.0 || 1.6 || .6 || .2 || 22.6
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 9 || 32.8 || .410 || .292 || .615 || 12.7 || 2.8 || .4 || .9 || 15.7
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 34 || 36.8 || .413 || .189 || .792 || 11.8 || 2.0 || .5 || .7 || 18.8
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 71 || 38.1 || .462 || .339 || .651 || 11.8 || 2.3 || .4 || .3 || 17.5
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 41 || 33.5 || .320 || .062 || .647 || 10.5 || 2.0 || .3 || .5 || 14.1
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 37 || 26.6 || .416 || .200 || .673 || 6.9 || 1.8 || .2 || .2 || 11.5
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 40 || 23.8 || .403 || .077 || .569 || 5.8 || 1.4 || .3 || .3 || 8.2
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 38 || 22.6 || .403 || .267 || .636 || 6.7 || 1.1 || .3 || .1 || 9.0
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 39 || 22.0 || .422 || .308 || .712 || 6.4 || 1.7 || .2 || .3 || 10.6
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 43 || 18.1 || .388 || .294 || .686 || 4.2 || 1.3 || .1 || .3 || 6.4
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Barangay Ginebra
| 7 || 8.9 || .278 || — || .400 || 2.6 || .1 || .1 || .0 || 1.7
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |GlobalPort
| 24 || 17.1 || .413 || — || .750 || 5.5 || 1.0 || .3 || .3 || 5.0
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Alaska
| 47 || 14.5 || .438 || .286 || .710 || 3.7 || .7 || .3 || .2 || 4.7
|-
| align=left |
| align="left |Alaska
| 43 || 13.1 || .369 || .000 || .585 || 3.2 || .5 || .1 || .1 || 3.3
|-class=sortbottom
| align=center colspan=2 | Career
| 553 || 27.6 || .420 || .264 || .679 || 8.1 || 1.7 || .3 || .4 || 11.9
ABL
National team career
In 2002, Menk was selected to play in the National Team for the 2002 Asian Games in Busan, South Korea. However, the country went home without a medal. He started every game and averaged eight rebounds for the tournament.
In 2005, Menk was again included in the National Pool for future international competitions. However, with his citizenship still in limbo during the time, Menk failed to join Team Pilipinas in either the Jones Cup or the Brunei Sultan Cup.
In 2007, for the third time, Menk represented the Philippines again in the 2007 FIBA Asia Championship. Despite a 5-2 record, the Philippines finished 9th and did not qualify for the Olympics.
Post-playing Career
With media
Menk hosted an online sports podcast called Staying Major on YouTube. He was also a basketball analyst for CNN Philippines and wrote articles on basketball for ABS-CBN.
As an assistant coach
In 2018, Menk joined Jimmy Alapag's coaching staff for Alab Pilipinas. He was with the team until 2020, when that season was suspended.
Personal life
He has a wife, Erin, whom he met in the Philippines, and two children.
Controversy
Menk's citizenship has been questioned since he arrived in the PBA in 1999. But unlike fellow Filipino-foreign cager Asi Taulava, Menk had fewer problems regarding his citizenship.
He was suspended twice by the league. In 2000, the PBA suspended the then-Tanduay cager indefinitely for failure to submit proper documents on time. In 2005, Menk was again suspended for failing to submit additional documents to the league for clarification.
References
1974 births
Living people
Alaska Aces (PBA) players
American men's basketball players
American sportspeople of Filipino descent
Asian Games competitors for the Philippines
Barangay Ginebra San Miguel players
Basketball players at the 2002 Asian Games
Basketball players from Grand Rapids, Michigan
Centers (basketball)
Filipino men's basketball players
Lake Superior State Lakers men's basketball players
NorthPort Batang Pier players
Philippine Basketball Association All-Stars
Philippines men's national basketball team players
Power forwards (basketball)
Tanduay Rhum Masters players
Horsens IC players
American expatriate basketball people in Denmark
Filipino expatriates in Denmark
ASEAN Basketball League players
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5150349
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgehog%20signaling%20pathway
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Hedgehog signaling pathway
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The Hedgehog signaling pathway is a signaling pathway that transmits information to embryonic cells required for proper cell differentiation. Different parts of the embryo have different concentrations of hedgehog signaling proteins. The pathway also has roles in the adult. Diseases associated with the malfunction of this pathway include cancer.
The Hedgehog signaling pathway is one of the key regulators of animal development and is present in all bilaterians. The pathway takes its name from its polypeptide ligand, an intracellular signaling molecule called Hedgehog (Hh) found in fruit flies of the genus Drosophila; fruit fly larva lacking the Hh gene are said to resemble hedgehogs. Hh is one of Drosophila's segment polarity gene products, involved in establishing the basis of the fly body plan. Larvae without Hh are short and spiny, resembling the hedgehog animal. The molecule remains important during later stages of embryogenesis and metamorphosis.
Mammals have three Hedgehog homologues, Desert (DHH), Indian (IHH), and Sonic (SHH), of which Sonic is the best studied. The pathway is equally important during vertebrate embryonic development and is therefore of interest in evolutionary developmental biology. In knockout mice lacking components of the pathway, the brain, skeleton, musculature, gastrointestinal tract and lungs fail to develop correctly. Recent studies point to the role of Hedgehog signaling in regulating adult stem cells involved in maintenance and regeneration of adult tissues. The pathway has also been implicated in the development of some cancers. Drugs that specifically target Hedgehog signaling to fight this disease are being actively developed by a number of pharmaceutical companies.
Discovery
In the 1970s, a fundamental problem in developmental biology was to understand how a relatively simple egg can give rise to a complex segmented body plan. In the late 1970s Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard and Eric Wieschaus isolated mutations in genes that control development of the segmented anterior-posterior body axis of the fly; their "saturation mutagenesis" technique resulted in the discovery of a group of genes involved in the development of body segmentation, helping to found the field of evolutionary developmental biology. In 1995, they shared the Nobel Prize with Edward B. Lewis for their work studying genetic mutations in Drosophila embryogenesis.
The Drosophila hedgehog (hh) gene was identified as one of several genes important for creating the differences between the anterior and posterior parts of individual body segments. The fly hh gene was independently cloned in 1992 by the labs of Jym Mohler, Philip Beachy, Thomas B. Kornberg and Saigo Kaoru. Some hedgehog mutants result in abnormally-shaped embryos that are unusually short and stubby compared to wild type embryos. The function of the hedgehog segment polarity gene has been studied for influence on the normally polarized distribution of larval cuticular denticles as well as features on adult appendages such as legs and antennae. Rather than the normal pattern of denticles, hedgehog mutant larvae tend to have "solid lawns" of denticles (Figure 1). The appearance of the stubby and "hairy" larvae inspired the name 'hedgehog'.
Fruit fly
Mechanism
Insect cells express a full size zinc-finger transcription factor Cubitus interruptus (Ci), which forms a complex with the kinesin-like protein Costal-2 (Cos2) and is localized in the cytoplasm bound to cellular microtubules (Figure 2). The SCF complex targets the 155 kDa full length Ci protein for proteosome-dependent cleavage, which generates a 75 kDa fragment (CiR). CiR builds up in the cell and diffuses into the nucleus, where it acts as a co-repressor for Hedgehog (Hh) target genes. The steps leading to Ci protein proteolysis include phosphorylation of Ci protein by several protein kinases; PKA, GSK3β and CK1 (Figure 2). The Drosophila protein Slimb is part of an SCF complex that targets proteins for ubiquitylation. Slimb binds to phosphorylated Ci protein.
In the absence of Hh (Figure 3), a cell-surface transmembrane protein called Patched (PTCH) acts to prevent high expression and activity of a 7 membrane spanning receptor called Smoothened (SMO). Patched has sequence similarity to known membrane transport proteins. When extracellular Hh is present (Figure 3), it binds to and inhibits Patched, allowing Smoothened to accumulate and inhibit the proteolytic cleavage of the Ci protein. This process most likely involves the direct interaction of Smoothened and Costal-2 and may involve sequestration of the Ci protein-containing complex to a microdomain where the steps leading to Ci protein proteolysis are disrupted. The mechanism by which Hh binding to Patched leads to increased levels of Smoothened is not clear (Step 1 in Figure 3). Following binding of Hh to Patched, Smoothened levels increase greatly over the level maintained in cells when Patched is not bound to Hh. It has been suggested that phosphorylation of Smoothened plays a role in Hh-dependent regulation of Smoothened levels.
In cells with Hh-activated Patched (Figure 3), the intact Ci protein accumulates in the cell cytoplasm and levels of CiR decrease, allowing transcription of some genes such as decapentaplegic (dpp, a member of the BMP growth factor family). For other Hh-regulated genes, expression requires not only the loss of CiR but also the positive action of uncleaved Ci to act as a transcriptional activator. Costal-2 is normally important for holding Ci protein in the cytoplasm, but interaction of Smoothened with Costal-2 allows some intact Ci protein to go to the nucleus. The Drosophila protein Fused (Fu in Figure 3) is a protein kinase that binds to Costal-2. Fused can inhibit Suppressor of Fused (SUFU), which in turn interacts with Ci to regulate gene transcription in some cell types.
Role
Hedgehog has roles in larval body segment development and in formation of adult appendages. During the formation of body segments in the developing Drosophila embryo, stripes of cells that synthesize the transcription factor engrailed can also express the cell-to-cell signaling protein Hedgehog (green in Figure 4). Hedgehog is not free to move very far from the cells that make it and so it only activates a thin stripe of cells adjacent to the engrailed-expressing cells. When acting in this local fashion, hedgehog works as a paracrine factor. Only cells to one side of the engrailed-expressing cells are competent to respond to Hedgehog following interaction of Hh with the receptor protein Patched (blue in Figure 4).
Cells with Hh-activated Patched receptor synthesize the Wingless protein (red in Figure 4). If a Drosophila embryo is altered so as to produce Hh in all cells, all of the competent cells respond and form a broader band of Wingless-expressing cells in each segment. The wingless gene has an upstream transcription regulatory region that binds the Ci transcription factor in a Hh-dependent fashion resulting in an increase in wingless transcription (interaction 2 in Figure 3) in a stripe of cells adjacent to the stripe of Hh-producing cells.
Wingless protein acts as an extracellular signal and patterns the adjacent rows of cells by activating its cell surface receptor Frizzled. Wingless acts on engrailed-expressing cells to stabilize the stripes of engrailed expression. Wingless is a member of the Wnt family of cell-to-cell signaling proteins. The reciprocal signaling by Hedgehog and Wingless stabilizes the boundary between parasegments (Figure 4, top). The effects of Wingless and Hedgehog on other stripes of cells in each segment establishes a positional code that accounts for the distinct anatomical features along the anterior-posterior axis of the segments.
The Wingless protein is called "wingless" because of the phenotype of some wingless fly mutants. Wingless and Hedgehog function together during metamorphosis to coordinate wing formation. Hedgehog is expressed in the posterior part of developing Drosophila limbs. Hedgehog also participates in the coordination of eye, brain, gonad, gut and tracheal development. Downregulation of hedgehog has been implicated in reduced eye development in the amphipod Gammarus minus.
Annelids
Hedgehog is also involved in segmentation in the annelid worms; because parallel evolution seems unlikely, this suggests a common origin of segmentation between the two phyla. Whilst Hh does not induce the formation of segments, it seems to act to stabilize the segmented fields once they have appeared.
Vertebrates
Mechanism
Sonic hedgehog (SHH) is the best studied ligand of the vertebrate pathway. Most of what is known about hedgehog signaling has been established by studying SHH. It is translated as a ~45kDa precursor and undergoes autocatalytic processing (Process "1" on Figure 5) to produce an ~20kDa N-terminal signaling domain (referred to as SHH-N) and a ~25kDa C-terminal domain with no known signaling role. During the cleavage, a cholesterol molecule is added to the carboxyl end of the N-terminal domain, which is involved in trafficking, secretion and receptor interaction of the ligand. SHH can signal in an autocrine fashion, affecting the cells in which it is produced. Secretion and consequent paracrine hedgehog signaling require the participation of Dispatched (DISP) protein (Process "2" on Figure 5).
When SHH reaches its target cell, it binds to the Patched-1 (PTCH1) receptor (Process "3" on Figure 5, the blue molecule). In the absence of ligand, PTCH1 inhibits Smoothened (SMO), a downstream protein in the pathway (Process "4"). It has been suggested that SMO is regulated by a small molecule, the cellular localization of which is controlled by PTCH. PTCH1 has homology to Niemann-Pick disease, type C1 (NPC1) that is known to transport lipophilic molecules across a membrane. PTCH1 has a sterol sensing domain (SSD), which has been shown to be essential for suppression of SMO activity. A current theory suggests that PTCH regulates SMO by removing oxysterols from SMO. PTCH acts like a sterol pump and removes oxysterols that have been created by 7-dehydrocholesterol reductase. Upon binding of a Hh protein or a mutation in the SSD of PTCH, the pump is turned off allowing oxysterols to accumulate around SMO.
This accumulation of sterols allows SMO to become active or stay on the membrane for a longer period of time. This hypothesis is supported by the existence of a number of small molecule agonists and antagonists of the pathway that act on SMO. The binding of SHH relieves SMO inhibition, leading to activation of the GLI transcription factors (Process "5"): the activators Gli1 and Gli2 and the repressor Gli3. The sequence of molecular events that connect SMO to GLIs is poorly understood. Activated GLI accumulates in the nucleus (Process "6") and controls the transcription of hedgehog target genes (Process "7"). PTCH1 has recently been reported to repress transcription of hedgehog target genes through a mechanism independent of Smoothened.
In addition to PTCH1, mammals have another hedgehog receptor, PTCH2, whose sequence identity with PTCH1 is 54%. All three mammalian hedgehogs bind both receptors with similar affinity, so PTCH1 and PTCH2 cannot discriminate between the ligands. They do, however, differ in their expression patterns. PTCH2 is expressed at much higher levels in the testis and mediates desert hedgehog signaling there. It appears to have a distinct downstream signaling role from PTCH1. In the absence of ligand binding PTCH2 has a decreased ability to inhibit the activity of SMO. Furthermore, overexpression of PTCH2 does not replace mutated PTCH1 in basal cell carcinoma.
In invertebrates, just as in Drosophila, the binding of Hedgehog to PTCH leads to internalisation and sequestration of the ligand. Consequently, in vivo the passage of hedgehog over a receptive field that expresses the receptor leads to attenuation of the signal, an effect called ligand-dependent antagonism (LDA). In contrast to Drosophila, vertebrates possess another level of hedgehog regulation through LDA mediated by Hh-interacting protein 1 (HHIP1). HHIP1 also sequesters hedgehog ligands, but unlike PTCH, it has no effect on the activity of SMO.
Role
Members of the hedgehog family play key roles in a wide variety of developmental processes. One of the best studied examples is the action of Sonic hedgehog during development of the vertebrate limb. The classic experiments of Saunders and Gasseling in 1968 on the development of the chick limb bud formed the basis of the morphogen concept. They showed that identity of the digits in the chick limb was determined by a diffusible factor produced by the zone of polarizing activity (ZPA), a small region of tissue at the posterior margin of the limb. Mammalian development appeared to follow the same pattern. This diffusible factor was later shown to be Sonic hedgehog. However, precisely how SHH determines digit identity remained elusive until recently. The current model, proposed by Harfe et al., states that both the concentration and the time of exposure to SHH determines which digit the tissue will develop into in the mouse embryo (figure 6).
Digits V, IV and part of III arise directly from cells that express SHH during embryogenesis. In these cells SHH signals in an autocrine fashion and these digits develop correctly in the absence of DISP, which is required for extracellular diffusion of the ligand. These digits differ in the length of time that SHH continues to be expressed. The most posterior digit V develops from cells that express the ligand for the longest period of time. Digit IV cells express SHH for a shorter time, and digit III cells shorter still. Digit II develops from cells that are exposed to moderate concentrations of extracellular SHH. Finally, Digit I development does not require SHH. It is, in a sense, the default program of limb bud cells.
Hedgehog signaling remains important in the adult. Sonic hedgehog has been shown to promote the proliferation of adult stem cells from various tissues, including primitive hematopoietic cells, mammary and neural stem cells. Activation of the hedgehog pathway is required for transition of the hair follicle from the resting to the growth phase.
This failed due to toxicities found in animal models.
Human disease
Disruption of hedgehog signaling during embryonic development, through either deleterious mutation or consumption of teratogens by the gestating mother, can lead to severe developmental abnormalities. Holoprosencephaly, the failure of the embryonic prosencephalon to divide to form cerebral hemispheres, occurs with a frequency of about 1 in 8,000 live births and about 1 in 200 spontaneous abortions in humans and is commonly linked to mutations in genes involved in the hedgehog pathway, including SHH and PTCH. Cyclopia, one of the most severe defects of holoprosencephaly, results if the pathway inhibitor cyclopamine is consumed by gestating mammals.
Activation of the hedgehog pathway has been implicated in the development of cancers in various organs, including brain, lung, mammary gland, prostate and skin. Basal cell carcinoma, the most common form of cancerous malignancy, has the closest association with hedgehog signaling. Loss-of-function mutations in Patched and activating mutations in Smoothened have been identified in patients with this disease. Abnormal activation of the pathway probably leads to development of disease through transformation of adult stem cells into cancer stem cells that give rise to the tumor. Cancer researchers hope that specific inhibitors of hedgehog signaling will provide an efficient therapy for a wide range of malignancies. The connection between the hedgehog signaling pathway and cancer development is very complex. Nevertheless, it is clear that the aberrant activation of hedgehog signaling leads to the growth, proliferation, and invasion of tumor cells. Besides its involvement in the development of cancers, hedgehog pathway may also contribute to major respiratory diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis. and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease.
Targeting the hedgehog pathway
The most common way to target this pathway is modulate SMO. Antagonist and agonist of SMO have already shown to affect the pathway regulation downstream. Several hedgehog signaling pathway inhibitors are available for cancer treatment, such as vismodegib and sonidegib. These drugs are regarded as promising cancer therapies, especially for patients with refractory/advanced cancers. SMO inhibitors represent a potential treatment for some types of cancers. However, because of harmful and potentially toxic side-effects of SMO inhibitors, undetermined safety in children, and the evidence that some patients develop resistance to SMO inhibitors, new classes of drugs are needed.
The most clinically advanced SMO targeting agents are cyclopamine-competitive. Itraconazole (Sporanox) has also been shown to target SMO through a mechanism distinct from cyclopamine and vismodegib. Itraconazole (ITZ) inhibits SMO in the presence of mutations conferring resistance to vismodegib and other cyclopamine-competitive antagonists, like IPI-926 and Novartis' LDE-225. PTCH and Gli3 (5E1) antibodies are also a way to regulate the pathway. A downstream effector and strong transcriptional activator siRNA Gli1 has been used to inhibit cell growth and promote apoptosis. Arsenic trioxide (Trisenox) has also been shown to inhibit hedgehog signaling by interfering with Gli function and transcription.
Several environmental modifiers of Hedgehog signaling have been identified, which are potential health or developmental hazards. Dietary alkaloids found in tomatoes (tomatodine), potatoes (solanidine), nightshades like peppers and eggplant (solasodine). and turmeric (curcumin) have been shown to antagonize SMO and perturb Hedgehog signaling. In addition, certain environmental toxicants can block Hedgehog signaling. Piperonyl butoxide (PBO) is a semisynthetic pesticide additive developed in the 1940s, which can be found in thousands of household and agricultural products. Despite its widespread use, the ability of PBO to inhibit hedgehog signaling and act as a potent developmental teratogen was not recognized until recently.
Metastasis
Activation of the Hedgehog pathway leads to an increase in Snail protein expression and a decrease in E-cadherin and tight junctions.
Tumor regulation
Activation of the Hedgehog pathway leads to an increase in Angiogenic Factors (angiopoietin-1 and angiopoietin-2), Cyclins (cyclin D1 and B1), anti-apoptotic genes and a decrease in apoptotic genes (Fas). Dysfunction or aberrant activation of the Hh signaling pathway is associated with developmental deformities and cancers, including basal cell nevus syndrome (BCNS), basal cell carcinoma (BCC), medulloblastomas (MBs), rhabdomyosarcomas, and meningiomas. Approximately one-third of malignant tumors are linked to the aberrant activation of the Hh pathway. There are three proposed mechanisms of aberrant Hh signaling activation in different cancer types: Type I involves ligand-independent signaling due to mutations in Smo or negative regulators, Type II involves ligand-dependent autocrine/juxtacrine signaling with overexpression of Hh ligand, and Type III involves ligand-dependent paracrine signaling between tumor cells and stromal cells. These dysregulations in the Hh pathway can lead to tumor cell proliferation, survival, and the presence of cancer stem cells, which contribute to tumor initiation and progression.
Clinical trials
Vismodegib FDA approved (Jan 2012) for basal cell carcinoma.
Sonidegib FDA approved (July 2015) for basal cell carcinoma.
Itraconazole
Evolution
Lancelets, which are primitive chordates, possess only one homologue of Drosophila Hh (figure 7). Vertebrates, on the other hand, have several Hedgehog ligands that fall within three subgroups – Desert, Indian and Sonic, each represented by a single mammalian gene. This is a consequence of the two rounds of whole genome duplication that occurred early in the vertebrate evolutionary history. Two such events would have produced four homologous genes, one of which must have been lost. Desert Hedgehogs are the most closely related to Drosophila Hh. Additional gene duplications occurred within some species such as the zebrafish Danio rerio, which has an additional tiggywinkle hedgehog gene in the sonic group. Various vertebrate lineages have adapted hedgehogs to unique developmental processes. For example, a homologue of the X.laevis banded hedgehog is involved in regeneration of the salamander limb.
shh has undergone accelerated evolution in the primate lineage leading to humans. Dorus et al. hypothesise that this allowed for more complex regulation of the protein and may have played a role in the increase in volume and complexity of the human brain.
The frizzled family of WNT receptors have some sequence similarity to Smoothened. Smoothened seems to be a functionally divergent member of the G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) superfamily. Other similarities between the WNT and Hh signaling pathways have been reviewed. Nusse observed that, "a signalling system based on lipid-modified proteins and specific membrane translocators is ancient, and may have been the founder of the Wnt and Hh signaling systems".
It has been suggested that invertebrate and vertebrate signalling downstream from Smoothened has diverged significantly. The role of Suppressor of Fused (SUFU) has been enhanced in vertebrates compared to Drosophila where its role is relatively minor. Costal-2 is particularly important in Drosophila. The protein kinase Fused is a regulator of SUFU in Drosophila, but may not play a role in the Hh pathway of vertebrates. In vertebrates, Hh signalling has been heavily implicated in the development of cilia.
There is striking domain level evolution present in the Hedgehog family of proteins, the N-terminal domain (Hedge) and the C-terminal domain (Hog), that were later spliced together into a single transcriptional unit. The Hog domain contains a sequence called Hint (Hedgehog INTein), which is similar in sequence and function to bacterial and fungal inteins. The Hog domain is present in many eukaryotic branches, i.e. red algae, mosses, dinoflagellates, jakobids, and other single cell eurkaryotes. Choanoflagellates contain a gene named hoglet that also encodes the hedgehog C-terminal domain Hog domain. However, Choanoflagellates and lower eukaryotes do not contain any regions similar to the hedge domain, suggesting that hog evolved first. Poriferans have both hedge-like proteins (termed hedgling) and hog-like proteins, but they exist as two completely separate transcriptional units. Cnidarians contain the hedgling and hog genes, but also have a complete hedgehog gene, indicating that hedge and hog were spliced into hedgehog after the last common ancestor of poriferans and cnidarians.
Bilaterians do not contain hedgling genes, suggesting that these were lost by deletion before this branch split from the other metazoans. However, Hog domain-containing genes without a Hedge domain are present in several bilaterian lineages. They are found in Lophotrochozoa and Nematoda. Hedgehog-like genes, 2 Patched homologs and Patched-related genes exist in the worm C. elegans. These genes have been shown to code for proteins that have roles in C. elegans development. Whilst Enoplea nematodes have retained a bona-fide Hedgehog, Chromadoreans have lost the archetypal Hedgehog and have instead evolved an expanded repertoire of 61 divergent semi-orthologous genes with novel N-terminal domains associated with Hog. These N-terminal domains associated with Hog in C. elegans were subsequently classified, initially Warthog (WRT) and Groundhog (GRD), followed by Ground-like (GRL) and Quahog (QUA). C. elegans, along with other nematode species, have lost the GPCR Smoothened.
The ultimate origin of the Hedgehog signaling pathway is hypothesized to be a bacterial regulatory pathway of hopanoids that are common lipid components in bacteria and are structural analogs of steroids.
See also
Sonic hedgehog, best studied ligand of the vertebrate pathway
Smoothened, the conserved GPCR component of the pathway
Netpath – A curated resource of signal transduction pathways in humans
Inhibitors of Hh signaling
Cyclopamine, a naturally occurring small molecule
Sonidegib
Vismodegib, approved for basal cell carcinoma.
References
External links
Cell signaling
Evolutionary developmental biology
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saxon%20State%20and%20University%20Library%20Dresden
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Saxon State and University Library Dresden
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The Saxon State and University Library Dresden (full name in ), abbreviated SLUB Dresden, is located in Dresden, Germany. It is both the regional library () for the German State of Saxony as well as the academic library for the Dresden University of Technology (). It was created in 1996 through the merger of the Saxon State Library (SLB) and the University Library Dresden (UB). The seemingly redundant name is to show that the library brings both these institutional traditions together.
The SLUB moved into a large new building in 2002 to bring together the inventories of both its predecessors. Its collection numbers nearly nine million, making it one of the largest public archival centers in the Federal Republic of Germany. It holds significant treasures, including the Codex Dresdensis, an octagonal Koran from 1184 and a copy of the Peter Schoeffer Bible printed in 1462. Within the SLUB is the Deutsche Fotothek, holding some 4 million photographs from the past 80 years, and the German Stenographic Institute.
Collections
The library administers 5,388,595 holdings (volumes). It is a special-interest collection library of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation, DFG) focusing on "Contemporary Art after 1945" and "History of Technology". Both collections also include subjects such as commercial photography, documentary photography, photographic art, and photography of technics.
The first preserved index of the state library's collections dates back to the year 1574 and can also be viewed on the internet. Further services on the internet include, for example, the Kartenforum with historical maps of Saxony and the Fotothek, providing pictorial documents for research.
Deutsche Fotothek
The Deutsche Fotothek is based on the Dresden traditions of photographic techniques and camera manufacture as well as photographic art. The Landesbildstelle was originally established in Chemnitz, but was shortly afterwards, in 1925, relocated to Dresden. Since 1956 the inventory has been labeled Fotothek. Since 1983 it has belonged to the Sächsische Landesbibliothek as a separate section. With 2.3 million photographic documents, the Fotothek has a very large share of the overall holdings. The oldest images from around 1850 can be traced back to the photographer Hermann Krone.
Manuscripts and Rare Printings
As well as the open-access and storage holdings, the book museum holds a special-interest collection including a transcript of the Maya manuscript Codex Dresdensis, the oldest book written in the Americas known to historians, dating back to 1200 AD and purchased by Saxony in 1739. There are only three other existing codices left. They are located in Paris, Madrid, and Mexico. The Codex runs for inclusion in the UNESCO Memory of the World Programme (MOW). The elaborately-restored Dresdner Sachsenspiegel is exhibited in the treasure chamber for six weeks each year. As part of the Bibliotheca Corviniana, the Corvines of Dresden have been admitted into the Memory of the World Program by UNESCO in 2005.
Digital collections
Since 2007, the SLUB Dresden operates the Dresden Digitization Center and has been continually expanding its capacity up to 3 million pages per year. More than 95,000 volumes have been digitized and are free to use within the Digital Collections. The SLUB is one of the major providers of data for the Deutsche Digitale Bibliothek, which has been accessible online since November 2012. This is also facilitated by numerous third-party funds, especially by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. In this way, the SLUB e.g. participates in the digitization of indexes of printing published in the German language area in the 17th and 18th centuries. Also worth mentioning is the digitization of the electronic editions of August Wilhelm Schlegel's collection and illustrated magazines of classical modernism. Today, there are more than 74,000 titles, nearly 92,000 volumes and approximately 1.5 million media items (images, maps, drawings) existent in the Digital Collections of the SLUB. The open source software Goobi, utilized for the digitization workflow, has been significantly refined to edit and display different media types.
Special-interest collections
Two special collection areas of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft have been established at the SLUB. Hence, the SLUB Dresden represents one of further 22 academic libraries that are intended to ensure the availability of relevant research literature of a research area by maintaining particular core themes.
Contemporary art after 1945, photography, industrial design and commercial art
The library's oldest special interest collection deals with contemporary art from 1945 onwards. This topic had already been one of the library's core themes of collection within the library landscape during the GDR. In 1993, the DFG started funding this special interest collection. Devoid of any temporal constraint, topics of photography, industrial design and commercial art are part of the collection. The collections are for example attached to the Sondersammelgebiet Mittlere und Neuere Kunstgeschichte bis 1945 und Allgemeine Kunstwissenschaft (special interest collection focusing on art history until 1945 and general science of art) of the Heidelberg University Library.
The holdings of the special-interest collection include approximately 150,000 volumes and 330 periodicals. Apart from art history of Europe and North America and art theory, collected literature focuses on concrete painting, graphics, sculpture and crafts as well as new art forms like land art, digital art, video art, performance art and other.
By means of the DFG funding, the SLUB has established the Virtual Library focusing on Contemporary Art ViFaArt from January 2001 until 2004. Since 2012, the hitherto separately-displayed services of the Virtual Library of Contemporary Art and "arthistoricum.net – Virtual Library for Art History" have been combined in a mutual Virtual Library for Art under the name of "arthistoricum.net".
History of Technology
The special-interest collection History of Technology is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. Since 1998, the DFG annually sponsors the SLUB's acquisition of foreign journals, monographs and microforms focusing on the history of technology. The SLUB completes the acquisition of foreign and domestic literature with own resources. Currently, the SLUB is equipped with approximately 31,000 monographs and more than 110 journals on the topic.
Besides the classic acquisition of literature, the focus is on providing internet-based services for bibliographic searches. The services are accessible via the specialist portal "Schaufenster Technikgeschichte".
Saxonica
Since the end of the 18th century – during the term of Johann Christoph Adelung – Saxonica have been collected systematically at the electoral library. Initially focused on literature on Saxon history, the collection of Saxonica was, in the 19th century, extended to other scientific areas with regional aspects such as natural history, folklore, geography, archeology or linguistics. Today, the term "Saxonica" includes all types of German and foreign-language media of all scientific areas relating to Saxony and its subterritories (such as natural and cultural areas, administrative units, historical regions etc.), its locations as well as living and deceased personages associated with Saxony.
Since the beginning of the 20th century, Saxonica have been attested in the Sächsische Bibliographie. The founder of this regional bibliography was Rudolf Bemman, followed by Jakob Jatzwauk. Except for manuscripts and photographs, all Saxonica have been attested in the Sächsische Bibliographie Online since 1992. All previously published titles are being gradually included in this proof.
To collect and store items of literature, images and sound regarding Saxony as well as the development of the Sächsische Bibliographie are tasks accomplished by the Saxon State and University Library Dresden.
Maps
The map collection includes map sheets focusing on Saxon mapping, but also exceedingly on historical maps of Europe and Germany. The map collection encompasses circa 138,000 single sheets, of which 19,650 originated up to and including 1800, and 41,600 between 1801 and 1945, as well as further sheets which have been charted after 1945. The collection serves as a scientific source of regional history in general, but also of the history of specific places, fortresses and castles, as well as of historical spatial, landscape and traffic development. Roughly 11,000 sheets of the collection are presumed to still be located in Russia.
The SLUB's Map Forum is an information portal of libraries, museums and archives, supervised by the Deutsche Fotothek and sponsored by the DFG. To date, around 24,800 of the most important, digitized cartographical sources in the collection – especially those pertaining to Saxon history and regional studies – are available in high resolution digital images in the Map Forum.
Music
The Music Department comprises approximately 200,000 volumes. The department is divided into New Prints and Music Manuscripts and Historical Prints – with the publishing year 1850 marking the difference between "new" and "historical" items. The department is closely intertwined with the Mediathek, containing recorded music, the Fotothek, containing music-iconographical material, and the manuscript collection, which also encompasses letters of musicians.
In 1816, Friedrich Adolf Ebert founded the department by merging the hitherto separate holdings Musica theoretica and Musica practica. Until 1934, the department was augmented, for example by the royal private music collection of King Albert of Saxony or the historical collection of the state opera (Staatsoper Dresden). In 1983, the state library became the Zentralbibliothek der DDR für Kunst und Musik (the GDR's central library for art and music).
Architecture
The SLUB's main building was drafted by the architectural office Ortner & Ortner and erected from 1999 to 2002. On more than 40,000 square metres, the building provides approximately 1,000 study desks, of which 200 are located in the main reading room. The construction costs amounted to roughly 90 million Euros.
During the SLUB's period of construction, further buildings of contemporary architecture in Dresden came into being, such as the Ufa-Kristallpalast, the Neue Synagoge, the Gläserne Manufaktur or the Neue Terrasse.
Sites
Besides the central library at Zellescher Weg, the SLUB encompasses five further sites. Opposite to the central building sits the departmental library DrePunct. This location houses the branch libraries of the following TU Dresden faculties: civil engineering, electrical engineering, electronics, earth sciences, computer sciences, mechanical engineering, transportation sciences, and business and economics. The faculties educational science (August-Bebel-Straße), Medicine (Fiedlerstraße), Law (Bergstraße) and forest science (Tharandt) have their own SLUB branch libraries.
History
History of the State Library
From 1485, the city of Dresden was the seat of the Wettin dukes of Saxony, who from 1547 were prince-electors. The royal state library was founded in 1556, when Prince-Elector Augustus (ruled 1553–1586) started systematically to acquire learned books and literary works. The prince himself inspected the lists of books offered at the book fair in Leipzig, the largest and most important city in his state, whose library had received the contents of the religious houses dissolved at the Reformation. Further, he instructed his diplomats to buy rare and precious books abroad.
During the first half of the 18th century, under two rulers, Augustus the Strong (ruled 1694–1733) and his son, Augustus II (ruled 1733–1763), Dresden became a major European cultural center. The Court Library became a true state library for Saxony, absorbing many manuscripts, maps, and books from distinguished private collections, with some spectacular purchases, such as the Dresden Codex that was obtained in 1739. In 1727, the library moved into two wings of the Zwinger Palace. When Frederick the Great of Prussia attacked Dresden in 1760, part of the library burned; there are singed volumes in the collection to this day. By the end of the 18th century it had outgrown its wing of the Zwinger, and the library then moved to the Japanese Palace. In 1788 the Saxon Library was opened to the public. Following the proclamation of the Weimar Republic in 1919, it officially became the Saxon State Library, with its strengths continuing to lie in the arts, humanities, social sciences, literature and linguistics.
With the onset of World War II, the most precious holdings of the State Library were dispersed to 18 castles and offices, away from any possible military objectives. Consequently, they largely survived the bombing raids of February and March 1945 which destroyed the former library buildings and virtually the whole historic center of Dresden — with losses of about 200,000 volumes of twentieth-century manuscript and printed holdings and also some irreplaceable musical manuscripts. The losses include the major corpus of Tomaso Albinoni's unpublished music, though Georg Philipp Telemann's manuscripts were preserved (catalogued, 1983). The library's copy of Sachsenspiegel, considered one of the most important manuscripts due to its historic significance in law and its illustrative quality, suffered from water damage. It underwent a restoration in the 1990s. After the war, some 250,000 books were taken to the Soviet Union.
History of the University Library
The university library was laid out in 1828 as the library of the Königlich-Sächsische Bildungsanstalt (Royal Saxon Academy). From 1851 to 1890, the academy was labeled Royal Saxon Polytechnical School. In 1872, university and library were relocated near today's central station. In 1890, the collection became the library of the Technische Hochschule and thus an academic library as of today.
In 1945, the university library was also destroyed, its stocks reduced. A relocation of the library to a mansion on today's university campus – now site of the Dresden University of Technology's rectorate – followed. Under the direction of Helene Benndorf, the reconstruction of the annihilated subject catalog took place, as well as the construction of the central catalogue of the university and the re-opening of the Patentschriftstelle. The renaming to "University of Technology" followed in 1961, resulting in the label "university library". Since 1977, the lendings in the branch libraries are operated centrally.
After 1990, the TU Dresden was expanded to a comprehensive university and augmented by the branch libraries of law, business and economics. In 1992, the joining of the Technical University and the Hochschule für Verkehrswesen (academy of transportation sciences) followed, as well as the adoption of the academy library. In 1993, the university library was expanded once more, when research institutes and educational establishments of the dissolved Medizinische Akademie Dresden were assigned to the Technical University.
In 1997, the branch library of education moved to August-Bebel-Straße. The following year, the departmental library De.Punct opened its doors and accommodated several faculty libraries.
In 1999, with the merger of university library and state library, the construction of the new central building on the TU Dresden campus began. On 1 August 2002, the SLUB opened for the readers. On 14 January 2003, its official inauguration followed. With its big main reading room and its carrels, the central building provides excellent working conditions.
Awards
With regard to its comprehensive digitization activities, the library was honored in the context of Initiative Deutschland, Land der Ideen on 22 February 2009.
Further reading
Thomas Bürger: Wandel und Kontinuität in 450 Jahren. Von der kurfürstlichen Liberey zur Sächsischen Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek. in: Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Technischen Universität Dresden, 55(2006)1–2, S. 30–36 (Digitalisat; PDF; 1,2 MB)
Friedrich Adolf Ebert: Geschichte und Beschreibung der königlichen öffentlichen Bibliothek zu Dresden. Leipzig 1822 ("History and Description of the Royal Library in Dresden")
Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden (Hrsg.): Tradition und Herausforderung. Aus der Arbeit der Sächsischen Landesbibliothek zwischen 1960 und 1990. Dresden 2000
Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden (ed.): Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden: Festschrift anlässlich der Einweihung des Neubaus, Sandstein-Verlag, Dresden, 2002,
Sächsisches Staatsministerium der Finanzen (Hrsg.): Sächsische Landesbibliothek – Staats- und Universitätsbibliothek Dresden, Dresden, 2002
Older library catalogues and directories
Registratur der bucher in des Churfursten zu Saxen liberey zur Annaburg 1574 (Digitalisat)
Johann Christian Götze: Bücher, so von mir auf die K. Bibliothec gelieffert worden im Jan. 1740 (Digitalisat)
Friedrich Adolf Ebert: Notitia codicum praestantiorum bibliothecae regiae Dresdensis, Dresden 1850 (Digitalisat)
See also
Dresden Codex
Dresden University of Technology
Deutsche Fotothek
Notes and references
External links
Homepage of the library
SACHSEN.digital
"Treasures from the Saxon State library" Exhibition, Library of Congress, 1996
Libraries in Dresden
Culture in Dresden
Archives in Germany
1556 establishments in the Holy Roman Empire
Education in Dresden
TU Dresden
Tourist attractions in Dresden
Deposit libraries
World Digital Library partners
Libraries established in 1556
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political%20history%20of%20the%20United%20Kingdom%20%281979%E2%80%93present%29
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Political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present)
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The modern political history of the United Kingdom (1979–present) began when Margaret Thatcher gained power in 1979, giving rise to 18 years of Conservative government. Victory in the Falklands War (1982) and the government's strong opposition to trade unions helped lead the Conservative Party to another three terms in government. Thatcher initially pursued monetarist policies and went on to privatise many of Britain's nationalised companies such as British Telecom, British Gas Corporation, British Airways and British Steel Corporation. She kept the National Health Service. The controversial "poll tax" to fund local government was unpopular, and the Conservatives removed Thatcher as Prime Minister in 1990, although Michael Heseltine, the minister who did much to undermine her, did not personally benefit from her being ousted.
Thatcher's successor, John Major, replaced the "poll tax" with Council Tax and oversaw successful British involvement in the Gulf War. Despite a recession, Major led the Conservatives to a surprise victory in 1992. The events of Black Wednesday in 1992, party disunity over the European Union and several scandals involving Conservative politicians all led to the Labour Party winning a landslide election victory under Tony Blair in 1997. Labour had shifted its policies from the political left closer to the centre, under the slogan of 'New Labour'. The Bank of England was given independence over monetary policy and Scotland and Wales were given a devolved Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly respectively, whilst London wide local government was also re-established in the form of a Assembly and Mayor. The Good Friday Agreement was negotiated in 1997 in an effort to end The Troubles in Northern Ireland, with a devolved, power-sharing Northern Ireland Assembly being established in 1998.
Blair led Britain into the Afghanistan and Iraq Wars before leaving office in 2007, when he was succeeded by his Chancellor, Gordon Brown. A global recession in 2008–10 led to Labour's defeat in the 2010 election. It was replaced by a Conservative-Liberal Democrat coalition government, headed by David Cameron, that pursued a series of public spending cuts with the intention of reducing the budget deficit. In 2016, the UK voted in an advisory referendum to leave the European Union, which led to Cameron's resignation. Cameron was succeeded by his Home Secretary, Theresa May.
May engaged in a policy to take the country out of the European Union through her flagship Brexit withdrawal agreement. When this deal failed to pass through the House of Commons three times, May resigned. The subsequent Conservative leadership election was won by former Foreign Secretary and Mayor of London, Boris Johnson, who became Prime Minister in July 2019. A Conservative landslide victory in the general election five months later allowed for a majority government and the UK's withdrawal from the EU in January 2020. Amid numerous scandals and a government crisis, Johnson resigned in September 2022 and was succeeded by his Foreign Secretary Liz Truss. She was appointed Prime Minister by Queen Elizabeth II, just two days before the latter's death. Amid yet another government crisis, Truss resigned seven weeks into her tenure in October 2022, and was succeeded by Rishi Sunak, the first Prime Minister to be appointed during the reign of King Charles III.
Conservative Government, 1979–97
Margaret Thatcher (1979–90)
Thatcher formed a government on 4 May 1979, with a mandate to reverse the UK's economic decline and to reduce the role of the state in the economy. Thatcher was incensed by one contemporary view within the Civil Service that its job was to manage the UK's decline from the days of Empire, and wanted the country to punch above its weight in international affairs. She was a philosophic soulmate with Ronald Reagan, elected President in 1980 in the United States, and to a lesser extent, Brian Mulroney, who was elected in 1984 in Canada. It seemed for a time that conservatism might be the dominant political philosophy in the major English-speaking nations for the era.
Irish issues
Northern Ireland was in a violent phase. Insurgents planted bombs and assassinated its foes, including in 1979 Airey Neave, Thatcher's close friend who was expected to take charge there. The Irish National Liberation Army (INLA), a republican paramilitary group, claimed responsibility. On 27 August 1979, the IRA assassinated Lord Mountbatten, a member of the royal family, and other units killed 18 soldiers with a roadside bomb. Sheer luck on the early morning of 12 October 1984 saved Thatcher's life as five were killed by a bomb planted by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Brighton's Grand Hotel during the Conservative Party conference.
In 1981, a new tactic was used to mobilize support, as Provisional IRA and Irish National Liberation Army prisoners went on hunger strikes to claim legitimacy for their cause in the act of making the ultimate sacrifice. It was a historic tactic that was revived for maximum impact, although it was attacked by the major news media and denounced by Catholic bishops.
Thatcher continued the policy of "Ulsterisation" promoted by the previous Labour government, believing that the unionists of Ulster should be at the forefront in combating Irish republicanism. This meant relieving the burden on the mainstream British Army and elevating the role of the Ulster Defence Regiment and the Royal Ulster Constabulary.
In November 1985, Thatcher signed the Hillsborough Anglo-Irish Agreement, bringing the Dublin government into the peace process. P. J. McLoughlin finds the consensus of scholars is that it was a significant factor contributing to the development of the Northern Ireland peace process. However, the agreement was greeted with fury by Irish unionists. The Ulster Unionists and Democratic Unionists made an electoral pact and on 23 January 1986, staged an ad hoc referendum by re-fighting their seats in by-elections, and won with one seat lost to the nationalist Social Democratic and Labour Party (SDLP). Then, unlike the Sunningdale Agreement in 1974, they found they could not bring the agreement down by a general strike. This was another effect of the changed balance of power in industrial relations. The Hillsborough agreement stood, and Thatcher punished the unionists for their non-cooperation by abolishing the devolved assembly she had created only four years before.
Economics
In economic policy, Thatcher and her Chancellor Sir Geoffrey Howe started out with policies, including higher interest rates, to drive down the rate of growth of the money supply. She had a preference for indirect taxation over taxes on income: in 1979 exchange controls were abolished and the top rate of income tax on "unearned" income cut from 98% to 60%, but value added tax (VAT) was increased sharply to 15% with the result that inflation also rose. These moves hit businesses, especially in the manufacturing sector, and unemployment – which had stood at 1,500,000 by the time of the 1979 general election – was above 2,000,000 by the end of 1980. It continued to rise throughout 1981, passing the 2,500,000 mark during the summer of that year – although inflation was now down to 12% compared to 27% two years earlier. The economy was now in recession.
Her early tax policy reforms were based on the monetarist theories of Milton Friedman rather than the supply-side economics of Arthur Laffer and Jude Wanniski, which the government of Ronald Reagan espoused. There was a severe recession in the early 1980s, and the Government's economic policy was widely blamed. In January 1982, the inflation rate dropped to single figures and interest rates fell. Unemployment peaked at 3.1 million and remained at that level until 1986. The recession of the early 1980s was the deepest in Britain since the depression of the 1930s and Thatcher's popularity plummeted; most predictions had her losing the next election.
Falklands War
In Argentina, an unstable military junta was in power and keen on reversing its huge economic unpopularity. On 2 April 1982, it invaded the Falkland Islands, the only invasion of a British territory since World War II. Argentina has claimed the islands since an 1830s dispute on their settlement. Thatcher sent a naval task force to recapture the Islands. The ensuing Falklands War saw the swift defeat of Argentina in only a few days of fighting, resulting in a wave of patriotic enthusiasm for Thatcher personally, at a time when her popularity had been at an all-time low for a serving Prime Minister. Opinion polls showed a huge surge in Conservative support which would be sufficient to win a general election. In the end, the war probably raised the Conservative vote by about six points, according to scholarly studies of the polling data.
This "Falklands Factor", as it came to be known, was crucial to the scale of the landslide Conservative majority in the June 1983 general election, with a fragmented Labour Party enduring its worst postwar election result, while the SDP–Liberal Alliance (created two years earlier in a pact between the Liberal Party and the new Social Democratic Party (UK) formed by disenchanted former Labour MP's) trailed Labour closely in terms of votes but won few seats.
Hong Kong
China demanded the return of Hong Kong with the expiration of Britain's 99-year lease on most of the territory in 1997. Thatcher negotiated directly in September 1982 with that country's leader Deng Xiaoping. They agreed on the Sino-British Joint Declaration over the Question of Hong Kong which provided for a peaceful transfer of Hong Kong to Beijing's control in 15 years' time, after which the city would be allowed to retain its "capitalistic" system for another 50 years.
Thatcher's strong opposition against communism as represented by the Soviet Union as well as the decisive military victory against Argentina, re-affirmed Britain's influential position on the world stage and bolstered Thatcher's firm leadership. In addition the economy was showing positive signs of recovery thanks mainly to substantial oil revenues from the North Sea.
Nuclear disarmament
The 1983 election was also influenced by events in the opposition parties. Since their 1979 defeat, Labour was increasingly dominated by its "hard left" that had emerged from the 1970s union militancy, and in opposition its policies had swung very sharply to the left while the Conservatives had drifted further to the right. This drove a significant number of right wing Labour members and MPs to form a breakaway party in 1981, the Social Democratic Party. Labour fought the election on unilateral nuclear disarmament, which proposed to abandon the British nuclear deterrent despite the threat from a nuclear armed Soviet Union, withdrawal from the European Community, and total reversal of Thatcher's economic and trade union changes. Indeed, one Labour MP, Gerald Kaufman, has called the party's 1983 manifesto "the longest suicide note in history". Consequently, upon the Labour split, there was a new centrist challenge, the SDP–Liberal Alliance, from the Social Democrats in electoral pact with the Liberal Party, to break the major parties' dominance and win proportional representation. The British Electoral Study found that Alliance voters were preferentially tilted towards the Conservatives , but this possible loss of vote share by the Conservatives was more than compensated for by the first past the post electoral system, where marginal changes in vote numbers and distribution have disproportionate effects on the number of seats won. Accordingly, despite the Alliance vote share coming very close to that of Labour and preventing an absolute majority in votes for the Conservatives, the Alliance failed to break into Parliament in significant numbers and the Conservatives were returned in a landslide.
Trade union power
Thatcher was committed to reducing the power of the trade unions but, unlike the Heath government, adopted a strategy of incremental change rather than a single Act. Several unions launched strikes that were wholly or partly aimed at damaging her politically. The most significant of these was carried out by the National Union of Mineworkers (NUM). However, Thatcher had made preparations long in advance for an NUM strike by building up coal stocks, and there were no cuts in electric power, unlike 1972. Police tactics during the strike concerned civil libertarians: stopping suspected strike sympathisers travelling towards coalfields when they were still long distances from them, phone tapping as evidenced by Labour's Tony Benn, and a violent battle with mass pickets at Orgreave, Yorkshire. But images of massed militant miners using violence to prevent other miners from working, along with the fact that (illegally under a recent Act) the NUM had not held a national ballot to approve strike action. Arthur Scargill's policy of letting each region of the NUM call its own strike backfired when nine areas held ballots that resulted in majority votes against striking, and violence against strikebreakers escalated with time until reaching a tipping point with the killing of David Wilkie (a taxi-driver who was taking a strikebreaker to work). The Miners' Strike lasted a full year, March 1984 until March 1985, before the drift of half the miners back to work forced the NUM leadership to give in without a deal. Thatcher had won a decisive victory and the unions never recovered their political power. This aborted political strike marked a turning point in UK politics: no longer could militant unions remove a democratically elected government. It also marked the beginning of a new economic and political culture in the UK based upon small government intervention in the economy and reduced dominance of the trade unions and welfare state.
Thatcher's political and economic philosophy
Thatcher's political and economic philosophy emphasised free markets and entrepreneurialism. Since gaining power, she had experimented in selling off a small nationalised company, the National Freight Company, to its workers, with a surprisingly large response. After the 1983 election, the Government became bolder and sold off many of the large utilities which had been in public ownership since the late 1940s. Many in the public took advantage of share offers, although many sold their shares immediately for a quick profit. The policy of privatisation, while anathema to many on the left, has become synonymous with Thatcherism.
In the Cold War, Thatcher supported Ronald Reagan's policies of Rollback with the goal of reducing or ending Soviet Communist power. This contrasted with the policy of détente which the West had pursued during the 1970s, and caused friction with allies still wedded to the idea of détente. The United States Armed Forces were permitted by Mrs. Thatcher to station nuclear cruise missiles at British Armed Forces bases, arousing mass protests by the Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament. However, she later was the first Western leader to respond warmly to the rise of reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev, declaring she liked him and "We can do business together" after a meeting three months before he came to power in 1985. This was a start in swinging the West back to a new détente with the Soviet Union in his era, as it proved to be an indication that the Soviet regime's power was decaying. Thatcher outlasted the Cold War, which ended in 1989, and voices who share her views on it credit her with a part in the West's victory, by both the deterrence and détente postures.
She supported the US bombing raid on Libya from bases in the UK in 1986 when other NATO allies would not. Her liking for defence ties with the United States was demonstrated in the Westland affair when she acted with colleagues to prevent the helicopter manufacturer Westland, a vital defence contractor, from linking with a European Consortium including the Italian firm Agusta in favour of a link with Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation of the United States. Defence Secretary Michael Heseltine, who had pushed the European Consortium, resigned in protest at her style of leadership, and thereafter became a potential leadership challenger. Trade and Industry Secretary Leon Brittan then had to resign for having ordered the leak of a confidential legal letter critical of Heseltine; Thatcher survived the crisis as her personal involvement in the leak was not proven.
By winning the 1987 general election, by another landslide on the economic boom (with unemployment finally falling below 3,000,000 that spring) and against a stubbornly anti-nuclear Labour opposition (now led by Neil Kinnock Following Michael Foot's resignation four years earlier), she became the longest serving Prime Minister of the United Kingdom since the 1820s. Most newspapers supported her – with the exception of The Daily Mirror and The Guardian — and were rewarded with regular press briefings by her press secretary, Bernard Ingham.
She was known as "Maggie" in the popular tabloids, which inspired the well-known "Maggie Out!" protest song, sung throughout that period by some of her opponents. Her unpopularity on the left is evident from the lyrics of several contemporary popular songs: "Stand Down Margaret" (The Beat), "Tramp the Dirt Down" (Elvis Costello), "Mother Knows Best" (Richard Thompson), and "Margaret on the Guillotine" (Morrissey).
Many opponents believed she and her policies created a significant north–south divide from the Bristol Channel to The Wash, between the "haves" in the economically dynamic south and the "have nots" in the northern rust belt. Hard welfare reforms in her third term created an adult Employment Training system that included full-time work done for the dole plus a £10 top-up, on the workfare model from the US. The "Social Fund" system that placed one-off welfare payments for emergency needs under a local budgetary limit, and where possible changed them into loans, and rules for assessing jobseeking effort by the week, were breaches of social consensus unprecedented since the 1920s.
The sharp fall in unemployment continued. By the end of 1987, it stood at just over 2,600,000 – having started the year still in excess of 3,000,000. It stood at just over 2,000,000 by the end of 1988, and by the end of 1989 less than 1,700,000 were unemployed. However, total economic growth for 1989 stood at 2% – the lowest since 1982 – signalling an end to the economic boom. Several other countries had now entered recession, and fears were now rife that Britain was also on the verge of another recession.
In 1988, Thatcher, a trained chemist, became concerned with environmental issues, putting on the national agenda such technical issues as global warming, ozone depletion and acid rain. In 1990, she opened the Hadley Centre for climate prediction and research.
In September 1988, at Bruges, Thatcher announced her opposition to proposals from the European Community for a federal structure and increasing centralisation of decision-making. Although she had supported British membership, Thatcher believed that the role of the EC should be limited to ensuring free trade and effective competition, and feared that new EC regulations would reverse the changes she was making in the UK. "We have not successfully rolled back the frontiers of the state in Britain, only to see them re-imposed at a European level, with a new super-state exercising a new dominance from Brussels". The speech caused an outcry from other European leaders, and exposed for the first time the deep split that was emerging over European policy inside her Conservative Party. Since 1985 Thatcher had been blocking British membership of the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), a preparation for Economic and Monetary Union, through which a single currency would replace national currencies, which the EC began seriously to discuss by 1990.
Thatcher's popularity once again declined in 1989 as the economy suffered from high interest rates imposed to stop an unsustainable boom. She blamed her Chancellor, Nigel Lawson, who had exacerbated the boom by trying to keep the pound sterling low ("shadowing the Deutschmark") as a preparation for European Exchange Rate Mechanism membership; Thatcher claimed not to have been told of this and did not approve. At the Madrid European summit, Lawson and Foreign Secretary Geoffrey Howe forced Thatcher to agree the circumstances under which she would join the ERM. Thatcher took revenge on both by demoting Howe, and by listening more to her adviser Sir Alan Walters on economic matters. Lawson resigned that October, feeling that Thatcher had undermined him.
That November, Thatcher was challenged for the leadership of the Conservative Party by Sir Anthony Meyer. As Meyer was a virtually unknown backbench MP, he was viewed as a stalking horse candidate for more prominent members of the party. Thatcher easily defeated Meyer's challenge, but there were 60 ballot papers either cast for Meyer or abstaining, a surprisingly large number for a sitting Prime Minister.
Thatcher's new system to replace local government rates was introduced in Scotland in 1989 and in England and Wales in 1990. Rates were replaced by the "Community Charge" (more widely known as the poll tax), which applied the same amount to every individual resident, with only limited discounts for low earners. This was to be the most universally unpopular policy of her premiership, and saw the Conservative government split further behind the Labour opposition (still led by Neil Kinnock) in the opinion polls. The Charge was introduced early in Scotland as the rateable values would in any case have been reassessed in 1989. However, it led to accusations that Scotland was a 'testing ground' for the tax. Thatcher apparently believed that the new tax would be popular, and had been persuaded by Scottish Conservatives to bring it in early and in one go. Despite her hopes, the early introduction led to a sharp decline in the already low support for the Conservative party in Scotland.
Additional problems emerged when many of the tax rates set by local councils proved to be much higher than earlier predictions. Some have argued that local councils saw the introduction of the new system of taxation as the opportunity to make significant increases in the amount taken, assuming (correctly) that it would be the originators of the new tax system and not its local operators who would be blamed.
A large London demonstration against the poll tax in Trafalgar Square on 31 March 1990 – the day before it was introduced in England and Wales – turned into a riot. Millions of people resisted paying the tax. Opponents of the tax banded together to resist bailiffs and disrupt court hearings of poll tax debtors. Mrs Thatcher refused to compromise, or change the tax, and its unpopularity was a major factor in Thatcher's downfall.
By the autumn of 1990, opposition to Thatcher's policies on local government taxation, her Government's perceived mishandling of the economy (especially high interest rates of 15%, which were undermining her core voting base within the home-owning, entrepreneurial and business sectors), and the divisions opening within her party over the appropriate handling of European integration made Thatcher and her party seem increasingly politically vulnerable. Her increasingly combative, irritable personality also made opposition to her grow fast and by this point, even many in her own party could not stand her.
John Major (1990–97)
In November 1990, Michael Heseltine challenged Margaret Thatcher for leadership of the Conservative Party. Thatcher fell short of the required 15% majority in the first round and was persuaded to withdraw from the second round on 22 November, ending her 11-year premiership. Her Chancellor of the Exchequer John Major contested the second round and defeated Michael Heseltine as well as Foreign Secretary Douglas Hurd, becoming prime minister on 28 November 1990.
By this stage, however, Britain had slid into recession for the third time in less than 20 years. Unemployment had started to rise in the spring of 1990 but by the end of the year it was still lower than in many other European economies, particularly France and Italy.
John Major was Prime Minister during British involvement in the Gulf War. Polls improved for the Conservatives despite the recession deepening throughout 1991 and into 1992, with the economy for 1991 falling 2% and unemployment passing the 2,000,000 mark. Major called a general election for April 1992 and took his campaign onto the streets, famously delivering many addresses from an upturned soapbox as in his Lambeth days. This populist "common touch", in contrast to the Labour Party's more slick campaign, chimed with the electorate and Major won, albeit with a small parliamentary majority.
The narrow majority for the Conservative government proved to be unmanageable, particularly after the United Kingdom's forced exit from the Exchange Rate Mechanism on Black Wednesday (16 September 1992) just five months into the new parliament. From this stage onwards, Labour – now led by John Smith – was ascendant in the opinion polls. Major allowed his economic team to stay in place unchanged for seven months after Black Wednesday before forcing the resignation of his Chancellor, Norman Lamont, whom he replaced with Kenneth Clarke. This delay was seen as indicative of one of his weaknesses, an indecisiveness towards personnel issues that was to undermine his authority through the rest of his premiership.
At the 1993 Conservative Party Conference, Major began his ill-fated "Back to Basics" campaign, which he intended to be about the economy, education, policing, and other such issues, but it was interpreted by many (including Conservative cabinet ministers) as an attempt to revert to the moral and family values that the Conservative Party were often associated with. A number of sleaze scandals involving Conservative MP's were exposed in lurid and embarrassing detail in tabloid newspapers following this and further reduced the Conservative's popularity. Despite Major's best efforts, the Conservative Party collapsed into political infighting. Major took a moderate approach but found himself undermined by the right-wing within the party and his Cabinet.
Major's policy towards the European Union aroused opposition as the Government attempted to ratify the Maastricht Treaty. Although the Labour opposition supported the treaty, they were prepared to undertake tactical moves to weaken the government, which included passing an amendment that required a vote on the social chapter aspects of the treaty before it could be ratified. Several Conservative MPs (the Maastricht Rebels) voted against the Government and the vote was lost. Major hit back by calling another vote on the following day (23 July 1993), which he declared a vote of confidence. He won by 40 but had damaged his authority.
One of the few bright spots of 1993 for the Conservative government came in April when the end of the recession was finally declared after nearly three years. Unemployment had touched 3,000,000 by the turn of the year, but had dipped to 2,800,000 by Christmas as the economic recovery continued. The economic recovery was strong and sustained throughout 1994, with unemployment falling below 2,500,000 by the end of the year. However, Labour remained ascendant in the opinion polls and their popularity further increased with the election of Tony Blair – who redesignated the party as New Labour – as leader following the sudden death of John Smith on 12 May 1994. Labour remained ascendant in the polls throughout 1995, despite the Conservative government overseeing the continuing economic recovery and fall in unemployment. It was a similar story throughout 1996, despite the economy still being strong and unemployment back below 2,000,000 for the first time since early 1991. The Railways Act 1993 was introduced by John Major's Conservative government and passed on 5 November 1993. It provided for the restructuring of the British Railways Board (BRB), the public corporation that owned and operated the national railway system. A few residual responsibilities of the BRB remained with BRB (Residuary) Ltd.
Few were surprised when Major lost the 1997 general election to Tony Blair, though the immense scale of the landslide defeat was not widely predicted. In the new parliament Labour won 418 seats, the Conservatives 165, and the Liberal Democrats 46, leaving the Labour party with a majority of 179 which was the biggest majority since 1931. In addition, the Conservatives lost all their seats in Scotland and Wales and several cabinet ministers including Michael Portillo, Malcolm Rifkind and Ian Lang lost their seats, as did former cabinet minister Norman Lamont. Major carried on as Leader of the Opposition until William Hague was elected to lead the Conservative Party the month after the election.
Labour Government, 1997–2010
Tony Blair (1997–2007)
Tony Blair became Prime Minister in 1997 after a landslide victory over the Conservative Party. Under the title of New Labour, he promised economic and social reform and brought Labour closer to the centre of the political spectrum. Early policies of the Labour government included the minimum wage and the introduction of university tuition fees. Chancellor of the Exchequer, Gordon Brown also gave the Bank of England the power to set the base rate of interest autonomously. The traditional tendency of governments to manipulate interest rates around the time of general elections for political gain is thought to have been deleterious to the UK economy and helped reinforce a cyclical pattern of boom and bust. Brown's decision was popular with the City, which the Labour Party had been courting since the early 1990s. Blair presided over the longest period of economic expansion in Britain since the 19th century and his premiership saw large investment into social aspects, in particular health and education, areas particularly under-invested during the Conservative government of the 1980s and early 1990s. The Human Rights Act was introduced in 1998 and the Freedom of Information Act came into force in 2000. Most hereditary peers were removed from the House of Lords in 1999 and the Civil Partnership Act of 2005 allowed homosexual couples the right to register their partnership with the same rights and responsibilities comparable to heterosexual marriage.
From the beginning, New Labour's record on the economy and unemployment was strong, suggesting that they could break with the trend of Labour governments overseeing an economic decline while in power. They had inherited an unemployment count of 1,700,000 from the Conservatives, and by the following year unemployment was down to 1,300,000 – a level not seen since James Callaghan was in power some 20 years previously. A minimum wage was announced in May 1998, coming into force from April 1999. Unemployment would remain similarly low for the next 10 years.
The long-running Northern Ireland peace process was brought to a conclusion in 1998 with the Belfast Agreement which established a devolved Northern Ireland Assembly and de-escalated the violence associated with the Troubles. It was signed in April 1998 by the British and Irish governments and was endorsed by all the main political parties in Northern Ireland with the exception of Ian Paisley's Democratic Unionist Party. Voters in Northern Ireland approved the agreement in a referendum in May 1998 and it came into force in December 1999. In August 1998, a car-bomb exploded in the Northern Ireland town of Omagh, killing 29 people and injuring 220. The attack was carried out by the Real Irish Republican Army who opposed the Belfast Agreement. It was reported in 2005, that the IRA had renounced violence and had ditched its entire arsenal.
In foreign policy, following the 11 September 2001 attacks in the United States, Blair greatly supported U.S. President George W. Bush's new War on terror which began with the forced withdrawal of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. Blair's case for the subsequent Iraq War was based on their alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction and consequent violation of UN resolutions. He was wary of making direct appeals for regime change, since international law does not recognise this as a ground for war. A memorandum from a July 2002 meeting that was leaked in April 2005 showed that Blair believed that the British public would support regime change in the right political context; the document, however, stated that legal grounds for such action were weak. On 24 September 2002 the Government published a dossier based on the intelligence agencies' assessments of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction. Among the items in the dossier was a recently received intelligence report that "the Iraqi military are able to deploy chemical or biological weapons within 45 minutes of an order to do so". A further briefing paper on Iraq's alleged WMDs was issued to journalists in February 2003. This document was discovered to have taken a large part of its text without attribution from a PhD thesis available on the internet. Where the thesis hypothesised about possible WMDs, the Downing Street version presented the ideas as fact. The document subsequently became known as the "Dodgy Dossier".
46,000 British troops, one-third of the total strength of the British Army (land forces), were deployed to assist with the invasion of Iraq. When after the war, no WMDs were found in Iraq, the two dossiers, together with Blair's other pre-war statements, became an issue of considerable controversy. Many Labour Party members, including a number who had supported the war, were among the critics. Successive independent inquiries (including those by the Foreign Affairs Select Committee of the House of Commons, the senior judge Lord Hutton, and the former senior civil servant Lord Butler of Brockwell) have found that Blair honestly stated what he believed to be true at the time, though Lord Butler's report did imply that the Government's presentation of the intelligence evidence had been subject to some degree of exaggeration. These findings have not prevented frequent accusations that Blair was deliberately deceitful, and, during the 2005 election campaign, Conservative leader Michael Howard made political capital out of the issue. The new threat of international terrorism ultimately led to the 7 July 2005 bomb attacks in London which killed 52 people as well as the four suicide bombers who led the attack.
The Labour government was re-elected with a second successive landslide in the general election of June 2001. Blair became the first Labour leader to lead the party to three successive election victories when they won the 2005 general election, though this time he had a drastically reduced majority.
The Conservatives had so far failed to represent a serious challenge to Labour's rule, with John Major's successor William Hague unable to make any real improvement upon the disastrous 1997 general election result at the next election four years later. He stepped down after the 2001 election to be succeeded by Iain Duncan Smith, who did not even hold the leadership long enough to contest a general election – being ousted by his own MP's in October 2003 and being replaced by Michael Howard, who had served as Home Secretary in the previous Conservative government under John Major. Howard failed to win the 2005 general election for the Conservatives but he at least had the satisfaction of narrowing the Labour majority, giving his successor (he announced his resignation shortly after the election) a decent platform to build upon. However, the Conservatives began to re-emerge as an electable prospect following the election of David Cameron as Howard's successor in December 2005. Within months of Cameron becoming Conservative leader, opinion polls during 2006 were showing a regular Conservative lead for the first time since Black Wednesday 14 years earlier. Despite the economy still being strong and unemployment remaining low, Labour's decline in support was largely blamed upon poor control of immigration and allowing Britain to become what was seen by many as an easy target for terrorists.
Devolution
Blair also came into power with a policy of devolution. A pre-legislative referendum was held in Scotland in 1997 with two questions: whether to create a devolved Parliament for Scotland and whether it should have limited tax-varying powers. Following a clear 'yes' vote on both questions in Scotland, a referendum on the proposal for creating a devolved Assembly for Wales was held two weeks later. This produced a narrow 'yes' vote. Both measures were put into effect and the Scottish Parliament and Welsh Assembly began operating in 1999. The first general election to the Scottish parliament saw the creation of a Labour-Liberal Democrat coalition with Donald Dewar as First Minister. Following the first election to the Welsh Assembly, the Labour Party formed a minority government with Alun Michael as the Welsh First Minister. In the 2007 Scottish general election, the Scottish National Party gained enough seats to form a minority government with its leader Alex Salmond as First Minister.
Devolution also returned to Northern Ireland, leaving England as the only constituent country of the United Kingdom without a devolved administration. Within England, a devolved authority for London was re-established following a 'yes' vote in a London-wide referendum.
Gordon Brown (2007–10)
Tony Blair tendered his resignation as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom to the Queen on 27 June 2007, his successor Gordon Brown assuming office the same afternoon. Brown took over as Prime Minister without having to face either a general election or a contested election for leadership of the Labour Party.
Brown's style of government differed from that of his predecessor, Tony Blair, who had been seen as presidential. Brown rescinded some of the policies which had either been introduced or were planned by Blair's administration. He remained committed to close ties with the United States and to the Iraq war, although he established an inquiry into the reasons why Britain had participated in the conflict. He proposed a "government of all the talents" which would involve co-opting leading personalities from industry and other professional walks of life into government positions. Brown also appointed Jacqui Smith as the UK's first female Home Secretary, while Brown's old position as Chancellor was taken over by Alistair Darling.
Brown was closer to American thinking, and more distant from Europe, than Blair. In major issues with foreign policy complications, He paid close attention to both the United States and the European Union, especially regarding the deregulation of the Bank of England, the Welfare to Work program, and his response to the worldwide financial crisis at the G20 summit in London in 2009. Brown decided in 1997 to follow the American model and grant operational independence to set interest rates to the Bank of England, rather than have the power remain with the Treasury. He explained the Bank's monetary policy objective "will be to deliver price stability and...to support the Government's economic policy." Brown argued for a neoliberal policy on welfare in 1997. His goal was to move people off welfare and into actual employment. He stated:
Brown's reaction to the great 2008 banking crisis was much more pro active than France or Germany, and in many ways resembled the Bush policies in Washington. Brown's goals were to provide more liquidity to the financial system, to recapitalise the banks and to guarantee bank debt. He lowered the VAT to encourage consumer spending and to keep the economy from sinking.
Brown's rise to prime minister sparked a brief surge in Labour support as the party topped most opinion polls. There was talk of a "snap" general election, which it was widely believed Labour could win, but Brown decided against calling an election.
Brown's administration introduced a number of fiscal policies to help keep the British economy afloat during the financial crisis which occurred throughout the latter part of the 2000s (decade) and early 2010, although the United Kingdom saw a dramatic increase in its national debt. Unemployment soared through 2008 as the recession set in, and Labour standings in the opinion polls plummeted as the Conservatives became ascendant.
Several major banks were nationalised after falling into financial difficulties, while large amounts of money were pumped into the economy to encourage spending. Brown was also press ganged into giving Gurkhas settlement rights in Britain by the actress and campaigner Joanna Lumley and attracted criticism for its handling of the release of Abdelbaset Al Megrahi, the only person to have been convicted over the 1988 Lockerbie bombing.
Further European integration was introduced under the Labour governments after 1997, including the Treaty of Amsterdam (1997) and the Treaty of Nice (2001). The Treaty of Lisbon (2007)introduced many further changes. Prominent changes included more qualified majority voting in the Council of Ministers, increased involvement of the European Parliament in the legislative process through extended codecision with the Council of Ministers, eliminating the pillar system established by the Maastricht Treaty of the early 1990s and the creation of a President of the European Council with a term of two and a half years and a High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy to present a united position on EU policies. The Treaty of Lisbon will also make the Union's human rights charter, the Charter of Fundamental Rights, legally binding. The Lisbon Treaty also leads to an increase in the voting weight of the UK in the Council of the European Union from 8.4% to 12.4%. In July 2008 the Labour government under Gordon Brown approved the treaty.
Initially, during the first four months of his premiership, Brown enjoyed a solid lead in the polls. His popularity amongst the public may be due to his handling of numerous serious events during his first few weeks as Prime Minister, including two attempted terrorist attacks in London and Glasgow at the end of June. However, between the end of 2007 and September 2008, his popularity had fallen significantly, with two contributing factors believed to be his perceived change of mind over plans to call a snap general election in October 2007, and his handling of the 10p tax rate cut in 2008, which led to allegations of weakness and dithering. His unpopularity led eight labour MPs to call for a leadership contest in September 2008, less than 15 months into his premiership. The threat of a leadership contest receded due to his perceived strong handling of the global financial crisis in October, but his popularity hit an all-time low, and his position became increasingly under threat after the May 2009 expenses scandal and Labour's poor results in the 2009 Local and European elections. Brown's cabinet began to rebel with several key resignations in the run up to local elections in June 2009.
In January 2010, it was revealed that Britain's economy had resumed growth after a recession which had seen a record six successive quarters of economic detraction. However, it was a narrow return to growth, and it came after the other major economies had come out of recession.
The 2010 general election resulted in a hung parliament – Britain's first for 36 years – with the Conservative Party controlling 306 Seats, the Labour Party 258 Seats and the Liberal Democrats 57 Seats. Brown remained as caretaker prime minister while the Liberal Democrats negotiated with Labour and the Conservatives to form a coalition government. He announced his intention to resign on 10 May 2010 to help broker a Labour-Liberal Democrat deal. However, this became increasingly unlikely, and on 11 May Brown announced his resignation as Prime Minister and as Leader of the Labour Party. This paved the way for the Conservatives to return to power after 13 years.
His deputy Harriet Harman became Leader of the Opposition until September 2010, when Ed Miliband was elected Leader of the Labour Party.
Conservative–Liberal Democrat Coalition Government, 2010–15
The Conservative Party won the 2010 general election but did not win enough seats to win an outright majority. David Cameron, who had led the party since 2005 became Prime Minister on 11 May 2010 after the Conservatives formed a coalition government with the Liberal Democrats. Nick Clegg, Leader of the Liberal Democrats was appointed Deputy Prime Minister and several other Liberal Democrats were given cabinet positions. Cameron promised to reduce Britain's spiralling budget deficit by cutting back on public service spending and by transferring more power to local authorities. He committed his government to Britain's continuing role in the War in Afghanistan and stated that he hopes to remove British troops from the region by 2015. An emergency budget was prepared in June 2010 by Chancellor of the Exchequer George Osborne which stated that VAT will be raised to 20% and there will be a large reduction in public spending. A key Liberal Democrat policy is that of voting reform, to which a referendum took place in May 2011 on whether or not Britain should adopt a system of Alternative Vote to elect MPs to Westminster. However, the proposal was rejected overwhelmingly, with 68% of voters in favour of retaining first-past-the-post. The Liberal Democrat turnabout on tuition policy at the universities alienated their younger supporters, and the continuing weakness of the economy, despite spending cutbacks, alienated the elders.
In March 2011, UK, along with France and USA voted for military intervention against Gaddafi's Libya leading to 2011 military intervention in Libya. On 6 August, the Death of Mark Duggan sparked the 2011 England riots.
In 2012, the Summer Olympics returned to London for the first time since 1948. The United States claimed the largest count of gold medals, with Britain running third place after China.
In 2014, Scotland voted in a referendum on the question of becoming an independent country. The No side, supported by the three major UK parties, secured a 55% to 45% majority for Scotland to remain part of the United Kingdom. Following the result on 18 September 2014, Scotland's First Minister, Alex Salmond, announced his intention to step down as First Minister and leader of the SNP. He was replaced by his deputy, Nicola Sturgeon.
Conservative Government, 2015–present
David Cameron (2015–16)
Following years of austerity, the British economy was on an upswing in 2015. In line with the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, the 2015 general election was called for 7 May 2015. The Conservatives claimed credit for the upswing, promising to keep taxes low and reduce the deficit as well as promising an In/out referendum on the UK's relationship with the European Union. The opposition Labour Party called for a higher minimum wage, and higher taxes on the rich. In Scotland, the SNP attacked the austerity programme, opposed nuclear weapons and demanded that promises of more autonomy for Scotland made during the independence referendum be delivered.
Pre-election polls had predicted a close race and a hung parliament, but the surprising result was that a majority Conservative government was elected. The Conservatives with 37% of the popular vote held a narrow majority with 331 of the 650 seats. The other main victor was the Scottish National Party which won 56 of the 59 seats in Scotland, a gain of 50. Labour suffered its worst defeat since 1987, taking only 31% of the votes and 232 seats; they lost 40 of their 41 seats in Scotland. The Liberal Democrats vote fell by 2/3 and they lost 49 of their 57 seats, as their coalition with the Conservatives had alienated the great majority of their supporters. The new UK Independence Party (UKIP), rallying voters against Europe and against immigration, did well with 13% of the vote count. It came in second in over 115 constituencies but came in first in only one. Women now comprise 29% of the MPs.
Following the election, the Leaders of the Labour Party and Liberal Democrats both resigned. They were replaced by Jeremy Corbyn and Tim Farron, respectively.
2016 European Union membership referendum
On 23 June 2016, UK voters elected to withdraw from the European Union by a thin margin with 48% in favour of remaining, 52% in favour of leaving the European Union. London, Scotland, and Northern Ireland were three regions most in favour of the Remain vote, while Wales and England's northern region were strongly pro-Leave. Although he called for the referendum, British Prime Minister David Cameron had campaigned ardently for the Remain vote. He faced significant opposition from other parties on the right who came to view British membership in the European Union as a detriment to the country's security and economic vitality. UK Independence Party leader Nigel Farage called the vote Britain's "independence day".
Brexit had a few immediate consequences. Hours after the results of the referendum, David Cameron announced that he would resign as Prime Minister, claiming that "fresh leadership" was needed. In addition, because Scottish voters were highly in favour of remaining in the EU, Scottish First Minister Nicola Sturgeon announced that the Scottish Government would begin to organize another referendum on the question of Scottish independence. On the economic side of things, the value of the British pound declined sharply after the results of the election were made clear. Stock markets in both Britain and New York were down the day after the referendum. Oil prices also fell.
Theresa May (2016–19)
A Conservative Party leadership election occurred following Cameron's announcement of his resignation. All candidates except Theresa May had either been eliminated or withdrawn from the race by 11 July 2016; as a result, May automatically became the new Leader of the Conservative Party and became Prime Minister after Cameron's official resignation on 13 July 2016. On 18 April 2017, the Prime Minister Theresa May called for an election on 8 June 2017, despite previously ruling out an early election on a multitude of occasions. The outcome of the election resulted in the second hung parliament of the 21st century: with the Conservatives being the largest party with 317 seats (which was 9 seats short of a majority). This resulted in the formation of a Conservative minority government which was supported by the Northern Irish Democratic Unionist Party. Following repeated rejections of her proposed Brexit withdrawal agreement, May announced her resignation.
Boris Johnson (2019–22)
The premiership of Boris Johnson began on 24 July 2019 when Johnson accepted Queen Elizabeth II's invitation, at her prerogative, to form an administration.
On 3 September 2019, Johnson threatened to call a general election after opposition and rebel Conservative MPs successfully voted against the government to take control of the order of business with a view to preventing a no-deal exit. The Benn Act, a bill to block a no-deal exit, passed the Commons on 4 September 2019, causing Johnson to call for a general election set for 12 December 2019. After several votes, a new election was approved for December 2019, in which the Conservative Party won an 80-seat majority, partially assisted by the Brexit Party, formed earlier in the year, agreeing to only campaign in non-Conservative seats. On 31 January 2020, Johnson took the country out of the European Union with the new Brexit deal he negotiated. He also oversaw the impact of Brexit on the Irish border, with his ministry negotiating the terms of the Northern Ireland Protocol.
Johnson then oversaw the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic in which the government imposed national lockdowns, health programs, and vaccination rollouts. The economic effects of the pandemic, Brexit, and other factors led to a cost-of-living crisis beginning in 2021 which saw the prices of many goods and services to skyrocket in the United Kingdom. The Russian invasion of Ukraine in February 2022 led Johnson to support Ukraine financially and militarily, with Johnson traveling to Kyiv to visit with Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy. Various scandals rocked the Johnson ministry throughout 2022 including Johnson personally being served a fine for Partygate, in which 10 Downing Street was revealed to host social gatherings during the nationwide lockdown orders during the pandemic. The embroilment of Chris Pincher in a sex scandal led to mass resignations in Johnson's cabinet, leading Johnson to announce his resignation in July 2022. However, Johnson served as caretaker PM for several weeks until new leader had been chosen.
Liz Truss (September – October 2022)
The premiership of Liz Truss began on 6 September 2022 following a leadership election. Queen Elizabeth II's invitation for Truss to form a government was one of her last acts as monarch before her death just two days later. This saw Charles III ascend to the throne and the funeral of the late monarch dominating Truss's first weeks in office.
Truss and Chancellor Kwasi Kwarteng unveiled a "mini-budget" on 23 September 2022 which proposed cutting various taxes against the backdrop of the ongoing cost-of-living crisis. The budget received significant backlash, with the price of the pound as well as Truss's approval rating to fall to record lows. Kwarteng resigned, with Jeremy Hunt taking over as Chancellor, who reversed all proposals of the mini-budget within days; however this did not alleviate the political pressure on Truss. She announced her resignation on 20 October 2022, making her the shortest serving Prime Minister to date. A leadership election was called to replace Truss within a week of her announcement. A head of lettuce gained international notoriety for outlasting Truss during a livestream by the Daily Star.
Rishi Sunak (2022–present)
The premiership of Rishi Sunak began on 25 October 2022 following a leadership election. Sunak is the first prime minister invited to form a government during the reign of King Charles III, as well as the first British Asian, first British Indian, first person of colour, and first Hindu prime minister. He is also Britain’s wealthiest ever prime minister as a former hedge fund manager. Sunak attended the coronation of Charles III and Queen Camilla on 6 May 2023.
Sunak continued to oversee the British government's response to the cost-of-living crisis, a rise in labour disputes, and continued fallout from Brexit.
See also
2010s in United Kingdom political history
2020s in United Kingdom political history
Post–World War II economic expansion
Footnotes
Further reading
Campbell, John and David Freeman. The Iron Lady: Margaret Thatcher, from Grocer's Daughter to Prime Minister (2011), 564pp; abridged version of Campbell's two-volume biography
Carter, Neil. "The party politicisation of the environment in Britain" Party Politics, 12#6 (2006), pp. 747–67.
Haq, Gary and Alistair Paul. Environmentalism since 1945 (2011)
Harris, Kenneth, Attlee (1982), scholarly biography
Harrison, Brian. Finding a Role?: The United Kingdom 1970–1990 (New Oxford History of England) (2011) excerpt and text search; online major scholarly survey
Leventhal, Fred M., ed. Twentieth-century Britain: an encyclopedia (Peter Lang Pub Inc, 2002); 910pp.
Marr, Andrew. Elizabethans: How Modern Britain Was Forged (2021), covers 1945 to 2020..
Morgan, Kenneth O. Britain since 1945: The People's Peace (2001).
Panton, Kenneth J. and Keith A. Cowlard, eds. Historical Dictionary of the Contemporary United Kingdom (2008) 640 pp; biographies of people active 1979–2007
Richards, David, Martin Smith, and Colin Hay, eds. Institutional Crisis in 21st Century Britain (Palgrave Macmillan, 2014)
Sampson, Anthony. The Essential Anatomy of Britain: Democracy in Crisis (1992) online free
Savage Mike. Identities and Social Change in Britain since 1940: The Politics of Method (Oxford UP, 2010)
Sims, Paul David. "The Development of Environmental Politics in Inter-War and Post-War Britain" (PhD Dissertation, Queen Mary University of London, 2016) online; Bibliography of secondary sources, PP 312–26.
Stewart, Graham. Bang! A History of Britain in the 1980s (2013) excerpt and text search
Turner, Alwyn. Rejoice, Rejoice!: Britain in the 1980s (2010)
Turner, Alwyn W. A Classless Society: Britain in the 1990s (2013).
Historiography
Brooke, Stephen. "Living in ‘New Times’: Historicizing 1980s Britain." History Compass 12#1 (2014): 20-32.
Porion, Stéphane. "Reassessing a Turbulent Decade: the Historiography of 1970s Britain in Crisis." Études anglaises 69#3 (2016): 301-320. online
Porter, Bernard. "‘Though Not an Historian Myself...' Margaret Thatcher and the Historians." Twentieth Century British History 5.2 (1994): 246–256.
Soffer, Reba. History, historians, and conservatism in Britain and America: from the Great War to Thatcher and Reagan.. (Oxford UP, 2009).
Newspapers and primary sources
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinderella%20III%3A%20A%20Twist%20in%20Time
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Cinderella III: A Twist in Time
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Cinderella III: A Twist in Time is a 2007 American animated musical fantasy film produced by DisneyToon Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment. Directed by Frank Nissen from a screenplay written by Dan Berendsen, Margaret Heidenry, Colleen Ventimilia, and Eddie Guerlain, it is the third installment in Disney's Cinderella trilogy, and a sequel to Cinderella (1950) and Cinderella II: Dreams Come True (2002). Set one year after the first film, Cinderella III: A Twist in Time follows Lady Tremaine who steals the Fairy Godmother's magic wand, using it to reverse time and prevent Cinderella from marrying the Prince. The film's voice cast consists of Jennifer Hale, C. D. Barnes, Susanne Blakeslee, Tress MacNeille, Russi Taylor, and Andre Stojka, most of whom continue to replace the 1950 film's cast by reprising their roles from Cinderella II: Dreams Come True.
Cinderella III: A Twist in Time was completed over the course of two years, from 2004 to 2006. Inspired by Anastasia's romantic subplot introduced in Cinderella II: Dreams Come True, A Twist in Time expands upon her reformation into a more sympathetic character, while the writers updated Cinderella and the Prince's personalities to be more appealing to modern audiences. Although none of Cinderella's original animators were involved in the sequel, the filmmakers referenced the 1950 film and Disney's Animation Research Library for research and inspiration. The film was one of Disney's last direct-to-video sequels before the studio shifted focus towards producing original content. A Twist in Time was also the final project produced by DisneyToon Studios Australia, with Disney dissolving various departments while the film was still in production.
Cinderella III: A Twist in Time was released direct-to-video on February 6, 2007. Unlike most of Disney's direct-to-video sequels, it received generally positive reviews from critics, who deemed it a vast improvement over its immediate predecessor, and praised the character developments of Cinderella, the Prince, and Anastasia. Cinderella III: A Twist in Time has grossed nearly $93 million in home video sales since its release.
Plot
Cinderella's Fairy Godmother, Jaq, and Gus host a picnic to celebrate Cinderella and the Prince's first wedding anniversary. Since marrying the Prince, Cinderella's stepmother Lady Tremaine has been forcing her stepsisters, Drizella and Anastasia, to perform Cinderella's old housework. Anastasia grows distracted while daydreaming about finding love and stumbles upon the picnic, discovering that the Fairy Godmother's magic helped Cinderella meet the Prince at the ball. When the Fairy Godmother drops her magic wand, Anastasia retrieves and shows it to Lady Tremaine, who is only convinced once Anastasia accidentally turns the Fairy Godmother into a statue.
Reveling at the opportunity to restore her own fortunes at Cinderella's expense, Lady Tremaine uses the wand to travel back in time to the day the Grand Duke fitted the glass slipper on Cinderella. With Cinderella still locked in her bedroom, she enlarges the slipper to fit Anastasia's foot, forcing the Grand Duke to declare her the Prince's bride. When Cinderella finally escapes, Lady Tremaine destroys her other slipper, hence eliminating any proof that she had danced with the Prince. Jaq and Gus remind Cinderella that the Prince would remember her from the previous evening, and the trio pursues Cinderella's stepfamily to the palace.
When the Prince and Anastasia finally meet, he initially insists a mistake has been made. Lady Tremaine bewitches the Prince into forgetting about Cinderella and he proposes to Anastasia, leaving Cinderella hurt and confused when the Prince fails to recognize her a few moments later. Having seen Lady Tremaine use the wand, Jaq and Gus tell Cinderella the truth. Delighted to meet Anastasia despite her unrefinement, the King gifts her a seashell that belonged to his late wife, and Anastasia begins to feel guilty about deceiving them. Meanwhile, the Prince starts to doubt his feelings for Anastasia, and can't help but feel drawn to Cinderella.
Disguised as a palace maid, Cinderella steals the wand from Lady Tremaine's bedroom, but she is seized by guards before she can reverse the spell, briefly grazing the Prince's hand while she is apprehended. The Prince begins to recognize Cinderella, who Lady Tremaine has ordered be exiled from the kingdom via ship. Jaq and Gus explain the entire ordeal to the Prince, eventually showing him Cinderella's repaired glass slipper, which finally restores his memory. Despite his father's protesting, the Prince pursues the ship and professes his love for Cinderella, who agrees to marry him.
Upon returning to the palace, the Prince and Cinderella explain Lady Tremaine's deceit to the King who orders the Tremaine family's immediate arrest, but they escape with the wand. As Cinderella prepares for her wedding, Lady Tremaine returns with Anastasia, who – despite being visibly reluctant – has been magically transformed into a Cinderella doppelgänger. Lady Tremaine traps Cinderella and the mice in an enchanted pumpkin carriage driven by their cat, Lucifer. Cinderella, Jaq, and Gus defeat Lucifer, freeing themselves before the carriage rides over a cliff.
Cinderella returns to the palace on horseback just in time to see Anastasia refuse to proceed with the wedding at the altar, deciding she would rather earn her own true love without robbing it from someone else. Enraged, Lady Tremaine transforms several guards into animals as they pursue her, before turning her attention to Cinderella and Anastasia. The Prince uses his sword to deflect a spell cast at them, turning Lady Tremaine and Drizella into toads. After returning herself to her true form, Anastasia offers to return the seashell to the King but he refuses, reminding her that everyone deserves a chance at love. Cinderella and Anastasia reconcile and together restore the Fairy Godmother. She offers to undo Lady Tremaine's change of events, but sees that Cinderella and the Prince's love has grown stronger thanks to the adventure and decides to leave them be.
During the credits, Cinderella allows Anastasia to move into the palace, where she falls in love with the Baker once again. In a mid-credits scene, Drizella and Lady Tremaine are placed in the cellar and restored to their human forms, but are both now dressed in Cinderella's old rags, much to their horror.
Cast
Cast and order of credits adapted from Variety and the British Film Institute:
Jennifer Hale as Cinderella
Tami Tappan provides Cinderella's singing voice
C. D. Barnes as the Prince
Susan Blakeslee as Lady Tremaine
Tress MacNeille as Anastasia Tremaine
Russi Taylor as Drizella Tremaine and The Fairy Godmother
Andre Stojka as the King
Holland Taylor as Prudence
Rob Paulsen as the Grand Duke and Jaq
Corey Burton as Gus
Frank Welker as Lucifer
Production
Development
Adhering to Disney's then-popular strategy of releasing direct-to-video follow-ups to some of their classic animated films, Cinderella III: A Twist in Time is Cinderella's second sequel, after 2002's Cinderella II: Dreams Come True. Despite being unfavorably reviewed by critics upon release, Dreams Come True proved to be a top-seller on home video, encouraging Disney to commission a third installment. Whereas Dreams Come True resembled an anthology film containing three self-contained episodes from a canceled Cinderella television series, A Twist in Time focuses on one contiguous storyline. A Twist in Time was directed by Frank Nissen, who had previously directed the Winnie the Pooh film Pooh's Heffalump Movie (2005). Disney approached him to direct "a Cinderella movie" just as production on Pooh's Heffalump Movie was wrapping in 2004. Nissen claims he was not intimidated by the responsibility of directing a Disney property as revered as Cinderella, instead finding the opportunity a daunting but exciting challenge he hoped to learn from. He re-watched Walt Disney's 1950 film several times to obtain story and artistic inspiration.
Some critics and Disney fans protested the announcement of another Cinderella sequel. Addressing the debate surrounding the perceived inferior quality of direct-to-video Disney sequels at the time, Nissen believes the challenge is always attempting to expand upon the original in a meaningful manner: "in the case of Cinderella, she gets the prince, so what else is there to talk about? ... how do you make an equally interesting and equally strong story, an equally satisfying story, when everybody kind of knows who the characters are and what's supposed to happen". Nissen opted to ignore the studio's negative reputation, and focus on simply making the best film he could possibly make. Nissen maintains that Disney executives allowed him much creative freedom to fulfill his vision. Despite essentially being an alternate re-telling of the Cinderella fairy tale, the director was not influenced by other revisionist fairy tales of the time. Although A Twist in Time was produced around the same time as Twice Charmed, a Cinderella-inspired stage musical hosted on the Disney Cruise Lines, Disney insists that the film is not a spin-off of the production, despite sharing songwriting team Michael Weiner and Alan Zachary. As such, A Twist in Time does not intentionally borrow elements or characters from the stage production, with Nissen explaining that any similarities between the two are merely coincidental. A Twist in Time was Disney's first direct-to-video sequel to officially contain "III" in its title, despite not being Disney's first direct-to-video sequel to be a franchise's third instalment.
The voice cast consists of a roster of established voice actors Disney typically re-hires to voice their older animated characters, re-using most of the cast from Dreams Come True for continuity. Despite understanding that these character's voices would need to be mimicked based on previous performances, Nissen concerned himself little with the voice acting, trusting "that the actors had the skill and the craft to recreate the voices". Instead, he focused on providing the actors with material that felt authentic to the original iterations of their characters.
Writing
Cinderella III: A Twist in Time was written by Dan Berendsen, Margaret Heidenry, Colleen Ventimilia, and Eddie Guzelian. Dating back to as early as 1950's Cinderella, Anastasia had always been depicted as Cinderella's marginally less unpleasant stepsister. Inspired by Anastasia's burgeoning reformation in Cinderella II: Dreams Come True, the writers expanded upon the 2002 film's subplot about Anastasia becoming a more sympathetic, complex character, opting to continue her character development over Drizella's. Anastasia's character arc was the only recurring motif borrowed from Cinderella II, although the Baker (Anastasia's love interest in Dreams Come True) makes a cameo during the end credits.
The writers believed focusing on a supporting character would in turn offer a more interesting story, as opposed to solely highlighting Cinderella. Due to Cinderella's popularity as a character, Disney wanted to tell a different story that captured the original film's spirit nonetheless. Nissen commended the writers for crafting a compelling story, which granted them freedom to "fine-tune the emotional stuff within that structure, so we didn’t have to worry about solving why something happened or the logic behind how someone was feeling" in order to focus on the more cinematic aspects of the film. He also credited producer Margot Pipkin with keeping the crew focused, resulting in few regretted cut scenes, although Nissen wishes the film could have been longer in order to accommodate new characters and concepts. A subplot revolving around Gus discovering a parallel universe inhabited by mice was storyboarded but discarded because they found it distracting from Cinderella and the Prince's relationship.
There was some discourse between Nissen and the studio over wanting to update Cinderella's themes and characters for modern audiences, without disrespecting the original film. He found adapting lead characters Cinderella and the Prince, the latter of whom plays a much larger role in A Twist in Time, particularly challenging. He felt very strongly about retaining Cinderella's original qualities despite making her a more modern heroine, believing she remains one of Disney's most beloved princesses "because of who she is" and "Her attitude toward life". To reflect changes in how society viewed heroines over the 50 years since Cinderella was released, the character deliberately becomes a more active heroine during the film's second act, deciding to take control of her situation. Meanwhile, the filmmakers essentially created their version of the Prince from scratch, about whom little was previously known due to his limited screen time in the 1950 film. Nissen explained, "We didn't want him too modern so he would appear like a nice guy from the suburbs. I still wanted that romantic kind of quality to the Prince, so it was a very delicate thing". Several writers were recruited to revise the Prince's dialogue to discover the appropriate balance of self-awareness, self-deprecating humor and sincerity. The filmmakers also based his personality on those of romantic comedy leading men, citing actor Hugh Grant as a particularly influential example of embodying many of the Prince's desired qualities. Nissen credits C. D. Barnes, who voices the Prince, with imbuing the character with "the right mix of classical hero plus modern guy". The character's late mother, who is pictured in A Twist in Time for the first time, was nicknamed "Queen Gertie" during production.
Despite some early discussions about modernizing the stepmother in the vein of the musical Wicked by providing her with her own song, Nissen insisted that Lady Tremaine, who he considers to be one of Disney's greatest villains, essentially remain the same. The film's dialogue also pokes fun at some of the 1950 film's ideas, such as the idea that no other woman in the kingdom can share Cinderella's shoe size.
Animation
Despite having some animation experience, Nissen himself did very little animating on the film, instead focusing on storyboarding and occasionally re-tooling challenging scenes. During the time travel sequences, several scenes that appear nearly identical to the original film were re-drawn for the new film. Nissen explained that the original scenes could not simply be reused in A Twist in Time due to advancements in animation technology, such as aspect ratio, frame format and digitally cel-shading, otherwise colors "would be two or three generations removed by the time we processed it". Nissen decided that animating new material instead would help the revisited scenes appear more seamless in A Twist in Time. Since much of the original film's creative team had passed away or retired by the time production began on A Twist in Time, the director referred to Disney's Animation Research Library for character inspiration and design continuity. Describing Lady Tremaine as the film's most anatomically realistic character, Nissen worked to preserve the character's non-cartoonish appearance in order to truly convey her evil, menacing nature.
The film was completed over the course of two-and-a-half years, beginning in early 2004 and ending fall 2006, which the director described as much faster than a typical animated film. By June 2007, Disney announced that, under the creative direction of Pixar's John Lasseter, DisneyToon will abandon sequels in favor of producing exclusively original DVD content. It was initially unclear as to whether the Cinderella sequel would be completed. Ultimately, A Twist in Time was one of Disney's last direct-to-video sequels, shortly followed by The Little Mermaid: Ariel's Beginning (2008). DisneyToon Studios shifted their focus to franchises and computer animation shortly thereafter, with Nissen becoming involved in the Tinker Bell film series.
A Twist in Time was DisneyToon Studios Australia's final film. The film studio was gradually closed while A Twist in Time was still in production, but Nissen and Disney Toon Studios head Sharon Morrill commended the Australian animators for remaining determined to complete the film to the best of their ability, despite it being many of their last. Various departments were shuttered and their employees subsequently laid off once they completed their tasks. Once A Twist in Time wrapped in July 2006, the studio was closed and remaining equipment was auctioned off. The film's end credits include a dedication thanking the Australian studio "for their many years of producing beautiful hand-drawn animation". The film was produced on a budget of $8 million.
Music
Michael Weiner and Alan Zachary wrote original songs for A Twist in Time. They had also written the book and music for Twice Charmed, and previously served as musical consultants on Dreams Come True. Composer Joel McNeely composed the film's orchestral score. He had previously scored several Disney sequels, including Return to Neverland (2002), The Jungle Book 2 (2003), Mulan II (2004), Pooh’s Heffalump Movie, Lilo & Stitch 2 (2005) and The Fox and the Hound 2 (2006). Cast as Cinderella's singing voice, Broadway performer Tami Tappan recorded several songs for the film. Actress Hayden Panettiere recorded the film's theme song, "I Still Believe", one of her earliest attempts to establish a music career. Panettiere's music video was heavily rotated on Disney Channel at the time and was included as a bonus feature on the film's DVD. A soundtrack released March 2, 2007 is available for digital download on Apple Music, which also features a cover by singer Laura Dickinson.
Release
Some critics speculated that Cinderella III: A Twist in Time would receive a limited theatrical release in Europe. The film was released direct-to-DVD on February 6, 2007. Available for a limited time, the film returned to the Disney Vault on January 31, 2008, alongside Cinderella and Dreams Come True. On November 20, 2012, A Twist in Time was released on Blu-ray on November 20, 2012, as a double feature with Dreams Come True.
Variety predicted that the film would earn "healthy if not quite humongous sales and rentals". Cinderella III: A Twist in Time topped the national DVD sales chart during its first week of release, selling 80% more copies than its closest competition, Flags of Our Fathers (2006). The film retained its top position and continued to outsell Flags of Our Fathers the following week by twice as much. The film had fallen to second place by the end of the month, but still sold more than twice as many copies as the third-place entry, Open Season (2006). By 2008, Cinderella III: A Twist in Time had earned more than $80 million in home video sales. The film has ultimately earned over $92 million, with The Numbers reporting that A Twist in Time has grossed $92,915,486 in-home video sales to-date.
The film was among the first several titles to premiere on Disney+ when the streaming service launched on November 12, 2019.
Critical reception
Although direct-to-video Disney sequels typically have a poor reputation among critics and fans of their original works, Cinderella III: A Twist in Time performed better than its contemporaries upon release. It received mostly positive reviews from critics, who praised its cleverness and acknowledged its improvement over its immediate predecessor. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported a 75% approval rating based on eight reviews, with an average rating of 6.03/10, significantly higher than Cinderella II: Dreams Come True's 11% rating.
Writing for AllMovie, Jason Buchanan said A Twist in Time is "a compelling twist on the familiar fairy tale" and "an enchanting animated sequel filled with show-stopping musical numbers, nail-biting suspense, and magical wonders for the entire family". BBC Online reviewed the film as "a classic story re-told in a refreshing funny way". Joe Strike of Animation World Network called A Twist in Time "an excellent film, in some ways better than the original -- richer emotionally and with characters who transcend their caricatured origins to display depth and personality". Writing for Variety, film critic and historian Joe Leydon described the film as a "Lightly amusing animated vidpic" that "should satisfy its obvious target audience of easily distracted moppets, doting and/or indulgent parents and grandparents, and tweeners who still dream of becoming princesses". Common Sense Media contributor Nancy Davis Kho called A Twist in Time a "funny, likable twist on the original Cinderella", while Female.com.au predicted fans of the heroine will "thoroughly enjoy this new chapter in her life". John Lasser of Blogcritics reviewed the film as "a more than acceptable addition to the [Cinderella] franchise" but criticized its songs. Channel Awesome's Doug Walker described A Twist in Time as one of Disney's "strangest" and "most entertaining" direct-to-video releases, while Ed Perkis of CinemaBlend found the film more imaginative than most of Disney's direct-to-video offerings. Cinderella, the Prince, and Anastasia's personalities and arcs were widely praised by various critics. While praising Nissen's direction, DVD Talk's Brian Orndorf lauded MacNeille's performance as Anastasia, writing that the actress "gives a rich, sweet reading of Anastasia that the film eventually comes to rely on in an unexpected way".
Rory L. Aronsky of Film Threat admitted that "At the very least, [A Twist in Time] was treated with a level of dignity and poise" they believe had not been offered to the Little Mermaid (1989), Aladdin (1992), and Pocahontas (1995) sequels. Despite criticizing its character designs, action sequences, and script, David Cornelius of DVD Talk praised the animation quality and found the film a vast improvement over Dreams Come True. Andrew Scharf of CHUD.com described the film as a decent but unnecessary sequel, criticizing Disney for continuing to "taint the goodwill of the mostly classic original films". Scharf also found the film's self-aware humor "out of place", comparing it negatively to Shrek 2 (2004). In a negative review, C. S. Strowbridge of The Numbers dismissed A Twist in Time as predictable and cliched, while criticizing its animation as "terribly flat". Faulting the film for adhering to the Disney sequel formula too closely, Amazon contributor Jon Foster said A Twist in Time "can't hold a torch to the original", despite being superior to Dreams Come True.
Legacy
Over time, Cinderella III: A Twist in Time has developed a reputation as one of Disney's best direct-to-video sequels. Following Disney's decision to stop producing direct-to-video sequels in 2007, Slate's Dan Kois used A Twist in Time to defend the practice, describing the film as a worthy successor to the original. Polygon ranked A Twist in Time Disney's second-best direct-to-video sequel, while Insider ranked it fourth. Declaring the film "one of the best direct-to-video sequels Disney made", Ross Bonaime of Collider believes A Twist in Time pushed boundaries like no Disney sequel had done prior. In 2022, Bonaime wrote that A Twist in Time represents "a bygone era of Disney, an era where these worlds were open sandboxes that could be explored and tinkered around with. No, it rarely worked to the longterm benefit of the brand, but it was unique and wild in a way Disney rarely is anymore". Bonaime also said A Twist in Time pre-dated Disney's era of releasing live-action remakes that re-examine and deconstruct their classic films, identifying it as a precursor to Maleficent (2014), Cinderella (2015), and Cruella (2021).
Anthony Gramuglia of Comic Book Resources cited the film as a standout example of Disney's direct-to-video sequels taking a satirical approach to revisiting their original films: "These irreverent movies have fun with the potential offered by a direct-to-video sequel and tell entertaining, fun stories -- assuming, of course, you're up for ridiculous takes on classic Disney films". Kevin Wong of GameSpot named A Twist in Time one of Disney's seven weirdest sequels. In recent years, some media publications have compared A Twist in Time's time travel storyline to the superhero film Avengers: Endgame (2019).
Notes
References
External links
Cinderella 3 DVD Official Disney Website
2007 films
2007 animated films
2007 direct-to-video films
2000s American animated films
2000s musical films
American children's animated fantasy films
American children's animated musical films
American sequel films
Cinderella (franchise)
Direct-to-video sequel films
DisneyToon Studios animated films
Disney direct-to-video animated films
Films about fairies and sprites
Films scored by Joel McNeely
Animated films about time travel
Films with screenplays by Evan Spiliotopoulos
Australian animated feature films
Animated films set in country houses
Animated films set in palaces
American fantasy films
American children's fantasy films
American romance films
American animated fantasy films
American animated musical films
Animated films based on Cinderella
Fairy tale parody films
2000s English-language films
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20Deer%20Creek
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White Deer Creek
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White Deer Creek is a tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River in Centre County and Union County, in Pennsylvania, in the United States. It is approximately long and flows through Miles Township in Centre County and Hartley Township, Lewis Township, West Buffalo Township, and White Deer Township in Union County. The watershed of the creek has an area of . Parts of the creek are designated as impaired. The creek's discharge near White Deer can be as low as or as high as .
White Deer Creek is a freestone stream in mountainous terrain. It is relatively small and flows through a valley that is narrow, but can be up to wide. The creek flows alongside Interstate 80 for much of its length. A significant part of the land in the creek's watershed is forested, with large areas being owned by the Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry.
The watershed of the creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. It has both brook trout and brown trout and is stocked with trout.
White Deer Creek's name comes from the word Woap'-achtu-hanne, meaning "white-deer stream". The creek appeared on maps as early as 1759. A number of mills were erected adjacent to it during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Major historic industries in the watershed included lumbering and agriculture. A number of bridges have been erected across the creek. Much of the length of White Deer Creek is in Bald Eagle State Forest; the creek also passes through McCalls Dam State Park. Other recreational opportunities include angling and canoeing.
Course
White Deer Creek begins in a valley to the north of Hall Mountain in Miles Township, Centre County, near the Centre County/Clinton County line. It flows east through its relatively deep, narrow valley for more than a mile before receiving its first named tributary, Tunis Run, from the right. The creek then meanders east-northeast through its valley for several miles, passing near several mountains, such as McCall Mountain, along the way. It eventually exits Miles Township and Centre County.
Upon exiting Centre County, White Deer Creek enters Hartley Township, Union County. It continues meandering east-northeast for several tenths of a mile before entering Lewis Township. In this township, the creek continues meandering east-northeast for a few miles, passing more mountains before entering West Buffalo Township. In this township, it flows east-northeast for more than a mile before turning northeast for several tenths of a mile and receiving the tributary Cowbell Hollow from the left. Shortly afterwards, the creek turns northwest for a few tenths of a mile before turning north-northeast and receiving its longest tributary, Sand Spring Run, from the left and passing Pine Flat. The creek then begins flowing east-northeast again, now fairly close to Interstate 80, and receives the tributary Mile Run from the left and passing Little Mountain. Several tenths of a mile further downstream, it enters White Deer Township. The creek heads east for several tenths of a mile before receiving Lick Run, its last named tributary, from the left.
White Deer Creek then turns northeast for several tenths of a mile before turning east. For the next several miles, the creek heads in a generally easterly direction between South White Deer Ridge and Catharines Crown/Nittany Mountain, still alongside Interstate 80. The creek's valley broadens and in leaves behind Catharines Crown; by this point there are no more mountains on its southern side. It turns northeast and then east-southeast before turning east-northeast and crossing Interstate 80. The creek then flows east for a few miles, still following South White Deer Ridge. It then crosses US Route 15 and a few tenths of a mile later, reaches its confluence with the West Branch Susquehanna River.
White Deer Creek joins the West Branch Susquehanna River upstream of its mouth.
Tributaries
White Deer Creek has five named tributaries: Lick Run, Mile Run, Sand Spring Run, Cowbell Hollow, and Tunis Run. Lick Run joins White Deer Creek upstream of its mouth and drains an area of . Mile Run joins White Deer Creek upstream of its mouth and drains an area of . Sand Spring Run joins the creek upstream of its mouth and drains an area of . Cowbell Hollow joins the creek upstream of its mouth and its watershed has an area of , making it the smallest named tributary by that measure. Tunis Run joins White Deer Creek upstream of its mouth and drains an area of .
Hydrology
Some reaches of White Deer Creek are not designated as impaired waterbodies. However, several miles in the creek's watershed are impaired. In one reach, the creek is impaired by habitat alterations due to hydromodification; in the other impaired reach, it is impaired by mercury in the water column from an unknown source.
In several dozen measurements in the 1970s and 2010s, the discharge of White Deer Creek ranged from . Between water years 1969 and 1973, the average annual discharge ranged from in water year 1969 to in water year 1972, with an average of .
In 1975 and 1976, the turbidity of White Deer Creek near White Deer ranged from 1 to 2 Jackson Turbidity Units. The creek carries high levels of sediment. In the 1970s and 2010s, the creek's specific conductance ranged from 32 to 400 micro-siemens per centimeter at . The pH of the creek ranged from 6.7 to 8.7 and the water hardness concentration ranged from less than to . The dissolved oxygen concentration ranged from .
In the 1970s and 2010s, the carbon dioxide concentration of White Deer Creek near White Deer ranged from . The organic carbon concentration ranged between . The nitrogen concentration ranged from less than to . The phosphorus concentration ranged from less than to . The sulfate concentration ranged from in the creek's filtered water, while the concentration of chloride ranged from . In the 2010s, the arsenic concentration was less than all times it was measured, while the boron concentration was less than and the selenium concentration was less than . The ammonia concentration ranged from less than to .
In the 2010s, the concentrations of recoverable sodium in White Deer Creek near White Deer ranged from , while the potassium concentration was less than all times it was measured. The magnesium and calcium concentrations ranged from and . The concentration of recoverable strontium ranged from and measurable barium concentrations were observed. The concentration of recoverable manganese ranged from less than to all the times the concentration was quantified, while the recoverable iron concentration ranged from less than to . The concentrations of recoverable nickel, copper, and cadmium were less than most or all of the times they were measured. The concentration of recoverable zinc ranged from less than to , not counting several times when its presence was observed, but not quantified. The concentration of recoverable aluminum ranged from less than to , not counting several times when its presence was observed, but not quantified.
Geography, geology, and climate
The elevation near the mouth of White Deer Creek is above sea level. The elevation of the creek's source is above sea level. White Deer Creek is relatively small, with a width of about . The gradient of the creek upstream of the water supply dam on it ranges from , with an average of .
The valleys in the watershed of White Deer Creek are generally narrow. At some points, the valley walls rise steeply almost immediately from the creek's streambanks, which made the construction of roads through those areas difficult. However, in other areas, the valley is approximately wide.
White Deer Creek is a freestone stream. There are numerous strainers on White Deer Creek, to the point where the creek was described as "one of the most tree-infested and strainer-struck streams in the state". The creek's channel is also braided in some reaches. The creek flows through a very narrow valley and, in its upper reaches, is small for a canoeing stream. The community of White Deer experiences significant flooding problems because it is on the creek's floodplain, and because of the creek's narrow valley. The topography of the watershed is mountainous, with the creek's narrow valley being surrounded by steep ridges. The watershed was described as rugged, with sharp topographical features, in a 1938 report. The watershed is not affected by glaciation, as it is approximately south of the glacial moraine.
Although there are several camps along White Deer Creek, the area in its vicinity is not heavily developed until the creek's final few miles. There are a number of long, rocky rapids on the creek near Nittany Mountain, and the whitewater on the creek only ends in its lowermost reaches. A dam for water supply is located on White Deer Creek a few miles upstream of Interstate 80. The creek experiences erosion and instability at its mouth.
The channel of White Deer Creek is sinuous and flows through rock formations consisting of sandstone. The creek has a rocky streambed and high banks. The floodplain of the creek is one of the more prominent floodplains in Union County. There are numerous riffles on the creek where it flows past boulders.
In the lowlands of the White Deer Creek watershed, coarse-grained soils are predominant; sand, silt, gravel, and boulders are common. Clay occurs in a few areas near old dams. The sides of the valley are covered by sandstone and dolomite outcrops, and dolomite boulders, while the ridgetops are composed of weather-resistant sandstone.
The average annual rate of precipitation in the watershed of White Deer Creek is . In several dozen measurements in the 1970s and 2010s, the water temperature of the creek near White Deer ranged from . The creek maintains cool temperatures even when other freestone streams become to warm or shallow to fish in. However, it does tend to become relatively shallow in the springtime. The creek remains clear except after major storms.
Watershed
The watershed of White Deer Creek has an area of . The mouth of the creek is in the United States Geological Survey quadrangle of Milton. However, its source is in the quadrangle of Loganton. The creek also passes through the quadrangles of Williamsport SE and Carroll. It generally flows in an easterly direction. Its mouth is located within of White Deer. The watershed is mostly situated in eastern Centre County and northern Union County. The creek is one of the major streams in Union County. The area of the watershed upstream of the water supply dam has an area of .
White Deer Creek flows alongside Interstate 80 in northern Union County for a substantial portion of its length, although the highway can rarely be seen or heard from the creek in most reaches. At the United States Geological Survey stream gage on White Deer Creek near White Deer, the creek drains an area of .
The White Deer District of the Pennsylvania-American Water Company, which serves 41,000 people in 15 municipalities in Northumberland County and Union County, uses a small dam on White Deer Creek as one of its main water supplies. Upstream of this dam, more than 99 percent of the watershed of the creek is forested. The Pennsylvania Bureau of Forestry owns the vast majority of the land in the creek's watershed upstream of the dam. However, the Pennsylvania Bureau of State Parks owns two small tracts and the Pennsylvania-American Water Company owns the area around the dam. The remainder of the land in this part of the watershed is owned by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation. However, there is land devoted to agriculture in the area between White Deer Creek, Interstate 80, and US Route 15.
An overhead power line, a compressed natural gas pipeline, on-lot wastewater systems, and unpaved roads are present in the watershed of White Deer Creek. These are considered by the Pennsylvania-American Water Company to be potential sources of contamination to its water supply on the creek. As of 1993, there is a 100-foot (30-meter) selective logging zone on both sides of the creek in state forest lands.
History
White Deer Creek was entered into the Geographic Names Information System on August 2, 1979. Its identifier in the Geographic Names Information System is 1191267. The creek is also known as Whitedeer Creek or South Branch White Deer Creek. These variant names appear in David B. Stevenson's 1969 master's thesis Place Names of Centre County Pennsylvania: A Geographical Analysis.
White Deer Creek's name comes from the Delaware word Woap'-achtu-hanne, meaning "white-deer
stream". White Deer Creek appears on Scull's map in 1759 as Opaghtanoten and White Flint Creek.
The widow Catharine Smith began building a sawmill and a gristmill on White Deer Creek in 1774 and completed the construction in 1775. Smith established a boring mill at the mouth of White Deer Creek in the summer of 1776. The mill was used to make gun barrels for the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War. An early settlement near the creek was destroyed by the British in 1777.
A state road running between Bellefonte and the mouth of White Deer Creek was constructed in 1824. Numerous mills had been constructed on the creek by the 1830s. These included Daniel Caldwell's stone gristmill, fulling mill, sawmill, carding machine, and distillery. In 1845, G.W. Green, Joseph Green, and David Howard established a pig iron furnace whose blast was powered by a race on the creek. John McCall, a native of Scotland, established a camp in the upper reaches of the watershed by 1860 and used splash dams to float the logs downstream to his mill. Ario Pardee later established a system to float them all the way to the mouth of White Deer Creek, where they were ferried to Watsontown for milling.
Near the turn of the 20th century, the Kulp Lumber Mill processed millions of board feet of timber taken from White Deer Creek and Spruce Run via a narrow gauge railway system. In the early 1900s, the main industry in the watershed of White Deer Creek was agriculture. Major communities in the watershed during this time period included Whitedeer, which had a population of 136. The White Deer and Loganton Railroad also followed the creek throughout its length. It was incorporated by the White Deer Lumber Company on April 26, 1906 and ran as far as Loganton, a distance of . The tracks were removed in 1916. The Lewisburg and Tyrone Railroad also had spurs reaching into the upper reaches of the creek's watershed. White Deer Creek was used as a water supply by the White Deer Mountain Water Company during this time period, as well.
A steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying T-514 over White Deer Creek was built north of White Deer in 1915 and repaired in 1992. This bridge is long and it is possible for it to be listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A two-span prestressed box beam or girders bridge carrying State Route 1003 over the creek was built in 1958 and repaired in 2011. This bridge is long and is west of White Deer. A three-span prestressed stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge carrying US Route 15 over the creek was built in 1963 in White Deer and repaired in 2010; this bridge is long. A prestresed box beam or girders bridge carrying State Route 1011 over the creek in White Deer was built in 1963 and is long. Two bridges carrying Interstate 80 over the creek were built west of White Deer in 1970; both were three-span prestressed stringer/multi-beam or girder bridges with lengths of . One was repaired in 1994 and the other in 1999. A two-span steel stringer/multi-beam or girder bridge was built across the creek northeast of White Deer in 1974 and is long.
The White Deer Creek Restoration Committee, which was established to study instability problems for White Deer Creek and potential solutions, received a $5275 Growing Greener grant in 2000.
Biology
The drainage basin of White Deer Creek is designated as a High-Quality Coldwater Fishery and a Migratory Fishery. Wild trout naturally reproduce in the creek from its headwaters downstream to the White Deer Dam, a distance of . A total of of the creek (from the Union County line to Cooper Mill Road) have also been stocked with brook trout and brown trout. Stocking of the stream was done as early as the 1930s. Both native brook trout and brown trout inhabit the creek.
At least one rare species has been observed in the vicinity of White Deer Creek. In the early 1900s, the land phase of the red-spotted newt was sometimes observed at the White Deer Dam. Beavers have historically inhabited the creek's watershed in large numbers, causing pollution problems. Other mammal species that have existed in the watershed include deer, bears, wildcats, and porcupines, while birds included whippoorwills and wild turkeys. Rattlesnakes and copperheads were also observed in the watershed in the 1930s.
Forests and dense areas of mountain laurel occupy most of the valley of White Deer Creek in some reaches. The stream's forested valley consists mainly of hemlock trees and mixed oak forest. The Union County Natural Areas Inventory recommended maintaining a forested riparian buffer around the creek.
The original virgin timber in the watershed of White Deer Creek was cut down in the 1890s. By the late 1930s, second-growth trees including hardwoods, hemlocks, pines, and aspens, grew in the watershed, some of them up to in diameter. However, occasional old-growth pines or oaks remained. As a 1938 report noted, rhododendrons and mountain laurel thickets also grew extremely densely in the watershed, through the vegetation became less dense at higher elevations, with only scrub oak forests on the ridgetops.
Recreation
The watershed of White Deer Creek has been a significant recreational area since at least the 1930s, by which time improved roads granted access to the watershed. This allowed wealthier residents of Lewisburg, Milton, Sunbury, Watsontown, and Williamsport to construct weekend/vacation cabins in the watershed. Hunting and fishing clubs were also active in the area by this time period.
At least of White Deer Creek is navigable by canoe during rapid spring snowmelt or within five days of heavy rain. The difficulty of the creek ranges from 1 to 3- and the scenery is described as "good" in Edward Gertler's book Keystone Canoeing.
Much of the length of White Deer Creek is in state forest lands. McCalls Dam State Park, which has an area of , is also in the vicinity of the creek. The state park is surrounded by Bald Eagle State Forest, which the creek flows through from its headwaters downstream to its lower reaches.
The scenery in the vicinity of White Deer Creek has been described as "thick and beautiful". The creek is a viable destination for angling, although angling is difficult. However, it is not nationally known, possibly due to its small size and the fact that the Delayed Harvest Fly-Fishing Only reach is in remote a location. It is classified as Approved Trout Waters by the Pennsylvania Fish and Boat Commission from Cooper Mill Road downstream to the creek's mouth. As of 2004, there is a long section that is Delayed Harvest Fly-Fishing Only. The creek has been described as "an excellent dry fly stream".
Mid Penn Trailblazers' marathon Dam Full crosses the headwaters of White Deer Creek at between . The Mid State Trail also crosses the creek.
See also
Warrior Run (West Branch Susquehanna River), next tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River going downstream
Spring Run (West Branch Susquehanna River), next tributary of the West Branch Susquehanna River going upstream
List of rivers of Pennsylvania
References
Rivers of Pennsylvania
Tributaries of the West Branch Susquehanna River
Rivers of Centre County, Pennsylvania
Rivers of Union County, Pennsylvania
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5152585
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Wild%20Cards%20characters
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List of Wild Cards characters
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This is a list of characters from the Wild Cards book series.
Astronomer
The Astronomer first appeared in the short story "Pennies from Hell" by Lewis Shiner in Wild Cards II: Aces High, though his presence was implied in "The Long, Dark Night of Fortunato" in the first volume of the series.
He is the leader of a cult, known as the Egyptian Freemasons, that consists mainly of superhuman Aces and deformed Jokers. The Astronomer planned to conquer the world in the aftermath of an invasion by fungoid aliens called the Swarm. Unknown to him, the Shakti device of the Egyptian Freemasons lacked a power source and was designed to contact an alien organization, the Network. Once his plans were foiled, the Astronomer lived only for revenge.
The Astronomer is an old man (born in 1925), who has thinning white hair, wears glasses and is best described as "mole-like"; he is also noted as having a disproportionately large head, the upper part of which enlarges further when he is fully empowered. He has wiped his own memory of all events prior to becoming the Astronomer.
The Astronomer usually uses a wheelchair, although the proper use of his Ace powers can allow him to walk. The Astronomer practices a horrific form of death magic, gaining immense energy through the ritualistic slaying of his victims (usually young women). He greatly enjoys having Demise slowly kill the victims, taking their suffering in anticipation of death as his energy source.
Once the ritual is completed, the Astronomer is blessed with a huge energy reserve that allows him to utilize the following powers: astral projection, clairsentience, minor precognition, the ability to selectively erase memories, flight, invisibility from visual and mental senses, ego attacks, hand killing attacks, walking through walls, suppression of any single wildcard power directed against him, force fields, minor force walls, telepathy, and an assortment of energy blasts. However, he can not use all powers simultaneously. His powers resemble and possibly exceed those of Fortunato, making him one of the most powerful aces.
The Astronomer has lost his followers in attacks on the Egyptian Freemasons by Fortunato and several other Aces, while managing to escape and partially reform the cult. His activities culminate on the Wild Card Day 1986, the 40th anniversary of the virus' release. While his associates pursue the Turtle and Tachyon, the Astronomer picks several girls up for recharge. One of them is the niece of Sewer Jack, Cordelia Chaisson. As she "turns her ace" (the ability to shut down a person's cardiac and respiratory systems) and Demise shifts his loyalty by interrupting the recharge, the Astronomer can block Demise's killing stare, but is left almost powerless and virtually dead by Cordelia.
After later recharge and the aerial battle with Fortunato, which leaves both Aces almost powerless, the Astronomer drops into the Hudson River and escapes to the shore for his final encounter with his former associates Roulette and Demise.
He uses his last bit of power to escape through a wall, where he is killed by Demise and left embedded inside the wall.
Although his crimes are publicly announced, a large part of the population ignores those announcements and considers the old man in the wall just a random victim of the killing spree of that day. The events of the day, including a public killing, death of a superhero Ace, and the battle over the Hudson, strengthen the prejudices against the Wild Cards and lead to the events of July 1988.
Black Eagle
Black Eagle (Earl Sanderson Jr.) is a member of the Four Aces. He was created by Walter Jon Williams, and first appeared in the story "Witness" in the first book of the series, Wild Cards.
Earl Sanderson Jr. was a member of the 332nd Fighter Group (the Tuskegee Airmen) during World War II. He was also a member of the American Communist Party, hoping to create a more equitable society for Black and White alike. During the first outbreak of the Wild Card virus on September 15, 1946, Earl was one of the lucky few who was neither killed nor deformed by the disease, instead gaining fantastic powers to become an Ace. He joined the Four Aces, and helped capture Nazi war criminals and topple tyrants; he even saved Gandhi from a fanatic's bullet, but back at home the political climate of America was changing. The Four Aces found themselves called before the dreaded HUAC (the House Un-American Activities Committee) where the former Communist Sanderson was torn to shreds on the stand by racist Congressmen. After the trial he escaped prison and fled the country.
He remained outside America for the rest of his life, despite receiving a pardon from President John F. Kennedy. He died in France in 1979 of a cerebral hemorrhage.
Aces Abroad notes that even after his death, Sanderson is revered in India for saving Gandhi's life, and a statue of him in an almost deific pose stands in a Calcutta shrine.
Black Eagle had the ability to telekinetically levitate himself and fly at speeds of up to 500 miles per hour. He also generated an invisible telekinetic force shield, which could resist machine-gun fire, and which he used as a battering ram while flying. He was also a talented airplane pilot.
Black Shadow
Shad is a vigilante created by Walter Jon Williams. Better known as Black Shadow, he first appeared in the short story "Strings" in the first Wild Cards anthology, and played a pivotal role in several of the later books of the series.
Black Shadow is an Ace, a victim of the alien Wild Card virus who has manifested superhuman powers, without physical deformities. He can absorb photons the visible range of light and heat, leaving only a sphere of blackness visible, and can incapacitate his foes with hypothermia. Shadow can use the absorbed energy to boost his strength and speed to superhuman levels, and can "see" in the dark because his vision extends into the infrared zone of the spectrum. He can also absorb other frequencies of the spectrum such as radar microwaves, but this requires a greater effort. Since most of his body's energy comes from electromagnetic spectrum absorption, he needs very little food. He can also cling to walls and ceilings, like the comic-book hero Spider-Man. Combining these powers with his ruthless attitude and criminal skills makes him one of the most effective Aces in the Wild Cards series.
Shad is the internal name of an ace who adopts multiple identities. Born Neil Langford, Shad was a mild mannered graduate student on his way to a physics PhD. Unknown to the general public, he was also an ace with a variety of powers Puppetman caused Langford to become consumed with rage and he murdered two criminals, stringing them up from a lamp post. After this Langford dropped out of school and began pursuing a career as the super powered vigilante Black Shadow. However, he also adopted various other identities, some once and others on a more regular basis. Somewhere along the line he began to think of himself as "Shad". In the late 80s Shad was responsible for capturing Typhoid Croyd/The Sleeper and Snotman. In the early 90s Shad interacted with the Jokers on the Rox and was eventually imprisoned on Governors Island by the Card Sharks conspiracy. After escaping with several Aces he and fellow Ace Croyd Crenson sought revenge. Shad and Croyd were able to destroy the Card Sharks conspiracy, murdering the Jumpers, as well as several of the Card Sharks members and allies including Howard Hughes, and orchestrated the imprisonment of others. Shad also tortured to death Gregg Hartmann who was Puppetman. In fact it was merely Hartmanns body into which Card Sharks agent George Gordon Battle had been jumped. When last seen Shad was contemplating travelling to Central Asia in order to kill the last remaining Card Sharks.
The most notable feature of Shad's character is his multiple personas. Some of these are adopted on the spur of the moment and quickly abandoned. Others involve a long-term commitment from Shad. By the time he appears in the books he apparently no longer maintains an identity as Neil Langford. His identities include:
Black Shadow, a violent vigilante known for stringing criminals up from lamp posts.
Mr. Diamond, a wealthy diamond merchant who owns several properties. Diamond is a Nat (non-Wild Card) and seems to exist mostly to allow Shad to launder money and maintain property free from police interference.
Wall Walker, a Jamaican Ace who can walk up walls but possesses none of Shads other powers.
Mr. Gravemold, a Joker who can project cold. Shad masquerades as a joker by wearing a mask which supposedly covers a facial deformity and smothers himself in formaldehyde in order to produce a pungent smell. As he explains to Croyd, he is able to tolerate the smell because he snorts small amounts of cocaine before adopting the Gravemold persona.
No Dice, a drug dealing "gangsta" that employed Shad's ability to absorb heat and induce hypothermia to eliminate his competition and terrorize local pimps. Something of a vigilante in his own right and more of a cover identity than a true personality. No Dice emerged as Shad's personalities were beginning to fuse together once more.
Blaise Jeannot Andrieux
Blaise Andrieux is the grandson of Dr. Tachyon, created by Melinda M. Snodgrass. Blaise's mother was Gisele Bacourt, who was Tachyon's illegitimate daughter. He was raised by a terrorist group who taught him to use his mental powers to dominate and to kill. When Tachyon discovered Blaise's existence during the WHO-sponsored tour of 1987, he brought the boy back to New York to live with him. Unfortunately, Tachyon is a terrible father, and tends to spoil Blaise terribly or rage at him for acting improperly. Blaise rapidly grows up to be an arrogant and cruel bully who enjoys using his mind control powers to make people around him act like total fools. Eventually, Blaise goes "wild", running free on the streets of New York and brutally turning on his grandfather. He eventually becomes a complete sociopath who revels in the suffering of others, especially his grandfather. In later books, Blaise becomes the de facto leader of the Jumpers, acquiring their power in addition to his own, and returns to Takis in a bid to conquer the planet.
Bloat
Bloat is an adolescent boy transformed by the Wild Card virus into a powerful psychic with a monstrous Joker body. He was created by Stephen Leigh. Introduced in One-Eyed Jacks as Governor of the Roxm he comes to prominence and full awareness of his vast powers in Jokertown Shuffle. He is ostensibly the primary antagonist of that book, although his character is depicted as being well-intentioned and idealistic, but who is surrounded by less positive allies, and has few options. When last seen, it appears he manages to take the Rox into a safe parallel universe, avoiding the death of many of his followers.
Captain Trips
Captain Trips, also known as Dr. Mark Meadows, is a renowned biochemist and a burned-out hippie, with the ability to use various drugs (usually derivations of psychoactive drugs such as LSD) to transform into several other forms, each with their own powers and individual personalities. He was created by Victor Milán. Trips himself and several of his alternate forms would be considered Aces in the lexicon of the Wild Cards universe, though a few of his "friends" (as he terms them) could be classified as Jokers. It is theorized that, since all Meadow's "friends" and their powers are ultimately derived from Meadows himself, he is essentially the ultimate manifestation of the Wild Card virus.
Brain Trust
Brain Trust (Blythe Stanhope Van Renssaeler) was a member of the Four Aces, appearing in the stories "Degradation Rites" by Melinda M. Snodgrass (who created the character) and "Witness" by Walter Jon Williams.
Blythe was the wife of domineering New York Congressman Henry Van Renssaeler. When the Wild Card virus infected her, she gained the power to absorb an exact duplicate of another's mind, to know everything they knew. The first time she used this power was when she involuntarily absorbed her husband's mind. Suddenly she knew it all; his dirty politics and criminal activities, his affairs, and what he really thought about his wife.
Overwhelmed to the point of withdrawal, she was found and brought to Dr. Tachyon, in the hope that he could help her. He used his telepathy to help stabilize her mind, and the two soon began an affair. She was afraid to go back to Henry, and instead joined the organization that would become known as the Four Aces. Unlike Golden Boy and Black Eagle, Blythe, codenamed "Brain Trust", was a behind-the-scenes member at first. She was sent around the country to copy the minds of some of the world's greatest scientists, such as Albert Einstein, Jonas Salk, J. Robert Oppenheimer, and Wernher von Braun, so that there would be "back-up" copies of their knowledge. This made it even more difficult for her to maintain her mental balance; so, Tachyon began tutoring her in Takisian methods of mental control, when he was not romancing her.
The climate of the United States was growing harsher, and the Four Aces were called before the HUAC committee, who demanded to know the names of any Aces they had dealt with. When Golden Boy let slip that Brain Trust had also absorbed a copy of Tachyon's memories, which meant she knew all the Wild Carders Tachyon had treated, the Committee eagerly called her to the stand and began to browbeat and interrogate her. The fragile union of minds inside her made it difficult to resist, and she began to break down and name names. Tachyon, aghast, tried to telepathically force her silence, but only succeeded in shattering her remaining mental defenses, causing her to suffer a complete mental breakdown. Tachyon was deported, and Blythe was placed in a mental institution, where she eventually died of neglect.
After his pardon and return to America in the 1960s, Tachyon founded the Blythe van Renssaeler Memorial Hospital in the heart of New York's Jokertown, in honor of Brain Trust. More commonly known as the Jokertown Clinic, it has treated (if not necessarily cured) thousands of victims of the Wild Card virus. Fleur van Renssaeler, Blythe's daughter by her estranged husband, grew up to hate both the Wild Card virus and its creator, Dr. Tachyon. A supporter of anti-Wild-Card preacher Leo Barnett's bid for the presidency, Fleur once tried to seduce Tachyon in order to get information from him. During the brief encounter, Tachyon imagined himself with Blythe, while Fleur overcame her hatred of Tachyon by fantasizing about Leo Barnett. Blythe's granddaughter Dr. Clara van Renssaeler now works at the clinic.
Carnifex
Carnifex (William "Billy" Ray) was created by John J. Miller.
Carnifex (Latin for "butcher") is Billy Ray's nickname, which was given to him for his love of violence. Infection with the Wild Card virus has given him superhuman strength, speed, and stamina, along with a rapid regenerative healing factor and a heightened instinct for physical combat. His strength makes his fists like 10-pound sledge hammers, and his speed gives him a marked advantage over average opponents. In Wild Card terminology, this makes him an Ace.
Billy Ray was a college football star in the late 1970s, playing for the Michigan Wolverines. He was able to hide his Wild Card infection until he broke his leg in three places in the first quarter of the Rose Bowl (on national TV) and tried to return to the game before halftime.
He was recruited by the U.S. Justice Department, and has worked for them ever since, performing various missions such as protecting government officials and hunting down other Aces. He is highly aggressive and confrontational, and will fight at the slightest provocation. Despite his demeanor, he is obsessed with cleanliness, prefers his office absolutely neat, and hates getting bloodstains on his signature fighting suit, a form-fitting white jumpsuit with a black hood. He has several, as they generally get covered in blood, his and his opponents.
As he has gotten older, his ability to regenerate has slowed, and he takes longer to heal between battles. Secretly he fears that someday he will stop healing altogether. His powers of regeneration were put to the ultimate test when he fought the Vibrating Joker/Ace Mackie Messer (aka Mack the Knife, real name: Detlev Mackintosh). He was shredded and torn in this battle, losing most of his jaw and several fingers, and took several months to fully heal. His regeneration is not perfect, as his body and face are a mass of scar tissue and obvious war wounds, and his features are slightly irregular from having his facial bones broken and reset so many times.
Chrysalis
Chrysalis was created by John J. Miller.
Chrysalis is the current owner/operator of the Crystal Palace, one of Jokertown's most well known nightclubs. She has blue eyes, almost totally transparent skin and muscle tissue, and no hair. She usually wears minimal amounts of clothing to emphasize this fact. She speaks with a convincing but false British accent. Chrysalis' primary occupation is the selling of information. She seems to know everything that happens in New York, and will buy and sell anything anyone wants to know for a price. She is one of the major players in Jokertown, although most of her work is done behind the scenes.
She had an intense affair with Yeoman. She was brutally murdered by Hiram Worchester (while he was under the influence of Ti Malice) in 1988.
Deadhead
Deadhead is an Ace, someone granted super-powers by exposure to the Wild Card virus; but the disturbing nature of his power has driven him nearly insane.
Deadhead has the ability to sense the memories of anyone whose brain he eats. He discovered this by accident; he began experiencing the sensations of animals whenever he ate meat, then worked his way up to animal brains. After several years he worked up the courage to try human brains, and found that he could completely—if temporarily—absorb all the knowledge and memories of the dead person.
At present, he works for the Shadow Fists, providing the gang with information in exchange for being kept out of prison or a mental ward. He is twitchy, has poor hygiene, constantly talks to himself in a nervous voice, and is always gulping down vitamins and appetite suppressants in a vain effort to reduce his craving for human brains.
Demise
Demise (James Spector) was created by Walton Simons, and first appeared in the story "If Looks Could Kill" in Wild Cards II: Aces High.
In 1985, Spector was struck by the Wild Card virus and brought to the Jokertown Clinic, where he was seen by Dr. Tachyon. Tachyon had been working on improving his "Trump Card" countervirus, which had a low success rate, and injected Spector with an experimental version of the Trump, as well as subjecting him to an experimental tissue-regeneration process. It was seemingly unsuccessful; Spector's body experienced the failure of numerous organs, and he was pronounced dead. However, shortly after, he awoke screaming and continued to scream for several months. Eventually, he got back enough of his sanity to escape (although he constantly feels the agony of his death), killing a nurse with his new-found power in the process.
In 1986, he was found by the cult leader known as The Astronomer, who offered to erase his unbearable memories of death if Spector would work for him. Giving Spector the name Demise, the Astronomer used Demise's death-powers in the ritual killings that charged the Astronomer's powers, and used Demise as an occasional assassin as well. When Demise eventually realised the Astronomer was just stringing him along, he rebelled; and when the Astronomer was weakened after his battle with Fortunato, Demise finished the old man off, leaving him embedded in a brick wall.
Afterwards, Demise became a freelance assassin while looking for opportunities to kill Tachyon, until he was hired to do a job at the 1988 Democratic National Convention. There, his head was cut off on live national television by the psychotic Ace Mack the Knife. Mackie used his vibrational powers to remove Demise's head – only for the severed head to open its eyes and kill Messer explosively. Later, Dr. Tachyon examined Demise's body in the morgue and saw that it was actually starting to grow a new head. Tachyon immediately ordered his body cremated, to ensure that he would not return from death a second time.
Demise's body repairs itself so perfectly that he can even return from death. He has healed himself from bullet wounds and broken bones in seconds, and regrown lost limbs and other body parts. However, his body draws from its own current mass to reconstruct major damage, such as the loss of a limb, thus weakening his overall health until he has sufficient time to recover. He is also at risk of long-term damage from improper healing; the Astronomer once had Demise's forearm broken and then forcibly held out of proper alignment so that the bones knit improperly, rendering the limb nonfunctional below the elbow.
Demise can also telepathically project the "memory" of his death experience into other people, causing them to die as well, but he must look them in the eyes to do so (thus he can be foiled by things such as mirrorshades or insectoid multiple eyes). He can kill in seconds, stretch it out slowly for a very painful death, or use just enough power to stun or disorient someone. His power also prevents someone from looking away once he has locked eyes with them.
Digger Downs
Thomas "Digger" Downs, created by Steve Perrin, is an investigative reporter for Aces magazine, a periodical on the lives of the Wild Cards universe's more publicly known Aces. Journalistically, Aces lies somewhere between People magazine and the National Enquirer, with Digger definitely toward the lower end of that scale. He constantly seeks to find juicy gossip about Aces, as well as Earth's only extra-terrestrial citizen, Dr. Tachyon, who despises Digger and, when confronted by him, often resorts to mind control to make Digger humiliate himself until he goes away. Most of their encounters end with Digger unwillingly pouring a drink over his own head, or something similar.
Digger's interest in Aces and their secrets seemingly stems from the fact that he is secretly an Ace himself; his power is the ability to detect the presence of other Wild Cards. Whether Aces or Jokers, anyone who has the alien virus entangled in their genes is perceived as having a sickly-sweet odor, which is how his brain interprets the input of what is essentially an extrasensory ability. While he is careful to always hide his ability, making vague statements about his "sources" when asked how he found someone out, he is not exactly discreet when it comes to revealing the Wild Card status of others.
In addition to his hidden Ace power, Digger is also skilled in sneaking, dumpster diving, long-range photography, party-crashing, and taking statements out of context. In other aspects of journalism, such as research and fact-checking, however, he is woefully lacking.
Dr. Tachyon
Dr. Tachyon is a geneticist from the planet Takis, whose people naturally developed various telepathic powers. Interbreeding among these psionic peoples created a royal caste system with various specified powers. Tachyon's royal House Ilkazam created what human doctors called "Xenovirus Takis-A"—the Wild Card virus. The virus (known to the Takisians as "the Enhancer") was intended to boost their own natural psionic powers, allowing Tachyon's house to conquer their rivals. To avoid the side-effects, it was decided to test the virus on an isolated population with the same DNA as Takisians – the humans of Earth. Tachyon protested this decision. He then tried to stop his partners from testing the virus on Earth, without success. Since he had personally been responsible for getting the virus to its present testable stage, when the virus was released, he worked among the "Jokers", physically deformed and mutated victims of the virus, feeling responsible for their suffering. Of course, Tachyon was not so anguished that he refrained from hobnobbing with celebrities, politicians, and many "Aces", those rare humans successfully granted paranormal abilities by the Enhancer. His nickname came from the scientists who worked with him and is a reference to the tachyon particles used by his ship's faster than light drive - his own name was prohibitively long, and hard to pronounce. His normal telepathic powers include skilled mind reading, thought projection, and the ability to physically control up to three human bodies, while simultaneously reading their minds and projecting his own thoughts to them. These powers can be reduced by extreme physical, emotional, or psychological stress.
Soon after his arrival on Earth, Tachyon became romantically involved with Blythe Van Renssaeler, the estranged wife of an anti-Wild Card senator. Under the codename Brain Trust, Blythe was a member of the short-lived Wild Card "team", the Four Aces. Rounded up during the Red Ace scare of the 1950s (analogous to the real-life Red Scare of the time period in American history). Tachyon, the Four Aces, and their government sponsor were brought before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC). When Brain Trust was put on the stand, Tachyon telepathically mind-controlled his lover and accidentally drove Blythe insane, in order to prevent her from revealing information she had absorbed from him—information such as the names and powers of many Aces he had treated over the years. Blythe was committed to an insane asylum where she eventually died. Due to his own failure to comply with HUAC, Tachyon was deported from the United States, winding up a drunken derelict wandering through Europe, psychologically unable to use his mind-control abilities due to his shame over what he had done to Brain Trust. It was during his time in France that he fathered Giselle Baucort, the mother of Blaise Andrieux. It is unknown if Giselle inherited any of Tachyon's telepathic abilities, but his grandson Blaise possessed prodigious, though one-sided, mind-control abilities, which would later be used against Tachyon to devastating effect.
Years later, after a pardon from President John F. Kennedy, Tachyon returned to America, sobered up somewhat, regained his powers, and started a clinic in Jokertown, all with the help of The Great and Powerful Turtle. He even applied for and was granted American citizenship. Closely tied to the Joker/Ace community, Tachyon has been at the center of many important events in Wild Card history. He developed the Trump virus, a potential, but unstable cure for the Wild Card that works only part of the time, and sometimes kills. He participated in the raid on the Egyptian Freemason headquarters and survived an attack on the Aces High restaurant by the Freemasons' leader, a deranged Ace called the Astronomer. With the help of Capt. Trips, Tachyon deflected an asteroid sent hurtling toward Earth by rogue Takisians led by his cousin Zabb. Assisted by the human vigilante Yeoman and the Ace "sorcerer" Fortunato, Tachyon helped drive off a race of sentient parasites known as the Swarm. While in France as part of a World Health Organization world tour to assess the condition of Wild Card survivors in various countries, Tachyon discovered the existence of his grandson, Blaise. Smuggling Blaise back into America with the help of forged documents, Tachyon became a single parent. Some of the Takisian attitudes he sought to instill in his new heir would have disastrous repercussions. His right hand was cut off by the psychotic Ace Mackie Messer at the disastrous 1988 Democratic National Convention in Atlanta. Tachyon orchestrated the capture of Typhoid Croyd (an Ace whose power created a brief, but wildly contagious outbreak of communicable Wild Card virus), which resulted in his being infected with a latent form of the virus. He patrolled the streets of Jokertown with a small private army of Jokers during a protracted war between the Mafia and an alliance of Asian mobs and Joker street gangs called the Shadow Fists. Finally, during the subsequent raids carried out on New York by the Shadow Fists' "Jumpers" – vicious teenagers with body-snatching powers – an unlikely series of events led to Tachyon's departure from Earth and ultimate return to Takis.
Considered effeminate and thought by some, such as Fortunato, to be gay because of his flamboyant ways, Tachyon was actually a notorious womanizer. Aside from numerous unnamed groupies and other one night stands, Tachyon's list of conquests includes Brain Trust, Danelle Darcy, Roulette, and Fleur van Rensselaer (Brain Trust's daughter). Perhaps more significant is the list of women Tachyon has not bedded, either due to a brief bout with sexual impotence (Fantasy and Mistral) or bad timing (Water Lily and Peregrine). Two unrequited loves in particular were Angelface and Dr. Cody Havero. Angelface was a beautiful Joker whose manifestation of the Wild Card disease made her bruise or bleed at the slightest touch. Tachyon pined for her during the booze-soaked period between his return to America and the establishment of the Jokertown Clinic. Cody Havero is a more recent love interest. Coming into Tachyon's life around the time of the Jumper scare, Cody refuses to sleep with the Takisian until he devotes himself to her exclusively. Later, following a Jumper attack, Tachyon's new body and condition would prevent him from consummating his relationship with Cody before leaving the planet. While on Takis, Tachyon in his female body took as his lover his flamboyant cousin Zabb. Though both of them did care for one another, their personal agendas kept them from commitment. During the fight to apprehend Blaise and recapture Tachyon's male body, Zabb was killed in a fight with Blaise. Tachyon mourned his loss. The infant they created between them was named Zabb in honor of the man who had given his life trying to follow Tachyon's wishes.
It was during the Jumpers' reign of terror in the early 1990s that the sociopathic nature of Tachyon's grandson became fully evident. After trying to rape Dr. Havero, and a failed murder attempt on Tachyon himself, Blaise ran away from home. The boy was only fifteen at the time. Recruited by the Jumpers and initiated into their gang, Blaise quickly became their leader. Using his newfound body-swapping powers, Blaise performed a bizarre triple-jump that left Tachyon trapped in the body of Kelly Jenkins, a sixteen-year-old girl, and vice versa. Now female, Tachyon was kept as her grandson's prisoner and virtual slave for several months. Worse, trapped in a nat body, Tachyon lacked any defense against Blaise's powerful mind control. After multiple rapes and beatings, Tachyon became impregnated with her own great-granddaughter – much to the amusement of Blaise and those Jokers who resented Tachyon as the author of their misery. Using her psi-lord training to access the telepathic powers her unborn child inherited from Blaise, Tachyon achieves low level telepathy. Captured while attempting to escape, she employs crude mental shields (similar to those she constructed for Brain Trust years ago) to rebuff Blaise's psychic attack. Her grandson retaliates by assaulting her one last time. Somewhere in her second trimester, Tachyon escapes captivity, but not her current body or condition, with the help of ace vigilante Black Shadow and the Joker revolutionary called Bloat.
Shortly after the first Battle of the Rox, Tachyon returned to the contested island with the help of the Great and Powerful Turtle. Bloat was unable to grant Tachyon's request to have Blaise and her original body returned to her. Amid the chaos of the National Guard attack, Blaise escaped the Rox, taking Kelly with him. Bloat could only offer the mental image of a seashell (glimpsed when Blaise's mind shields slipped during the attack) as a clue to her grandson's location. Bloat had interpreted a vision of Tachyon's organic spaceship as a seashell. Realizing Blaise meant to steal her ship in order to escape Earth, Tachyon and the Turtle immediately set off to stop him. Bloat would never see Tachyon again.
Decades before, Tachyon had traveled from Takis to Earth in a living starship with its own mind... the mind of a child. He even named it "Baby", and its personality had grown somewhat addled after years of imprisonment in a government facility. Still absolutely dedicated to its master, Baby was eventually released back to Tachyon. By having Kelly Jenkins pose as Tachyon, Blaise used that loyalty to hijack Baby. Though possessed of prodigious telekinetic powers, Turtle was unable to stop Tachyon's stolen ship from engaging its "ghost-drive". Fleeing to Takis, Blaise left Tachyon without any apparent means of pursuing him. It seemed Tachyon was permanently trapped not only upon Earth, but in the body of a pregnant teenage girl.
This period between Tachyon's escape from the Rox and her return to Takis is arguably the lowest point in the alien's life. No triumphant welcome awaited her return to New York. With Tachyon presumed dead, Dr. Bradley Finn was made acting director of the Jokertown Clinic and her apartment had been rented out to new tenants. Given the run of Finn's apartment until more permanent arrangements could be made, Tachyon becomes highly agitated when the Joker suggests her jump might now be permanent and that she should come to terms with it. Worse, Tachyon's love interest, Dr. Cody Havero, is somewhat unsympathetic to the alien's plight, reminding the former womanizer of his rather insensitive treatment of other women. Suffering from a panic attack, Tachyon is administered a light sedative by Dr. Havero despite the older woman's concerns about the advanced state of Tachyon's pregnancy. Expressing a desire to be alone, Finn and Cody leave Tachyon by herself, ostensibly to get some sleep.
Awakened by a nightmare, Tachyon succumbs to the psychological part of her addiction to alcohol (Kelly having already inherited and given in to the physical half that went with Tachyon's male body). Drinking a substantial amount of Finn's brandy, the already depressed alien is further unbalanced by the combined sedative and alcohol. While using the bathroom she is confronted by her new reflection. As described in one story: "After relieving herself she stood and stared at her thickening body: I've become a joker. A stranger in a deformed body. Lifting the hem of the long T-shirt, Tach ran an experimental hand across her swollen belly".
A lifetime of Takisian abhorrence of the ugly and deformed reinforces Tachyon's distorted perception of her pregnant form. Having long ago stated an inability to ever live as a Joker, Tachyon slits her wrists while taking a bath. In the past, Tachyon often threatened to kill himself with more melodrama than seriousness. His abuse of alcohol could also be seen as a manifestation of an urge toward self-destruction. However, this is the only time Tachyon has attempted outright suicide, likely prompted by the radical alteration of his/her self-image caused by the jump, Blaise's sexual assault, her subsequent pregnancy, and the reactions of others to her upon returning to public life. Tachyon would later remark to Mark Meadows that she needed psychological therapy in order to regain her sense of self.
Awakened from unconsciousness by another disturbing dream, this one possibly inspired by her unborn child's psychic distress calls, Tachyon manages to crawl from the bathtub and telephone Cody. Weak from blood loss, she collapses on Finn's bed. Cody arrives and administers an emergency blood transfusion. They talk and Cody encourages Tachyon to seek rape crisis counseling. Also the question of Tachyon's attraction to Cody comes up and the body-swapped alien replies that, aside from pregnancy reducing her famous sex-drive, "those troublesome hormones" generated by her new body (estrogen and progesterone, specifically) have failed to elicit any sexual response. Cody spends the night, but cannot resist commenting, "It's not quite how I envisioned my first time in your bed". Tachyon recovers both physically and mentally, now ready to pursue Blaise and reclaim her true form at any cost.
Contacting a representative of the Network (a spacefaring culture reviled by the Takisians), Tachyon booked passage on a Network ship and returned to her homeworld, where Blaise was busily fomenting a catastrophic war between Houses. Accompanied by the Aces Captain Trips and Popinjay, Tachyon's bid to reclaim the throne to which she is heir (a position traditionally reserved for the male members of her House) ends in disaster. Representing the genetic wealth of the Great Houses, Takisian women of childbearing years are relegated to Raranna, (the traditional Takisian harem in which women are kept secluded from the public eye and enemy assassins). Though the telepathic Takisians knew her mind was male, it was determined that Tachyon's thoughts would naturally be more focused upon the looming birth of her child. Military strategy and political machinations were better left in the hands of her avaricious cousin, Zabb.
Placed in protective custody with House Ilkazam's other breeding females, including the biological sisters of her male form, Tachyon refused to continue research on the Enhancer (as Takisians called the Wild Card), but readily employed Kelly's two good hands to practice surgery once more. Nearly delivered back into Blaise's hands by a quirk of Takisian law classifying a pregnant woman as property of her child's father, Tachyon earns the enmity of many influential nobles by trying to stab Blaise while under a flag of truce. Eventually, Tachyon escapes Raranna, defeats Blaise, and recovers her male body, though not before enduring childbirth, seeing the very foundations of Takisian society ripped apart in a bloody civil war, and fending off an attack by Network "carpetbaggers".
Tachyon currently remains on Takis, raising his physical daughter/genetic granddaughter, serving as leader of his House, and trying to rebuild a Takisian society that has already been shaken to its foundations. Many of the old-style Takisian nobles were slain during Blaise's World War, and replaced by avaricious young cadets. In one of his speeches Blaise promised the mindblind Tarhiji life-extending serums that do not exist. Only a handful of noblewomen were left alive following the massacre of House Rodaleh at Blaise's hands, resulting in the near total loss of a line of powerful psi-healers. Raiyis Hazzal of House Jeban remarked that this would lead to more widespread cases of insanity. Among Tachyon's plans for the future are the dissolution of Raranna, where he was confined while carrying Kelly's child, and a program to interbreed the psychic and "mind-blind" segments of the populace, thus creating a truly telepathic race better capable of fending off the Network. What effect these plans will have on the already unstable state of Takisian world affairs remains to be seen.
Tachyon is very emotional, self-centered, prone to openly weeping, and a spoiled, womanizing aristocrat who indulges himself in every way. During the course of the Wild Cards series, he matures a great deal. Tachyon always dresses flamboyantly, in what are, by Earthly standards, antiquated clothes of glaringly clashing colors (by Takisian standards, he is considered quite suave). After Messer's attack, his right hand is a prosthetic replacement, though he has considered having a new hand regrown while staying on Takis. Due to Blaise's political machinations while Kelly was occupying Tachyon's body, he is technically married to Mona'ella, the royal princess of a rival House, though the legality/permanence of this arrangement is currently unknown.
Envoy
The Envoy (David Harstein) is a member of The Four Aces, first appearing in the story "Witness" by Walter Jon Williams in the first book of the series, Wild Cards.
David Harstien is an Ace, one of those gifted with amazing powers by the Wild Card virus. He emits pheromones which make anyone feel like he is their best friend, causing whoever is near him to become completely agreeable—as long as he is in the same room. The effects quickly wear off, however, leaving his victims fully aware of their often uncharacteristic actions.
In 1946, he became a behind-the-scenes member of the Exotics for Democracy, who would later become publicly known as the Four Aces. The group enjoyed some public success in capturing Nazi war criminals. Behind the scenes, Envoy was secretly attending international summits and making everyone get along just long enough to sign peace treaties, but once his power wore off, many nations reneged on their agreements. This caused the Four Aces to come to the unfortunate attention of HUAC, the House Un-American Activities Committee, who were looking for scapegoats.
At first, when he was put on the stand, Harstein merely bided his time, waiting for his pheromones to permeate the enormous room. After his powers began to take effect, even the most prejudiced committee member was referring to Harstein as "America's little Hebe friend". Once the air was cleared the committee's hostility returned, and David was called back to testify in a sealed booth, rendering his ability useless. He was found guilty of contempt of Congress and jailed.
After his release, David Harstein disappeared. It is rumored that he went to Israel for several years. He later returned to America under an assumed name and started a moderately successful career as a stage actor named Josh Davidson.
Father Squid
Father Squid is a priest, created by John J. Miller.
Father Squid is a Joker, the common term for a person deformed by the alien Wild Card virus. He has a mass of small tentacles hanging where his nose would be, slick hairless grey skin, extra-long fingers with a pattern of suckers on them, and he smells like seawater. His build is twice as broad as a normal man's and he is proportionately stronger, and can hold his breath nearly half an hour.
The man known today as Father Squid has never revealed his real name, nor is it known if he was born with his current appearance or contracted the Wild Card virus sometime early in his life. What is known is that during the Vietnam War, the man then called "Squidface" was a member of the Joker's Brigade, a unit of "selectively conscripted" Jokers sent into the most dangerous situations, while being retained far longer than a normal tour of duty. This was believed to be a deliberate attempt by the U.S. government to "thin out" the Joker population while getting some use out of them, a fact the Brigade members cynically acknowledged. Those who survived more than a short while became very skilled fighters, indeed. It was here that Squid met and befriended Captain Daniel Brennan, who did not share the common prejudice against Jokers.
It has been rumored that, after the war, Squidface became a member of the Joker terrorist group called the Twisted Fists, and was responsible for numerous attacks on "Nats" (naturals, a derogatory term for those without Wild Card mutations). He refuses to talk about his past, so the details are unknown. At some point, he experienced a change of heart, choosing to put his violent past behind him.
By the time of his first appearance in the Wild Cards books, he is the only priest of the Church of Jesus Christ, Joker, a religion specifically for Jokers, located in New York's Jokertown (the first and largest Joker community in the world). The Church is a bizarre blend of Catholic traditions, Wild Card history, and ideas taken from medical science, and emphasizes the suffering and persecution that Jokers have undergone and are still undergoing. The symbol of the church is a radically deformed Joker Jesus, crucified on a DNA strand. Dr. Tachyon, the creator of the virus, but also a supporter and caregiver of Jokertown, is portrayed in Church art as similar to the Roman deity Janus, as having two heads or faces, one angelic and one demonic. It is unclear if Father Squid founded the church or simply joined it, but he is certainly the heart and soul of the Jokertown congregation. The Church is the center of Jokertown society, even for those who do not follow its faith. Almost all Joker funerals are held there: for instance, Quasiman is the part-time caretaker and sometime protector of the church.
In the novel Card Sharks, the church is burned down by an arsonist. The subsequent investigation is what leads to the eventual uncovering of the Card Sharks conspiracy to create the Black Trump, an anti-Joker virus.
Father Squid was murdered by Baba Yaga, an Ace whose saliva fatally transformed victims into horribly twisted, furniture-like forms, in the novel Lowball. True to his later life, Father Squid died saving another person from Baba Yaga.
Fortunato
Fortunato was created by Lewis Shiner. He is a pimp, but prefers to downplay, even to himself, the negative aspects of his escort business. Fortunato is also an Ace. His Wild Card virus grants him immense telepathic and telekinetic powers. These include but are not limited to: mind control, flight, force walls, mental blasts, reading the future (and the past), and subjective temporal manipulation. Dr. Tachyon believes him to be Earth's most powerful mental/telepathic Wild Card. Fortunato derives all his power from tantric sex magic. Tantric rituals feed his power reserve, which then allow him to utilize his massive powers. However, the more he uses them, the faster he runs out of power. In terms of power and strength, Fortunato is even (or nearly even) with the Astronomer; this is one of the most obvious case of opposites in the Wild Cards' universe (Fortunato gaining his power from sex—the source of life—while The Astronomer gains his powers from death).
Fortunato was an infant of unspecified age on the first Wild Card day. Son of an unnamed African-American soldier and his wife Ichiko, a Japanese woman his father brought back to New York after WWII, Fortunato was infected by the initial wave of virus-carrying spores released into the upper atmosphere during Jetboy's battle with Dr. Tod. Fortunato became a latent carrier of the virus that would not "turn his card" until many years later. His father was not so lucky, dying after drawing the Black Queen. Raised by his mother, Fortunato was subjected to various forms of discrimination, due to his mixed parentage, and grew into a handsome, but angry, young man. Graduating from petty crime to pimping, Fortunato brought home the first girl in his stable at age sixteen.
In the '70s, Fortunato was introduced to tantric sex magic while "auditioning" a new girl. The intense orgasm brought on by the sex ritual triggered his latent Wild Card, causing him to have an out-of-body experience. Disheartened to learn that Fortunato's sudden powers were the result of a virus rather than true magic, Fortunato's new girl left the city. Undeterred, Fortunato continued to pursue research into tantric rituals as a means for further developing his mental abilities. He, however, was not prompted solely by curiosity. A serial killer had been preying upon New York prostitutes, including his own, and Fortunato wanted revenge. Still in the early stages of developing his power, the Ace pimp brought a handgun as backup. Forced to kill in self defense, instead of the righteous revenge he had planned, Fortunato was unable to question the murderer. Disgusted, but seemingly unable to stop himself, he performed a tantric ritual upon the dead man's corpse, briefly bringing it back to life. Though never explicitly stated, guilt brought on by this experience could be the reason Fortunato consistently accused Dr. Tachyon of being a "faggot from outer space". Only temporarily revitalized, the corpse uttered the word "Tiamat" and then tore its own throat out. This, along with a strange red penny carried by the killer, served as Fortunato's only clue in a mystery that would eventually bring him into conflict with the deadly Astronomer.
Even before turning his Wild Card, Fortunato was a tall, muscular individual with intense sex appeal. Inheriting the best features of both parents, Fortunato was a handsome man of African-American and Japanese descent with pronounced epicanthic folds around his eyes. After becoming an Ace, Fortunato literally radiated sexual magnetism, even though the virus had physically manifested as a somewhat distended forehead, as outward evidence of his prodigious mental powers. When using his powers to their fullest, a pair of quasi-real, curving horns will often appear, extending outward from his enlarged forehead.
Golden Boy
Golden Boy (Jack Braun) is a member of the Four Aces, created by Walter Jon Williams.
In the series, he is regarded as possibly the strongest man in the world, with the exception of Harlem Hammer. His force field, which has a golden glow when active, grants him immunity from virtually anything strictly physical. He is especially resistant to physical impacts, such as bullets and fists. Over the years, Golden Boy has developed a fear of heights, which came about after being told that a long fall could be one of the things that could kill him. However, he can be subject to telepathic attacks and may be vulnerable to gaseous attacks, such as inhaled nerve gas. If he is suddenly and unexpectedly struck with an object, such as a bullet, his aura automatically engages.
Jack Braun was born in rural North Dakota in 1924. As a youth he was impressed by the agrarian radicalism of the local farmers, including his family, and by the New Deal liberalism of FDR, as embodied in Agriculture undersecretary Archibald Holmes. He served on the Italian front during WWII and afterwards moved to New York with the hopes of pursuing an acting career. When the Wild Card virus struck Manhattan, he discovered that he had superhuman strength and a forcefield that protected him from harm. In the aftermath of the virus outbreak, he met Archibald Holmes who was directing relief efforts. Holmes recruited Braun, along with fellow veteran and Ace Earl Sanderson Jr. (Black Eagle), into a new super team. The group was officially known as the "Exotics for Democracy", but after the addition of Aces David Harstein (Envoy) and Blythe van Renssaeler (Brain Trust), they became popularly known as the "Four Aces". Holmes used the Four Aces to advance his liberal internationalist vision of the world. In the late 1940s, they fought fascism around the world. The quartet tracked down Nazi war criminals and overthrew the regime of Juan Peron in Argentina. Braun's physical powers and good looks quickly turned him into a media celebrity. He quickly received a contract from Warner Brother's Studio and starred in a fictional version of his exploits with the Four Aces.
Things soon changed as the Exotics for Democracy came under scrutiny from the House Un-American Activities Committee. The committee was investigating Aces whom they saw as an insidious force undermining America. The fact that Braun's partner in the Four Aces, Earl Sanderson Jr., had once been a member of the Communist Party, and continued to be a fellow traveler, aroused particular interest, as did the fact that Earl was black. When an attempt by the Four Aces to prop up the Nationalist regime in China failed, the Committee subpoenaed all of them. Braun, naively believing that since they had not committed any crimes they had nothing to fear, bowed to pressure from the studio and his wife and became a cooperating witness. In his testimony, he tried to limit the damage he did to his friends, explaining that Earl Sanderson had abandoned the Communist Party years before and indicating that he, Braun, knew nothing about the politics of any other Aces. He however accidentally let slip that his teammate Blythe van Renssaeler had absorbed the mind of team advisor Dr. Tachyon and thus would know of any Aces which Tachyon, an uncooperative witness, would know of. When van Renssaeler appeared before the committee, she suffered a nervous breakdown—brought on by the telepathic meddling of Dr. Tachyon—and was institutionalized for the rest of her life.
In the wake of the committee hearings, the Four Aces broke up—as van Renssaeler was institutionalized, Holmes and Harstein were imprisoned, and Sanderson and Tachyon fled the country. Braun survived any legal repercussions but faced condemnation from history and the Wild Card community over his cooperation, and he felt guilty the rest of his life. After the hearings, his movie career failed to take off. He starred in a hit movie based on the life of Eddie Rickenbacker, but the movie based on his own life failed, and other attempts at stardom failed. Braun blamed his committee testimony for his poor box office performance, insisting that no one wanted to see "a rat" as a hero. Later, he had several years of moderate success with a television series based on Tarzan. Braun fought in the Korean War and after retiring from acting went into real estate. Sometime in the 1960s, he realized that he did not age. In 1988, Braun served as a delegate to the Democratic National Convention and almost died when the Ace Demise tried to kill him. Braun's last public appearance was in 2007 when he served as a judge on the reality television show American Hero.
Great and Powerful Turtle
Known colloquially as Turtle or The Turtle, his real name is Thomas Tudbury. Born in Bayonne, New Jersey in 1945, he exhibited his telekinetic powers during adolescence, thinking that his pet turtles had the ability to fly unsupported through their own means. Tudbury dropped out of college his freshman year in the wake of the John F. Kennedy assassination. Returning home, Tudbury contemplated his options in life and considered becoming a superhero. However, his shyness and need for intense focus prevented him from using his telekinetic ability in public. A friend of Tudbury's suggested that he outfit an old Volkswagen Beetle with discarded battleship armor, television cameras, and monitors, and use it as a shell. This became the first of many "shells" used by The Turtle. Usually built around the chassis of old cars, they had armor to protect Tudbury as well as cameras and loudspeakers to allow him to interact with the world. One of Tudbury's early adventures brought him into contact with Dr. Tachyon, who at the time was an alcoholic recluse. Tudbury helped him attain semi-sobriety, thereby establishing a rocky friendship that would persist for thirty years. Turtle became one of the most famous and also most mysterious Aces in the world. Among the few straightforward superheroes in the Wild Card series, The Turtle's identity was the subject of much speculation, with many believing that he was a Joker who hid his deformity in his "shell". In reality, out of his shell, Turtle is of medium height with a slight beer belly, short brown hair, and glasses. For many years, Turtle's secret civilian identity was that of a simple TV repairman and proprietor of an electronics store. In light of his day job and the sedentary manner of his "patrolling the streets" as the Turtle, Tudbury is something of a TV junkie and couch potato. Eventually Tudbury faked his own death for insurance purposes and devoted himself full time to super heroics. After his near death by drowning, Tommy was plagued by nightmares and is still has trouble sleeping.
One of the many Aces recruited to combat the Swarm invasion of Earth during the 1980s, Turtle is also among a handful of Aces captured by a Takisian starship around the same time. Sent to investigate the results of their genetic tampering with the human race, and believing Earth to be doomed by the Swarm's arrival, the Takisians captured Turtle, Fantasy, Capt. Trips, and their prodigal prince Dr. Tachyon, intending to return them to the planet Takis. In a rare instance of overcoming the psychological block of employing his powers outside of his shell, Turtle captures an alien artifact with his telekinetic powers and, activated by Dr. Tachyon's telepathy, the captives teleport back to Earth.
Later, due to his involvement in an attack on the Egyptian Freemasons' stronghold, Turtle is marked for execution by the cult's leader, a deranged but incredibly powerful Ace called the Astronomer. While floating over the East River, Turtle is ambushed by Imp and Insulin, two of the Astronomer's followers. Imp's electromagnetic powers disable the sensors and cameras of Turtle's shell, and Insulin's power to alter blood sugar levels disorients Turtle, with an effect akin to a sudden, massive attack of diabetes. Plunging into the river, Turtle assumes he is freed by some freak nature of water pressure causing his sinking shell to burst apart. He has time for one showy flight over New York City in an older shell, done to dispel the rumors of his death, before his powers begin to mysteriously desert him.
Believing his powers have permanently faded, Turtle attempts to build a normal life for himself, but to no avail. A budding romance with a girl from his school days is crushed when he learns she turned her own Wild Card at age eight and was cured by a dose of the trump virus. Dr. Tachyon warns Turtle that the trump virus was never administered, leaving the potentially deadly Wild Card virus still latent in her system. Any children they conceive will inherit the Wild Card and likely die in childbirth or manifest as Jokers. Turtle, knowing his fiancée wants children, reluctantly breaks off their relationship—unable or unwilling to explain their genetic incompatibility.
Turtle's powers return with the realization that it was his own telekinesis that destroyed the sinking shell in a desperate bid to save his life. Selling three of his older shells to Charles Dutton, owner of the Famous Bowery Wild Card Dime Museum, Turtle is financially prepared for the next phase of his life. With the city under martial law in the wake of a new Wild Card outbreak that affects even those who have already been infected, Turtle must escape New York with his money, on foot. During this trek, Tudbury briefly befriends the hideous Mish-Mash but flees, when the Joker attempts to kill a police officer. Enlisting the help of Dr. Tachyon, Turtle fakes his death as one of the many victims of this second Wild Card outbreak caused by Typhoid Croyd. Shortly thereafter, he returns to active status as the Great and Powerful Turtle, complete with a newly designed and constructed high-tech shell.
In the early 1990s, the Turtle makes two separate visits to the Rox, a street name for Ellis Island, which had become a stronghold for Joker criminals, rogue Aces, and a gang of body-swapping teenagers known as Jumpers. Recently escaped from the Rox after months of imprisonment, Dr. Tachyon—having "jumped" into a runaway teenage girl who is several months pregnant—flees to Turtle's junkyard hideout. After some initial disbelief from Turtle, Tachyon establishes her (his) identity and enlists Turtle's help. Returning to the Rox, intent upon recovering Dr. Tachyon's true self, Turtle and the doctor arrive in the wake of the disastrous first Battle of the Rox. Initially repelled by Bloat's Wall, Turtle deduces the psychic barrier around the Rox can not extend upward indefinitely and flies over it. Witnessing the torture and execution of some National Guard soldiers, Turtle uses his telekinetic power to protect those left alive and threatens to crush the victorious Jokers "like ants" if they do not cease and desist. The Jokers comply.
Too late to capture Blaise and Kelly (the girl whose body is now occupied by Tachyon), Turtle flies at top speed to the warehouse containing the doctor's spaceship. Smashing the warehouse roof open, the organic starship attempts to escape, and Turtle briefly manages to halt its progress through a prodigious exertion of his powers—telekinetically seizing it in the air. The ship's engines are too strong, effectively towing Turtle's shell behind it, and the jump to faster-than-light speed shortly thereafter breaks his control, sending his shell tumbling back to Earth. Limping home, Turtle drops Tachyon off on the roof of the Jokertown clinic. Later, recruited by Tachyon to accompany her to Takis, alongside Capt. Trips, Turtle is forced to remain behind when the Network ship that will take them off-planet proves too small to accommodate his shell. Deprived of his shell, Turtle's usefulness is limited by being able to levitate only small objects, such as pencils and rocks. He is replaced at the last minute on the trip by Ace private eye Jay Ackroyd.
Left behind on Earth, Turtle agrees to participate in the second government assault on the Rox, which has now been declared a Joker homeland and has officially seceded from the United States. The largest team of Aces ever assembled is sent, backed up by the U.S. Army, to quell the Joker rebellion once and for all. The inhabitants of the Rox—not without powers of their own—defend their claim to Ellis Island, and the single largest instance of all-out Wild Card combat erupts. In defeating Dylan Hardesty (The Huntsman), Turtle is responsible for the destruction of the Brooklyn Bridge. When his current lover, Legion, was apparently murdered in front of him by someone on the Rox, Tudbury became enraged and used his powers to send a tidal wave down the East River, apparently destroying the Rox and everyone on it. In the wake of this, Tudbury retired as The Turtle and has since gone public with his identity and published his memoirs, only briefly reappearing to help another Ace, Zoe Harris, better learn how to control her powers.
Tudbury is the most powerful telekinetic on Earth. The upper limits of his powers are unknown, but some of his notable feats include lifting a battleship out of the water for several minutes, temporarily halting a Takisian starship in mid-flight, ripping off the leg of the second robotic Modular Man, destroying the Brooklyn Bridge, and creating a tidal wave to drown inhabitants of the Rox. However, Tudbury is also incredibly insecure about his powers, which causes them to wilt to almost nothing when he is not in a "shell". Outside his shell, Turtle's telekinesis is limited to levitating small objects, such as pencils and beer cans—or, when in a calm, confident state—objects about the size and weight of a bowling ball, including an alien teleportation device and the first Modular Man's severed head. In or out of his shell, Turtle tends to best employ his powers through acts of visualization—where he imagines giant, invisible hands, fists, shields, battering rams, wings, and other "props" he can focus on. Once, when flying three shells simultaneously, Turtle found it easier to imagine all three welded to the points of a giant triangle rather than trying to levitate them separately.
During his career as an Ace, The Turtle employs a variety of shells, typically one right after another—the newer, more high-tech models replacing their older, outmoded counterparts. Occasionally, most often upon the loss or destruction of his latest shell, Turtle must fall back upon an earlier model until a new one can be constructed, usually assisted by his childhood friend Joey, an accomplished mechanic.
Thomas Tudbury owns a dog named after one of his personal heroes and favorite comic-book characters, Jetboy. Jetboy the dog is a big, black labrador–doberman mix, freely roaming Turtle's junkyard lair. Jetboy once gave Dr. Tachyon—who was female and pregnant at the time, thanks to the Jumpers—some trouble reaching Tommy's front door.
Harlem Hammer
The Harlem Hammer (Mordecai Albert Jones) was created by Victor Milán and appeared in the fourth book in the series, Aces Abroad.
Mordecai Jones was driving a bulldozer at a construction site when he accidentally ruptured a container of illegally buried nuclear waste. The exposure would have killed him were it not for the fact that his dormant Wild Card virus activated under the stress of the moment, turning him into an Ace. His body integrated the toxic radioactive isotopes, increasing his mass and density, and replacing most of the calcium in his bones with heavy metals and bone-seekers such as strontium.
Mordecai Jones is the second strongest Ace in the Wild Cards universe, just below Golden Boy. He has a metabolism that is now dependent on radioactive isotopes and heavy metal salts, which he must obtain illegally. His normal body temperature is 106 degrees Fahrenheit, he needs little sleep, he must eat far more than normal, and his weight is four times that of a normal man his size. His increased mass and density give him superhuman strength and durability. He is immune to disease and heals far faster than normal.
Jones was hospitalized, studied, and kept a prisoner by overzealous health officials until he simply broke down a wall and walked out. He had to remain in hiding until the ACLU, Dr. Tachyon, and SCARE (the Senate Committee on Ace Resources and Endeavors) declared him legally free. The press nicknamed him the Harlem Hammer, but he is a reluctant hero at best. After accidentally dislocating his daughter's shoulder with his super-strength, he realized that he could no longer stay with his family and moved to New York to become an auto mechanic. Harlem Hammer was one of the prominent public Aces chosen by the World Health Organization to join their world inspection tour of Wild Card conditions around the world.
Hiram Worchester
Hiram Worchester was created by George R. R. Martin. His first appearance was a brief cameo in "Wild Card Chic", a short in-story document in the first book of the series, Wild Cards. Hiram is an Ace, one of the fortunate few gifted with amazing abilities by the Wild Card virus. He can manipulate gravity, which he uses to render his 375-pound frame a mere 35 pounds, making him incredibly agile for his size. Customarily, to affect others with his power, he raises his forearm and curls his hand into a fist as a focus for his concentration. A theme in the Wild Cards setting is that of empowered individuals unconsciously placing limits or conditions on their abilities, though in Jokers Wild Hiram appears somewhat aware that his hand motion is nothing more than a focusing technique.
Though he is described as having had a brief career as a superhero named "Fatman" prior to his first appearance, Hiram quickly gave it up (the GURPS Wild Cards sourcebook contains the telling line "...as a crimefighter he is an excellent cook") to return to his first love, the gourmet restaurant business. He opens Aces High, located in the Empire State Building, which does booming business as Nat tourists flock there in hopes of seeing Ace celebrities. A number of both major and minor Aces also hang out there, basking in the glory. Aces High is also the location of the traditional Wild Card Day dinner, with all Aces invited free of charge (they must provide proof of an Ace ability). This is the source of some controversy in the Wild Cards universe, as it is seen to be elitist that only Aces, and not Jokers, are given this treatment.
Hiram later saves the life of Water Lily when she is flung off a balcony by the Astronomer, and develops a crush on her. During the Aces Abroad world tour, he falls victim to the parasitic Ti Malice, and Lily ends up as a "mount" of the evil Joker as well. The strain of being Ti Malice's mount eventually takes its toll on Hiram. His absences from work became greater and greater, alienating his chefs and maitre d'. While in Japan he ran afoul of a Yakuza Ace and required Fortunato's help to escape the country alive. When he learns Chrysalis has arranged to have a presidential candidate assassinated, the stressed-out Hiram kills her when she refuses to stop the assassin and tries to leave, using his gravity powers to make her so heavy her body collapses, shattering all her bones. Panicking, he throws an ace of spades card from a nearby deck onto her remains to make the police think that it was the bow-and-arrow killer who murdered her. The police, meanwhile, are looking for a super-strong Ace or Joker, due to the way she was beaten.
When Hiram is finally caught by one of his closest friends Jay Ackroyd and by Yeoman, he is vilified by the Joker community for killing the popular Chrysalis, and several attempts are made on his life. The courts found Hiram guilty of murder, but released him under his own recognizance with the injunction that it is now illegal for him to use his powers. Business at Aces High drops off after Hiram's public fall from grace. Though still a tourist destination, many local Aces stopped frequenting the establishment. Aces High closed some time in the 1990s, and Hiram faded from public life. His current whereabouts are not mentioned in the newest series of books.
Hiram Worchester is a black male of medium height, but considerable girth. Impeccably dressed in expensive suits, Hiram shaves his head, but maintains a perfectly groomed spade beard. Always polite and seemingly unflappable, Hiram speaks with a British accent. He occasionally uses his powers on those who irritate him, such as Digger Downs. Typically, this is harmless, such as making the nosy reporter weightless and then pushing him out the door. A more dangerous loss of control resulted in the death of Chrysalis. During his time as a mount of Ti Malice, Hiram often appeared gaunt, ill groomed, and irritable; a sure sign to those who knew him that something was wrong.
Jetboy
Jetboy (Robert Tomlin) appeared in the short story "Thirty Minutes Over Broadway!" by Howard Waldrop, but is referenced throughout the Wild Cards series. Jetboy is based on pulp magazine and Golden Age "air ace" characters, particularly Airboy. The title of his story is based on Thirty Seconds over Tokyo.
Robert Tomlin was an orphan who always wanted to fly, more than anything else. After running away from an orphanage to an airfield, he was hired by a scientist named Professor Silverberg, who was working on a prototype jet aircraft called the JB-1, and somehow convinced the Professor to let him pilot it. When the Professor was murdered by Nazi spies, Tomlin used the JB-1 to shoot up their getaway car. To his dismay, the spies had diplomatic immunity, and he was forced to flee the country. Once in Canada, he joined the RCAF, and later fought in the Battle of Britain, in the aftermath of one battle being offered tea by Beatrix Potter, and later flew alongside the Flying Tigers in China. In 1945, just before the end of World War II, Jetboy became stranded on a Pacific island for several months. By the time he was rescued, the now 19-year-old Tomlin found that the war was over; having spent most of his childhood as a fighter pilot, he found it very difficult fitting back into civilian life. He took to watching motion pictures to fill his now-abundant free time.
Meanwhile, Jetboy's arch-enemy, scar-faced crime lord and Nazi sympathizer Dr. Tod, had found the wreck of an "unusual airplane" with a strange pressurized canister inside. When something leaked out and melted one of his henchmen, Tod believed it to be a germ warfare device left over from the war. In fact the downed craft was an alien spacecraft, and the strange canister he had found contained the Wild Card virus. Tod decided to use this "germ-bomb" to perform blackmail on a massive scale; he obtained a multi-gasbag blimp and flew over New York City, announcing by radio that if he did not receive 20 million dollars, he would drop the device (wired with explosives) onto Manhattan. On September 15, 1946, Jetboy was once more called into action, along with a squadron of fighters from the United States Army Air Corps. With the only plane able to reach the proper altitude, Jetboy crashed the JB-1 into the gondola, and confronted Dr. Tod faceplate-to-faceplate (both were wearing high-altitude gear). Both men reached for the bomb fuse.
Jetboy's tomb is a major tourist attraction in Manhattan. The statue of Robert Tomlin out front is made from the metal from crashed aircraft. The plaque on the front is engraved with his last words:
I can't die yet, I haven't seen The Jolson Story.
Jumpers
The Jumpers are a criminal gang, first appearing in One-Eyed Jacks, the eighth book of the series. Various Jumpers continue to play a major role in the next three volumes of the series, Jokertown Shuffle, Double Solitaire, and Dealer's Choice. Originally thought to be a lone Ace, known to the media as the Jumper, simultaneous jump attacks in different locations eventually revealed that there was more than one of them.
The Jumpers are a group of mostly teenage criminals with the ability to swap bodies with other people. They are created by Edward St. John Latham, a prominent attorney and secretly a major operative of crime lord Kien Phuc. When Latham is exposed to a new strain of Wild Card virus spread by The Sleeper in his "Typhoid Croyd" phase, he becomes the Ace called Prime, the creator of the Jumpers. Possessing no innate powers in and of himself, Latham could, through sexual contact with others, spread a stable mutation of the virus that endowed the recipient with the power to swap bodies with another. With Latham's taste for teenage runaways and prostitutes (male and female), there was soon a small group of wild card criminals all sharing the same power, committing vicious acts of mayhem and robbery in the body of their chosen victim, then jumping away to freedom. The first recipient of Latham's gift was most likely David Butler, an intern with Latham, Strauss.
Thus began the "Jumper" arm of the Shadow Fists triune organization (the other two branches composed of Joker gangs such as the Werewolves and Asian gangs such as the Immaculate Egrets). Immune to the Jumper power he had bestowed on a variety of teenage boys and girls, Latham was content to create as large an army as his criminal accomplices wished. Based on The Rox (Ellis Island), protected by Bloat's Wall, and under the direct control of a deputy leader (first David and, later, Blaise Andrieux), "Prime" let his Jumpers do as they wished for the most part, occasionally selecting one or two of his more expendable creations for special missions.
During his brief career as an Ace, Latham created dozens of Jumpers. Some of the more notable include Molly Bolt, K.C. Strange, Red, Blackhead, Blaise, and Zelda. Molly Bolt stole Mistral's body and wind powers before the Second Battle of the Rox. K.C. Strange had a brief fling with Captain Trips and helped spring his daughter from government custody. Blaise, Dr. Tachyon's grandson, was their leader until he fled to Takis following the First Battle of the Rox. Zelda was the last Jumper created, literally minutes prior to Latham's death. The leader of the Jumpers after Blaise's departure, Zelda stole Pulse's body and laser powers, eventually dying in combat with Wyungare during the second Battle of the Rox. Two notable characters who wanted to become Jumpers, but were unsuccessful, include Kelly Jenkins and Fantasy. Kelly was a Jumper wannabe who Blaise eventually terrorized into a bizarre body exchange with the alien Dr. Tachyon. Fantasy was a minor Ace that wanted the Jumper power, but mistakenly slept with Mr. Nobody, a shapeshifting Ace disguised as Latham.
The Jumpers used their powers for petty crimes and cruelty, until the "Jump the Rich" scheme proposed by Bloat, which involved jumping wealthy but old or sickly individuals into young, healthy bodies for a steep price, and then offering the same deal to those formerly young and healthy individuals, until their coffers were empty. Most Jumpers were eventually captured by the government and imprisoned in cells lined with one-way mirrors, where they were tricked into jumping into elderly bodies and gassed to death. The Jumpers' power only worked line-of-sight, although one jumper, Zelda, does manage to jump someone during sexual intercourse while blinded.
The remaining Jumpers met their end during the "card sharks" storyline. A group of about a dozen Jumpers had been spared from the Rox and imprisonment and were recruited by the anti-Wild Card conspiracy known as the Card Sharks. Overseen by Philip Baron Von Herzenhagen, the Jumpers were used to augment the Shark's personal attributes, by jumping them into younger more sexually attractive bodies, as well as their collective political power, by jumping their agents into the bodies of politicians. Herzenhagen was using the Jumpers to shepherd anti-wild card legislation through congress. For the coup de grace he intended to jump himself into the body of the President, in order to prevent a veto of said legislation. His plan fell apart when his organization became the target of a revenge scheme by Aces Shad (more properly, Black Shadow) and Croyd Crenson (the previously mentioned Sleeper). In an assault on the Shark's safe house, Shad murdered the remaining Jumpers by using his darkness power to neutralize their abilities, prompting Herzenhagen to ask "how does someone with a shotgun kill a jumper without getting jumped?"
Given the abilities of the Jumpers, it is impossible to definitively state whether or not all of them have been accounted for.
Kelly Jenkins
Kelly Jenkins briefly appeared in One-Eyed Jacks, and became a more prominent character in Jokertown Shuffle and Double Solitaire. A small-town girl, she came to New York with dreams of becoming famous. Instead, after several days on the street, she fell in with a young man named David Butler and the gang of juvenile delinquents that would eventually come to be known as the Jumpers. One of several wannabes awaiting initiation by the Ace known as Prime, Kelly never received the Jumper gift to exchange bodies with their victim. Instead, she fell prey to another Jumper's use of their nearly unstoppable power. Her mind was replaced for an extended period of time with Dr. Tachyon's.
Kid Dinosaur
Kid Dinosaur (Arnie Fentner) was created by Lewis Shiner.
Arnie Fentner was a normal kid, obsessed with dinosaurs and comic books, when the dormant Wild Card virus he'd inherited from his mother turned active, altering his DNA and restructuring his body. He was one of the lucky few who did not die, and one of the one percent who gained superhuman abilities as a result; in his case, the power to restructure the molecules of his body to assume the shape of any dinosaur that he knew about. The downside was that his body's mass remained constant, so he could only become a kid-sized version of a Tyrannosaurus rex, Pteranodon, or a Triceratops, not to mention the fact that he would burst out of his clothes when transforming, leaving him naked and vulnerable to the elements when he returned to normal. Still, it gave him what he'd always dreamed of: the chance to take part in the adventures of Aces, often playing hooky from school to trail prominent Aces with little regard for his own safety.
This devil-may-care attitude would be his downfall; on one of his excursions, the Kid was captured by the Astronomer and his minions, to be used as a human sacrifice intended to forcibly induct the Ace Water Lily into their cabal. Arnie and Water Lily were ultimately rescued by the impromptu group of Aces organized by Fortunato and Dr. Tachyon to rout the Astronomer's group from their headquarters in The Cloisters. The Astronomer marked all those who had humiliated him for death, and on Wild Card Day (September 15), 1986, the Astronomer tracked down Arnie in a crowd at Jetboy's tomb, and, as Fortunato watched helplessly, the old man tore Arnie's heart out.
In answer to protests from loyal fans of the character, Wild Cards series editor George R. R. Martin noted in his afterword to the 2004 edition of Jokers Wild (the novel where Kid Dinosaur's death was depicted) that the Kid was created specifically to be a victim of the Astronomer's vengeance.
Kien Phuc
Kien Phuc is a criminal created by John J. Miller in the short story Comes a Hunter, in the first book of the series, Wild Cards.
Kien Phuc (birth name unknown) was born an ethnic Chinese in Vietnam, and was subject to prejudice and poverty during his childhood. His parents tried to teach him honor, but jealousy and greed drove him to reject his parents' simple beliefs and embrace the worst aspects of Vietnamese, and later Western, culture. He changed his name to that of a Vietnamese emperor and adopted an accent and materialistic outlook that he believed would be more acceptable to his host country. He joined the army, rising through the ranks with a combination of talent, ruthlessness, and corruption, reaching the rank of general.
An American officer named Daniel Brennan began investigating him, but Kien framed him for murder and destroyed his evidence, forcing the man to desert. Seeing that the war was not going well for the South, he abandoned the land of his birth and travelled to America, setting himself up as both a successful businessman and a powerful gang leader, ruling a set of organizations collectively known as the Shadow Fist Society.
When a number of Kien's low-ranking thugs, and then an increasing number of higher-ranking operatives, began to turn up dead with arrows in them and the ace of spades card prominently displayed, Kien knew he was being targeted, but thought it was a rival gang; he had no idea that Brennan, the man he'd dismissed from his thoughts so long ago, was now the bow-and-arrow vigilante called Yeoman. It was not until his diary was stolen by Wraith that he would come face to face with his enemy once again.
Kien lost part of his right hand when Wraith turned his gun intangible. He would eventually lose far more than that; he made a deal with the Jumpers to swap him into the body of Fadeout, a Shadow Fist operative who could become invisible. When his borrowed body was hurt, his mind was eventually lost on the astral plane, his last coherent thought being a guilt-ridden hallucination of his father mourning the loss of his son.
Lazy Dragon
Lazy Dragon (Ben Choy) was created by William F. Wu.
Lazy Dragon is an Ace with the power to project his mind into inanimate objects, with the limitation that they must be shaped like animals, and he must make them by hand. When he projects, the animals grow to life-sized and become animated, while his physical body lies unconscious. He originally carves these animal forms out of materials like soap or vegetables, but later learns the art of origami, allowing him to carry an assortment of animal forms.
Lazy Dragon seemingly has a second, female personality, whom he regards as his sister. At times, she can take over their shared body, which turns female. Lazy Dragon is a member of the Shadow Fists, a prominent New York criminal organization in the Wild Cards universe.
Le Miroir
Le Miroir (Claude Bonnel) first appeared in the short story "Mirrors of the Soul" by Melinda M. Snodgrass, in the fourth Wild Cards book, Aces Abroad.
Claude is a French Ace and minor celebrity, with the ability to alter his facial appearance and a minor telepathic power to sense what a person is thinking of, which he uses to "mirror" a person's favorite individual. He is also a radical socialist and secretly a member of a French terrorist group. Le Miroir is one of those primarily responsible for raising Blaise Jeannot Andrieux, the grandson of the alien Dr. Tachyon, whose quarter-Takisian ancestry gives him a powerful telepathic mind-control ability. He teaches Blaise to use his power as a terror weapon, turning innocent bystanders into unwilling suicide bombers. Although all Wild Cards in France must be registered with the government, Blaise's lack of the Wild Card virus allows him to evade this testing.
When Tachyon discovers his grandson is being used in this way, he shoots Claude and, to protect Blaise, publicly claims that the telepathic Miroir was the mind-controller, who had downplayed his mental abilities to the public.
Loophole
Loophole (St. John Latham) first appeared in volume III, "Jokers Wild". He was created by George R. R. Martin. Senior partner in one of New York's most successful law firms, St. John Latham represented a family of companies with their headquarters in the Bahamas and subsidiaries including CariBank and Shrike Music. In reality, these businesses were fronts for a ruthless criminal organization known as the Shadow Fists. Latham had earned the name Loophole as a mercilessly effective lawyer with the ability to wriggle his clients out of any charges. An important figure in the Shadow Fist organization, Loophole also went under the alias Prime as leader/creator of the Jumpers.
Latham contracted a dose of the virus during the brief outbreak of a wildly contagious mutant strain caused by the Sleeper. Surviving the incubation period, Latham emerged as an Ace with a bizarre ability. Possessing no innate powers himself, Latham could, through sexual contact with others, spread a stable mutation of the virus that endowed the recipient with the power to swap bodies with another. With Latham's taste for teenage runaways and prostitutes (male and female), soon there was a small group of wild card criminals all sharing the same power, committing vicious acts of mayhem and robbery in the body of their chosen victim, then jumping away to freedom.
Once calculating and almost untouchable, Latham's behavior grew ever more risky and erratic after the death of his favorite lover/Jumper, David, at the hands of the Oddity. One of his jumpers gave aging Shadow Fist crime lord Kien Phuc the youthful Ace body of Fadeout. He made a gift of the famous Bosch painting The Temptation of Saint Anthony to the Joker revolutionary called Bloat. When confronted by Bloat about the foolishness of allowing Blaise to jump a high-profile figure like Tachyon, he was utterly unconcerned. Latham finally met his end at the hands of the Ace Mr. Nobody, also known as Jerry Strauss. Mr. Nobody's brother was the Strauss in the law office of Latham, Strauss. Bent upon revenge after Latham had his brother murdered, Nobody investigated Loophole's criminal activities for months. Shortly after Latham had made Zelda a jumper, Mr. Nobody tracked the lawyer to his hotel room. The ace killed Latham by using his shapeshifting power to stab an elongated fingerbone into his brain and liquifying it.
Modular Man
Modular Man is an android created by Maxim Travnicek and first appeared in Wild Cards II: Aces High.
Mr. Nobody
Mr. Nobody (Jerry Strauss) first appeared in "the Projectionist", a throwaway cameo in the story "Shell Games" by George R. R. Martin.
Jeremiah Strauss was a wealthy playboy, who wanted more than anything to be in show business. When he became infected with the Wild Card virus and found himself with minor shapeshifting powers, he developed an act of sorts, doing celebrity "impressions" at clubs, but his lack of success drove him to a nervous breakdown in 1965. He was transformed into a King Kong analogue called the Great Ape, which was quickly captured by New York's abundant Ace heroes. His transformation also caused a blackout all across New York and parts of New Jersey. Every few years thereafter, he would escape from the zoo, grab the nearest attractive blonde, and attempt to climb the Empire State Building; thanks to New York's Aces, he never made it more than halfway.
In "The Teardrop of India", the Great Ape is brought to Sri Lanka to shoot a film; coincidentally the "Aces Abroad" world tour is also in Sri Lanka at the time. When a precognitive vision from G.C. Jayewardine shows that the Great Ape is actually a transformed Ace, Dr. Tachyon manages to unlock Strauss' submerged consciousness and return him to normal.
When his attorney brother is killed by his law partner St. John Latham, Jerry manages to use his skills to discover the culprit and get revenge, eventually killing Latham in his own penthouse. As his powers and confidence slowly rise to new levels, Strauss becomes a more prominent character in the later novels, eventually becoming the partner of private detective Jay Ackroyd.
Jerry Strauss can shapeshift to look like anyone he imagines, usually choosing film stars. He can also increase his size and mass, though doing so can black out electricity around him. It is theorized by Dr. Tachyon that at least some of this mass is actually converted from the electrical energy he absorbs. He is able to use his malleability to pick locks and vehicle ignitions by forcing a finger into the keyhole and conforming to the proper shape, though it is painful to do so since his finger is not as durable as a genuine key. In addition, driving a vehicle that he has commandeered in this fashion is awkward, as he is forced to drive one-handed and in pain while keeping his finger in the ignition slot. He can also cause certain drastic, inhuman changes to his appearance, such as making his flesh appear to run like melting wax, or elongating a pointed fingerbone out of his flesh (the method he used to kill St. John Latham, extending the bone into Latham's ear canal and literally "scrambling" his brain matter). Strauss' primary limitation is reliance on a basically humanoid shape; to date, he has never assumed a form that was not basically humanoid (such as non-humanoid animals), or appeared able to stretch or deform his body (a la Mister Fantastic or Plastic Man) on a grand scale.
Originally a poor actor and impressionist, he has honed his skills to a much greater degree since returning to normal life (after years as the Great Ape). He has also developed investigative skills and learned the rudiments of computer hacking. Strauss is also a millionaire, and has access to all the resources that wealth can provide.
Peregrine
Peregrine was created by Gail Gerstner-Miller and first appeared in Wild Cards (1987).
Peregrine might technically be considered a Joker, since the Wild Card virus left her with a visible "deformity", a pair of giant wings. However, the majestic nature of her wings, combined with her physical beauty and charisma, made her a darling of the Ace set. Indeed, Peregrine is one of the most famous Wild Cards, and famous women, in the world. Although Peregrine occasionally engaged in super-heroics, often using a set of steel claws to enhance her combat effectiveness, she was primarily known for her activities as a celebrity. She is the host of the popular and long running talk show "Peregrines Perch" as well as being an important television personality and sex symbol who appeared in Playboy magazine. As a famous media figure she was a fixture of New York society, although she was not above "slumming", such as with her brief relationship with the Wild Card pimp Fortunato, which resulted an unplanned pregnancy.
In 1986, Peregrine was one of a number of Americans chosen to take part in a World Health Organization fact-finding tour. While in Japan, Peregrine met Fortunato and convinced him to help Hiram Worcester, who had gotten into trouble with the Yakuza. Although Fortunato learned of her pregnancy and that he was the father, he chose not to remain with her and would instead enter a monastery. Peregrine would give birth to a son and named him John Fortune. During a stopover in Egypt, Peregrine was given a disturbing prophecy about her son's future. This prophecy made Peregrine a very protective mother. While she lived her life in the public eye, and indeed became even more of a celebrity, she jealously guarded her son's privacy and safety, routinely employing Popinjay and his detective agency to guard him. In 2003, John Fortune's Wild Card "turned" and John became the object of contest between two groups of religious fanatics. What at first appeared to be an Ace turned out to be a deadly "black queen" which would have resulted in John's death if not for the intervention of Fortunato. Apparently left powerless, John returned to an ordinary life, working as a production assistant on a new Wild Card–themed show his mother was producing. In 2008, his role in prophecy was fulfilled as he became the host for the Egyptian Ace Sekhmet and worked with other aces to defend Egypt's Jokers from genocide.
Popinjay
Jay "Popinjay" Ackroyd is an Ace who can teleport people and things anywhere he can clearly visualize. He cannot use this power on himself, and he has to be able to point his index fingers at his target (holding his hand like a pistol).
Jay Ackroyd is a private investigator, running the Ackroyd and Creighton Detective Agency with his junior partner, Mr. Nobody. Known as 'Popinjay' amongst his fellow Wild Carders, his power, especially combined with his quick wits, makes him a deceptively dangerous opponent.
In the early 1990s, Ackroyd accompanied Dr. Tachyon to his homeworld of Takis. While he was on Takis, he was captured by Blaise Andrieux, who chopped off his fingers to prevent him from using his powers. After Blaise's defeat, they were grown back by Takisian technology. Since then, Ackroyd has married a Takisian chef and returned to earth and to his increasingly high-profile detective/bodyguard agency, which now employs Aces such as Peter Pann.
Jay's favorite saying is: "Might as well, I can't dance".
Puppetman
Puppetman, the alias of Gregg Hartmann, a U.S. Senator (D-NY) and candidate for the Democratic presidential nomination, first appeared in the story "Strings" by Stephen Leigh in the first book in the series, and plays an important role in events throughout the series. Hartmann shows the world the face of a crusading, man-of-the-people politician, who fights for the rights of the downtrodden, particularly Jokers, but who is secretly an Ace possessed of mind-control powers. Hartmann refers to these powers, and the desire he gets to use them, as "Puppetman" and sees them as almost a separate entity.
Hartmann himself is a victim of the Wild Card, an Ace with the ability to sense and manipulate the emotions of others. He first discovered this power when he was eleven years old; he had a crush on a teenage girl named Andrea Whitman, and wanted to find a way to hurt her for ignoring him. He took his first puppet that day, Roger Pellman, a mentally deficient fourteen-year-old, and began stoking Pellman's anger, lust, and rage until Pellman raped and murdered Andrea, with Gregg feeling everything his puppet felt.
This incident fractured the boy's fragile psyche, with pleasure, hate, guilt, shame, fear, and sex all jumbled together in his already twisted mind. He could not bear to think of these horrific actions as his own doing, so he created the Puppetman: another person in his mind, and the one he blamed for all the things he'd done... and all he would continue to do.
Hartmann became addicted to "feeding" on the negative emotions and psychic pain of others. For years, he both reveled in, and was repulsed by, the many violent crimes and atrocities he committed by proxy. He used his power of emotional influence to become a successful politician; he could make anyone his "puppet" simply through brief physical contact, and a politician shakes a lot of hands.
Hartmann became overconfident of his control over others, when in fact he could not even control himself. Puppetman was becoming an independent, and demanding, force in his mind, constantly hungering for more. At times things spiralled out of his hands; in one case, he touched off a riot, and the resulting overwhelming emotional feedback caused him to have an embarrassing public breakdown that cost him the presidency.
In the sixth volume of the Wild Cards series, Ace in the Hole (1990), the assassin Demise is hired to kill Sen. Hartmann. Demise's own Ace abilities allow him to kill by locking eyes with his intended victim and telepathically projecting the memory of his death into their mind. Amid the chaos generated by Hartmann's manipulation of the Democratic National Convention in Atlanta, Demise got close enough to his target to initiate, but not complete, his death-stare. The result was that Puppetman, who was dominant at the time, was destroyed, leaving behind only the normal half of Hartmann's personality. Hartmann resolved to undo the damage caused by Puppetman, but before he could begin, Dr. Tachyon telepathically coerced Hartmann into the embarrassing breakdown that cost him the Democratic nomination.
Afterwards, Hartmann is jumped into the body of a caterpillar-like Joker. He swings from villain to victim to hero, trying to redeem himself of the horrible deeds he has committed.
Over the course of his career, Puppetman has manipulated literally hundreds of individuals, some to a greater extent than others. The following is a brief list of his many puppets: Carnifex (Hartmann's bodyguard), Gimli (militant Joker's rights activist), Kahina (clairvoyant sister of the radical Islamic Ace Nur al Allah, who later discovers Hartmann's secret), Mackie Messer (German Ace), Molniya (Soviet Ace), The Oddity (Joker vigilante), Peanut (Joker), Black Shadow (Ace vigilante) and Hiram Worchester (popular restaurateur and Ace).
Quasiman
Quasiman is a Joker created by author Arthur Byron Cover. He does not remember his past or his real name, nor indeed any information prior to his transformation. He is large and powerfully built, but with a hunched back and twisted spine. Quasiman is the caretaker of the Church of Jesus Christ, Joker in New York's Jokertown, having been hired by Father Squid shortly after the church opened.
Quasiman has superhuman strength and can teleport, but his powers come with a price; his body is constantly in flux, with molecules moving back and forth in space and time while still staying part of him. Because of this, his mind has difficulty focusing. At times his thoughts are clear and lucid; but those times are few and far between, and never last very long. Usually it is an effort for him just to remember what he was going to do, or if he'd already done it, or if his memories are of the past or future. Occasionally parts of his body will phase out of existence, then back in again.
Quasiman is not a major character, but plays a significant role twice; he is resuscitated by "faith healer" Reverend Leo Barnett, which gains Barnett enough public recognition and sympathy to later be elected president. Later, he is involved in Detective Hannah Davis' investigation of the burning down of the church, which gets him entangled in uncovering the Card Sharks conspiracy.
Righteous Djinn
The Righteous Djinn is an Ace. He appears in the book Inside Straight as a minor character who can absorb the powers of other Aces. He also has immense strength and can become a 30-foot giant. He serves as a bodyguard to the Caliph of the Modern Caliph. He is killed by a group of American Aces (Lohengrin, Rustbelt, Drummer Boy, Bubbles, John Fortune/Sekhmet) at the end of Inside Straight.
Roulette
Roulette was created by Melinda M. Snodgrass in "mosaic novel" Wild Cards III: Jokers Wild.
Roulette Brown-Roxbury did not know that she carried the Wild Card virus until she gave birth to a horribly deformed, stillborn Joker. Her upper-class husband Josiah refused to believe that he too carried the Wild Card, insisting that Roulette must have had an affair, and finally divorced her. Spiralling into depression, Roulette eventually became a prostitute to support herself. She then discovered the other effect of the Wild Card; she sometimes produced a deadly neurotoxin during sex, and in time earned the nickname "Russian Roulette" among those patrons who knew of her ability. Sex with her became a risky status symbol, like that of eating fugu fish in Japan. Eventually, she learned to produce this poison at will by concentrating on the horrific memories of giving birth.
It was then that she was discovered by The Astronomer, who (as he had with Demise), offered to erase her painful memories if she worked for him. Just as with Demise, he had no intention of doing so as long as she proved useful. First, on September 15, 1986, Wild Card Day (the anniversary of Jetboy's death) the Astronomer had Roulette kill an Ace hero named "The Howler", who had taken part in one of the Astronomer's previous defeats. The Howler's death was merely the first of many tragic stories to make the news that fateful day.
Next Roulette was told to seduce and kill Dr. Tachyon, the alien inventor of the Wild Card virus. At first she was quite determined to get her revenge on the man ultimately responsible for her suffering and that of many others. But after spending time with Tachyon, seeing how "human" he actually was, how guilt-stricken and how dedicated he was to helping the virus' victims, she came to gradually care for him. When the Astronomer was finally killed, Roulette chose to leave Tachyon alive, and to leave town to try to live with her own memories.
In the fifth book of the series, Down and Dirty, Roulette returns to New York and becomes infected with Typhoid Croyd's mutated strain of Wild Card virus, resulting in her death. Her infection is what convinces Tachyon that the virus can now reinfect Jokers and Aces.
Sleeper
The Sleeper (Croyd Crenson) was created by Roger Zelazny.
In September 1946, ninth-grader Croyd Crenson, native of an unspecified borough of the New York City metropolitan area, was one of the first victims of the alien virus dubbed "the Wild Card", which generates random mutations in humans, many times leading to an altered appearance, superhuman abilities, or both. In Croyd's case, however, his mutation induces the virus to periodically re-infect his body (similar to malaria), causing him to develop a different appearance and set of powers every time he sleeps. Fortunately, the primary constant among these changes is an altered sleep cycle: he can spend anywhere from days to weeks at a time with no need for sleep, followed by equally varying periods of extended sleep, analogous to a pupal stage, during which his body alters to a new configuration. Croyd's root mutation is generally considered that of an Ace, though the classification of his abilities changes from mutation to mutation. He shows no sign of the effects of advancing age, though in the later eras depicted in the novels he would be approaching his sixties.
Croyd constantly fears that he will one day wake up as a permanent Joker, immune to the virus, or that it will simply kill him, as the virus does to the majority of those it infects (known as "drawing the Black Queen"). As he starts to feel tired, he usually turns to amphetamines to stay awake, becoming increasingly violent and paranoid. Depending on where he is in his sleep/wake cycle, he can be a friendly rogue, a coldly brutal mercenary, a twitchy junkie and thief, or a deadly, raving psychotic.
His unique sleep cycle and constantly altering appearance makes it all but impossible for Croyd to hold down a regular job, and he usually supports himself through criminal activity (though in later years he begins investing in the stock market as a supplement to his income). This began after Croyd's initial transformation, when his father had died. Martial law was still imposed in New York City in the wake of the initial wave of Wild Card victims, and stealing was the only reliable way to acquire necessary supplies for himself and his family. Later, he continued to steal to support his family, as his father had suffered a fatal reaction to the virus and his mother had slowly gone insane from witnessing her husband's death, leaving Croyd the primary source of income for his brother and sister. This continued until his siblings became adults and his sister married, when Croyd, who had awakened before his latest change was complete, unintentionally disrupted the wedding ceremony when he fully transformed into a gargoyle-like creature. Croyd seems to have completely broken ties with his family after the wedding incident.
Croyd has worked on and off over the years with a small-time career criminal named Bentley, whom he first met as a Joker with a dog-like appearance, after waking up from his initial transformation. Bentley would later volunteer for the risky treatment developed for the Wild Card called the Trump virus, and was one of the lucky few who was completely cured. Bentley has shared some of his tricks of the trade, and sometimes plans robberies for Croyd, based on whatever superhuman powers he wakes up with, in exchange for a share of the proceeds. The pair have little concern for police investigation, as by the time the authorities begin to recognize Croyd's current form and abilities, he is usually "lying low" and changing into a new, unrecognizable form.
Using his ill-gotten gains, Croyd has established several living spaces of various size and quality throughout New York City, so that he is never too far from at least one of them when he is unable to stay awake. At least one of these is located in Jokertown, NYC's former Bowery district that has become a local haven to those unfortunate enough to "draw the Joker". Croyd made efforts early on to establish a base there and make friends within the Joker community, knowing that on the occasions that he assumes a Joker form, he will have to live among them.
Croyd has assumed any number of forms in the decades since his initial infection: Ace, Joker, and, once, an almost completely non-powered human form. His first form was that of a hair-covered Joker with the ability to turn invisible. Various Ace powers he has manifested during his waking periods include the ability to melt metal, enhanced speed and reflexes, heat conduction, flight, and super strength. His Joker manifestations have been equally varied: pink, stunted, and batlike; a humanoid Gecko lizard; two different winged demon forms; something like a giant armadillo; a , wingless bird with retractable claws; a wolf-faced freak with multi-jointed legs and acid for urine; and other even less attractive forms. Often Croyd awakened with a mixture of the Joker/Ace traits. During his stint as a fact finder for the Mafia, the Sleeper was a handsome brown haired Ace with strong bioelectric abilities and faceted, mirror-like compound eyes.
Arguably, Croyd's most dangerous form was his incarnation as a super strong albino. During this period the Sleeper's Ace power manufactured a contagious, mutated form of the Wild Card virus that could re-infect and re-mutate those already transformed. Dubbed "Typhoid Croyd" (a reference to the historical Typhoid Mary), he was subdued and quarantined before this new infection became widespread and created a panic similar to the original wave of infections in 1946. It is notable that at least one person he re-infected, the Joker Snotman, had his quality of life improved, as Snotman was re-mutated into an Ace. Amongst others infected during his Typhoid Croyd phase include high-priced lawyer Loophole Latham, the Ace Water Lily, militant Joker activist Gimili, call girl/assassin Roulette, washed-up rock hero Buddy Holly (who did not die young in the Wild Cards universe, as he did in real life) and the android Modular Man's creator Maxim Travnicek – who loses his ability to repair Modular Man as he mutates into a Joker.
In the late 1990s, Croyd would team up with the Ace vigilante Shad after the two had been imprisoned on Governors Island at the behest of the "Card Sharks" conspiracy. Seeking revenge, the two men organized a prison breakout and then killed most of the remaining Card Sharks. Croyd was last seen traveling with Shad to Afghanistan, where one of the lead Card Sharks had been doing humanitarian work.
Snotman
Snotman (Bill Lockwood) was originally a Joker derelict who oozed a snot-like mucus from every pore of his body. However, in Wild Cards volume V: Down and Dirty, he had an encounter with Croyd Crenson, better known as The Sleeper, during a time when Crenson's mutation had developed a contagious version of the Wild Card virus. Snotman, whose real name was Bill Lockwood, was infected by "Typhoid Croyd". This time he became an Ace. The new Wild Card infection reversed his previous disability, apparently restoring him to his pre-Wild Card appearance as a fairly handsome man. It also gave him the ability to absorb any energy directed against him, including kinetic energy, and then release it back at his opponents. He teamed up with Croyd but was subdued by Black Shadow, operating under his Mr, Gravemold identity, who drained the heat from him until he collapsed. Taken into custody, Lockwood, who was now styling himself Reflector, was recruited to participate in the military action against the Rox, the Joker enclave on Ellis Island. Despite himself having been a Joker, Reflector exhibited an unusual distaste for Jokers, born of his time living in Jokertown when even other Jokers looked down on him and treated him poorly.
Ti Malice
Ti Malice first appeared in the fourth book of the series, Aces Abroad, in the short story "Beasts of Burden" by John J. Miller. This character is named after the Vodou Loa, Ti Malice.
The being known only as Ti Malice is a Haitian Joker who acts as a parasite on other people. He is a foetus-sized Joker with shrivelled, useless limbs, and a poorly-developed digestive system. He gets both nutrition and mobility by attaching himself to the neck of another person, connecting himself to their nervous system, and injecting an incredibly addictive substance that he refers to as "the kiss". While connected with his mounts Ti Malice is able to control them fully, in fact he becomes the bodies dominant personality, with the mounts personality existing in a hazy dream like state. When disconnected from Ti Malice the mounts feel great anxiety, and their longing for his "kiss" is enough to keep them in line.
Ti Malice views his "mounts" as expendable toys for his own amusement, revelling in all forms of vicarious sensations, from pleasure to pain. He uses a beautiful mount called Ezili-Je-Rouge, who poses as a prostitute, to lure new victims into his presence. In this way he was able to acquire wealthy American Ace Hiram Worchester as a mount; Worchester then shipped Ti Malice to New York City, where Malice was able to find even more depravity to enjoy. One of those he used in this way was the Ace Water Lily.
When Ti Malice took Blaise Andrieux as a mount, the boy's grandfather Dr. Tachyon hired Ace investigator Jay Ackroyd to find him. Ackroyd, discovering the location of Ti Malice, teleported the Joker into a scene from his worst nightmare, effectively ending his threat forever. Many years later the Ace Billy Ray was traveling through a pocket dimension and encountered Ti Malice, killing him.
Wraith
Wraith (Jennifer Maloy) was created by John J. Miller, and first appeared in the third book, Jokers Wild.
Jennifer Maloy was an attractive but introverted librarian until the day she discovered she was an Ace, gifted with the ability to become insubstantial. She used this power to emulate the romantic heroes of her favorite stories as the Wraith, robbing from the corrupt rich and giving to the poor (mostly charities benefiting battered women and pets). However, the limitations of her powers—that she could only "ghost" items of low mass and density—determined not only that her "work clothes" would consist only of a mask and a bikini, but it also limited what she could steal to small, mostly paper goods.
Jennifer enjoyed her new adventurous lifestyle, but found more adventure than she wanted when she stole a few small books from the safe of businessman and gangster Kien Phuc, because one of those books was actually his personal diary, with details of all his illegal activities going back years. Now wanted by the ruthless crime lord, she was fortunate enough to encounter Daniel Brennan, the vigilante called Yeoman, who also wished to get his hands on Kien's diary. Since Wraith could only use her power for short periods, she was forced to rely on Brennan for protection. After several close escapes from Kien and his thugs—including an encounter in which Wraith mutilated Kien's hand—she handed the book over to Brennan, only to discover that its pages were blank; the extravagant Kien had written his journal in gold ink, which was too dense for Wraith's power to affect. The paper had easily passed through the walls of the safe, but the gold had remained inside.
Wraith would eventually leave New York to live with Brennan, returning only once, as Yeoman tried to solve the murder of Chrysalis. Wraith nearly lost her own life in the process, but was rescued again by Yeoman. The two moved away and have not been seen since.
Xavier Desmond
Xavier Desmond was created by George R. R. Martin.
Xavier Desmond was a 29-year-old investment banker with a wife and young daughter when the Wild Card virus first struck the world in 1946. He was one of the lucky few who survived, developing a trunk-like prehensile nose, tipped with seven functioning fingers. He immediately experienced the prejudice of being a Joker, losing his family and his job, and along with other victims of the Wild Card moved into New York City's Bowery section, which would eventually be renamed Jokertown.
Desmond would go on to found the "Jokers' Anti-Defamation League", or JADL, the world's leading Jokers' rights organization. He became one of the Joker activists most widely known to the general public, earning him the nickname "the unofficial mayor of Jokertown". Some of the younger generation of angrier, more radical Jokers felt disdain for Desmond's work-within-the-system attitude and mocked his "mayoral" status, particularly the violent Joker terrorist Gimli, who compared the polite and soft-spoken Desmond to a Joker version of Uncle Tom.
Xavier Desmond was one of a number of high-profile Jokers, Aces, and reporters asked by the World Health Organization to go on a "World Tour" to examine the status of Jokers in various countries worldwide. In Wild Cards IV: Aces Abroad, the recurring inter-story segments titled "From The Journal of Xavier Desmond" tell a great deal about Desmond's life and feelings, and also reveal that he is dying of cancer. The "Journal" segments also show some behind-the-scenes looks at the events on an airplane full of conflicting personalities.
Xavier Desmond died on July 16, 1987, at the Blythe Van Rensselaer Memorial Clinic (commonly known as the Jokertown Clinic). The last, proud words written in his journal were, "My name was Xavier Desmond, and I was a man".
Yeoman
Yeoman (Daniel Brennan) was created by John J. Miller and first appeared in the short story "Comes a Hunter" in the first book of the series. A masked, bow and arrow wielding vigilante, Yeoman was, for several years, a deadly menace to the criminal element of New York, especially the Immaculate Egrets and their parent organization the Shadow Fists. An early high point of Yeoman's career was helping end the Swarm menace, alongside Dr. Tachyon, Fortunato, and the female Ace healer known as Mai.
Daniel Brennan was a captain in the U.S. Army during the Vietnam War, where he was involved in numerous covert operations. He discovered that there was a high-ranking traitor within the ranks of the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) who was selling military secrets to the enemy. After tracing the information back to ARVN General Kien Phuc, Brennan made the mistake of trying to confront the general. Kien framed Brennan for the murder of his superior officer and destroyed the evidence Brennan had collected, leaving him no choice but to desert the army and flee the country.
It is not clear what Brennan did during the following years, but he may have served as a mercenary for a time before meeting a roshi named Ishida who helped him learn to discipline his emotions. Brennan spent many years studying the martial arts and became exceptionally skilled in Zen archery. Although he became quite calm and precise in his actions, he never succeeded in finding inner peace.
In the early 1980s, Brennan received a letter from one of his former Vietnamese compatriots, telling him that Kien Phuc had been seen in America. Despite being a wanted man, Brennan journeyed to New York City to hunt down Kien and complete his final mission. When he arrived, he found that his friend had been killed by one of the gangs controlled by Kien, who now wore the guise of a legitimate business tycoon. Donning a mask and the name Yeoman, and taking up the recurve bow, Brennan began to systematically kill Kien's thugs and enforcers, each time leaving behind the same symbol he'd marked his kills with in Vietnam... the Ace of Spades.
In searching for information about Kien, he came in contact with a strange yet fascinating woman: the transparent but mysterious Joker known as Chrysalis. Chrysalis and Brennan would have a torrid on-again off-again affair for several years, before finally separating for good.
Brennan would later become involved with a girl who was Chrysalis' polar opposite; optimistic instead of cynical, open instead of manipulative, and whereas Chrysalis looked like a ghost but was actually solid, Wraith looked normal but could turn insubstantial at will.
Yeoman first met Wraith when he learned she had stolen Kien's personal diary, which could give Brennan damning evidence against Kien, perhaps enough to bring him down for good. But after Wraith and Yeoman fought a virtual war against Kien and his minions over possession of the diary, it all turned out to be for nothing; the diary had been written in gold ink, gold being something that Wraith could not "ghost", and whatever writing had been in it had been left inside the wall of Kien's office safe. Brennan, on the verge of exploding at the news, abruptly realised that Kien was not to know that the pages had been blanked, and instead burst into a good, long belly laugh, the first he'd had in years.
In time, Brennan lost much of his anger toward Kien and retired to the countryside with Wraith. He returned to New York once, when Chrysalis was murdered.
Daniel Brennan has had cosmetic surgery to add epicanthic folds to his eyes in order to infiltrate Kien's mostly-Asian gangs. Between his military experience and his martial arts training, he is a skilled and deadly fighter, with bare hands and an assortment of weapons. Though a crack shot, his preferred weapon is either the Japanese longbow or the compound bow, which he used extensively during his time in New York. As Yeoman he wore plain clothes and a hood-like mask.
References
External links
Lists of literary characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahtzee%20Croshaw
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Yahtzee Croshaw
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Benjamin Richard "Yahtzee" Croshaw (born 24 May 1983) is a British comedic writer, author, video game journalist, humorist, podcaster, and video game developer. He is best known for his video game review series Zero Punctuation, which he produces for The Escapist. Before this, Croshaw gained attention in the Adventure Game Studio community for his video game production.
He is involved in multiple other video series and podcasts for The Escapist.
Croshaw has published five novels through Dark Horse Comics: Mogworld, published August 2010, Jam, (October 2012), Will Save the Galaxy for Food (February 2017), Differently Morphous (March 2019) and Will Destroy the Galaxy for Cash (September 2019). A sixth novel, Existentially Challenged (December 2021), has been published as an audiobook.
Starting from Differently Morphous, Croshaw's books were released as Audible exclusives first as audiobooks, with other formats releasing later on. Croshaw also contributed a short story to the Machine of Death (October 2010) compilation.
Croshaw has also been developing video games since 1998, his two commercial releases, Hatfall and The Consuming Shadow, are published across Steam and Humble Bundle.
Outside of writing, Croshaw was one of the four founders of the Mana Bar, an Australian cocktail bar and video gaming lounge which opened in 2010. The Mana Bar closed on 24 May 2015.
Works on The Escapist
Zero Punctuation
Zero Punctuation is a weekly video-review column Croshaw produces for The Escapist. The series started when Croshaw uploaded two reviews for Fable: The Lost Chapters and The Darkness demo to YouTube, after which The Escapist contacted him to offer a contract. Reviews are released every Wednesday, with Tuesday previews running for a period of time on G4's now-defunct X-Play. Croshaw is best known in this series for his generally scathing reviews of mainstream games, as well as often explicitly vulgar comparisons and rapid-fire speech.
Some of the few games that have actually received favorable reviews are Portal, Psychonauts, Silent Hill 2, Call of Duty4: Modern Warfare, Spec Ops: The Line, and Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door. Portal and Silent Hill 2 are his two favorite games of all time; others are Prince of Persia: The Sands of Time, Shadow of the Colossus, Thief II: The Metal Age, and Dark Souls.
Post-Zero Punctuation streams
Roughly 4 hours after each weekly Zero Punctuation, Croshaw streams the reviewed game live for two hours with fellow Escapist members on Twitch and Youtube. The hosts showcase and discuss the game in question.
Yahtzee's Dev Diary
Every Tuesday fortnight, Croshaw hosts Yahtzee's Dev Diary, a video series based on advice for video game design, writing and general creativity. During season one, he developed 12 games in 12 months and during season two, he was developing Starstruck Vagabond as well as sharing general thoughts on game design. The series is currently on hiatus, although an episode of Extra Punctuation did follow up on Starstruck Vagabond.
Slightly Something Else
Croshaw joins Jack Packard weekly in Slightly Something Else, formerly Slightly Civil War, a live podcast show based on video game related topics.
Ask the Creators
Croshaw join other Escapist members in a monthly video series called Ask the Creators where they answer audience submitted questions.
Adventure Is Nigh!
A Dungeons & Dragons campaign as an animated video series starring Croshaw and fellow Escapist members, KC Nwosu, Jack Packard, Amy Campbell & Jesse Galena.
Extra Punctuation
A supplementary column to Zero Punctuation, released weekly on The Escapist from July 2009 to April 2017. Revived as video series in October 2021, Croshaw broadens his commentary to the general video game industry.
Games
Croshaw became known in the Adventure Game Studio community for the Rob Blanc trilogy. He then created another AGS game, The Trials of Odysseus Kent, which was released on 30 September 2002. The Trials of Odysseus Kent was mentioned by PC Plus magazine as "AGS Showcase" in the November 2003 issue. He also helped found the collaborative Reality-on-the-Norm series by creating the first game, Lunchtime of the Damned. The series has gone on to have over 50 episodes since. In 2003, Croshaw created a total conversion mod for Duke Nukem 3D: Atomic Edition called Age of Evil. Some of his later works experimented with the AGS engine to produce games in other genres than the point-and-click adventure games that AGS was designed for, such as Adventures in the Galaxy of Fantabulous Wonderment, and the 1213 series.
1213 and the Chzo Mythos games were both later released as special editions. These contain author's commentaries, extended endings, or even extended notes giving backstory. Croshaw allowed people to get these each time they donated over five U.S. dollars to his site, but as of July 2009 they were given out for free on his site, as he said he no longer relied on the donations as a means of support.
Croshaw writes his own games and their graphics and animation using Adobe Photoshop and Microsoft Paint, though he does not compose his own music.
Visual Basic (1998–2000)
Arthur Yahtzee Trilogy
A series of adventure games for Microsoft Windows 95 in the 1990s that were written in Visual Basic 3 and largely drawn in Microsoft Paint during Croshaw's high school years, inspired by his schoolmate Michael Dodson's Red Dwarf games, with the first being released on 1January 1998. They star his "signature character", from which his Internet alias is derived. In Friday: Death to Arthur Yahtzee, a group of mutants whom Arthur once defeated are back and out to get him. In Saturday: Arthur's Odyssey, Yahtzee has to face forces trying to mess with time, a quest that leads into Yesterday: The D-Gate where Arthur faces the villain Cathode (and helped by Anode). He reveals himself to be the one responsible for all Arthur's troubles in the previous games and is now determined to gain the power to control travel between dimensions. The game ends with Arthur destroying the entire Multiverse in his quest to stop him.
These games were created before Croshaw had a career (or, indeed, his own website), and were hosted on the site of a friend of his; when that site went down, they were hosted to Croshaw's Fully Ramblomatic site. A text adventure game, Arthur Yahtzee: The Curse of Hell's Cheesecake, was also created (however it is not considered part of the actual trilogy).
Adventure Game Studio (2000–2007)
Rob Blanc Trilogy
The Rob Blanc trilogy is a series of adventure games for MS-DOS that follow the adventures of the fictional character Robert "Rob" Blanc, an unassuming English chip shop worker who is abducted by the High Ones, the two secret rulers of reality. He is told that he is to become the "Defender of the Universe" to provide a counterbalance to all the evil being done in the galaxy. In Rob BlancI: Better Days of a Defender of the Universe, he is sent to an alien spaceship to find out what happened to the crew, and prove himself as a worthy defender of the universe. The second game, Rob Blanc II: Planet of the Pasteurised Pestilence, features Rob returning to Earth while the High Ones construct his ship. While there, he notices a green-haired teenage male, Paul Grewald, following him, and inside an elevator, both of them find that they have been sent into outer space. Landing on an alien world, they find that the natives believe them to be the ones prophesied to cure a great plague which is enveloping the planet, and are thus forced to live up to the legend. The third and final game, Rob Blanc III: The Temporal Terrorists, begins on Rob's spaceship where he and Paul, now his sidekick, are finally ready to start defending the universe. Their first mission soon comes: somebody is removing all the time from the universe, and Rob and Paul must find and assemble the parts of the Reaman Time Drive (RTD) to find out who is responsible for it. All the games follow the same point-and-click interface typical of the AGS engine they were built on, with most of the puzzles involving the finding of objects. The series' humour is inspired by The Hitchhikers Guide to the Galaxy and Red Dwarf.
The Trials of Odysseus Kent
After finishing the Arthur Yahtzee and Rob Blanc trilogies, Croshaw had stated that he was done with making adventure games. In 2002, however, Croshaw wrote and released The Trials of Odysseus Kent, inspired by the Monkey Island series. The game follows Odysseus Kent, a mysterious drifter and treasure hunter who dresses like he's from the Regency era. Kent has come to a small village community in search of a bonanza called the Lost Treasure of Randolph McBoing. The game uses a traditional point-and-click interface places a higher emphasis on visual graphics rather than message boxes. The game was to be continued in a sequel entitled The Rise and Fall of Odysseus Kent, however, Croshaw lost interest and the game remains unfinished.
Adventures in the Galaxy of Fantabulous Wonderment
Released in 2005, Adventures in the Galaxy of Fantabulous Wonderment features cynical science fiction humour similar to Sierra On-Line's Space Quest, but mixes adventure elements with turn-based space combat, resource trading and space exploration gameplay mechanisms reminiscent of space simulator titles like Star Control and Wing Commander: Privateer. The game is both a parody of and a tribute to science fiction games and films. For instance, a major plot point is the deployment of Redshirts (an obvious homage to Star Trek's disposable red-shirted crew members), who are used as cannon fodder when the situation planet-side is deemed too dangerous for the ship's crew. The easily replaceable Redshirts invariably die, often in gruesome and darkly comic ways. Although not a part of the series proper, the game is set in the Rob Blanc science fiction universe, following the disappearance of the "Defender of the Universe" and the chaos that followed. The game was to be continued in a sequel, Escape from the Dimension of Insidulous Cruellitude; however, Croshaw lost interest, and the game remains uncompleted.
Chzo Mythos
5 Days a Stranger, 7 Days a Skeptic, Trilby's Notes, and 6Days a Sacrifice are the four parts of a horror series that were released in 2003, 2004, 2006, and 2007 respectively. In 5Days a Stranger, the player controls the shady cat burglar Trilby, who stumbles across a demonic force that manifests itself as a masked killer in the tradition of Jason Voorhees or Michael Myers, while finding himself one of a group of strangers thrown together in an abandoned mansion and being picked off one by one. 7Days a Skeptic emulates the claustrophobic horror of Alien following a spaceship crew that finds a mysterious artefact floating in space, four hundred years after the events of 5Days a Stranger. Trilby's Notes, set in a hotel which exists in both the real world and a horrific alternate dimension in the style of Silent Hill, goes back to flesh out the origin of the cursed African idol from the other games. 6Days a Sacrifice is the final episode of the John DeFoe tetralogy. It links all its three previous episodes and completes the story of Chzo and John DeFoe.
While the first two games use the point-and-click interface typical of adventure games, Trilby's Notes requires the player to move with the keyboard and type commands with a text parser, similar to the early Sierra On-Line King's Quest series.
A wrapped version for Linux was released in 2010 to icculus.org, later updated to use the open source version of AGS in 2015.
1213 series
1213 is a trilogy of horror science-fiction games. The episodes tell the story of the suffering and eventual escape of an amnesiac victim of experimentation, code-named 1213, from his cell, freed by his unseen tormentor. On escaping, 1213 sees that the facility's other guinea pigs, all similarly named to himself, have also escaped and have been turned into zombies, slaughtering the employees. 1213 is notable for reproducing the traditional platformer experience using an engine originally designed to be used in the production of point-and-click adventure games. Simply animated, many elements of the game reflect the original Prince of Persia gameplay mechanics, though it incorporates aspects of gunplay found in Another World and Flashback: The Quest for Identity, the latter of which he has written a sixteen-chapter Let's Play of.
Trilby: The Art of Theft
Set two years before 5 Days a Stranger, though unrelated to the John DeFoe storyline in the other Chzo Mythos games, Trilby: The Art of Theft is a mission-based platform game released in 2007. Like 1213, Trilby: The Art of Theft was made in AGS and features similar gameplay, though with less emphasis on combat and more on stealth. Unusual for a Croshaw game, Trilby: The Art of Theft is gameplay based rather than story based like the majority of his work. The game follows Trilby, years before any encounter with the supernatural, as a young gentleman thief whose identity is compromised after he is caught returning from a job. Trilby must loot various buildings in missions while avoiding guards, lasers and security cameras. To deal with being detected, Trilby is equipped with a utility umbrella that contains a taser to knockout aware guards, though if he is detected too many times the level ends.
Game Maker (2012–present)
Poacher
Poacher was released on 5 April 2012. It is a Metroidvania style non-linear platformer starring Derek Badger, a poacher who travels underground to save a gamekeeper from hordes of demonic rabbits, with the assistance of a spirit. Their actions inadvertently break a longstanding treaty between the spirits and their enemies, the Dark Ones. Eventually, he must resolve difficulties between the two factions to prevent war from breaking out. The game was his first to be made in Game Maker, and was released to positive reception.
The Consuming Shadow
The Consuming Shadow was announced in November 2013 on Croshaw's personal website where the beta version was made available for download. He updated the game continually until 26 June, when he uploaded the trailer of the final version. On 28 July 2015, two editions were made available to purchase on both through Humble Bundle and the Mac App Store, with a Steam version later being green lit. The special edition of the game included the e-book releases of Croshaw's novels Mogworld and Jam.
Hatfall
In February 2015, Croshaw announced a new game titled Hatfall, based on his Zero Punctuation series, that he would design. The game was later released in July 2015 and is available on IOS, Android and PC. The game is advertised as "Zero Punctuation's official hat-putting-on simulator" and reflects the series' humour and minimalist design.
12 Games in 12 Months
Starting in May 2019 as part of his Dev Diary series, Croshaw pledged to prototype a different game design each month for twelve months with a video diary released every fortnight.
May 2019: Preflight Panic – inspired by Papers, Please, the player is a flight attendant who must check and correct each passenger or else the plane explodes on take-off.
June 2019: BRTV – the player is an executive producer running a reality show about a battle royale scenario.
July 2019: Upbeat – a platform game mixed with a rhythm game where the player must move along with the beat.
August 2019: The Life of Erich Zann – a horror game inspired by the short story The Music of Erich Zann by H.P. Lovecraft.
September 2019: Hogpocalypse Sow – a shooter game where the player must use two different colored guns to fend off waves of correspondingly colored feral pigs.
October 2019: The Cleaner – a stealth game where the player diverts suspicion before committing an assassination, whereupon they must clean the room before time runs out.
November 2019: The Button That Ruins Everything – an incremental game where the player watches the story of a dog as their life unfolds and goes through random scenarios, whilst trying to keep an orange cat from pressing the titular "Button That Ruins Everything".
December 2019: Casey Joint – a game made to simulate fake movie hacking, where the player must work together with Trilby to pull off a series of heists through hacking objects in the environment, which is based around mashing random keys on the keyboard.
January 2020: Hold the Phone – a game designed to simulate the stress of being on hold for a phone call while managing other tasks.
February 2020: Something's in the Sea – a horror game about collecting items from the bottom of the sea while evading a giant monster dwelling under the water.
March 2020: The Magic Poo Machine – a game inspired by "Night Shift", which involves building a contraption that will transform the extraordinary matter excreted by a dog into various products to be shipped for profit.
April 2020: Bunker Bustin' – a game about an evil dictator locked in a bunker who must kill himself and his subordinates by ricocheting bullets off the bunker walls.
Starstruck Vagabond
During the first season of his Dev Diary series, Yahtzee mentioned stalled progress on a game he had been working on, which he described to be similar to Stardew Valley, but set in space with the player character being a cargo ship captain. Audience reaction to the footage and concept was positive, and Yahtzee resumed work on the game in the second season of Dev Diary, which almost completely focused on this game's development. The name "Starstruck Vagabond" was announced in episode 3. The first build of the game was released for public testing after episode 12.
Writing
Webcomics
On 20 December 2000 Yahtzee started a webcomic known as Yahtzee Takes on the World, which contained characters from his Arthur Yahtzee and Rob Blanc trilogies. The comic ended its run on 22 September 2002. In addition, he also produced several other webcomics; The Adventures of Angular Mike, Cowboy Comics!, and Chris and Trilby which is based on the characters Chris Quinn from Age of Evil and Trilby from Chzo Mythos. Yahtzee has since openly disowned his comics, attributing it to a "dark time" in his life, although they are still hosted online to read.
Novels
Croshaw's website hosts two unpublished novels: Articulate Jim: A Search for Something, a pirate-themed in part work; and Fog Juice, his 2005 "National Novel Writing Month" entry. In addition, he has also written two unpublished tie-in short stories for Chzo Mythos. All of his published novels have been released in audiobook format, narrated by Croshaw himself.
Mogworld
On 23 October 2009, The Escapist announced Croshaw's first novel, Mogworld, "the story of Jim, who, sixty years after dying in a magic-school mishap, is wrenched back to life by a renegade necromancer". Croshaw stated that the novel would be released on 19 August 2010 while the Mogworld profile on the Dark Horse Books website claims it was released on 8September. The title is a reference to the massively multiplayer online role-playing games genre name which Croshaw believes is unwieldy.
Machine of Death
In the year 2010, on October 26, 2010, the independently published short story anthology Machine of Death was published, containing a short story by Croshaw.
Jam
On 26 December 2010, Croshaw revealed that he was working on a second novel. "It's about an apocalypse. WITH JAM IN IT." On 25 April 2012, Croshaw announced the novel, titled Jam. It was published by Dark Horse Books and released on 23 October 2012. The concept for the novel can be seen in the Zero Punctuation review of the survival horror game Dead Island where he says that people would not be able to cope if civilization ends in any other way than a zombie apocalypse. He then mentions the idea of the entire world getting covered in "carnivorous jam". Croshaw has stated that Jam is tangentially related to Mogworld but is not a sequel.
Will Save the Galaxy for Food
On 25 August 2016 Croshaw announced on his blog that a third novel would be released on 1February 2017. He had previously mentioned that he was working on a third novel, a science fiction comedy, on his Let's Drown Out video series. The novel, Will Save the Galaxy for Food, is set in a universe in which the age of space exploration is cut short by the invention of teleportation technology with limitless range and focuses on a former space hero who finds himself embroiled in a dangerous conspiracy. A short excerpt from the novel was included in Croshaw's video game Hatfall, playing in the background of one of the minigames in a spoof of the Star Wars Opening Crawl.
Differently Morphous
On 7 March 2018 Croshaw announced on his blog he'd released a fourth novel called Differently Morphous. It was released as an Audible original first, with a print edition coming later in the year. The novel is about a group of individuals from the Ministry of Occultism needing to track down a magical serial killer while dealing with the public scrutiny of our modern politically correct society.
Will Destroy the Galaxy for Cash
On 21 September 2019, Croshaw announced on his blog that a direct sequel to Will Save the Galaxy for Food was slated for release on Audible.com on 26 September 2019. Croshaw specifically stated that he was leery of sequels and serials, because he remembered as a kid only finding books 2 and 4 of certain series, but he also mentioned that this lack of availability was a non-issue in the age of digital media. He also explains that "saving [himself] the trouble of coming up with new characters was nice." The novel tells the story of an out-of-work space hero going by the name Dashford Pierce, as a set of complications once again turn his life upside down.
Existentially Challenged
On 10 December 2021, Croshaw announced on his blog that a sequel to Differently Morphous was available. Existentially Challenged is initially only available as an Audible Original, with plans for a print edition from Dark Horse in the future.
Involvement with other games
On 5 July 2011, Croshaw admitted in his Extra Punctuation column that at one point during its long development, he was given an offer by 3D Realms developer Brian Hook to write the script for Duke Nukem Forever. This was a response to a fan's question, following Croshaw's official review of the game, regarding a fact brought up in a 23 June episode of the TWiT Video Game Show. In the episode, Duke Nukem Forever developer Jay Brushwood claimed that Hook pushed for Croshaw's involvement in the project and that his piece stood out as being the funniest among the samples sent in by other writers. However, lead designer George Broussard rejected Croshaw's script for being, according to Brushwood, "too out there" and untrue to the Duke Nukem character; Croshaw later added in his column that it didn't match the game's "tone".
According to the Extra Punctuation article, his short audition script wrote Duke Nukem as an ironic character; seeing that it was the only way to successfully present the overly-macho character to the current market. Croshaw added that he never talked about the offer up to that point due to possible "unspoken" non-disclosure action and because he didn't think the whole story was worth mentioning to the public. He elaborated further when he and Gabriel Morton played Duke Nukem Forever on Let's Drown Out, calling Duke Nukem a "dinosaur" and pointing out that the character was "part of a culture that no longer existed".
During his trip to E3 2019, Yahtzee revealed that he did minor writing work on Watch Dogs: Legion. He explained that he was hired early in development to "punch up the dialogue for the AI support character [Bagley]".
Other projects
Podcast and YouTube projects
Since 13 April 2011, Croshaw has hosted podcasts on his personal website. The podcasts consist of unscripted banter between him and co-speaker Gabriel Morton regarding various subjects. The format is show and tell: Croshaw and Morton each bring three objects to discuss. The audio files were also posted on SoundCloud, but have since been deleted, until a fan brought them back on YouTube.
In February 2012, Croshaw and Gabriel Morton began producing Let's Play videos of various older video games and uploading them to Croshaw's YouTube channel yahtzee19. While playing, the two discuss current news in gaming and films. As of July 2019, more than 90 games have been played in the series.
The "Show and Tell Podcasts" have since ended with Croshaw and Morton hybridizing their Let's Play series with podcast topics. Titled Let's Drown Out, Morton and Yahtzee play a "boring game" of one's choosing (alternating with each episode) and talk about current events in the video game world. The series was done weekly and posted on Croshaw's YouTube channel until being tentatively put on hiatus in December 2014, due to Croshaw and Morton feeling the format had grown stale. Since then, Let's Drown Out has been interspersed with their earlier format of Let's Play recordings of Adventure games, as well as a newer series of retrospective gameplay commentaries on Croshaw's own, earlier games, titled The Ego Review. In the series, Croshaw and Morton discuss the games' writing and plot holes. Croshaw also talks about the feedback the games got. The format has been rearranged to allow the two to, in Croshaw's words, "play whatever the fuck we like and talk about whatever the fuck we like". Due to Yahtzee's move to the United States, his podcast series "Lets Drown Out" came to an end; with the final episode covering the Portal2 Co-op campaign. Two additional episodes involving the two were created around Croshaw's wedding, where Morton attended as Best Man, and were post-ZP streams on the Escapist's channel covering Vampyr & Jurassic Park Evolution.
Game Damage
Game Damage was a planned game-themed television series pilot co-starring Croshaw with Matt Burgess and Guy "Yug" Blomberg from the website Australian Gamer. The pilot was released on YouTube on 15 December 2008. A website was set up to promote the series. The show was supposed to feature gaming news, comedy sketches, reviews of MMORPGs and three special reports, one of which involved Croshaw in a discussion of the adventure game genre. On 3October 2009, an updated pilot was uploaded to YouTube and the Game Damage website, showing new sketches and appearances at Supanova 2009.
There was little to no published information about Game Damage afterwards. In 2011, Croshaw was asked if Game Damage was still being worked on, to which he simply replied "Nope."
The Mana Bar
Croshaw was one of the four founders of The Mana Bar, an Australian cocktail bar and video gaming lounge. The bar was founded in Brisbane, with a second venue opened in Melbourne in 2011. The bar intended to continue to spread around Australia and potentially internationally, however, as of May 2015, all venues have closed their doors.
Past works on The Escapist
Extra Consideration
Extra Consideration was a discussion column featuring Croshaw & other members of The Escapist that ran briefly from February to September 2011.
Jim & Yahtzee's Rhymedown Spectacular
In addition to Zero Punctuation, Croshaw has also starred in a series on The Escapist titled Jim & Yahtzee's Rhymedown Spectacular alongside former Escapist personality Jim Sterling. The weekly series consisted of an original piece of video game themed poetry each from Croshaw and Sterling. Unlike his other shows, Croshaw presented himself on camera the entire time. The series aired weekly from 17 April 2013, to 28 May 2014.
Uncivil War
Additionally, Croshaw and Sterling briefly starred in a competitive series titled Uncivil War, where they play various games with obscure rules attached to decide the victor. The first season lasted from July to November in 2014, with Sterling being the winner. There were plans for a second season, but were cancelled after Sterling left The Escapist.
Judging by the Cover
In July 2015, Croshaw started another video series for The Escapist called Judging by the Cover, where Croshaw sarcastically reviews video games and movies simply by looking at their box art or cover. This series ended in October 2017, with Croshaw stating in a later documentary that he felt he "was repeating himself".
Yahtzee's E3 2019 Adventure
For E3 2019, Yahtzee traveled to the expo on behalf of The Escapist with the Gameumentary staff to document the entire show. The Gameumentary team also used their time with Croshaw to create a mini-documentary about Zero Punctuation.
Personal life
Born the younger of two brothers, Croshaw attended Eastlands Primary School after which he attended Abbots Farm Middle School and finally Lawrence Sheriff School. Here he made his first adventure game before dropping out of secondary school. At the age of 20, he moved to Australia to pursue new career opportunities. As of 2013, he did not often contact his brother, while his parents disapproved of his game-critic career, as they wanted him to enroll into higher education. In August 2016, Yahtzee moved to San Francisco.
As of July 2018, he is married to his long-time girlfriend Kess. Croshaw became a father in January 2020 to a daughter, with a second following in 2022.
References
External links
Fully Ramblomatic Ben Croshaw's official website
Zero Punctuation on The Escapist
AGS Games Award winners
Yahtzee Croshaw on Twitter
Yahtzee on Adventure Game Studio Wiki
Living people
1983 births
People from Rugby, Warwickshire
Adventure Game Studio
Audiobook narrators
English bloggers
English expatriates in Australia
English expatriates in the United States
English male journalists
English male voice actors
English male short story writers
English male novelists
English fantasy writers
English science fiction writers
English comedy writers
British Internet celebrities
British humorists
Video game critics
Let's Players
English YouTubers
British video game programmers
Drinking establishment owners
Writers from San Francisco
AGS Award winners
People educated at Lawrence Sheriff School
YouTube critics and reviewers
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Trade dollar (United States coin)
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The United States trade dollar was a dollar coin minted by the United States Mint to compete with other large silver trade coins that were already popular in East Asia. The idea first came about in the 1860s, when the price of silver began to decline due to increased mining in the western United States. A bill providing in part for the issuance of the trade dollar was eventually put before Congress, where it was approved, and signed into law as the Coinage Act of 1873. The act made trade dollars legal tender up to five dollars. A number of designs were considered for the trade dollar, and an obverse and reverse created by William Barber were selected.
The first trade dollars were struck in 1873; the majority of these were sent to China. Eventually, bullion producers began converting large amounts of silver into trade dollars, causing the coins to make their way into American commercial channels. This caused frustration among those to whom they were given in payment, as the coins were largely maligned and traded for less than one dollar each. In response to their wide distribution in American commerce, the coins were officially demonetized in 1876, but continued to circulate. The production of business strikes ended in 1878, though proof coins officially continued to be minted until 1883. The trade dollar was re-monetized when the Coinage Act of 1965 was signed into law.
Trade coins are coins minted by a government, but not necessarily legal tender within the territory of the issuing country. These quasi-bullion coins (in rarer cases small change) were thus actually export goods—that is, bullion in the form of coins, used to buy goods from other countries.
Background
Following the California gold rush that began in 1849 and the Australian gold rush that began in 1851, a larger amount of gold was put into commerce than could be easily absorbed by the normal channels. This resulted in a decrease in the value of gold and an increase in the relative value of silver. As a result, silver coins rapidly disappeared from circulation due either to hoarding or melting. In response, Congress authorized the Mint to reduce the quantity of silver in all denominations except the three-cent piece and silver dollar. Beginning in the 1860s, silver production rose and the price decreased. During this period, there was a notable decline in the circulation of silver coins, which were gradually replaced by copper and paper currency. This shift in currency composition resulted in a decrease in the availability and usage of silver coins within the monetary system. The reasons behind this transition varied and were influenced by a range of economic, political, and social factors. As a consequence, copper and paper currency gained prominence as the primary means of exchange, marking a significant change in the monetary landscape of the time.
In China, the Mexican peso (successor to the Spanish dollar) was greatly valued in commerce. However, the Chinese were sensitive to any changes in the coin's design, and were reluctant to accept newer coins due to a minor design change. The American silver dollar, lighter than its Spanish counterpart, was unpopular in East Asia due to its lower weight, forcing American merchants to purchase the Spanish or Mexican pieces to use in trade. Beginning in 1866, during the reign of Emperor Maximilian, the design was changed to show the Emperor's portrait; this caused widespread nonacceptance of the coins in China.
While conducting an investigation of the Mint at San Francisco, deputy comptroller of the currency John Jay Knox began discussing the monetary situation with Louis A. Garnett, a man who had worked as both the treasurer and assayer of the San Francisco Mint. Garnett recommended that the United States mint a commercial dollar that would be exported to East Asia to compete with other countries' silver trade coins that were already popular in that region. Garnett's rationale was that the majority of the coins would be hoarded or melted in Asia and would never be presented for redemption, allowing the government to make a profit from the seigniorage. During his time in San Francisco, Knox also discussed the proposed commercial dollar with Henry Linderman, who was working as a special agent for the Treasury Department at that time. In 1870, Knox wrote a report to the Treasury and wrote the draft for a bill on coinage. Knox's bill was approved by George Boutwell, Secretary of the Treasury. After modification and review from current and former government officials, the bill was put before Congress.
On November 19, 1872, while the coinage bill was still before Congress, Linderman made a report to the Secretary of the Treasury. In the report, Linderman argued that the coin need not hold legal tender status, and that it could simply be a piece of silver imprinted with its weight and fineness. Linderman also notes that such a product could supersede the Mexican dollar and eventually command a six to eight percent premium; at that time, American silver exported to East Asia was being sold at a two percent discount. Linderman proposed that the coin be named the "silver union" in order to distinguish it from the standard coins then in production.
In February 1872, the bill was amended by a House of Representatives committee to include authorization for a commercial dollar weighing ; but this proposal was replaced three months later when the House voted to include provisions for the production of a standard silver dollar weighing . While in the Senate, the bill was again amended to require the Treasury to coin a trade dollar of , as had been done earlier in the House. The revised bill, which came to be known as the Coinage Act of 1873, was approved in the House and Senate and was signed by President Ulysses S. Grant on February 12, 1873.
The bill provided, in part, for the striking of trade dollars which held legal tender status up to five dollars. The legal tender provision was added by a last-minute rider at the behest of silver interests. At the insistence of Ohio Senator John Sherman, the weight and fineness of the piece was indicated on the reverse, an attribution which numismatic historian Don Taxay found incomprehensible as "Chinese merchants would never understand them".
Prior to the passage of the Coinage Act, the director of the Philadelphia Mint oversaw all branch mints. After the Act, the office of director was transferred to Washington, D.C., and responsibility for each mint was handed over to a superintendent.
Design selection
Throughout the year of 1872, the Mint struck a series of commercial dollar patterns in anticipation of the passage of the coinage bill. Production of patterns continued into 1873, but the denomination of the pattern coins was changed from "commercial dollar" to "trade dollar" before the bill was signed into law. After passage of the Coinage Act, Linderman met with Director of the Mint James Pollock to discuss the design of the newly authorized trade dollar. The two men agreed to request a jewelry and engraving firm, Bailey Banks & Biddle of Philadelphia, to create designs that would be compared to those already created by Chief Engraver William Barber.
After examining the designs of both parties, Linderman ordered that the design would depict a seated figure representing Liberty facing to the viewer's left, representing the direction of East Asia. Linderman apparently selected the designs from two different patterns. In June 1873, Linderman reviewed the various patterns created by Barber; he chose an obverse which one contemporary reporter described as "a female figure seated on bales of merchandise, holding in her left hand a scroll bearing the word 'Liberty'. At her back is a sheaf of wheat, expressing, with the bales of goods, the commercial character of the coin: the right hand extended holds the olive branch." The selected reverse depicts the bald eagle as required by law. The eagle has three arrows in the right claw and an olive branch in the left, a reversal to most other U.S. silver coins of the era. A set of six patterns, four with variations on the adopted obverse, and two showing portraits of Liberty, was sold by the Mint to the general public in limited quantities.
Production
Linderman assumed the position of Director of the Mint and Pollock became Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint. In July 1873, production began on the dies needed to strike the coins. During this time, in a telegram to Pollock, Linderman asked that production of trade dollars be hastened because Mexico was preparing to issue another series of dollars with the older design popular in Asia, a design that was discontinued in 1866. The first trade dollars were struck during a ceremony held on July 11, 1873. Forty thousand pieces were issued in the first release, on July 14. The Carson City Mint received its first dies for the new coins on July 22, and those intended for the San Francisco Mint arrived shortly after. In total, 396,635 business strikes and 865 proof coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint during the first year of production. The Carson City and San Francisco mints struck 124,500 and 703,000 coins respectively.
There were complaints that year from officials at all three of the mints concerning the quality of the coins produced. In the summer of 1874, coiner A. Loudon Snowden issued a formal complaint to Pollock about the quality of the strikings, most notably on the high points of the design; Barber began modifying the design later that year, reducing the relief. The modified dies began service in 1875. In the fall of that year, Linderman suggested that the reverse of the trade dollar should be altered in 1876 to commemorate the centennial of American independence; Pollock opposed the idea, noting that such a change would be difficult to carry out because Congressional approval would be necessary and that it might cause the coin to lose favor in East Asia. In May 1876, former assistant engraver Anthony C. Paquet created a reverse die after being hired by Linderman to improve the striking quality of the coins. Linderman approved of the new design, but it was ultimately rejected by Mint officials due to fears of Chinese disapproval.
Though production of business strikes ended in 1878, the striking of proof coins continued in limited numbers until 1883, when the final 979 coins were minted at the Philadelphia Mint. In 1908, it was discovered that ten proofs dated 1884 and five dated 1885 had been produced, but they are not listed in official records and it is not known when they were created.
Reception
Most of the 1873 production was exported to China. In October of that year, the Tongzhi Emperor had an assay test conducted on the coins. In a proclamation translated by Chinese consul and interpreter Walter Hillier, the Emperor stated:This Proclamation, therefore, is for the information of you merchants, traders, soldiers and people of every district. You must know that the 'Eagle Trade Dollar' that has lately come to Hong Kong has been jointly assayed by officers specially appointed for the purpose, and it can be taken in payment of duties, and come into general circulation. You must not look upon it with suspicion. At the same time rogues, sharpers, and the like, are hereby strictly forbidden to fabricate spurious imitations of this new Eagle Dollar, with a view to their own profit. And should they dare to set this prohibition at defiance, and fabricate false coin, they shall, upon discovery, most assuredly be arrested and punished. Let every one obey with trembling! Let there be no disobedience!
In 1874, trade dollars began appearing in American commerce. In early 1875, Congress passed the Specie Redemption Act, allowing the Treasury to pay out silver coins in exchange for paper currency. That act, combined with a drop in the price of silver, caused hoarded or exported silver coins to reappear in commerce within the United States. Many trade dollars were reimported, especially to California. After the value of silver began to decline and the intrinsic value of the coins fell below one dollar, bullion depositors began having their silver struck as trade dollars and selling them wholesale to be distributed throughout the country. Bullion producers opted to coin their silver into trade dollars because the Coinage Act of 1873 specified that silver brought to the Mint could only be struck as such or cast into bars.
Congress considered raising the five-dollar legal tender limit on trade dollars, but instead passed a bill that officially demonetized the trade dollar on July 22, 1876; the Secretary of the Treasury was directed by the act to strike no more of the coins than necessary for use in trade. Despite the demonetization of the trade dollar, bullion producers continued to place the coins into the American market, resulting in an estimated seven million coins circulating within the United States, of which more than four million were placed in circulation in 1877. Despite the 1876 act, it was not until October 15, 1877, that Sherman (now Secretary of the Treasury) finally ordered that the mints not accept orders for trade dollars. On November 5, apparently believing a false report that additional supplies were needed for the Chinese New Year, he rescinded his order, finally ending orders for trade dollars on February 22, 1878.
Linderman ordered a review of the success of the trade dollar in China. It was discovered that the coins circulated reasonably well in southern China, but usage in the north was limited. As the price of silver decreased, employers in the United States began paying workers in trade dollars purchased at a discount. The situation frustrated the public, as the coins were widely disliked and many banks and businesses refused to accept them. In response, many towns, mostly in the western states, set a fixed value on trade dollars. Businesses which did accept trade dollars to avoid offending customers could not deposit them in banks or use them to pay taxes, and sold them to brokers. The brokers in turn recirculated the coins by selling them at a discount from face value to employers who included them in workers' pay packets. In 1883, members of the New York Mercantile Exchange petitioned Congress to allow redemption of the coins by the government.
Bullion prices continued to drop through the 1880s, increasing the loss by anyone forced to sell at melt value after accepting a trade dollar at face value. Despite the support of Secretary of the Treasury Charles J. Folger, the question of the redemption of the trade dollar became caught up in controversy over the heavy coinage of the new Morgan dollar under the inflationary Bland–Allison Act. Silver interests objected to the silver from redeemed trade dollars being counted towards the Mint's monthly quota under the act, preferring to sell newly mined silver instead, and opposed acts which so provided. It was not until 1887 that Congress, ostensibly to relieve the poor (though most trade dollars were by then in the hands of speculators), provided for the redemption of unmutilated trade dollars. The act, which did not count the redeemed silver towards the Bland–Allison Act quota, passed into law on February 14, 1887, when the ten-day period which President Grover Cleveland had to either sign or veto it expired with no action by the President. Many coins were not redeemable due to chop marks or holes applied by Chinese businessmen, which was done to affirm the coin's silver content. The dollars were only redeemable for six months, and the recovered silver was struck into dimes, quarters, and half dollars.
Numismatic historian Walter Breen criticized both the legal tender provision and the coin in general, stating that the coin's issuance was "an expensive mistake – its motivation mere greed, its design a triumph of dullness, its domestic circulation and legal tender status a disastrous provision of law leading only to ghastly abuses." During the 1870s an attempt by Japan to introduce its own trade dollar to China fared no better.
Trade dollars were again made legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965, which stated in part "All coins and currencies of the United States (including Federal Reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal Reserve banks and national banking associations), regardless of when coined or issued, shall be legal tender for all debts, public and private, public charges, taxes, duties, and dues." However, in later years the numismatic and bullion value of any trade dollar came to far exceed its face value of one dollar. Because of demand by collectors, there are many counterfeits, many of which are well made out of metallic alloys roughly approximating the original.
References
Bibliography
External links
Trade Dollar Mintages at Coinfacts.com
Currencies introduced in 1873
United States dollar coins
United States silver coins
Goddess of Liberty on coins
Eagles on coins
Trade coins
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typhoon%20Chanchu
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Typhoon Chanchu
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Typhoon Chanchu, known in the Philippines as Typhoon Caloy, was the most intense typhoon in the South China Sea in the month of May according to the Hong Kong Observatory (HKO). The first named storm of the 2006 Pacific typhoon season, Chanchu formed on May 8 in the vicinity of the Federated States of Micronesia and progressed westward. It gradually intensified into a tropical storm and later severe tropical storm before moving through the Philippines. On May 13, Chanchu entered the South China Sea and became a typhoon, according to the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA). Warm waters and favorable outflow allowed the storm to quickly intensify to peak maximum sustained winds of on May 15. Around that time, the typhoon turned sharply to the north toward southeastern China. Chanchu weakened as it curved to the northeast, making landfall near Shantou, Guangdong on May 17 as a severe tropical storm. The government of China considered Chanchu the earliest typhoon to make landfall in the province. On the next day, the storm emerged into the East China Sea, becoming extratropical on May 19 before dissipating west of Kyushu.
Early in its duration, Chanchu moved through the Philippines, causing power outages and landslides in several islands. Despite a general warning against small boats sailing, a ferry departed Masbate and capsized due to the storm, killing 28 people. Throughout the country, 41 people died, and damage reached ₱117.57 million (PHP, US$2.15 million). While in the South China Sea, Chanchu caught many Vietnamese fisherman off guard, causing 17 ships to sink and damaging several others. Chinese ships assisted in the search-and-rescue mission, ultimately rescuing 330 fishermen from 22 boats; however, 21 bodies were found, and the remaining 220 missing were presumed killed. In southern China, flooding and strong winds from Chanchu wrecked about 14,000 houses and damaged over of crop fields. Damage was heaviest in Shantou where it moved ashore, with flooding covering roads and entering hundreds of homes. Damage in China totaled ¥7 billion yuan (RMB, US$872 million), and there were 23 deaths. Rains from the typhoon killed two people in Taiwan after sweeping them up in a river, and crop damage there reached NT$158.88 million (NTD, US$5 million). Later, high waves killed one person in Okinawa and left another person missing, while rains extended into South Korea.
Meteorological history
An area of convection, or thunderstorms, persisted on May 5 southeast of Yap State in the Federated States of Micronesia (FSM). Initially it remained disorganized while tracking to the west, although a circulation became more distinct on May 7, indicative of gradual organization. At 06:00 UTC on May 8, the Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) declared that a tropical depression had developed about northeast of Palau. Five hours later, the Joint Typhoon Warning Center (JTWC) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert, and at 18:00 UTC they classified the system as Tropical Depression 02W. The system moved to the west-southwest, influenced by the subtropical ridge to the north. Early on May 9, the JTWC upgraded the depression to tropical storm status, and at 12:00 UTC the JMA followed suit by upgrading the system to Tropical Storm Chanchu. Also on that day, the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration (PAGASA) began issuing warnings on the storm as Tropical Storm Caloy.
In its formative stages, Chanchu was located in an environment generally favorable for intensification. Its tracked shifted more to the west-northwest due to a building ridge to the south. Late on May 10, the JTWC upgraded Chanchu to typhoon status, estimating 1 minute sustained winds of . By contrast, the JMA estimated it intensified only into a severe tropical storm with winds of . Turning more to the west, Chanchu made landfall on Samar in the eastern Philippines on May 11. Despite moving through the archipelago, Chanchu intensified slightly within the Sibuyan Sea, striking Mindoro on May 12 with 1 minute winds of , according to the JTWC. On May 13, Chanchu emerged into the South China Sea, and later that day the JMA upgraded it to typhoon status.
Upon reaching the South China Sea, Chanchu encountered an area of warm sea surface temperatures and low wind shear. After an upper-level low to the east provided favorable outflow to the south and the east, Chanchu rapidly intensified on May 14. While the storm was active, the JTWC upgraded Chanchu to a super typhoon with peak 1 minute winds of , although the agency later downgraded the peak winds to . By contrast, the JMA estimated peak 10 minute winds of at 00:00 UTC on May 15. According to the Hong Kong Observatory, the 10 minute winds reached , which made Chanchu the strongest typhoon in the South China Sea in the month of May.
By the time Chanchu attained peak winds, an eastward-moving trough over China broke up the ridge to the north, causing the typhoon to turn sharply to the north into a less favorable environment. With decreased outflow and stronger wind shear, Chanchu began slowly weakening. The eye initially remained small, but the outer eyewall deteriorated on May 16 as the convection decreased in the northern periphery. The trough that previously weakened the ridge steered Chanchu to the north-northeast and forced an extratropical transition. Late on May 17, the JMA downgraded the typhoon to a severe tropical storm. Around that time, Chanchu made landfall near Shantou, Guangdong in southeastern China, about east of Hong Kong; the JTWC estimated landfall winds of , while the JMA estimated them at 110 km/h (70 km/h). Early on May 18, the JTWC discontinued advisories, although the JMA continued tracking Chanchu over southeastern China through eastern Fujian province. Later on May 18, the storm emerged into the East China Sea, becoming fully extratropical at 00:00 UTC on May 19. The remnants continued toward Japan before dissipating at 18:00 UTC that day off the west coast of Kyushu in southern Japan.
Preparations
Officials in southern Leyte recommended that residents evacuate to prevent a repeat of a deadly landslide in February 2006. Officials canceled several flights and ferry lines, stranding 10,000 people. In all, 2,144 people evacuated in the Philippines. PAGASA issued a storm signal number 2 for several provinces along Chanchu's path, as well as storm signal number 1 for other areas, largely forecasting for rainfall and gusty winds.
Vietnamese fishermen in the South China Sea received 24 hours of warning from the National Hydrometerological Forecast Center before Chanchu approached the area, less time than other agencies in the region. At one point, Chanchu was forecast to become a strong typhoon and make landfall near Hong Kong. In response to the threat, officials at the Hong Kong Observatory, as well as in Macau, issued a standby signal to inform the public of the approaching typhoon. The HKO issued a warning signal number 3 on May 17. In the territory, 60 flights were canceled with another 14 delayed, beaches were closed, and ferry service was disrupted. Ahead of the storm, about 1 million people evacuated from coastal Guangdong and Fujian provinces to government warehouses, schools, tents, or the houses of relatives. In the former province, 62,000 fishermen were ordered to return to port, while four flights were canceled at Guangzhou Baiyun International Airport. Residents were advised to remain indoors, and workers reinforced billboards in anticipation of the strong winds. Rail and boat transport was stopped between Guangdong and Hainan across the Qiongzhou Strait due to the typhoon. Schools were closed in Guangdong during the storm's passage, although they remained open in Fujian. In Shanghai, the speed limit of Donghai Bridge was halved because of strong winds.
Ahead of the storm, the Central Weather Bureau in Taiwan issued land and sea warnings. The Tainan City Government and three county governments closed for one day. All domestic flights to offshore islands were canceled, and rail service was interrupted. Later, airlines canceled 12 flights in Japan due to the storm.
Impact
The Philippines and Malaysia
While moving through the Philippines, Chanchu affected several islands with strong winds and heavy rainfall. In Legazpi, Albay, strong waves wrecked 100 homes and left 1,500 people homeless. High winds left widespread power outages, particularly in Mindoro, Batangas, and across the Bicol Region. The storm severely damaged the banana industry and affected various other fruit crops. Near Metro Manila, the winds damaged billboards, knocked over trees, and caused isolated power outages. Rough seas sank a ferry off Masbate, despite a warning against the operation of small craft, having left at sunrise to avoid the police. The Coast Guard rescued 18 passengers, but 28 people died in the wreck. An empty ferry sank at port in Tabaco. A ferry with 700 people aboard went missing, but the Coast Guard found it washed ashore with everyone safe on board. Similarly, an oil tanker washed ashore at Pinamalayan, Oriental Mindoro, and its crew of 13 was rescued. Throughout the country, Chanchu killed 41 people, mostly from the Masbate ferry wreck. The storm damaged 5,630 homes, and destroyed 1,013 others, forcing 53,307 people to leave their homes. Agricultural losses totaled ₱71.57 million (PHP, US$1.3 million), chiefly to the corn harvest, with an additional ₱46 million (PHP, US$850,000) in infrastructure damage.
While stalled over the South China Sea, Chanchu's large circulation caused an increase in rainfall over Malaysia. The typhoon brought the onset of the summer monsoon in the South China Sea after shifting the prevailing winds over the region.
Vietnam
While moving slowly through the South China Sea, Chanchu produced strong waves that struck the east coast of Vietnam. The associated flooding washed away many shrimp from coastal ponds and also entered Thu Bồn River, thus preventing its use as a source for irrigation for about of rice paddy fields. Due to its unexpected change in course and ferocity, Chanchu caught dozens of ships off guard and damaged communications, sinking 17 ships and damaging several others. Initially, there were 400 fishermen missing, although there was conflicting information with regard to the number of ships and people affected, particularly with ships near Hainan or Taiwan. Following a request from the Vietnamese government, the Chinese government deployed rescue ships on May 19, a day after the storm made its final landfall. Offshore Quảng Ngãi Province, 94 fishermen sought refuge on a Chinese island, and 22 boats were found on Pratas Island (Tungsha/Dongsha), Taiwan (ROC). One Chinese ship rescued 97 fishermen, but also found 18 people killed. Chinese ships ultimately rescued 330 fishermen from 22 boats and provided them with food and water; this was the country's largest oceanic rescue at the time. Two Vietnamese boats departed from Quảng Ngãi to assist crews on damaged boats attempting to return to port. Medical teams greeted the ships returning to harbor, while an altar was set up for the deceased. After two weeks, the government of Vietnam ended the search, with 21 bodies found, and the remaining 220 missing fishermen presumed killed.
China
Typhoon Chanchu was the earliest on record to strike Guangdong at the time, having struck the country 44 days earlier than the average date for the first strike. Rainfall in the country spread across Guangdong, Fujian, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang, and Chanchu became the earliest typhoon to affect Shanghai in 80 years. Rainfall totaled over in southeastern Guangdong and southwestern Fujian. In the former province, wind gusts peaked at in Huilai.
Upon striking China, Chanchu produced deadly flooding and landslides along its path, with flooding spreading as far northeast as Zhejiang province. One landslide in Fujian killed eight people and wrecked two houses. In Guangdong and Fujian, Chanchu wrecked 14,000 houses and damaged over of crop fields. Damage was particularly heavy in Shantou, Guangdong, where Chanchu moved ashore. There were about 200 flooded houses, and many roads covered, after rivers flooded from the heavy rainfall. The storm also caused power outages in Shantou, and damage there totaled ¥2.56 billion yuan (RMB, US$320 million). In nearby Xiamen, the typhoon forced 43 factories to temporarily close, resulting in a loss of ¥62.2 million yuan (RMB, US$7.8 million). The storm killed eight people in Guangdong, five of them due to traffic accidents, and a further 15 in Fujian. Overall damage was estimated at ¥7 billion yuan (RMB, US$872 million), roughly evenly split between Guangdong and Fujian. This was less than expected given the winds at landfall.
While passing east of Hong Kong, the outer rainbands of Chanchu dropped of rainfall at Sha Tin. Sustained winds in the territory reached , while gusts reached , both recorded at Tate's Cairn. Chanchu produced a storm surge of , causing minor flooding, sinking a yacht, and injuring one person who was swept into the sea. The storm downed several trees and damaged some scaffolding. Six people were injured in the territory, including three on a jetfoil bound for Macau.
Taiwan, Japan, and South Korea
High waves in Taiwan washed an oil tanker ashore in Kaohsiung City; all 13 crew members were rescued with helicopters. In Kaohsiung County, the typhoon wrecked several dikes in coastal cities. Chanchu also produced heavy rainfall on the island, causing flooding and landslides, the latter of which covered a highway. Swollen rivers swept away three farmers in Hualien County, who were later rescued, and killed two sisters in Pingtung County underneath the Sandimen Bridge.
In Nishihara, Okinawa, high waves caused by Chanchu swept away three bathers. The Japan Coast Guard rescued one, another was killed, and the third remained missing as of May 23. The remnants of Chanchu produced of rainfall in Gifu Prefecture in combination with a nearby cold front, causing one landslide. A fallen tree in Nagasaki Prefecture caused a small power outage, and nearby there was a damaged home.
The trough that engulfed Chanchu drew moisture from the typhoon, leading to heavy rainfall in portions of South Korea that reached on Jeju Island. Along with strong winds, the rains caused ferry and flight cancelations.
Aftermath
In the days after Chanchu moved through the Philippines, then-President Gloria Macapagal Arroyo ordered that the country's National Disaster Coordinating Council help all towns affected by the storm. The agency helped coordinate search and rescue missions. Several areas were declared a state of calamity, mostly on Mindoro, Samar, and Batangas. The Tzu Chi Foundation visited islands in eastern Samar, providing money to the families whose houses were destroyed. Towns in the region also assisted by supplying thatch to rebuild homes. In Oriental Mindoro, the Philippine Red Cross provided food and relief items to families in Calapan. The Adventist Development and Relief Agency also provided building materials for 200 families in Mindoro. Ultimately, the government provided storm victims with ₱415.1 million (PHP, US$7.6 million) worth of relief supplies. Rainfall from the storm caused a red tide in Taal Lake, after dispersing a Ceratium bloom.
Immediate after Chanchu's China landfall, officials began distributing tents, quilts, water purification tablets, and disinfectant. The government of Fujian set up a ¥8.5 million yuan (RMB, $1.06 million) relief fund. In the months after Chanchu, China suffered from several other damaging tropical cyclones, including Tropical Storm Bilis and Typhoon Saomai. Damage from Chanchu forced the China National Offshore Oil Corporation to shut down for a time, which contributed to an annual decrease in its oil output. The Chinese government recognized 50 people who assisted in the South China Sea search and rescue mission, and two vessels were declared "hero ships".
Vietnamese president Trần Đức Lương expressed his thanks to the Chinese government on May 22 for rescuing the Vietnamese on the imperiled ships. Residents and industries in Vietnam raised ₫360 million (VND, US$36,000) for the families of the deceased fishermen, as well as providing 1 ton of rice. Trade unions encouraged workers to donate one day's salary to help storm victims. The Vietnamese embassy in India raised about US$1,000 and Vietnamese people living in Greece raised ₫26 million (VND, €1,300 Euros) for storm victims. Ultimately, 43 different organizations and people donated $29,000 (USD) to the Vietnam Red Cross. The country's Ministry of Labour, Invalids and Social Affairs presented an award to the Vietnam News Agency in June 2006 for its charitable donations, which included the distribution of ₫112 million (VND, US$11,200) to storm victims. One fisherman claimed to survive for two weeks in the open seas before being rescued, although he later confessed that he was safely on another boat, and wanted his family to retain the disaster compensation; after the man revealed that he had lied, his family was able to retain the relief funds due to their poverty. The head of the Vietnam Institute of Meteorology, Hydrology and Environment resigned two weeks after Chanchu killed many fishermen because of inadequate warnings. Then-Deputy Prime Minister Nguyễn Tấn Dũng ordered a review of the meteorological agency as a result. Within a few years after the typhoon, the meteorological agency began issuing more accurate and timely forecasts. After the many deaths of fishermen from Chanchu, the Vietnam government prevented any fishermen from leaving harbor during the passage of Typhoon Durian in November.
After the season ended, members of the 39th meeting of the Typhoon Committee of the World Meteorological Organization met in Manila in December 2006. They discussed retiring the name "Chanchu", along with four other names from the season. During the 40th meeting in November 2007, the Typhoon Committee approved the retirement, announcing that the name "Sanba" would replace Chanchu on the basin name lists beginning in 2008.
See also
Typhoons in the Philippines
Other typhoons that impacted the Philippines in 2006:
Typhoon Xangsane
Typhoon Cimaron
Typhoon Chebi
Typhoon Durian
Typhoon Utor
Typhoon Megi (2010) – Stronger storm that took a similar track through the Philippines before turning north and striking China
Typhoon Kammuri (2019) – A late-season powerful Category-4 that strucked almost the same areas throughout its path in the Philippines. Also had a similar track and intensity.
Typhoon Molave and Goni (2020) – A pair of typhoons that both devastated Bicol Region with the latter one became the strongest landfall on record.
Notes
References
External links
NASA article on Chanchu
Hong Kong Weather Center information on Chanchu
JTWC Best Track Data of Typhoon 02W (Chanchu)
JMA:
Best Track Data of Typhoon Chanchu (0601)
Best Track Data (Graphics) of Typhoon Chanchu (0601)
Best Track Data (Text)
Retired Pacific typhoons
2006 Pacific typhoon season
2006 disasters in the Philippines
Typhoons in the Philippines
Typhoons in China
Typhoon Chanchu
Typhoons in Hong Kong
Typhoons
Chanchu
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Construction%20field%20computing
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Construction field computing
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Construction field computing is the use of handheld devices that augment the construction superintendent's ability to manage the operations on a construction site. These information appliances (IA) must be portable devices which can be carried or worn by the user, and have computational and connectivity capacity to perform the tasks of communication management. Data entry and retrieval must be simple so that the user can manipulate the device while simultaneously moving, observing events, studying materials, checking quality, or performing other tasks required. Examples of these devices are the PDA, tablet PC modern tablet devices including iPad and Android Tablets and smartphone.
Usage of information appliances in construction
Superintendents are often moving about the construction site or between various sites. Their responsibilities cover a wide variety of tasks such as:
Comparing planned to constructed conditions.
Carrying out in-field quality inspections ( punch lists or snagging as it is called in the UK)
Capturing data about such defects and communicating it to the relevant sub-contractors.
Coordinating and scheduling events and material delivery.
Monitoring jobsite conditions and correcting safety deficiencies, improving efficiency, and ensuring quality.
Recording and documenting work progress, labor, inspections, compliance to specifications, etc.
Communicating direction to specialty contractors, laborers, suppliers, etc.
Clarifying plans and specifications, resolving differing conditions, adapting methods and materials to site-specific requirements.
These tasks require that information is readily accessible and easily communicated to others and the company database. Since construction sites are unique, the device and system must be adaptable and flexible. Durability, predictability, and perceived value by the field management will determine the system's acceptance and thus proper use. Construction personnel are not well known for adapting to new technologies, but they do embrace methods that are proven to lighten work load and increase income.
Construction industry field personnel were quick to adopt new technologies such as the FAX machine and mobile phone, they have been slower to embrace the PC, tablet PC, PDA, and other devices. Disruptive technology is usually difficult in construction field use for several reasons:
Field managers have often risen 'through the ranks' and learned from their predecessors how to run a construction site.
They commonly do not have exposure to higher education and the new methods and technologies being developed.
Field work is demanding and varied such that suitable and durable technologies are difficult to build. Failure of the device or system means schedule slip and increase costs so that using the new technology can be untenable.
Laborers generally are not highly educated and willing to invest time in change.
Construction is very schedule driven and time for training or learning new methods is rare. The learning curve is perceived to be too steep to justify implementing new technologies or methods not mandated by governing authorities or required by the contract documents.
Overcoming these issues is imperative for most construction firms. The augmentation and automation of managerial practices is required to make the construction process more efficient. The information appliance makes it possible field supervisors to access needed information, communicate requirements to others, and document the process effectively.
Connectivity and computing power
An effective device will be able to process data into actionable information and transmit data and information to other devices or persons. The device may not actually perform computation of final communication, but it must appear as though it does. Extra steps to upload and download information will be perceived as a nuisance or waste of time to the user and cause the device to be underutilized. Some IAs are self-contained in that they have computing capacity and software to perform required tasks independent of a server or other devices. Others rely on connectivity with other devices and/or a server to perform required functions.
Communication with home office
Fat client
A fat client refers to a device that has sufficient speed and size to run programs and is loaded locally with software needed for operation. It can stand alone. Some advantages of this type of system are:
No need for continuous Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, cell connection or other connectivity instrument for continuous operation. Data and operating functions are fully self-contained.
User generally has more control over the interface so is able to adapt it to his/her own preferences and operational needs.
User has perception of governance. The idea that another device or a central server controls the process is disturbing to many free-spirited construction personnel.
Can be faster operationally than thin client since the device does not need to wait for transmitting data and server access time. With a good connection signal, however, this difference will most likely not be noticeable.
Thin client
A thin client refers to a device that acts as a terminal or interface with a server or other device. Sometimes called dumb terminal, these devices do not have sufficient computing capacity or data storage capacity of process information, but only allow the user to access the software and data needed by them. Some advantages of this type of system are:
Real-time data. User both provides and has access to most current information. Information entered is immediately available to other users of the information through the central database. Updates from all contributors to the database are available immediately to the user.
Automated and instantaneous action. Communication or directives are performed and recorded instantly rather than occurring when the information is uploaded by the user.
More central control over information, operating systems, and the manner in which data is collected.
Lower software and hardware costs since only minimal computing capacity is needed on the thin client device and separate software for each unit is not required.
Thin client device is not useful as a stand-alone so that it is not attractive to fencers and thus a less likely target of theft. (Thieves generally know which items are worth stealing.) Stolen devices are unlikely to be usable to non-authorized personnel. Therefore, proprietary information is protected.
Poka-yoke or error reduction strategies for data entry are more easily accomplished with a standardized system that cannot be easily altered by the user. A well-designed system will identify possible errors such as entering letters when numbers are required, identifying answers generally inconsistent with field, etc.
More fully automates data transmission. Synchronization is not required as a separate activity which can be forgotten or take longer than the user wants to wait for.
Transparency and user friendliness
Computer transparency is important in construction because of the requirements listed in the 'usages' section in this article. Especially important here are the lack of training in computer sciences and need to remain focused on the job-site activities. Any suitable device and system should support the user without their understanding of the technical aspects of the computer or system. Any data functions operations must require no knowledge of the database schema. Response to commands or input should be immediate and reversible so that the user can quickly experiment and learn by doing without causing damage to the system or data. The user will most often feel that access to information and control over the system is not unduly limited. These traits will reduce user anxiety and encourage usage and acceptance of new technologies and systems.
User friendliness is needed due to the varied level of knowledge of the user. The functional options should be easily labeled and structured such that the user can understand by viewing the screen and by intuition. Usability will in large part determine whether or not the device and/or system is utilized. An ineffective tool is not only useless, but can be deleterious in that it takes time from the user, but does not return value. Even if the user only perceives the operation of the device to be worthless, he/she will be 'demotivated' to use the device and do so improperly or insufficiently. This will render the activity useless, fulfilling the expectation of failure.
Portable devices available
Laptop and tablet PC
Laptop or notebook computers are small enough to be carried around the construction site, but too big to do so comfortably. Other disadvantages include:
They must be set down on a suitable surface to be used.
Require the use of both hands for proper operation.
Most laptops are not durable enough to stand up to the dirt, moisture, and rough handling prevalent on most job sites. Those that are 'construction resistant' are too expensive and a target of theft.
The tablet PC is basically a scaled down laptop with a touch screen that accepts handwriting rather than keyboard entry. Some do have keyboards, but they must be set down to operate and thus suffer the same problem of not being usable and portable at the same time. They can be carried with one hand and used with the other, thus allowing for ambulatory use. They are generally the size of a clipboard or notepad carried by many superintendents and are a good replacement for those devices due to the automation advantages of the computer, but they are still too big to be worn so that the user can move throughout the jobsite easily (up and down ladders) and have hands available for other uses (measuring manipulating objects to demonstrate technique or effect).
PDAs
The PDA has been accepted by many construction firms to aid the management of punch lists, safety inspections, and maintenance work. They can be thin or thick devices, but are often a combination of the two, having connectivity, but containing programs to operate even when out of range of WiFi or coverage. PDAs are durable, inexpensive, and very portable (being worn on a clip or carried in a pocket). The small screen size and limited ability to quickly enter data are the drawbacks of this device.
Smart phones
A smart phone is basically a mobile phone and PDA combined into one IA. Other functionalities such as digital camera and voice recorder are common. Data entry, like with the PDA, is by stylus or keypad and cumbersome. Many have web browsing capabilities but the small screen size diminishes the utility of this function to viewing email, weather reports, or some web content. Both PDA and smart phones have calendars, task lists, and phone lists, but they are useful to superintendents when coupled with the phone functions as is the case with the latter. Popular devices include the Blackberry and Treo, the pocket pc, iPhone and Droid all are popular because of their web/email abilities and ease of use.
Modern Tablets
With the advent of modern tablets including the iPad and Android tablets the area of mobile IT in construction is moving into a new era. These devices overcome many of the limitations of the rugged PDAs in terms of data entry, data access in field and its timely communication to others who need to act on it. In addition they cost a fraction of the cost of the rugged devices or rugged slate PCs.
Cameras and peripherals
Digital cameras are often included in smart phones and PDAs, but their resolution is lower than the dedicated camera device. Most are not truly IA because they do not readily communicate with other devices or process information. Most brands share information by USB or flash memory card which is removed from the camera and inserted in complementary devices (most PDAs accept these cards). Other methods, such as Infrared Communications or Bluetooth are also available.
Software availability
A wide variety of software applications for each of the devices listed above are available. The user must determine system requirements and then ensure that software is available to perform the needed functions on a specific device.
Input/output features of IAs
Some IAs (such as the total station) are made specifically for construction use, but they are for very specific applications and will not be considered here as the purpose of this article concerns general construction site management. Traditional input and output methods of keyboard, mouse, and screen are not suitable for the portable IA due to size constraints. These features are very important and must be considered.
Input methods
Data, queries, commands, or responses must be entered into the computer through some sort of interface. Following are some of the methods useful in portable IAs.
Touch screen
The touch screen and stylus is effective for construction applications as it allows handwriting recognition for those who do not feel comfortable with keyboards or the small size of keyboards on portable IAs. They are also free hand entry so that the user can sketch and draw notes and measurements directly onto the screen. The digital image of the sketch can be transmitted to others or converted to another format after uploading to a printer or other computer.
Key pad
These devices are the standard entry method for phones and easy to understand but are a slow means for alphanumeric data entry. They may be suitable for numeric entry into data fields. The user enters numbers on the keypad in response to prompts on the IA screen so this method is only suitable for entry of quantifiable standard information.
Voice/speech recognition
Voice Recognition is the ability to respond to verbal commands. Speech recognition refers to the capacity of the IA to convert voice entry into data. Both have been difficult to use in many construction applications due to ambient noise, construction jargon which varies by region, trade, and company, and because of speech patterns of the individual user. This method is slower than keyboard entry for the experienced user.
Output methods
Screen
The touch screen is the standard display method for tablet PC and smaller IAs. Color may or may not be important to the user but can be an aid in directing the user. The screen size is perhaps the most important consideration. Organization of the screen is challenging on the small screen and the user should be considered when designing the interface. See section 2.2 and 2.3 in Ben Shneiderman's "Designing the user interface" () concerning design of the interface.
Voice
Voice or tonal output from the IA can be effective as a reminder, warning, or indication of action performed, but tends to be irritating to the user if it is the principal method of interaction. Verbal output is slower than viewing the information and it is difficult for a person to pay attention to and understand information. Systems such as JAWS screen reader for the visually impaired do exist, but are not practical for construction site users and application. See Shneiderman section 9.4 ().
Future possibilities
Eyetap is a technology being developed that may have construction applications in the future. It allows the user to receive input from the computer superimposed over the scene in view. A diptych screen may be utilized to increase overall screen size and input area. Other 'Star Trek' devices and methods are being developed but the usable products have yet to be 'beamed down' to planet Earth.
Other considerations
Usability
The section on transparency in this article discusses some requirements for usability. Before implementing a system, a study on how it will add value to the user must be done. Having more data from the field is not directly beneficial to the site superintended. Reducing the time it takes to do 'paperwork' is valued. Sending an image taken from the IA camera directly to an architect for clarification does save time and effort and will be valued by the user.
Training
The system and device should be designed such that it encourages experimentation and usage. Immediate response to input and adaptability based on level of experience are better than sitting through a training seminar to get a few dry donuts. Training is best accomplished by showing and encouraging use. A 'guru' or user expert within the company may be best way to resolve questions and provide answers to questions and concerns. See 'The social life of information'.
Scalability and continual change
Technologies will evolve and the user will be facing new challenges with each change. It is usually wiser to adopt a small system that works and then later add features. This gradual adoption reduces anxiety and increases acceptance and use. This work by Linda V. Orr discusses methods to reduce anxiety for new computer users.
Integration of systems
Consideration should be given to ensure that IA devices and different software packages communicate with each other so that information is not lost or re-entry is not required by the user. Users do not always know or care what software is being used or which database is being accessed and do not understand why they must enter the same information again. For example, once the date has been entered, the user will be frustrated to be prompted to enter it again during the same session. Taking this further, the user may be frustrated to have to enter a date since there is a calendar function on the IA being used.
Web Based Mobile IT
These systems from leading vendors are not simply all about mobility in field and cutting the work required by in field managers in the area of report writing. Cloud based tablet and PC systems provide not just mobile capture and access to data in field but also for the first time they both computerise and move to the cloud the quality function. The use of powerful relational databases at the back end permits the data captured in field to be analysed. This can be used for instance to rate sub-contractors and to feed into continuous quality improvement.
Benefits of Mobile IT in Construction
Studies from the UK organisation COMIT and others have shown there is a valuable ROI from using this technology. Firms have reported faster delivery of projects, project hand over with zero defects, reduced costs from the process of managing sub-contractors and report writing and the value of having a secure audit trail.
See also
Human-Computer Interaction
Lean manufacturing - especially waste reduction in management practices.
Mobile computing
Object-oriented analysis and design
Palmtop
Portable (disambiguation)
Portable computer
Wearable computer
External links
Discussion concerning ubiquitous networks
Information appliances
Construction
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Piscataway people
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The Piscataway or Piscatawa , are Native Americans. They spoke Algonquian Piscataway, a dialect of Nanticoke. One of their neighboring tribes, with whom they merged after a massive decline of population following two centuries of interactions with European settlers, called them the Conoy.
Two major groups representing Piscataway descendants received state recognition as Native American tribes in 2012: the Piscataway Indian Nation and Tayac Territory and the Piscataway Conoy Tribe of Maryland. Within the latter group was included the Piscataway Conoy Confederacy and Sub-Tribes and the Cedarville Band of Piscataway Indians. All these groups are located in Southern Maryland. None are federally recognized.
Name
The Piscataway were recorded by the English (in days before uniform spelling) as the Pascatowies, Paschatoway, Pazaticans, Pascoticons, Paskattaway, Pascatacon, Piscattaway, and Puscattawy. They were also referred to by the names of their villages: Moyaone, Accotick, or Accokicke, or Accokeek; Potapaco, or Portotoack; Sacayo, or Sachia; Zakiah, and Yaocomaco, or Youcomako, or Yeocomico, or Wicomicons.
Related Algonquian-speaking tribes included the Anacostan, Chincopin, Choptico, Doeg, or Doge, or Taux; Tauxeneen, Mattawoman, and Pamunkey. More distantly related tribes included the Accomac, Assateague, Choptank, Nanticoke, Patuxent, Pokomoke, Tockwogh and Wicomoco.
Language
The Piscataway language was part of the large Algonquian language family. Jesuit missionary Father Andrew White translated the Catholic catechism into Piscataway in 1640, and other English missionaries compiled Piscataway-language materials.
Geography
The Piscataway by 1600 were on primarily the north bank of the Potomac River in what is now Charles, southern Prince George's, and probably some of western St. Mary's counties in southern Maryland, according to John Smith's 1608 map – wooded; near many
waterways. This also notes the several Patuxent River settlements that were under some degree of Piscataway suzerainty. The Piscataway settlements appear in that same area on maps through 1700 Piscataway descendants now inhabit part of their traditional homelands in these areas. None of the three state-recognized tribes noted above has a reservation or trust land. Their status as "landless" Indians had contributed to their difficulty in proving historical continuity and being recognized as self-governing tribes.
Traditional culture
The Piscataway relied more on agriculture than did many of their neighbors, which enabled them to live in permanent villages. They lived near waters navigable by canoes. Their crops included maize, several varieties of beans, melons, pumpkins, squash and (ceremonial) tobacco, which were bred and cultivated by women. Men used bows and arrows to hunt bear, elk, deer, and wolves, as well as smaller game such as beaver, squirrels, partridges, and wild turkeys. They also did fishing and oyster and clam harvesting. Women also gathered berries, nuts and tubers in season to supplement their diets.
As was common among the Algonquian peoples, Piscataway villages consisted of several individual houses protected by a defensive log palisade. Traditional houses were rectangular and typically 10 feet high and 20 feet long, a type of longhouse, with barrel-shaped roofs covered with bark or woven mats. A hearth occupied the center of the house with a smoke hole overhead.
History
Precontact
A succession of Indigenous peoples occupied the Chesapeake and Tidewater region, arriving according to archeologists' estimates from roughly 3,000 to 10,000 years ago. Those people of Algonquian stock who would coalesce into the Piscataway nation, lived in the Potomac River drainage area since at least AD 1300. Sometime around AD 800, peoples living along the Potomac had begun to cultivate maize as a supplement to their ordinary hunting-gathering diet of fish, game, and wild plants.
Some evidence suggests that the Piscataway migrated from the Eastern Shore, or from the upper Potomac, or from sources hundreds of miles to the north. It is fairly certain, however, that by the 16th century the Piscataway was a distinct polity with a distinct society and culture, who lived year-round in permanent villages.
The onset of a centuries-long "Little Ice Age" after 1300 had driven Algonquian and Iroquoian peoples from upland and northern communities southward to the warmer climate of the Potomac basin. Growing seasons there were long enough for them to cultivate maize. As more tribes occupied the area, they competed for resources and had an increasing conflict.
By 1400, the Piscataway and their Algonquian tribal neighbors had become increasingly numerous because of their sophisticated agriculture, which provided calorie-rich maize, beans and squash. These crops added surplus to their hunting-gathering subsistence economy and supported greater populations. The women cultivated and processed numerous varieties of maize and other plants, breeding them for taste and other characteristics. The Piscataway and other related peoples were able to feed their growing communities. They also continued to gather wild plants from nearby freshwater marshes. The men cleared new fields, hunted, and fished.
17th century and English colonization
By 1600, incursions by the Susquehannock and other Iroquoian peoples from the north had almost entirely destroyed many of the Algonquian settlements above present-day Great Falls, Virginia on the Potomac River. The villages below the fall line survived by banding together for the common defense. They gradually consolidated authority under hereditary chiefs, who exacted tribute, sent men to war, and coordinated the resistance against northern incursions and rival claimants to the lands. A hierarchy of places and rulers emerged: hamlets without hereditary rulers paid tribute to a nearby village. Its chief, or werowance, appointed a "lesser king" to each dependent settlement. Changes in social structure occurred and religious development exalted the hierarchy. By the end of the 16th century, each werowance on the north bank of the Potomac was subject to the paramount chief: the ruler of the Piscataway known as the Tayac.
The English explorer Captain John Smith first visited the upper Potomac River in 1608. He recorded the Piscataway by the name Moyaons, after their "king's house", i.e., capital village or Tayac's residence, also spelled Moyaone, located at Accokeek Creek Site at Piscataway Park. Closely associated with them were the Nacotchtank people (Anacostans) who lived around present-day Washington, DC, and the Taux (Doeg) on the Virginia side of the river. Rivals and reluctant subjects of the Tayac hoped that the English newcomers would alter the balance of power in the region.
In search of trading partners, particularly for furs, the Virginia Company, and later, Virginia Colony, consistently allied with enemies of the settled Piscataway. Their entry into the dynamics began to shift regional power. By the early 1630s, the Tayac's hold over some of his subordinate werowances had weakened considerably.
However, when the English began to colonize what is now Maryland in 1634, the Tayac Kittamaquund managed to turn the newcomers into allies. He had come to power that year after killing his brother Wannas, the former Tayac. He granted the English a former Indian settlement, which they renamed St. Mary's City after Queen Henrietta Marie, the wife of King Charles I.
The Tayac intended the new colonial outpost to serve as a buffer against the Iroquoian Susquehannock incursions from the north. Kittamaquund and his wife converted to Christianity in 1640 by their friendship with the English Jesuit missionary Father Andrew White, who also performed their marriage. Their only daughter Mary Kittamaquund became a ward of the English governor and of his sister-in-law, colonist Margaret Brent, both of whom held power in St. Mary's City and saw to the girl's education, including learning English.
At a young age, Mary Kittamaquund married the much older English colonist Giles Brent, one of Margaret's brothers. After trying to claim Piscataway territory upon her father's death, the couple moved south across the Potomac to establish a trading post and live at Aquia Creek in present-day Stafford County, Virginia. They were said to have had three or four children together. Brent married again in 1654, so his child bride may have died young.
Benefits to the Piscataway in having the English as allies and buffers were short-lived. The Maryland Colony was initially too weak to pose a significant threat. Once the English began to develop a stronger colony, they turned against the Piscataway. By 1668, the western shore Algonquian were confined to two reservations, one on the Wicomico River and the other on a portion of the Piscataway homeland. Refugees from dispossessed Algonquian nations merged with the Piscataway.
Colonial authorities forced the Piscataway to permit the Susquehannock, an Iroquoian-speaking people, to settle in their territory after having been defeated in 1675 by the Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee), based in New York. The traditional enemies eventually came to open conflict in present-day Maryland. With the tribes at war, the Maryland Colony expelled the Susquehannock after they had been attacked by the Piscataway. The Susquehannock suffered a devastating defeat.
Making their way northward, the surviving Susquehannock joined forces with their former enemy, the Haudenosaunee, the five-nation Iroquois Confederacy. Together, the Iroquoian tribes returned repeatedly to attack the Piscataway. The English provided little help to their Piscataway allies. Rather than raise a militia to aid them, the Maryland Colony continued to compete for control of Piscataway land.
Piscataway fortunes declined as the English Maryland colony grew and prospered. They were especially adversely affected by epidemics of infectious disease, which decimated their population, as well as by intertribal and colonial warfare. After the English tried to remove tribes from their homelands in 1680, the Piscataway fled from encroaching English settlers to Zekiah Swamp in Charles County, Maryland. There they were attacked by the Iroquois but peace was negotiated.
In 1697, the Piscataway relocated across the Potomac and camped near what is now The Plains, Virginia, in Fauquier County. Virginia settlers were alarmed and tried to persuade the Piscataway to return to Maryland, though they refused. Finally in 1699, the Piscataway moved north to what is now called Heater's Island (formerly Conoy Island) in the Potomac near Point of Rocks, Maryland. They remained there until after 1722.
18th century
In the 18th century, the Maryland Colony nullified all Indian claims to their lands and dissolved the reservations. By the 1720s, some Piscataway as well as other Algonquian groups had relocated to Pennsylvania just north of the Susquehannah River. These migrants from the general area of Maryland are referred to as the Conoy and the Nanticoke. They were spread along the western edge of the Pennsylvania Colony, along with the Algonquian Lenape who had moved west from modern New Jersey, the Tutelo, the Shawnee and some Iroquois. The Piscataway were said to number only about 150 people at that time. They sought the protection of the powerful Haudenosaunee, but the Pennsylvania Colony also proved unsafe.
Most of the surviving tribe migrated north in the late eighteenth century and were last noted in the historical record in 1793 at Detroit, following the American Revolutionary War, when the United States gained independence. In 1793 a conference in Detroit reported the peoples had settled in Upper Canada, joining other Native Americans who had been allies of the British in the conflict. Today, descendants of the northern migrants live on the Six Nations of the Grand River First Nation reserve in Ontario, Canada.
Some Piscataway may have moved south toward the Virginia Colony. They were believed to have merged with the Meherrin.
19th century
Numerous contemporary historians and archaeologists, including William H. Gilbert, Frank G. Speck, Helen Rountree, Lucille St. Hoyme, Paul Cissna, T. Dale Stewart, Christopher Goodwin, Christian Feest, James Rice, and Gabrielle Tayac, have documented that a small group of Piscataway families continued to live in their homeland. Although the larger tribe was destroyed as an independent, sovereign polity, descendants of the Piscataway survived. They formed unions with others in the area, including European indentured servants and free or enslaved Africans. They settled into rural farm life and were classified as free people of color, but some kept Native American cultural traditions. For years the United States censuses did not have separate categories for Indians. Especially in the slave states, all free people of color were classified together as black, in the hypodescent classification resulting from the racial caste of slavery.
In the late 19th century, archaeologists, journalists, and anthropologists interviewed numerous residents in Maryland who claimed descent from tribes associated with the former Piscataway chiefdom. Uniquely among most institutions, the Catholic Church consistently continued to identify Indian families by that classification in their records. Such church records became valuable resources for scholars and family and tribal researchers. Anthropologists and sociologists categorized the self-identified Indians as a tri-racial community. They were commonly called a name (regarded as derogatory by some) "Wesorts."
In the 19th century, census enumerators classified most of the Piscataway individuals as "free people of color", "Free Negro" or "mulatto" on state and federal census records, largely because of their intermarriage with blacks and Europeans. The dramatic drop in Native American populations due to infectious disease and warfare, plus a racial segregation based on slavery, led to a binary view of race in the former colony. By contrast, Catholic parish records in Maryland and some ethnographic reports accepted Piscataway self-identification and continuity of culture as Indians, regardless of mixed ancestry. Such a binary division of society in the South increased after the American Civil War and the emancipation of slaves. Southern whites struggled to regain political and social dominance of their societies during and after the Reconstruction era. They were intent on controlling the freedmen and asserting white supremacy.
Revitalization: 20th–21st century
Although a few families identified as Piscataway by the early 20th century, prevailing racial attitudes during the late 19th century, and imposition of Jim Crow policies, over-determined official classification of minority groups of color as black. In the 20th century, Virginia and other southern states passed laws to enforce the "one-drop rule", classifying anyone with a discernible amount of African ancestry as "negro", "mulatto", or "black". For instance, in Virginia, Walter Plecker, Registrar of Statistics, ordered records to be changed so that members of Indian families were recorded as black, resulting in Indian families losing their ethnic identification.
Phillip Sheridan Proctor, later known as Turkey Tayac, was born in 1895. Proctor revived the use of the title tayac, a hereditary office which he claimed had been handed down to him. Turkey Tayac was instrumental in the revival of American Indian culture among Piscataway and other Indian descendants throughout the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast. He was allied with the American Indian Movement Project for revitalization.
Chief Turkey Tayac was a prominent figure in the early and mid-twentieth century cultural revitalization movements. His leadership inspired tribes other than the Piscataway, and revival has also occurred among other Southeastern American Indian communities. These include the Lumbee, Nanticoke, and Powhatan of the Atlantic coastal plain. Assuming the traditional leadership title "tayac" during an era when American Indian identity was being regulated to some extent by blood quantum, outlined in the Indian Reorganization Act, Chief Turkey Tayac organized a movement for American Indian peoples that gave priority to their self-identification.
There are still Indian people in southern Maryland, living without a reservation in the vicinity of US 301 between La Plata and Brandywine. They are formally organized into several groups, all bearing the Piscataway name.
After Chief Turkey Tayac died in 1978, the Piscataway split into three groups (outlined below): the Piscataway Conoy Confederacy and Subtribes (PCCS), the Cedarville Band of Piscataway Indians, and the Piscataway Indian Nation. These three organizations have disagreed over a number of issues: seeking state and federal tribal recognition, developing casinos on their land if recognition were gained, and determining which groups were legitimately Piscataway.
Two organized Piscataway groups have formed:
Piscataway Indian Nation and Tayac Territory headed by Billy Redwing Tayac, Indigenous rights activist and son of the late Chief Turkey Tayac;
Piscataway Conoy Tribe, which is split between two tribal entities:
Piscataway Conoy Confederacy and Sub-Tribes
Cedarville Band of Piscataway Indians, led by Natalie Proctor.
In the late 1990s, after conducting an exhaustive review of primary sources, a Maryland-state appointed committee, including a genealogist from the Maryland State Archives, validated the claims of core Piscataway families to Piscataway heritage. A fresh approach to understanding individual and family choices and self-identification among American Indian and African-American cultures is underway at several research universities. Unlike during the years of racial segregation, when all people of any African descent were classified as black, new studies emphasize the historical context and evolution of seventeenth, eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth century ethnic cultures and racial categories.
The State of Maryland appointed a panel of anthropologists, genealogists, and historians to review primary sources related to Piscataway genealogy. The panel concluded that some contemporary self-identified Piscataway descended from the historic Piscataway.
In 1996 the Maryland Commission on Indian Affairs (MCIA) suggested granting state recognition to the Piscataway Conoy Confederacy and Subtribes. Critics were concerned about some of the development interests that backed the Piscataway Conoy campaign, and feared gaming interests. (Since the late twentieth century, many recognized tribes have established casinos and gaming entertainment on their reservations to raise revenues.) Gov. Parris Glendening, who was opposed to gambling, denied the tribe's request.
In 2004, Governor Bob Ehrlich also denied the Piscataway Conoy's renewed attempt for state recognition, stating that they failed to prove that they were descendants of the historical Piscataway Indians, as required by state law. Throughout this effort, the Piscataway-Conoy stated they had no intent to build and operate casinos.
In December 2011, the Maryland Commission on Indian Affairs stated that the Piscataway had provided adequate documentation of their history and recommended recognition. On January 9, 2012, Gov. Martin O'Malley issued executive orders recognizing all three Piscataway groups as Native American tribes. As part of the agreement that led to recognition, the tribes renounced any plans to launch gambling enterprises, and the executive orders state that the tribes do not have any special "gambling privileges".
Notable historical Piscataway
These are historical Piscataway people. List any modern or living Piscataway people under their specific tribe.
Mary Kittamaquund (c. 1634–c. 1654/1700), daughter of tribal leader, Kittamaquund
Turkey Tayac (Phillip Sheridan Proctor) (1895–1978), tribal leader and herbal doctor.
See also
Black Indians in the United States
Brass Ankles
Maroon people
Melungeon
Nanjemoy
Piscataway-Conoy Tribe of Maryland
Redbone
List of place names in Maryland of Native American origin
Notes
References
.
Further reading
Barbour, Philip L. The Three Worlds of Captain John Smith. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1964.
Barbour, Philip L., ed. The Jamestown Voyages Under the First Charter, 1606-1609. 2 vols. Works issued by the Hakluyt Society, 2nd series nos. 136–137. Cambridge, England, 1969.
Chambers, Mary E. and Robert L. Humphrey. Ancient Washington—American Indian Cultures of the Potomac Valley. George Washington University, Washington, D.C. 1977.
Goddard, Ives (1978). "Eastern Algonquian Languages", in Bruce Trigger (ed.), Handbook of North American Indians, Vol. 15 (Northeast). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution, pp. 70–77.
Griffin, James B. "Eastern North American Prehistory: A Summary." Science 156 (1967):175-191.
Hertzberg, Hazel. The Search for an American Indian Identity: Modern Pan Indian Movements. NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971.
Merrell, James H. "Cultural Continuity Among the Piscataway Indians of Colonial Maryland." William & Mary Quarterly, 3rd series, 36 (1979): 548–70.
Potter, Stephen R. Commoners, Tribute, and Chiefs: The Development of Algonquian Culture in the Potomac Valley. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1993.
Rice, James D. Nature and History in the Potomac Country: From Hunter-Gatherers to the Age of Jefferson. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2009.
Rountree, Helen C., Clark, Wayne E. and Mountford, Kent. John Smith's Chesapeake Voyages, 1607-1609, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2007.
Tayac, Gabrielle. "National Museum of the American Indian ? 'We Rise, We Fall, We Rise' ? a Piscataway Descendant Bears Witness at a Capital Groundbreaking," Smithsonian 35, no. 6 (2004): 63–66.
External links
, Official website
, Catholic Encyclopedia, 1911
Native Americans in Maryland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Brighton
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History of Brighton
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The history of Brighton is that of an ancient fishing village which emerged as a health resort in the 18th century and grew into one of the largest towns in England by the 20th century.
Etymology
The etymology of the name of Brighton lies in the Old English Beorhthelmes tūn (Beorhthelm's farmstead). This name has evolved through Bristelmestune (1086), Brichtelmeston (1198), Brighthelmeston (1493),
Brighthemston (1610) and Brighthelmston (1816). Brighton came into common use in the early 19th century.
Prehistoric period
Palaeolithic
The western section of the cliffs at Black Rock, near Brighton Marina are an unusual outcropping of palaeolithic Coombe Rock, revealing in section a paleocliff cut into Cretaceous Chalk. These rocks were formerly known as the "Elephant Beds" in reference to the fossilised material recovered by geologists and palaeontologists. 200,000 years ago the beach was significantly higher and this clear strata can be observed preserved in the cliff. Protohumans (assumed to be the same species of hominid found at the Neander Valley) hunted various animals including mammoth along the shore. The preservation of this raised beach and associated evidence of a coastal paleolandscape has led to protected status for the cliff. This section can be seen directly behind the car-park of supermarket Asda.
Neolithic period
Whitehawk Camp is an early Neolithic causewayed enclosure c. 3500 BC. The centre is some way towards the transmitter on the south side of Manor Road (which bisects the enclosure), opposite the Brighton Racecourse grandstand. Archaeological enquiry (by the Curwens in the 1930s and English Heritage in the 1990s) have determined four concentric circles of ditches and mounds, broken or "causewayed" in many places. Significant vestiges of the mounds remain and their arc can be traced by eye.
The building of a new housing estate in the early 1990s over the south-eastern portion of the enclosure damaged the archaeology and caused the loss of the ancient panoramic view.
The fate of a neolithic long barrow at Waldegrave Road is recorded. It was used as hardcore during the building of Balfour Road and workmen were regularly disturbed by the concentrations of human remains poking through their foundations.
More of pre-historic Brighton and Hove can be seen just north of the small retail park on Old Shoreham Road, built in the late 1990s over the site of Brighton's football ground. Here one can visit The Goldstone. This is believed to have been ceremonial, and there are suggestions that it, together with now-vanished stones, may have formed an ancient circle. In the early 19th century a local farmer, fed up with romantic tourists, had the largest stone buried. It was exhumed in 1900.
Bronze Age
After a scholarly review, the Institute of Archaeology and Antiquity noted, "there are a concentration of Beaker burials on the fringes of the central chalklands around Brighton, and a later cluster of Early and Middle Bronze Age 'rich graves' in the same area."
Iron Age
An important pre-Roman site is Hollingbury Castle (or Hollingbury Hillfort). Commanding panoramic views over the city, this Celtic Iron Age encampment is circumscribed by substantial earthwork outer walls with a diameter of approximately 300 metres. It is one of numerous hillforts found across southern Britain. Cissbury Ring, roughly from Hollingbury, is suggested to have been the tribal "capital".
Romano-British period
The Romans built villas throughout Sussex, including a villa at Brighton. At the time of its construction in the late 1st or 2nd century AD there was a stream running along what is now London Road. The villa was sited more or less at the water's edge, immediately south of Preston Park. The villa was excavated in the 1930s, prior to the building of a garage on the site. Numerous artefacts were found, as well as the foundations of the building. Locals remember that the garage owner had a small display of Roman statues and brooches on a shelf behind the till.
In Brighton museum, within the new Brighton and Hove Archaeological Society display (Autumn 2006), one can view two Roman figurines unearthed from the Brighton Roman Villa. Rocky Clump, in Stanmer Park, to the north of the city, was a Romano-British farming settlement.
A Roman road leads from Shoreham-by-Sea through Hove to Brighton, where it turns and leads north to Hassocks, a Roman industrial centre. No significant Roman settlement has been found in Brighton or Hove. However the presence of the Roman roads, the high number of Roman artefacts, and significant changes in geography (due to sedimentation and erosion) could mean that any possible settlement is either buried or may have been washed away by the sea.
Despite the Romano-British construction of numerous shore forts along the south coast (significant extant examples can be visited at Portsmouth to the West and Pevensey to the East) the battle to ward off Saxon raiders was eventually lost after the official withdrawal of Roman resources in AD 410.
Middle Ages
Anglo-Saxon period
After the collapse of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, Saxons arrived in and around Brighton and the area became part of the Kingdom of Sussex. From around 827 Sussex was annexed by the neighbouring Kingdom of Wessex, which evolved into the Kingdom of England. The placename of Brighton means "Beorhthelm's farm", and this placename and those of neighbouring places date from this era. A 6th-7th century Saxon burial area has been excavated around the Seven Dials area.
Like other settlements on the coast of south-east England, Brighton appears to have developed as a landing-place for boats; the early function of the landing-place as a fishing centre is reflected in payment from one manorial holding of a rent of 4,000 herrings recorded in
Domesday Book shortly after the end of the Saxon period in 1086. There is no suggestion in Domesday Book, however, that Brighton was a town – the manors were inhabited by villagers and smallholders, not burgesses. The Domesday Book also records that at the close of the Saxon period, Brighton was held by Earl Godwin, who was probably from Sussex and was one of the most powerful earls in England. Godwin had extensive land holdings in Sussex and was the father of King Harold, the last Anglo-Saxon king of England.
Norman conquest
After the Norman conquest, King William I conferred the barony of Lewes to his son-in-law William de Warenne. The Domesday Book of 1086 contains the first documentary evidence of a settlement on the modern site of Brighton. Located in the rape of Lewes and in the Welesmere hundred, the settlement was made up of three manors, the first being described as Bristelmestune.
12th century
Brighton had probably acquired a town-like status by the 12th century, although it would not have had the facilities of longer established Sussex boroughs such as Lewes or Steyning.
Established by the monks at the mother church of St Pancras Priory, Lewes between 1120 and 1147, St Bartholomew's Priory stood on the site of the present town hall. The consonant structure of the placename Brighthelmston (i.e. B-R-T-L-M) may have suggested the dedication of the priory to St Bartholomew. This small dispatchment of Cluniacs established the monastery submitting themselves to a regular life under the Rule of St Benedict.. The 12th-century font in Brighton's old parish church of St Nicholas is described by Pevsner as "the best piece of Norman carving in Sussex". The font suggests that St Nicholas Church was also originally built in the 12th century, although the current structure dates mainly from the 13th century. The church was also held by Lewes Priory.
Two elm trees in the grounds of Preston Manor are the oldest English elms in the world. They are thought to be c.850 years old, which would date their origin to the mid 12th century.
14th century
The regular planning of the town as it existed from at least the 15th century suggests that Brighton was deliberately laid out around 1300, possibly under the influence of the planned new town of Winchelsea some to the east. In 1312 King Edward II granted market rights to the village and the right to hold an annual fair on the eve, day and morrow of St. Bartholomew 23rd, 24 and 25 August, although it is likely that grant simply formalised a market that was already in existence by this time.
St Peter's Church at Preston Village, Brighton, currently under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust, is 14th century. A medieval fresco depicting the murder of Thomas Becket was discovered under paint following a fire in the early 20th century. The fresco is among the oldest art in Brighton.
Early modern period
In June 1514, the fishing village (by then known as Brighthelmstone) was burnt to the ground by the French as part of a war which began as a result of the Treaty of Westminster (1511). Subsequently in 1545 the residents of the town petitioned the monarch for defensive cannon. Their petition featured an illustrated map showing the French raid, a copy of which can be seen in Hove Museum.
This map is the earliest known picture of Brighton. It shows a site laid out in a rectangular shape about a quarter of a mile square. The lower town of houses on the foreshore can be seen with a series of sloping ways rising eastwards up the cliff. Middle Street came into existence during the 16th century and West Street, North Street and East Street were fully developed by the 16th century. However the interior between Middle Street and East Street remained undeveloped and was known as the Hempshares.
The lower town on the foreshore suffered from sea erosion. In 1665 there were 113 houses out of a former 135. However, as only 24 of these houses paid Hearth Tax in that year, it is suspected that many of these dwellings were mere hovels. By the 1640s Brighthelmstone had a population of over 4,000 and was the largest settlement in Sussex. Its economy was dominated by the fishing industry.
Deryk Carver, a Flemish brewer whose premises were on Black Lion Street, was arrested by the Sheriff, Edward Gage, for heresy. Carver had rejected the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and what he saw as its continuing role as an instrument of state power. Carver and others were dispatched for trial in London and ultimately executed at the county town of Lewes. Carver was stood in a barrel of pitch and burned alive.
After his defeat at the Battle of Worcester, Charles II escaped to France through Brighton and finally Shoreham-by-Sea. This event is remembered annually by the Royal Escape yacht race, now organised by Sussex Yacht Club.
The tomb of the boat-owner who was instrumental in the escape of Charles II, Nicholas Tettersell, is to be seen in St Nicholas churchyard, Brighton.
Late modern period
Early 18th century decline
Brighton's period of relative prosperity in the 17th century was followed by a slow decline into the 18th century due to a fall in the demand for fish, and sea erosion. The Great Storm of 1703 caused considerable damage to the town. Daniel Defoe reported that the storm:
A second storm in 1705 destroyed the lower town and covered the wreckage of the houses with shingle. The fortifications of the west cliff were destroyed in 1748. Proposed sea defences at a cost of £8,000 were described by Defoe as "more than the whole town was worth".
In 1720, antiquary John Warburton, travelling along the south coast, reported:
By the mid-18th century the population had fallen to 2,000
Health resort and royal patronage in the late 18th century
During the 1730s, Dr Richard Russell of Lewes began to prescribe the medicinal use of seawater at Brighthelmstone for his patients. He wrote a tract advocating the drinking of seawater and sea bathing in 1750. In 1753 he erected a large house on the southern side of the Steine for his own and patients' accommodation.
In 1758, Dr. John Awsiter, another prominent local doctor, also wrote a paper advocating drinking seawater and seabathing.
Still another local doctor, Anthony Relhan (ca. 1715–1776) published a tract in 1761 advocating the consumption of mineral waters and sea-bathing. This increased interest in the use of the local mineral waters for drinking and bathing. By 1769 the cornerstone of the Brighton Baths was laid.
After Dr Russell's death in 1759, his house was let to seasonal visitors including the brother of George III the Duke of Cumberland in 1771. On 7 September 1783 the Prince of Wales, later the Prince Regent, visited his uncle, whose taste for gaming and high life matched his own. The Prince's subsequent patronage of the town for the next forty years was central to the rapid growth of the town and the transition of the fishing village of Brighthelmston to the modern town of Brighton. Rex Whistler's famous cheeky satire The Prince Regent Awakens the Spirit of Brighton is on view at the Brighton Pavilion.
Currently enjoying restoration, Marlborough House on the Old Steine was built by Robert Adam in 1765 and purchased shortly afterwards by the fourth duke. By 1780, development of the Georgian terraces that characterise the classic Brighton streetscape had started, and the town quickly became the fashionable resort of Brighton. The growth of the town was further encouraged when, in 1786, the young Prince of Wales, later the Prince Regent and George IV, rented a farmhouse to make a public demonstration of his new-found fiscal sobriety. He spent much of his leisure time in the town, where he set up a discreet establishment for his mistress Mrs Fitzherbert and constructed the exotic Royal Pavilion, which is the town's best-known landmark.
A permanent military presence was established in the city with the completion of Preston Barracks in 1793.
One of many tributes to the growing resort came from the travelling entertainer and poet Elizabeth Beverley, who contributed to the Brighton Herald on 15 August 1818 a poem that begins, "Hail, favour'd spot, divine retreat!/Sweet refuge from Sol's scorching heat.../Who from the village, rose thy state/To be a town superb and great..."
The Kemp Town estate (at the heart of the Kemptown district) was constructed between 1823 and 1855, and is a good example of Regency architecture.
19th century and pre-war period
Brighton's popularity with the rich, famous, and royal continued in the 19th century, and saw the building of a number of imposing seafront hotels, including the Bedford Hotel of 1829, the Grand Hotel of 1864, and the Metropole Hotel of 1890. The Church Street drill hall was also completed in 1890.
The city's popularity among the wealthy rose with the decision of the Prince Regent to build a seaside palace, the Royal Pavilion. Construction began in 1787, but it is the expansion by John Nash beginning in 1811 that created the fantastical Orientalist pavilion that draws the eye and made Brighton a center of Regency Era society.
Gideon Algernon Mantell lived on the Steine close to the seafront in the early part of the 19th century; his residency is commemorated on a plaque at the house. Mantell identified the iguanadon from a fossilised tooth found locally and was an early theorist of a prehistoric age when the earth was ruled by giant lizards.
Brighton came to be of importance to the railway industry after the building of the Brighton railway works in 1840. This brought Brighton within the reach of day-trippers from London, who flocked to peep at Queen Victoria, whose growing family were constrained for space in the Royal Pavilion; in 1845 she purchased the land for Osborne House in the Isle of Wight and left Brighton permanently. In 1850 the Pavilion was sold to the Corporation of Brighton.
In 1859 the municipal Brighton School of Art was founded, which became part of Brighton Polytechnic as the Faculty of Art and Design and is now the Faculty of Arts and Architecture of the University of Brighton.
In 1882 Robert Hammond established a company to supply electricity to enable shopkeepers located in Queen’s Road and Western Road to install electric lighting in their premises.
In the latter half of the 19th century a large number of churches were built in Brighton. This was in large part due to the efforts of Reverend Arthur Douglas Wagner, a prominent figure in the Anglo-Catholic movement of the time. He is thought to have spent his entire fortune on building a number of churches including St. Bartholomew's — an imposing red brick building, built to the size and proportions of the biblical ark. Other notable Victorian churches in Brighton include the Parish Church of St. Michael and All Angels, which has stained glass windows by the pre-Raphaelites, William Morris, Edward Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown and Philip Webb.
In the early 20th century, Otto Pfenninger developed one of the earliest method of colour photography in the parks and beaches of Brighton.
First World War
Between 1 December 1914 and 15 February 1916 the Royal Pavilion was used as a military hospital for Indian soldiers with a total of 724 beds. It admitted a total of 4,306 patients. From 20 April 1916 until 21 July 1919, the Pavilion was designated the Pavilion General Hospital (for limbless men) and admitted 6,085 patients. The 2nd Eastern General Hospital occupied the boys' grammar school, elementary schools and the workhouse. Brighton was the location of the Third Australian Hospital and also the first hospital in Britain for shell shock cases. During the war 233 London, Brighton and South Coast Railway ambulance trains carried 30,070 patients to Brighton.
In June 1916 the sound of the guns firing at the Battle of the Somme were heard on the Brighton College playing field during cricket.
The Brighton War Memorial in Old Steine was unveiled by Earl Beatty on 7 October 1922 bearing the names of 2,597 men and 3 women of the town who died in military service.
The Chattri is a memorial to the Indian soldiers who died at the Royal Pavilion hospital. It is situated on the Downs to the north of Patcham on the outskirts of the town. It is an octagonal monument built on the place of cremation for Hindu and Sikh soldiers and was unveiled by the Prince of Wales on 1 February 1921.
Post-war period
In many ways, Brighton's post-war growth has been a continuation of the "fashionable Brighton" which drew the Georgian upper classes. The growth in mass tourism stimulated numerous Brighton businesses to serve visitors. Pubs and restaurants are abundant. An important post-war development was the 1961 founding of the University of Sussex, designed by Sir Basil Spence. The University acquired a strong academic reputation, and a certain reputation for radicalism. Brighton, with its vibrant cultural scene, is hard to imagine without the thousands of students from Sussex and Brighton Polytechnic, which was given the name University of Brighton in 1992, but with its early roots in the Victorian-era Brighton School of Art.
Other post-war developments radically changed the centre of Brighton, in the name of creating much needed low-cost local housing. An example is the virtual replacement of Richmond Street to make way for tower blocks in the vicinity. A notable feature of this area was a fence at the junction of the present Elmore Road and Richmond Street which once stopped carts from running away down the steep hill.
In the same area of the town there have been further developments, with student accommodation at the bottom of Southover Street being built in the early 1990s near the site of the Phoenix Brewery. An adjacent housing association development at the bottom of Albion Hill, behind the Phoenix Gallery, incorporates the houses once known as "The Peoples State of Trumpton" which was first squatted by Martin and Suzie Cowley in an effort to halt the demolition of the cottages, one being the smallest cottage in Brighton, it was twinned with The Peoples State of Chigley which was a squatted area in Brigg in Lincolnshire, formerly a long-term squatted dwelling, its colourful appearance much in fitting with the area's Bohemian demographic. The Peoples State of Trumpton arose alongside the politics of the Brighton Justice? movement and the creation of a social space in a nearby squatted former courthouse.
In the 1970s, the North Laine area was threatened with demolition, but was saved after the intervention of planning officer Ken Fines.
The period of the 1970s and '80s saw much of the town becoming somewhat dilapidated. At the same time, a major investment was being made into the Brighton Marina, which encountered stiff opposition from many local people. Opposition to the way the town was being run was also voiced by the semi-anarchist newspaper Brighton Voice. The seafront, in particular, was much less developed than today. There was notorious sub-standard rental accommodation run by slum landlords. High levels of unemployment in the central districts led to a strong unemployed counter-culture involving squatting. Whilst a minority of the population, they had a strong and visible presence, often with brightly dyed hair or dreadlocks, and were overtly political, vocal in their hatred of the Margaret Thatcher government.
This period is punctuated by a natural phenomenon: the Great Storm of 1987. The Level and Steine were decimated by this event with many great elm trees lost. The Pavilion and the Church of St. Peter suffered substantial damage.
Embassy Court is one of the most unusual buildings on the seafront at Brighton and Hove, although the reasons for this have differed over the years. When built in 1935, designed by architect Wells Coates, the building contrasted sharply with the more sedate and ornamental architecture of King's Road, and was suggested as a prototype for a proposed total redevelopment. However, by the 1990s the structure drew comment because of the state of its decay. The building made the local press after chunks of render and windows fell from the building onto the street below, and it appeared until recently that it might suffer the same ignominious fate met by the nearby West Pier, which all but succumbed to the elements and suspected arsonists in early 2004. Eventually this fate was avoided: a consortium formed by residents and owners were able to wrestle the freehold of the building from the then management company, and restoration began in 2004, being completed by autumn 2005.
Provisional Irish Republican Army member Patrick Magee used a time bomb to kill 5 people and injure another 31 at the Grand Hotel on 12 October 1984.
Social change during the 20th century has seen many of the 19th century townhouses converted to flats, along with the mews buildings which once served many of them.
In 1997, Brighton's town council was superseded by Brighton and Hove (a unitary authority), granted city status by the Queen in 2001.
Economic history
The mainstay of Brighton's economy for its first 700 years was fishing. Open land called the Hempshares (the site of the present Lanes) provided hemp for ropes; sails were made from flax grown in Hove; nets were dried and boats were kept on the open land which became Old Steine; and fishermen lived and worked on the foreshore below the East Cliff, in an area known as Lower Town. Herring and mackerel were sometimes used in ecclesiastical and manorial transactions, a tradition which ended in the 19th century. As Brighton grew, many fishermen moved to the Carlton Hill area and used its many warehouses and workshops to cure and smoke their catches. The industry was so important in the town's early history that in 1579 a commission of important residents, formed at the Privy Council of England's request, commanded the fishermen to document how they worked and how they divided and distributed their catches and profits. These customs were then enshrined in law. Two original copies of The Book of All The Auncient Customs heretoforeused amonge the fishermen of the Toune of Brighthelmstone survive. In 1580, the year it was published, Brighton's 80-boat, 10,000-net fleet was the largest in southern England and employed 400 men. Herring and mackerel were the main products, but plaice, cod and conger eels were also fished. By 1790 there were 100 boats, but this declined to 48 by 1948. A fish market established below King's Road in 1864, replacing the ancient open-air market on the beach, moved to Carlton Hill in 1960 but closed in 2005. The present, much smaller fleet is based at Brighton Marina.
In the 18th century the economy diversified as the town grew. Small-scale foundries were established, especially in the North Laine area; coal importers such as the Brighthelmston Coal Company set up business to receive fuel sent from Newcastle; and the rise of tourism and fashionable society was reflected in the proliferation of lodging house keepers, day and boarding school proprietors, dressmakers, milliners and jewellers. Many women worked: more than half of working women in Brighton in the late 18th century were in charge of lodging houses, and domestic service and large-scale laundries were other major employers. Brewing was another of Brighton's early specialisms. The industry started in the 17th century and took off after 1800. Major names included the Kemp Town Brewery (1840s–1964), Cannon Brewery (1821–1969), Griffiths (later Rock) Brewery (1809–1960), the Albion, the Longhurst and the Bristol Steam Brewery. Many others failed to survive the 19th century. The Black Lion Brewery in The Lanes, founded by Dirick Carver in 1545, stopped brewing in 1901 but its buildings survived until 1968. The biggest brewery was Tamplins (1821–1973), which owned over 200 pubs in Brighton at one time and bought many smaller breweries such as the Smithers (1851) and West Street (1767) companies.
Politics and activism
The political campaigning group Justice? and its SchNEWS newspaper were based in Brighton, at the Cowley Club libertarian social centre. This was named after Harry Cowley (1890–1971), "one of the earliest and best-loved proponents of 'people power' activism in Brighton".
See also
Timeline of Brighton
History of Sussex
Notes
Doctor Brighton: Richard Russell and the sea water cure, Sakula A., J Med Biogr. 1995 Feb;3(1):30-3.
Glandular Diseases, or a Dissertation on the Use of Sea Water in the Affections of the Glands, Richard Russell, 1750.
Thoughts on Brighthelmston, concerning sea-bathing and drinking sea-water with some directions for their use,John Awsiter, 1768.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Published in the 19th century
Published in the 20th century
External links
My Brighton and Hove: A Living History Site
The James Gray Collection – extensive collection of old photographs (owned by the Regency Society)
Brighton on Francis Frith – old photos, maps and memories of Brighton
Brighton
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudawana
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Mudawana
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The Mudawana (or Moudawana, ), short for mudawwanat al-aḥwāl al-shakhṣiyyah (, ), is the personal status code, also known as the family code, in Moroccan law. It concerns issues related to the family, including the regulation of marriage, polygamy, divorce, inheritance, and child custody. Originally based on the Maliki school of Sunni Islamic jurisprudence, it was codified after the country gained independence from France in 1956. Its most recent revision, passed by the Moroccan parliament in 2004, was praised by human rights activists for its measures to address women's rights and gender equality within an Islamic legal framework.
Although there were calls for reform to the family law in the 1960s and 1970s, its religious origins made amending it a challenge, and no serious movement for reform emerged until the 1980s. As a result of newly created civil society organizations, including many women's organizations, and increased international attention on women's rights, modest reforms to the Mudawana were enacted in 1993 under King Hassan II. Following this initial change, increased activism resulted in the articulation of a Plan of Action for the Integration of Women in Development, which drew heavily from secular, rights-based frameworks. This sparked fierce debate and opposition within Moroccan political elites and, to a somewhat lesser extent, Moroccan society and culminated in two rallies in Casablanca and Rabat in March 2000 – one in support of reform and one in opposition to it. This occurred shortly after Mohammad VI succeeded his father as King, and within a year of the rallies, he announced the formation of a commission to further reform the Mudawana. In 2003, he announced his intention to replace the code entirely, citing his authority as both spiritual and political leader of the nation, and by January 2004, the Moroccan parliament had ratified the new version.
Major components of the reforms included raising the minimum legal age of marriage to 18 for men and women, establishing joint responsibility for the family among men and women, limiting the terms of polygamy and divorce, and granting women more rights in the negotiation of marriage contracts, among other provisions. Supporters of the reforms point to broad support for them among Moroccan society, especially among women, and cite the new law as a successful example of a progressive reform framed in indigenous, Islamic principles. Critics of the reforms point to the elitist roots of the movements that advocated for the reforms, the influence of Western secular principles, and the many barriers to the law's implementation within Moroccan society.
Background
Origins of Al-Mudawana
Malik ibn Anas, the founder of the Maliki school of Sunni Islam, wrote Al-Muwatta, which was an 8th-century collection of hadith, or sayings, of Muhammad, his family, and his companions. These sayings were collected and published by Malik, along with commentary. This formed the foundation of one of the four major Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence still in existence today. The Maliki school has been the dominant source of Islamic jurisprudence in Morocco since the 10th century.
Moroccan government
Morocco has been described as a "liberalized autocracy." Its constitution grants the majority of executive powers to the monarch, including the power to appoint major ministers and regional governors, and the power to set the priorities of the national agenda; this effectively limits the power of political parties and the elected members of Parliament. Many argue that the electoral system's main function is to serve as a means for the monarchy to create and manipulate a dependent class of political elites. Practically speaking, despite multiparty elections, the monarchy, and not parliament, is the site of strategic political decision-making in Morocco.
The King is not only a political leader, but also holds the title "Commander of the Faithful," indicating his role as a religious leader as well. The royal family of Morocco, which claims descent from the Prophet Muhammad, therefore enjoys a sense of political legitimacy rooted in Islam and also has the power to dictate the form that Islam takes within Moroccan society. As a result, this traditional form of religious authority gives the monarch the political legitimacy to arbitrate the agenda and decisions of a modern, multiparty government.
Generally speaking, the monarchy, Islam, and the territorial integrity of the Moroccan nation are considered to be the nation's three inviolable "sacred institutions." Challenges to these three institutions, whether through questioning the king's authority or the legitimacy of Islamic law as the basis for legal codes, are technically imprisonable offenses. These conditions have impacted the process of reforming Moroccan family law significantly.
The Mudawana in Modern Morocco
Historically, the creation of the Mudawana in Moroccan law represented a major step in the political and legal unification of Morocco after it gained independence from the French. Its first version was written in 1957-8 by a group of ten male religious scholars (Ulama) working under the auspices of the monarchy; its substance drew heavily on classical Maliki law. As the French had ruled Morocco with a policy of legal pluralism (maintaining, for example, the existence of Berber customary law within Berber communities), the new Mudawana was intended to signify the nation's unity, Islamic identity, and modernity. It did this in part by codifying the system of existing patriarchal, kin-based social structures within the newly independent state. In addition, the Mudawana is the only section of Moroccan law that relies primarily on Islamic sources, rather than Spanish or French civil codes, which gave it a greater sense of immutability and contributed to the difficulty of reforming it later on. A state's family or personal status law has wide-ranging implications for citizens' daily lives, but many gender equality advocates point out its particular significance for women, as it governs the age at which they may be married, issues of divorce and child custody, and their right to work and travel outside the home. Even as various Muslim-majority states have expanded public civil and political rights for women, separate family laws rooted in Shari'a have often remained unchanged; for many Muslims, these family laws remain an untouchable symbol of Muslim identity.
Women and civil society: foundations of reform
In 1969, King Hassan II created the Union Nationale des Femmes Marocaines (UNFM), an organization with the stated goal of improving the social and economic status of women in Morocco. The activities of the UNFM focused less on legal reform and more on professional and training programs for women. It was given the legal status of a utilité publique, an important designation for Moroccan civil society organizations, which allows them to raise funds and be exempt from taxes (similar to non-profit status in the United States). Historically, this distinction, which must be conferred by the government, has provided a way for the Moroccan regime to exert a measure of control over civil society organizations, as those whose agendas conflict with that of the government typically find it difficult to obtain utilité publique status. Without this license, an association will have difficulty securing funding and has no right to recourse within the Moroccan justice system.
In the 1980s, a financial crisis led King Hassan II to implement a program of structural adjustment that included some social reforms, leading to increased activity among political and civil society organizations. This included the founding of many new women's associations, many of which began as affiliates of existing political parties. This affiliation lends them a sense of legitimacy as well as connections and support, but some argue that it limits their autonomy as well.
The proliferation of civil society organizations flourished even more in the 1990s, due in part to King Hassan II's active support for them, which reflected a worldwide trend of civil society promotion. Some have argued that the king's support was motivated as much by international pressures and his desire to join the European Union as domestic economic and political problems. It was in this environment that calls for reform to the Mudawana first began to gain traction. All of Morocco's major women's organizations have positioned their work within an Islamic framework in some way, drawing on the work of Islamic scholars to inform their agendas.
Early calls for reform
Despite numerous calls for reform throughout the 1960s and 70s, it was not until 1982 that women's legal status was brought to the forefront of public debate in Morocco. Eventually, public debates and discussions led to a broad rewriting of the Mudawana in 2003–4, which many attribute to the increase in activity and organization within Moroccan civil society in the 1990s as well as a changing international environment surrounding women's rights and gender equality. Beginning in the 1990s, women's rights organizations in Morocco gained leverage and influence by incorporating progressive elements from academia, publishing, and government, and using rhetoric that drew from Islamic sources as well as the language of national development and the rights of women and children.
In 1991, this was manifested in concrete political action as l’Union de l’Action Féminine (UAF), a women's group within one of Morocco's Marxist–Leninist political parties and consisting mainly of professional, middle-class women, collected one million signatures on a petition calling for Mudawana reform and presented it to the Prime Minister. This move demonstrated significant political support behind the idea of reform, and framed the issue more as one of politics and human rights than religion (indicated in part by the delivery of the petition to the prime minister, the nominal head of the government, as opposed to the king of Morocco, who is also a spiritual leader). Their primary aims were to change the discriminatory elements of the code, including polygamy and the principle that a husband has ultimate authority over his wife. The proposed reforms drew not only on principles derived from the Universal Declaration of Human Rights but also on the Islamic principles of equality, justice, and tolerance. In response, King Hassan II created a commission (which he chaired) composed of 21 religious scholars – only one of them female – and a representative of the Royal Court for the purpose of reforming the Mudawana according to the Islamic tradition of ijtihad. The events were not without controversy, however, generating both a counter-petition as well as a fatwa directed against the women's demands.
Increased activism and 1993 reforms
This commission resulted in a number of changes, implemented in 1993, which instituted provisions that (among other things) required a bride's verbal consent to marriage, eliminated a father's right to force his daughter to marry, and mandated the obtainment of a judge's permission in cases of polygamy and a husband's repudiation of his wife. Generally these reforms were considered superficial, but significant as an indicator that the Mudawana was not an unchangeable standard, as it had previously been perceived. Considering the religious origin of the laws, the fact that they had been amended at all was a significant step in demonstrating that they were subject to the process of ijtihad and not completely unchangeable.
Towards the end of his reign, in the late 1990s, King Hassan II opened up the political process to opposition parties, such as the Socialist Union of Popular Forces (USFP) and the Parti du Progres et du Socialisme (PPS). The latter, which came to be associated with the Association Marocaine pour les Droits des Femmes (ADFM), played a key role in a working group that examined the family code. This group, with input from several Moroccan women's organizations and funding from the World Bank, produced Le Plan d’action national pour l’intégration de la femme au développement (The Plan of Action for the Integration of Women in Development, or PAIWD). By the time the plan was introduced, King Hassan II had died and his son, King Mohammed VI, had taken the throne.
The PAIWD and opposition
The PAIWD was formulated and promoted in the context of Morocco's 1993 ratification of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW), the Platform for Action established at the Beijing Conference on Women in 1995, and the Moroccan government's subsequent commitment to developing a national strategy to address the status of women that year. Arising from this context, the PAIWD did not explicitly reference Islamic values, and was more closely related to a "development discourse" that formed a crucial element of Mohammad VI's national agenda. The PAIWD's main areas of focus were education, reproductive health, the involvement of women in development, and empowerment through legal reforms and a strengthening of political power.
The creation of the PAIWD, and the stir it caused, effectively created two opposing political factions among Morocco's political elite, one identifying as "modernists" lobbying against the influence of Islamic extremists and the other identifying as traditionalists who insisted that newly proposed reforms were rooted in Western interference. In particular, the Moroccan minister for religious affairs opposed the plan, and the Moroccan cabinet became divided over the issue. The debate extended beyond the realm of the political elite, however, eventually sparking enormous rallies in March 2000. Different sources cite varying accounts as to how many people attended each rally, with estimates ranging from 60,000 to over 1 million at each - with each side claiming it had more attendees present. Press coverage of the two actions noted the differences between them; the Casablanca march, in opposition to the PAIWD, was generally more gender-segregated, with more uniformity of dress, whereas in Rabat, participants of different genders mixed more freely. These figures, and the differences between the two rallies, illustrate a polarization that exists in Moroccan society through today, and the divisions and controversy associated with it, along with the rise of Islamic movements in Morocco, ultimately prevented the PAIWD's implementation. One point of common ground between both factions was an appeal to the king for arbitration. Traditionalists felt only the king had the right to change the law and the modernists felt that the king had the right to exercise ijtihad and ultimately decide the role that Islamic law would play in Morocco's legal framework. Moreover, many scholars and activists have pointed out that there was strong support for reform from both sides of the debate; the conflict lay in the source of the reforms and in questions of cultural authenticity.
Reforms of 2004
On 5 March 2001, a year after the rallies in Casablanca and Rabat, Mohammed VI announced the formation of a commission to reform the Mudawana, members of which included a Supreme Court justice, religious scholars, political representatives, and intellectuals from a number of different backgrounds, including female representatives from women's organizations. At the same time, the king took several steps viewed as promoting women's status in Moroccan society, including mandating that 10 percent of seats in the lower house of the Moroccan parliament be reserved for women and promoting several women to senior administrative positions within his government. On October 10, 2003, the king presented Parliament with a plan to replace the old Mudawana entirely, on the commission's recommendation, describing the new law code as "modern" and intended to "free women from the injustices they endure, in addition [to] protecting children’s rights and safeguarding men’s dignity." In doing so, he emphasized that the reforms were not intended to address women's rights exclusively, but to address issues associated with the family as a whole.
The king also cited his role as "Commander of the Faithful," referring to his role as both political and religious leader of Morocco, and pointed out that as such, "I can neither prohibit what is legal nor sanction that which is illicit." When announcing the reforms, the king emphasized their compatibility with Islamic principles, quoting supporting passages from the Qur'an and the Hadith. He also indicated that he sought to "reflect the general will of the nation" rather than impose legislation from above, and described the reform as not a victory for one side or the other.
Whereas the original Mudawana and its 1993 reforms were enacted by royal decree, the 2004 reforms were deliberated upon extensively in Parliament, which made over 100 amendments to the code before ratifying it in January 2004.
After the reforms were announced, the United States government, the World Bank, and Human Rights Watch all released statements of support for the new laws. Likewise, the European Union considered Morocco to be the "most advanced country on the southern shore of the Mediterranean" in terms of rule of law and democratization.
Major provisions of the updated code
Both spouses share responsibility for the family; "women are men’s sisters before the law."
Once a woman comes of age, she does not need a marital tutor (a male relative, usually the father who speaks on her behalf). Women cannot be married against their will, though if they wish to designate a male relative to act as their marital tutor, they may.
The minimum age for men and women to be married is 18 unless specified by a judge; in addition, boys and girls under custody may choose their custodian once they reach the age of 15.
A man may only take a second wife if a judge authorizes it, and only if there is an exceptional and objective justification for it, the first wife consents, and the man has sufficient resources to support the two families and guarantee all maintenance rights, accommodation and equality in all aspects of life. Moreover, a woman can stipulate in her marriage contract that her husband may not take a second wife, and a first wife must consent to the second. The first wife may also petition for divorce if the husband takes another wife.
Moroccans living abroad may complete a marriage contract by drawing it up in the presence of two Muslim witnesses, according to the local laws, and registering it with local Moroccan consular or judicial authorities.
The right to petition for divorce belongs to both men and women, though procedures for reconciliation and mediation are encouraged. A man may not repudiate his wife without the permission of a judge, and she and her children must be accorded their full rights under the law. Divorce proceedings take place in a secular court, rather than before a religious official. (See Islamic marital jurisprudence).
If a man does not fulfill his obligations according to the marriage contract, or causes his wife harm such as abandonment or violence, she has the right to file for divorce; the new law also provides for divorce in situations of mutual consent.
Children's rights are protected according to the international conventions Morocco has signed. Priority in terms of child custody goes first to the mother, then the father, then the maternal grandmother, or to whomever a judge deems the most qualified relative. Children in custody must be given "suitable accommodation," the terms of which must be settled within a month of any dispute. The parent who gains custody of the child keeps the house.
Children born outside of wedlock have the right to the acknowledgment of paternity.
A man's daughter's children as well as his son's children have the right to inherit property.
A married couple may negotiate an agreement separate from the marriage contract regarding the management of assets they acquire while married (this does not negate the principle of separate marital property).
Reactions and implementation
Awareness
According to a 2010 survey, awareness of the reforms varies widely within the Moroccan population, with younger, urban, and educated women far more likely to have heard of the law and have some familiarity with its provisions than women in rural areas, those with less education, and older women. Of Moroccans who have heard of the new Mudawana, 85% of women and 59% of men support the reforms. Most men who oppose the reforms believe the law negatively impacts them, gives greater weight to their spouses' demands, and view it as contrary to their religious beliefs. Women's dissatisfaction with the Mudawana, however, reflects a belief that it is not implemented widely and successfully enough to address the problems of women's rights. Two-thirds of Moroccan women surveyed said they felt the new Mudawana had improved women's status in Morocco, and 50% of men agreed.
Positive reactions and support
When announcing the reforms, Mohammad VI indicated that he sought to "reflect the general will of the nation" rather than impose legislation, and emphasized that the reform did not represent a "victory" for one side or the other.
Many groups and individuals (both in Morocco and abroad) reacted favorably to the revised code, pointing out that from an economic perspective, it finally legally recognized women's economic contributions to the household – not an insignificant point, as in 2000, women represented over a third of the Moroccan workforce. Supporters point out that the reforms indicate a democratization of Moroccan society on two fronts: because of the sense of pluralism and debate they sparked in the public sphere, and because of their movement towards an individual-based rights system, as opposed to one based on collective rights.
Many activists and scholars embrace the reforms as evidence that gender equality is compatible with Islamic principles; indeed, some scholars have argued that what they consider to be an authentic interpretation of Shari'a actually requires reforms in the name of gender equality.
Furthermore, many women's groups and feminist activists in Morocco hold the view that religion must be incorporated into any reformist framework for it to be acceptable to the Moroccan population, and as such, the reforms represent a progressive step without alienating the majority of the society.
Negative reactions and opposition
Opponents to the law assert that the reforms represent an imposition of legislation that does not enjoy broad support, pointing out that opinion polls often favor urban populations and are not representative of Moroccan society as a whole. Many Islamic groups have emphasized that they do not oppose reform of the Mudawana in general, but reject what they view as reforms rooted in externally imposed principles, such as those based in international human rights law, as opposed to exclusively Islamic origins.
Some have described the women's rights movement in Morocco as a movement of elites and criticized the new Mudawana on similar grounds. Most women's organizations in Morocco receive external funding, whether from the government, various Moroccan political parties, or international actors such as USAID, the European Development Bank, and the World Bank, which has left them open to criticisms that their agendas are tied to the sources of their funding and therefore compromised. However, some scholars have argued that just because the movement was started among elites, it does not necessarily follow that they are incongruent with grassroots interests. Still others point out that in an even broader sense, the universal notion of formal equality itself may not be evenly applicable or relevant to women from different social, cultural, and national backgrounds.
Furthermore, just as some scholars praise what they see as a confirmation of the compatibility of Islam and gender equality, others point out that by requiring the framing of gender equality within an Islamic framework, the means by which Muslim women can advocate for equality is inherently limited. This process also arguably reduces Islamic women to a single, universal category that does not recognize their individual choices. Critics consequently point out that the Mudawana represents an improvement in women's status but still falls short of establishing their full equal standing with men in either the family or the social sphere. For example, the law still recognizes the father as head of the family and designates him the default legal tutor to his children.
Other critics of the Mudawana point out that irrespective of the value of the reforms themselves, the process by which they were achieved is flawed, creates difficulties for their implementation, and can even be considered counter-productive to the process of democratization. It can be argued that while the reforms do represent a significant transformation of women's rights, they also serve to solidify and expand the authority of the monarch as the defender or insurer of those rights. In the end, the civil society associations that lobbied for the reforms had to work within the existing authoritarian system, appealing directly to the king for change rather than working through a democratic political process. Ultimately, the credit for the reforms' successful enactment has been given to the monarchy. Finally, some characterize the high degree of debate and deliberation over the issue as a dividing influence in the end; a representative from one Moroccan women's organization described the women's movement in Morocco not as a movement, but an uncoordinated group of different organizations.
Barriers to implementation
There are social, legal, logistical, and political barriers to the actual implementation of many of the reforms in the new Mudawana. The top-down nature of the reforms has resulted in many members of the judicial system simply ignoring the new laws’ provisions. Other problems with the judicial system include a lack of training among the judiciary and provisions of the law that allow individual judges to consult principles of Shari'a in situations that are not covered by the Mudawana. This could open the door to an application of older, pre-reform style judicial decisions.
In terms of social barriers, there is a significant gap between formal legal reforms in theory and their practice in reality. In Morocco's rural and underdeveloped areas, legal equality is perceived as less of an immediate priority than basic, everyday needs. High levels of female illiteracy and a strong sense of traditionalism in many rural areas further compound these challenges. Despite educational campaigns undertaken by various governmental and non-governmental actors (often supported by donor nations such as EU member states), levels of awareness about the reforms remain low, especially in many rural areas, where misinformation about the details of the changes has often filled the knowledge gap. Many supporters of the reforms believe that lack of awareness of the law is the primary barrier to its implementation, with a lack of legal literacy compounded by the fact that many Moroccans speak a Berber dialect rather than the formal Arabic in which the law is actually written.
From a legal standpoint, the Moroccan penal code still does not reflect the principles of gender equality established within the provisions of the Mudawana. For example, a woman still needs her husband's permission to obtain a passport and can be penalized for having a child out of wedlock, and there is no legislation addressing or criminalizing violence against women. Judges also retain the right to oversee mandatory reconciliation in the case of divorce, which many women's organizations fear will be used to limit women's autonomy during divorce proceedings.
Logistically, the new code created a new system of family courts to handle family law matters, presenting the complex challenges of establishing a new, nationwide system from scratch while provoking opposition among adouls, the local legal officials who previously had jurisdiction over marriage and family matters. Some critics have even classified the family court system as a lower or "second-class" justice system for women.
In terms of political barriers, some classify the reformed Mudawana as an example of strategic liberalization, typical within certain "liberalized autocracies," that arises out of internal and external pressures but is ultimately limited in the extent of its reforms. The argument that follows is that the reforms are essentially superficial because it is in the government's interest to favor the maintenance of the status quo over the potential conflict that would arise were the reforms to be implemented on a full scale.
Results of implementation
Five years after the new Mudawana laws were passed, the president of the ADFM noted that opposition to its reforms was still present throughout the judicial system. While polygamy had become nearly nonexistent, she noted, one out of every ten marriages still involved a minor as of 2007, and the system was facing organizational challenges. Some reports claim that marriage of underage girls has actually risen since the passing of the reforms, and point out that the actual existence of separate marital property contracts remains low, despite their being newly legalized, meaning that the reforms offer little actual protection to women whose husbands order them to leave the marital home.
However, there is some evidence that the reforms are not totally without effect. According to the Moroccan Ministry of Justice, in 2008 there were more marriages and slightly fewer divorces in Morocco. Of the divorces granted, almost 30% were divorce by mutual consent – which did not exist before the 2004 reforms. Moreover, while over 14,000 divorce proceedings were initiated by men, over 26,000 were initiated by women in 2007; before the reforms, women did not have the right to initiate these proceedings. Finally, the number of women arranging their own marriages increased by over 14% between 2006 and 2007.
Cultural references
The Mudawana and the status of Moroccan women are the subject of Lalla Mennana, a song by the popular Moroccan hip-hop group Fnaire.
The 2008 film "Number One," produced in Morocco and scripted in Moroccan Arabic with French subtitles, is a comedy portraying the effects of the new Mudawana from a male perspective.
See also
Human rights in Morocco
Algerian Family Code
Child custody
Divorce (conflict)
List of parenting issues affecting separated parents
Marriage (conflict)
Religion and divorce
Sleeping child
Women's rights
Code of Personal Status (Tunisia)
Sharia
Women in Islam
References
External links
La moudawana autrement - Illustrated guide in Arabic and French for a Moroccan non-specialist audience
Full text of the code from the Human Rights Education Association
Feature on the Mudawana by Professor Mounira Charrad for the International Museum of Women
BBC news article about the reforms
Curriculum guide to the reforms
Essay about feminism and women's organizations in Morocco
UNDP profile on gender dynamics in Morocco
Global Rights (NGO) page about Morocco, including links to Mudawana resources
Women's Learning Partnership (NGO) page about Morocco, including links to Mudawana resources
New York Times article about the Mudawana, five years after the reforms
Article from Magharebia about the Mudawana, five years after the reforms
Index of online Mudawana resources from Friends of Morocco
A www.resetdoc.org interview with Nouzha Guessous member of the Moudawana commission
Law of Morocco
Morocco
Civil law (legal system)
Women's rights in Islam
Human rights in Morocco
Women in Morocco
Government documents of Morocco
Documents of Morocco
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerry%20Ross%20%28painter%29
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Jerry Ross (painter)
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Jerry Ross (born May 11, 1944, in Buffalo, New York) is an American painter.
Early life and work
He was born Gerald Gross to first-generation Jewish parents, Sidney and Jeanette Gross. The family moved to the suburbs (Kenmore and the town of Tonawanda, New York). An art teacher recognized his talent and recommended that he be enrolled at the Art Institute of Buffalo, which he attended from age seven until age eleven. (Neevel 2006, Eugene Weekly, p. 10)
His art teacher, a Mrs. Beagleman, favored an impressionist style of painting, and she continued as his mentor until the art institute closed several years later. No institution was established to replace the art institute, and as a result Ross had no further formal training. (Eisen 2001, The Torch, p. 10). Ross's work is influenced by the Italian I Macchiaioli and verismo schools of art. He has had exhibitions in Italy, Las Vegas, and Oregon.
Ross was also an influence on his younger sister, Diane (Diane Bush), who became an artist as well, and later a fine art photographer. Ross' first cousin, John Ross, was an author and activist.
To make a living, Ross taught high school advanced math after graduation from SUNYAB and a Peace Corps/Teacher Corps program at Buffalo State (Lackawanna High School and Cardinal O'Hara High Schools). In Arizona he taught general science for Naco Elementary School. After moving to Oregon, he taught math for Lowell High School and, after a brief move to Maryland, taught advanced math for Middletown High School. Returning to Oregon, he entered a "Computers in Education" MA Degree Program at the University of Oregon, and taught for the Radio Shack Computer Center in Eugene and later, for the ValCom Computer Center. Hired as Manager for Education and Documentation for the Lane County Regional Information System (RIS) he also moonlighted for Linfield College, teaching computer science. His last job before retirement was as a full-time instructor for the Computer Information Technology Department of Lane Community College (CIT).
Activist Years
Following high school Ross studied at State University of New York at Buffalo. He became an activist opposed to the Vietnam War (he was one of the "Buffalo Nine" group of defendants), and worked on behalf of the political prisoner Martin Sostre (Heineman 1993, p. 163). He was granted a B.A. in philosophy in 1968. (McQuiddy 2006, p. 76)
Described as "the big one that got away," the conservative press in Buffalo portrayed Ross as a Maoist and atheist who was "scurrilously critical of U.S. policies in Vietnam." The media indicated that the government may have deliberately targeted him and other anti-war leaders. According to the Buffalo media, Ross was a go-between for the Buffalo Nine and Martin Sostre, an important political prisoner in New York State whose case was of personal interest to J. Edgar Hoover, then head of the FBI. FBI efforts to draft Ross had failed because he had so many arrests for his anti-war activities that his court dockets never cleared long enough for the draft board to act. Also of interest to the FBI was the fact that Ross had been expelled from a Marxist–Leninist group, the Workers World Party (WWP), for "Kautskyism." (Cardinale 1998, p. 6)
Ross's unabashedly leftist and at times strident political position may seem at odds with his paintings, which are imbued with a sense of poetry and calm. Yet, his lifetime of opposing political systems that he believes deny basic human rights is deeply integrated into an artistic approach that expresses nobility in the human being and value in a nurturing environment. In life, Ross works for the utopia he creates in his work. Upon reflection, even his style may be seen to express a political statement. In his own words, "Only the elite have time to 'finish' paintings."
Life in Oregon
After graduation Ross moved to Arizona and changed his surname to Ross. While in Arizona, Ross lived in the Hotel Pancho Villa in Naco but traveled to Tucson on weekends. Eventually moving to Tucson, he founded the Tao Te Ching Society and taught tai chi in city parks. Ross had studied Kung fu from Wong Ting Fong in Buffalo and Master Liu in London. Adopting taoism as his outlook, Ross emphasized the four taoist virtues ("remote, foolish, cranky, and poor") and the five excellencies ( Chinese medicine, martial arts, calligraphy, painting, and philosophy).
He later moved to Oregon where he met his wife Angela Czyzewski at Ken Kesey's Poetic Hoohaw in Eugene in May, 1977. He continued teaching tai chi at Hayward Field, at the University of Oregon. His marriage to his first wife, Pamela Fore Tyree, of Chapel Hill, North Carolina, ended in divorce. Pamela died accidentally in Albuquerque, New Mexico in 2008.
Shortly afterward, Ross was juried into the New Zone Art Collective and helped to found the Downtown Initiative for the Visual Arts (DIVA) in Eugene, Oregon.
Recognized as a painter with vision and facility in a variety of painting styles, Ross was identified as one of a handful of truly mature artists inhabiting the artistic landscape of Eugene, Oregon, where he has now worked for over 25 years.(Keefer 2001, Eugene Register-Guard, pp. 1–2B. Another observer described Ross as a "master of portraiture." His talents are evident in the portrait of his wife Angela, entitled Arrivo a Bologna, which was considered one of his best: "subtle, tender, suggestive, spare in composition and palette." (Pederson 2005, Eugene Weekly, p. 29). This work has the unflinching directness that characterizes all of Ross's portraits, an approach that is aided by his tendency to choose models who themselves express confidence and strength.
In Oregon, Ross has created a home base where he continues to perfect his technique. He teaches in Eugene and maintains a studio where the craft of painting is as much his concern as his chosen subjects.
Arts Activism
As an arts activist in Eugene, Oregon, Ross helped sustain the New Zone Art Collective for many years. The New Zone Gallery is today a not-for-profit tax-exempt cooperative gallery located in Eugene, Oregon, which emphasizes the work of its members. The gallery was established in 1983 to further, develop, and foster interest in experimental visual arts and to encourage artists with like interests. Ross worked to prevent loss of New Zone's tax-exempt status and to keep it alive online during a period of gallery homelessness.
In 1991, Ross founded the popular Salon des Refuses art show. After his work was rejected from the annual Mayor's Art Show in Eugene, Ross planted an easel outside of the exhibition's reception as a gesture of public protest. He was joined by other artists whose works were similarly rejected and who ultimately formed their own alternative exhibition, the Salon des Refuses, which has been held every year since 1991. (McQuiddy 2007, p. 43)
Italian Connection
Ross and his wife Angela travel frequently to Italy, which continues to be the inspiration for many works. Early in the series of journeys to Italy, Ross realized his affinity with the I Macchiaioli movement (Tuscany).
By the early 1980s, Angela and Jerry Ross had become Italophiles. They made their first trip to Italy in 1991, attended a "Satellites in Education" conference in Bari, and then spent one month exploring both the popular destinations, such as Rome, Venice and Florence, as well as lesser known areas along the Adriatic and in the north. After their return, Angela continued university studies in Italian language and literature, during which time she and Jerry attended a lecture at the University of Oregon given by visiting professor Pier Cesare Bori, a leading Italian scholar on Russian philosopher/writer Leo Tolstoy. They instantly became good friends with Bori who invited them to spend time in Italy at his writing study/apartment in Livergnano, Italy. Jarman 2000, p. 3) Known as "Liver and onions" to the GIs who fought there in WWII, Livergnano became Ross's home for three months in Summer, 1996. There he painted the landscape and portraits of the local inhabitants. After meeting some of the ex-GIs who were re-visiting battlefields, Ross eventually joined the 361st Infantry Battalion Association. He has attended their reunions and made videos interviewing survivors who had fought the Nazis in the Apennines. (Livengood 1994)
As a student of the philosophy and writings of the Italian philosopher, Antonio Gramsci, in June, 2002, Ross presented a paper, entitled "Global Technology Education in the Context of The Gramscian World View," before an international economics conference in Rome (Delener 2002, p. 1035) The conference was organized by the Global Business and Technology Association.
Ross's painting career began to take off in 1999 with an exhibition at the American Consulate in Milan, Italy. This was followed by a second show at the Consulate in 2000 and two more shows in Italy that year Cafe Cabiria, Florence, Italy in Piazza S. Spirito and at the Municipio of the Comune di Loiano ((Bologna)). In 2001, Ross had a solo show in Rome at the prestigious Galleria d'Arte La Borgognona. He was also awarded a gold medal in a painting competition in Corsico, near Milan, along with an invitation to exhibit there in May, 2006.
In Italy, Ross has discovered an environment congenial to his style of painting. The age-old appreciation for painting in Italy and the Italian concept of verismo encourage him to paint in a manner that rings true. Ross's "discovery" of Italy has rewarded him as an artist. He is attracted to the time-honored tradition of the "veduta," views and cityscapes that express underlying messages about life and the quality of life. While he often chooses the wilder views not favored by "postcard painters," each of his subjects nevertheless reveals the mark of man, the evidence of human habitation and integration into the land.
Evolution of Painting Style
Ross's painting style has been influenced by Abstract Expressionism, particularly the work of Willem de Kooning and Richard Diebenkorn. This influence is revealed in his bold use of color and his expressive, experimental handling of pigment. His painterly style utilizes a technique borrowed from Francis Bacon (mild distortions) but, as seen in the Portrait of Carlo Bianchi, it also references photography and computer imagery. Ross has also been influenced by Umberto Coromaldi (Rome 1870-1948, Telemaco Signorini (Florence, 1835–1901), and most recently, Domenico Morelli (Napoli, 1823–1901).
Ross works in a variety of moods—simple, elegant portraits; soft, earth-toned landscapes; and studies of historical work based on old master paintings. The latter are not literal copies but rather abstract compositions that "show the power of the old master's sense of composition and form." (Keefer 2005, pp. G3-G4) As time goes on, Ross is increasingly interested in scenes of contemporary working class life. He approaches such subjects without a shrill, messianic desire to foment action, but to work with the idea of expressing an abstract notion of social harmony. So, Ross's subject matter is strong, but restful, while his style and handling of paint convey a gestural energy that keeps each canvas lively.
Recently, Ross's emphasis has changed somewhat, demonstrating a greater interest in figurative work. Working quickly with an economy of expression, Ross has created multi-figure Italian beach scenes in a style he calls American verismo. These are related to his earlier old master studies. "In those paintings, the blocked-in compositions are borrowed—-'quoted' might be the correct postmodern term—-from classical European painting masters."
(Keefer 2007, pp. 1–2, Art Section). Beach paintings like Martinsicuo have provided Ross with an outlet for combining his interests in Italy and the human form.
Important Exhibitions
1988 New Zone Art Gallery—two-person show, group shows
1989 Hult Center, Mayor's Art Show -- Portrait after Oreshnikov
1991 Founding Salon des Refuses Show -- Portrait after Frans Hals
1994 Hult Center, Mayor's Art Show -- L.A. Rebellion
1995 Hult Center, Mayor's Art Show -- Portrait of Bob Devine
1999 Comune di Loiano, Italy (June 17-July 3)
1999 American Consulate in Milan, Italy
1999 Collier House (Faculty Club), University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon
2000 American Consulate in Milan, Italy
2000 Cafe Cabiria, Florence, Italy (Piazza S. Spirito)
2000 Comune di Loiano, Loiano (Bologna), Italy
2000 Mayor's Choice Award, Mayor's Show, Eugene, Oregon -- La Mamma
2001 Provenance Gallery, Eugene—solo show
2001 Jacob's Gallery -- Art in History, Science, and Culture
2001 31st Annual Willamette Valley Juried Show, Corvallis, Oregon
2001 Rome, Italy, Galleria d' Arte La Borgognona
2002 Rome, Italy, Galleria d' Arte La Borgognona
2003 Chetwynd-Stapleton Gallery, Portland
2003 Marghitta Feldman Gallery—solo show
2004 "Connections" Contemporary Arts Collective, Las Vegas, Nevada
2004 Barrios Cafe, Milan, Italy
2004 Salon des Refuses at DIVA -- Portrait of Carlo Giuliani
2005 Adam's Place and Luna's Jazz Center
2006 Le Loggia della Fornace, Rastignano, Italy -- Colori d'Europa
2006 Milano Opening Centro Foscolo, Comune di Corsico
2006 Comune di Loiano Sala Fantazzini di Loiano
2006 Mayor's Art Show, Eugene, Oregon
2006 Jacobs Gallery Eugene, Oregon
2007 The Springfield Museum, Springfield, Oregon—solo exhibition
2008 TrackTown USA—Maude Kerns—Eugene, May 30
2008 Olympic Trials Exhibit—Eugene Airport, June–July
2008 Eugene Mayor's Art Show September-Oct
2008 November - DIVA Gallery One—Nov 25 thru December
2009 "Uprising" Springfield Museum January 30-February 21
2009 20th Annual Juried Show Las Vegas, February 5 - March 27
2009 World Art Expo 2009: June 7–14 Orange County, CA
2009 Grand Salon Des Arts gallery. (Brea Galler, Orange County, CA
2010 LaFollette Gallery, One Person Show, April and May
2010 Open Studio American Academy in Rome, Italy, Dec 12th
2011 The Eugene Jazz Station 124 W. Broadway Two month exhibit
2011 "La Poetica del vero"—Eugene Yoga Center, Sept-Oct
2011 Eugene Mayor's Show 2011, Sept-Oct 8th
2011 Visual Arts Showcase—Beaverton, Oregon, Nov 4-13
2012 Runyan Gallery, Nye Beach Newport, March 2 - April 2
2012 August 1 - August 15 Buffalo, NY: "RELATED" a 4-person show at Queen City Gallery, Buffalo, New York
2012 Eugene Mayor’s Show, Sept-Oct
2012 October Brownville Art Association, Brownsville, OR "Club Macchia" exhibit
2013 March 27 Open Studio, American Academy in Rome
2013 April 25-May 15 Terni, Italy Comune di Terni Centro Via Aminale
2013 August 1 - August 31 - Club Macchia Group Show, Brownsville Art Center, Brownsville, OR
2013 Sept 1 - Sept 30, Out on a Limb Gallery, E. Broadway, Eugene
2014 Feb-Mar Randy's Cafe in Brownsville: 13 paintings
2014 March Eugene City Bakery: 10 paintings
2014 August - October 4 Eugene Mayor's Show
2015 March 27-May 2 "The Macchia Six" group show at the Jacobs Gallery
2016 April 23 at Villa San Carlo Borromeo in Senago (near Milan) the painting "La Tavola Italiana" by Jerry Ross and sculpture: "La Tavola Italiana" by Giovanni Smeraldi.
2017 Here for All Exhibit Umpqua Community College, Roseburg, OR
2017 Jim Tronson Gallery 740 Main Street, Springfield, OR Oct-Nov Tues-Sat 1-4 pm
2017-2018 November–April US Federal Building, Eugene, OR "Faces and Places"
2019 Sept 5TH AND 6TH ANNUAL Barbizon Brownsville Paintout
2019 July-Oct Cafe Soriah, Eugene, Oregon
2019 Nov 9 - Dec 21st About Light 700 SW Madison Ave Corvallis, OR
2020 January Emerald Art Center 500 Main Street Springfield, Oregon
Awards and recognitions
Jerry Ross has been honored in Eugene, Oregon, with many local awards for his paintings, including Mayor's Art Show awards for La Mamma: Portrait of Stephania Mastrocinque and Vedova di Guerra: War Widow.
In 2001, he received a Juror's Award at the 31st Annual Willamette Valley Juried Show in Corvallis, Oregon.
In 1996, he came in second place in a painting competition held in Livergnano, Italy.
In 2005, he won a gold medal and one-person show in Milan, Italy, as a result of a competition held in Corsico (Milan), Italy, sponsored by "Il gruppo cesare Frigerio."
The Milan jurors wrote that Ross's work represented "un naturalismo di matrice novecentesca ed un cromatismo tonale di forte effetto plastico costruiscono un'atmosfera compostamente poetica" ("a sort of naturalism founded upon a twentieth-century matrix and a tonal type of chromatism with a strong, sculptural effect, to construct a composed, poetic atmosphere."
Selected to give a presentation (in Italian) for "La Tavola Italiana" and the unveiling of the painting "La Tavola Italiana" 2016 April 23 at Villa San Carlo Borromeo in Senago, near Milan.
Jerry Ross was juried (2020) into Galerie Sonia Monti 6, avenue Delcassé 75008 Paris, France that now represents his work.
The Burchfield Penny Art Center (Museum) in Buffalo, NY accepted "Portrait of Martin Sostre" into its permanent collection after it was donated by the author, Ron Ford (December, 2020).
American Society for Aesthetics, Rocky Mountain Meeting July 2021 in Santa Fe, New Mexico research paper and presentation "American Verismo, WWII Oral Histories, Portraiture, and the Documentary Film Genre." https://jerryrosspittore.com/ASApaper2021.pdf and powerpoint notes, http://jerryrosspittore.com/SantaFe.pdf
References
External links
"Official Home Page for Artist"
1944 births
20th-century American painters
American male painters
American contemporary painters
Postmodern artists
Living people
American portrait painters
Artists from Buffalo, New York
Fine art photographers
20th-century American male artists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prix%20Saint-Michel
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Prix Saint-Michel
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The Prix Saint-Michel is a series of comic awards presented by the city of Brussels, with a focus on Franco-Belgian comics. They were first awarded in 1971, and although often said to be the oldest European comics awards, they are actually the second oldest comics award in Europe still presented, behind the Adamson Awards. Their history is quite erratic though, with a long pause between 1986 and 2002.
The jury of the Prix Saint-Michel is formed by professionals from the comics industry, including publishers, editors, and creators.
1971
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Edgar Pierre Jacobs
Best realistic artwork: Victor Hubinon
Best comical artwork: prize shared by Willy Vandersteen and Jean Roba
Best science-fiction artwork: Eddy Paape
Best European artist: Jean Giraud
Best non-European artist: Al Capp
Best realistic writing: Jean-Michel Charlier
Best comical writing: Maurice Tillieux
Best science-fiction writing: Greg
Comics promotion: CSP Imagine (organizers of the Lucca Comics & Games festival)
Future prize: realistic: Juan Manuel Cicuéndez
Future prize: comical: Dany
1972
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Morris
Best graphical research: Les Conquérants du Mexique by Jean Torton
Best realistic artwork: William Vance
Best comical artwork: André Franquin
Best science-fiction artwork: Edgar P. Jacobs
Best European artist: Sydney Jordan
Best non-European artist: Richard Corben
Best realistic writing: Greg
Best comical writing: Raoul Cauvin
Best science-fiction writing: Greg
Comics promotion: Vasco Granja (for promoting comics in Portugal)
1973
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Hergé
Best comical artwork: Berck
Best research and documentation: Jacques Devos
Best realistic artwork: Comanche by Hermann, Le Lombard
Best comical artwork: Sammy by Berck, Dupuis
Best science-fiction artwork: Les Petits hommes by Pierre Seron, Dupuis
Best European artist: Bonvi (Franco Bonvicini), for Sturmtruppen
Best non-European artist: Jim Steranko
Best realistic writing: François Craenhals, for Chevalier Ardent, Casterman
Best comical writing: Peyo and Yvan Delporte, for The Smurfs
Best science-fiction writing: Vicq, for Sophie, Dupuis
Comics promotion: Claude Moliterni, for his work with the French Society of Bandes Dessinées
Special mention (humour): Louis Salvérius (posthumous)
Special mention (science-fiction): Philippe Druillet for Lone Sloane
1974
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jacques Laudy
Best comic: Yoko Tsuno: La Forge de Vulcain by Roger Leloup, Dupuis
Best comic (joint winner): Buddy Longway: Chinook by Derib, Le Lombard
Best realistic artwork: Corentin: Le royaume des eaux noirs by Paul Cuvelier
Best realistic story: Hugo Pratt
Best satiric story: Le sergeant Laterreur by Gérald Frydman
Best satiric artwork: Rififi by Mouminoux
Best comical artwork: Le sergeant Laterreur by Touis
Best comical story: Nero: Het lachvirus by Marc Sleen, Standaard Uitgeverij
Research: Rock Dreams by Guy Peellaert
Best foreign artist: La vie au grand air by Jean-Marc Reiser
Special prize: Roland Topor, for his collaboration to the movie La Planète Sauvage
1975
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jijé
Best comical artwork: Sammy: Les gorilles font les fous by Berck (artist) and Raoul Cauvin (author), Dupuis
Best realistic artwork: Claude Auclair
Best fantasy artwork: Sirius
Best foreign artist: F'Murr
Best comical story: Raoul Cauvin
Best realistic story: Claude Auclair
Best fantasy story: Sirius
Revelation: René Follet
CABD Prize: Jacques Stocquart
1976
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Moebius
Best epic artwork: Chevalier ardent: La dame des sables by François Craenhals, Casterman
Best fantasy artwork: Wladimir by Monique and Carlos Roque, Dupuis
Best foreign artist: Alex Barbier
Best realistic story: Claude Auclair
Best animated movie: Tarzoon by Boris Szulzinger
Revelation (joint winners): René Deynis and Cosey
1977
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jacques Tardi
Best realistic artwork: Claude Auclair
Best comical artwork: Marc Wasterlain
Best foreign artist: Bonvi and Michel Blanc-Dumont
Best realistic writing: Hugo Pratt
Best comical writing: Raoul Cauvin
Revelation: Serge Ernst
1978
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Yvan Delporte
Best story: Histoire sans héros by Jean Van Hamme, Le Lombard
Best comical story: Christian Godard
Future: Frédéric Jannin
Prix: Le goulag part 1 by Dimitri}, Le Square
1979
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Cosey
Best realistic artwork: Thorgal: L'île des mers gelées by Rosinski, Le Lombard
Best comical story: Bidouille et Violette by Bernard Hislaire, Dupuis
Best comical story (joint winner): Docteur Poche: L'île des hommes-papillons by Marc Wasterlain, Dupuis
1980
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Didier Comès
Best story: Jean Van Hamme
Prix: Jeremiah by Hermann, Le Lombard
Best comical artist: André Geerts
1981
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Pastiches by Roger Brunel
Best comic: Le Bal du Rat mort FR by Jean-François Charles and Jan Bucquoy
Best foreign artist: Joost Swarte
Best comical artwork: Robin Dubois: Dites-le avec des gags! by Turk, Le Lombard
1982
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Franz Drappier
Prix: Jean-Claude Servais
Best comic: Bob Fish (comic book) by Yves Chaland
1983
Best comic: La Belette by Didier Comès, Casterman
Best comic (joint winner): Thorgal: Au-delà des ombres by Rosinski (artist) and Jean Van Hamme (author), Le Lombard
Best comical artist: Serge Ernst
1984
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jeanette Pointu: Le dragon vert by Marc Wasterlain, Dupuis
1986
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Sambre by Yslaire, Glénat
2002
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Hermann
Best author (French language): Jacamon
Best author (Dutch language): Luc Cromheecke
Best artwork: Jean-François Charles
Best story: Richelle
Press prize: Miralles by Jean Dufaux
Iris award: Le marquis D'Anaon: L'île de Brac by M. Bonhomme and Fabien Vehlmann, Dargaud
2003
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jacques Martin
Best author (French language): Juanjo Guarnido
Best author (Dutch language): Jan Bosschaert
Best artwork: Jean-Mouis Mourier
Best story: André-Paul Duchâteau
Press prize: Yves Swolfs
Future: Le voyageur by Etienne Jung
Youth (French language): Jojo by André Geerts
Youth (Dutch language): Roboboy by Luc Cromheecke
2004
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Grzegorz Rosiński
Best comic (French language): Ou le regard ne porte pas by Olivier Pont and George Abolin
Best comic (Dutch language): De bewaker van de lans (part 3) by Ersel and Ferry
Best artwork: Muchacho by Emmanuel Lepage
Best story: Du plomb dans la tête by Matz
Best international series: Donjon by Sfar and Trondheim
Nominated series: Betelgeuse by Léo, Capricorne by Andreas, Le Choucas, Les Coulisses du pouvoir, Le Cri du peuple, Djinn, Fog, Jerôme K. Jerome Bloche by Dodier and Makyo, Ludo, Les Olives Noires, Persepolis by Marjane Satrapi, Sambre by Yslaire, Tramp, Le Tueur, and Bouncer by François Boucq and Alejandro Jodorowsky.
Press prize: Peyo l'enchanteur by Hugues Dayez
Future: Dido: Le trophée d'effroi by Fahar
Youth: L'élève Ducobu: Miss 10 sur 10 by and Zidrou
Public: Armelle et l'oiseau by Antoine Dode
Illustration: Martine by Marcel Marlier, Casterman
2005
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jean Graton
Prestige: Albert Uderzo
Best comic (French language): A l'ombre des bougainvillées by Jean-François Charles and Maryse Charles
Best comic (Dutch language): Bye, bye, Kluit by Vincent
Best artwork: Terra Incognita by Floc'h
Best story: Le tour de valse by Lapière
Press prize: Les éditeurs de Bande Dessinée by Thierry Bellefroid, Niffle
Future: Fishermen story: En attendant Hemingway by Konior, Caravelle
Youth: Game Over: Blork raider by Midam and Adam
Best series: Lincoln by Jouvray
2006
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Lambil
- Jean Van Hamme
- François Walthéry
- Jacques Tardi
- André Juillard
Best comic (French language): Shandy 2: Le dragon d'Austerlitz, Bertail and Matz, Delcourt
- Seuls 1: Disparition, Bruno Gazzotti and Fabien Vehlmann, Dupuis
- Vengeance du comte Skarbek 2: Un coeur de bronze, Grzegorz Rosiński and Yves Sente, Dargaud
- Alim le tanneur 2: Le vent de l'exil, Virginie Augustin and Wilfrid Lupano, Delcourt
- Combat ordinaire 3: Ce qui est précieux, Emmanuel Larcenet, Dargaud
- Sur les traces de Dracula 1: Vlad l'empaleur, Hermann and Yves H., Casterman
- Lune d'argent sur providence 1: L'enfants de l'abime, Éric Hérenguel, Glénat
Best comic (Dutch language): Het belang van Ernst, Tom Bouden
- Vlad 7: 15 novembre, Griffo and Yves Swolfs, Le Lombard
- XIII 17: L'or de Maximilien, William Vance and Jean Van Hamme, Dargaud
- Suske en Wiske, Willy Vandersteen, Standaard Uitgeverij
Best artwork: Révélations 2, Ramos and Jenkins, Soleil
- Shandy 2: Le dragon d'Austerlitz, Bertail and Matz, Delcourt
- Murena 5: La déesse noire, Philippe Delaby and Jean Dufaux, Dargaud
- Le ciel au-dessus de Bruxelles 1: Avant, Yslaire, Futuropolis
- Messire Guillaume 1: Contrées lointaines, Bonhomme and Bonneval, Dupuis
- Shelena 1, René Follet and Jéromine Pasteur, Casterman
Best story: Le ciel au-dessus de Bruxelles 1: Avant, Yslaire, Futuropolis
- Protecto 1: La fabrique des mères éplorées, Matteo and Zidrou, Dupuis
- Quintett 3: Histoire d'Elias Cohen, Cuzor and Giroud, Dupuis
- Lune d'argent sur providence 1: L'enfants de l'abime, Éric Hérenguel, Glénat
- Combat ordinaire 3: Ce qui est précieux, Emmanuel Larcenet, Dargaud
- Mr. Mardi Gras descendres 4: Le vaccin de la resurrection, Eric Libergé, Dupuis
- Les petits ruisseaux 1, Pascal Rabaté, Futuropolis
Press prize: Morris, Franquin, Peyo et le dessin animé, Philippe Capart and Dejasse, L'an 2
- Dino Attanasio, 60 ans de BD, Dino Attanasio, Coulon and De Kuyssche, Dargaud
- Sir Arthur Benton, Wannsee 1942, Perger and Tarek, Proust
- René Goscinny, première vue d'un scénariste de génie, Chatenet and Marmonnier, De La Martinie
- Periode glacière, Nicolas de Crécy, Futuropolis
- Jack Palmer, l'affaire du voile, René Pétillon, Albin Michel
Future: Alim le tanneur 2: Le vent de l'exil, Virginie Augustin and Wilfrid Lupano, Delcourt
- Sir Arthur Benton, Wannsee 1942, Perger and Tarek, Proust
- Achtung Zelig 1, Krzysztof Gawronkiewicz and Rosenberg, Casterman
- Codex angélique 1: Izael, Mikaël Bourguion and Thierry Gloris, Delcourt
- Cross fire 2: Au service secret de sa sainteté, Pierre-Mony Chan and Sala, Soleil
Youth: Blagues de Toto 4: Tueur à gags, Thierry Coppée, Delcourt
- Kid Paddle 10: Dark j'adore, Midam, Dupuis
- Démons d'Alexia 3: Yorthopia, Ers and Dugomier, Dupuis
- Spirou et Fantasio 48: L'homme qui ne voulait pas mourir, José-Luis Munuera and Jean-David Morvan, Dupuis
- Voyage d'Esteban 1: Baleinier, Bonhomme, Milan
- Ratafia 2: Un zèle imbecile, Frédéric Salsédo and Nicolas Pothier, Treize étrange
2007
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Marcel Gotlieb
- André Juillard
- Régis Loisel
- Jacques Tardi
- Jean Van Hamme
Prestige: Willy Vandersteen
Best comic (French language): Les Cinq conteurs de Bagdad, Frantz Duchazeau and Fabien Velhmann, Dargaud
- La Guerre des Sambre 1: Hugo & Iris, Jean Bastide and Vincent Mezil, Glénat – Futuropolis
- Le Sang des Porphyre 1: Soizik, Joël Parnotte and Balac, Dargaud
- Magasin général 2: Serge, Régis Loisel and Jean-Louis Tripp, Casterman
- Miss pas touche 2: Du sang sur les mains, Kerascoët and Hubert, Dargaud
- Muchacho 2, Emmanuel Lepage, Dupuis
Best comic (Dutch language): De Maagd en de Neger, papa en Sofie, Judith Vanistendael, De Harmonie - Oog & Blik
- Suske en Wiske 292: De Nachtwachtbrigade, Luc Morjeau and Peter Van Gucht, Standaard Uitgeverij
- De Rode Ridder 214: De regensteen, Claus Scholtz and Martin Lodewijk, Standaard Uitgeverij
- Kaamelott 1: De heerscharen van de dood, Steven Dupré and Alexander Astier, Casterman
- De bewaker van de lans 5: De erfgenamen, Ersel and Ferry, Glénat
Best artwork: Sur les traces de Dracula 3: Transylvania, Dany, Casterman
- Le ciel au-dessus de Bruxelles 2: Après, Yslaire, Futuropolis
- Le vent dans les sables 2: étranges étrangers, Michel Plessix, Delcourt
- Magasin général 2: Serge, Régis Loisel and Jean-Louis Tripp, Casterman
- Muchacho 2, Emmanuel Lepage, Dupuis
- Murena 6: Le sang des bêtes, Philippe Delaby, Dargaud
Best story: Sir Arthur Benton 3: l'Assaut final, Tarek, Emmanuel Proust
- Largo Winch 15: Les yeux des gardiens du tao, Jean Van Hamme, Dupuis
- Le complexe du chimpanze 1: Paradoxe, Richard Marazano, Dargaud
- Le janitor 1: l'Ange de Malte, Yves Sente, Dargaud
- Quintett 4: Histoiure de Nafsika Vasli, Frank Giroud, Dupuis
- RG 1: Riyad-sur-Seine, Pierre Dragon, Gallimard
Press prize: Arnest Ringard et Augraphie, Frédéric Jannin and Yvan Delporte, Marsu Productions
- Bruxelles métropole 1: Ville haute, Pablo Santander and Jean-François Di Giorgio, Glénat
- Gotlib 1: Ma vie en vrac, Gotlib, Flammarion
- Le Bouddha d'azur 2, Cosey, Dupuis
- Le retour à la terre 4: Le déluge, Manu Larcenet and Jean-Yves Ferri, Dargaud
- Les noëls de Franquin, André Franquin and Yvan Delporte, Marsu Productions
Future: La Guerre des Sambre 1: Hugo & Iris, Jean Bastide and Vincent Mezil, Glénat - Futuropolis
- La licorne 1: Le dernier temple d'Asclepios, Anthony Jean and Mathieu Gabella, Delcourt
- Le grand siècle 1: Alphonse, Andriveau Simon, Delcourt
- Le monde selon François 1: Le secret des écrivains, Renaud Collin and Vincent Zabus, Dupuis
- Le trone d'argile 2: Le pont de Montereau, Theo Caneschi and Nicolas Jarry, Delcourt
- Orbital 2: Ruptures, Serge Pelle and Sylvain Runberg, Dupuis
Youth: Nävis: Latitzoury, José-Luis Munuera and Jean-David Morvan, Delcourt
- Basil et Victoria 5: Ravenstein, Edith and Yann, Les Humanoïdes Associés
- Jojo 16: Jojo vétérinaire, André Geerts, Dupuis
- Le monde selon François 1: Le secret des écrivains, Renaud Collin and Vincent Zabus, Dupuis
- Le voyage d'Esteban 2: Traqués, Mathieu Bonhomme, Milan
- Ma maman ... 1: Est en Amérique et elle a rencontrée Buffalo Bill, Emile Bravo and Jean Regnaud, Gallimard
2008
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Raoul Cauvin
- Christophe Arleston
- Moebius
- Jean Van Hamme
- François Walthéry
Best comic (French language): Spirou hors série 4: Journal d'un ingénu, Emile Bravo, Dupuis
- Bois des vierges 1, Béatrice Tillier and Jean Dufaux, Robert Laffont
- De Gaule a la page, Jean-Yves Ferri, Dargaud
- Il était une fois en France 1: L'empire de monsieur Joseph, Sylvain Vallée and , Glénat
- Les aigles de Rome 1, Enrico Marini, Dargaud
- Miss Endicott 1 and 2, Xavier Fourquemin and Jean-Christophe Derrien, Lombard
- Sang des porphyre 2: Konan, Joel Parnotte and Balac, Dargaud
Best comic (Dutch language): 'Jump 1-3, Charel Cambré, Standaard Uitgeverij
- De eenzame snelweg: In het spoor van..., Raoul Deleo and Auke Hulst, Meulenhoff
- De Furox 1: Diaspora, Simon Spruyt, Bries
- Havank 1: Hoofden op hol, Daan Jippes and HF Van Der Kallen, Luitingh-Sijthoff
- Het jaar van de olifant 3-6, Willy Linthout, Bries
- Meccano 10: De ruwe gids, Hanco Kolk, De Harmonie
Best artwork: La Quête de l'oiseau du temps 2: Le grimoire des dieux, Mohamed Aouamri, Dargaud
- Bois des vierges 1, Béatrice Tillier, Robert Laffont
- Bouncer 8: La veuve noire, François Boucq, Humano
- La femme accident 1, Olivier Grenson, Dupuis
- Les aigles de Rome 1, Enrico Marini, Dargaud
- Pêches mignons 2: Chasse à l'homme, Arthur De Pins, Fluide Glacial
- Sang des porphyre 2: Konan, Joel Parnotte, Dargaud
- Spirou hors série 3: Tombeau des Champignac, Fabrice Tarrin, Dupuis
Best story: Il était une fois en France 1: L'empire de monsieur Joseph, , Glénat
- Coeur des batailles 1 and 2, Jean-David Morvan, Delcourt
- Pascal brutal 2: Male dominant, Riad Sattouf, Fluide
- RG 2: Bangkok-Belleville, Pierre Dragon, Gallimard
- Sept missionaires 4, Alain Ayroles, Delcourt
- Spirou hors série 4: Journal d'un ingénu, Emile Bravo, Dupuis
- Tanatos 1: L'année sanglante, Didier Convard, Glénat
- Tiffany 2: Célestine T 1867, Yann, Delcourt
Press prize: J'étais Tintin au cinéma, Hergé and Jean-Pierre Talbot, Jourdan
- De Gaule a la page, Jean-Yves Ferri, Dargaud
- Franquin: Chronolgie d'un oeuvre, André Franquin, Bocquet and Verhoest, Marsu Productions
- RG 2: Bangkok-Belleville, Frederik Peeters and Pierre Dragon, Gallimard
- La véritable histoire de Futuropolis 1: 1972 - 1994, Florence Cestac, Dargaud
- Voyaguer de Troy: Entretien avec Arleston, Christophe Arleston and Thierry Bellefroid, Soleil
Future: Lawrence d'Arabie 1: La revolte arabe, Alexis Horellou and Tarek, Emmanuel Proust
- Le monde selon François 2: Les amants éternels, Renaud Collin and Vincent Zabus, Dupuis
- Pêches mignons 2: Chasse à l'homme, Arthur De Pins, Fluide Glacial
- Taiga rouge 1, Vincent Perriot and Arnaud Malherbe, Dupuis
- La ligne de fuite, Benjamin Flao and Christophe Dabitch, Futuropolis
Youth: Démons d'Alexia 4: Le syndrôme de Salem, Benoît Ers and Dugomier, Dupuis
- Jacques le petit lézard géant 1, Libon, Dupuis
- Jojo 17: Confisqué, André Geerts, Dupuis
- Le monde selon François 2: Les amants éternels, Renaud Collin and Vincent Zabus, Dupuis
- Seuls 3: Le clan du requin, Bruno Gazzotti and Fabien Vehlmann, Dupuis
- Spirou hors série 3: Tombeau des Champignac, Fabrice Tarrin, Dupuis
2009
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jean Van Hamme Best comic (French language): Il était une fois en France, and Sylvain Vallée, Glénat
Best comic (Dutch language): Kaamelott, Steven Dupré, Casterman
Best artwork: Long John Silver 2: Neptune, Mathieu Lauffray, Dargaud
Best artwork (joint winner): XIII Mystery 1: La mangouste, Ralph Meyer, Dargaud
Best story: Lulu femme nue, Etienne Davodeau, Futuropolis
Press prize: Marzi: La bruit des vi!lles, Sylvain Savoia, Dupuis
Future: Pico Bogue: Situations critiques, Dominique Roques and Alexis Dormal, Dargaud
Youth: Légende de Changeling: Le croque-mitaine, Xavier Fourquemin and Pierre Dubois, Le Lombard
2010
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: André-Paul Duchâteau Best comic (French language): Quai d'Orsay 1, Christophe Blain and Abel Lanzac, Dargaud
- Bouncer 7, François Boucq and Alejandro Jodorowsky, Humanoïdes
- Il était une fois en France 3, Sylvain Vallée and , Glénat
- Long John Silver 3, Matthieu Lauffray and Xavier Dorison, Dargaud
- Rebetiko 1, David Prudhomme, Futuropolis
Best comic (Dutch language): Boerke 6, Pieter de Poortere, Oog en Blik
- Apostata 2, Ken Broeders, Standaard Uitgeverij
- De telescoop, Paul Teng and Jean Van Hamme, Casterman
- Het jaar van de olifant 2, Willy Linthout, Catullus
- Playin' Smilin' Fightin' Cookin' , Philippe Paquet and different writers, Bries
Best artwork: Le dernier des Mohicains, Cromwell, Soleil
- Bois Maury 14, Hermann, Glénat
- Murena 7, Philippe Delaby, Dargaud
- Siegfried 2, Alex Alice, Dargaud
- Chat qui courait sur les toits, René Hausman, Lombard
Best story: Lefranc 28, Michel Jacquemart, Casterman
- Ethan Ringler 5, Denis-Pierre Filippi, Dupuis
- Il était une fois en France 3, , Glénat
- Long John Silver 3, Xavier Dorison, Dargaud
- Signe de la lune, Enrique Bonet, Dargaud
Press prize: Pour l'Empire 1, Merwan and Bastien Vives, Dargaud - Encyclopédie de la féerie 1, Mohamed Aouamri and Pierre Dubois, Dargaud
- Putain de guerre intégrale 2, Jacques Tardi and Jean-Pierre Verney, Casterman
- Ben Laden Dévoilé, Philippe Bercovici and Mohamed Sifaoui, 12 Bis
- Yvan Delporte: rédacteur en chef, Christelle and Bertrand Pissavy-Yvernault, Dupuis
Future: Magus 2, Annabel, Glénat - Missi Dominici 1, Benoit Dellac and Thierry Gloris, Vents d'Ouest
- Talisman 2, Montse Martin and François Debois, Glénat
- Koryu d'Edo, Dimitri Piot, Glénat
Youth: Quatre de Bakerstreet 2, David Etien, Djian and Legrand, Vents d'Ouest - Jerome K. Jerome Blôche 21, Alain Dodier, Dupuis
- Pico Bogue 3, Alexis Dormal and Dominiques Roques, Dargaud
- Une aventure de ... Spirou 6, Fabrice Parme and Lewis Trondheim, Dupuis
- Tamara 8, Christian Darasse and Zidrou, Dupuis
2011
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Philippe Delaby Best comic (French language):Sambre 6, Yslaire, Glénat
- Blacksad 4, Juanjo Guarnido and Juan Diaz Canales, Dargaud
- Matteo 2, Jean-Pierre Gibrat, Futuropolis
- Page Noire, Ralph Meyer, Frank Giroud and Denis Lapière, Futuropolis
- Zombillenium 1, Arthur de Pins, Dupuis
Best comic (Dutch language): Ondergronds, Wauter Mannaert and Pierre De Jaeger, Oog & Blik
- Apache Junction 1, Peter Nuyten, Silvester
- Dickie 4, Pieter De Poortere, Glénat
- Grand Prix 2, Marvano, Dargaud
- Vincent van Gogh, Marc Verhaeghen and Jan Kragt, Eureducation
Best artwork: Sept Cavaliers 3, Jacques Terpant, Delcourt
- Bois des Vierges 2, Beatrice Tillier, Delcourt
- Polina, Bastien Vives, Casterman
- XIII Mystery 3, Eric Henninot, Dargaud
- Yaxin 1, Man Arenas, Soleil
Best story: Alter Ego, Pierre-Paul Renders and Denis Lapière, Dupuis
- Il était une fois en France 4, , Glénat
- Mezek, Yann, Lombard
- Les mondes de Thorgal: Kriss de Valnor 1, Yves Sente, Lombard
- La Mort de Staline: Une histoire vraie 1, , Dargaud
Press prize:Maurice Tillieux, Maurice Tillieux and Vincent Odin, Daniel Maghen
- La Mort de Staline: Une histoire vraie 1, and , Dargaud
- Spirou Dream Team, Simon Leturgie and Yann, Dupuis
- Venus Noire, Renaud Pennelle and Abdellatif Kechiche, Proust
Future:Khaal, Valentin Secher and Stephane Louis, Soleil
- Barracuda 1, Jeremy Petiqueux and Jean Dufaux, Dargaud
- Ondergronds, Wauter Mannaert and Pierre de Jaeger, Oog & Blik
- Les voyages de Lefranc, Olivier Weinberg, Jacques Martin e.a., Casterman
Youth:Le royaume 3, Benoît Feroumont, Dupuis
- La légende du changeling 4, Xavier Fourquemin and Pierre Dubois, Lombard
- Maki 2, Fabrice Tarrin, Dupuis
- Mon pépé est un fantôme 4, Taduc and Nicolas Barral, Dupuis
2012
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jean-François Charles Best comic (French language):Le Mort de Staline, and Best comic (Dutch language): Afspraak in Nieuwpoort, Ivan Adriaenssens Best artwork: XIII Mystery: Colonel Amos, François Boucq Best story: Olympe de Gouges, José-Louis Bocquet Press prize:Svoboda 2, Jean-Denis Pendanx and Kris Future:Du vent sous les pieds emporte mes pas, Gaëtan Brynaert Youth:Les Légendaires origines, Nadou Prestige: Stelo Fenzo 2013
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Philippe Geluck Best comic (French language):Il était une fois en France 6, and Sylvain Vallée Best comic (Dutch language): Amoras 1, Charel Cambré and Marc Legendre Best artwork: Le Loup des Mers, Riff Reb's Best story: Dent d'Ours 1, Yann Press prize:Marcinelle 1956 , Sergio Salma Future:La Peau de l'Ours, Oriol Youth:Lou 6, Julien Neel 2015
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: François Walthéry Best comic (French language): Amère Russie 2 by Anlor and Aurélien Ducoudray
Best comic (Dutch language): De terugkeer van de wespendief by Aimée de Jongh
Best artwork: Ralph Meyer for Undertaker 1
Best story: Pat Perna for Kersten, médecin d'Himmler 1
Press prize: Mobutu dans l'espace by Eddy Vaccaro and Aurélien Ducoudray
Future: Roi ours by Mobidic
Youth: Les carnets de Cérise 3 by Aurélie Neyret and Joris Chamblain
2016
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Milo Manara Best comic (French language): L'homme qui tua Lucky Luke by Matthieu Bonhomme
Best comic (Dutch language): Jhen 15 by Paul Teng
Best artwork: Frederik Peeters for L’odeur des garçons affamés
Best story: Xavier Dorison and Fabien Nury for Comment faire fortune en juin 40
Press prize: Christophe Simon for Corentin 8
Future: Communardes 2 by Lucy Mazel
Youth: Les enfants de la résistance 2 by Benoît Ers and Vincent Dugomier
2017
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Philippe Berthet Best comic (French language): L'adoption 2 by Arno Monin and Zidrou
Best comic (Dutch language): Het wijfje by Nele Sys
Best artwork: José Homs for Shi 1
Best story: Nathalie Sergeef for Hyver 1709 2
Press prize: Mickey Mouse, café Zombo by Régis Loisel
Future: Reporter n° 1 Bloody Sunday by Gontran Toussaint
Youth: Dad 3 by Nob
2018
Grand Prix Saint-Michel: Jean-Claude Mézières'''
Best comic (French language): Il s'appelait Ptirou by Yves Sente and Laurent Verron
Best artwork: David Sala for Le joueur d'échecs Best story: Lewis Trondheim for Je vais rester Future: Churchill et moi by Andrea Cucchi
Youth: Frnck 3 by Brice Cossu and Olivier Bocquet
Humour: '' 4 by Paul Cauuet and Wilfrid Lupano
References
History of the Prix, with a list of all winners
External links
Official site
Comics awards
Belgian literary awards
Bandes dessinées
Culture in Brussels
Awards established in 1971
Municipal awards
1971 establishments in Belgium
Brussels-related lists
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Catholic%20University%20of%20America%20people
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List of Catholic University of America people
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The following is a list of notable alumni of the Catholic University of America, the national university of the Roman Catholic Church in the United States, located in Washington, D.C.
There are several names that could appear on this list twice, but will only appear in the area for which they are best known. For example, several in the Arts category could appear in more than one subcategory. Others could appear in several categories but have been relegated to one.
Alumni
Religion
Beati and other Servants of God
Thea Bowman, FSPA, 1969, and a Ph.D. in 1972, Servant of God, M.A. in English
Theodore Foley, CP, 1943 and STD, 1944, Servant of God, Passionist priest and Superior General; STL
Emil J. Kapaun, Master of Arts in education, 1948, Servant of God, priest, World War II and Korean War US Army chaplain, US Medal of Honor recipient
Fulton J. Sheen, 1920, and faculty from 1926 to 1950 in theology and philosophy, Venerable, J.C.B., Auxiliary Bishop of New York and Bishop of Rochester, host of Life is Worth Living
Cardinals
Joseph Bernardin, Archbishop of Chicago
Raymond Leo Burke, Patron of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta and Archbishop Emeritus of Saint Louis
Terence Cooke, M.A., 1949 and M.S.W., 1949, Servant of God, Archbishop of New York
Blase J. Cupich, S.T.L. 1979, S.T.D. 1987, Archbishop of Chicago
Daniel DiNardo, B.A., M.A., Archbishop of Galveston-Houston
Timothy Dolan, Ph.D., 1985, Archbishop of New York
Francis George, M.A., 1966, Archbishop of Chicago
Patrick Joseph Hayes, S.T.L., 1894, Archbishop of New York
James Hickey, S.T.L., 1946, Archbishop of Washington
Lubomyr Husar, Ukrainian Greek Major Archbishop of Kyiv and Halych
John Krol, J.C.D., 1942, Archbishop of Philadelphia
Roger Mahony, M.S.W., 1964, Archbishop of Los Angeles
Theodore McCarrick, Ph.D., 1963, Archbishop of Washington
Humberto Sousa Medeiros, M.A., 1942, S.T.L., 1946, Archbishop of Boston
Sean O'Malley, O.F.M.Cap., Ph.D., 1978, Archbishop of Boston
Justin Rigali, S.T.B. 1961, Archbishop of Philadelphia
Jan Pieter Schotte, Secretary General of the Synod of Bishops and President of the Labour Office of the Apostolic See
Luis Antonio Tagle, S.T.L. 1987, S.T.D. 1991 Prefect for the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples
Donald Wuerl, M.A., 1962, Archbishop of Washington
Bishops
David William Antonio, S.T.D. 1999, Bishop of Ilagan
Gerald Barbarito, J.C.L. 1983, Bishop of Palm Beach
J. Kevin Boland, Bishop of Savannah
Earl Boyea, Ph.D. 1987, Bishop of Lansing
Michael J. Bransfield, M.Phil. 1973, Bishop emeritus of Wheeling-Charleston
Robert J. Carlson, J.C.L. 1979, Archbishop of St. Louis, Missouri
Charles J. Chaput, Archbishop of Philadelphia
David R. Choby, Bishop of Nashville
John Bosco Manat Chuabsamai, M.A. 1977, Bishop of Ratchaburi, Thailand
Robert J. Cunningham, J.C.L. 1978, Bishop of Ogdensburg, New York
Edward Celestin Daly, OP, J.C.D. 1923, Bishop of Des Moines
Bohdan Danylo, 1996, Bishop of Saint Josaphat in Parma
Frank J. Dewane, M.A. 1975, Bishop of Venice in Florida
Maurice John Dingman, J.C.L. 1946, Bishop of Des Moines
Pierre DuMaine, D.Ed. 1961, Bishop of San Jose
Fidelis Fernando, Ph.D. 1987, Bishop of Mannar
Raphael M. Fliss, S.T.L., former Bishop of Superior
Roger J. Foys, Bishop of Covington, Kentucky
John Mark Gannon, S.T.B. 1900, S.T.L. 1901, Archbishop of Erie
Francis Joseph Gossman, J.C.D. 1959, Bishop of Raleigh
Francis J. Haas, Bishop of Grand Rapids, 1943–1953
Bernard J. Harrington, Ed.M. 1958, Bishop of Winona
Charles M. Jarrell, B.A. 1962, M.A. 1963, Bishop of Lafayette, Louisiana
William Michael Joensen, Ph.D. 2001, Bishop of Des Moines
James Vann Johnston, Jr., J.C.L. 1996, Bishop of Springfield–Cape Girardeau, Bishop of Kansas City–Saint Joseph
Donald Joseph Kettler, J.C.L. 1982, Bishop of Fairbanks
Daniel Kucera, OSB, M.A., Ph.D. 1954, Bishop of Salina, Archbishop of Dubuque
John J. Leibrecht, Ph.D. 1961, Bishop Emeritus of Springfield–Cape Girardeau
Oscar Hugh Lipscomb, Ph.D. 1963, Archbishop Emeritus of Mobile
Martin N. Lohmuller, J.C.D. 1947, Auxiliary Bishop of Philadelphia
William E. Lori, S.T.D. 1982, Archbishop of Baltimore
Paul Loverde, J.C.L. 1982, Bishop of Arlington
Henry J. Mansell, Archbishop of Hartford
John Joseph Mitty, S.T.B., 1907, Archbishop of San Francisco
Robert F. Morneau, Auxiliary Bishop of Green Bay
Robert W. Muench, Ed.M. 1968, Bishop of Baton Rouge
Michael Joseph Murphy, S.T.L. 1942, Bishop of Erie
James A. Murray, J.C.L. 1964, Bishop Emeritus of Kalamazoo
George H. Niederauer, S.T.B. 1960, Archbishop of San Francisco
David M. O'Connell, J.C.L. 1987, J.C.D. 1990, Bishop of Trenton
Stuart France O'Connell SM, MA 1984, Fifth Catholic Bishop of Rarotonga, Cook Islands (1996–present)
Michael F. Olson, MA 1989, Bishop of Fort Worth
Wolodymyr Paska, J.C.D. 1975, Auxiliary Bishop of Philadelphia (Ukrainian)
Joseph Perry, J.C.L. 1981, Auxiliary Bishop of Chicago
John C. Reiss, J.C.D. 1954, Bishop of Trenton
John H. Ricard, Ph.D., Bishop of Pensacola-Tallahassee
Thomas J. Rodi, J.C.L. 1986, Archbishop of Mobile
Henry Rohlman, MA 1907, Bishop of Davenport, Archbishop of Dubuque
Dennis Schnurr, J.C.D. 1980, Archbishop of Cincinnati
John Mortimer Smith, S.T.B. 1961, J.C.D. 1966, Bishop of Trenton
Stefan Soroka, B.S.T. 1982, D.S.W., 1985, Metropolitan Archbishop of the Ukrainian Greek-Catholic Church in the United States
John J. Ward, J.C.L. 1952, Auxiliary Bishop of Los Angeles
Loras Joseph Watters, S.T.L. 1941, Ph.D. 1954, Auxiliary Bishop of Dubuque, Bishop of Winona
Thomas Jerome Welsh, Bishop of Arlington and Bishop of Allentown
Aloysius John Wycislo, Bishop of Green Bay
Gabino Zavala, J.C.L., Auxiliary Bishop of Los Angeles
Thomas Zinkula, M.A., 1990, Bishop of Davenport
Former Priests
Nancy Ledins, former priest and former member of the Missionaries of the Precious Blood who later came out as a transgender woman.
Public service and politics
Federal
Charlene Barshefsky, J.D.1975, Ambassador, United States Trade Representative under Bill Clinton
Robert Patrick Casey, Jr., J.D. 1988, U.S. Senator from Pennsylvania
Jeffrey Chiesa, J.D., 1990, U.S. Senator from New Jersey
Thomas E. Donilon, B.A., 1977, National Security Advisor
Edward W. Gillespie, B.A. 1983, former Chairman of the Republican National Committee
Patrick Guerriero, B.A. 1990, executive director of the Log Cabin Republicans
Luis Guinot, former United States Ambassador to Costa Rica
Thomas R. Harkin, J.D. 1972, U.S. Senator from Iowa
John P. Hart, president and CEO of the American Democracy Institute
Kathy Hochul, J.D., 1984, U.S. Representative and Governor of New York
Sara Dunlap Jackson, National Archives and Records Administration archivist, Military Archives Division
Emmett Joseph Leahy (1910–1964), American archivist and entrepreneur, pioneer in the discipline of records management.
Victor McCrary, B.A. 1978, vice chair of the National Science Board
Thomas P. Melady, Ph.D. 1955, former U.S. Ambassador to the Holy See, Burundi, and Uganda
Jack Miller, United States Senator from Iowa
Richard G. Renzi, J.D. 2002, U.S. Congressman from Arizona
Kathleen Rice, B.A. 1987, U.S. Congressman from New York State
John E. Straub, B.A. 1991, Director of the White House Office of Administration
Robert Francis Anthony Studds, B.S. 1917, United States Coast and Geodetic Survey Corps admiral and engineer, fourth Director of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
Robert Tiernan, J.D. 1956, U.S. Congressman from Rhode Island
Genevievette Walker-Lightfoot, J.D. 1999, former U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission attorney
State
Forrest H. Anderson, J.D. 1938, former Governor of Montana
Martin Connor, B.A., J.D., former New York State Senate Minority Leader
Bob Duckworth, B.A., Clerk of the Circuit Court for Anne Arundel County, Maryland
Ryan Fecteau, B.A., 2014, Maine House of Representatives
Reed Gusciora, B.A., New Jersey General Assemblyman
Mitchell J. Landrieu, B.A. 1982, Mayor of New Orleans and former Lieutenant Governor of Louisiana
Agnes Mary Mansour, president of Mercy College of Detroit 1971–1983, director of the Michigan Department of Community Health 1983–1987
Terence R. McAuliffe, B.A. 1979, former Governor of Virginia and former Chairman of the Democratic National Committee
Jim McGreevey, attended but did not graduate, former Governor of New Jersey
Daniel O'Donnell, New York State Assembly Member
Martin O'Malley, B.A. 1985, former mayor of Baltimore, Maryland and former Governor of Maryland
Brian E. Rumpf, B.A., New Jersey General Assemblyman
Holly Schepisi, B.A. New Jersey General Assemblywoman
Henry P. Sullivan (1916-2003), B.A., Democratic state representative and senator in New Hampshire
William J. Shea, J.D. 1926, Connecticut Supreme Court justice
Brandon Umba, B.A. 2008, New Jersey General Assemblyman
Local
Joseph Alioto, 1940, mayor of San Francisco
Daniel G. Birmingham, B.A 1990, J.D. 1995, County Legislator of Putnam County, New York
Joseph H. Gainer 1902, 26th mayor of Providence, Rhode Island
Other (public service and politics)
Thomasina Jordan, Ed.D., American Indian activist
Hani Miletski, Israeli Senior Representative of the Defense Mission to the U.S. for Strategic Defense Initiative Programs
Jerome G. Miller, D.S.W., 1965, advocate for alternatives to incarceration and the deinstitutionalization of persons with developmental disabilities
Tom G. Palmer, M.A., Senior Fellow at the Cato Institute and director of the institute's educational division
Timothy Perry Shriver, M.A. 1989, CEO of the Special Olympics
Jesús Permuy, Cuban-American Human Rights activist, urban planner, and community leader
Aurelia Pucinski, Illinois judge
James Soong, M.S. 1971, Taiwanese politician and founder of the People First Party
Arts and letters
Film and television
Susan Anspach, 1961, did not graduate, actress
Norma Candal, actress and comedian
Pat Carroll, B.A. 1989, Emmy Award-winning actress, voice of Ursula in Disney’s The Little Mermaid
Mary Alice Dwyer-Dobbin, television producer
Marc Gervais, M.F.A. 1960, Jesuit, writer, film consultant, film professor at Concordia University 1967-2003
Henry Gibson, cast member of Rowan and Martin's Laugh-In
John Heard, actor, Peter McCallister from the first two Home Alone films
Saeed Jaffrey, Indian actor and Fulbright scholar
Laurence Luckinbill, M.F.A. 1958, Emmy Award-winning producer, writer, actor
John Carroll Lynch, actor, played Drew Carey's brother on The Drew Carey Show
Ed McMahon, B.A. 1949, announcer on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson and host of Star Search
Kathleen McInerney, B.A., voice actress, Ash Ketchum seasons 1–8 on Pokémon
David L. Paterson, B.A., 1989, producer and screenwriter of Disney's Bridge to Terabithia
Colleen Zenk Pinter, Emmy Award-winning actress, known for her role on As the World Turns
Chris Sarandon, M.F.A., actor, best known for his portrayal of Prince Humperdinck in The Princess Bride (film)
Susan Sarandon, B.A. 1968, Academy Award-winning actress who played Janet in The Rocky Horror Picture Show.
John Slattery, B.F.A. 1984, actor
Jon Voight, B.A. 1960, actor who won an Academy Award as best actor in Coming Home (1978 film)
Lisa Ann Walter, who played Chessy in the 1998 remake of The Parent Trap (1998 film), which also starred Lindsay Lohan.
Media
Maureen B. Dowd, B.A. 1973, columnist for The New York Times
Mary Alice Dwyer-Dobbin, M.F.A. 1967, CEO, Procter & Gamble Productions (producers of As the World Turns and Guiding Light)
Julie Nixon Eisenhower, M.A. 1972, author
Alfred Gough, B.A. 1989, Executive Producer of WB’s Smallville, co-wrote screenplay for Spider-Man 2
John Harrington, photographer, author
Michael J. Hurd, M.A. 1985, radio commentator
Kathryn Jean Lopez, B.A. 1997, editor-at-large, National Review Online
Scott P. Richert, M.A. 1992, Publisher, Our Sunday Visitor
Rosanna Scotto, B.F.A. 1980, co-anchor of FOX-5 News (New York)
Dennis Wholey, B.A. 1959, host of This is America with Dennis Wholey
Brian Williams, attended briefly but did not graduate, anchor, NBC Nightly News
Theatre
John Aler, B.M. 1971, M.M. 1972, tenor, eight-time Grammy winner
Harolyn M. Blackwell, B.M. 1977, M.M. 1980, soprano, Metropolitan Opera
Walter Bobbie, dancer, choreographer, director and actor
Philip Bosco, B.A. 1957, Tony Award-winning actor
Fabiana Bravo, Argentine operatic soprano, Metropolitan Opera
Mart Crowley, playwright
Rose Hemingway, stage actress, How to Succeed In Business Without Really Trying on Broadway
George Herman, M.F.A 1954, playwright
Jean Kerr, M.F.A., Pulitzer-winning playwright and author
Jason Miller, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright (1973). He also starred as Father Damien Karras in the movie The Exorcist.
Donn B. Murphy, M.F.A. 1954, President of National Theatre Washington, DC; Distinguished Professor of Theatre, Georgetown University
Michael Murray, B.A. 1954, co-founder and artistic director of Charles Playhouse (Boston); artistic director of Cincinnati Playhouse in the Park; Chair of Department of Theatre Arts, Brandeis University
Tracy Lynn Olivera, B.M. 1999, actress
Joe Plummer, B.A. 1954, actor and playwright
Gerome Ragni, musical writer and actor
Frances Sternhagen, Broadway, film and television actress
Paula Vogel, B.A. 1974, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright
Other (arts)
Mark Adamo, B.M., 1990, composer
Yazmany Arboleda, School of Architecture and Planning, 2005, installation artist
Antonella Barba, contestant on the 6th season of American Idol
David C. Driskell, M.F.A. 1962, visual artist and curator
Joseph Fitzmartin, composer, conductor and arranger
Patricia Goslee, M.F.A., painter, curator
Elizabeth Hand, B.A., author
John Harrington, B.A. 1990, photographer, author
Maryann Karinch, B.A., 1974, M.A., 1979, author
Peter Kwasniewski, writer
Hank Levy, M.M., composer, notable for composition used in the 2014 film Whiplash
Nick Lowe, comic book editor
Paul Neebe, Ph.D., classical trumpeter
Father Norman O'Connor (1921–2003), priest, jazz music aficionado, writer, radio and TV show host
Marjorie Perloff, M.A. 1956, Ph.D. 1965, poetry scholar and critic
Martin Puryear, B.A. 1963, sculptor and recipient of the MacArthur Fellowship
Jim Self, M.M., 1972, classical tubist
Don Shirley, composer and pianist, on whom the Oscar-winning movie Green Book was based
John Vachon, photographer
Marion Verhaalen, composer and musicologist
Rolande Maxwell Young, composer
Business
Robert Craves, B.A. 1965, co-founder of Costco and College Success Foundation
Alfonso Fanjul Sr. (1909-1980), Cuban sugar baron
Nessa Feddis, J.D., lobbyist, vice president and senior counsel to the American Bankers Association
Edward M. Liddy, B.A. 1968, CEO of American Insurance Group
Tarek Saab, B.E.E. 2001, contestant on the 5th season of NBC's The Apprentice
Joseph A. Unanue, B.M.E. 1950, CEO of Goya Foods
Education
Sanford Berman, M.S. 1961, radical librarian
Mary Daly, M.A., radical feminist theologian and advocate of parthenogenesis
James W. Dean Jr., B.A., President of the University of New Hampshire
Peter M. Donohue, O.S.A., M.A. 1983, President, Villanova University
Brother Patrick Ellis, F.S.C., President, La Salle University
Andrew Gonzalez, M.A., President of De La Salle University
Euphemia Haynes, first African American woman to earn a Ph.D. in mathematics
Mark A. Heckler, M.F.A 1979, President, Valparaiso University
Theodore Hesburgh, CSC, S.T.D. 1945, President Emeritus of the University of Notre Dame
Joseph L. Levesque, S.T.D. 1977, President of Niagara University
W. Wesley McDonald, author of Russell Kirk and the Age of Ideology
Jesse Mann, Ph.D., 1958, professor emeritus of philosophy at Georgetown University
Kenneth Ozmon, M.A. 1963, President of Mount Allison University
Judith C. Russell, M.L.S. Current Dean of the University of Florida Library System
Charles C. Tansill (1890-1964), Professor of History
Gary Vena, M.A., Professor of English and Drama at Manhattan College
Spiro Zavos, M.A. 1967, Australasian historian, journalist and writer
Civil Law
Kathleen Abernathy, J.D. 1983, Commissioner of the Federal Communications Commission
Alice S. Fisher, J.D. Assistant Attorney General and head, United States Department of Justice Criminal Division
Arthur J. Gajarsa, M.A. 1964, Circuit Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit
James J. Hayden, J.D. Dean of the Columbus School of Law 1941–1954; maternal grandfather of Jerome Powell, Chair of the Federal Reserve
Colleen Kollar-Kotelly, B.A. 1965, J.D. 1968, Judge, United States District Court for the District of Columbia and presiding judge of the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court
Joseph F. Leeson, Jr., J.D. 1980, Judge, United States District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania
John T. Noonan, Jr., M.A. 1948, Ph.D. 1951, Senior Judge on the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit
Peggy Quince, J.D. 1975, Chief Justice of the Florida Supreme Court and first African-American woman to sit on that bench
Canon Law
Edward N. Peters, J.C.D. 1991, Referendary of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signatura
Science and engineering
Norman L. Crabill, BAE, 1949, developed patents for rocket vehicle control system and automated weather systems for pilots
Hugh Everett, 1953, physicist who first proposed the many-worlds interpretation of quantum physics
Nelly Garzón Alarcón (1932-2019), Colombian nurse, teacher
Michael D. Griffin, NASA Administrator
Marie Inez Hilger (1891-1977), Benedictine nun and anthropologist
Charles Kaman, B.A. 1940, aviation pioneer and founder of Kaman Aircraft
Daniel R. Mulville, Ph.D. Structural Engineering 1974, NASA's Chief Engineer and Acting Administrator of NASA in 2001
Nancy H. Nielsen, Ph.D. 1969, in microbiology, elected to National Academy of Medicine
Rev. Julius Nieuwland, C.S.C., Ph.D. 1904, discoverer of synthetic rubber
Joseph Weber, Ph.D. 1951, developed the first gravitational wave detectors and first suggested the use of laser interferometry in the field
Marguerite Thomas Williams, Ph.D. 1942, first African American to earn a Ph.D. in geology
Athletics
Bill Adamaitis, player for the Washington Redskins
Michael Bidwill, principal owner, chairman, and president of the Arizona Cardinals
Brian Cashman, B.A. 1989, Senior Vice-president and General Manager, New York Yankees
Tim Connelly, B.A. 1999, General Manager of the Minnesota Timberwolves of the National Basketball Association
Frank Coonelly, J.D., President of the Pittsburgh Pirates
Dan Freeman, B.A. 2011, Head Coach Albertus Magnus Baseball
Bryson Fonville, B.A., 2016, player for the Texas Legends
Marty Hurney, B.A., 1978, American football administrator and executive
Bill Lajousky, NFL player
Mike Lonergan, B.A. 1988, Head Men's Basketball Coach, George Washington University
Jimmy Patsos, B.A. 1989, men's basketball head coach, Siena College
Wally Pipp, A.B. 1914, first baseman, New York Yankees
Other
Carl Amery, German writer
Thomas Berry, Ph.D., cultural historian and ecotheologian
Thea Bowman, Catholic nun, teacher and scholar
Francis P. Duffy, Ph.D., military chaplain, war hero, and namesake of Time Square's Duffy Square
Jackie Ducci, American author
Patrick Fahey, OSA, Prior Provincial of the Australian Province of the Order of St Augustine
Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, Ph.D., security analyst
Charles Kekumano, Ph.D.
Robert McCulloch, missionary in Pakistan for 33 years
John T. Tozzi, Ph.D., U.S. Coast Guard Rear Admiral
Miguel Vila Luna, Dominican artist and architect; designed a National Heritage building
Faculty
Clyde Cowan, co-discoverer of the neutrino
Cardinal Avery Dulles, taught theology 1974-1988
Chorbishop John D. Faris, Maronite canon lawyer
Msgr. Joseph Clifford Fenton, peritus to Cardinal Alfredo Ottaviani at the Second Vatican Council
Regina Flannery Herzfeld, first laywoman on CUA faculty; first woman department head at CUA (anthropology)
Father Gilbert Hartke, O.P.
Michael Hendricks, psychologist, suicidologist, and an advocate for the LGBT community
Theo Holm, botanist
Oleg Kalugin, former KGB spy
Walter Kerr, dramatist and theater critic
Frederick Joseph Kinsman, ecclesiastical historian
Douglas Kmiec, Legal Counsel to President Ronald Reagan; United States Ambassador to Malta; faith advisor to President Barack Obama; served as Dean and St. Thomas More Professor, Columbus School of Law
Theodore Litovitz, physicist and inventor
Wayne Millner (1913–1976), American football player
James Kerby Neill (1906-1996), professor emeritus of English, author and researcher
Venerable Archbishop Fulton J. Sheen, JCB, 1920, Auxiliary Bishop of New York and Bishop of Rochester, host of Life is Worth Living, faculty from 1926 to 1950 in theology and philosophy
George P. Smith II, bioethics scholar, prolific writer
Monsignor Robert Sokolowski, philosopher
Cardinal Luis Antonio Tagle, Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Manila
Monsignor John F. Wippel, Thomas Aquinas scholar
Karl Herzfeld, physics
Risteard De Hindeberg, Irish language scholar
Venigalla Rao, professor of biology
References
Catholic University
Catholic University of America people
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5158441
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic%20milking
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Automatic milking
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Automatic milking is the milking of dairy animals, especially of dairy cattle, without human labour. Automatic milking systems (AMS), also called voluntary milking systems (VMS), were developed in the late 20th century. They have been commercially available since the early 1990s. The core of such systems that allows complete automation of the milking process is a type of agricultural robot. Automated milking is therefore also called robotic milking. Common systems rely on the use of computers and special herd management software. They can also be used to monitor the health status of cows.
Automated milking
Basics – milking process and milking schedules
The milking process is the collection of tasks specifically devoted to extracting milk from an animal (rather than the broader field of dairy animal husbandry). This process may be broken down into several sub-tasks: collecting animals before milking, routing animals into the parlour, inspection and cleaning of teats, attachment of milking equipment to teats, and often massaging the back of the udder to relieve any held back milk, extraction of milk, removal of milking equipment, and routing of animals out of the parlour.
Maintaining milk yield during the lactation period (approximately 300 days) requires consistent milking intervals, usually twice daily and with maximum time spacing between milkings. In fact, all activities on the dairy farm must be scheduled around the milking process. Such a milking routine imposes restrictions on the time management and personal life of an individual farmer, as the farmer is committed to milking in the early morning and in the evening for seven days a week, regardless of personal health, family responsibilities or social schedule. This time restriction is exacerbated for lone farmers and farm families if extra labour cannot easily or economically be obtained, and is a factor in the decline in small-scale dairy farming. Techniques such as once-a-day milking and voluntary milking (see below) have been investigated to reduce these time constraints.
Automation progress in the 20th century
To alleviate the labour involved in milking, much of the milking process has been automated during the 20th century: many farmers use semi-automatic or automatic cow traffic control (powered gates, etc.), the milking machine (a basic form was developed in the late 19th century) has entirely automated milk extraction, and automatic cluster removal is available to remove milking equipment after milking. Automatic teat spraying systems are available, however, there is some debate over the cleaning effectiveness of these.
Machine milking works by using vacuum pressure to extract milk from cows. Specialized machines apply a steady vacuum to the cow's teat, gently sucking out the milk and transferring it to a container. Additionally, these machines periodically apply external pressure to the entire teat, which helps maintain proper blood circulation.
The final manual labour tasks remaining in the milking process were cleaning and inspection of teats and attachment of milking equipment (milking cups) to teats. Automatic cleaning and attachment of milking cups is a complex task, requiring accurate detection of teat position and a dexterous mechanical manipulator. These tasks have been automated successfully in the voluntary milking system (VMS), or automatic milking system (AMS).
Automatic milking systems (AMS)
Since the 1970s, much research effort has been expended in investigating methods to alleviate time management constraints in conventional dairy farming, culminating in the development of the automated voluntary milking system. There is a video of the historical development of the milking robot at Silsoe Research Institute.
Voluntary milking allows the cow to decide her own milking time and interval, rather than being milked as part of a group at set milking times. AMS requires complete automation of the milking process as the cow may elect to be milked at any time.
The milking unit comprises a milking machine, a teat position sensor (usually a laser), a robotic arm for automatic teat-cup application and removal, and a gate system for controlling cow traffic. The cows may be permanently housed in a barn, and spend most of their time resting or feeding in the free-stall area. If cows are to be grazed as well, using a selection gate to allow only those cows that have been milked to the outside pastures has been advised by some AMS manufacturers.
When the cow elects to enter the milking unit (due to highly palatable feed that she finds in the milking box), a cow ID sensor reads an identification tag (transponder) on the cow and passes the cow ID to the control system. If the cow has been milked too recently, the automatic gate system sends the cow out of the unit. If the cow may be milked, automatic teat cleaning, milking cup application, milking, and teatspraying takes place. As an incentive to attend the milking unit, concentrated feedstuffs needs to be fed to the cow in the milking unit.
The barn may be arranged such that access to the main feeding area can only be obtained by passing the milking unit. This layout is referred to as guided cow traffic. Alternatively, the barn may be set up such that the cow always has access to feed, water, and a comfortable place to lie down, and is only motivated to visit the milking system by the palatable feed available there. This is referred to as free cow traffic.
The innovative core of the AMS system is the robotic manipulator in the milking unit. This robotic arm automates the tasks of teat cleaning and milking attachment and removes the final elements of manual labour from the milking process. Careful design of the robot arm and associated sensors and controls allows robust unsupervised performance, such that the farmer is only required to attend the cows for condition inspection and when a cow has not attended for milking.
Typical capacity for an AMS is 50–70 cows per milking unit. AMS usually achieve milking frequencies between 2 and 3 times per day, so a single milking unit handling 60 cows and milking each cow 3 times per day has a capacity of 7.5 cows per hour. This low capacity is convenient for lower-cost design of the robot arm and associated control system, as a window of several minutes is available for each cow and high-speed operation is not required.
AMS units have been available commercially since the early 1990s, and have proved relatively successful in implementing the voluntary milking method. Much of the research and development has taken place in the Netherlands. The most farms with AMS are located in the Netherlands, and Denmark.
A new variation on the theme of robotic milking includes a similar robotic arm system, but coupled with a rotary platform, improving the number of cows that can be handled per robot arm. A mobile variation of robotic milking, adapted to tie-stall configuration (stanchion barns), is used in Canada. In this configuration, the AMS travels in the centre isle of the barn approaching cows from behind to milk them in their stalls.
A portable milking machine is an AMS on wheels. Portable milking machines have gained popularity with their low cost of installation and ability to take them neat to animals who cannot be taken to the barn to milk. However they are reliant on manual labour to do the milking and may not be suitable as the only method of milking in large farms.
Advantages
Elimination of labour - The farmer is freed from the milking process and associated rigid schedule, and labour is devoted to supervision of animals, feeding, etc.
Milking consistency – The milking process is consistent for every cow and every visit, and is not influenced by different persons milking the cows. The four separate milking cups are removed individually, meaning that an empty quarter does not stay attached while the other three are finishing, resulting in less threat of injury. The newest models of automatic milkers can vary the pulsation rate and vacuum level based on milk flow from each quarter.
Increased milking frequency – Milking frequency may increase to three times per day, however typically 2.5 times per day is achieved. This may result in less stress on the udder and increased comfort for the cow, as on average less milk is stored. Higher frequency milking increases milk yield per cow, however much of this increase is water rather than solids.
Perceived lower stress environment – There is a perception that elective milking schedules reduce cow stress.
Herd management – The use of computer control allows greater scope for data collection. Such data allows the farmer to improve management through analysis of trends in the herd, for example response of milk production to changes in feedstuffs. Individual cow histories may also be examined, and alerts set to warn the farmer of unusual changes indicating illness or injury. Information gathering provides added value for AMS, however correct interpretation and use of such information is highly dependent on the skills of the user or the accuracy of computer algorithms to create attention reports.
Considerations and disadvantages
Higher initial cost – AMS systems cost approximately €120,000 ($190,524) per milking unit as of 2003 (presuming barn space is already available for loose-stall housing). Equipment costs decreased from $175,000 for the first stall to $158,000. Equipment costs decreased from $10,000/stall for a double-six parlor to $9000/stall for a double-ten parlor with a cost of $1200/stall for pipeline milking. Initial parlor cost was increased $5000/stall to represent a high cost parlor. Whether it is economically beneficial to invest in an AMS instead of a conventional milking parlor depends on constructions costs, investments in the milking system and costs of labour. Besides costs of labour, the availability of labour should also be taken into account. In general, an AMS is economically beneficial for smaller scale farms, and large dairies can usually operate more cheaply with a milking parlor.
Increased electricity costs - to operate the robots, but this can be more than outweighed by reduced labour input.
Increased complexity – While complexity of equipment is a necessary part of technological advancement, the increased complexity of the AMS milking unit over conventional systems, increases the reliance on manufacturer maintenance services and possibly increasing operating costs. The farmer is exposed in the event of total system failure, relying on prompt response from the service provider. In practice AMS systems have proved robust and manufacturers provide good service networks. Because all milking cows have to visit the AMS voluntarily, the system requires a high quality of management. The system also involves a central place for the computer in the daily working routines.
Difficult to apply in pasture systems – as a continuous animal presence is required for an optimal utilization of the AMS unit, AMS works at their best in zero-grazing systems, in which the cow is housed indoors for most of the lactation period. Zero-grazing suits areas (e.g., the Netherlands) where land is at a premium, as maximum land can be devoted to feed production which is then collected by the farmer and brought to the animals in the barn. In pasture systems, cows graze in fields and are required to walk to the milking parlour. It has been found that it can be challenging to make cows maintain a high milking frequency if the distance to walk between pasture and milking unit is too great. Maintaining production on pasture has, however, been shown to be possible in amongst others the AUTOGRASSMILK project. There are currently research projects at the Dexcel facility in New Zealand, University of Sydney's FutureDairy site, Michigan State University's Kellogg Biological Station and the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences's research facility Lövsta Livestock Research Center, where cattle are on pasture and milked by AMS.
Lower milk quality –With automatic milking, the number of anaerobic spores, the freezing point increases, the frequency of milk quality failure almost doubles, which fully reflects the quality of milk caused by automatic milking. Although the automatic milking machine cleans the cow's teat and tests the pre-squeezed milk, there is still a phenomenon that the infected milk is not transferred, and the device itself is also lack of cleaning, and the milk is not handled properly. This situation was also confirmed in 2002 when investigating nearly 98 farms in Denmark with automatic milking systems. Bulk milk total bacteria count (BMTBC) and somatic cell count (BMSCC) are also affected by automatic milking. These two counts were studied when introducing an automatic milking system to cows that were previously milked conventionally. BMSCC was found to not significantly increase between pre and post-AMS installation but BMTBC was found to significantly increase in the first three months but then return to normal levels. BMSCC was found to significantly improve in the third year with respect to the pre-introduction level.
Possible increase in stress for some cows – Cows are social animals, and it has been found that due to dominance of some cows, others will be forced to milk only at night. Such behaviour is inconsistent with the perception that AMS reduces stress by allowing "free choice" of milking time.
Decreased contact between farmer and herd – Effective animal husbandry requires that the farmer be fully aware of herd condition. In conventional milking, the cows are observed before milking equipment is attached, and ill or injured cows can be earmarked for attention. Automatic milking decreases the time the farmer has such close contact with the animal, with the possibility that illness may go unnoticed for longer periods and both milk quality and cow welfare suffer. In practice, milk quality sensors at the milking unit attempt to detect changes in milk due to infection, and farmers inspect the herd frequently. (Farmers still need to provide bedding for the cows, provide reproductive health services, provide hoof care, feed them, and occasionally repair parts of the barn.) However this concern has meant that farmers are still tied to a seven-day schedule. Modern automatic milking systems attempt to rectify this problem by gathering data that would not be available in many conventional systems including milk temperature, milk conductivity, milk color including infrared scan, change in milking speed, change in milking time or milk letdown by quarter, cow's weight, cow's activity (movements), time spent ruminating, etc.
Dependence on the robotics company – maintenance becomes significantly more time critical and may put the farmer at greater risk. For example, one farm in Estonia reported losses of over 1 million euros, when the robots from BouMatic Robotics performed below promised standards and the company failed to provide maintenance.
Manufacturers
GEA Farm Technologies (Germany, formerly WestfaliaSurge), MIone AMS
Lely (Netherlands), Lely Astronaut AMS
DeLaval (Sweden), DeLaval VMS
Fullwood (UK), Merlin AMS
Milkomax (Canada), Tie-Stall AMS
SAC (Denmark), purchased the Dutch manufacturer of the Galaxy Robot AMS in 2005, sell under the brands SAC RDS Futureline MARK II, Insentec Galaxy Starline, BouMatic’s ProFlex
BoumaticRobotics (NL), MR-S1, MR-D1
Prompt Softech (Ahmedabad, India) Manufacturer of Automatic Milk Collection System.
ADF Milking (UK), Manufacturer of the Automatic Dipping and Flushing system.
JSC Mototecha Lithuania, manufacturer of mobile milking parlour systems.
See also
Stranded asset
Fermentation equipment
Milk substitute
Notes
References
EU project; Automatic Milking
Hogeveen, H., W., et al., (2001), “Milking interval, milk production and milk flow-rate in an automatic milking system”, Livestock Production Science, Vol. 72, pp. 157–167.
Hopster, H., et al., (2002), "Stress Responses during Milking; Comparing Conventional and Automatic Milking in Primiparous Dairy Cows", Journal of Dairy Science Vol. 85, pp. 3206–3216
Millar, K. M., (2000), "Respect for Animal Autonomy in Bioethical Analysis: The Case of Automatic Milking Systems (AMS)", Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, Springer, Netherlands, Vol. 12, No. 1, pp. 41–50
Rossing, W. and Hogewerf, P. H., (1997), “State of the art of automatic milking systems”, Computers and electronics in agriculture, Vol. 17, pp. 1–17
Schukken, Y.H., Hogeveen H., and Smink, B.J., (1999), "Robotic Milking and Milk Quality, Experiences From the Netherlands", National Mastitis Council Regional Meeting Proceedings 1999, pp. 64–69
External links
(comment in Frisian)
Milking machine manufacturers
Cattle
Dairy farming technology
Agricultural robotics
Milk
fr:Machine à traire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laurence%20Waddell
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Laurence Waddell
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Lieutenant Colonel Laurence Austine Waddell, CB, CIE, F.L.S., L.L.D, M.Ch., I.M.S. RAI, F.R.A.S (29 May 1854 – 19 September 1938) was a Scottish explorer, Professor of Tibetan, Professor of Chemistry and Pathology, Indian Army surgeon, collector in Tibet, and amateur archaeologist. Waddell also studied Sumerian and Sanskrit; he made various translations of seals and other inscriptions. His reputation as an Assyriologist gained little to no academic recognition and his books on the history of civilization have caused controversy. Some of his book publications however were popular with the public, and he is regarded by some today to have been a real-life precursor of the fictional character Indiana Jones.
Life
Laurence Waddell was born on 29 May 1854, and was the son of Rev. Thomas Clement Waddell, a Doctor of Divinity at Glasgow University and Jean Chapman, daughter of John Chapman of Banton, Stirlingshire. Laurence Waddell obtained a bachelor's degree in Medicine followed by a master's degree in both Surgery and Chemistry at Glasgow University in 1878. His first job was as a resident surgeon near the university and was also the President of Glasgow University's Medical Society. In 1879 he visited Ceylon and Burma and was 'irresistibly attracted' towards Buddhism which in later years led him to study the tenets, history and art of Buddhism. In 1880 Waddell joined the British Indian Army and served as a medical officer with the Indian Medical Service (I.M.S), subsequently he was stationed in India and the Far East (Tibet, China and Burma). The following year he became a professor of chemistry and pathology at the Medical College of Kolkata, India. While working in India, Waddell also studied Sanskrit and edited the Indian Medical Gazette. He became Assistant Sanitary Commissioner under the government of India.
After Waddell worked as a professor of Chemistry and Pathology for 6 years, he became involved in military expeditions across Burma and Tibet. Between 1885 and 1887 Waddell took part in the British expedition that annexed Upper Burma, which defeated Thibaw Min the last king of the Konbaung dynasty. After his return from Burma Waddell was stationed in Darjeeling district, India, and was appointed Principal Medical Officer in 1888. In the 1890s Waddell, while in Patna, established that Agam Kuan was part of Ashoka's Hell. His first publications were essays and articles on medicine and zoology, most notably "The Birds of Sikkim" (1893). In 1895 he obtained a doctorate in law.
Waddell traveled extensively in India throughout the 1890s (including Sikkim and areas on the borders of Nepal and Tibet) and wrote about the Tibetan Buddhist religious practices he observed there. Stationed with the British army in Darjeeling, Waddell learned the Tibetan language and even visited Tibet several times secretly, in disguise. He was the cultural consultant on the 1903–1904 British invasion of Tibet led by Colonel Sir Francis Edward Younghusband, and was considered alongside Sir Charles Bell as one of the foremost authorities on Tibet and Tibetan Buddhism. Waddell studied archaeology and ethnology in-between his military assignments across India and Tibet, and his exploits in the Himalayas were published in his highly successful book Among the Himalayas (1899). Various archaeological excavations were also carried out and supervised by Waddell across India, including Pataliputra, of which he did not receive recognition of discovery until long after his death, in 1982, by the government of Bengal. His discoveries at Pataliputra were published in an official report in 1892.
During the 1890s Waddell specialised in Buddhist antiquities and became a collector, between 1895 and 1897 he published "Reports on collections of Indo-Scythian Buddhist Sculptures from the Swat Valley", in 1893 he also read a paper to the International Congress of Orientalists: "On some newly found Indo-Grecian Buddhistic Sculptures from the Swat Valley". In 1895 Waddell published his book Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, which was one of the first works published in the west on Buddhism. As a collector, Waddell had come across many Tibetan manuscripts and maps, but was disappointed to not find a single reference to a lost ancient civilization, which he had hoped to discover.
Waddell continued his military service with the Indian Medical Service. He was in China during the Boxer Rebellion (1898–1901), including the Relief of Peking in August 1900, for which he was mentioned in despatches, received the China War Medal (1900) with clasp, and was in 1901 appointed a Companion of the Order of the Indian Empire (CIE). By late 1901 he had moved to North-West Frontier Province and was present during the Mahsud-Waziri Blockade, 1901–1902. He was in Malakand in 1902 and took part in the Tibet Mission to Lhasa 1903–04, for which he was again mentioned in despatches, received a medal with clasp and was appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB). Waddell then returned to England, where he briefly became Professor of Tibetan at the University College of London (1906–1908).
In 1908, Waddell began to learn Sumerian. Thus in his later career he turned to studying the ancient near east, especially Sumeria and dedicated his time to deciphering or translating ancient cuneiform tablets or seals, most notably including the Scheil dynastic tablet. In 1911, Waddell published two entries in the Encyclopædia Britannica. By 1917, Waddell was fully retired and first started exclusively writing on Aryans, beginning in an article published in the Asiatic Review entitled "Aryan Origin of the World's Civilization". From the 1920s Waddell published several works which attempted to prove an Aryan (i.e., Indo-European) origin of the alphabet and the appearance of Indo-European myth figures in ancient Near Eastern mythologies (e.g., Hittite, Sumerian, Babylonian). The foundation of his argument is what he saw as a persistence of cult practices, religious symbols, mythological stories and figures, and god and hero names throughout Western and Near Eastern civilizations, but also based his arguments on his deciphered Sumerian and Indus-Valley seals, and other archaeological findings.
Waddell died in 1938. That same year, he had completed writing Trojan Origin of World Civilization. The book was never published.
Discovery of Buddha's Birthplace
Waddell had travelled around British controlled India in search for Kapilavastu, the Buddha's supposed birthplace. Cunningham had previously identified Kapilavastu as the village of Bhuila in India which Waddell and other orientalists concluded to be incorrect. They were searching for the birthplace by taking into account the topographical and geographical hints left by the ancient Chinese travellers, Fa Hien and Hiuen Tsiang. Waddell was first to point out the importance of the discovery of Asoka's pillar in Nigliva in 1893 and estimate Buddha's birthplace as Lumbini. He subsequently corresponded with Government of India and arranged for the exploration of the area. Waddell also was appointed to conduct the exploration to recover the inscriptions, etc.; but at the last moment, when due to adverse circumstances prevented him from proceeding, and Mr. Führer was sent to carry out the exploration arranged by him, he found the Lumbini grove, etc., with their inscriptions at the very spots pointed out by him.
Waddell's theories
Tibetan Buddhism
The Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, With Its Mystic Cults, Symbolism and Mythology and in Its Relation to Indian Buddhism (1st ed. London, 1895) is an early work that was very influential in forming Western ideas of Tibet and its Buddhist traditions, especially in the non-scholarly Anglophone world. It was a treasure-trove of then-new factual information on its subject, some of which retains value even today. Unfortunately, Waddell's prejudices – colored by his British imperialist sense of the superiority of European, "Christian" civilization – permeate the work. Today it would be classified as heavily "Orientalist" in the negative, Saidean sense. At times the work veers into racist stereotyping of the Tibetan people and their culture, and at times it displays disgust toward what it characterizes as the primitive superstition and immoral demonolatry of "Lamaism," Waddell's name for his representation of Tibetan Buddhism. Tibetologists and Buddhologists today mainly cite this book as a classic, graphic example of nineteenth century European Orientalist bigotry.
Waddell's voluminious writings after his retirement were based on an attempt to prove the Sumerians (who he identified as Aryans) as the progenitors of other ancient civilizations, such as the Indus Valley civilization and ancient Egyptians to "the classic Greeks and Romans and Ancient Britons, to whom they [the Sumerians] passed on from hand to hand down the ages the torch of civilization". He is perhaps most remembered for his controversial translations; the Scheil dynastic tablet, the Bowl of Utu and Newton Stone, as well as his British Edda.
Phoenicians
Waddell in Phoenician Origin of Britons, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons (1924) argued for a Syro-Hittite and Phoenician colonization of the British Isles, turning to British folklore that mentions Trojans, such as the "Brutus Stone" in Totnes and Geoffrey of Monmouth; place-names that supposedly preserve the Hittite language, and inscriptions, as evidence.
According to Waddell the "unknown" script on the Newton Stone is Hitto-Phoenician. His translation is as follows:
Brutus of Troy, Waddell also regarded to be a real historical figure. In a chapter entitled "COMING OF THE "BRITONS" OR ARYAN BRITO-PHOENICIANS UNDER KING BRUTUS-THE-TROJAN TO ALBION ABOUT 1103, B.C", Waddell writes:
Reception
Waddell's contemporaries reviewed the book very negatively. One reviewer considered the content to be "admirable fooling", but that he had "an uneasy feeling that the author really believes it". It has also been pointed out that Waddell took the Historia Regum Britanniae to be literal history which is why he was almost asking to be ridiculed by historians:
Indus-Valley seals
The first Indus Valley or Harappan seal was published by Alexander Cunningham in 1872. It was half a century later, in 1912, when more Indus Valley seals were discovered by J. Fleet, prompting an excavation campaign under Sir John Hubert Marshall in 1921–22, resulting in the discovery of the ancient civilization at Harappa (later including Mohenjo-daro). As seals were discovered from the Indus Valley, Waddell in 1925 first attempted to decipher them and claimed they were of Sumerian origin in his Indo-Sumerian Seals Deciphered.
Reception
In the 1920s, Waddell's theory that the Indus-Valley seals were Sumerian had some academic support, despite criticisms; Ralph Turner considered Waddell's work to be "fantasy". Two notable supporters of Waddell included John Marshall, the Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India until 1928, and Stephen Herbert Langdon. Marshall had led the main excavation campaign at Harappa and published his support for Waddell's Sumerian decipherment in 1931. Preston however in a section of her biography of Waddell entitled "Opposition to Indo-Sumerian Seals Deciphered" points out that support for Waddell's theory had disappeared by the early 1940s through the work of Mortimer Wheeler:
Sumerian language
The non-Semitic source of the Sumerian language was established in the late 19th century by Julius Oppert and Henry Rawlinson from which many different theories were proposed as to its origin. In his works Aryan Origin of the Alphabet and Sumer-Aryan Dictionary (1927) Waddell attempted to show the Sumerian language was of Aryan (Indo-European) root.
Reception
Waddell's Sumerian-Aryan equation did not receive any support at the time, despite having sent personal copies of his two books to Archibald Sayce. Professor Langdon, who had earlier offered Waddell his support for a Sumerian or Proto-Elamite decipherment of the Indus-Valley seals, dismissed Waddell's publications on the Sumerian language itself:
Chronology
Waddell in The Makers of Civilization (1929) and Egyptian Civilization Its Sumerian Origin and Real Chronology (1930) revised conventional dates for most ancient civilizations and king lists. For example, he believed the Early Dynastic Period of Egypt began c. 2700 BC, not c. 3100 BC, arguing that Menes, was Manis-Tusu, the son of Sargon, who in turn was King Minos of Crete. For Waddell, the earliest ancient rulers or mythological kings of Sumer, Egypt, Crete and the Indus Valley civilizations were
all identical Aryan personages.
Reception
To support his revised chronology, Waddell acquired and translated several artefacts including the Scheil dynastic tablet and the Bowl of Utu. Waddell was praised for his acquisition of the latter. However Waddell's translations were always highly unorthodox and not taken seriously. The Makers of Civilization was panned in a review by Harry L. Shapiro:
Waddell during his own life, was deemed to be anachronistic by most scholars because of his supremacist views regarding the Aryan race:
Pan-Sumerism
Waddell from 1917 (having first published the article "Aryan Origin of the World's Civilization") until his death was a proponent of hyperdiffusionism ("Pan-Sumerism") arguing that many cultures and ancient civilizations, such as the Indus Valley civilization, Minoan Crete, Phoenicia, and Dynastic Egypt, were the product of Aryan Sumerian colonists.
Grafton Elliot Smith who pioneered hyperdiffusionism (but of the Egyptians) was an influential correspondent to Waddell.
Reception
R. Sawyer (1985) points out that Waddell "was of the eccentric opinion that Western, Indian and ancient Egyptian culture derived from a common Sumerian ancestry" and that his ideas were far-fetched to untenable. Gabriel Moshenska of the UCL Institute of Archaeology has noted:
Collections
Waddell collected bird specimens and it was on the basis of one of them that Henry Dresser named the species Babax waddelli (the giant babax) in 1905. His collections were donated in 1894 to the Hunterian Museum at the University of Glasgow. Some specimens are in the Manchester Museum and at the Natural History Museum at London. The University of Glasgow holds Waddell's papers and manuscript collection.
Tribute
The fish Gymnocypris waddellii Regan, 1905 was named in honor of Waddell, who preserved the type specimens in salt before presenting them to the British Museum (Natural History).
Published books
(for book descriptions see footnotes)
The non-bacillar nature of abrus-poison : with observations on its chemical and physiological properties (1884)
The Buddhism of Tibet or Lamaism, With Its Mystic Cults, Symbolism and Mythology and in Its Relation to Indian Buddhism (1895)
Among the Himalayas (1899)
The Tribes of the Brahmaputra valley (1901)
Lhasa and Its Mysteries – With a Record of the British Tibetan Expedition of 1903–1904 (1905)
The "Dhāranī" cult in Buddhism: its origin, deified literature and images (1912)
Phoenician Origin of the Britons, Scots, and Anglo-Saxons (1924, 2nd ed. 1925)
Indo-Sumerian Seals Deciphered discovering Sumerians of Indus Valley as Phoenicians, Barats, Goths & famous Vedic Aryans 3100-2300 B.C. (1925)
Sumer-Aryan Dictionary. An Etymological Lexicon of the English and other Aryan Languages Ancient and Modern and the Sumerian Origin of Egyptian and its Hieroglyphs (1927)
Aryan-Sumerian Origin of the Alphabet (1927)
Questionary on the Sumerian markings upon prehistoric pottery found in the Danube & associated valleys of Middle Europe (1928, small booklet)
Makers of Civilization in Race and History (1929)
Egyptian Civilization Its Sumerian Origin and Real Chronology (1930)
The British Edda (1930)
Sources
Buckland, C. E. (1906). Dictionary of Indian Biography. London : S. Sonnenschein.
Preston, C. (2009). The Rise of Man in the Gardens of Sumeria: A Biography of L.A. Waddell. Sussex Academic Press.
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography: Waddell, Lawrence Augustine (1854–1938).
Waddell Collection at the University of Glasgow: A collection of over 700 volumes dealing mainly with Assyrian and Sumerian languages, Archaeology, Asian history and folk-lore, and Buddhism. He made a notable contribution to the history of Buddhism. The printed book collection is supplemented by associated correspondence, working notes, photographs and press cuttings. Some of the books have manuscript annotations and inserts.
See also
David MacRitchie
Christian O'Brien
W. J. Perry
Ethel Bristowe
Grafton Elliot Smith
References & Footnotes
External links
The Later Works of Lieutenant-Colonel Professor Laurence Austine Waddell
Waddell, Lieut.-Colonel Lawrence Austine in The Indian Biographical Dictionary (1915)
Waddell Collection (University of Glasgow)
Laurence Waddell Family Archive
A Biography of L. A. Waddell
1854 births
1938 deaths
Amateur archaeologists
British explorers
Explorers of Asia
British military personnel of the British expedition to Tibet
Indian Medical Service officers
Companions of the Order of the Indian Empire
Companions of the Order of the Bath
Fellows of the Royal Asiatic Society
Fellows of the Linnean Society of London
Hyperdiffusionism
Himalayan studies
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5158878
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Douglas%20Wimberley
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Douglas Wimberley
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Major-General Douglas Neil Wimberley, (15 August 1896 – 26 August 1983) was a British Army officer who, during the Second World War, commanded the 51st (Highland) Division for two years, from 1941 to 1943, notably at the Second Battle of El Alamein, before leading it across North Africa and in the Allied campaign in Sicily.
Early life and First World War
Douglas Neil Wimberley was born on 15 August 1896 at 8 Ardross Terrace, Inverness, Scotland, the son of Surgeon-Captain Charles Neil Campbell Wimberley, and Minnie Lesmoir Gordon, daughter of R. J. Wimberley.
Wimberley was educated at Alton Burn, Nairn, Wellington College, followed by Cambridge University. In December 1914, four months after the outbreak of the First World War, he entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst and, on 11 May 1915, he was commissioned as a second lieutenant, into his grandfather's regiment, the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders. His first posting was with the 3rd (Militia) Battalion of his regiment at Invergordon before his eventual posting, in September, to the 1st Battalion on the Western Front. The battalion, a Regular Army unit, formed part of the 1st Brigade of the 1st Division. In October, Wimberley, now aged 19 and the machine gun officer of his battalion, fought in the Battle of Loos.
In January 1916 he was seconded to the newly created Machine Gun Corps (MGC) and served with the 1st and 2nd Brigade machine gun companies, serving with them during the Somme offensive in the second half of 1916. He was promoted to lieutenant on 17 March 1916, and, in October, was sent to England, where he attended the Machine Gun Training Centre at Grantham, Lincolnshire and, returning to the Western Front, was promoted to the acting rank of captain on 12 February 1917, and assumed command of the 232nd Machine Gun Company, which in July became part of the 51st (Highland) Division, a Territorial Force (TF) formation.
Wimberley's company fought in the Battle of Passchendaele (also known as the Third Battle of Ypres). In November he was wounded and awarded the Military Cross during the Battle of Cambrai. In early 1918 the four machine gun companies of the division were merged into the 51st Machine Gun Battalion, resulting in his company being retitled as 'D'Company. On 18 February 1918 Wimberley was promoted to the acting rank of major. The German Army launched its Spring Offensive in late March and Wimberley was again wounded and, evacuated to England, was passed fit for service in June and attended a machine gun refresher course at Grantham the following month, but was not to see any further action during the war. He was soon afterwards posted as a company commander in the 9th Reserve Battalion, Machine Gun Corps, a training unit. In October/November he attended a Royal Air Force (RAF) cooperation course, with the intention of training infantry officers to be air observers. He was there by the time of the Armistice with Germany in November, which brought the war to an end.
Between the wars
Shortly after the end of the war, in 1919, Wimberley, now serving with the 8th Battalion, MGC, was despatched to Russia during the Russian Civil War. In December 1919 he returned to the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders. Wimberley chose to stay in the army during the interwar period and, in 1921, served as the assistant adjutant of the 2nd Battalion, Cameron Highlanders, then stationed at Queenstown during the Irish War of Independence. Wimberley's battalion, a Regular Army unit, was regarded by Bernard Montgomery, the brigade major of the parent Cork Brigade, to be the best troops available to act as a "flying column" to round up rebels. 1922 saw Wimberley made an adjutant of the 2nd Battalion, Camerons. Two years later he gained distinction in promotion examinations and was allowed to spend a year at Emmanuel College, Cambridge. On 29 April 1925 he married Elsye Myrtle Livingston, daughter of Captain F. L. Campbell of the Royal Navy, of Achalader, Perthshire. With her, he had one son and one daughter.
Following his studies, Wimberley attended the Staff College, Camberley from 1926 to 1927, where he was a student in a class of instructors who would lead the army to victory in the next war, such as Bernard Montgomery, Alan Brooke and Bernard Paget, with fellow students such as Harold Alexander, Charles Hudson, Roy Bucher, Alan Duff, George Wood, John Clark, Noel Holmes, Sidney Archibald, Euan Miller, John Albert Charles Whitaker, Leonard Arthur Hawes, William Holden, Noel Holmes, Richard Bond and Richard Lewis, along with Warren Melville Anderson of the Australian Army.
After his marriage, the still-young Wimberley's peacetime career progressed steadily. In 1929 he was appointed brigade major of the 1st Gurkha Brigade, which was involved in operations in the North West Frontier Province a year later. On 1 January 1933 Wimberley was promoted to the brevet rank of major, the same year that he won the Army Quarterly military prize for an essay on recent military campaigns.
Wimberley then served as a General Staff Officer Grade 2 (GSO2) at the War Office for four years, during which time he received a promotion on 3 January 1934 to major, and brevet lieutenant-colonel on 1 January 1936, before returning to an active command when he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-colonel on 19 December 1938 and succeeded Lieutenant-Colonel James Gammell as Commanding Officer (CO) of the 1st Battalion, Cameron Highlanders, then stationed in England, which he commanded until the outbreak of war nine months later.
Second World War
Shortly after the Second World War began, in September 1939, Wimberley took his battalion to France, where it formed part of the British Expeditionary Force (BEF). The battalion was part of Brigadier Gerald Gartlan's 5th Infantry Brigade, part of the 2nd Infantry Division, then commanded by Major-General Charles Loyd, and arrived in France in late September. There was no immediate action, however, and in late December Wimberley was sent to England and made GSO1 and Chief Instructor at the Senior Officers' School, Sheerness, so missing the hostilities in France which commenced in May 1940.
Made an acting colonel on 16 March 1940, Wimberley was, on 20 July 1940, shortly after the Dunkirk evacuation, promoted to the acting rank of brigadier and succeeded Brigadier Miles Dempsey in command of the 13th Brigade, part of the 5th Infantry Division. The division was then stationed in Scotland under Scottish Command, reforming after having played a distinguished part in the Battle of France, but suffering alarmingly heavy casualties in the process. The division was commanded by Major-General Horatio Berney-Ficklin, succeeding the original General Officer Commanding (GOC), Major-General Harold Franklyn, on the same day as Wimberley took command of the 13th Brigade. Wimberley was to remain with the brigade for just seven weeks, however, as in mid-September he was posted to the 152nd Infantry Brigade, part of the 51st (Highland) Infantry Division, whose GOC was then Major-General Alan Cunningham, who was replaced in late October by Major-General Neil Ritchie. On 17 October 1940 Wimberley's permanent rank was promoted to colonel, with seniority backdated to 1 January 1939.
On 21 May 1941 Wimberley was promoted to the acting rank of major-general and became GOC of the 46th Infantry Division, succeeding Major-General Charles Hudson, who had been one of Wimberley's fellow students at the Staff College, Camberley in the late 1920s. The division was a second-line Territorial Army (TA) formation that had fought with the BEF the year before and, like the 5th Division, had suffered heavy losses but was now reformed. He was to remain with the division for just three weeks as, in mid-June, after handing over the 46th to Major-General Miles Dempsey, he returned to the 51st (Highland) Division, this time as its GOC. He was made GOC at the specific request of his predecessor, Ritchie, who was then being posted to the Middle East.
The 51st (Highland) Division to which Wimberley was now GOC was a very different formation from that which Wimberley had served with during the Great War. Formerly, the division's reputation had been forged over successive battles in the trenches of the Western Front. The division which he now commanded was in reality the untried 9th (Highland) Infantry Division, the sister TA division to the 51st, created with the intention of supplying drafts of men as reinforcements to the 51st, which had been renumbered after the latter's surrender during the Battle of France on 12 June 1940. The division as it stood would now be able to fight as a unit, and Wimberley made a successful effort to instill a sense of esprit de corps in the unit. He refused "sassenach" troops for his brigades and battalions whilst "poaching" Scottish troops from other units, and appealed to his men's Scottish patriotism by encouraging the wearing of their respective tartans as much as possible, for which he was dubbed "Tartan Tam", and later "Lang Tam", due to his 6'3" height. The only non-highland unit in the 51st Division was the 1st/7th Battalion, Middlesex Regiment, because there was no machine gun battalion in the British Army which recruited exclusively in Scotland. The cockneys, as it turned out, got along very well with the Highlanders. At the same time, training was not neglected. The results would manifest themselves in action.
North Africa
In late March 1942 the division moved from Scotland down to Aldershot in South-Eastern Command, then commanded by Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery, who had been an instructor of Wimberley's at the Staff College, for its final stages of training before being sent overseas. Wimberley's rank of major-general was made temporary on 21 May 1942, and, towards the end of June, the 51st Division left the United Kingdom, destined for North Africa. In August the division arrived in Egypt to join the Eighth Army. Missing the Battle of Alam el Halfa, the 51st Division went into the line in mid-September, initially as part of XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks, later transferring in October to XXX Corps, under Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese (a fellow student at the Staff College), as the new Eighth Army commander, Lieutenant-General Bernard Montgomery began preparing for the offensive which would defeat the Axis forces, which were led by Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel, in North Africa. In October and November, the division figured prominently in the "break-in" and "crumbling phase" of the Battle of El Alamein and actions round Kidney Ridge. Before the battle, Wimberley had briefed his COs with a model of the battlefield and instructed them to repeat their tasks as he had shown them, so as to ensure the unity of the division's battle plan.
Before and during the battle, Wimberley had become a familiar sight touring the divisional areas, an incongruous spectacle in his jeep with his knees nearly reaching head height. During the battle Wimberley's jeep was blown up by a mine, killing two of the occupants but only badly shaking Wimberley himself. He often paused to assist troops carrying out work or briefed individual private soldiers, so as to make them better understand the part which they were to play. Therefore, the casualties suffered by the Eighth Army, amounting to nearly a quarter of the infantry force, caused Wimberley to comment "never again". Having observed in the closing stages of the battle an assault by his Highlanders which had gone in without an artillery barrage, he wrote:
Known, trusted and respected by Montgomery, Wimberley led the 51st Division across North Africa and almost continuously throughout the Tunisian Campaign, fighting at Mareth, Medinine, Akarit and Enfidaville, and Adrano. On 29 December 1942 Wimberley was awarded the Distinguished Service Order (DSO) for "gallant and distinguished services" so far in the campaign.
The pace of the pursuit of Rommel – the fear of another battle of attrition like Alamein – began to tell. In his unpublished memoirs, Wimberley wrote of the Battle of El Agheila:
To Wimberley was entrusted the task of taking Buerat and opening the way to Tripoli, before supplies ran out over a tenuous chain of communication, so fast had the Eighth Army advanced. Having opened the way to the city – the first major Axis prize to fall in the whole of the war so far – Wimberley's achievement went virtually unrecognised by Montgomery, who accused him of "dilatoriness". Wimberley forgave all during the Battle of Medenine, however, when he wrote, "I felt grateful, and thought, again, what a wonderful little commander I was serving under, in Monty."
Shortly after the capture of Tripli, Wimberley's division was visited by Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, and General Alan Brooke, now the Chief of the Imperial General Staff (CIGS), who, like Montgomery, had formerly been one of Wimberley's Staff College instructors. On 4 February 1943, when Churchill and Brooke arrived, Wimberley ordered a composite brigade of the 51st Division, all of whom were wearing kilts and were led by the massed pipers, to march past the Prime Minister and CIGS. Both men were moved to tears by the encounter. Brooke wrote in his diary later that night about the encounter:
The campaign in Tunisia came to an end on 13 May 1943, with the Allies capturing nearly 250,000 Axis soldiers, although Wimberley and the 51st Division was, by this time, in Algeria resting after six months of combat, absorbing reinforcements, and, later, training in combined operations in preparation for the Allied invasion of Sicily. On 24 June 1943 Wimberley was mentioned in despatches for his services in North Africa.
Sicily
In July 1943 Wimberley led the 51st Division, again serving under Leese's XXX Corps, during the Allied invasion of Sicily (codenamed Operation Husky). At this time, all three of Wimberley's brigades were commanded by future general officers, the 152nd by Gordon MacMillan, the 153rd by Horatius Murray and the 154th by Tom Rennie. The division was involved in heavy fighting until gradually being relieved in August by the 78th Infantry Division.
Despite the renowned fighting ability and reputation of the 51st, Montgomery decided after the campaign in Sicily in August 1943 that Wimberley, although Montgomery admired him greatly, was showing tiredness after over two years in command, and should be removed from his command and replaced. This he did, and Wimberley was replaced by Major-General Charles Bullen-Smith, of the King's Own Scottish Borderers, who had been GOC of the 15th (Scottish) Infantry Division, another TA formation. In the event, Bullen-Smith was himself replaced by Major-General Tom Rennie, a Highlander, in July 1944, when the division was fighting in Normandy after being brought back to the United Kingdom by Montgomery (upon his promotion to command the 21st Army Group) to spearhead the Allied invasion of Normandy (codenamed Operation Overlord). On 5 August 1943 Wimberley was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB).
Whilst Montgomery judged "Tartan Tam" Wimberley as unsuitable for corps command, he recommended him to his mentor and friend, General Alan Brooke, the CIGS, for the position of Commandant at the Staff College, Camberley, a recommendation which was accepted. He assumed command in September, after a long leave, returning to the college nearly twenty years after he had attended it as a student, in turn succeeding Major-General Alan Cunningham. By now the course at the Staff College had been considerably reduced in length (down from just over two years in peacetime to a mere five months), due mainly to the needs of the wartime army, with its role being now to produce large numbers of competent staff officers in the shortest time possible, although the appointment itself was still seen as a very prestigious posting.
On 31 July 1944 Wimberley's rank of major-general was confirmed (with seniority backdated to 24 December 1943) and, in mid-December, Wimberley relinquished this appointment and, after handing over to Major-General Philip Gregson-Ellis, was appointed Director of Infantry at the War Office, his last appointment in the army, for which he was responsible for infantry training, although his assignment came at a difficult time, with the British Army then suffering from a severe manpower crisis, and the infantry having been forced to accept the worst recruits throughout the war. He held this post until his resignation from the army on 8 October 1946, after a 31-year military career, when it became clear that, with Montgomery having now become CIGS, in succession to Brooke, he would progress no higher in the army.
Richard Mead wrote that "Wimberley will always be associated with the Highland Division, which became under his command one of the best-known of all British formations, with a reputation which spread a long way beyond Scotland. A superb motivator of men and a fearless leader in battle, he restored not only the honour of a division, but of a whole country."
Postwar
Upon leaving the army Wimberley became principal of University College, Dundee, which was at the time a constituent college of the University of St Andrews. The University of St Andrews, steeped in tradition and jealous of its academic reputation refused to allow the academic expansion of its sister college which led to agitation in Dundee for the independence of the Dundee College. Wimberley attempted to expand University College whilst at the same time not undermining the parent University, and its principal, James Irvine.
Without much academic power, Wimberley sought to give the college the same esprit de corps with which he had invigorated the 51st (Highland) Division. He worked as closely with the staff and students of the college as he had with the officers and men of his division.
In 1947 he wrote the "Wimberley Memo", which set the scene for the parting of ways between the University of St Andrews, and the former University College, Dundee. In honour of this event, the University of Dundee awards annually the Wimberley Award to the student who has contributed most to university life.
In his role as Principal of University College, Dundee Wimberley helped to found the Abertay Historical Society in 1947, along with the History lecturer Dr. Wainwright. The society, which is still active, was formed to encourage the study of the history of the Abertay area (Dundee, Angus, Perthshire and northern Fife). According to University of Dundee historian Kenneth Baxter, Wimberley set up the Society as part of a process of developing 'town and gown links' in Dundee.
In 1954, University College was replaced by Queen's College Dundee. The post of Principal of University College was replaced by the new role of Master of Queen's College. Wimberley was not considered for this new position and left the University. Having retired, he took up genealogy and lived with his wife in the town of Coupar Angus, Perthshire. From 2 September 1951 until 1961 he was colonel of the Queen's Own Cameron Highlanders. In 1973, Wimberley collated his papers and diaries into a five-volume autobiography called Scottish Soldier. This unpublished memoir was deposited by the general in the National Library of Scotland.
He died at Foxhall, Coupar Angus, on 26 August 1983, shortly after turning 87. He was survived by his son Neil Wimberley (b. 1927), who lives with his wife in Foxhall, and daughter Lesmoir Edington (1926-2019) living in Haddington, Scotland.
His name lives on in Dundee with the Wimberley Houses, Dundee University student accommodation by Ninewells Hospital. The University of Dundee Archive Services also holds his papers relating to his time as Principal of University College.
References
Bibliography
Scottish Soldier by Major-General D.N. Wimberley. Unpublished memoir in the possession of the NLS.
Monty: A Personal Memoir by Major-General D.N. Wimberley. Unpublished memoir.
External links
(in Volume 59 of print edition)
British Army Officers 1939−1945
Generals of World War II
"Scottish Soldier": the Autobiography of Major-General Douglas Wimberley
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1896 births
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British Army generals of World War II
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British military personnel of the Irish War of Independence
Commandants of the Staff College, Camberley
Companions of the Distinguished Service Order
Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst
Graduates of the Staff College, Camberley
Machine Gun Corps officers
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Principals of the University of Dundee
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella%20Whitney
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Isabella Whitney
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Isabella Whitney (most likely born between 1546 and 1548, died after 1624); fl. 1566–1600) was arguably the first female poet and professional woman writer in England. More specifically, Whitney is credited with being the first Englishwoman to have penned and published original secular poetry under her own name.
Early life
Isabella Whitney was born in Cheshire, England. Her father, Geoffrey, was brother to Sir Robert Whitney, their family being the Cheshire branch of the influential Whitney family based in Clifford, Gorsington, Icomb and Castleton. At the time of her birth, her family were living at Coole Pilate in the parish of Acton, near Nantwich though the family moved in 1558 when her father took a lease of a farm at Ryles Green, Audlem. Isabella Whitney was the second child, having an older brother, Geoffrey, four sisters - Anne, Margery, Mary and Dorothea - and a younger brother, Brooke. George Mainwaring, who is mentioned in A Sweet Nosegay and came from a prominent household in England, was a childhood friend of hers. Her brother, Geoffrey Whitney (named after their father), was a notable author of the time whose works include A Choice of Emblemes and other Devises (1586). Geoffrey died in 1601 without a spouse.
Personal life
Whitney lived and worked in London until 1573 when she lost her position under the mistress she was serving and became unemployed. The reason behind the loss of her employment is assumed to be due to slander as evidenced in A Sweet Nosegay. She resided in Abchurch Lane while she continued to write but, financially, she could not stay there for long. Throughout her work, it is evident that she reached out to friends and family for support, but none could do so. Unable to support herself, she returned to the family home in Ryles Green. The Wilkersley court records for 1576 show her father being fined for the fact that his unmarried daughters, Dorothea and Isabella, were both pregnant. Isabella’s child, a girl, was baptised in September of that year in Audlem but there is no further reference to her. Sometime around 1580 she married the physician of Audlem, Richard Eldershaw, a Catholic who was several times fined for non-attendance at church. In 1600 he was fined the sum of £240 at a time when a rural labourer would expect to earn £40-£60 a year. Perhaps this is why Whitney saw the benefit of using her contacts in the publishing world to make a little extra money around this time. They had two children: Marie and Edmund. Sister Eldershae is mentioned in her brother’s will of 1601 as are her children and her husband, Richard. Dorothea is not mentioned in this Will so it must be assumed that she predeceased her brother. Geffrey left his sister, Isabella, a quantity of silver – a bequest perhaps recognising her lamentable financial situation and the affection between the two siblings. Isabella surfaces again in 1624 when her other brother, Brooke, a successful lawyer in London, makes his Will and dies. There is no mention of Richard Eldershaw; he has presumably died since 1601. By this time Isabella would have been in her seventies. No record of her death has so far surfaced though her children are shown living in Stafford as adults.
Career
The term “pressing the press” insinuated a scandalous sexual behavior that inherently linked print to something perceived as negative. It is terms such as these that worked against women who wished to publish their work. In early modern England, many factors affected women’s access to the world of print. Public speaking was somehow associated with harlotry, many insisted that the proper place for women to be was inside of their homes, and a silent woman constituted as a mold all women should strive to fit. Whitney’s work directly addresses this issue of hesitation to publish one’s work due to the negative connotations associated with it.
It was especially harmful to Whitney also because of her current station as an unemployed single woman. The lack of opportunities for women, especially those like Whitney, created difficulties to make money in early modern London. Whitney is also writing her poetry in order to profit, even placing her writing in substitution for a husband that would normally work and profit for the house. Due to this, there exists the reasoning that since Whitney is a woman in print who uses her work to make money, many may have considered her to be a prostitute of sorts. This is because of how women publishing work to a public audience was seen as a scandalous, sexual act. It did not help that her persona of an unemployed maidservant was a group that was often linked to prostitution in early modern society.
Through her uncle’s contacts, Whitney built up contacts in the printing industry and began penning verse which was published, initially anonymously but later under her own name or initials, using the tropes in fashion at the time but subverting them from the traditional, socially-approved roles women and men were expected to play in relationships and society generally. Losing her job, she turned to her writing to support her, an endeavour in which she was supported by Richard Jones, an up and coming member of the Stationers Company. In 1567 Jones published a small collection of Whitney’s verse: The Copy of a letter, lately written in meeter, by a yonge Gentilwoman: to her vnconstant Louer. With an Admonition to al yonge Gentilwomen, and to all other Mayds in general to beware of mennes flattery. This collection of four poems in the popular epistolary form deals with relationship issues and presents four very different and somewhat unconventional views of how men and women ought to behave as lovers which serve to emphasise what she apparently saw as the hypocrisy and unfairness prevalent in society.
This criticism of accepted norms is used again in “A Sweet Nosgay” published in 1573 but this time she is attacking the status of women generally, not just as lovers. As she freely admits, she was inspired by Hugh Plat's Floures of Philosophie (1572), reworking some of his aphorisms on the themes of love, suffering, friendship, and depression with an added female perspective that many would call “proto-feminist”. She followed this section with ‘letters’ addressed to various family members and friends which enabled her to discuss aspects of her theme. The collection closes with arguably her best known work – Wyll – which demonstrates not only her intimate knowledge of London at this period but also uses a popular trope of the mock Will to make social comment.
1578 saw the publication of The Lamentacion of a Gentilwoman which is considered to be Whitney’s work. It was written in response to the death of William Gruffith, Gentleman. Who this gentleman was is a mystery. Various suggestions have been put forward but no evidence has surfaced to support any of them.
Again in 1600 a work is published which has been ascribed to Whitney: Ovidius Naso His Remedie of Love. This collection comprises a translation of Remedia Armoris followed by ‘a letter to the Reader and two “epistles, of which one is translated out of Ouid, the other is an answere thereunto”’. That last of these is reckoned to be Whitney’s work and is written in the voice of Aeneas and addressed to Dido, the abandoned queen of Carthage – characters who frequently appear in Whitney’s work.
Works
The Copy of a letter, lately written in meeter, by a yonge Gentilwoman: to her vnconstant Louer. With an Admonitio to al yonge Gentilwomen, and to all other Mayds in general to beware of mennes flattery (1567). Whitney's first work, The Copy of a Letter (1566-7) contains four love complaints, two of which are in a female voice and two of which are in a male voice. Copy is a response to her former lover who has gone off and married another woman. It is speculated that this work may be imaginative rather than literal. The pictures seen here, from the Early English Books Online, are copies of Isabella's first published works. In 1567, The Copy of a letter… was published. The only living copy is housed at Oxford's Bodleian Library; it consisted of the following two poems.
“I.W. to her Unconstant Lover” (as seen on the right).
“The Admonition by the Auctor, to all Young Gentlewomen.”
A Sweet Nosegay (1573). This, Whitney's second work, was inspired by Plat's Floures of Philosophie (1572), which she “cites punningly as ‘Plat’s [garden] Plot.’” She says that although he planted them, Isabella had to harvest and arrange them. This publication also came at a time in English history when people like Whitney, those not belonging to the upper class, were given the opportunity to purchase all sorts of different goods. With this newfound opportunity to read books came a well of knowledge filled with new ways to live. Whitney’s work contributed to this well with the versification of Hugh Plat’s humanist discourse. As aforementioned, London was in a great state of change as a capitalist mindset grew and “contaminated” the streets of London. This humanist knowledge from Plat is presented to her readers with intent to keep them in good health as they had kept herself well in the infected social and moral world around her.
Perhaps the work she is most known for, A Sweet Nosegay, (as seen to the right ) showcases Whitney’s style and independence. Within this second book of hers, she has changed from a woman who is depressed about love and romance to a woman who writes to the world as a single woman in London. A Sweet Nosegay also focuses on the suffering and illness that, in the end, forced her to leave London. Whitney expresses in her poetry that she is warned to avoid the lanes and streets which are contaminated with disease. Although this can be seen literally, these public spaces can also be references to the rather corrupted public circulation of print. While Whitney is returned to her space within the home where many men would say she is safe, in a rebellious manner she is still able to send her work out into the world. In order to share her nosegay as medicine to those who read it, her book must be exposed to the ratifications that come with public print. Whitney knows what it means to be a woman in public print and takes on this burden of corruption in order to be of some help to others.
Through the poems, we receive seemingly autobiographical hints about Whitney, namely that she has two younger sisters who are in service, that Whitney is single and that is why she is allowed to write, that she is of low rank, and that despite serving a woman she admires, she has lost her position and is ill and financially struggling. She also indicates her independence by mentioning that she will earn her living by writing and selling her literary works. Through this, she shows the alienation that existed during this time and calls for a change.
"The Author to the Reader" – Since readers had not read anything from Whitney since 1567, she included a verse epistle titled “The Author to the Reader” to catch them up on the last six years.
After her epistle to the reader, Whitney's “110 quatrains of advice” that she picked from Plat's garden were printed. It was this section that specifically lent itself to the traditions of the time period, especially considering it was printed alongside her original narratives. She chose 110 out of the 883 poems, typically ones based on love, friendship, and poverty, and rewrites them through a more feminist lens, changing male-specific identifiers and references to be more general and inclusive.
“A Care-full Complaint by the Unfortunate Author” – Whitney here commiserates with the Queen of Carthage, Dido, for falling in love with an unworthy man. She also alludes to the fact that she too has thought of ending her life, much like Dido, but “in her familiar jocular tone and jaunty meter.” Leading all to wonder whether she was actually suicidal, or just a poetic device; theoretically either could be the case.
“Farewell to the Reader” – in this closing to A Sweet Nosegay Whitney asks for her readers to forgive her for borrowing from Plat; she also asks of her readers to bless both her and the originator. What set her apart, however (aside from the overt-feminism mentioned earlier) was that Whitney was “one of the few writers of the age to credit her contemporary source.”
“Her Will and Testament” was Whitney's mock will, that not only said goodbye to her friends and family, but also to the city of London. As scholar Betty S. Travitsky notes “the lively, sometimes even madcap, mock legacy brings contemporary London alive… her vividness, perhaps the more remarkable for its presence in a non dramatic poem, reminds one of the London of the city comedies that would be a feature of the early-seventeenth-century stage.” This solidified Whitney as a trendsetter, even more so than her previous works. It had two parts:
“A Communication which the Author had to London, Before She made Her Will”– “Will and Testament” features Whitney's farewell to London. She describes the city vividly in a mock testament, using character sketches reminiscent of “Cock Lorell’s Boat.” In this work, she expresses her discontent towards the city's cruelty and indifference towards her but also shows regret in leaving. The manner of how she describes the city as an "undeserving lover" is reminiscent of a rocky romantic relationship. As with other works in Whitney's career, her feeling of abandonment by those around her is displayed in this piece as well.
“The manner of her will, and what she left to London and to all those in it at her departing” can be seen here (on the right). The piece begins with painting London as a charming city, however, the favorable tone shifts when she addresses the darker parts of London such as prisons and hospitals. Here, when looking at the prisons, Whitney addresses her own poverty by stating that she is so poor, she is unable to borrow money to be imprisoned for debt. Throughout the mock will, she leaves behind money and various things to the people of London as well as her family and friends, but, Whitney's irony shows since she owns none of those things and, therefore, has given nothing. English professor, Wendy Wall, argues that this will is an "attempt to assume control of the unfortunate circumstances. . .an act of possession by dispossession." In this way, Whitney writes her works in order to create ownership of things which her current position does not allow her to do so. This piece acts as a tourist guide to 16th century London. This work resonated with women readers, as is indicated by an imitator who wrote after Isabella's death.
“The Lady Beloved Exclaimeth of the Great Untruth of her Lover” (1578)
“The Lamentation of a Gentlewoman upon the Death of Her Late-Deceased Friend, William Gruffith, Gentleman” (1578). While the author of this poem has been highly debated, through careful analysis of the language, criticisms, and style used within the poem, scholar Randall Martin has said that he believes Whitney is the author. Whether the poem was actually penned by Whitney can be contested, but Martin certainly presents a grounded argument in favour of her authorship.
“Ovidius Naso His Remedie of Love" (1600). Introduced as ‘that honourable and thrise renowned Sapho of our times’ Isabella Whitney returns to Dido’s story again. However, possibly as a result of her own personal experiences and maturity, the characters she depicts have changed and their passion has matured.
Style
Whitney was a very unusual and progressive woman, especially for the sixteenth century. She was unconventional in many ways. While almost all women writers of the time were well connected and noble, Whitney was not, and because of this, she often criticized the financial situations of her time in her writing, as well as criticizing gender roles. She also hoped that her writings would bring her and her family some sort of income. Some critics claim that Whitney's poetry proclaimed her as an outsider, or “other,” who pursued her own interests publicly. Whitney was often upfront in the way that she wrote. A common theme in her works were of women in powerless positions and romance. During the time period she was living in, it was important for women to remain modest and under control, however, Whitney did the opposite of this. As Whitney had apologized for borrowing some of her ideas, she is one of a few who named their contemporary sources. Even more importantly, she gave a “public voice to breezily expressed secular concerns”. Furthermore, Whitney was the first writer, male or female, “to exhibit any concern for gender-based phrasing, a practice that took another four hundred years to catch on”. Similarly, scholars have argued that with her use of “complaint, manifesto, satire, [and] mock will,” Whitney was attempting to show a temporal utopia, long before utopia was a generic custom.
According to most critics, Isabella Whitney's works contained a certain degree of autobiographical material. This can be seen in two of her connected poems: A Communication Which the Author had to London before she Made Her Will and The Manner of Her Will, and What She Left to London and to All Those in it, of her Departing where the writer is not only lacking in finances, but also spends the majority her time amongst "the poor, the imprisoned, and the insane", otherwise known as the commonwealth of London. Her most innovative poems were her verse epistles, many of which were addressed to female relatives. She addressed her poem "Will and Testament" to the city of London, mocking it as a heartless friend, greedy and lacking charity. These works were written in ballad metre and contained both witty and animated descriptions of everyday life. Judging from these popular inclusions, it is likely that the reason for the publishing of her works was simply to supplement her scanty income. As she states in an epistle to "her Sister Misteris A.B." in A Sweet Nosegay, "til some houshold cares mee tye, / My bookes and Pen I will apply," possibly suggesting that she sought a professional writing career to support her in an unmarried state. Whitney's publisher, Richard Jones, was a prominent figure in the contemporary market for ballads, and his purchase of her manuscripts makes sense in this regard, even if little evidence of their relationship survives beyond the front matter to The Copy of a Letter (1567).
Isabella Whitney pioneered her field of women poets. While a lot of her practices (familiar allusions, exaggerations, the ballad measure) were common for contemporary male authors of the mid-sixteenth century, as a woman she was quite the trendsetter (in both her epistles and mock testament). She published her poetry in a time when it was not customary for a woman, especially one not of the aristocracy, to do so. In addition, her material contained controversial issues such as class-consciousness and political commentary as well as witty satire, and was made available to the upper and the middle class. Whitney's two best known works are The Copy of a Letter written in 1567?, and A Sweet Nosgay written in 1573.
Writings
The Copy of a Letter, Lately Written in Meter, by a Young Gentlewoman To her Unconstant Lover (From The Copy of a Letter, 1567)
The Admonition by the Auctor, To All Young Gentlewomen: And to all other maids being in love (From the Copy of a letter, 1567)
The Author to the Reader (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
A Sweet Nosgay, or Pleasant Poise: Containing a Hundred and Ten Philosophical Flowers (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
A Soueraigne Recipt (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
A Farewell to the Reader (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
To Her Brother. G. VV. (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
To Her Brother. B. VV. (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
An Order Prescribed, by IS. VV. To Two of her Younger Sisters in London (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
To Her Sister Mistress A.B. (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
To Her Cousin F. VV. (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
A Care-full Complaint by the Unfortunate Author (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
I Reply to the Same (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
IS. VV. TO C. B. in Bewaylynge her mishaps (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
To my Friend Master T.L. Whose Good Nature: I See Abusde (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
IS. VV. Being Wery of Writing, Send this for Answer (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
The Author Upon Her Friends Procurement is Constrained to Depart (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
The Manner of her Will & What She Left to London: And to All Those in it: at her departing (From A sweet Nosgay, 1573)
A Communication which the Author Had to London, Before She Made Her Will
The Lady-Beloved Exclaimeth of the Great Untruth of her Lover
The Lamentation of a Gentlewoman upon the Death of Her Late-Deceased Friend, William Gruffith, Gentleman (1578)
Will and Testament (1573)
Ovidius Naso His Remedie of Love (1600)
Timeline of events
1548 (?) – Born in Coole Pilate, Cheshire to Geffrey and Joan Whitney(nee Cartwright)
After 1558 – Isabella goes to London
1566-1572 – Sometime within these years, Whitney loses her employment.
1566/1567 – Within this year, Whitney sells two of her poems to Richard Jones.
1572 – Richard Jones publishes ‘A Sweet Nosgay’
1573 – Whitney is living in Abchurch Lane, London but getting ready to go to Cheshire.
1577 – William Gruffith dies.
1601 – Geffrey, Isabella’s brother dies, mentioning ‘Sister Eldershae’ in his Will.
1624 – Brooke, Isabella’s younger brother dies, mentioning ‘my sister Isabell’ in his Will.
External links
Text of "A Sweet Nosegay or Pleasant Posy: Containing a Hundred and Ten Philosophical Flowers"
Text of "To her Unconstant Lover"
Text of "The Admonition by the Author to all Young Gentlewomen: And to all other Maids being in Love"
Text of "An Order Prescribed, by Is. W., to two of her Younger Sisters Serving in London"
Text of "To her Sister Mistress A. B."
Text of "Will and Testament"
Text of "The Lamentation of a Gentlewoman Upon the Death of her Late-Deceased Friend, William Gruffith, Gentleman"
Related Pages
Mary Sidney
References
English women poets
16th-century English women writers
16th-century English writers
People from Nantwich
1540s births
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown
16th-century English poets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoronet%20Abbey
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Thoronet Abbey
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Thoronet Abbey () is a former Cistercian abbey built in the late twelfth and early thirteenth century, now restored as a museum. It is sited between the towns of Draguignan and Brignoles in the Var Department of Provence, in southeast France. It is one of the three Cistercian abbeys in Provence, along with the Sénanque Abbey and Silvacane, that together are known as "the Three Sisters of Provence."
Thoronet Abbey is one of the best examples of the spirit of the Cistercian order. Even the acoustics of the church imposed a certain discipline upon the monks; because of the stone walls, which created a long echo, the monks were forced to sing slowly and perfectly together.
Chronology of Thoronet Abbey
1098 - Founding of the first Cistercian monastery at Cîteaux, near Dijon, in Burgundy, by Robert de Molesme.
1136 - A group of Cistercian monks from the Abbey of Mazan, a "granddaughter" of the monastery at Citeaux, found a new monastery called Notre-dame-des-Floriéges, in the Var region.
1140 - Raimond and Etienne des Baux donate land for a new monastery in a remote mountain valley 45 kilometers northwest of Fréjus.
about 1157 The monks move from Floriéges to Le Thoronet
about 1176 to 1200 Construction of the monastery
1176 - Alphonse I, the Count of Provence, confirms the Abbey property.
1199 - the troubadour Folquet de Marseille becomes Abbot of Le Thoronet.
1785 - The Abbey is declared bankrupt and secularized.
1791 A sale of Abbey property is announced -
1840 Thoronet Abbey is one of the first buildings in France to be classified an historical monument.
1841 - Restoration of the monastery begins.
1854 - the French Government purchases the cloister and monks quarters.
1938 - the rest of the monastery is purchased by the French Government.
History
In 1098 Robert de Molesme founded a "new monastery" at Cîteaux in Burgundy, as a reaction to what he saw as the excessive luxury and decoration of Benedictine monasteries, under the direction of Cluny. He called for a stricter observance of the Rule of St Benedict, written in the 6th century, and a sober aesthetic which emphasized volume, light, and fine masonry, eliminating the distraction of details.
Under Bernard of Clairvaux, the Cistercian Order began a rapid expansion. By the time of his death in 1154, there were 280 Cistercian monasteries in France - by the end of the 12th century, over 500.
The first Cistercian community in Provence had settled at Notre-Dame de Florielle, on the Florieyes river near Tourtour. where they had been given land by the local lords of Castellane. The first site apparently was not satisfactory for their system of agriculture, so in about 1157 they moved twenty-five kilometers south, to land they already owned at Le Thoronet. The new site had the advantages of more fertile lands, several streams and a spring.
It is not known exactly when the monastery was built, but work was probably underway in 1176, when the title to the property was confirmed by the Count of Provence. The entire monastery was built at once, which helps explain its unusual architectural unity. The church was probably built first, at the end of the 12th century, followed by the rest of the monastery in the early 13th century.
The first known abbot of le Thoronet was Folquet de Marseille, elected in 1199. Born about 1150 into a family of Genoese merchants, he had a remarkable career, first as a troubadour, a composer and singer of secular love songs, who was famous throughout medieval Europe. In 1195 he left his musical career and became a monk, then abbot, then, in 1205, the Bishop of Toulouse. Less than a century after his death, Dante honored him by placing him as one of the inhabitants of Paradise, in Paradiso Canto IX.
In the 13th century, there were no more than twenty-five monks in the monastery, but money came in from donations, and the Abbey owned extensive lands between upper Provence and the Mediterranean coast. The most important industry for the monastery was raising cattle and sheep. The meat was sold on the local market, and the skins of sheep were used for making parchment, which was used in the scriptorium of the monastery. The Abbey also operated salt ponds at Hyères, and fisheries on the coast at Martigues, Hyères and Saint-Maxime. Fish that was not required at the Abbey was sold on the local market.
Much of the farming and administration was done by the lay brothers, monks drawn from a lower social class, who shared the monastery with the choir monks, who were educated and often from noble families. The lay brothers did not participate in the choir or in the decisions of the monastery, and slept in a separate building.
By the 14th century, the monastery was in decline. In 1328, the Abbot accused his own monks of trying to rob the local villagers, being only a few years after the Great Famine. In 1348, Provence was devastated again, this time by the Black Plague which further reduced the population. By 1433, there were only four monks living at Le Thoronet.
In the 14th century, the popes at Avignon began the practice of naming outsiders as the abbots of monasteries, held in commendam. In the 15th century, this privilege was taken over by the kings of France, who often chose abbots for financial or political reasons. The new abbots in commendam received a share of the monastery's income, but did not reside there. By the 16th century, while the abbey church was maintained, the other buildings were largely in ruins. The monastery was probably abandoned for a time during the Wars of Religion.
In the 18th century, the abbot decided the order's rules were too strict, and added decorative features, such as statues, a fountain. and an avenue of chestnut trees. The Abbey was deeply in debt, and in 1785, the abbot, who lived in Bourges, declared bankruptcy. Le Thoronet was deconsecrated in 1785, and the seven remaining monks moved to other churches or monasteries. The building was to be sold in 1791, but the state officials in charge of the sale declared that the church, cemetery, fountain and row of chestnut trees were "treasures of art and architecture", which should remain "the Property of the Nation." The rest of the monastery buildings and lands were sold.
In 1840, the ruined buildings came to the attention of Prosper Mérimée, a writer and the first official inspector of monuments. It was entered onto the first list of French Monuments historiques, and restoration of the church and bell tower began in 1841. In 1854 the state bought the cloister, chapter-house, courtyard and dormitory, and in 1938, bought the remaining parts of the monastery still in private ownership.
Since 1978, the members of a religious order, the Sisters of Bethlehem, have been celebrating Sunday Mass in the abbey.
The Abbey buildings
Following the Rule of St. Benedict, Thoronet Abbey was designed to be an autonomous community, taking care of all of its own needs. The monks lived isolated in the center of this community, where access by laymen was strictly forbidden.
The design of the Abbey was an expression of the religious beliefs of the Cistercians. It used the most basic and pure elements; rock, light, and water, to create an austere, pure and simple world for the monks who inhabited it. The placement of the church literally atop a rock symbolized the precept of building upon strong faith. The simplicity of the design was supposed to inspire a simple life, and the avoidance of distractions.
The Abbey was constructed of plainly-cut stones taken from a quarry close by. All the stones were the same kind and colour and matched the stony ground around the church, giving a harmony to the ensemble. The stones were carefully cut and placed to provide smooth ashlar surfaces, to avoid any flaws or visual distractions.
The water supply was a crucial factor for the Cistercian monks; it was used for drinking and cooking, for powering the mill, and for religious ceremonies, such as the mandatum, which took place once a week. The monks devised an ingenious water system, which probably provided running water in the kitchen and for the fountains where the monks washed, as well as pure water for religious ceremonies.
The Abbey Church
The Abbey church is placed on the highest point of the site, and is in the form of a Latin cross, about forty metres long and twenty metres wide, oriented east-west, with the choir and altar at the east end, as is usual. The exterior is perfectly plain, with no decoration. Since only the monks were permitted inside, there is no monumental entrance, but only two simple doors, for the lay brothers on the left and the monks on the right.
The door for the monks was known as the "Door of the Dead", for the bodies of monks who had died were taken out through this door after a mass. They were first placed on a , a long shelf by the south wall, then buried directly in the earth of the cemetery.
The simple bell tower was probably constructed between 1170 and 1180, and is more than thirty meters high. Order rules prohibited bell towers of stone or of immoderate height, but exceptions were made in Provence, where Mistral winds blew away more fragile wooden structures.
Inside, the church consists of a main nave with three bays covered with a pointed barrel vault, and two side aisles. The arches supporting the vault rest upon half-columns, which rest upon carefully carved stone bases about two meters halfway up the walls of the nave.
The choir at the eastern end finishes with a half-dome vaulted apse with three semicircular arched windows, symbolizing the Trinity. Three arcades in the nave give access to the other parts of the building. There are two small chapels in the apses of the transept, aligned the same way as the main sanctuary, as in the Cistercian abbeys of Cîteaux and Clairvaux.
The chevet of the Abbey, the semi-circular space behind the altar, has no decoration, but the refinement of the workmanship, as well as the perfectly rounded form, was itself an expression of the religious ideas of the Cistercians. The circle was supposed to approach the perfection of the divine, as opposed to the square, which belonged in the secular world.
The three windows in the apse, the round oculus above, draw attention to the altar. Facing east, they catch the first morning light, and face the same direction from which Christ was expected to return to earth. They and the four small windows in the transept let in just enough light to give life to the stone inside, particularly at the time of the sunrise and sunset, which were also the times of the most important religious services, lauds and vespers. The light coming through the windows changed the color of the stone and created slowly moving shapes of darkness and light, marking the passage of time, the essential element of the life in the monastery.
The pale stained-glass windows date to 1935 - they were recreated following the model of 12th-century stained glass from Obazine Abbey in the Corrèze.
The Monks' Building
The monks building is located to the north of the church, and is connected to it by stairways, which allowed the monks direct access to services.
The dormitory is on the upper floor of the monks' building. The abbot had a separate cell on the left side, up a short stairway. The dormitory was lit by rows of semicircular windows. A monk slept in front of each window.
The Sacristy, a room two meters high, three meters wide and four meters long, with a single window, built against the church transept, was where the church vestments and sacred vestments were kept. It had direct access to the church through a door into the transept. The Sacristan was in charge of the treasury of the Abbey, rang the dormitory bell for the night services, and climbed to the roof to make astronomical observations to determine the exact time for religious services, depending upon the season.
The armarium (library) is a three-meter by three-meter room on the lower level of the monks' building, opening onto the cloister. The armarium contained the secular books used regularly by the monks. It is believed that it contained books of medicine, geometry, music, astrology, and the classical works of Aristotle, Ovid, Horace and Plato.
The Chapter House, or The Capitulary Hall, was the room where the monks met daily for a reading of one chapter of the rule of St. Benedict, and to discuss community issues. Election of new abbots also took place in this room. Its architecture - with cross-ribbed vaults resting on two columns with decorated capitals, was the most refined in the monastery, and showed the influence of the new Gothic style. The walls and columns date to about 1170, the vaulting to 1200-1240.
During the reading of the Rule and discussions, the monks were seated upon wooden benches, and the Abbot was seated at the east, facing the entry. The main sculptural element is a simple cross of the order on the south column, before which the monks would bow briefly. A hand holding a cross, the symbol of authority of the abbot, is sculpted on the capital of the north column. He was sometimes buried in this room, so that after death his memory would add to the authority of the living abbot.
The Hall of the Monks, was at the north end of the monks' building, but fell into ruins, and little remains. The room was used for making clothing, as a workshop, for the training of the new monks, and as a scriptorium, the room where manuscripts were written, since it was the only heated room in the abbey.
The Cloister
The cloister, in the middle of the monastery, was the center of monastery life. It measures about thirty meters on a side, is in the shape of an elongated trapezoid, and follows the terrain, sloping downward from the monks' building toward the river. Despite its odd shape, and its location on very uneven ground, it manages to maintain its architectural unity, and to blend with its natural environment; in some places the rock of the hillside becomes part of the architecture.
Construction began in 1175, making the cloister of Thoronet one of the oldest existing Cistercian cloisters. The south gallery is the oldest, followed by the east gallery, next to the chapter house, which has a more modern slightly pointed barrel vault ceiling. The construction was completed by the north gallery, beside the former refectory, and the west gallery. At a later date a second level of galleries was built, also since disappeared.
The thick walls of the galleries, their double arcades, the simple round openings over each central column, and the plain capitals give the cloister a particular power and simplicity.
A lavabo, or washing fountain, stands in the cloister in front of what had been the entrance to the refectory. It is placed in its own hexagonal structure, with a ribbed vault roof. The water came from a nearby spring, and was used by the monks for washing, shaving, tonsure, and doing laundry. The lavabo is a reconstruction, based on a fragment of the original central basin.
The former North Wing
The north wing of a Cistercian monastery, facing the church, traditionally contains the refectory (dining room), the kitchens and the calefactory, or heated sitting room. The north wing fell into ruins and was abandoned in 1791.
Building for Lay Brothers
The wing of the monastery for the lay brothers dates to the thirteenth century, well after the other buildings. The building was two stories high, with a dining room on the ground floor and a dormitory above. Two arches of the building cross the Tombareu River. The latrines were located in this part of the building.
The Cellar
The cellar is a long rectangular room attached to the east gallery of the cloister. This building has undergone numerous remodelings, and is no longer its original shape. In the sixteenth century it was turned into a wine cellar, and the wine presses can still be seen.
Le Thoronet and Le Corbusier
Thoronet Abbey had a significant influence upon the Swiss architect Le Corbusier Following the Second World War, Father Couturier, a Dominican priest and artist, who had contacts with contemporary artists Marc Chagall, Fernand Léger, Henri Matisse and Pierre Bonnard, invited Le Corbusier to design a convent at La Tourette, close to Lyon. Father Coutourier wrote to Le Corbusier in 1953: "I hope that you can go to Le Thoronet, and that you will like that place. It seems to me that there you will find the essence of what a monastery must have been like at the time it was built; a place where men lived by a vow of silence, devoted themselves to reflection and meditation and a communal life which has not changed very much over time." Le Corbusier visited Thoronet, and wrote an article about his visit, including the observation, "the light and the shadow are the loudspeakers of this architecture of truth." The convent that he eventually built has a number of features inspired by Thoronet, including the tower and the simple volumes, and the alternating full and empty spaces created by bright light falling on the walls.
The Influence of Le Thoronet
The British architect John Pawson also used Thoronet as an inspiration for the cistercian abbey of Novy Dvur in the Czech Republic (2004).
Le Thoronet was a source of inspiration for the Belgian poet Henry Bauchau (born 1913), who published in 1966 La Pierre Sans Chagrin.
In 1964, the French architect Fernand Pouillon published Les pierres sauvages, an historical novel in the form of the journal of a master worker at the abbey. It won the prix des Deux Magots (1965) and was praised by Umberto Eco as "a fascinating contribution to the understanding of the Middle Ages."
Sources and citations
See also
Damien Poisblaud
Sénanque Abbey
Silvacane Abbey
Bibliography
Pouillon, Fernand, 1964. Les Pierres sauvages (The Stones of the Abbey)
Dimier, Père Anselme, 1982: L'art cistercien. Editions Zodiaque: La Pierre-qui-Vire.
Molina, Nathalie, 1999: Le Thoronet Abbey, Monum - Editions du patrimoine.
Denizeau, Gérard, 2003: Histoire Visuelle des Monuments de France. Larousse: Paris.
Fleischhauer, Carsten, 2003: Die Baukunst der Zisterzienser in der Provence: Sénanque - Le Thoronet - Silvacane. Abteilung Architekturgeschichte des Kunsthistorischen Instituts der Universität zu Köln. Cologne University.
France Mediéval, 2004: Monum, Éditions du patrimoine/Guides Gallimard.
Bastié, Aldo, nd: Les Chemins de la Provence Romane. Éditions Ouest-France.
External links
Abbaye du Thoronet - Official site
L'Abbaye du Thoronet sur Abbayes en Provence
L'architecture du Thoronet
Visitez l'abbaye du Thoronet en quelques photos
Romanes.com: Le Thoronet Abbey, photos and plan
Lucabardello.it: Le Thoronet Abbey, photos and plan
Photos
Romanesque architecture in Provence
Cistercian monasteries in France
Buildings and structures in Var (department)
1120 establishments in Europe
1120s establishments in France
Religious organizations established in the 1130s
Christian monasteries established in the 12th century
Churches in Var (department)
Museums in Var (department)
Religious museums in France
History museums in France
Monuments of the Centre des monuments nationaux
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emotion%20in%20animals
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Emotion in animals
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Emotion is defined as any mental experience with high intensity and high hedonic content. The existence and nature of emotions in non-human animals are believed to be correlated with those of humans and to have evolved from the same mechanisms. Charles Darwin was one of the first scientists to write about the subject, and his observational (and sometimes anecdotal) approach has since developed into a more robust, hypothesis-driven, scientific approach. Cognitive bias tests and learned helplessness models have shown feelings of optimism and pessimism in a wide range of species, including rats, dogs, cats, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings, pigs, and honeybees. Jaak Panksepp played a large role in the study of animal emotion, basing his research on the neurological aspect. Mentioning seven core emotional feelings reflected through a variety of neuro-dynamic limbic emotional action systems, including seeking, fear, rage, lust, care, panic and play. Through brain stimulation and pharmacological challenges, such emotional responses can be effectively monitored.
Emotion has been observed and further researched through multiple different approaches including that of behaviourism, comparative, anecdotal, specifically Darwin's approach and what is most widely used today the scientific approach which has a number of subfields including functional, mechanistic, cognitive bias tests, self-medicating, spindle neurons, vocalizations and neurology.
While emotions in nonhuman animals is still quite a controversial topic, it has been studied in an extensive array of species both large and small including primates, rodents, elephants, horses, birds, dogs, cats, honeybees and crayfish.
Etymology, definitions, and differentiation
The word "emotion" dates back to 1579, when it was adapted from the French word émouvoir, which means "to stir up". However, the earliest precursors of the word likely date back to the very origins of language.
Emotions have been described as discrete and consistent responses to internal or external events which have a particular significance for the organism. Emotions are brief in duration and consist of a coordinated set of responses, which may include physiological, behavioural, and neural mechanisms. Emotions have also been described as the result of evolution because they provided good solutions to ancient and recurring problems that faced ancestors.
Laterality
It has been proposed that negative, withdrawal-associated emotions are processed predominantly by the right hemisphere, whereas the left hemisphere is largely responsible for processing positive, approach-related emotions. This has been called the "laterality-valence hypothesis".
Basic and complex human emotions
In humans, a distinction is sometimes made between "basic" and "complex" emotions. Six emotions have been classified as basic: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise. Complex emotions would include contempt, jealousy and sympathy. However, this distinction is difficult to maintain, and animals are often said to express even the complex emotions.
Background
Behaviourist approach
Prior to the development of animal sciences such as comparative psychology and ethology, interpretation of animal behaviour tended to favour a minimalistic approach known as behaviourism. This approach refuses to ascribe to an animal a capability beyond the least demanding that would explain a behaviour; anything more than this is seen as unwarranted anthropomorphism. The behaviourist argument is, why should humans postulate consciousness and all its near-human implications in animals to explain some behaviour, if mere stimulus-response is a sufficient explanation to produce the same effects?
Some behaviourists, such as John B. Watson, claim that stimulus–response models provide a sufficient explanation for animal behaviours that have been described as emotional, and that all behaviour, no matter how complex, can be reduced to a simple stimulus-response association. Watson described that the purpose of psychology was "to predict, given the stimulus, what reaction will take place; or given the reaction, state what the situation or stimulus is that has caused the reaction".
The cautious wording of Dixon exemplifies this viewpoint:
Moussaieff Masson and McCarthy describe a similar view (with which they disagree):
Because of the philosophical questions of consciousness and mind that are involved, many scientists have stayed away from examining animal and human emotion, and have instead studied measurable brain functions through neuroscience.
Comparative approach
In 1903, C. Lloyd Morgan published Morgan's Canon, a specialised form of Occam's razor used in ethology, in which he stated:
Darwin's approach
Charles Darwin initially planned to include a chapter on emotion in The Descent of Man but as his ideas progressed they expanded into a book, The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals. Darwin proposed that emotions are adaptive and serve a communicative and motivational function, and he stated three principles that are useful in understanding emotional expression: First, The Principle of Serviceable Habits takes a Lamarckian stance by suggesting that emotional expressions that are useful will be passed on to the offspring. Second, The Principle of Antithesis suggests that some expressions exist merely because they oppose an expression that is useful. Third, The Principle of the Direct Action of the Excited Nervous System on the Body suggests that emotional expression occurs when nervous energy has passed a threshold and needs to be released.
Darwin saw emotional expression as an outward communication of an inner state, and the form of that expression often carries beyond its original adaptive use. For example, Darwin remarks that humans often present their canine teeth when sneering in rage, and he suggests that this means that a human ancestor probably utilized their teeth in aggressive action. A domestic dog's simple tail wag may be used in subtly different ways to convey many meanings as illustrated in Darwin's The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals published in 1872.
Anecdotal approach
Evidence for emotions in animals has been primarily anecdotal, from individuals who interact with pets or captive animals on a regular basis. However, critics of animals having emotions often suggest that anthropomorphism is a motivating factor in the interpretation of the observed behaviours. Much of the debate is caused by the difficulty in defining emotions and the cognitive requirements thought necessary for animals to experience emotions in a similar way to humans. The problem is made more problematic by the difficulties in testing for emotions in animals. What is known about human emotion is almost all related or in relation to human communication.
Scientific approach
In recent years, the scientific community has become increasingly supportive of the idea of emotions in animals. Scientific research has provided insight into similarities of physiological changes between humans and animals when experiencing emotion.
Much support for animal emotion and its expression results from the notion that feeling emotions doesn't require significant cognitive processes, rather, they could be motivated by the processes to act in an adaptive way, as suggested by Darwin. Recent attempts in studying emotions in animals have led to new constructions in experimental and information gathering. Professor Marian Dawkins suggested that emotions could be studied on a functional or a mechanistic basis. Dawkins suggests that merely mechanistic or functional research will provide the answer on its own, but suggests that a mixture of the two would yield the most significant results.
Functional
Functional approaches rely on understanding what roles emotions play in humans and examining that role in animals. A widely used framework for viewing emotions in a functional context is that described by Oatley and Jenkins who see emotions as having three stages: (i) appraisal in which there is a conscious or unconscious evaluation of an event as relevant to a particular goal. An emotion is positive when that goal is advanced and negative when it is impeded (ii) action readiness where the emotion gives priority to one or a few kinds of action and may give urgency to one so that it can interrupt or compete with others and (iii) physiological changes, facial expression and then behavioural action. The structure, however, may be too broad and could be used to include all the animal kingdom as well as some plants.
Mechanistic
The second approach, mechanistic, requires an examination of the mechanisms that drive emotions and search for similarities in animals.
The mechanistic approach is utilized extensively by Paul, Harding and Mendl. Recognizing the difficulty in studying emotion in non-verbal animals, Paul et al. demonstrate possible ways to better examine this. Observing the mechanisms that function in human emotion expression, Paul et al. suggest that concentration on similar mechanisms in animals can provide clear insights into the animal experience. They noted that in humans, cognitive biases vary according to emotional state and suggested this as a possible starting point to examine animal emotion. They propose that researchers may be able to use controlled stimuli which have a particular meaning to trained animals to induce particular emotions in these animals and assess which types of basic emotions animals can experience.
Cognitive bias test
A cognitive bias is a pattern of deviation in judgment, whereby inferences about other animals and situations may be drawn in an illogical fashion. Individuals create their own "subjective social reality" from their perception of the input. It refers to the question "Is the glass half empty or half full?", used as an indicator of optimism or pessimism.
To test this in animals, an individual is trained to anticipate that stimulus A, e.g. a 20 Hz tone, precedes a positive event, e.g. highly desired food is delivered when a lever is pressed by the animal. The same individual is trained to anticipate that stimulus B, e.g. a 10 Hz tone, precedes a negative event, e.g. bland food is delivered when the animal presses a lever. The animal is then tested by being played an intermediate stimulus C, e.g. a 15 Hz tone, and observing whether the animal presses the lever associated with the positive or negative reward, thereby indicating whether the animal is in a positive or negative mood. This might be influenced by, for example, the type of housing the animal is kept in.
Using this approach, it has been found that rats which are subjected to either handling or tickling showed different responses to the intermediate stimulus: rats exposed to tickling were more optimistic. The authors stated that they had demonstrated "for the first time a link between the directly measured positive affective state and decision making under uncertainty in an animal model".
Cognitive biases have been shown in a wide range of species including rats, dogs, rhesus macaques, sheep, chicks, starlings and honeybees.
Self-medication with psychoactive drugs
Humans can have a range of emotional or mood disorders such as depression, anxiety, fear and panic. To treat these disorders, scientists have developed a range of psychoactive drugs such as anxiolytics. Many of these drugs are developed and tested by using a range of laboratory species. It is inconsistent to argue that these drugs are effective in treating human emotions whilst denying the experience of these emotions in the laboratory animals on which they have been developed and tested.
Standard laboratory cages prevent mice from performing several natural behaviours for which they are highly motivated. As a consequence, laboratory mice sometimes develop abnormal behaviours indicative of emotional disorders such as depression and anxiety. To improve welfare, these cages are sometimes enriched with items such as nesting material, shelters and running wheels. Sherwin and Ollson tested whether such enrichment influenced the consumption of Midazolam, a drug widely used to treat anxiety in humans. Mice in standard cages, standard cages but with unpredictable husbandry, or enriched cages, were given a choice of drinking either non-drugged water or a solution of the Midazolam. Mice in the standard and unpredictable cages drank a greater proportion of the anxiolytic solution than mice from enriched cages, indicating that mice from the standard and unpredictable laboratory caging may have been experiencing greater anxiety than mice from the enriched cages.
Spindle neurons
Spindle neurons are specialised cells found in three very restricted regions of the human brain – the anterior cingulate cortex, the frontoinsular cortex and the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The first two of these areas regulate emotional functions such as empathy, speech, intuition, rapid "gut reactions" and social organization in humans. Spindle neurons are also found in the brains of humpback whales, fin whales, killer whales, sperm whales, bottlenose dolphin, Risso's dolphin, beluga whales, and the African and Asian elephants.
Whales have spindle cells in greater numbers and are maintained for twice as long as humans. The exact function of spindle cells in whale brains is still not understood, but Hof and Van Der Gucht believe that they act as some sort of "high-speed connections that fast-track information to and from other parts of the cortex". They compared them to express trains that bypass unnecessary connections, enabling organisms to instantly process and act on emotional cues during complex social interactions. However, Hof and Van Der Gucht clarify that they do not know the nature of such feelings in these animals and that we cannot just apply what we see in great apes or ourselves to whales. They believe that more work is needed to know whether emotions are the same for humans and whales.
Vocalizations
Though non-human animals cannot provide useful verbal feedback about the experiential and cognitive details of their feelings, various emotional vocalizations of other animals may be indicators of potential affective states. Beginning with Darwin and his research, it has been known that chimpanzees and other great apes perform laugh-like vocalizations, providing scientists with more symbolic self-reports of their emotional experiences.
Research with rats has revealed that under particular conditions, they emit 50-kHz ultrasonic vocalisations (USV) which have been postulated to reflect a positive affective state (emotion) analogous to primitive human joy; these calls have been termed "laughter". The 50 kHz USVs in rats are uniquely elevated by hedonic stimuli—such as tickling, rewarding electrical brain stimulation, amphetamine injections, mating, play, and aggression—and are suppressed by aversive stimuli. Of all manipulations that elicit 50 kHz chirps in rats, tickling by humans elicits the highest rate of these calls.
Some vocalizations of domestic cats, such as purring, are well known to be produced in situations of positive valence, such as mother kitten interactions, contacts with familiar partner, or during tactile stimulation with inanimate objects as when rolling and rubbing. Therefore, purring can be generally considered as an indicator of "pleasure" in cats.
Low pitched bleating in sheep has been associated with some positive-valence situations, as they are produced by males as an estrus female is approaching or by lactating mothers while licking and nursing their lambs.
Neurological
Neuroscientific studies based on the instinctual, emotional action tendencies of non-human animals accompanied by the brains neurochemical and electrical changes are deemed to best monitor relative primary process emotional/affective states. Predictions based on the research conducted on animals is what leads analysis of the neural infrastructure relevant in humans. Psycho-neuro-ethological triangulation with both humans and animals allows for further experimentation into animal emotions. Utilizing specific animals that exhibit indicators of emotional states to decode underlying neural systems aids in the discovery of critical brain variables that regulate animal emotional expressions. Comparing the results of the animals converse experiments occur predicting the affective changes that should result in humans. Specific studies where there is an increase or decrease of playfulness or separation distress vocalizations in animals, comparing humans that exhibit the predicted increases or decreases in feelings of joy or sadness, the weight of evidence constructs a concrete neural hypothesis concerning the nature of affect supporting all relevant species.
Criticism
The argument that animals experience emotions is sometimes rejected due to a lack of higher quality evidence, and those who do not believe in the idea of animal intelligence often argue that anthropomorphism plays a role in individuals' perspectives. Those who reject that animals have the capacity to experience emotion do so mainly by referring to inconsistencies in studies that have endorsed the belief emotions exist. Having no linguistic means to communicate emotion beyond behavioral response interpretation, the difficulty of providing an account of emotion in animals relies heavily on interpretive experimentation, that relies on results from human subjects.
Some people oppose the concept of animal emotions and suggest that emotions are not universal, including in humans. If emotions are not universal, this indicates that there is not a phylogenetic relationship between human and non-human emotion. The relationship drawn by proponents of animal emotion, then, would be merely a suggestion of mechanistic features that promote adaptivity, but lack the complexity of human emotional constructs. Thus, a social life-style may play a role in the process of basic emotions developing into more complex emotions.
Darwin concluded, through a survey, that humans share universal emotive expressions and suggested that animals likely share in these to some degree. Social constructionists disregard the concept that emotions are universal. Others hold an intermediate stance, suggesting that basic emotional expressions and emotion are universal but the intricacies are developed culturally. A study by Elfenbein and Ambady indicated that individuals within a particular culture are better at recognising other cultural members' emotions.
Examples
Primates
Primates, in particular great apes, are candidates for being able to experience empathy and theory of mind. Great apes have complex social systems; young apes and their mothers have strong bonds of attachment and when a baby chimpanzee or gorilla dies, the mother will commonly carry the body around for several days. Jane Goodall has described chimpanzees as exhibiting mournful behavior. Koko, a gorilla trained to use sign language, was reported to have expressed vocalizations indicating sadness after the death of her pet cat, All Ball.
Beyond such anecdotal evidence, support for empathetic reactions has come from experimental studies of rhesus macaques. Macaques refused to pull a chain that delivered food to themselves if doing so also caused a companion to receive an electric shock. This inhibition of hurting another conspecific was more pronounced between familiar than unfamiliar macaques, a finding similar to that of empathy in humans.
Furthermore, there has been research on consolation behavior in chimpanzees. De Waal and Aureli found that third-party contacts attempt to relieve the distress of contact participants by consoling (e.g. making contact, embracing, grooming) recipients of aggression, especially those that have experienced more intense aggression. Researchers were unable to replicate these results using the same observation protocol in studies of monkeys, demonstrating a possible difference in empathy between apes and other monkeys.
Other studies have examined emotional processing in the great apes. Specifically, chimpanzees were shown video clips of emotionally charged scenes, such as a detested veterinary procedure or a favorite food, and then were required to match these scenes with one of two species-specific facial expressions: "happy" (a play-face) or "sad" (a teeth-baring expression seen in frustration or after defeat). The chimpanzees correctly matched the clips to the facial expressions that shared their meaning, demonstrating that they understand the emotional significance of their facial expressions. Measures of peripheral skin temperature also indicated that the video clips emotionally affected the chimpanzees.
Rodents
In 1998, Jaak Panksepp proposed that all mammalian species are equipped with brains capable of generating emotional experiences. Subsequent work examined studies on rodents to provide foundational support for this claim. One of these studies examined whether rats would work to alleviate the distress of a conspecific. Rats were trained to press a lever to avoid the delivery of an electric shock, signaled by a visual cue, to a conspecific. They were then tested in a situation in which either a conspecific or a Styrofoam block was hoisted into the air and could be lowered by pressing a lever. Rats that had previous experience with conspecific distress demonstrated greater than ten-fold more responses to lower a distressed conspecific compared to rats in the control group, while those who had never experienced conspecific distress expressed greater than three-fold more responses to lower a distressed conspecific relative to the control group. This suggests that rats will actively work to reduce the distress of a conspecific, a phenomenon related to empathy. Comparable results have also been found in similar experiments designed for monkeys.
Langford et al. examined empathy in rodents using an approach based in neuroscience. They reported that (1) if two mice experienced pain together, they expressed greater levels of pain-related behavior than if pain was experienced individually, (2) if experiencing different levels of pain together, the behavior of each mouse was modulated by the level of pain experienced by its social partner, and (3) sensitivity to a noxious stimulus was experienced to the same degree by the mouse observing a conspecific in pain as it was by the mouse directly experiencing the painful stimulus. The authors suggest this responsiveness to the pain of others demonstrated by mice is indicative of emotional contagion, a phenomenon associated with empathy, which has also been reported in pigs. One behaviour associated with fear in rats is freezing. If female rats experience electric shocks to the feet and then witness another rat experiencing similar footshocks, they freeze more than females without any experience of the shocks. This suggests empathy in experienced rats witnessing another individual being shocked. Furthermore, the demonstrator's behaviour was changed by the behaviour of the witness; demonstrators froze more following footshocks if their witness froze more creating an empathy loop.
Several studies have also shown rodents can respond to a conditioned stimulus that has been associated with the distress of a conspecific, as if it were paired with the direct experience of an unconditioned stimulus. These studies suggest that rodents are capable of shared affect, a concept critical to empathy.
Horses
Although not direct evidence that horses experience emotions, a 2016 study showed that domestic horses react differently to seeing photographs of positive (happy) or negative (angry) human facial expressions. When viewing angry faces, horses look more with their left eye which is associated with perceiving negative stimuli. Their heart rate also increases more quickly and they show more stress-related behaviours. One rider wrote, 'Experienced riders and trainers can learn to read the subtle moods of individual horses according to wisdom passed down from one horseman to the next, but also from years of trial-and-error. I suffered many bruised toes and nipped fingers before I could detect a curious swivel of the ears, irritated flick of the tail, or concerned crinkle above a long-lashed eye.' This suggests that horses have emotions and display them physically but is not concrete evidence.
Birds
Marc Bekoff reported accounts of animal behaviour which he believed was evidence of animals being able to experience emotions in his book The Emotional Lives of Animals. The following is an excerpt from his book:
Bystander affiliation is believed to represent an expression of empathy in which the bystander tries to console a conflict victim and alleviate their distress. There is evidence for bystander affiliation in ravens (e.g. contact sitting, preening, or beak-to-beak or beak-to-body touching) and also for solicited bystander affiliation, in which there is post-conflict affiliation from the victim to the bystander. This indicates that ravens may be sensitive to the emotions of others, however, relationship value plays an important role in the prevalence and function of these post-conflict interactions.
The capacity of domestic hens to experience empathy has been studied. Mother hens show one of the essential underpinning attributes of empathy: the ability to be affected by, and share, the emotional state of their distressed chicks. However, evidence for empathy between familiar adult hens has not yet been found.
Dogs
Some research indicates that domestic dogs may experience negative emotions in a similar manner to humans, including the equivalent of certain chronic and acute psychological conditions. Much of this is from studies by Martin Seligman on the theory of learned helplessness as an extension of his interest in depression:
A further series of experiments showed that, similar to humans, under conditions of long-term intense psychological stress, around one third of dogs do not develop learned helplessness or long-term depression. Instead these animals somehow managed to find a way to handle the unpleasant situation in spite of their past experience. The corresponding characteristic in humans has been found to correlate highly with an explanatory style and optimistic attitude that views the situation as other than personal, pervasive, or permanent.
Since these studies, symptoms analogous to clinical depression, neurosis, and other psychological conditions have also been accepted as being within the scope of emotion in domestic dogs. The postures of dogs may indicate their emotional state. In some instances, the recognition of specific postures and behaviors can be learned.
Psychology research has shown that when humans gaze at the face of another human, the gaze is not symmetrical; the gaze instinctively moves to the right side of the face to obtain information about their emotions and state. Research at the University of Lincoln shows that dogs share this instinct when meeting a human, and only when meeting a human (i.e. not other animals or other dogs). They are the only non-primate species known to share this instinct.
The existence and nature of personality traits in dogs have been studied (15,329 dogs of 164 different breeds). Five consistent and stable "narrow traits" were identified, described as playfulness, curiosity/fearlessness, chase-proneness, sociability and aggressiveness. A further higher order axis for shyness–boldness was also identified.
Dogs presented with images of either human or dog faces with different emotional states (happy/playful or angry/aggressive) paired with a single vocalization (voices or barks) from the same individual with either a positive or negative emotional state or brown noise. Dogs look longer at the face whose expression is congruent to the emotional state of the vocalization, for both other dogs and humans. This is an ability previously known only in humans. The behavior of a dog can not always be an indication of its friendliness. This is because when a dog wags its tail, most people interpret this as the dog expressing happiness and friendliness. Though indeed tail wagging can express these positive emotions, tail wagging is also an indication of fear, insecurity, challenging of dominance, establishing social relationships or a warning that the dog may bite.
Some researchers are beginning to investigate the question of whether dogs have emotions with the help of magnetic resonance imaging.
Elephants
Elephants are known for their empathy towards members of the same species as well as their cognitive memory. While this is true scientists continuously debate the extent to which elephants feel emotion. Observations show that elephants, like humans, are concerned with distressed or deceased individuals, and render assistance to the ailing and show a special interest in dead bodies of their own kind, however this view is interpreted by some as being anthropomorphic.
Elephants have recently been suggested to pass mirror self-recognition tests, and such tests have been linked to the capacity for empathy. However, the experiment showing such actions did not follow the accepted protocol for tests of self-recognition, and earlier attempts to show mirror self-recognition in elephants have failed, so this remains a contentious claim.
Elephants are also deemed to show emotion through vocal expression, specifically the rumble vocalization. Rumbles are frequency modulated, harmonically rich calls with fundamental frequencies in the infrasonic range, with clear formant structure. Elephants exhibit negative emotion and/or increased emotional intensity through their rumbles, based on specific periods of social interaction and agitation.
Cats
It has been postulated that domestic cats can learn to manipulate their owners through vocalizations that are similar to the cries of human babies. Some cats learn to add a purr to the vocalization, which makes it less harmonious and more dissonant to humans, and therefore harder to ignore. Individual cats learn to make these vocalizations through trial-and-error; when a particular vocalization elicits a positive response from a human, the probability increases that the cat will use that vocalization in the future.
Growling can be an expression of annoyance or fear, similar to humans. When annoyed or angry, a cat wriggles and thumps its tail much more vigorously than when in a contented state. In larger felids such as lions, what appears to be irritating to them varies between individuals. A male lion may let his cubs play with his mane or tail, or he may hiss and hit them with his paws. Domestic male cats also have variable attitudes towards their family members, for example, older male siblings tend not to go near younger or new siblings and may even show hostility toward them.
Hissing is also a vocalization associated with either offensive or defensive aggression. They are usually accompanied by a postural display intended to have a visual effect on the perceived threat. Cats hiss when they are startled, scared, angry, or in pain, and also to scare off intruders into their territory. If the hiss and growl warning does not remove the threat, an attack by the cat may follow. Kittens as young as two to three weeks will potentially hiss when first picked up by a human.
Honeybees
Honeybees ("Apis mellifera carnica") were trained to extend their proboscis to a two-component odour mixture (CS+) predicting a reward (e.g., 1.00 or 2.00 M sucrose) and to withhold their proboscis from another mixture (CS−) predicting either punishment or a less valuable reward (e.g., 0.01 M quinine solution or 0.3 M sucrose). Immediately after training, half of the honeybees were subjected to vigorous shaking for 60 s to simulate the state produced by a predatory attack on a concealed colony. This shaking reduced levels of octopamine, dopamine, and serotonin in the hemolymph of a separate group of honeybees at a time point corresponding to when the cognitive bias tests were performed. In honeybees, octopamine is the local neurotransmitter that functions during reward learning, whereas dopamine mediates the ability to learn to associate odours with quinine punishment. If flies are fed serotonin, they are more aggressive; flies depleted of serotonin still exhibit aggression, but they do so much less frequently.
Within 5 minutes of the shaking, all the trained bees began a sequence of unreinforced test trials with five odour stimuli presented in a random order for each bee: the CS+, the CS−, and three novel odours composed of ratios intermediate between the two learned mixtures. Shaken honeybees were more likely to withhold their mouthparts from the CS− and from the most similar novel odour. Therefore, agitated honeybees display an increased expectation of bad outcomes similar to a vertebrate-like emotional state. The researchers of the study stated that, "Although our results do not allow us to make any claims about the presence of negative subjective feelings in honeybees, they call into question how we identify emotions in any non-human animal. It is logically inconsistent to claim that the presence of pessimistic cognitive biases should be taken as confirmation that dogs or rats are anxious but to deny the same conclusion in the case of honeybees."
Crayfish
Crayfish naturally explore new environments but display a general preference for dark places. A 2014 study on the freshwater crayfish Procambarus clarkii tested their responses in a fear paradigm, the elevated plus maze in which animals choose to walk on an elevated cross which offers both aversive and preferable conditions (in this case, two arms were lit and two were dark). Crayfish which experienced an electric shock displayed enhanced fearfulness or anxiety as demonstrated by their preference for the dark arms more than the light. Furthermore, shocked crayfish had relatively higher brain serotonin concentrations coupled with elevated blood glucose, which indicates a stress response. Moreover, the crayfish calmed down when they were injected with the benzodiazepine anxiolytic, chlordiazepoxide, used to treat anxiety in humans, and they entered the dark as normal. The authors of the study concluded "...stress-induced avoidance behavior in crayfish exhibits striking homologies with vertebrate anxiety."
A follow-up study using the same species confirmed the anxiolytic effect of chlordiazepoxide, but moreover, the intensity of the anxiety-like behaviour was dependent on the intensity of the electric shock until reaching a plateau. Such a quantitative relationship between stress and anxiety is also a very common feature of human and vertebrate anxiety.
See also
Altruism in animals
Animal cognition
Animal communication
Animal consciousness
Animal faith
Animal sexual behaviour § Sex for pleasure
Empathy § In animals
Evolution of emotion
Fear § In animals
Monkey painting
Neuroethology
Pain in animals
Reward system § Animals vs. humans
Self-awareness § In animals
Thomas Nagel (seminal paper, "What is it like to be a bat?")
References
Further reading
Holland, J. (2011). Unlikely Friendships: 50 Remarkable Stories from the Animal Kingdom.
Swirski, P. (2011). "You'll Never Make a Monkey Out of Me or Altruism, Proverbial Wisdom, and Bernard Malamud's God's Grace." American Utopia and Social Engineering in Literature, Social Thought, and Political History. New York, Routledge.
Foreword by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson. First published in 2016 in German, under the title Das Seelenleben der Tiere.
emot
Animals and humans
Anthropomorphism
Ethology
Pets
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uganda%E2%80%93Tanzania%20War
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Uganda–Tanzania War
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The Uganda–Tanzania War, known in Tanzania as the Kagera War (Kiswahili: Vita vya Kagera) and in Uganda as the 1979 Liberation War, was fought between Uganda and Tanzania from October 1978 until June 1979 and led to the overthrow of Ugandan President Idi Amin. The war was preceded by a deterioration of relations between Uganda and Tanzania following Amin's 1971 overthrow of President Milton Obote, who was close to the President of Tanzania, Julius Nyerere. Over the following years, Amin's regime was destabilised by violent purges, economic problems, and dissatisfaction in the Uganda Army.
The circumstances surrounding the outbreak of the war are not clear, and differing accounts of the events exist. In October 1978, Ugandan forces began making incursions into Tanzania. Later that month, the Uganda Army launched an invasion, looting property and killing civilians. Ugandan official media declared the annexation of the Kagera Salient. On 2 November, Nyerere declared war on Uganda and mobilised the Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) to retake the salient. Nyerere also mobilised Ugandan rebels loyal to Obote and Yoweri Museveni to weaken Amin's regime. After Amin failed to renounce his claims to Kagera and the Organisation of African Unity (OAU) failed to condemn the Ugandan invasion, the TPDF occupied the towns of Masaka and Mbarara in southern Uganda.
While the TPDF prepared to clear the way to Kampala, the Ugandan capital, Muammar Gaddafi, the leader of Libya and an ally of Amin, dispatched several thousand troops to Uganda to assist the Uganda Army. The Palestinian Liberation Organisation also sent a number of guerrillas to aid Amin. In March the largest battle of the war occurred when the Tanzanians and Ugandan rebels defeated a combined Ugandan-Libyan-Palestinian force at Lukaya. The loss of Lukaya led the Uganda Army to begin to collapse. Nyerere believed that Ugandan rebels should be given time to organise their own government to succeed Amin. He sponsored a conference of rebels and exiles in Moshi later that month, where the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF) was founded. Libya ended its intervention in early April and its troops fled the country. On 10 April a combined TPDF-UNLF force attacked Kampala, and secured it the following day. Amin fled into exile while a UNLF government was established. In the following months, the TPDF occupied Uganda, facing only scattered resistance. It secured the Uganda–Sudan border in June, bringing the war to an end.
The war severely harmed Tanzania's fragile economy and inflicted long-lasting damage to Kagera. It also had severe economic consequences in Uganda, and brought about a wave of crime and political violence as the UNLF government struggled to maintain order. Political disagreements and the persistence of the remnants of the Uganda Army in the border regions ultimately led to the outbreak of the Ugandan Bush War in 1980.
Background
Deterioration of Ugandan–Tanzanian relations
In 1971 Colonel Idi Amin took power following a military coup that overthrew the President of Uganda, Milton Obote, precipitating a deterioration of relations with neighbouring Tanzania. Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere had close ties with Obote and had supported his socialist orientation. Amin installed himself as President of Uganda and ruled the country under a repressive dictatorship. Nyerere withheld diplomatic recognition of the new government and offered asylum to Obote and his supporters. As Amin launched a massive purge of his enemies in Uganda that saw 30,000 to 50,000 Ugandans killed, Obote was soon joined by thousands of other dissidents and opposition figures. With the approval of Nyerere, these Ugandan exiles organised a small army of guerillas, and attempted, unsuccessfully, to invade Uganda and remove Amin in 1972. Amin blamed Nyerere for backing and arming his enemies, and retaliated by bombing Tanzanian border towns. Though his commanders urged him to respond in kind, Nyerere agreed to mediation overseen by the President of Somalia, Siad Barre, which resulted in the signing of the Mogadishu Agreement. The accord stipulated that Ugandan and Tanzanian forces had to withdraw to positions at least away from the border and refrain from supporting opposition forces that targeted each other's governments.
Nevertheless, relations between the two presidents remained tense; Nyerere frequently denounced Amin's regime, and Amin made repeated threats to invade Tanzania. During the same time, relations between Tanzania and Kenya grew sour, and the East African Community collapsed in 1977. Uganda also disputed its border with Tanzania, claiming that the Kagera Salient—a stretch of land between the official border and the Kagera River to the south, should be placed under its jurisdiction, maintaining that the river made for a more logical border. The border had originally been negotiated by British and German colonial officials before World War I.
Instability in Uganda
Meanwhile, in Uganda, Amin announced an "Economic War" in which thousands belonging to the Asian minority were expelled from the country in 1972 and their businesses placed under the management of Africans. The reform had disastrous consequences for the economy, which were further exacerbated by a United States boycott of Ugandan coffee on account of the government's failure to respect human rights. At the same time, Amin expanded the power of the armed forces in his government, placing many soldiers in his cabinet and providing those loyal to him with patronage. Most of the beneficiaries of his actions were Muslim northerners, particularly those of Nubian and Sudanese extract, who were increasingly recruited into the army. Amin violently purged southern ethnic groups from the armed forces and executed political opponents. In the following years, he survived several assassination attempts, thus becoming increasingly distrustful and repeatedly purging the senior ranks of the Ugandan military.
In 1977 a split in the Uganda Army developed between supporters of Amin and soldiers loyal to the Vice-president of Uganda, Mustafa Adrisi, who held significant power in the government and wanted to eject foreigners from the military. In April 1978 Adrisi was severely injured in a suspicious car accident. When he was flown out of the country for treatment, Amin stripped him of his ministerial portfolios. He also announced the arrest of multiple police officials, and during the following month he dismissed several ministers and military officers. The shakeup strained Amin's already narrow base of power in the military that was also declining in the face of the worsening economic situation, which eliminated patronage opportunities. Fearing for his personal safety and less confident in his charismatic abilities to diffuse the growing tension, Amin began withdrawing from the public sphere and conducting fewer visits with his troops. At around the same time, he began accusing Tanzania of violating Uganda's border.
Course of the war
Outbreak of the conflict
War broke out between Uganda and Tanzania in October 1978, with several Ugandan attacks across the border culminating in an invasion of the Kagera Salient. The circumstances surrounding the outbreak of the war are not clear, and numerous differing accounts of the events exist. Obote wrote that the decision to invade Kagera was "a desperate measure to extricate Amin from the consequences of the failure of his own plots against his own army." Several Uganda Army soldiers blamed Lieutenant Colonel Juma Butabika for starting the war, including Colonel Abdu Kisuule, who accused Butabika of engineering an incident at the border to create a pretext for invading Tanzania. According to Amin's son, Jaffar Remo, rumours of a potential Tanzanian invasion led members of the Ugandan high command to call for a preemptive attack on Tanzania. The Tanzanian military later argued that Amin's ultimate aim was to annex a large part of northern Tanzania, including the city of Tanga, in order to gain access to the sea for trading purposes. Ugandan journalist Faustin Mugabe found no evidence for this theory in Ugandan sources.
Several other Uganda Army officers have offered more mundane explanations for the invasion, according to which isolated conflicts along the border resulted in a spiral of violence that culminated in open warfare. Among the incidents identified as possible start points for the war are cases of cattle rustling, tribal tensions, a fight between a Ugandan woman and a Tanzanian woman at a market, as well as a bar fight between a Ugandan soldier and Tanzanian soldiers or civilians. Several Ugandan soldiers who endorsed the bar fight theory disagreed on the confrontation's exact circumstances but concurred that the incident occurred on 9 October in a Tanzanian establishment. They also agreed that after Butabika was informed of the altercation, he unilaterally ordered his unit, the Suicide Battalion, to attack Tanzania in reprisal. The soldiers stated that Amin was not informed of this decision until later and went along with it to save face. One Ugandan commander, Bernard Rwehururu, stated that Butabika lied to Amin about his reasons for attacking Kagera, claiming that he was repulsing a Tanzanian invasion. According to American journalists Tony Avirgan and Martha Honey, the bar incident occurred on 22 October, when a drunken Ugandan intelligence officer was shot and killed by Tanzanian soldiers after firing on them. That evening Radio Uganda declared that the Tanzanians had abducted a Ugandan soldier, and reported that Amin threatened to do "something" if he was not returned.
Another theory describes the invasion as the result of Ugandan troops chasing mutineers over the Tanzanian border. There are several different variations of this account, which was mostly circulated by non-Ugandan sources. Ugandan diplomat Paul Etiang and the local managing director for Royal Dutch Shell reported that soldiers of the Simba Battalion had shot new Sudanese recruits and that when other Ugandan forces were sent to contain them, they fled over the border on 30 October. Other versions attribute the mutinies to elements of the Chui Battalion or the Suicide Battalion. Political scientist Okon Eminue stated that about 200 mutineers reportedly took refuge in the Kagera salient. According to this version of events, Amin ordered the Simba Battalion and the Suicide Battalion to pursue the deserters, whereupon they invaded Tanzania. A Ugandan soldier interviewed by Drum claimed that the initial actions of the invasion were in fact a three-way fight between loyalist Uganda Army soldiers, Ugandan deserters, and Tanzanian border guards, with most of the deserters and a number of Tanzanians being killed. A few surviving mutineers reportedly found shelter in Tanzanian villages. Researchers Andrew Mambo and Julian Schofield discounted this theory as unlikely, noting that the battalions that are said to have mutinied remained relatively loyal to Amin's cause throughout the war, and instead supported the notion that Butabika escalated a dispute at the border into an invasion.
The Tanzania People's Defence Force (TPDF) had received only very limited intelligence about a possible Ugandan invasion, and was unprepared for this eventuality, as the Tanzanian leadership generally believed that Amin would not consider attacking Tanzania while his own country was affected by political, economic, and military instability. Even beyond the demilitarised zone established by the Mogadishu Agreement, there were almost no defences. Tanzania had tense relations with Zaire, Kenya, and Malawi, and the only forces defending the land along the Ugandan border was the 202nd Brigade based in Tabora. Near the frontier was the understrength 3rd Battalion. In early September the Tanzanians reported unusually large numbers of Ugandan patrols near the border—some equipped with armoured personnel carriers—and a high volume of air reconnaissance flights. By the middle of the month, the Ugandan aircraft began crossing into Tanzanian airspace. The local commanding officer reported the unusual activity to the brigade headquarters in Tabora, and was assured that anti-aircraft guns would be sent to him. These never arrived, and by October the officer's warnings had become increasingly panicked.
Initial actions
In the middle of the day on 9 October, Ugandan troops made their first incursion into Tanzania when a motorised detachment moved into Kakunyu and set two houses on fire. Tanzanian artillery retaliated, destroying a Ugandan armoured personnel carrier and a truck, and killing two soldiers. Ugandan artillery returned fire but caused no damage. In the evening Radio Uganda reported that a Tanzanian invasion had been repulsed. The following day Ugandan MiG fighters bombed Tanzanian forests. Ugandan artillery continuously bombarded Tanzanian territory, so on 14 October the Tanzanians brought their mortars into action, and the Ugandan guns subsequently stopped firing. Over the next few days, both sides exchanged artillery fire, gradually expanding across the whole border. Tanzanian leaders felt that Amin was only making provocations.
On 18 October Ugandan MiGs bombed Bukoba, the capital of the West Lake Region. Despite ineffectual Tanzanian anti-aircraft fire, the bombings caused little damage. However, the explosions' reverberations shattered windows and incited the population to panic. In contrast to Tanzania's silence, Radio Uganda reported a Tanzanian "invasion" of Ugandan territory with accounts of fictional battles, and detailed that Tanzanian troops had advanced into Uganda, killing civilians and destroying property. Amin told residents in Mutukula that in spite of the "attack", he still hoped for good relations with Tanzania. At the same time, Radio Uganda's Kinyankole language broadcasts—which were closely monitored and understood by West Lake residents—virulently criticised Nyerere and claimed that Tanzanians wished to fall under Ugandan jurisdiction to escape the former's rule. Meanwhile, the Ugandan regime came under increased internal strain. Dozens of soldiers of the Masaka garrison deemed disloyal were executed, rival government agents got in a shootout in Kampala, and more agents were killed while attempting to arrest a former finance minister.
Invasion of Kagera
Ugandan offensive
At dawn on 25 October Tanzanian observers equipped with a telescope noticed large amounts of Ugandan vehicular activity in Mutukula. Ugandan artillery then opened fire while ground forces advanced. All Tanzanian troops broke and fled under fire except for a platoon which was quickly withdrawn. Over 2,000 Ugandan soldiers under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Marajani, Lieutenant Colonel Butabika, and Colonel Kisuule attacked Kagera. The Ugandan forces were equipped with T-55 and M4A1 Sherman tanks, along with OT-64 SKOT armoured personnel carriers (APC), as well as Alvis Saladin armoured cars, and advanced in two columns under the direct command of Butabika and Kisuule respectively. Despite encountering no or only light resistance, the Ugandan advance was slowed by the terrain, as Butabika's column got stuck in mud near Kabwebwe, and had to wait for hours before being able to get any further.
The Tanzanians began monitoring Ugandan radio frequencies, and were able to overhear transmissions between Marajani and Republic House, the Uganda Army's headquarters in Kampala. Marajani reported heavy resistance despite the fact that all TPDF personnel had withdrawn from the border area. The Tanzanians set up their artillery from the Ugandans and fired several shells, causing them to retreat across the border. Throughout the rest of the day Ugandan MiGs crossed into Tanzanian airspace, where they were harassed by inconsequential anti-aircraft fire. Having been defeated, the Ugandans prepared a new attack.
On 30 October approximately 3,000 Ugandan troops invaded Tanzania along four routes through Kukunga, Masanya, Mutukula, and Minziro. Commanded by Uganda Army Chief of Staff Yusuf Gowon and equipped with tanks and APCs, they only faced ineffectual rifle fire from several dozen members of the Tanzania People's Militia. Despite the minimal resistance from Tanzanian forces, Ugandan troops advanced with caution. They slowly occupied the Kagera Salient, shooting at soldiers and civilians alike, before reaching the Kagera River and the Kyaka Bridge in the evening. Though the land between the river and Bukoba was left virtually undefended by the TPDF's withdrawal, the Uganda Army halted its advance at the north end of the bridge. The Kagera Salient thus occupied, undisciplined Ugandan soldiers started to loot in the area. Approximately 1,500 civilians were shot and killed, while an additional 5,000 went into hiding in the bush. On 1 November Radio Uganda announced the "liberation" of the Kagera Salient and declared that the Kagera River marked the new border between Uganda and Tanzania. Amin toured the area and posed for photographs with abandoned Tanzanian war materiel. Ugandan commanders feared that the Kyaka Bridge could be used in a counterattack, so on 3 November a demolitions expert set explosive charges on the crossing and destroyed it.
Reactions
After initial reports of the 30 October attack reached Dar es Salaam, Nyerere convened a meeting with his advisers and TPDF commanders at his beach residence. He was unsure of his forces' ability to repel the Ugandan invasion, but TPDF Chief Abdallah Twalipo was confident that the army could eject the Ugandans from Tanzania. Nyerere told him to "get started" and the meeting ended. On 31 October Radio Tanzania declared that Ugandan troops had occupied territory in the northwest portion of the country and that the TPDF was preparing a counterattack. On 2 November Nyerere declared war on Uganda, saying in a radio broadcast, "We have the reason, we have the resources, and we have the will to fight him [Amin]."
Six African leaders condemned the invasion of Kagera as Ugandan aggression: Mengistu Haile Mariam of Ethiopia, Didier Ratsiraka of Madagascar, Agostinho Neto of Angola, Seretse Khama of Botswana, Samora Machel of Mozambique, and Kenneth Kaunda of Zambia. The governments of Guinea, Mali, Senegal, and several other African states refrained from condemnation, instead calling for a cessation of hostilities and requesting that both sides respect the charter of the OAU. The OAU itself remained neutral on the issue, while representatives of the organisation attempted to mediate between Uganda and Tanzania.
Tanzanian counter-attack
Nyerere ordered Tanzania to undertake full mobilisation for war. At the time, the TPDF consisted of four brigades. Among them, only the Southern Brigade, which had just performed well in war games, was ready to be moved to the front line. It was headquartered in Songea, farther from Kagera than the other brigades. After a long trek via rail and road, the unit reached the Bukoba–Kyaka area and established camp. Additional soldiers were sent from Tabora. Prime Minister Edward Sokoine handed orders to Tanzania's regional commissioners to marshal all military and civilian resources for war. In a few weeks, the Tanzanian army was expanded from less than 40,000 troops to over 150,000, including about 40,000 militiamen as well as members of the police, prison services, and the national service. Most of the militiamen were deployed to Tanzania's southern border or sent to guard strategic installations within the country. Machel offered Nyerere the assistance of a Mozambican battalion as a gesture of support. The 800-strong unit was quickly flown to Tanzania and moved to Kagera.
In the months before the war's outbreak, the Uganda Army had suffered from extensive purges as well as infighting, and had recruited about 10,000 new troops. According to a Ugandan soldier interviewed by the Drum magazine, the new recruits had little training and were not capable of taking part in actual combat. In addition, the Uganda Army reportedly suffered from extensive defections as early as late 1978. Overall, the strength of the Ugandan military was estimated at 20,000 or 21,000 personnel by 1978/79, of which fewer than 3,000 were deployed at the front lines at any given time.
Despite having been informed of the Tanzanian preparations for a counter-offensive, the Ugandan military did not set up any proper defences or entrench their positions. Most of the commanders on the front line and members of the high command ignored the intelligence reports and instead focused on looting the Kagera Salient. Tanzania initially aimed for its counter-offensive, called Operation Chakaza, to begin on 6 November, but it had to be delayed. By the second week of November, it had assembled a substantial force on the southern bank of the Kagera River. TPDF Chief of Staff Major General Tumainie Kiwelu took command of the troops, and the Tanzanians initiated a heavy artillery bombardment of the northern bank, triggering the flight of many Uganda Army soldiers. On 14 November Amin, sensing that other African states did not support his position and irrationally fearing that the Soviet Union was about to give Tanzania new weapons, declared the unconditional withdrawal of all Ugandan troops from Kagera and invited OAU observers to witness it. The Tanzanian government denounced the statement as a "complete lie", while foreign observers were unable to reach a consensus on the veracity of the supposed withdrawal. The OAU reacted by claiming that its mediation had succeeded.
On 19 November the Tanzanians assembled a pontoon bridge across the Kagera River, and over the following days dispatched patrols into the salient. Ugandan command and control descended into chaos amid the counter-offensive, and only a few officers attempted to organise any resistance. On 23 November three TPDF brigades crossed the pontoon bridge and began reoccupying the Kagera Salient. The Ugandan government announced in late November that it had withdrawn all forces from the Kagera Salient and that all fighting had ceased. It flew 50 foreign diplomats to the border, and they reported that there was little evidence of ongoing conflict. Tanzanian officials denounced the withdrawal statement, asserting that Ugandan troops had to be forcibly removed from Tanzanian territory, and announcing that some remained in the country. On 4 December the TPDF's 206th and Southern Brigades secured Mutukula on the Tanzanian side of the border without incident, while the 207th Brigade retook Minziro. By early January all Ugandan troops had been ejected from Kagera.
Border clashes and Battle of Mutukula
The morale and discipline of the Uganda Army deteriorated as the Tanzanians pushed it out of Kagera and attacked it along the border. After the invasion was repulsed, the Tanzanians feared that the Uganda Army would try again to seize their territory. Tanzanian commanders felt that as long as Ugandan troops controlled the high ground at Mutukula, Uganda, along the frontier they posed a threat to the salient. Nyerere agreed and ordered his forces to capture the town. While preparing for this operation, the TPDF was preoccupied with training and organising its massively expanded forces. As a result, fighting in December 1978 was mostly limited to "trench warfare" along the border, marked by sporadic clashes and air raids. By this point, militants belonging to the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) were serving alongside the Ugandans at the frontline. The PLO had been allied to Amin's government for years, and about 400 Palestinian fighters were stationed for training in Uganda. These militants were sent to the border to assist the Uganda Army, as the PLO considered the war with Tanzania as a possible threat to their own presence in the region. The journal Africa stated that "informed sources" claimed that "Pakistani technicians and air force personnel" were supporting Amin's forces during the war. About 200–350 Pakistani experts had been stationed in Uganda since early 1978. African Review stated that Saudi Arabia had provided "military assistance" to Amin's government in 1978/79. Amin reportedly travelled to Saudi Arabia twice to ask for financial aid during the Uganda–Tanzania War.
The inactivity at the border led the Ugandan high command to believe that no Tanzanian offensive was imminent, despite reports to the contrary from the frontlines. The Uganda Army was consequently surprised when the TPDF began a large-scale artillery bombardment along the border using BM-21 Grad rocket launchers on 25 December. The Ugandans lacked weaponry which was able to counter the Tanzanian artillery, and were terrified by the destructive capabilities of the BM-21 Grads which they nicknamed "Saba-Saba". The Ugandans' fears were heightened by their initial inability to identify the weapon, until an unexploded rocket was recovered from Lukoma airstrip. The TPDF shelled the border for weeks, demoralising the Ugandans. Attempts by the Uganda Army Air Force to destroy the Tanzanian rocket launchers failed due to effective anti-aircraft fire. Amin dispatched a team of officers to Spain to investigate the purchase of aircraft and napalm bombs to counter the rockets, but ultimately no munitions were acquired. Tanzanian-led troops occupied some minor border settlements near Kikagati on 20 January 1979, prompting Amin to schedule a counter-offensive. The TPDF'S Southern Brigade—renamed the 208th Brigade—finally crossed the border on the night of 21 January and attacked Mutukula the following day. The Ugandan garrison was easily overwhelmed and fled the scene, allowing the Tanzanians to secure Mutukula and capture much abandoned weaponry. The TPDF soldiers proceeded to destroy the entire town and killed several civilians to avenge the pillaging in Kagera. Nyerere was horrified upon being informed, and ordered the TPDF to refrain from harming civilians and property from then on.
The Ugandan government mostly ignored the loss of Mutukula. It sent only the 1st Infantry Battalion to reinforce the frontline, while focusing on celebrating Amin's eighth anniversary as president. This behaviour further demoralised the Ugandan population. The TPDF used the lull in fighting to prepare for further operations, constructing an airstrip at Mutukula and sending additional forces to the border region. As a gesture of support, Mozambique, Zambia, Angola, Ethiopia, and Algeria sent Tanzania small quantities of arms. According to researcher Gerald Chikozho Mazarire, Ethiopia actually sent "troops and Russian ground-to-ground missiles" that assisted Tanzania in fighting Uganda. There were also claims about ZANLA militants fighting alongside the TPDF. The Tanzanian government also asked China for military aid. The latter wanted to stay out of the conflict as far as possible without alienating the Tanzanians. Though the Chinese advised negotiation, they sent a "token" arms shipment and expedited the delivery of some previously ordered equipment. The United Kingdom also wanted nothing to do with the war, but cooperated with the Tanzanians in speedily delivering the non-lethal military supplies they purchased from them. Meanwhile, the Soviet Union stopped shipping arms to Uganda and announced the withdrawal of all of its military advisers.
Mobilisation of Ugandan rebels and exiles
Shortly after the invasion of Kagera, Nyerere indicated that with the Mogadishu Agreement being rendered obsolete his government would finance, train, and arm any Ugandans willing to fight to overthrow Amin. A diverse group of exiles responded from across the world as well as opposition members in Uganda. The larger armed rebel movements included Kikosi Maalum, a militia loyal to Obote and commanded by Tito Okello and David Oyite Ojok; the Front for National Salvation (FRONASA) led by Yoweri Museveni; and the Save Uganda Movement (SUM) commanded by Akena p'Ojok, William Omaria, and Ateker Ejalu. In addition, a few smaller groups including the Catholic Group and the Uganda Nationalist Organization claimed to have armed wings.
These groups were very weak at the conflict's start, but rapidly expanded later on. Although nominally allied, the Ugandan rebels were actually political rivals and operated independently from each other. Whereas Kikosi Maalum and FRONASA contributed frontline troops and guerrillas that acted as auxiliaries and scouts to the TPDF, SUM conducted bombings and raids to destabilise Amin's regime from within. The Zambia-based Uganda Liberation Group (Z) encouraged their members to donate money to support the Tanzanian war effort. Ugandan exiles attempted to organise resistance efforts in Kenya, but Kenyan authorities disrupted these efforts, arresting some guerillas and in a few instances turning them over to the Ugandan government. In January Obote broke his public silence and made an open appeal for Ugandans to revolt, reportedly causing great consternation to Amin's government. In the war's early stages, several rebel factions, including Obote's, FRONASA, and SUM, loosely unified under the umbrella group "National Revolt".
Tanzanian invasion of southern Uganda
At first Nyerere only sought to wage war in defence of Tanzanian territory. After Amin failed to renounce his claims to Kagera and the OAU failed to condemn the Ugandan invasion, he decided that Tanzanian forces should occupy southern Uganda, specifically the two major towns there: Masaka and Mbarara. The Tanzanians decided to seize them as revenge for the devastation wrought by Ugandan troops in their country and in order to incite a rebellion. Obote assured Nyerere that if the towns were taken a mass uprising against Amin's regime would occur, deposing the government in a few weeks and allowing the Tanzanians to exit the war. Obote was also certain (and Nyerere was partly convinced) that the Uganda Army would disintegrate if Masaka were captured. The Tanzanians began careful planning for an offensive on the two towns. Major General David Musuguri was appointed commander of the TPDF's 20th Division and tasked with overseeing the advance into Uganda. It was originally hoped that the Ugandan rebels could spearhead the attack, but there were only about 1,000 of them, so the Tanzanians had to lead the operation. Between the TPDF's positions and Masaka was a series of locations occupied by Ugandan troops that needed to be cleared out, including the airstrip at Lukoma and various artillery batteries. The 201st, 207th, and 208th Brigades were ordered to clear the way.
The Tanzanians launched their offensive in mid-February. They steadily advanced, killing dozens of Ugandan soldiers, destroying large amounts of their materiel, and seizing the airstrip on 13 February. Meanwhile, Amin claimed that Tanzanian forces and mercenaries had seized a large portion of Ugandan territory. Facing questions from the international community, Tanzania insisted that its troops had only occupied land just over the Ugandan border. Tanzanian diplomats repeated Nyerere's proclamation that "Tanzania does not desire an inch of Ugandan territory" but evaded more specific questions about their troops' movements. While the Tanzanian forces advancing on Masaka were speedily moving forward, the TPDF's 206th Brigade encountered more difficult resistance as it pressed towards Mbarara. The Uganda Army successfully ambushed a battalion from the brigade near Lake Nakivale, killing 24 Tanzanians. This was the TPDF's single largest loss during the war, and thereafter it slowed its offensive. Along the Masaka axis of advance, the TPDF dislodged the garrison of Kalisizo, a town south of Masaka, inflicting heavy casualties. The Ugandans that retreated to Masaka were in a panicked state and demoralised the troops stationed there. As the Tanzanians pushed through southern Uganda they were cheered on by groups of civilians they passed.
The TPDF proceeded to encircle Masaka on three sides, but were ordered not to move in, as an OAU meeting was convened in Nairobi in an attempt to provide mediation between the belligerents. Ugandan Brigadier Isaac Maliyamungu saw an opportunity for a counter-attack, so his troops launched a number of probes against the Tanzanian positions on 23 February. The TPDF easily repelled the assaults, and that night initiated a large bombardment of Masaka, focusing their fire on the Suicide Battalion's barracks. Most of the garrison subsequently fled, and in the morning the Tanzanians occupied the town. To avenge the destruction caused in Kagera, Tanzanian troops proceeded to raze most of the surviving structures with explosives. On 25 February the TPDF and several dozen Ugandan rebels led by Museveni bombarded Mbarara and, after seizing it, destroyed what buildings remained with dynamite. No mass uprising against Amin materialised. Following the capture of the two towns, the TPDF halted to reorganise. Silas Mayunga was promoted to major general and given charge of a newly formed "Task Force", a unit consisting of the 206th Brigade and the Minziro Brigade, which was to operate semi-autonomously from the 20th Division. While the 20th Division moved out of southeast Uganda and attacked major locations in the country, the Task Force advanced north into western Uganda in the following months, engaging Ugandan troops conducting rearguard defensive actions. Meanwhile, the Uganda Army Air Force had suffered such heavy losses during operations in February that it was effectively eliminated as a fighting force.
Libyan intervention and Battle of Lukaya
Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi, an ally of Amin, felt that Uganda—a Muslim state in his view—was being threatened by a Christian army, and wished to halt the Tanzanians. He also felt that Uganda under Amin served as a crucial counterbalance in northeast Africa to Sudan and Egypt, which had strained relations with Libya. Libyan mediation attempts in November 1978 and February 1979 failed to bring about any resolution between Tanzania and Uganda. Gaddafi reportedly decided to initiate a military intervention without consulting other Libyan officials and over the objections of his army commander, Major Farak Suleiman. In mid-February, Libyan troops were flown into Entebbe to assist the Uganda Army, though in early March the Libyan government denied that its forces were being sent to Uganda. Meanwhile, the PLO high command had assessed that Amin's government was under imminent threat due to the Tanzanian military victories. Chairman Yasser Arafat, and top aides Khalil al-Wazir and Saad Sayel discussed their options, and resolved to send more PLO forces to Uganda in order to protect Amin's regime. Colonel Mutlaq Hamdan, alias "Abu Fawaz", and a few other commanders were sent as the first batch of reinforcements to help the Ugandan high command with organising the war. On 18 March, Arafat confirmed that there were Palestinian guerrillas fighting on Amin's behalf in Uganda.
Meanwhile, the TPDF's 20th Division prepared to advance from Masaka to Kampala. The only road from Masaka to Kampala passed through Lukaya, a town to the north of the former. From there, the route continued on a causeway that went through a swamp until it reached Nabusanke. The swamp was impassable for vehicles, and the destruction of the causeway would delay a Tanzanian attack on Kampala for months. Though the TPDF would be vulnerable on the passage, Musuguri ordered his troops to secure it. The TPDF's 207th Brigade was dispatched through the swamp to the east, the 208th Brigade was sent west to conduct a wide sweep that would bring it around the northern end of the swamp, and the 201st Brigade bolstered by a battalion of Ugandan rebels was to advance up the road directly into the town. Also as part of the plan to take Kampala, the TPDF's 205th Brigade was to advance on Mpigi in early March and then to Mityana and launch an attack on the capital from there. Amin made a radio broadcast, boasting that his forces were about to surround the TPDF. Curious as to whether the claim had any merit, Tanzanian commanders analysed their plans and realised that the Tiger Regiment at Mubende was unaccounted for. Believing the unit was heading south, they dispatched the 205th Brigade from its position in Masaka north to intercept it. The 205th Brigade encountered entrenched Uganda Army troops in Sembabule, marking the beginning of a three-week-long battle.
Meanwhile, a plan to destroy the Lukaya causeway was presented to Amin in Kampala, but he rejected it, saying that it would inhibit his army's ability to launch a counteroffensive against the Tanzanians. He also believed that with Libyan support the TPDF would soon be defeated, and thus destroying and then rebuilding the causeway later would be unnecessary. On 2–4 March, the Uganda Army defeated a rebel attack during the Battle of Tororo, heartening Amin. Along with his commanders' urgings, the victory at Tororo persuaded the President to order a counter-offensive. On 9 March over 1,000 Libyan troops and about 40 PLO guerrillas belonging to Fatah were flown into Uganda. The Libyan force included regular units, sections of the People's Militia, and members of the Pan-African Legion. They were accompanied by 15 T-55 tanks, over a dozen armoured personnel carriers, multiple Land Rovers equipped with 106 mm (4.2 in) recoilless rifles, one dozen BM-21 Grad 12-barrel Katyusha rocket launcher variants, and other large artillery pieces, such as mortars and two batteries of D-30 howitzers. Over the course of the war a total of 4,500 Libyan troops were deployed in Uganda. Amin ordered the Libyans, together with some Ugandan troops and PLO guerrillas, to recapture Masaka.
On the morning of 10 March the TPDF's 201st Brigade occupied Lukaya to await crossing the causeway the next day. In the late afternoon the Ugandan-Libyan-Palestinian force began its advance toward Lukaya, with orders to take Masaka within three hours. Upon seeing the Tanzanians, the Libyans initiated a barrage of Katyusha rockets. The artillery overshot them, but the mostly inexperienced Tanzanian soldiers of the 201st Brigade were frightened, and many of them broke rank and fled. The rest quickly withdrew into the swamp along the Masaka road after seeing the Libyan T-55s and Ugandan M4A1 Sherman tanks advancing toward them. Despite its orders to recapture Masaka, the Ugandan-Libyan-Palestinian force halted in Lukaya.
Tanzanian commanders decided to alter their plans to prevent the loss of Lukaya from turning into a debacle. The 208th Brigade under Brigadier Mwita Marwa, which was north-west of the town, was ordered to reverse course and as quickly as possible cut off the Ugandans and Libyans from Kampala. The 208th Brigade reached its flanking position at the Kampala road at dawn on 11 March and began the counter-attack. The regrouped 201st Brigade attacked from the front and the 208th from behind, thereby putting great pressure on the Ugandan-Libyan-Palestinian force. Precisely aimed Tanzanian artillery fire devastated their ranks. Most of the Libyans subsequently began to retreat. The Ugandan commander at the battle, Lieutenant Colonel Godwin Sule, was killed, possibly by being accidentally run over by one of his tanks. His death prompted the collapse of the Ugandan command structure, and the remaining Ugandan troops abandoned their positions and fled. After the battle, the Tanzanians counted over 400 dead enemy soldiers in the area, including about 200 Libyans. The Battle of Lukaya was the largest engagement of the Uganda–Tanzania War.
Following the Battle of Lukaya, the Uganda Army began to completely collapse. Shortly thereafter, the TPDF launched Operation Dada Idi, and in the following days the 207th and 208th Brigades cleared the Kampala road and captured Mpigi. Ugandan and Libyan troops fled away from the front line towards the capital. Amin dismissed Gowon from his position as chief of staff, and facing the hostility of resentful troops Gowon fled to Zaire. He was replaced by Ali Fadhul. In early April the TPDF captured Sembabule, marking the end of the longest battle of the war. The supply of many Uganda Army units collapsed, resulting in a lack of ammunition, fuel, and provisions. Many Ugandan soldiers went rogue, pillaging, murdering and raping as they fled into Zaire and Sudan. According to researcher Alicia C. Decker, the deserters' behaviour was not just motivated by the collapse of discipline, but also strategic considerations: by spreading chaos and causing civilians to flee, they gained better cover for their own retreat. Those soldiers who stayed at their posts often began to carry out revenge attacks on those suspected of rebel sympathies, terrorising, abusing and executing people without due process. Realising that the war was lost, other members of the Uganda Army plotted to overthrow Amin. Rumours circulated about members of the President's inner circle being involved in these coup plans. At this point, most Ugandan civilians were opposed to Amin's government and hoped for a quick end of the war. They began calling the Tanzanians bakombozi ("liberators").
Moshi Conference
Following the capture of Mpigi, Nyerere ordered the TPDF to halt its advance. Though he felt that after the Libyan intervention at Lukaya it was no longer possible to count on the Ugandan rebels being able to capture Kampala by themselves, he believed that it was highly important they should be given time to organise their own government to succeed Amin. Tanzanian officials began making preparations for the establishment of a new government as did the Ugandan rebels, led by Obote and Dani Wadada Nabudere in their own respective circles. The rebels and exiles had been preparing for this for several months, making contact with one another since the outbreak of the war. While discussions among the factions were underway, Museveni proposed that his FRONASA—purportedly larger due to recruitment efforts around Mbarara—unite with Obote's Kikosi Maluum to form a unified army. Obote rejected the suggestion and tried to unify his forces with other armed groups, but Museveni's idea gained traction with other exile leaders. As the Tanzanians began organising a conference for the rebels and exiles, Nyerere was reconsidering Obote's role in the movement. He did not want to give the impression that Tanzania was going to install a government of its own choice in Uganda by facilitating Obote's assumption of leadership of the rebel movement, and there was hostility to Obote from the Baganda people in southern Uganda as well as other countries such as Kenya. Nyerere also feared that Obote would stifle cooperation at the meeting and cause it to break up without success. He convinced Obote to refrain from attending and instead send a delegation from the Uganda People's Congress, Obote's political party. In place of Obote, many Ugandan exiles began favouring Yusuf Lule, a retired Muganda academic and political moderate.
The conference opened on 24 March in the Tanzanian town of Moshi, following an intense debate over which factions and persons could be admitted. That afternoon the delegates announced the formation of the Uganda National Liberation Front (UNLF), which was to be governed by a 30-strong National Consultative Committee (NCC) and an 11-strong National Executive Committee, the latter including three special commissions—Finance and Administration, Political and Diplomatic Affairs, and Military Affairs. The next two days were spent debating the balance of power among the governing bodies and the selection of a chairman for the organisation, which was hotly contested between Lule and Paulo Muwanga. After heated argument a consensus was reached whereby Lule would be given the chair and Muwanga would be made head of the Military Affairs Commission. The conference dissolved on 26 March 1979. The armed rebel militias represented in Moshi were united as the Uganda National Liberation Army (UNLA). The unified rebel force was initially about 2,000 fighters strong.
Fall of Kampala and end of the war
The day after the closing of the Moshi Conference the Libyan ambassador to Tanzania passed Nyerere a note from Gaddafi, which threatened Libyan military involvement on Amin's behalf if Tanzania did not withdraw its troops from Ugandan territory in 24 hours. Nyerere was surprised by the ultimatum, since he knew that Libyan soldiers had fought with the Ugandans at Lukaya. He broadcast a message over radio, declaring that while Gaddafi's threat added "new dimensions" to the war, it did not alter Tanzania's view of Amin. Four days later Gaddafi, in an attempt to intimidate Nyerere, ordered a Tupolev Tu-22 bomber to attack a fuel depot in Mwanza. The bomber missed its target and instead struck a game reserve. Tanzanian jets retaliated by attacking fuel depots in Kampala, Jinja, and Tororo.
In early April Tanzanian forces began to concentrate their efforts on weakening the Ugandan position in Kampala. By this point, the Uganda Army had mostly disintegrated. Diplomats believed that only the soldiers of Nubian and Sudanese origin remained loyal, while Amin's regime held onto power thanks to the Libyan support. The New York Times reporter John Darnton estimated that just 2,500 Uganda Army soldiers remained loyal. Tanzanian commanders had originally assumed that Amin would station the bulk of his remaining forces in the capital, and their initial plans called for a direct attack on the city. But from the high ground in Mpigi they could see the Entebbe peninsula, where there was a high volume of Libyan air traffic and a large contingent of Ugandan and Libyan soldiers. If the TPDF seized Kampala before securing the town of Entebbe, TPDF positions in Kampala would be vulnerable to a flanking attack. Taking Entebbe would cut off Uganda's Libyan reinforcements and permit an assault on the capital from the south. Thus, Musuguri ordered the 208th Brigade to seize the peninsula. The TPDF set up artillery and subjected the town to a light, three-day bombardment. Amin was at the Entebbe State House at the time but fled via helicopter to Kampala. His departure instigated the flight of many Ugandan troops, but the Libyans remained.
On 6 April the bombardment was intensified, with several hundred artillery rounds fired. The 208th Brigade advanced on Entebbe the following morning. A single Libyan convoy attempted to escape down the Kampala road but was ambushed and destroyed. By the afternoon the TPDF had secured the town, seizing large stockpiles of Libyan weapons. The next morning, hundreds of Uganda Army Air Force personnel surrendered to the TPDF. The battle marked the de facto end of the Uganda Army Air Force. Most of its aircraft were destroyed or captured, and the air force personnel that managed to escape to the air fields in Jinja and Nakasongola spread panic among the Ugandan forces there. Mass desertions and defections resulted. Nyerere decided to allow the Libyan forces, who had suffered heavily during the battle, to flee Kampala and quietly exit the war without further humiliation. He sent a message to Gaddafi explaining his decision, saying that the Libyan troops could be airlifted out of Uganda unopposed from the airstrip in Jinja. Many fleeing Libyans were targeted by Ugandan civilians who misled them, betrayed them to the TPDF or outright murdered them. The survivors mostly withdrew to Kenya and Ethiopia, from where they were repatriated. The defeat of Libyan troops in Uganda was a serious setback for Gaddafi's foreign policy, and reportedly caused conflict within the Libyan government.
The TPDF advanced into Kampala on 10April. Few Ugandan or Libyan units resisted; the greatest problem for the Tanzanian troops was a lack of maps of the city. On the following day, while Tanzanian and UNLF troops were mopping up the remaining Ugandan forces in Kampala, Oyite-Ojok went to Radio Uganda to declare the city's capture. He stated in a broadcast that Amin's government was deposed and that Kampala was under the control of the UNLF, and appealed to residents to remain calm and for Ugandan soldiers to surrender. Civilians came out from their homes to celebrate and engaged in destructive looting. On 13 April Lule was flown into the city and installed as the new President of Uganda. The new UNLF government was quickly recognised by other states as the legitimate authority in Uganda. It was greatly hampered in establishing itself by the lack of an effective police force or civil service and the looting of equipment from offices. The government played no meaningful role in the succeeding military operations against Amin's forces.
Amin fled, first to Libya and later to Saudi Arabia. Despite the flight of Amin and the fall of the capital, scattered and disjointed remnants of the Ugandan military continued to resist. With Libyan support, these loyalists retreated into the north, pillaging as they did so. They were accompanied by PLO militants under the command of Mahmoud Da'as who eventually crossed into Sudan. After Kampala's capture, little further damage was caused by the fighting. On 22 April the TPDF seized the town of Jinja and the Owen Falls Dam intact, which provided all the electricity in the country. Most units of the Uganda Army mutinied or dispersed, allowing the Tanzanian-UNLF troops to occupy most of eastern and northern Ugandan without opposition. A few Ugandan units offered firm resistance along the western border, but these were also overcome. Attempts by Amin's loyalists to block the Tanzanian northward advance were defeated during the Battle of Bombo, the Battle of Lira, and the Battle of Karuma Falls. In Mbale, 250 Ugandan troops defected and chose to defend the town from retreating loyalists and await the arrival of the Tanzanians. A large number of civilians armed themselves and attacked Ugandan stragglers, and all those belonging to ethnic or religious groups who were associated with Amin's regime. Mobs destroyed entire communities. The worst massacres were carried out by Ugandan rebels belonging to FRONASA and Kikosi Maalum. In many cases, Tanzanian soldiers condoned and even aided lynchings of Ugandan soldiers at the hands of vengeful civilians. Regardless, most sources concur that the Tanzanians behaved relatively well, especially in comparison to Ugandan rebels and tribal militants.
The last battle of the war occurred on 27 May when a band of Ugandan troops fired on elements of the TPDF's Task Force near Bondo before fleeing. The Task Force shortly thereafter seized Arua without facing resistance. Upon entering the West Nile region, FRONASA launched a "systematic extermination" of the local population, assisted by vigilantes belonging to anti-Amin tribes. A significant portion of West Nile's civilian population consequently fled into exile along with the remnants of the Uganda Army. From Arua a Tanzanian brigade advanced to Uganda's western border with Sudan and Zaire. It secured the Sudanese frontier on 3 June 1979, thus ending the war. By that time a total of 30,000–45,000 TPDF personnel were deployed in Uganda.
The TPDF lost 373 soldiers over the course of the war, and of these only 96 were killed in the fighting. About 150 Ugandan rebels died, most of whom died when one of their boats accidentally capsized in Lake Victoria. About 1,000 Uganda Army soldiers were killed while 3,000 were taken prisoner. At least 600 Libyan soldiers were killed during the war, and about 1,800 were wounded. The Tanzanians took 59 Libyan prisoners, and released them several months after the end of the war. Several PLO fighters were killed during the conflict, though their number remains disputed. The PLO admitted to losing twelve fighters in Uganda, counting the dead and those missing in action. In contrast, Tanzanian officers claimed that 200 Palestinians had been killed during the conflict. One Pakistani national was also captured by the TPDF with the Libyan forces, and released after the war. About 1,500 Tanzanian civilians were killed by the Uganda Army in Kagera. According to Avirgan and Honey, about 500 Ugandan civilians were killed by all belligerents. Others have reported far higher civilian casualties in Uganda. According to Indian diplomat Madanjeet Singh, Uganda Army soldiers began killing Ugandan and expatriate civilians at random after the war started, and within the month of February 1979 over 500 people were murdered. A.B.K. Kasozi stated that thousands were murdered by retreating Amin loyalists in March and April 1979, while Ogenga Otunnu has argued that anti-Amin insurgents also killed thousands in the West Nile region during the conflict's last stages.
Media and propaganda
During the early stages of the war in October 1978, Radio Tanzania broadcast no news on the conflict while Radio Uganda reported erroneously on an attempted Tanzanian invasion and intense border clashes. Once the invasion of Kagera was made public, Radio Tanzania launched an intensive propaganda campaign to gather public support of the war by retelling stories of the atrocities committed in Tanzanian territory and portraying the Ugandan attack as an egotistical venture by Amin to bolster his self-image. Radio Tanzania and Radio Uganda quickly became entangled in a "radio war", each making allegations against the other's country. In the first few months the Tanzanian public was offered little official information aside from a few speeches delivered by Nyerere. The Tanzanian government quickly established an "Information Committee" to manage news about the war. The body was chaired by the top secretary in the Ministry of Information, George Mhina, and consisted of the editors of Tanzania's two state newspapers, the head of Radio Tanzania, Presidential Press Secretary Sammy Mdee, and representatives of the TPDF and security forces. Mhina began repressing news about the war so that while many Tanzanian journalists and photographers had gone to the front lines, little of their reporting was ever published. Mdee and the newspaper editors boycotted the committee's meetings in protest. In general, the press in Tanzania was allowed to publish what it wished within the law, but it rarely reported anything different from the official media and often reprinted press releases from the government news agency, Shirika la Habari Tanzania (SHIHATA).
In response to the suppression of information, Tanzanian citizens began listening to foreign broadcasts from BBC Radio, Voice of America, Voice of Kenya, Radio South Africa, and Radio Uganda for reporting on the conflict. In Dar es Salaam, civilians went to the Kilimanjaro Hotel to view the news carried through on the establishment's Reuters telex machine. The Information Committee eventually had the unit deactivated. Radio Tanzania spent the duration of the war broadcasting dramatic news reports, songs, and poems about the conflict as well as praise for the TPDF. Announcers fluent in Ugandan languages were hired and their newscasts were directed into Uganda. Ugandan exile Sam Odaka hosted a 45-minute daily propaganda programme on Radio Tanzania that targeted Ugandan soldiers. The show successfully damaged the Uganda Army's morale and ran until Kampala fell. SHIHATA regularly labelled Amin a "fascist".
There was no press freedom in Uganda, and most local media outlets garnered their information from the state-run Uganda News Agency. Amin used official media to communicate with the civilian populace throughout the war and to rhetorically attack Tanzania. Ugandan propaganda—in addition to being biased—was lacking in factual accuracy. It attempted to bolster the image of Idi Amin and raise the Uganda Army's morale by spreading fantastical tales, such as claiming that a Tanzanian unit had been wiped out by crocodiles or that the President could easily defeat 20,000 Tanzanians with just twenty Ugandan soldiers. One of the most notable propagandistic stories spread by pro-Amin media featured the President's wife, Sarah Kyolaba, as she allegedly led a battalion of armed women against the TPDF. No firm proof for the existence of such a unit ever surfaced. Decker speculated that the tales about "Suicide Sarah" were supposed to "feminize the enemy"; instead of actually emphasising the bravery of Ugandan women soldiers, people were supposed to believe that the Tanzanians were so weak that even women could defeat them. The information released by the UNLF was often dubious or outdated. Following the end of the war an employee of Radio Tanzania was put at the disposal of the UNLF government to advise them on how to use public broadcasting to garner public support for rebuilding.
At the beginning of the war, Tanzania brought four journalists to Kagera to prove that Uganda had attacked the area. Thereafter correspondents were not allowed to travel to the war front, making independent confirmation of each belligerents' claims impossible. Journalists often attempted to confirm Ugandan official media by cross-referencing it with Tanzanian news for consistencies. The two exceptions to this rule were Reuters reporters Tony Avirgan and Martha Honey, who had the permission of Nyerere to accompany the TPDF as it invaded Uganda. Four European journalists that attempted to infiltrate Uganda from Kenya in the middle of the war were shot by Uganda soldiers. Most journalists instead covered the conflict from Kenya, particularly Nairobi. From there they telephoned foreign diplomats in Kampala and, as the war progressed, obtained accounts from local residents.
Aftermath
Analyses
Sociologist Ronald Aminzade asserted that "the key" to Tanzania's victory was its ideological framing of the war as a threat to the nation, thus facilitating the mobilisation of a popular militia that performed well in combat. Aminzade stated that in contrast Uganda "embarked on a nonideological territorial war", deploying forces that suffered from low morale and internal dissension. Journalist Godwin Matatu reasoned that the Uganda Army's failures rested on its low morale and reliance on vehicles and roads which made them vulnerable to Tanzanian ground forces, who travelled on foot for much of the war. Journalist Anne Abaho concluded that Uganda lost the war due to four key factors: internal tensions and incompetence in the Uganda Army, the Tanzanian deployment of BM-21 Grad rocket launchers and the failure of Uganda to counter them, a lack of military intelligence, and poor coordination with Libya. Some Western military analysts attributed Tanzania's victory to the collapse of the Uganda Army, arguing that the TPDF would have been defeated by most other African armies. Others felt that the TPDF's success indicated substantial improvements in African military capabilities over the previous years. Military analyst William Thom praised the TPDF's ability to successfully deploy its forces over considerable distances. Intelligence analyst Kenneth M. Pollack attributed Libyan troops' failures to their low morale and lack of military intelligence. Academic Benoni Turyahikayo-Rugyema wrote in 1998 that "Had Amin not invaded the Kagera Salient in Tanzania he probably would still be ruling Uganda."
Several academics have evaluated whether the Tanzanian invasion of Uganda and its effort to depose Amin could be classified as an instance of justified humanitarian intervention. While some writers agree that Tanzania's action was humanitarian in nature, others have disputed such a conclusion, arguing that even if Tanzania fought the war with some humanitarian considerations, it was largely invading Uganda for different reasons. For its own part, the Tanzanian government accused Amin of committing atrocities against his people and stressed that many Ugandans "celebrated" Tanzania's invasion, but it did not justify the war on humanitarian grounds. Instead, it argued that the country had acted in self-defence of its territory and that Amin's regime posed "a turbulent menace to the peace and security of East Africa". Christianity specialist Emmanuel K. Twesigye considered the war "a good example of the 'just war theory' at work". Political scientist Daniel G. Acheson-Brown concluded that, according to just war theory as espoused by Michael Walzer's Just and Unjust Wars, Tanzania's invasion of Uganda was justified on humanitarian grounds to overthrow a brutal dictatorship. Acheson-Brown also noted that the Uganda Army committed "an overwhelming number of atrocities" during the conflict and that Tanzania made "some significant violations of the proper conduct of war", particularly when the TPDF destroyed Mutukula. Walzer also considered the war a case of justified intervention. Legal scholar Noreen Burrows wrote that while Tanzania's attack on Uganda violated strictly construed international law, it was justified by moral and political arguments. International law scholar Sean D. Murphy characterised Tanzania's invasion of Uganda as "one of mixed reasons of self-defense and protection of human rights". Belgium later cited the Uganda–Tanzania War as an example of justified intervention when explaining its decision to join the North Atlantic Treaty Organization's intervention in the Kosovo War.
International political controversy
The overthrow of a sovereign head of state by a foreign military had never occurred in post-colonial Africa and had been strongly discouraged by the OAU. At an OAU conference in July 1979, President Gaafar Nimeiry of Sudan said that the Uganda–Tanzania War had set a "serious precedent" and noted that the organisation's charter "prohibits interference in other people's internal affairs and invasion of their territory by armed force." Nigerian Head of State Olusegun Obasanjo shared similar concerns. Some observers dissented from this line of thought and argued that the situation demonstrated that the OAU charter needed reform. Nyerere accused the OAU of shielding black African leaders from criticism, noting that Amin's regime had killed more people than the white minority governments in southern Africa. He also circulated a "Blue Book" published by the Tanzanian government, which argued that Tanzania's role in the war was justified by Uganda's attack on the Kagera Salient and Libya's armed intervention, which would have prevented the Ugandan rebels from overthrowing Amin themselves. President Godfrey Binaisa, Lule's successor, praised the Tanzanian intervention. Most Western states cautiously avoided commenting on Tanzania's role in deposing Amin, though British Foreign Secretary David Owen declared that he was pleased with the end of Amin's rule. According to academics Roy May and Oliver Furley, the overthrow of the regime was "tacitly" accepted by the international community, as indicated by the speed with which they recognised the UNLF government that replaced it.
Uganda
The war with Tanzania caused great economic damage to Uganda, as price gouging of commodities surged and inflation rapidly increased. The movement of armed forces throughout Uganda in 1979 disrupted the planting season, leading to inflated prices for staple crops such as bananas, sweet potatoes, and cassava, and causing famine in some regions. Despite this disruption, rural areas were mostly physically undisturbed by the fighting, which was concentrated in other areas. An estimated minimum of 100,000 Ugandans were made homeless by the conflict. Severe social unrest also followed the war. With Amin ousted, different groups of political and ethnic rivals started to compete and fight for power. It also triggered a resurgence of crime as bandits—known as "kondos" and armed with guns that had belonged to the TPDF, Ugandan rebels, and Amin's security forces—took advantage of the disorder to rob and loot. Political assassinations became commonplace and Kampala remained plagued by violence until 1981, facilitated by the lack of effective courts and police which had languished under Amin's regime. Rural areas avoided the worst violence, as traditional norms provided some basis for order. In addition, the conflict resulted in a growth of illegal poaching across the country, leading to substantial environmental damage.
The TPDF remained in Uganda to maintain peace, and subsequently Tanzanian soldiers fathered a large number of Ugandan children. Many TPDF soldiers married Ugandan women and brought them back to Tanzania. Some residents in southern Uganda believed that Tanzanian soldiers brought HIV/AIDS into the region and spread it by having sex with civilians. Over time many Ugandans grew tired of the Tanzanian occupation. Meanwhile, remnants of Amin's Uganda Army reorganised in Zaire and Sudan, and invaded Uganda in autumn 1980, starting a civil war which became later known as the Ugandan Bush War. More TPDF personnel died during the occupation of Uganda than during the Uganda–Tanzania War. The last Tanzanian occupation troops left Uganda in October 1981. Tanzanian military advisers remained in the country as late as 1984.
Uganda was embroiled in a political crisis almost immediately after the UNLF took power. Lule disregarded the Moshi Conference agreements stipulating a weak presidential authority and attempted to assert his ability to operate under stronger powers provided by the constitution operative in Uganda before Amin's coup. He also distrusted the UNLA, which he considered to be made up of loyal Obote and Museveni partisans. Meanwhile, Museveni and Oyite-Ojok both attempted to stack the army with their own supporters. Lule's refusal to consult the NCC about ministerial appointments provoked outrage in the committee, and on 20 June 1979 it voted to remove him from office. Godfrey Binaisa, the former Attorney General of Uganda under Obote who had come to oppose both him and Amin and had no prior role in the committee, was then elected president. Lule's ouster instigated large protests in Kampala and clashes between demonstrators and Tanzanian troops attempting to maintain order. Nyerere announced that he would offer continued support to Uganda as long as it retained a unified and uncorrupted government. Over the following month large numbers of TPDF troops were withdrawn and political violence around Kampala increased. In November Binaisa began to fear that Muwanga—then serving as a minister in the government—was preparing to return Obote to power, and considered dismissing him from his post. At Obote's advice, Muwanga publicly declared that Obote had no interest in regaining the presidency and would back Binaisa in the next national election. As Obote and Muwanga intended, Binaisa felt assured by the guarantee and instead removed Obote's rival, Museveni, from his post as Minister of Defence. The situation in Uganda declined further as Tanzanian troops clashed with civilians, unofficial militias were raised, and Binaisa focused on using his office to enrich himself. In 1980 Binaisa attempted to strip Oyite-Ojok of his post as Chief of Staff of the UNLA. This infuriated many Ugandan soldiers, and Muwanga and Oyite-Ojok, with Museveni's approval, began moving to oust Binaisa. On 12 May the NCC's Military Affairs Commission announced that it was assuming the responsibilities of the presidency. Nyerere refused to intervene, fearing clashes between the TPDF and UNLA.
Obote soon returned to Uganda and began reorganising the UPC in preparation for general elections, which were to be held on 10 December. Assisted in part by irregularities in the process, the UPC won the parliamentary elections and formed a government with Obote as president. In February 1981 Museveni, denouncing the elections, organised a small band of rebels and began attacking UNLA forces, thus entering the civil war. Shortly thereafter they co-founded a new rebel coalition, the National Resistance Movement. Museveni overthrew the Ugandan government in 1986 and became president.
Tanzania
The outbreak of the war came at a time when Tanzania's economy was showing signs of recovery from a severe drought in 1974–1975. All planned government projects were suspended in every ministry except Defence, and the administration was instructed not to fill vacancies. Nyerere stated in January 1979 that the TPDF operation to expel the Ugandans had necessitated a "tremendous" diversion of the country's resources away from development work, and he estimated that the war took $1 million a day to finance. Scholars' estimates of the total direct costs of the war for the Tanzanians range from $500 million to $1 billion. In Kagera, $108 million worth in economic assets were destroyed. Tanzania received no financial assistance from other countries in the OAU during the war. As a result, the government in Dar es Salaam had to finance the invasion of Uganda and subsequent peacekeeping mission from its own funds, further driving the country into poverty. The financial burden severely disrupted food supplies and health care services. Tanzania would not fully recover from the cost of the war until Uganda paid its debt back to Tanzania in 2007.
When the TPDF began returning en masse to Tanzania, only a small number of soldiers were demobilised, contrary to public expectations. Military commanders then began making accommodations to render the wartime expansions of the army permanent, creating new units and divisional headquarters. Some in the military hierarchy expressed disapproval in light of Tanzania's bleak financial situation, and the country's depressed economy eventually forced the TPDF to disband many of the extra units. Nevertheless, the TPDF retained a large amount of officers in the standing army, with the assumption that they could be used to command militiamen in the event they needed to be called back into service. The post-war size of the TPDF remained larger than the pre-war size throughout the next decade.
Despite the PLO's involvement in the Ugandan war effort, Nyerere did not harbour any ill will towards the organisation, instead citing its isolation on the international stage as the reason for its closeness to Amin. Tanzania's relations with Libya experienced a rapprochement in 1982. The Tanzanian government strengthened its presence in Kagera after the war, bolstering its police station in Kyaka and establishing several others in border towns. For security reasons, villagers were prohibited from occupying land within of the border, though there was little oversight of this restriction over time and it was sometimes ignored by locals. In the immediate aftermath of the war the government shut down cross-border markets, resulting in shortages of goods and spikes in commodity prices. Smuggling also became rampant. Normal trade with Uganda did not resume until the 1990s. As the original demarcation posts along the Uganda–Tanzania border were removed in the war, the border dispute between the two countries remained after the conflict, but at a low intensity. Negotiations between Uganda and Tanzania on reestablishing a complete, official demarcation of the border began in 1999 and concluded successfully in 2001.
In addition, Tanzania experienced a spike in crime and communal violence, most importantly cattle raiding, as a result of the Uganda–Tanzania War. The mobilisation of tens of thousands of soldiers had a major impact on Tanzania's society, as many young men from poorer families had enjoyed the power, chance of plunder, and relatively good salaries of military life. When they were demobilised, these men usually became unemployed and plunged back into poverty due to Tanzania's struggling economic situation, resulting in rising dissatisfaction. In addition, Tanzanian soldiers had smuggled large quantities of abandoned Ugandan weaponry into their home country. Having grown accustomed to violence in the military, many veterans consequently used their guns to acquire wealth illegally. This did not just dramatically increase crime, but also led to communal tensions. Some groups were overrepresented in the TPDF; most notably, by 1978, over 50% of all Tanzanian soldiers belonged to the Kuria people, although they made up less than 1% of the country's population. There were also regional differences in the number of veterans, with some villages having many more armed ex-soldiers than others. All this contributed to power shifts, and growing inter-tribal, inter-clan, and even inter-village violence in Tanzania. There is a widespread belief among Tanzanians and among some health workers that the war contributed to the spread of AIDS across the country (though the first identified case of AIDS in Tanzania was in 1984).
Legacy
Commemoration
The 435 Tanzanian soldiers who died during the war were buried at the Kaboya Military Cemetery in Muleba District, Kagera Region. A white monument was erected in the cemetery and adorned with the names of the dead. Nyerere, Tanzanian Vice President Aboud Jumbe, Prime Minister Sokoine, Chief of Defence Forces Abdallah Twalipo, and Chama Cha Mapinduzi Executive Secretary Pius Msekwa visited the monument on 26 July 1979 to pay their respects to the dead soldiers. Another monument was built in Arusha, displaying a statue of a soldier celebrating victory. Nyerere toured Tabora, Arusha, Mtwara, Bukoba, Mwanza, Tanga, Zanzibar, Iringa, Dodoma, Dar es Salaam, and Mara to thank the Tanzanian population for its contributions to the war effort. On 1 September 1979 a series of national ceremonies were held to honour public contribution to the war effort. On 25 July 2014 Tanzania observed the 36th anniversary of the war and recognised the soldiers and civilians that died in the conflict.
After the war and until 1986, when Museveni took power, 11 April was celebrated as "Liberation Day" in Uganda. In 2002 Uganda renewed its official celebration of Amin's overthrow. In the 2000s the Ugandan Government established the Kagera Medal to be awarded to Ugandan rebels or foreigners who fought against Amin's regime between 1971 and 1979.
Historiography and documentation
Historians have paid little attention to the war and few books have been written about it. Tanzanian journalist Baldwin Mzirai published Kuzama kwa Idi Amin in 1980, which details the Tanzanian military operations of the conflict. American journalists Tony Avirgan and Martha Honey published War in Uganda: The Legacy of Idi Amin in 1983. They followed Tanzanian forces into Uganda and witnessed the battles for Entebbe and Kampala. The 11-chapter work, in addition to covering the conflict, discusses some of its political implications in Uganda. Henry R. Muhanika published an Utenzi poetic account of the war in 1981, Utenzi wa vita vya Kagera na anguko la Idi Amin Dada. In 1980 the state-owned Tanzania Film Company and the Audio Visual Institute released a colour documentary chronicling the conflict, entitled, Vita vya Kagera. It emphasised the "bravery and determination" of the Tanzanian forces. The war is known in Tanzania as the Kagera War and in Uganda as the 1979 Liberation War.
See also
List of wars involving Tanzania
List of wars involving Uganda
Notes
References
Works cited
1978 in Tanzania
1978 in Uganda
1979 in Tanzania
1979 in Uganda
Conflicts in 1978
Conflicts in 1979
Military history of Tanzania
Proxy wars
Wars involving Libya
Wars involving Mozambique
Wars involving Palestinians
Wars involving Tanzania
Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
Wars involving Uganda
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call%20Me%20When%20You%27re%20Sober
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Call Me When You're Sober
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"Call Me When You're Sober" is a song by American rock band Evanescence from their second studio album, The Open Door. It was released as the album's lead single on September 4, 2006. The track was written by Amy Lee and guitarist Terry Balsamo, and produced by Dave Fortman. A musical fusion of alternative metal, symphonic rock, and electropop, the song was inspired by the end of Lee's relationship with singer Shaun Morgan as well as Lee's other experiences at the time.
"Call Me When You're Sober" peaked at number ten on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number four on the Alternative Songs chart, and entered the top ten of several Billboard component charts. It also peaked within the top ten on multiple international charts, including the UK, Australia, Italy, Canada, and New Zealand. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America and gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association. The song received generally positive reception from music critics. Its music video was directed by Marc Webb, and depicts a metaphorical visual, drawing inspiration from the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood".
Background and composition
"Call Me When You're Sober" was written by Amy Lee and Terry Balsamo, with production by Dave Fortman. Lee and Balsamo started working on the song during their writing session in Florida; Lee played the music she was working on for the song in her room and Balsamo was working on a very different "heavy riff". Upon hearing his guitar, Lee proposed that they mix both pieces together which led to the conception of "Call Me When You're Sober".
When Lee began writing the song's melody she initially thought that the song wasn't for Evanescence, but she expressed what she wanted to say, felt it was "fresh" for her and Balsamo wrote a "badass" riff to it. She said that when writing the lyrics, she tried to "be completely clear". With it, she felt the need to "say exactly what I was feeling for so long", describing her process of creating music as a form of a therapy that gives her a medium to express the negative things that happened in her life and allows her to "turn something bad into something beautiful".
When the song was first released, it was speculated by the media that it referenced Lee's ex-boyfriend, Seether's singer Shaun Morgan. Initially reluctant to reveal the song's inspiration, Lee later confirmed it in an August 2006 interview after Morgan's announcement that he was being admitted to rehabilitation center to undergo treatment for "combination of substances". She stated: "I think it's impossible to hide how obvious it is. The day that our single hit the airwaves, my ex-boyfriend said he was going into rehab and canceled their tour. ... [The difficulties and breakup] happened sort of after I was out of the spotlight for a while and writing."
Writing the song helped Lee in the process of healing from a "painful ending to a relationship". She explained,
Lee added that she felt "brave" writing the straight-forward lyrics as she was "sick of hiding behind metaphors" in everything she had written before, and "so much of the record was about the turmoil I was going through". She was letting herself "be run down", and in the end, "had to choose happiness and health" for herself. She noted that the song was about "more than the most obvious thing", deeming it "empowering" for herself as it represents "leaving a whole world behind that was really hurting me", and "getting to the place with yourself where you're finally willing to stand up for yourself." "Sober" was also inspired by other events in her life, including people who she was working with that were "holding me down and manipulating me and betraying me", eventually leading her to make the decision to "put my foot down and walk out the door". She described the song as being "about someone in particular, but at the same time, when I was writing it, it applied to a bunch of people in my life that I was sort of severing ties with."
In 2007, after finishing his rehabilitation, Morgan said the song had "haunted" him around and negatively affected his reputation, adding that it was not pleasant to hear a song describing him as a "bad guy" that "millions of people have heard", he doesn't think it's "right to say and do those things when people break up, and she obviously felt the need to go out there and make me sound like a complete a--hole". At the time, Seether's album Finding Beauty in Negative Spaces was to be released soon and it was speculated that it would contain an answer song to "Call Me When You're Sober", with "Breakdown" initially considered one. Morgan clarified that that song was not an "angry backlash" and it was "more universal" as he was trying to be "more vague and respectful". He added that the album did not contain answer songs aimed at Lee, as "I know what the expectations are for this album and that people will be looking for that Amy Lee reference, and I am trying desperately not to have any", further noting how any references would be instead about another relationship of his that had recently ended.
In an October 2006 interview, Lee had expressed "no intention of hurting [Morgan]" when writing the song, and said that once the song came out without any metaphors, she wanted to keep it. She said she supports Morgan in his rehabilitation and is "really happy for him." In 2011, Lee described "Call Me When You're Sober" as "mostly a chick anthem", and deemed it empowering for female listeners of their fandom based on the response she had received from them. In retrospect, Lee mentioned in 2016, "I love this song because it has this fun spirit that was new for us as a band. You can still be heavy with a smile on your face."
According to the sheet music published by Alfred Publishing on the website Musicnotes.com, "Call Me When You're Sober" was written in the key of E minor. Lee's vocal range in the song spans from the low note of G3 to the high note of Eb5. Music journalists identified various genres in "Call Me When You're Sober", including symphonic rock, soul, electropop, piano balladry, nu metal, hard rock, and R&B. The New York Times said the song starts off as a "piano ballad, swerves into hard rock, then builds to a grandiose pop-orchestral refrain, and later on a glorious, glimmering bridge." Blabbermouth.net described it as a "fusion of crunching guitars and wistful piano breaks". Los Angeles Times suggested that the song had influence from singer Erykah Badu, one of Lee's female artist inspirations.
Lyrically, "Call Me When You're Sober" depicts the difficult situation of a female protagonist dealing with the behavior of a lover with substance addiction; she eventually decides to move away from this dysfunctional relationship. Andree Farias from Christianity Today said the song was "self-explanatory". Blender characterized it as a "sassy, almost flirtatious kiss-off to a manipulative lover." St. Louis Post-Dispatch called it a "scathing missive" in which Lee doesn't "hide her still-raw emotions". The Courier-Mails Jason Nahrung felt that the song was the album's most radio-friendly track, featuring "heavy bass and drums, spotless and lavish production and Lee's unmistakable vocals". Kerrang! described it as "an unusually transparent, autobiographical dissection of [Lee's] abortive relationship" and a "tough-love song insistent that she won't be brought down by anyone else's addictions". Hartford Courants Eric Danton said that Lee asserts that "she will not be pushed around anymore". The line "make up your mind" repeated in the song's chorus is replaced with "I've made up your mind" at the end, indicating that the protagonist has moved on, realizing her worth.
Release
The song had a limited radio release as the album's first single on July 31, 2006, which was followed by a wider release the following week. Wind-up Records serviced the song to radio in August 2006. The recording was made available for digital download on September 4, 2006, and a physical release as a single followed on September 25.
Critical reception
The song received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics. Ed Thompson of IGN picked the song as one of the album's highlights. A writer from The Boston Globe deemed the song the album's "hard-charging opening salvo". AllMusics Stephen Thomas Erlewine regarded it as one of the album's three highlights, saying that it has structure, hooks and momentum. In his review of The Open Door for the Hartford Courant, Eric R. Danton observed that Lee was more certain and in charge of the whole album, which he found to be exemplified on the "terse rocker" with an "acerbic message" that is "Call Me When You're Sober". Nicholas Fonseca of Entertainment Weekly called "Call Me When You're Sober" an "angry-goth anthem". Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone said Lee's "big bodice-ripping voice" is over the top on the song, which suits it. A Billboard writer deemed the song an "anthemic grinder" in which "Lee's vocal is other-worldly and the song's overall impact is strong, however, there's really nothing new going on".
Metal Edge wrote of the track, "fans might be surprised by the R&B-flavoured vocal melody and piano chords that introduce [the song]. But it’s not really a stretch once those crunchy guitars kick in, and the soulful chorus breaks new ground for the band without straying from its signature style." The New York Times Kelefa Sanneh praised Lee's vocal performance calling it "terrific", adding that the song "crashes through different styles while remaining diabolically hummable". A writer for Canada.com concluded that Evanescence showed their "staying power" on the "biting single". In his review, Don Kaye of Blabbermouth.net called it a "blunt emotional assessment" and a "huge, dramatic, sweeping number, complete with massive hooks and a powerful, fearless performance from Lee". Bryan Reesman of Metal Hammer said the song highlights Lee's songwriting talents. Kerrang!s Sam Law deemed the song a "watershed of confidence and catharsis, with the genre-mashing ... emphasising a talent finally unbound", and complimented the "rich backing vocals to an already-luxuriant mix."
"Call Me When You're Sober" was ranked at number 86 on the annual poll Pazz & Jop collected by The Village Voice in 2006. Conversely, it was included in a list of The Most Annoying Songs of 2006 compiled by ABC News. The track was nominated in the category for Favorite Rock Song at the 33rd People's Choice Awards. In 2011, Loudwire journalist Mary Ouellette, placed the song at number two on her list of 10 Best Evanescence Songs. She called it a "perfectly crafted ode to an ex-boyfriend" with an "undeniably addictive melody", and thematically relatable to "anyone who's ever been in a dicey relationship". In 2016, Brittany Porter from AXS listed it at number four on her list of the band's 10 best songs.
Chart performance
On the week ending September 2, 2006, "Call Me When You're Sober" debuted at number 25 and 11 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and Hot Digital Songs charts, respectively. The following week, it moved to its peak position of number 10 on the Hot 100, becoming the greatest sell gainer for that chart issue, and Evanescence's third top ten single on the chart. It remained on the Hot 100 for a total of 22 weeks, last seen at number 35. Furthermore, the single peaked in the top ten of several other Billboard charts in the US; on the Adult Pop Songs chart it attained the position of six for the week ending of November 11, 2006, and on the Mainstream Top 40 it peaked at number seven for the week ending November 25, 2006. It additionally peaked at numbers four and five on the Hot Modern Rock Tracks and Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks charts, respectively. The single ranked at number 77 on the Hot 100 year-end chart for 2006. It was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) on February 17, 2009, for selling more than one million copies in the US.
Internationally, "Call Me When You're Sober" charted within the top ten in many countries. The song debuted at number 32 on the UK Singles Chart on the chart issue dated September 30, 2006. The following week, it moved to number four, its peak position on the chart; with this feat, the song became the band's fourth top ten and second top five single in the UK. It spent a total of eight weeks on the UK Singles Chart and was last ranked at number 69 on the chart issue dated November 11, 2006. The song ranked at number 139 on the country's year-end chart. On September 21, 2006, it debuted in Italy at its peak position of number three, where it spent an additional week. It charted for six weeks in the country's top ten. Other European countries where the single entered the top ten of the charts include Switzerland, where it peaked at number six, Austria and Finland where it peaked at number seven, and the Netherlands where it peaked at number nine.
In Australia, the song debuted at number five on the ARIA Singles Chart on October 1, 2006, and spent the following week at that same position. It fell to number seven on October 15, 2006, and it spent additional three weeks there. The song was last seen at number 44 on February 4, 2007, having spent a total of 18 weeks in the top 40 of the chart. At the end of 2006, the single emerged as the thirty-second best-selling single on the country's year-end chart. It ranked at number five on the list of most played songs in Australia in 2007. The Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) awarded the single with a gold certification in 2006 for shipment of 35,000 copies in that country. In New Zealand, "Call Me When You're Sober" debuted at number nine on the New Zealand Singles Chart on September 18, 2006. It climbed to number four the following week and peaked at number three on the chart issue dated October 2, 2006. It spent a total of 18 weeks in the chart's top thirty, before exiting on January 15, 2007.
Music video
The music video for the song was directed by Marc Webb and filmed in Hollywood, Los Angeles in July 2006 with a 400.000$ budget. The video was inspired by the fairy tale "Little Red Riding Hood", with Lee calling it a "modern re-imagining" of that story with a "more cool, superhero, rock and roll" protagonist. In an interview with MTV News, Lee talked about the concept behind the clip, noting that with the song's literal lyrics and title, "we felt like the video would have the freedom to go in a less literal direction". Actor Oliver Goodwill plays the Big Bad Wolf. Several real wolves were used when filming the video, accompanied by four trainers. While on set, Lee started having an allergic reaction to the animals but managed to continue performing and petting them. Webb approached her with the idea of doing something akin to a choreography where she would walk down the stairs, surrounded by several female dancers to which Lee agreed. According to footage from the behind-the-scenes clip from the music video, the director also proposed to Lee to straddle her lover in the video, but she, opposed to selling sex, refused, jokingly saying: "You can't blame a guy for trying."
The clip premiered on MTV in the United States on August 7, 2006. It became a hit on MTV's Total Request Live, charting 35 times and topping the countdown nine times. Corey Moss of MTV News concluded that the visual was "an abstract take on somewhat literal lyrics". Kelefa Saneh from The New York Times interpreted the clip as a metaphor, observing how despite being among wolves, Lee does not appear to be intimidated by them. News Limited writer Kathy McCabe felt that Little Red Riding Hood was the "perfect role for the gothrock goddess". Kerrang called it an "unforgettable" music video in which Lee "takes back control from The Big Bad Wolf". The clip for the song was ranked at number ten on VH1's list of Top 40 Videos of 2006. It was nominated in the category for Best International Video by a group at the 2007 MuchMusic Video Awards. The clip also received a nomination in the category for Best Video at the 2007 NRJ Music Awards.
Live performances
Evanescence performed "Call Me When You're Sober" during the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2, 2011. On April 11, 2012, the band performed the song at the 2012 Revolver Golden Gods Awards in Los Angeles.
Usage in media
In June 2009, "Bring Me to Life", "Call Me When You're Sober" and "Weight of the World" were included in the video game Rock Band as downloadable songs. The following year, the song was also included on the iOS game Rock Band Reloaded. "Call Me When You're Sober" was also used in the Nintendo DS soundtrack for the game Band Hero (2009).
Personnel
Credits are adapted from The Open Door liner notes.
Vocals, piano – Amy Lee
Guitar – Terry Balsamo
Guitar – John LeCompt
Bass – Tim McCord
Drums – Rocky Gray
Production, mixing – Dave Fortman
Programming – DJ Lethal
Additional programming – Amy Lee, John LeCompt
Engineering – Jeremy Parker
Mastering – Ted Jensen
Background vocals – Carrie Lee and Lori Lee
Track listing and formats
UK Enhanced 2-CD Single
CD one:
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Album version) - 3:34
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Acoustic version) - 3:37
CD two:
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Album version) - 3:34
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Acoustic version) - 3:37
"Making of the Video" (Video clip) - 5:20
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Music video) - 3:33
UK 7" Vinyl single
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Album version) - 3:34
"Call Me When You're Sober" (Acoustic version) - 3:37
Charts
Weekly charts
Year-end charts
Certifications
See also
List of Billboard Hot 100 top 10 singles in 2006
List of UK top 10 singles in 2006
References
2000s ballads
2006 singles
2006 songs
Electropop ballads
Evanescence songs
Hard rock ballads
Music videos directed by Marc Webb
Songs written by Amy Lee
Songs written by Terry Balsamo
Wind-up Records singles
Symphonic rock songs
Electropop songs
Works based on Little Red Riding Hood
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Sakura%20Wars%20characters
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List of Sakura Wars characters
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This article is a list of fictional characters from the Sakura Wars series. The visuals of the characters were created by Kōsuke Fujishima and designed by Hidenori Matsubara, while their scenarios were written by Satoru Akahori.
The names of the various troupes/divisions of the Imperial Combat Revue (e.g., flower, star, moon, wind) are modeled on those of the Takarazuka Kagekidan (Takarazuka Revue). Similarly, the names of the troupe members are often patterned on the name of the troupe—flowers in the Flower Division and the Paris Combat Revue, celestial bodies in the Star Division (the New York Combat Revue also uses celestial bodies). The naming patterns are likely the work of Akahori, who uses such throughout most of his creations (e.g., in Sorcerer Hunters and Saber Marionette J).
Protagonists
Ichiro Ogami
Voiced by (Japanese): Akio Suyama
Voiced by (English): Brian Gaston (OVAs), Corey M. Gagne (TV) (ADV Films), Daniel Katsük (FUNimation for Sakura Wars: École de Paris)
He was chosen to head the Flower Division when he proved himself capable during a test of a Koubu prototype. Kayama was with him during that time, but eventually Ogami was sent to work with the Flower Division, as Kayama worked with the Moon Division. In the TV series, he temporarily assumed the role of Assistant Commander. Originally an ensign, he was later promoted to lieutenant junior grade. Ogami was later given the Shintou-Mekkyaku, one of the four spiritual swords, by an injured Yoneda after he awoke from a coma. Later he and Sakura came to possess the Shinken-Shirahadori and Koutou-Mukei spiritual swords to carry out the Ni-ken Ni-tou no Gi. Though Ogami is the primary protagonist of the Sakura Wars games, he plays a minor role in the anime and manga adaptions.
Seijuro Kamiyama
Voiced by (Japanese): Yohei Azakami
Voiced by (English): Ian Sinclair
Imperial Combat Revue
Flower Division (Imperial Combat Revue)
Sakura Shinguji
Voiced by (Japanese): Chisa Yokoyama
Voiced by (English): Amber Allison (Sakura Wars 1 OVA), Katherine Catmull (Sakura Wars 2 OVA) (both ADV Films), Jenny Larson (Sakura Wars TV)
As the daughter of Kazuma Shinguji, the hero of the last demon war, and heir to both the spiritual power and the swordsmanship of the Shinguji family, she was summoned to Tokyo by General Yoneda sometime after the formation of the Flower Division. Struggling to adapt to life in the metropolis after arriving from rural Sendai, she is further troubled by trying to integrate with the already established members of the Flower Division.
Often seen as either clumsy or a country yokel by many of the other members when she first arrives, she steadily increases in skill and confidence to become one of the strongest of the group. Other than her open and friendly personality, the main benefits she brings to the group are the Shinguji family's hereditary power to defeat evil and the Reiken-Arataka. Her uniform is light pink.
Sumire Kanzaki
Voiced by (Japanese): Michie Tomizawa
Voiced by (English): Sascha Biesi (Sakura Wars 1 OVA), Lauren Zinn (Sakura Wars 2 OVA) (both ADV Films), Leigh Anderson Fisher (Sakura Wars TV), Christiana Yuuki, (FUNimation), Michelle Ruff (Bandai/Geneon, Sakura Wars the Animation)
An established selfish actress of great talent and self-professed star of the Flower Division, Sumire is arrogant and conceited, perhaps because she was raised as a spoiled brat, with her father and grandfather being good-hearted yet very workaholic. Despite her attitude, she is a skilled pilot and highly capable of wielding a naginata, and can sometimes be rather wise. She is a daughter born into the elite Kanzaki industrial clan, whose factory produced the Koubu. Her uniform is purple. She returns in Shin Sakura Taisen Animation Series to become the overall manager for the new Teikoku Kagekidan.
It is thought that she is named after the well-known Takarazuka member Sumire Haruno.
Maria Tachibana
()
Voiced by (Japanese): Urara Takano
Voiced by (English): Catherine Berry (ADV Films), Kelsey Kling (Sakura Wars TV), Jane Alan (Bandai/Geneon, Funimation))
A veteran of the Russian Revolution, Maria is the only member of the Flower Division with prior experience of military tactics and warfare. This experience is why she was chosen to be the original leader of the group. However, though her struggles in Russia have left her an expert marksman and skilled tactician, she also becomes coldly logical and unwilling to interact with others on an emotional level, which leads to being labeled "Kazuar" (, meaning "cassowary"). After a series of setbacks, it is decided that Ichiro Ogami should replace her as leader, with Maria remaining as his second. After an initial period of friction between the pair when Ogami arrives, Maria's attitude begins to turn slightly, though she still remains the most coldly emotional of the group. Sakura looks up at Maria very much at the beginning. Her uniform is Navy Blue.
Iris Châteaubriand
Voiced by (Japanese): Kumiko Nishihara
Voiced by (English): Jessica Schwartz (OAV1, OAV2), Evita Arce (Sakura Wars TV Ep.1-9), Larissa Wolcott (Sakura Wars TV Ep.10-25), Carrie Savage (Sakura Wars: The Movie and Sakura Wars: Sumire)
Born into an aristocratic family somewhere in France (in the state of Champagne), Iris typically wears a green gown with white apron and pink ribbon on her hair and carries her teddy bear Jean Paul around with her. Both her uniform and Kobu is yellow. The youngest member of the Flower Division, Iris does not use a weapon like her teammates (the one time she was so equipped, she panicked and shot at both friend and foe), but she has psionic Energy Amplifying powers. She can heal her teammates with her Marionette ability. Because of this, she is the core of the Haja no Jin spiritual barricade formation. She is also capable of teleportation. She says that when she is 20 years old, she will marry Ogami. Her parents apparently kept her locked in her room for a long time, scared by her psychic abilities, until Ayame came up to them and offered to take Iris to Japan.
Kohran Li
()
Voiced by (Japanese): Yuriko Fuchizaki
Voiced by (English): Boni Hester (ADV Films), Samantha Inoue-Harte (Sakura Wars TV), Dorothy Elias-Fahn (credited as Annie Pastrano for Sakura Wars: The Movie) (Bandai/Geneon, FUNimation)
Place of origin: Peking, China
Cheerful, and good humoured, Kohran is mechanically inclined and loves to work with the koubu. She works as the stage manager of the Flower Division. A running joke in the series is that Kohran's inventions are rather accident-prone, often backfiring or blowing up in her face. She sometimes uses Ogami as a guinea pig to test her inventions, with predictably hilarious results when the inventions blow up during testing. Despite her cheerful attitude, she also has a serious side regarding her past; a bandit raid killed her parents and was said to be the only survivor during the village fire. She idolizes the creator of the Koubu, Shinnosuke Yamazaki. Her uniform is green.
Kanna Kirishima
Voiced by (Japanese): Mayumi Tanaka
Voiced by (English): Sheila Gordon (Sakura Wars 1 OVA), Lane West (Sakura Wars 2 OVA) (both ADV Films), Lee Eddy (Sakura Wars TV), Mary Elizabeth McGlynn (credited as Melissa Williamson) (Bandai/Geneon, FUNimation)
Always hungry and tomboyish, the fairly easygoing Kanna serves as the group's raw muscle. Kanna is the master of a Martial Arts style that allows her to easily kill a bull with her bare hands. While normally brave, she is afraid of snakes. She sometimes gets into an argument with Sumire over their differences in attitude. Her uniform is red.
Orihime Soletta
Voiced by (Japanese): Maya Okamoto
Voiced by (English): Jessica Smolins (ADV Films), Melissa Fahn (credited as Tina Dixon) (Bandai/Geneon, FUNimation)
An extremely beautiful Italian-Japanese girl, Orihime was at first cordial to all of her teammates—except for Ōgami. The reason she holds a grudge against Ogami is because her Japanese father, Seiya Ogata, abandoned her; after that, she despised all Japanese men, thinking them unreliable. However, Ogami managed to eventually reunite her with Ogata, with whom she made peace, and Orihime and Ogami become close friends. Her uniform is magenta.
Reni Milchstraße
Voiced by (Japanese): Kazue Ikura
Voiced by (English): Kelley Huston (ADV Films), Mona Marshall (Bandai/Geneon, FUNimation)
As a young child in Germany, Reni was part of a program that created high spirit power children called "wunderkind" (translated from German as "Miracle Child"). Because of that project, Reni is so distant and tomboyish that everyone initially thought she was a boy. With Oogami and everyone else's support however, she becomes more open, and gets along well with Iris.
Mentioned in the ADV Sakura Wars TV pamphlet Leni has great battlefield tactic knowledge and is a gifted ballerina. It is possible that she is named after Leni Riefenstahl, a German filmmaker whose most famous work was "Triumph of the Will". Her uniform is blue.
Flower Division (Sakura Wars (2019))
Sakura Amamiya
Voiced by (Japanese): Ayane Sakura
Voiced by (English): Cherami Leigh
Hatsuho Shinonome
Voiced by (Japanese): Maaya Uchida
Voiced by (English): Amber Lee Connors
Clarissa Snowflake
Voiced by (Japanese): Saori Hayami
Voiced by (English): Amanda Gish
Anastasia Palma
Voiced by (Japanese): Ayaka Fukuhara
Voiced by (English): Stephanie Young
Azami Mochizuki
Voiced by (Japanese): Hibiku Yamamura
Voiced by (English): Sarah Wiedenheft
Wind Division
The Wind Division (風組) is the support unit for the Flower Division. The members assist in the running of the Imperial Theater, and act as bridge crew during combat operations, also piloting the Shogei-Maru (an airship) and Gourai-Gou (a high-speed underground transport train). They were known to have crashed the Shogei-maru into the enemy stronghold to "inject" the Flower Division inside. They are also known as the "Teigeki Sannin Musume" (Three Little Maids of the Imperial Theater).
Voiced by (Japanese): Akemi Okamura
Voiced by (English): Jessica L. Wilson (OVA 1), Meg Bauman (OVA 2), Monica Bustamante (TV), Karen Strassman (Movie), Mona Marshall (Sumire)
Voiced by (Japanese): Yuki Masuda
Voiced by (English): Elise Ivy (OVA 1), Kelly Dealyn (OVA 2), Elia Nichols (TV), Lynn Fischer (Movie, Sumire)
Voiced by (Japanese): Kyoko Hikami
Voiced by (English): Shelby Johnson-Sapp (OVA 1), Cassie Fitzgerald (OVA 2, TV), Philece Sampler (Movie), Sara Nicole (Sumire)
Wind Division (Sakura Wars (2019))
Voiced by (Japanese): Yui Ishikawa
Voiced by (English): Monica Rial
Voiced by (Japanese): Ryoko Shiraishi
Voiced by (English): Tia Ballard
Moon Division
Voiced by (Japanese): Takehito Koyasu
Voiced by (English): B. Michael Rains (ADV Films), Steven Blum (Bandai/Geneon), Keith Silverstein (NIS America)
Graduating from the same naval academy as Ichiro Ōgami at the same time, Kayama was intended as the original replacement for Maria as leader of the Flower Division. However, after it was found that his above average spiritual power was still not enough to power a Kōbu, General Yoneda found a different use for him. Given command of the Moon Division, or "Moon Division" (the reconnaissance and intelligence unit for the Flower Division), Kayama's role is to carry out any and all covert missions for the general. As part of his duties he is often seen in disguise, whilst discreetly passing on information to Yoneda. He has some limited psychic abilities, including being able to induce hallucinations in others, according to the anime. This was done in the TV series. An illusion was placed on Blue Setsuna. He works well with Kaede Fujieda, and frequently talks to her, when he has time, as seen in the second OVA adaptation.
Moon Division (Sakura Wars (2019))
Voiced by (Japanese): Mayu Yoshioka
Voiced by (English): Alexis Tipton
Voiced by (Japanese): Haruka Terui
Voiced by (English): Caitlin Glass
Dream Division
The Dream Division is a group of women who have strong psychic abilities who provide psychic reinforcement from afar to the Teito Kagekidan when they are in battle. Another function of the Dream Division is to perform psychic research on recovered artifacts, though this can occasionally trigger a brutal response from their enemies. They never appeared in the games, but they do appear in the film and anime television series.
Rose Division
The Rose Division are the self-styled "Evil Spirit Defense Forces" and the self-styled "Secret Corps of Love and Beauty." The members are all okama. The Rose Division are attached to the army and live in the basement of the Imperial Theatre where the shows are held. Kotone and Kikunojō have a more prominent role in the stage version of the show. They often feature in the plot, have their own songs and dance numbers, and in later shows participate in the "play-within-a-play" as secondary actors.
Voiced by (Japanese): Kazuki Yao
Voiced by (English): Liam O'Brien (Bandai/Geneon)
The commanding officer of the Rose Division, he has the rank of army captain. He is the most skilled fighter of the group. His name is that of a woman's and he is very flamboyant in dress and attitude. Of the three members of his unit, he is the only one who dresses in men's clothing.
Voiced by (Japanese): Taiki Matsuno
A second lieutenant who dresses in the tight-skirted army uniform meant for women, and who at first glance resembles a girl. He has a crush on Ōgami.
Voiced by (Japanese): Daisuke Gōri
Voiced by (English): Jamieson Price (Bandai/Geneon)
An army sergeant who has very muscular physique and a deep voice. "Yokiko" uses woman's language, wears make-up, and dresses in the female military uniform.
Maiden Division
The Maiden Division are a troupe of young girls who were chosen for their potential to eventually become Koubu pilots. In an effort to raise their spiritual powers to the level needed to control the koubu they are trained in theatrical arts. The Maiden Division were at hand when Tokyo was attacked by a mysterious organization, known only as Yami Mono or the Dark Ones, while the Flower Division was away. They appeared only in the musical "Hanasaku Otome" and were portrayed by the girls of the Minami Aoyama Show-jo Kagekidan.
Voiced by (Japanese): Saeko Chiba
Haruka is an orphan and the older sister of Tsubomi. She is a bit klutzy and is generally made fun of by her fellow Otome-gumi members. Although it is stated early in the play that she is spiritually the weakest member of the group, eventually it is revealed she has the most raw spiritual power but just does not know how to manifest it.
Command & Support
Voiced by (Japanese): Masaru Ikeda
Voiced by (English): Bill McMillin (ADV Films), David Orosco (Bandai/Geneon, FUNimation)
He is one of four original members of the Anti-Kouma Unit, a precursor of the Imperial Capital Defense. He went on to become the commanding general of the Imperial Combat Revue, and at the same time acting as the manager for their other persona. He is almost never seen without a bottle of sake in hand. By the end of the fourth game, he retires and appoints Ohgami as his successor.
Voiced by (Japanese): Ai Orikasa
Voiced by (English): Amy L. Gambler (ADV Films)
Another former member of the Anti-Descended Evil Unit, she works closely as a talent scout for the Imperial Capital Dramatic Troupe. She was responsible for bringing Li Kohran from Shanghai, Maria Tachibana from New York and Iris Châteaubriand from France over to Japan. Ayame is a talented linguist, having spoken no less than four languages and two regional dialects during her time in the series. She is known to speak English, Japanese (Kanto and Okinawa dialects), French, and Chinese (it is unknown whether it is Mandarin or Cantonese she is speaking). She may also possess a basic understanding of Russian. She did not die in the TV series.
Voiced by (Japanese): Ai Orikasa
Voiced by (English): Meredith May (ADV Films), Lia Sargent (Bandai/Geneon)
Ayame's little sister, she comes to Japan, around the same time as Orihime and Leni, for Kaede was originally Deputy Commander to the short-lived European Star Division, stepping in her older sister's shoes after her death. Kaede is seen as the more "Independent" and less conservative of the two.
Voiced by (Japanese): Tomokazu Sugita
Voiced by (English): Zeno Robinson
Council of Elders
Voiced by (Japanese): Kōichi Kitamura
Voiced by (English): Michael McConnohie (Bandai/Geneon)
Yoritsune Hanakōji is a prominent Count (Hakushaku) who secretly finances the operations of the Imperial Combat Revue.
Paris Combat Revue
Flower Division (Paris Combat Revue)
Erica Fontaine
Voiced by (Japanese): Noriko Hidaka
Voiced by (English): Caitlin Glass (FUNimation)
A sixteen-year-old nun in training, and a cabaret dancer for Chattes Noires at night. A devout Christian, who genuinely wants to help people in need, however, because of her clumsy nature, those who receive her help often ends up with more trouble. She sometimes mistakes her dreams and imagination as reality, and acts on it, creating havoc. In the game, she frequently walks into a billboard, hitting her head. Once, during the game, when her true spiritual powers awaken, she takes on a serious, divine personality.
She has a great interest in Japan and its culture, although her knowledge is often anachronistic, or wrong. She asks Ogami about Japan many times in the game. Her favorite food is pudding. Her hobbies are: bible reading, prayer, helping people, and machine gun shooting. She carries two cross-shaped machine guns named "Raphael" and "Gabriel", concealed inside her skirt.
When she was young, her parents died in an accident, in which she survived by accidentally using her special powers. Afraid that people who have seen her powers will think ill of her, she decides to live and become a nun in a church ran by Father Leno. She genuinely tries to help others in need, yet her clumsiness almost always creates more trouble. For example; when asked by Father Leno to clean the sanctuary, she ends up destroying the Virgin Mary statue, when she was in charge of clearing the weed near the church, she ends up plucking out the flower bed, and when she was in charge of the cooking, and she cooked up a dish that was inedible. Because of such action, she was actually asked to leave the convent but due to her misunderstanding and impression of Leno's saying, she stayed there for six more months.
In Sakura Taisen: École De Paris, Grand-Mère first meets her in a church seeing her praying with angel wings and she became the first Paris Flower Division. But after one year of training, she still slacks much to Grand-Mère's dismay. She makes friends with Glycine and recruits Glycine as the second member, after saving her. It is also shown that she gets her infamous wake-up maracas dance from Father Leno. When Erica is arrested as an accomplice of Lobelia due to Lobelia's lie, Erica wonders what Lobelia meant by having pleasure in the morning with men. Father Leno, being at a loss for an answer, tells her that men and women dance in the morning to show gratitude to God.
When Ogami came to Paris, she was the first member to meet him during a commotion in the European exposition ground. In the chapter where the Teito members (Maria, Kanna and Kohran) came to Paris as coaches to coach the Paris Flower Division, she failed all the drills. However, the coaches felt that her spiritual powers have not been awakened. During this chapter, Father Leno comes to Ogami and asks him to tell Erica to leave the convent, due to Erica's clumsiness creating more havoc. Having heard their conversation, compounded by her failure in the drills earlier, she feels she is no longer needed anywhere. With nowhere to stay or go, she wanders around the raining city until Ogami finds her. She falls sick and ends up staying in Ogami's place, where Ogami notices her enormous spiritual powers. The next day, although she hesitates at first to come back to Chattes Noires, the rest of the Paris Flower Division manages to convince Erica to come back, by making a fake emergency call. But a few minutes later, a real attack on Chattes Noires occurs. During this attack, her spiritual power awakens when she tries to save her friends from being killed by Corbeau. In the end, Erica is given a room in the attic of Chattes Noires.
Erica is always seen smiling and trying to cheer up everyone. In Sakura Taisen Le Nouveau Paris, due to the nature of the game Sakura Taisen, a debate occurs amongst the Flower Division members as to whom the next captain of the Flower Division should be. At first, each member feels that Ogami chose herself as the next captain, however, in the end Erica is chosen as the Captain of the Paris Flower Division by the member themselves, though she still has her perky and clumsy attitude. This ends up being temporary as Erica resigns from the captain post in the end when she realizes the captains of the kagekidans generally end up being servants to the kagekidan members' whims, and Grand-Mère notes that the Paris Combat Revue does not need a captain to guide them to defend Paris.
Glycine Bleumer
Voiced by (Japanese): Saeko Shimazu
Voiced by (English): Colleen Clinkenbeard (FUNimation)
The daughter and sole heir of the Bleumer family, a great noble of Normandy descent. Her personality is aggressive, due to her Viking blood. She is preoccupied as to how a noble should act and contribute to society. She is also extremely proud with talent to back it up, and does not hesitate to hard work to gain such talent. A very responsible and reliable member of the Flower Division. She is a good friend to Kitaoji Hanabi, who lives in the Bleumer family palace. She loves small animals (revealed in the dating event in Chapter 6), and has humanity to protect the weak.
Because of her pride as the protector of Paris, both as a noble and a member of the Flower Division; she, at first, does not think that a foreigner such as Ogami could protect Paris. However, as she sees the genuine nature in Ogami, she starts to respect Ogami as the captain of the Flower Division.
There is a "Bridegroom Test" for the Bluemer Family, which requires excellent intelligence, battle skills, and blood line, to be accepted as the "Complete and Perfect" bridegroom for Glycine. Ogami passed the test.
Due to what appeared to Glycine as a lack of pride in Ogami, she had an argument with him and eventually a duel. Ogami loses (Since he was worried of attacking her when she lost her balance) and becomes a temporary maid for the Bleumer family. Later, she was proposed to another noble named Count Richie. But Ogami manages to expose his true identity by challenging him to a duel and winning. Watching the duel, she thinks that Ogami lost to her on purpose. In the end, she respects Ogami after another argument with him and finds out the true meaning of nobility.
She has a personal head maid named Tarebou and always sneaks out the house with multiple excuses while she works in Chattes Noires as "Blue Eyes" to conceal her identity. In the game, Ogami is asked to help her get out of a Bleumer traditional event, where octopus, which she hates, is served. According to Grand-Mère, if they used her real name, the Bleumer family will come storming into Chattes Noires for making their only daughter a cabaret dancer.
Coquelicot
Voiced by (Japanese): Etsuko Kozakura
Voiced by (English): Monica Rial (FUNimation)
An orphan from Annam (current Vietnam) who was raised up as a young magician in a circus. She works and lives with a circus named "Circus De Europe". She was always seen collecting leftovers in the town market and treating the circus animals as her friends. Even though she was treated badly by the ringmaster and always seen smiling all the time, yet she is actually trying to hide her sad feelings of loneness. During the first encounter with Ogami, she first refers to him as "Oji-san" (which in Japanese means "Old man") yet later she calls him Ichiro all the time. After Ogami notice her background in the circus, he felt pity of her.
Soon, a new performer named Karuchera joins in the circus. She heard her stories of her losing her daughter, assuming that both are in the same boat, she decides to call her "Mama". The truth is that Karuchera is actually Python in her human form (see her profile). Luckily, Ogami and Erica reveals her true identity and she manage to chase her away when Python taken her as hostage. As she used up all her powers and brought back to Chattes Noires, Grand-Mère intends to take her as a member of the Flower Division but Ogami tells Grand-Mère to let her decide since she has a sorrowful background, not knowing that she was already awake. In the end, she becomes a member of the Paris Flower Division. After the Paris Flower Division kills Python, she works as the ringmaster (after the original Ringmaster is murdered by Python) in the morning and as a magician in Chattes Noires. Like Erica, she does not use any stage name to cover her identity.
In Sakura Taisen: Le Nouveau Paris, she assumes that she and Hanabi does not have any parents until Masamichi Kitaoji, Hanabi's father comes during their turn for a lookout for the grave robber. She even saves everyone from getting suspected by Masamichi by telling him that Hanabi, her and the rest of the gang are working in the circus since Kagekidan can either mean "Combat Revue" or "Entertainment Troupe", after Erica accidentally spills out their true identity. But during Hanabi's performance, Évian spills out their working place, Chattes Noires, and Masamichi volunteer to get onto the stage. Assuming that he will take her back, she tells him that she will not let her take her back to Japan and a few parental speech. But it turns out otherwise as he is actually wants to see her smile.
Lobelia Carlini
Voiced by (Japanese): Kikuko Inoue
Voiced by (English): Ashley Moynihan (FUNimation)
A thief, who was sentenced to one thousand years of confinement for her numerous crimes. Because eighty percent of the criminal incident in Paris was her doing, she was called the greatest in Paris. She has a tendency to use any means to achieve her goal: she used her spiritual powers to commit her crimes, and burned a famous painting when the enemy tried to use it as a bargaining chip (when asked how she knew the painting she had destroyed was a fake, Lobelia replies that she did not know). Born between a Romanian father and an Italian mother.
When the Paris Flower Division members are being led into the prison, where she was detained, to recruit her, she takes Erica as hostage. However, because of Erica's comical yet sincere approach, she was confused and captured off guard. Even though Erica was taken hostage by her, Erica manages to heal her wounds, much to her surprise.
The only anti-hero throughout the three Flower Division, she joins the Paris Flower Division under the condition that her sentence would be reduced and a huge reward would be given with each dispatch (on the other hand, if she refuses to join, Grand-Mère has the right to do as she pleases, even to kill her).
She hesitates to intimate interaction with people, and often acts cold, selfish and irresponsible, in order to keep people from becoming close to her. However, to Erica, those actions had no effect. Because Erica keeps approaching her as a normal person worthy of attention, and because she cannot stop Erica from doing so, she has a hard time dealing with Erica. Even so, she does care for Erica. In Chapter 7 of the game, she baked a birthday cake for Erica, and in Chapter 8, contrary to her words, she searches for Erica.
Sakura Taisen: École De Paris shows how Lobelia and Erica first met; Lobelia, while being chased by the police, accidentally knocks Erica into a pile of trash. It also shows how she is captured before being recruited. After the attempt by Grand-Mère to capture her fails, Norimichi Sakomizu shoots a spiritual bullet through her heart. Because of her powers, she is only temporary paralyzed. After refusing an offer by Ogami, she is finally recruited by Grand-Mère.
She dances a gypsy dance as "Saphir" at Chattes Noires. Her dancing is very good, making detective Évian a fan. She likes gambling and has extensive knowledge of whiskey and wine.
She uses a chain connected to her right arm as a whip, and also can conjure flame with her spiritual power. Her spiritual armor is equipped with a huge claw. Her Koubu-F originally had one huge extendable claw, but it was later revamped to the Koubu-F2 which had both arms instead of one equipped with the weapon.
Hanabi Kitaoji
Voiced by (Japanese): Yoshino Takamori
Voiced by (English): Elise Baughman (FUNimation)
A very quiet and shy girl who came to Paris for her studies. Because the House of Kitaoji and the House of Bleumer are old acquaintances, the Bleumer family took care of her after her father Baron Kitaoji Masamichi left Paris. She has been good friends with Glycine since boarding school.
Because she has lived most of her life in France, she has a strong interest in Japan. She is well versed in Japanese manners and arts, however, her knowledge, although accurate, is mostly based on purely formal traditional manners gathered from books. Because of this, in comparison with the Teito Flower Division members, she is the closest to the typical image of the traditional Japanese woman (reserved, refined, and obedient to men). She dances at Chattes Noires as "Tatamisée Jeune" (roughly meaning a traditional "Japanese girl" in French).
She has aquaphobia, because of the trauma of losing her fiancé Philippe de Malebranche, in a ship wreck, on her wedding day. She wears a black dress as a mourning dress. She frequently visits Philippe's grave.
In Sakura Taisen: Le Nouveau Paris, Masamichi Kitaoji, Hanabi's father, comes to Paris for a surprise visit. During a mission as the Paris Flower Division, she and Coquelicot encounter him in front of Phillipe's grave. Although usually calm and composed, in trying to keep her involvement with the Paris Combat Revue a secret, she panics and starts finishing her father's sentence. In the game, while teaching Ogami Japanese Calligraphy, Ogami spills ink on his shirt. She starts taking off his shirt to prevent the stain, until she realized what she was doing.
Command & Support
Isabel "Grand-Mère" Lilac
Voiced by (Japanese): Keiko Aizawa
Voiced by (English): Juli Erickson
The owner of Chattes Noires and the commander of the Paris Combat Revue. She has channels to the French government. She is a very calm mature woman, yet has a sharp tongue. She has a black cat named Napoleon. She wants to make Ogami into a gentleman.
In Sakura Wars 3, if Ogami gains enough trust points from her, she tells Ogami about her late husband.
Voiced by (Japanese): Shinshō Nakamaru
Voiced by (English): Bill Flynn
The Paris Combat Revue and Arc de Triomphe's Station Chief. Sakomizu is France's Japanese ambassador. He is Ogami's senior officer and arranged Ogami to come to Paris. A great political strategist, he was known as "Sakomizu the Steel Wall" in Japan.
Voiced by (Japanese): Mika Kanai
Voiced by (English): Luci Christian
A secretary of Grand-Mère, she also works at the shop in Chattes Noires. With Mell, they are the MC of the revue. She has a very easy going talking style, and unlike Mell, is an outgoing person, fitting for attending to customers. She likes making confectionery and originally came to Paris to become a patisserie. However, because she had neither connection nor skill, her dream is still unrealized. Became friends with Mell at the University. In the game, when told that she and Mell are a fine couple, her trust points will go up. If the player finish the game as "The Black Haired Noblemen", her ending is when she will bake Ogami a cake.
Voiced by (Japanese): Sachiko Kojima
Voiced by (English): Kate Borneman
She works as a secretary for Grand-Mère. With Ci, they are the MC of the revue at Chattes Noires. She was scouted by Grand-Mère, when she was attending a prestige university. Although she had enough credits to graduate, she left the university. A serious and punctual person, yet timid by nature, she tries to do everything by herself. Her hobbies are sewing and reading poetry. By finishing the game as "The Black Haired Noblemen", Ogami finds that Mell had a cut out picture of him in front of Chattes Noires.
Voiced by (Japanese): Shirō Saitō
He is the Maintenance crew chief for the Kagekidan. A strict professional when it comes to his job, he often scolds his subordinates. When Kohran visited Paris, he was impressed with Kohran's mechanical prowess. He likes drinking and gambling. Once, he invites Ogami to a horse race, but gets halted by Grand-Mère.
New York Combat Revue
Star Division
Shinjiro Taiga
Voiced by (Japanese): Hisayoshi Suganuma
Voiced by (English): Johnny Yong Bosch
He is the primary protagonist of Sakura Taisen 5 and the Sakura Taisen New York OVAs, and nephew of Ichiro Ogami. A young Navy lieutenant from Japan who becomes the captain of the New York Combat Revue. He is hardworking and dedicated to the samurai spirit, but is somewhat straightforward, which leads to problems. Compared to his uncle, he's easier to tease mainly due to his age, innocence and inexperience (especially with women). Shinjiro loves and honors his mother and frequently sends letters to her. He is talented physically and academically, and addresses every problem wholeheartedly. Shinjiro's mother is a caring woman who is a master swordsman and is very motherly, though she tends to go a bit overboard and teases Shinjiro just as much as the others do. After an incident involving a duel with Subaru, which he lost, he was forced to perform on stage as a girl named Petitmint (Peppermint in English). They often force him into the costume in the OVA having him perform Cleopatra.
Gemini Sunrise
Voiced by (Japanese): Sanae Kobayashi
Voiced by (English): Laura Bailey
A cheerful but clumsy cowgirl who traveled from Texas to New York on her master's dying wish. She begins the game as the theater's cleaning girl who has dreams of one day performing and becoming a part of the Star Division and becoming a proper lady in the process. She has a very bright and friendly personality though she is prone to daydreaming. Gemini attempts to fit in with the people of New York but has a hard time due to her cowgirl personality. Because of this, she gets easily depressed whenever the other citizens see her as nothing more as a country hick, even considering moving back to Texas. Being trained as a samurai, she has a great love and respect for the Japanese culture and would love to travel to Japan herself someday.
She has a split-personality named Geminine who is aggressive and focused on avenging her master but honors the samurai code. Geminine was supposed to be a living person, however Gemini was the only one born and is described as having two hearts in one body. Geminine sometimes dominated the body when she was training with her master, though Gemini herself never knew of her existence until she got to New York where Geminine would dominate the body more often (which is mostly due to Gemini's depression). She has a white horse named Rally (Larry in the English-language version) that she keeps in her apartment but will occasionally ride him around New York. Gemini wields both a katana and a Colt Single Action Army revolver. Gemini is the main character of Sakura Wars V: Episode 0 as she saves Texas and makes her way to New York.
Sagiitta Weinberg
Voiced by (Japanese): Junko Minagawa
Voiced by (English): Erin Fitzgerald
An accomplished African-American lawyer from Harlem, who is also the leader of a local biker gang. Sagiitta (Cheiron) is hot-tempered and initially obsessed with the supremacy of the law. This was caused by an early case she took to help a friend who was framed, however she lost that case and he was subsequently arrested. Thus she sticks to the law as the only way to solve things. After Shinjiro and the others showed her otherwise, she mellows out while keeping her drive and even becomes an older sister figure to Rika. As she lightens up, she also starts having more fun with the other Star Division members and her old gang.
Diana Caprice
Voiced by (Japanese): Kaya Matsutani
Voiced by (English): Karen Strassman
A frail medical practitioner who wears glasses and is sometimes considered to be a wheelchair user. In the beginning of the game, she serves as Shinjiro's comfort when he's feeling troubled. The group learns that Diana is Sunnyside's niece and that Diana is slowly dying. Diana's spiritual power is so great that it is physically damaging to her body, which is the cause of her poor health, made worse by her already frail body. Because of this, Diana decides that she cannot fight the inevitable and wastes the rest of her life waiting on death. Diana extends this philosophy to the lives of others as well; her spiritual power allows her to sense when people (and animals, such as her beloved birds) will die, and she believes that nothing can be done to change this fate. It is not until Shinjiro and the others show her that she can fight her fate that she decides to walk and help the Star Division. She even decides to undergo surgery to save her life at the end of the game (which, as she shows up in the OVA, is successful).
Rikaritta Aries
Voiced by (Japanese): Ayaka Saito
Voiced by (English): Melissa Fahn
A Mexican singer, dancer, and despite her young age, bounty hunter. She wields twin Remington Model 1858 revolvers, one gold-plated and the other silver-plated. A very energetic young girl, she loves to play around with the others. Due to how she grew up, her knowledge of the world is somewhat limited. Rika is a perfectionist which is caused by when her father drowned in a flooding river. Rika has a very hearty appetite and will often eat a lot of food (which much of her bounty hunting money goes to). She carries around a pet weasel named Niko (Niccolo in the English version), which also (to the dismay of her teammates) serves as emergency rations in case she cannot find something to eat.
Subaru Kujō
Voiced by (Japanese): Mie Sonozaki
Voiced by (English): Kate Higgins
Enigmatic and androgynous, Subaru was another member of the short-lived European Star Division alongside Ratchet. She is acknowledged as a genius, and said to have never been defeated in any form of competition or combat. As such, she tends to come off as a little arrogant and looks at everything in an analytical sense. Thus she takes an interest in things that she cannot comprehend completely such as Shinjiro's charisma and the concept of jazz music. Because of her looks, the others often wonder if Subaru is male or female, in which she responds that "Subaru is Subaru" and that gender is not important.
Ratchet Altair
Voiced by: Akiko Kuno
A girl highly skilled in knife throwing. She appears first in Sakura Wars: The Movie, where she was revealed to be Leni and Orihime's former captain in the European Star Division. She then comes back as a supporting character in Sakura Wars: So Long, My Love. At the start, she is the captain of the New York Combat Revue but is noticeably starting to weaken due to her failing spiritual power. After naming Shinjiro as the acting leader, she is sidelined as the vice-commander under Sunnyside helping the others coordinate their missions. She has an air of maturity around her and is usually rational and calm in most situations, though is typically a no-nonsense woman. Ratchet is absent in the New York OVA as she is overseas to check on the Berlin division.
Rainbow Division
Voiced by: Kaori Asō
A cheerful and beautiful young woman who works the bar at Little Lip Theater. She's a fun loving person who often teases Shinjiro by seducing him. Though her looks gets her the attention of several men, she had a man she loved who, unfortunately, ended up engaged to another woman. When an emergency arises, she supports the Star Division with another Rainbow Division member, Anri.
Voiced by: Yōko Honna
The vendor at the shop inside Littlelip Theater. She also creates all of the stage costumes for the Star Division. She is extremely shy around most guys, but is very aggressive when dealing with Shinjiro. Her grandparents immigrated from Japan. As a member of the Rainbow Division, it is her duty to support the Star Division with Cherry in an emergency.
Command & Support
Voiced by: Naoya Uchida
The wealthiest man in New York, Sunnyside (his first name is never spoken in the game) owns the Little Lip Theatre and acts as the commander and financier of the New York Combat Revue (effectively combining the roles that General Yoneda and Count Hanakōji served in the first two games). Outwardly a flamboyant showman, he is actually a shrewd manipulator using this to either get what's necessary for the situation or to entice a certain reaction from someone. Either way, he only uses this side of him for the greater good. Sunnyside also acts as a caretaker to Diana Caprice, who calls him "Uncle Sunnyside".
Wong Xingzhi ()
Voiced by: Tetsuo Gotō
"Mr. Wong" is Sunnyside's assistant and the manager of the STAR maintenance team. He's an expert in Eastern medicine, including acupuncture, herbal remedies, and qigong. He plays a great role in the research and the development of STAR weapons.
Shanghai Combat Revue
The Shanghai Combat Revue is one of the national anti-demon squadrons in Sakura Wars stationed in the municipality of Shanghai, China.
Wu Shenlong Division
Yang Xiaolong ()
Voiced by: Yuichiro Umehara
Huang Yui ()
Voiced by (Japanese): Sumire Uesaka
Voiced by (English): Kate Bristol
London Combat Revue
The London Combat Revue is one of the national anti-demon squadrons in Sakura Wars stationed in London, England.
Round Table Division
Voiced by (Japanese): Nobunaga Shimazaki
Voiced by (English): Stephen Fu
Voiced by (Japanese): Manami Numakura
Voiced by (English): Felecia Angelle
Berlin Combat Revue
The Berlin Combat Revue is one of the national anti-demon squadrons in Sakura Wars stationed in Berlin, Germany.
Schwarzschild Division
Voiced by (Japanese): Nana Mizuki
Voiced by (English): Emily Neves
Voiced by: Rie Kugimiya
Civilians
Japan
Kojiro Akechi
Miki Akechi
France
Voiced by (Japanese): Kōzō Shioya
A bumbling detective of the Paris Police. He frequently chases after Lobelia but every time he manages to capture her, she escapes a few hours later. After the Paris Combat Revue recruits Lobelia, he becomes a Saphir fan, not realizing that she is really Lobelia under disguise.
Elsa Flaubert
Bernadette Simons
Morgan Camus
Danequel Ringmaster
Miss Karuchera
Count Riche
Madame Tarebou
Phillipe
United States
Voiced by (Japanese): Ikue Ōtani
Voiced by (Japanese): Yūji Kishi
Voiced by (Japanese): Naoki Bando
Chamber is an old friend of Gemini and captain of the Texas Cavalry. He has 9 children, and his dream is to manage them as a baseball team. After the Eden incident, Chamber becomes President of the United States.
Villains
Some of these characters have been based on actual historical figures, such as Tenkai, Okubo Nagayasu, and Oda Nobunaga.
A variation on these characters was used in the television series (see the section on the series below).
Hive of Darkness
The leader of the and a demon general who survived the aftermath of the Demon War who serves at the main antagonist of the first part of Sakura Wars. He also seems to have some history with Ikki Yoneda, since he demanded the general as a hostage during the time he besieged Tokyo. Tenkai is based on the historical Buddhist high priest Tenkai, a member of Tokugawa Ieyasu's staff. He is voiced by Katsuhisa Hōki.
Lords of Death
Tenkai's lieutenant and one of the who serves as the main antagonist of the second part of Sakura Wars. As a member of the Hive of Darkness, he uses the name Kuroki Satan (Black Satan); when he returns as the leader of the Kouma, he uses the name Aoi Satan (Blue Satan). He is later revealed to be the biblical Satan, the King of Darkness who was cast down from Heaven. It was also revealed that Satan was responsible for reviving Tenkai, who actually died during the Demon War. In Sakura Wars 2 (and in the TV series), he is revealed to be Shinnosuke Yamazaki, a member of the original Anti-Kouma Squad, an engineering genius, and Ayame's lover. He is voiced by Hiroshi Yanaka.
One of the four Lords of Death. Setsuna appears as a male human 10-year-old child wearing a blue robe and cape, with mop-like hair and long, sharp fingernails that he uses as weapons in battle. Cunning and manipulative, Setsuna targets his victims' weaknesses before he strikes. Despite his childlike appearance, he is the older brother of the hulking Rasetsu. He is voiced by Akira Ishida.
One of the four Lords of Death and the only female among them. Miroku dresses in flowing red robes and styles her black hair in a variation of the Shimada style. She is voiced by Yumi Hikita.
One of the four Lords of Death. A tall, muscular brute with chalk-white skin and an orange mohawk, Rasetsu prefers to cause outright destruction and mayhem. He is the younger brother of Setsuna. He is voiced by Hideaki Ono in the Japanese version of the videogames and by Hisao Egawa in Sakura Wars: To My Heating Blood.
Aoi Satan's Group
Three Knights of Twilight
(Inoshishi means boar, which refers to one component of a difficult to achieve winning combination in Hanafuda along with Shika and Cho). He is voiced by Shinpachi Tsuji.
(Shika means deer, which refers to one component of a difficult to achieve winning combination in Hanafuda along with Cho and Ino). He is voiced by Tōru Ōkawa.
(Cho means butterfly, which refers to one component of a difficult to achieve winning combination in Hanafuda along with Shika and Ino). Cho is fiercely loyal to Satan and possibly in love with him. Cho views Ayame as a rival for Satan's affection. He is voiced by Akira Ishida.
Others
Aya-me is the corrupted form of Ayame Fujieda. In this incarnation, she has the appearance of a fallen angel and her name is written as 殺女 ("killing-woman," also pronounced Ayame). Called the strongest Kouma, she is completely loyal to Satan, although a fraction of the original Ayame's personality shines through. Her good side eventually shines through and she rescues Ogami from death at the cost of her own life if you choose to spare her. Aya-me also appears as an antagonist in the tactical RPG, Project X Zone and its sequel, Project X Zone 2. She, like her other self, is voiced by Ai Orikasa.
Black Demon Society
Keigo Kyogoku A powerful general in the Imperial Army and the true leader of the Black Demon Society who serves as the main antagonist of Sakura Wars 2. He resurrected Kazuma Shinguji (a.k.a. Oni-Ou) using the anti-soul technique, who in turn resurrected Yamazaki. Using Oni-Ou as a figurehead, Kyogoku organized attacks, overt and covert, on the Japanese government with both his supporters within the Imperial Army and the Black Demon Society. Kyogoku's ultimate goal was to overthrow the Japanese government, replacing it with a military dictatorship under his command. After a battle with the player, which is the game's final battle, Kyogoku is killed. He is voiced by Akira Kamiya.
Oni-Ou (Japanese: demon king) The supposed leader of the Black Demon Society. Oni-Ou constantly wears a horned Hannya mask over his face. He is actually Kazuma Shinguji, a member of the original Anti-Kouma Squad who died near the end of the Demon War and the late father of Sakura Shinguji. Kazuma was revived and mind-controlled by Keigo Kyogoku (see below) to be a powerful slave through the During the game's final battle, Kyogoku's control over Kazuma is broken. However, mere moments later, Kazuma sacrifices himself to save his daughter from a vicious attack by Kyogoku. He is voiced by Nachi Nozawa.
The Five Black Oni
Kongou One of the Five Black Oni, his element is metal. Kongou is a large, tan-skinned, muscular man who dresses in a beige jacket. He has a romantic crush on his fellow Society member, Suiko. He is voiced by Fumihiko Tachiki.
Mokujiki One of the Five Black Oni, his element is wood. A ninety-nine-year-old elderly human man wearing ornate green robes, Mokujiki moves around using a floating platform. He is voiced by Jōji Yanami.
Tsuchigumo One of the Five Black Oni, her element is earth. A six-armed female spider-like humanoid, Tsuchigumo carries and uses several different weapons at once and uses web attacks. Her appearance suggests a demonic heritage. She is voiced by Misa Watanabe.
Kasha One of the Five Black Oni, his element is fire. A pyromaniac, Kasha dresses in a business suit with a red overcoat. He is voiced by Toshihiko Seki.
Suiko One of the Five Black Oni, her element is water. Using the connections of her master, Keigo Kyogoku, Suiko becomes a military adjutant and is placed within the Floral Assault Group as Saki Kageyama. As Saki, Suiko assists the Imperial Combat Revue with administration. Her true mission, however, was to observe and report on the movements of greatest possible threat to the Black Demon Society. She once attempted to assassinate General Yoneda with a sniper rifle. Suiko is killed in battle after she attempted to turn Reni against her friends. She is voiced by Rei Sakuma.
Others
Shinnosuke Yamazaki Revived in the same manner as Oni-Ou, he and the Combat Revue engage in battle, but Oni-ou kills Yamazaki by impaling his sword through his chest moments later. He is voiced by Hiroshi Yanaka.
Sakura Wars 3 Villains
Salut
Salut The spirit of the city of Paris who serves as the main antagonists of Sakura Wars 3, Salut wishes to bring France back to its days before the Roman Empire conquered the country, in order to recreate Gaul (ancient France). Salut appears a young girl with blonde hair dressed in a colorful jester's costume, with the left half of her face painted white. She is voiced by Minami Takayama.
Phantoms of Paris
Duke Calmar A fat, blue-skinned, squid-like humanoid who is of the main antagonists of Sakura Wars 3, Duke Calmar desired to rule Paris on his own terms. When he relaxes, Calmar enjoys smoking tobacco through a hookah. When he first appears, Calmar revives Ciseaux, Python, Leon, Nadel, and Masque de Corbeau from the dead, briefly catching the Paris Assault Group off guard and holding much of Paris in chaos for a time. Calmar then organizes the antagonists into a crime syndicate under his leadership, ordering them to cause further destruction to Paris in order to keep the citizens in fear. After the Paris Assault Group defeat and kill his subordinates (again!), Calmar attempts to take matters into his own hands in a final battle and is eventually defeated. He is voiced by Tōru Ōhira.
Ciseaux A short, deranged, rabbit-like humanoid who prefers to attack with a giant pair of scissors. He dislikes seeing people happy and being called "Rabbit". Ciseaux appears to have control over rabbits of all sorts, though he appears to be satisfied with causing small-scale damage. Like Aya-me, he is an antagonist in Project X Zone and Project X Zone 2. He is voiced by Wataru Takagi.
Python A deceptively beautiful woman from the Middle East whose face turns snake-like when angry or excited. She masqueraded as an animal trainer at Coquelicot's circus, managing to get on Coquelicot's good side to the point where Coquelicot began calling her. A jewel thief by nature, Python is fascinated with—and enjoys eating—precious gems of all kinds. She has no qualms about killing, especially where jewels are concerned—for instance, killing the ringmaster of Coquelicot's circus when he refused to give up the jewel embedded in his top hat. She is voiced by Atsuko Tanaka.
Leon A eyepatch-wearing, lion-like humanoid who is obsessed with nobility to the point of believing that he himself was the only one worthy of being called a noble. Arrogant and condescending, Leon gives little thought to the lives of "common people". He abducted nobles that he considered unworthy of their ranks and imprisoned them in the sewer systems of Paris. Masquerading as a human count, Leon had arranged a marriage with Glycine in a plot to inherit the Bleumer family's fortune for his own selfish gain. However, the plan backfired after Oogami challenged Leon to a duel and won, causing an enraged Leon to reveal his true nature. He is voiced by Yoshisada Sakaguchi.
Nadel A pliers-themed, scorpion-like thief obsessed with works of art, Nadel enjoys "improving" priceless paintings by slashing them to ribbons. Upon being confronted, she attempted to negotiate with her old acquaintance Lobelia to team up, offering her half of Paris, but Lobelia rejected the offer at the last minute. When cornered in the Louvre, Nadel threatened to tear the irreplaceable painting, the Mosa Lina (a mimic picture of the Mona Lisa) However, to everyone's surprise, Lobelia burned Nadel's "hostage" to ash (though it turned out that the Mosa Lina at the museum was a fake). She is voiced by Yuri Amano.
Masque de Corbeau A mysteriously dramatic and overly theatrical man (?) dressed in elegant black clothing and a crow-like helmet. Adept at mental manipulation and at creating illusions, Masque de Corbeau enjoys watching (and replaying, through hypnosis) the past tragedies of his victims, drinking in their despair before killing them. Corbeau is especially infatuated with Hanabi and her obsession with her deceased fiancé, he abducted her and brought her to the theater, but was thwarted by the Paris Flower Division. Even after being rejected by Hanabi, Corbeau pledged his heart to her. He is voiced by Yūji Mitsuya.
Brent Furlong
Brent Furlong The main antagonist of Sakura Wars: The Movie, he is the president of the Douglas-Stewart Company who manufactures the supposedly "un-manned" demon-powered Japhkiels. He constantly belittles Tokyo, referring it as "weak", compared to the "grandeur" of New York City. He is voiced by Koichi Yamadera in the Japanese version of the movie and Crispin Freeman (credited as Joseph McDougal) in the English version.
Okubo Nagaysu
Okubo Nagayasu The main antagonist of Sakura Wars 4. A former mining magistrate of Edo (ancient Tokyo) during the reign of Tokugawa Ieyasu, he feels that "his" city has lost its spirit, so he intends to conquer Tokyo and bring it back to its days during the Sengoku period. Okubo wears black Japanese courtier's robes in the style of the Sengoku period and carries an antique fan, but his most distinctive feature is the Noh mask he wears, which has a cracked hole in place of the left eye. Only a black, bottomless void could be seen within this hole. Okubo is voiced by series creator Hiroi Oji
Sakura Wars V - Episode 0
Patrick Hamilton The main antagonist of Sakura Wars V: Episode 0, he is a very powerful western sorcerer who intends to remake Eden by using Juanita Cushing & her powers. Originally seen in Sakura Wars: The Movie as one of Brent Furlong's henchmen, he was presumably shot dead by Maria, using a special spirit-power infused bullet, but he was somehow revived (probably with his own black magic) for Sakura Wars V: Episode 0. He is voiced by Keiichi Nanba.
Synclair Gardner The red knight and the only female member in Patrick's three knights. She does not like being called "Calamity" because she killed the entire Seventh Cavalry corps except Brad, who was absent during that time of the massacre. She is voiced by Kaho Kōda.
Chusahna Cycles The white knight of Patrick's men. He may look like a young kid, but he is a great sharpshooter. He is voiced by Makoto Tsumura
Leonidus Vandorn The black knight of Patrick's men. He is voiced by Kosei Hirota.
Sakura Wars V
Oda Nobunaga Known in history as one of the most powerful and influential daimyō in Japan during the Sengoku period, Nobunaga somehow revives in New York City. Still burning with ambition, Nobunaga intends to eventually conquer the world, starting with the United States of America. Nobunaga's flying fortress and base of operations, Azuchi Castle, is named after the castle that was destroyed in fire shortly after the daimyō's death during the Sengoku period. He is voiced by Jūrōta Kosugi in Japanese.
Ranmaru As Nobunaga's varlet and most loyal lieutenant, Ranmaru was completely devoted to carrying out the will of his lord. Although he is truly male, Ranmaru appeared as a 12-year-old girl in a black dress with short green hair, white skin and rabbit ears. He carries a scythe as a weapon. He is voiced by Kiyomi Asai in Japanese.
Dokuro-bou A tall, muscular man with purple skin dressed in the robes of a Buddhist priest, Dokuro-bou also wears a faceplate resembling a hockey mask and appears to have a short katana pierced horizontally within his head. Although he fancies himself as a brilliant tactician, Dokuro-bou is actually very stupid and is prone to losing his temper easily. His near-limitless strength is legendary and he carries a kanabo, a steel club, in battle. He is voiced by Daisuke Egawa in Japanese.
Tsugarubi A man with long, grey hair in a purple kimono, Tsugarubi affects the image of an immaculate, composed gentleman. He usually conceals his gem-like eyes behind a ceremonial cloth. When his eyes are uncovered, they have the power to turn living targets to stone by stealing their ki. Tsugaru-bi appears to hold a particular hatred for women in general, who are often the targets of his ki-stealing attacks. He is voiced by Masatoyo Tetsuno in Japanese.
Kokuryuhime (Japanese: Black Dragon Princess) A tall woman with blond hair wearing black plate armor and carrying a huge sword, Kokuryuhime is a general in Nobunaga's army driven by her own twisted sense of justice and is nicknamed as the "Selfish Queen." Among all of Nobunaga's lieutenants, her swordsmanship is the best. She is voiced by Romi Park in Japanese.
Yumedono Draped in a loose crimson robe and wearing a large, tall hat that covers the upper half of her face, Yumedono has the unique abilities to control insects and use poisons with a variety of effects. She is extremely vain about her appearance and enjoys belittling others in this respect. Yume-dono's personal goal is to make New York into a nest for her beloved insects. She is voiced by Sakiko Uran in Japanese.
Sakura Wars: Le Nouveau Paris
Count Tournell
MI6 Intelligence
Sakura Wars OVA 5 New York NY
Tutankhamen A mysterious ancient Egyptian who wears the Eye of Horus around his neck and serves as the main antagonist of the OVA. He wants to become the new sun god, and has the power to summon living mummies, as well as mecha in the form of Egyptian gods such as Anubis. He apparently lived over 3000 years ago, can turn people into sand and himself dissolves into sand when weakened. In the Fourth episode he reveals himself to be none other than Tutankhamen. He takes interest in Shinjiro and Petitmint (unaware that they are the same person) who closely resembles Cleopatra who attempted to stop him years ago. He is voiced by Hiroshi Kamiya.
Bastet The Egyptian cat goddess, she is assisting the mysterious Egyptian in his quest to become the new sun god. She is voiced by Hiromi Konno.
Sakura Wars Television Series
The enemy characters of the television series are a variation on those of the Sakura Wars 1 game listed above. The group is collectively known as the Black Sanctum Council.
Aoi Satan Originally he was Major Yamazaki, a former comrade of General Yoneda in the Anti-Kouma Squad who created the concept design for the Koubu suits. At the end of the Demon War, Yamazaki went mad and allowed himself to corrupted by the power of darkness. Reborn as Satanaoi, he leads the Black Sanctum Council to revive Tenkai so he can watch the utter destruction of Tokyo and those who mocked him in his former life. It is strongly hinted that Ayame, his teammate in the Anti-Kouma Squad, loved him deeply before he went evil. His Japanese voice actor is Hiroshi Yanaka.
Crimson Miroku One of the four Lords of Death. Miroku is a pale woman who dresses in flowing red robes and originally wore her hair in the typical geisha style. Being killed by Sumire, Miroku develops a personal hatred for Sumire that she acts on upon her resurrection by Satanoi. Her Japanese voice actor is Yumi Hikata.
Setsuna One of the four Lords of Death, childlike in appearance despite being Rasetsu's older brother. Cunning and manipulative, Setsuna prefers to target his victims' weaknesses before he strikes. His Japanese voice actor is Akira Ishida.
Rasetsu One of the four Lords of Death. A violent masked brute, Rasetsu prefers to cause outright destruction and mayhem, especially when his mask is removed. He is the younger brother of Setsuna, who commands him. His Japanese voice actor is Hisao Egawa.
Reception
The characters from Sakura Wars have received mixed responses by publications for manga, anime and other media. Reviewing the TV series, Mark Thomas from Mania Entertainment enjoyed the characters, most notably Setsuna. Chris Beverdige (also from Mania) liked Sakura as well as her interactions with the other characters. Carlos Ross from THEM Anime Reviews agreed with Thomas despite finding some of the characters undeveloped at first and noted how they become "decent" during the show. DVD Verdict's Judge Adam Arsenea criticized the "lame, character developing episodes that fail to actually do anything interesting." On the other hand, Todd Douglass Jr. from DVD Talk praised the character development in the series stating "A rich degree of character development starts from the very first episode and doesn't really let go for the entire series." Nevertheless, Douglass shared Arsenea's comments about some of the characters being boring. Anime News Network writer Zac Bertschy was far more negative calling them "so uninteresting to watch."
Notes and references
Lists of Sega characters
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rondout%2C%20New%20York
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Rondout, New York
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Rondout (pronounced "ron doubt"), is situated in Ulster County, New York on the Hudson River at the mouth of Rondout Creek. Originally a maritime village, the arrival of the Delaware and Hudson Canal helped create a city that dwarfed nearby Kingston. Rondout would become the third largest port on the Hudson River. Rondout merged with Kingston in 1872. It now includes the Rondout-West Strand Historic District.
History
Rondout stands at the mouth of Rondout Creek, which empties into the Hudson through a large, protected tidal area. It was established by the Dutch in the seventeenth century as an Indian trading post. Furs brought from inland areas down the Rondout, Wallkill River and Esopus Creek were sent by boat down the Hudson River to New York City.
The name derives from the fort, or redoubt, that was erected near the mouth of the creek. The Dutch equivalent of the English word redoubt (meaning a fort or stronghold), is reduyt. In the Dutch records of Wildwyck (now Kingston, New York), however, the spelling used to designate this same fort is invariably Ronduyt during the earliest period, with the present form rondout (often capitalized) appearing as early as November 22, 1666.
The D&H Canal
As late as the 1820s, Rondout was a small hamlet. As the Philadelphia coal market was saturated with Lehigh coal, bringing the price down, William and Maurice Wurts developed the Delaware and Hudson Canal as a way to deliver their anthracite from Carbondale, Pennsylvania to New York City. After the opening of the canal in 1828, the area of Rondout rapidly transformed from farmland into a thriving maritime village. The last several miles of the canal, which linked coal mines in northeastern Pennsylvania to the Hudson River and markets beyond, followed Rondout Creek to reach the Hudson River. Irish laborers came to dig the canal and many of them stayed to work on it after its completion. Businessmen established stores to serve the workers. Steamboats, sloops, schooners, and barges loaded with passengers and cargo regularly left the port bound for New York City. New industries developed such as brick and cement manufacturing, bluestone shipping, and ice-making. As canal traffic increased, homes and commercial businesses were built along the slope upward from the Rondout Creek.
By 1840, the village had a population of fifteen hundred, two hundred residences, two churches, six hotels and taverns, twenty-five stores, three freighting establishments, a tobacco factory, a gristmill, four boat yards, two dry docks, and the office and dock of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company.
Steamboat services, cement manufacturing and other developments
Rondout Creek was the home of the Cornell Steamboat Company tugboat fleet, the dominant towing company on the Hudson from 1880 to the 1930s. The company was started in 1847. At one time it had a fleet of as many as sixty-two tugboats towing barges of coal and many other materials on the Hudson River to New York and other ports. Eventually Cornell had a virtual monopoly of towing on the Hudson River and employed hundreds of workers on their boats and in their workshops along the Rondout Creek. By 1872 more than thirty steamboats were based in Rondout, many of which, as well as a large number of barges and sailing vessels, were engaged in the transportation of stone, coal, cement, brick, and ice. Steamboats such as the sidewheel "Queen of the River", Kingston's Mary Powell, regularly plied between Rondout, New York, and points on the river.
The little sidewheeler Norwich, (160 feet × 25'3", 255 gross tons), was built in New York in 1836 by Lawrence & Sneeden of New York for the New York and Norwich Steamboat Co. Named for the City of Norwich, Connecticut, she was not big enough to compete with the large steamboats coming into service on the sound, and was sold to the New York & Rondout Line for passenger and freight service on the Hudson. Converted to towboat service, in which she from 1850 to 1923, the Norwich was known as "the Ice King". She was unexcelled as an ice-breaker, opening up the channels in the spring. The Erie Railroad paid her to clear a passage through the ice for its barge and steamboat traffic from the rail terminal at Piermont to New York. Verplanck and Collyer, in Sloops on the Hudson, write that Capt. Jacob Dubois required one week to work the Norwich 20 miles through heavy ice to New York City from Piermont. One of the longest-lived steamboats, the Norwich worked the Hudson until 1917 and survived until 1924.
Prior to its incorporation, Rondout was known variously as "The Strand", "Kingston Landing" and "Bolton". "The Strand" is a Dutch derived reference to the beach once located on the north shore of the Rondout Creek. "Bolton" was used in honor a president of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company.
Incorporated on April 4, 1849, Rondout served as a Hudson River port for the city of Kingston located about a mile distant.
In 1851, German-born Jewish businessman Israel Sampson arrived in Rondout and built the Sampson Opera House at 1 Broadway. Sampson ran a successful clothing business out of the first floor, and the top floor housed the Opera House. In 1885, fire gutted the building, destroying the Opera House, which was never rebuilt. In the 20th century, a Kingston newspaper, The Daily Freeman, occupied the building until 1974. In 1854 George F. VonBeck built the Mansion House Hotel, hoping to capitalize on Rondout's location as a stopping-off place for steamboat and stagecoach passengers On lower Broadway, it was opposite the Samspon Opera House, and provided a place for touring performers to stay. Dr. Abraham Crispell, who treated patients during the cholera epidemic of 1849, had an office in the Mansion House Hotel.
According to Hamilton Child, the most important manufacturing establishment was The Newark Lime and Cement Manufacturing Company, which began operation in spring 1851. The company owned 250 acres including waterfront on the channel of the Rondout Creek. The Rondout Manufactory alone produced 227,516 barrels. The works consisted of twenty-one kilns for burning the stone, two mill buildings, four storehouses, capable of storing upwards of 20,000 barrels, a cooperage establishment, millwrights', wheelwrights', blacksmiths', and carpenters' shops, barns stables. Stone, from which the cement was made, was quarried from the hill immediately in the rear of the factory, and was obtained by tunneling and sinking shafts, from which extend galleries in the stratum of cement rock, which inclines to the north-west. An extensive system of railways transported the stone from the quarries to the top of the kilns, where it was burned by being mixed with culm or fine coal, and then passed by a series of descents through the various stages of manufacture till it arrived in barrels at the wharf ready for shipment. As the cement manufactured often exceeded 1,000 barrels per day, the deficiency in barrels was supplied from the stock accumulated during the season when navigation was closed, and the manufacture of cement necessarily suspended. The number of men employed varied from 250 to 300.
A steam ferry connected Rondout with the Hudson River Railroad across the river in Rhinecliff. A trolley connected Rondout with Kingston. It contained ten churches, viz., Methodist, Presbyterian, Baptist, Episcopal, Lutheran, two Roman Catholic and two Jewish; three banks, two newspaper offices, three public schools, several manufactories and about 10,000 inhabitants. That same year it merged with and became a part of the city of Kingston.
Blizzard of 1888
The Blizzard of ‘88 was one of the worst storms to ever strike the eastern seaboard. It started on Sunday morning, March 11, 1888, and the storm continued to rage until Monday midnight. Although there were only about two or three feet of snow, gale force winds that reached 60 MPH left snowdrifts as high as 10 to 20 feet. During the storm, a rare “blowout tide” (extreme ebbs caused by strong offshore winds which drain inshore shallows – the opposite of a storm-surge) drained the Rondout Creek enough that boats were grounded on the creek bottom. The ferry boat was hard aground and the Norwich was keeled over to one side. The stage to Ellenville left the Rondout at the usual time but nothing was heard from the stage the next day. The only thing authorities could do was assume that the stage was stuck in the snow someplace and that the passengers were safe. The stage from Ellenville reached Hurley that Monday and stayed until the next day when the driver returned to Rondout with only one sleigh bob.
By the turn of the century it was more efficient and economical to ship coal by rail, and the seasonal canal became obsolete. Portland cement replaced blue stone in building and paving. As less material was shipped the port of Rondout declined.
The Kingston-Port Ewen Suspension Bridge at the foot of Wurts Street was completed in 1921. It crosses the Rondout Creek to link Roundout to Port Ewen. For decades, those who wished to cross the creek had to embark on a chain ferry named the Riverside, nicknamed the "Skillypot", a derivative of a Dutch word for tortoise.
Prosperity revived briefly with boatbuilding during World War II as three shipyards operated with large work crews building naval vessels.
Construction of the John T. Loughran Bridge over the Esopus Creek required the demolition of a few blocks of the West Strand neighborhood on the north side. This rallied preservationists to get the decaying area designated a historic district. A portion of Rondout's former town center has survived intact and is part of the Rondout-West Strand Historic District.
Religious establishments
St Mary's
As early as 1835, Catholics who had gone to Rondout to work on the D&H Canal met to establish a church. They were assisted by the Irish Dominican Philip O'Reilly, who had been assigned by Bishop of New York John Dubois to develop parishes along the Hudson. Rondout was little more than a hamlet at this time and a priest would visit in any month that had five Sundays when Mass would be celebrated at a blind and sash factory on the corner of Mill and Division St. In 1837, Roundout was made a mission of the recently established St. Peter's in Poughkeepsie under Rev. John McGinnis. Most of the congregation were Irish immigrants who had come to Rondout to dig the D&H Canal. In 1839 Rev. John N. Smith became pastor at Poughkeepsie, also serving Saugerties and Rondout, where a small frame church was erected in 1840 on land purchased from Abraham Hasbrouck. Irish Catholic families in Rosendale and Stony Hollow were known to walk the eight or ten miles every Sunday to Mass at St. Mary's.
Smith was succeeded in 1842 by the first resident pastor, Father Myles Maxwell. In 1848, the cornerstone was laid for a new brick church. The frame building was left standing in the new church until shortly before its dedication in July 1849. Father Maxwell died on August 31, 1849; he was succeeded by the Irish Dominican Thomas Martin, who was pastor from November 1849 to January 1852. Father Martin attended mission churches in Rosendale, Stony Hollow, Port Ewen, Eddyville, Whiteport, and Saugerties.
Martin was succeeded by Rev. John Madden, who built a rectory. Father Maxwell was succeeded by Rev. Francis McNierny, and Rev. D.G. Durning. Felix Farrelly arrived as pastor in 1859. At the time of the Civil War, Father Farrelly did much to calm the violent protests by Irish Catholics against the draft. He established St. Mary's Academy, staffed by Sisters of Charity, and purchased the land for St. Mary's Cemetery. Farrelly Street is named after him. During his tenure, Stony Hollow was established as a mission, with Jockey Hill a station.
Father James Coyle succeeded Rev. Edward Briody as pastor in 1867. Coyle built a large parochial school on the corner of McEntee and Union (Broadway) Streets. This is now Kingston Catholic. The following year he founded St. Joseph's parish in Kingston. In 1874 Rev. M.C. O'Farrell built St. Colman's in East Kingston, which later merged with St. Catherine Laboure in Lake Katrine.
By 1907, St. Mary's had the distinction of having supplied more priests and sisters than any place in the archdiocese outside New York City. In 1913, the parish opened a new school building, designed by Arthur C Longyear, at 159 Broadway.
In 2013, St Mary's underwent a restoration of the stained glass windows. A Celtic cross, commemorating the Great Famine of Ireland and the great emigration from Ireland to the U.S. from 1845 to 1852, dominates the courtyard between the church and the rectory.
Holy Name of Jesus
Downstream of the village of Eddyville was the hamlet of Wilbur which had thriving industry in trimming and shipping of bluestone. In 1884, Rev. James Dougherty, pastor of St. Joseph, built a brick church at Wilbur. The people of Wilbur donated their labor in digging the foundation. Carpenters, masons, and painters also contributed. Material was close at hand in the brickyards. The church was dedicated on November 1, 1885. The parish church of the Holy Name of Jesus in Wilbur was founded as an independent parish in 1887, with the appointment of Father William J. Boddy as its first resident pastor. The Catholic population of Holy Name of Jesus parish in 1914 was 350. The parish also had a mission, the Church of the Sacred Heart, in Eddyville with a congregation of about 150. The parish of the Holy Name of Jesus on Fitch Street in Wilbur later merged with St. Mary's in Rondout.
St. Peter's
German immigrants first arrived in Rondout to work on the D&H Canal. St. Peter's parish was founded by Catholics of German origin when the first Mass was said by Rev. A. Hechinger in the basement of an unfinished church on Adams Street. Rev. Oswald Moosmüller O.S.B succeeded as pastor in 1859 and the completed church was dedicated by Archbishop John Hughes on April 20, 1860. Some years later the site of the old District School #7 on Wurts Street was purchased and a new Romanesque church was dedicated on May 26, 1872, by Archbishop John McCloskey. Father John Raufeisen built a rectory on the adjoining lot. St. Peter's Cemetery was opened in 1860.
The old church building was taken down to make way for the parish school. St. Peter's parochial school was established in 1858 and managed by layment until the arrival of the Sisters of Charity in 1877. They were replaced by the Sisters of Christian Charity in 1888. A new school was completed in 1912. In 1970 St. Peter's school combined with St. Mary's to form Kingston Catholic School. St. Peter's School building was subsequently purchased by Catholic Charities of Ulster County.
Father Raufeisen's successors were: Fathers Emil Stenzel (September 1876 to July 1877), Francis Siegelack (July 1877 to February 1878), Matthias Kuhnen (1888 to 1907), and Joseph F. Rummel.
St. Peter's had a mission station in Ruby, New York dedicated to St. Wendelinus. The congregation, of about sixty people, was largely of English and German descent. Responsibility for the mission church of St. Wendelinus was later transferred to the parish of St. Ann in Sawkill.
The church underwent a complete renovation for its Golden Jubilee in 1908. Up until the early 1900s sermons continued to be preached in German. Reflecting the city's changing demographics, in 2002 St. Peter's instituted a Hispanic ministry. In 2015 the St. Peter's parish and the parish of St. Mary/Holy Name merged.
Immaculate Conception
The first Polish people settled in Kingston in 1875. They attended St. Peter's Church. The Church of the Immaculate Conception was first organized in 1893 by Rev. Francis Fremel to serve members of the Polish community, whose numbers greatly increased in the early 1890s. Father Fremel spoke both German and Polish. At first services were held in an old building on Union Street. Father Fremel was succeeded by Rev. Francis Fabian, who built the church on Delaware Avenue in 1896. Rev. Fabian would later establish St. Joseph's in Poughkeepsie to serve the Polish people of that community. Members of the parish assisted the brick-layers in constructing the church and rectory. Immaculate Conception was dedicated by Archbishop Michael Corrigan in 1897. The parish school was built in 1907 and staffed by the Felician Sisters. Father Fabian also purchased the land for Mount Calvary Cemetery on Flatbush Avenue. Father Theodore Jozwiak succeeded as pastor in 1909.
The church bells were consecrated by Archbishop Patrick Joseph Hayes on June 20, 1920. Rev. Ignatius Bialdyga served as pastor from 1922 to 1928, followed by Rev. Francis Borowski from 1928 to 1937. Father Borowski was succeeded by Rev. Stanislaus Malinowski, who was followed by Rev. Joseph Sieczek. In 1946 the parish celebrated is Golden Jubilee. During WWII the parish instituted a novena to Our Lady of Victory for the protection of parishioners serving in the armed forces. After the war, it was substituted by a novena to Our Lady of Perpetual Help. A monument honoring those who served in the war was erected next to the church.
Events
The City of Kingston holds many festivals in the Rondout neighborhood, including the "Artists' Soapbox Derby". Launched in 1995 by two local artists, Yourij ("George") and Nancy Donskoj, the Kingston Artists' Soapbox Derby is an annual event that combining soap box racers and works of art, although the Donskojs were divorced by 2011. Spectators can watch these sculptures race down Broadway to the Strand. Prizes are awarded in various categories, including "Most Awkward, Dizzying and Almost Hit a Child".
The "Hooley on the Hudson" is sponsored by the City of Kingston and the Ulster County Ancient Order of Hibernians. According to Jim Carey of the Order, "The Hooley is a traditional celebration after the September harvest, before winter sets in." Held every Labor Day weekend, the parade winds up at T.R. Gallo Memorial Park on the Strand. The Hooley is a festival that includes music, food and craft vendors, and step dancers.
Places of interest
The Rondout Visitor Center is located at #20 Broadway, in the Rondout Waterfront. Rondout is home to a number of art galleries including the Trolley Museum of New York, the Kingston Museum of Contemporary Arts, the Arts Society of Kingston, and Deep Listening Space.
Rondout-West Strand Historic District
The Rondout-West Strand Historic District constitutes the major portion of the extant nineteenth-century village of Rondout. It was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979. Due to the decline of business and building activities after the turn of the twentieth century, what remains still displays its nineteenth-century character. Although a large eastern portion of the Rondout area was demolished in the recent past, the section remaining illustrates what was a booming trading and industrial community. Though there has been some demolition with the district, the streetscapes generally retain their original mid-to-late nineteenth century integrity.
The Hudson River Maritime Museum was founded in 1980 by steamboat and tugboat enthusiasts, as well as local citizens who wanted to preserve the shipping history of the Hudson River. Kingston was also an important stop for passenger steamboats bringing vacationers to the area, many of whom traveled on to the Catskills. It is located at 50 Rondout Landing at the foot of Broadway along Rondout Creek in the city's old waterfront. The Clearwater has its winter home port here and visits frequently as do many historic reproduction vessels such as the Onrust and the Half Moon.
In the summer of 2014 the Irish Cultural Center Hudson Valley was raising funds to complete renovation of the old headquarters of the D&H Canal Corp on Abeel Street into an Irish Cultural Center. According to representatives of the ICCHV, the site is important to the Irish in the Hudson Valley, as the area was once dubbed “Little Dublin” because of the laborers who built the canal and stayed to work on it.
Gallery
References
Kingston, New York
History of Ulster County, New York
New Netherland
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vladimir%20Stojkovi%C4%87
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Vladimir Stojković
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Vladimir Stojković (, ; born 28 July 1983) is a Serbian professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Saudi Pro League club Al-Fayha.
During his career he played for the two biggest clubs in his country, Red Star and Partizan, but also represented teams in eight other countries, notably with Sporting CP who loaned him several times for the duration of his contract.
A Serbia international on 84 occasions, Stojković was selected for three World Cups and the 2008 Olympics.
Early life
Born in Loznica, Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia, Stojković was born into a sporting family. His father Vladeta (d. 2007) was a football goalkeeper while his mother (1949–2012) was a track and field athlete, competing primarily in the discus throw but also in javelin and hammer throw.
Following in his father's footsteps, adolescent Vladimir took up football goalkeeping, joining his local club FK Loznica's youth system. The youngster would soon switch to Red Star Belgrade's youth setup
Club career
Red Star Belgrade
Entering the Red Star Belgrade full squad under head coach Zoran Filipović, Stojković was initially overshadowed by Vladimir Dišljenković, appearing only in one league match during the 2001–02 Yugoslav league season and one more in the following campaign.
Due to Dišljenković's status as Red Star's first choice goalkeeper, further cemented by the return of head coach Slavoljub Muslin, the club loaned Stojković out in late June 2003 to the Bosnia-Herzegovina champions FK Leotar, who were reinforcing the squad ahead of the UEFA Champions League qualifying rounds. He appeared in each of their four qualifying matches under head coach Milan Jovin, being eliminated in the second round.
However, after only two months in Trebinje, Stojković left the club, reportedly over unpaid wages. Returning to Belgrade, he attempted to secure a spot on the Red Star roster, but manager Muslin sent him away. After his Red Star contract was terminated, Stojković started training privately with goalkeeping coach Tomo Savić, in order to stay in competitive shape while waiting for the January 2004 transfer window to open up.
Zemun
Stojković joined FK Zemun in the 2004 winter transfer window. Under head coach Dušan Mitošević, the 20-year-old was initially backup to Miloš Adamović. His first appearance incidentally came against his former side Red Star and, although his new team lost, he made a penalty shot save on Marko Pantelić, and went on to appear in five more league matches during the remainder of the campaign.
Going into his second season with Zemun, Stojković was undisputed starter, appearing in 28 league games as they finished in fifth position. During spring 2005, he made a string of saves during the league match against Red Star in a hard-fought 0–0 draw, a result that suited FK Partizan, who eventually won the national championship.
Return to Red Star
In the summer of 2005, six months after Dišljenković's transfer to Ukraine's FC Metalurh Donetsk, Stojković returned to Red Star where he initially was an understudy to the experienced Ivan Ranđelović. However, ahead of the UEFA Cup first round return leg trip to S.C. Braga, head coach Walter Zenga promoted him to first-choice, and the player seized the opportunity, immediately impressing in the new role as the team defeated the Portuguese on away goals to qualify for the group stages.
It would be at this stage of the competition that Stojković would get his most memorable moment of the season, saving a penalty from Antonio Cassano who attempted a Panenka-shot, as Red Star beat A.S. Roma 3–1 at home. A new fan favorite from then onwards, he cemented his place in goal as the club won the league and cup double.
Nantes
Stojković moved to FC Nantes in summer 2006 for a rumoured €3 million, in order to replace departing Mickaël Landreau. After a promising first few Ligue 1 matches, however, his form rapidly declined, and he lost the starting job to 20-year-old understudy Vincent Briant, shortly before the winter break. At the same time, a vicious rift emerged within the squad that led to a series of poor results and the dismissal of the manager; Stojković fell out of favour with new coach Michel Der Zakarian, and was encouraged to seek a transfer or a loan when French star keeper Fabien Barthez was persuaded to come out of retirement and sign for the rest of the campaign.
In January 2007, Stojković was shipped off to SBV Vitesse on a six-month loan. On 3 March he played his first Eredivisie game, a 2–3 home loss against SBV Excelsior.
Sporting
On 11 July 2007, Stojković signed a five-year contract with Sporting CP, which paid €1.1 million to Nantes. He started out well, but got injured towards the end of the first half of the season in Portugal and lost his place to youngster Rui Patrício; after recovering he never managed to reclaim his place in the starting eleven, being demoted to as low as third-choice after a run-in with head coach Paulo Bento.
In July 2008, Sporting allowed Stojković to go to a trial at Premier League side Everton, with a view to a loan deal. However, on 22 July, he left his first training session after only an hour without explanation. The club's spokesperson said that Everton lost interest and that they'd been warned earlier that Stojković is a "complicated character"; the player denied walking out, saying "Everything went fine, I didn't have any problem. What I've read in the Portuguese press is wrong. I'm not someone who creates problems".
Stojković continued at Sporting in the beginning of 2008–09, but did not play any minutes in the league. In January 2009 he went on loan to La Liga's Getafe CF until the end of the campaign, the Madrid-based team becoming his fifth in less than three years.
On 12 April 2009 – three months after arriving – due to first-choice Jacobo's suspension following a red card, and Argentine Óscar Ustari still convalescing from a severe injury, Stojković made his debut with Getafe, keeping a clean sheet in a 1–0 win at Sevilla FC. Six days later he started at home against FC Barcelona, and made the highlight reel with a string of spectacular saves on Thierry Henry, Lionel Messi and Gerard Piqué, though the opponents still won 1–0 on a deflected first half goal.
Towards the end of the season, Getafe expressed interest in a permanent deal, but could not agree on price with Sporting. According to his agent Zoran Stojadinović, the Spaniards offered Sporting €500,000 plus 25% of a future transfer, but the Portuguese refused.
Back at Sporting for 2009–10 meant more frustration for Stojković, as he continued to be out of head coach Bento's plans. In late October 2009, he publicly acknowledged that his chances of securing a place in the team under the manager were minimal, also intimating that he was willing to take a pay cut in order to go to a club where he would be assured of playing, in order to stay match fit ahead of the 2010 FIFA World Cup; Bento was forced to resign in early November 2009 due to poor results, but that did not improve the player's status, as new coach Carlos Carvalhal continued omitting him from his squads.
Controversy was also raised by the report in the Portuguese tabloid Correio da Manhã suggesting that teammates João Moutinho, Ânderson Polga, Liédson and Marco Caneira, together with president José Eduardo Bettencourt wanted Stojković out of the club for publicly displaying happiness at Bento's departure. However, this was immediately denied on the club's website.
In late December 2009, it was announced that Stojković would be loaned to Wigan Athletic for a six-month period, acting as cover for Richard Kingson while the Ghanaian was on international duty at the 2010 Africa Cup of Nations. The move was officially confirmed on 7 January 2010, and he became the fourth Serb goalkeeper in history to appear in English football after Radojko Avramović, Petar Borota and Saša Ilić.
Stojković made his debut for the Latics on 23 January 2010, in a 2–2 away draw with Notts County in the fourth round of the FA Cup – it was his first competitive appearance at club level after his loan return from Getafe. His Premier League debut came four days later at home against Blackburn Rovers, where he put in a jittery performance in a 1–2 loss, notably being at fault in the opposition's opening goal when he raced off his line, weakly punching away Brett Emerton's deep free kick with the ball getting to Morten Gamst Pedersen who half-volleyed it into the unguarded net; after Chris Kirkland recovered from injury, he was dropped to the bench.
Stojković reappeared for Wigan on 29 March 2010 in an away fixture against Manchester City: in the 72nd minute of the game, a mix-up between the goalie and defender Paul Scharner allowed Emmanuel Adebayor to flick the ball to Carlos Tevez who slotted into an open net; At the end of the season, the English turned down the option of making the loan a permanent deal.
Partizan
On 27 August 2010, Stojković signed a season-long loan deal with Serbian champions Partizan. The deal between Sporting and Partizan was structured so that the player's €45,000-per month salary would be paid 80% by the former and 20% by the latter, meaning that for the ten months of his loan spell Sporting would pay him €360,000 in total while the other party would contribute €90,000.
Seeking another option in goal for the Champions League group stage following subpar performances of first-choice Radiša Ilić, Partizan brought in a player who, only two months earlier, had become an honorary member of rivals Red Star in a public ceremony where he was given membership card number 134. Due to this, Stojković's move was highly controversial and caused a great deal of disappointment and anger among Red Star fans as well as plenty of reaction in the Serbian general public. Some press outlets even reported that being aware of the controversial nature of his move, he himself apparently insisted on a clause that allowed him to skip derby matches, the first of which was scheduled for 23 October 2010; when asked about it, he denied the existence of such clause but, almost immediately after the news hit the press, he started receiving threats, including death threats as well as ones against his family.
Stojković made his official Partizan debut on 4 September 2010 in a 2–0 home victory over FK Hajduk Kula, where he hardly was tested as the visiting side concentrated mostly on defending. On 23 October, the long-awaited derby against Red Star took place: due to unsavoury events leading up to the match, there were general concerns about it turning into yet another violent incident and in particular about the goalkeeper's personal safety but, despite immense pressure and tension, he was unwavering about his desire to be in goal for the match. The game ended without a single incident as Partizan recorded a 1–0 away win and, after the final whistle, he ran to the south stand where Partizan's most loyal fans gathered, lifting his jersey to reveal a T-shirt that read: "Please Forgive My Ugly Past"; the move wasn't well received in the general public with local press accusing the player of being tacky and needlessly raising the tension by provoking his old club; however, he claimed he was only trying to show his feelings and insisted he was not being provocative.
On 11 August 2012, Stojković scored the first goal of his career, netting from a penalty in the first round of the season, a 7–0 home trouncing of FK BSK Borča. On 7 October, after suffering an injury against FK Javor Ivanjica, he was sidelined for the rest of the year, but was still named in the league's best eleven due to his performances.
In 2013, Stojković was voted Player of the Year by the club's fans.
Later years
On 25 January 2014, free agent Stojković signed a six-month contract with Ergotelis F.C. in the Superleague Greece. He made his debut with his new team on 2 February 2014, in a 1–0 away win against Panionios FC.
Stojković signed a three-year contract with Maccabi Haifa F.C. in the Israeli Premier League on 10 June 2014. Two years later he returned to England, agreeing to a two-year deal at Championship club Nottingham Forest, and playing his first game on 11 September 2016 in a 2–2 away draw against Aston Villa.
On 15 August 2017, Stojković returned to his former club Partizan. He made his debut two days later, in a 0–0 home draw to Videoton FC in the first leg of the Europa League play-off round. In the second game Partizan was more successful with an overall triumph of 4–0 and therefore won a new participation in the group stage of the Europa League. On August 27, Stojković made his comeback debut in goal for Partizan in the domestic championship games. When he was named Man of the Match at the 155th eternal derby against the hosts Red Star in the game that ended in a 0–0 draw at the Rajko Mitić Stadium.
Stojković agreed to sign a new four-year contract on 23 January 2018. After the retirement of Saša Ilić, he was appointed the new captain.
On 28 July 2021, Stojković joined Saudi club Al-Fayha on a one-year deal, signed by compatriot Vuk Rašović. On 19 May 2022, he won the 2022 King Cup Final with Al-Fayha against Al Hilal, to be their first title ever in that competition.
International career
Youth
Stojković was a backup goalkeeper to Nikola Milojević in the Serbia and Montenegro under-21 squad that reached the final of the 2004 UEFA European Championship in Germany, but did not play one single minute in the tournament.
At the same time he broke through Red Star's starting XI, Stojković got more opportunities. In May 2006, he captained the under-21s during the 2006 European Championships in Portugal in the absence of suspended Danko Lazović, helping the national team reach the semi-finals.
Senior
Uncapped, Stojković was named as member of the Serbian senior squad for the 2006 FIFA World Cup, and served as backup again, now to Dragoslav Jevrić. After the arrival of Javier Clemente as head coach following the competition, he became first-choice for the newly independent Serbia, making his debut against the Czech Republic on 16 August 2006.
Stojković played well overall during the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifying campaign, notably performing in a 1–1 draw versus Portugal with a string of spectacular saves. Clemente was replaced by Miroslav Đukić following the country's failure to qualify for the finals, but the player continued to start regularly.
In July 2008, Stojković was chosen as one of three overage players to the Serbia Olympic team for the Olympic tournament in Beijing. He was named captain and featured in all three group stage matches although Serbia failed to advance. In the third match against Argentina, Stojković saved two penalties taken by Ángel Di María.
Stojković continued to feature regularly for the national team under new boss Radomir Antić, even though he was completely ostracized at Sporting. After appearing in most of the 2010 World Cup qualifiers, he was also selected in Serbia's squad for the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa. There he played all three group stage matches, and helped Serbia win 1–0 win against Germany, saving Lukas Podolski's penalty.
On 29 July 2010, in a vague statement to the Serbian sports daily Sportski žurnal, Stojković intimated a possibility of "temporarily stepping away from the national team" if he did not manage to find a club where he would get regular playing time by the time the Euro 2012 qualification process started. Antić did not call him up for the home friendly with Greece, as well as the first two competitive games against Faroe Islands and Slovenia.
However, after the manager was fired after the draw with Slovenia, Stojković was selected again by new coach Vladimir Petrović, for the next qualifier against Estonia on 8 October 2010. This was the first national team home match for the player following his move to Partizan, and he received a fair amount of verbal abuse from the Red Star fans in the crowd, which affected his performance as he let in a long-range goal to help the visitors tie the score at 1–1; later, with the hosts trailing 2–1, he made another mistake that led to a goal after miscommunication with centre back Aleksandar Luković, leading to a back pass that ended up in the Serbian goal.
Only four days later, before the start of the qualifying match against Italy in Genoa, Stojković was assaulted by a group of Red Star fans who broke into the Serbian team bus. He returned to the national team setup more than a year after the incident, being called for two friendlies in November 2011.
On 11 October 2014, with Serbia losing 0–1 away to Armenia in a Euro 2016 qualifier, Stojković saved a late penalty from Marcos Pizzelli, after which Zoran Tošić scored the final equaliser.
In June 2018, he was selected for the 2018 World Cup, playing all three group stage matches.
Personal life
In June 2009, Stojković married his model girlfriend Bojana. The couple have a son.
Stojković's older brother, Vladan, was also a footballer and a goalkeeper. He spent most of his career in Portugal with Leça FC (1994–2000), settling in the country with his Portuguese wife after retiring and fathering Vladimir; the latter played youth football with Sporting whilst his uncle represented the club, and also appeared for Portugal at youth level.
Career statistics
Club
International
Honours
Red Star
Serbian SuperLiga (1): 2005–06
Serbia and Montenegro Cup (1): 2001–02
Sporting
Taça de Portugal (1): 2007–08
Supertaça Cândido de Oliveira (1): 2007
Partizan
Serbian SuperLiga (3): 2010–11, 2011–12, 2012–13
Serbian Cup (3): 2010–11, 2017–18, 2018–19
Maccabi Haifa
Israel State Cup (1): 2015–16
Al-Fayha
King Cup (1): 2021–22
Serbia and Montenegro U21
UEFA European Under-21 Championship runner-up: 2004
Individual
Serbian Player of the Year: 2017
Serbian SuperLiga Team of the Season: 2012–13, 2017–18
Partizan Player of the Year: 2013
Saudi Pro League Goalkeeper of the Month: August 2021, January 2022
References
External links
Stats at Utakmica
National team data
1983 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Loznica
Serbian men's footballers
Men's association football goalkeepers
Serbian SuperLiga players
Red Star Belgrade footballers
FK Leotar players
FK Zemun players
FK Partizan players
Ligue 1 players
FC Nantes players
Eredivisie players
SBV Vitesse players
Primeira Liga players
Sporting CP footballers
La Liga players
Getafe CF footballers
Premier League players
English Football League players
Saudi Pro League players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Nottingham Forest F.C. players
Super League Greece players
Ergotelis F.C. players
Israeli Premier League players
Maccabi Haifa F.C. players
Al-Fayha FC players
Serbia men's international footballers
2006 FIFA World Cup players
2010 FIFA World Cup players
2018 FIFA World Cup players
Olympic footballers for Serbia
Footballers at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Serbia and Montenegro men's under-21 international footballers
Serbia and Montenegro men's footballers
Serbian expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in France
Expatriate men's footballers in the Netherlands
Expatriate men's footballers in Portugal
Expatriate men's footballers in Spain
Expatriate men's footballers in England
Expatriate men's footballers in Greece
Expatriate men's footballers in Israel
Expatriate men's footballers in Saudi Arabia
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in France
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in the Netherlands
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Portugal
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Spain
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in England
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Greece
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Israel
Serbian expatriate sportspeople in Saudi Arabia
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert%20Foliot
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Gilbert Foliot
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Gilbert Foliot (c. 1110 – 18 February 1187) was a medieval English monk and prelate, successively Abbot of Gloucester, Bishop of Hereford and Bishop of London. Born to an ecclesiastical family, he became a monk at Cluny Abbey in France at about the age of twenty. After holding two posts as prior in the Cluniac order he was appointed Abbot of Gloucester Abbey in 1139, a promotion influenced by his kinsman Miles of Gloucester. During his tenure as abbot he acquired additional land for the abbey, and may have helped to fabricate some charters—legal deeds attesting property ownership—to gain advantage in a dispute with the Archbishops of York. Although Foliot recognised Stephen as the King of England, he may have also sympathised with the Empress Matilda's claim to the throne. He joined Matilda's supporters after her forces captured Stephen, and continued to write letters in support of Matilda even after Stephen's release.
Foliot accompanied Theobald of Bec, the Archbishop of Canterbury, to a papal council at Reims in 1148. During his time there he was appointed to the Diocese of Hereford by Pope Eugene III. Despite a promise made in Reims not to recognise Stephen, Foliot on his return to England nevertheless swore fealty to the king, causing a temporary rift in his relationship with Henry of Anjou, Matilda's son, who eventually became King Henry II of England in 1154. When Theobald died in 1160, it was widely assumed that he would be replaced by Foliot, but King Henry nominated his Chancellor, Thomas Becket, instead. Foliot later claimed to have opposed this appointment, and supported Henry during the king's dispute with the new archbishop. Foliot was translated, or moved, to the Diocese of London in 1163, perhaps as consolation for not receiving Canterbury.
During the great dispute between Becket and the king, Foliot was reviled by Becket and his supporters. He acted as an envoy for the king on a number of diplomatic missions related to this dispute and wrote a number of letters against Becket which were circulated widely in Europe. Becket excommunicated Foliot on two occasions, the second of which precipitated the archbishop's murder. For a short period following Becket's death the papacy kept Foliot excommunicate, but he was quickly absolved and allowed to resume his episcopal functions. In addition to his role in the Becket controversy, Foliot often served as a royal judge, and was an active administrator and bishop in his different dioceses. He was a prolific letter writer, and some of his correspondence was collected after his death. He also wrote sermons and biblical commentaries, two of which are extant.
Early life
Foliot was probably the son of Robert Foliot—steward to David, Earl of Huntingdon, heir to the Scottish throne—and Robert's wife Agnes, sister of Robert de Chesney, Bishop of Lincoln. Whatever his parentage, Gilbert was certainly Robert de Chesney's nephew; another of his uncles, Reginald, was a monk of Gloucester Abbey and Abbot of Evesham Abbey. Other ecclesiastics in his family included Robert Foliot, a later Bishop of Hereford perhaps from an Oxford branch of the family, and two earlier Bishops of London, Richard de Beaumis the elder and Richard de Beaumis the younger, Gilbert also referred to Richard of Ilchester, later Bishop of Winchester, as a kinsman, but the exact relationship is unknown. William de Chesney, a partisan of Stephen's and a leading Oxfordshire layman, was another of Foliot's uncles, and Miles of Gloucester, Earl of Hereford, was a cousin. In about 1145 Foliot intervened to secure the release of a knight to whom he was related, Roger Foliot, but their precise relationship is unknown.
Born about 1110, Foliot became a monk of Cluny, probably in about 1130. He became Prior of Cluny Abbey, then Prior of Abbeville, a Cluniac house. There are some indications that he studied law at Bologna, and he may have studied under Robert Pullen, the English theologian, either at Oxford or Exeter. He also acquired a knowledge of rhetoric as well as the liberal arts. The names of two of his early teachers are known, but nothing else of them. Foliot also learned biblical exegesis, probably from Pullen.
Foliot attended the Second Lateran Council, called by Pope Innocent II. It opened on 4 April 1139, and among other matters heard an appeal from the Empress Matilda concerning her claim to the throne of England. Matilda was the daughter and only surviving legitimate child of King Henry I, but following her father's death in late 1135 her cousin Stephen, the son of Henry's sister, had seized the crown. By 1139 Matilda had gathered supporters and was contesting Stephen's right to the throne.
In about 1143 Foliot wrote an account of the proceedings of the council in a letter to one of Matilda's supporters. No action was taken on her claim, and no conclusion was reached as to its validity. The papacy continued to accept Stephen as king, and the pope ordered the English Church to make no changes to the status quo. According to Foliot's letter the council's deliberations centred on the legitimacy of the marriage between Matilda's parents. Matilda's mother, Edith-Matilda, had been educated at a convent, and there was some uncertainty over whether she had taken vows before her marriage to Henry I. At the time of the council, the question caused some concern, although in time most were persuaded that the marriage was valid because Anselm of Canterbury had performed the ceremony. Foliot seems to have had some doubts in 1139, but before writing his letter of 1143 he had come to believe that Matilda was indeed the legitimate heiress, and he supported the Angevin cause, as Matilda's claim was known.
Abbot
In 1139 Foliot was elected Abbot of Gloucester, blessed by the diocesan bishop on 11 June 1139. The appointment had been pushed through by Foliot's relative, Miles of Gloucester, who was by then the Earl of Hereford. Foliot was well connected at court in other respects, for his probable father had been steward to David I, before David became King of Scotland. David was the uncle of both the Empress and Stephen's wife. Following his elevation to abbot Foliot recognised Stephen as king, although he seems until then to have supported Matilda.
King Stephen was captured by Matilda's forces on 2 February 1141, and Matilda called a council at Westminster to gather support for her assuming the throne. Foliot attended the council and was one of her main supporters in the following months as the Angevin cause tried to place her on the throne.
It was during his time as abbot that Foliot wrote his reply to Brien FitzCount, one of Matilda's earliest supporters, discussing the Second Council of the Lateran's deliberations on Matilda's cause. FitzCount, in a letter now lost, had presented his reasons for supporting Matilda, and Foliot's reply set forth a defence of Matilda's claim to the throne. Foliot also wrote that Stephen had "dishonoured the episcopate" with his behaviour in 1139, when the king arrested Roger of Salisbury, the Bishop of Salisbury, and Roger's nephew, Alexander, who was Bishop of Lincoln, as well as attempting to arrest another of Roger's nephews, Nigel, Bishop of Ely. After the arrest Stephen forced the bishops to surrender their castles and secular government offices. Most historians see Foliot's letter as firmly supporting Matilda's cause, although one of King Stephen's recent biographers, Donald Matthew, claims that Foliot's support was lukewarm at best, motivated by the location of his abbey in one of Matilda's strongholds. Matthew points out that Gloucester Abbey owed no military service in a feudal levy, which allowed Foliot to avoid choosing sides irrevocably. Matthew also points out that after 1141 Foliot is a signatory to just one of Matilda's charters. Foliot did though address Robert of Gloucester's defence of Matilda's rights, buttressing it with arguments of his own. Robert had argued that the Bible supported female succession, and quoted from Numbers, chapter 36, which allowed women to inherit, but prohibited them marrying outside their tribe. In his reply Foliot claimed that Robert had actually used Numbers, chapter 27, which had no restrictions on the marriage of heiresses.
During his time as abbot Foliot became friendly with Aelred of Rievaulx, a writer and later saint, who dedicated a book of sermons to him. Another friend and ally from his abbacy was Theobald of Bec, the Archbishop of Canterbury, who during Stephen's reign was attempting to unite the English Church under his leadership. Foliot helped Theobald by forming a communication link to Matilda's side.
Foliot took an interest in the Dorset monastery of Cerne Abbey, which in 1145 received the Prior of Gloucester Abbey, Bernard, as abbot. Bernard was an active reformer, and Foliot supported Bernard's efforts, but the monks objected to the new abbot, and drove him out of the monastery. Both abbot and monks appealed to the papacy, which supported the abbot. Although Matilda wrote to Foliot, and interceded on behalf of the monks, Foliot pointed out that he was unable to disobey a papal command.
While abbot, Foliot supervised the acquisition of a dependent priory in the city of Hereford for the monastery. Most of the abbey buildings predate Foliot's time as abbot, and there is no sure evidence of any buildings he added to the monastery. During his abbacy, a dispute that had dragged on between Gloucester and the Archdiocese of York over some manors was finally settled in Gloucester's favour. This was done with a group of forged charters that Foliot may have helped to create. Forging charters was a common practice in English monasteries of the time. Foliot also had disputes with the Welsh bishop Uhtred, Bishop of Llandaff, over Goldcliff Priory and a church in Llancarfan, concerning tithes and new chapels that had been built without Gloucester Abbey's permission.
Bishop of Hereford
In early 1148, Foliot accompanied Theobald of Bec to the Council of Reims, even though the archbishop had been forbidden to attend by King Stephen; Foliot was presumably with Theobald when the archbishop used a small fishing boat in his escape from England to the continent. Robert de Bethune, the Bishop of Hereford, died at the Council of Reims, and Foliot was nominated by Pope Eugene III to fill the Diocese of Hereford, which was held by the Angevin cause. Theobald was behind the appointment, having urged it on the pope. It appears likely that before his consecration Foliot gave assurances that he would not swear fealty to Stephen. He was consecrated Bishop of Hereford on 5 September 1148 at Saint-Omer by Archbishop Theobald. The other English bishops present at Reims—Hilary of Chichester and Josceline de Bohon—refused to help with the consecration, claiming it was contrary to custom for an English bishop to be consecrated outside England. Another of the bishops' concerns was that the pope had infringed Stephen's right to a say in the election. After his consecration Foliot swore fealty to Henry of Anjou, the son of the Empress and the new head of the Angevin party.
Foliot switched his allegiance on his return to England and swore fealty to Stephen, angering the Angevins. Theobald managed to secure peace between the parties, saying that Foliot could not refuse to swear homage "to the prince approved by the papacy". Foliot also attempted to hold Hereford in plurality, or at the same time, with the abbey of Gloucester, but the monks of Gloucester objected. Rather than accept a situation like that of Henry of Blois, who held the Diocese of Winchester as well as being Abbot of Glastonbury, the monks of Gloucester held an election three weeks after Foliot's selection as bishop, and chose their prior as the new abbot.
Foliot supported his uncle Robert de Chesney's nomination to become Bishop of Lincoln, lobbying the pope on Robert's behalf, and maintaining a long correspondence with Robert after his elevation. The letters to this uncle are full of warm sentiments, more than would be expected of a dutiful correspondence. Other episcopal correspondents and friends included Roger de Pont L'Évêque, the Archbishop of York, Josceline de Bohon, the Bishop of Salisbury, and William de Turbeville, the Bishop of Norwich, who became a regular correspondent after Foliot was translated to London.
During the later part of Stephen's reign Foliot was active in judicial affairs, including a case in 1150 involving sanctuary and his kinsman Roger, the Earl of Hereford, which ended up in the court of Archbishop Theobald. Foliot's participation in legal affairs led him in 1153 to employ a clerk specialising in Roman law.
After Henry of Anjou's accession to the throne of England as Henry II in 1154, Foliot persuaded the Earl of Hereford to submit to the new king's demand that he return the custody of certain royal castles to the king. In the summer of 1160, Foliot wrote to Pope Alexander III, whom the king had just recognised as pope instead of Alexander's rival, Victor IV, intimating that the canonisation of King Edward the Confessor, which had been delayed by Alexander's predecessor Innocent II, might be warranted as a reward for Henry's recognition of Alexander.
The art historian Hans J. Böker claims that Foliot began the construction of the Bishop's Chapel at Hereford Cathedral. Böker contends that the architectural style of the chapel (which was destroyed in 1737) resembled that of the German imperial chapels, and was deliberately chosen by Foliot to demonstrate his loyalty to King Henry. However most sources credit Robert of Hereford, bishop from 1079 to 1095, as the builder of the chapel.
When Theobald died in 1160, most observers believed that Foliot was the leading candidate to become archbishop of Canterbury. Traditionally, the see of Canterbury had been held by a monk, at least since the replacement of Stigand by Lanfranc in 1070. Although Foliot was a Cluniac monk, they were a subset of the Benedictine Order and thus the cathedral chapter at Canterbury, which was Benedictine but not Cluniac, would have had no objections to him on that score. Foliot denied that he ever lobbied for the office, but John of Salisbury and Thomas Becket apparently believed that Foliot desired it.
Bishop of London
Foliot was Becket's rival for the Archbishopric of Canterbury. He objected to the king's choice on the grounds that Becket was too worldly, the only bishop or magnate known to have opposed the king's choice. When the newly elected archbishop was presented to the court before his consecration, Foliot remarked that the king had performed a miracle by turning a layman and a knight into an archbishop. Soon after Becket's consecration the king wrote to the pope asking for permission to make Foliot the royal confessor. This may have been a conciliatory move to appease Foliot after the loss of Canterbury, or it may have been that the king and the new archbishop were already having differences of opinion and the king wished Foliot to be a counter-weight to Becket's influence.
After Becket's election as archbishop, Foliot was nominated to the Diocese of London, to which he was translated on 6 March 1163. His nomination had been put forward by the king, who wrote to the pope stating that Foliot would be more accessible as an adviser and confessor if he was in London, rather than in Hereford on the Welsh Marches. Becket wrote to Foliot urging him to accept the translation. His transfer was confirmed by Pope Alexander III on 19 March 1163 and Foliot was enthroned at London on 28 April 1163. Papal confirmation was required because the movement of bishops from one see to another was still frowned on at this time. The medieval chronicler Ralph de Diceto, who was a canon at London, states that the cathedral chapter at St Paul's Cathedral, London, the cathedral of the London diocese, approved of Foliot's selection. Becket was unable to attend Foliot's enthronement, and Foliot did not make a profession of obedience to the archbishop, arguing that he had already sworn an oath to Canterbury when he became Bishop of Hereford, and thus no further oath was required. The issue was sent to the papacy, but the pope refused to be pinned down to an answer. Foliot then attempted to make London independent of Canterbury by reviving Pope Gregory I's old plan for an archbishopric at London. Foliot proposed either to have London raised to an archdiocese along with Canterbury, or to have London replace Canterbury as the archiepiscopal seat for the southern province. Foliot did though support Becket in the latter's attempt to prevent the Archbishop of York having his archiepiscopal cross borne in procession before him when visiting the province of Canterbury.
Henry's conflict with Becket
The king and Becket began quarrelling in July 1163, at first over financial matters and then over the marriage of Henry's younger brother to an heiress, which Becket forbade. The true spark to the quarrel was the matter of clergy who committed crimes, whom the king wished to have prosecuted in secular courts; the archbishop refused, arguing that all clergy must be tried in church courts, even if the crime was non-ecclesiastical. At the Council of Westminster called by Henry in October 1163 to deal with the issue, Foliot at first sided with the other bishops, who supported Becket's position and opposed the king. However, after the council was dismissed, Foliot became the leader of those bishops who changed sides in support of the king. In December, Becket capitulated to the king.
In January 1164 the king summoned a council at Clarendon. The bishops were asked to approve the Constitutions of Clarendon, which proposed restrictions on the powers of the Church and limits to papal authority in England; Becket's refusal led to the great dispute between king and archbishop, into which Foliot and his fellow bishops were inevitably drawn. When Becket appeared before the court with his archiepiscopal cross borne before him, a studied insult to the king, Foliot told the archbishop that "If the king were to brandish his sword, as you now brandish yours, what hope can there be of peace between you?" The king refused to see Becket, and negotiations between the two camps soon revealed that Becket had ordered the bishops to refuse to pass judgement on him and threatened them with suspension from ecclesiastical office if they did. Becket also threatened to appeal the case to the papacy. Both of these actions by the archbishop breached the Constitutions of Clarendon. During the subsequent back and forth between the bishops and the king, as well as the bishops and the archbishop, Foliot was asked by one of his fellow bishops to try to persuade Becket to modify his behaviour. Foliot replied that Becket "was always a fool and always will be".
After the bishops refused to pass judgment, the barons attempted to do so, but Becket refused to hear the court and left the council without the king's permission. Soon afterward, Foliot, along with Hilary of Chichester, went to Becket and suggested a compromise, which Becket refused. Becket went into exile after this last attempt at a settlement, and arrived in Flanders on 2 November 1164. Foliot was sent, along with Roger, the Archbishop of York, Hilary of Chichester, Bartholomew Iscanus, the Bishop of Exeter, Roger of Worcester, the Bishop of Worcester, William d'Aubigny, the Earl of Arundel, and a group of royal clerks, to Thierry the Count of Flanders, Louis VII the King of France, and Pope Alexander III. Their mission was to prevent the archbishop from being given refuge, but despite their efforts Louis of France agreed to grant Becket refuge. Foliot's delegation met with more success at the papal court; although they did not succeed in securing a decision in the king's favour, neither did the pope side with the archbishop.
Becket's exile
During Becket's exile Foliot collected and sent to Rome Peter's Pence, the annual payment from England to the papacy. Foliot observed during the conflict that it was not a theological or moral dispute, merely one over church government. During Becket's exile, the king confiscated the archbishop's estates, and also confiscated the benefices of the clerks who had followed Becket into exile. Foliot was made custodian of those benefices in the diocese of Canterbury. Becket blamed both Foliot and Roger of York for the confiscations, but evidence appears to show that the confiscations were Henry's decision, and that Foliot, at least, was a conscientious custodian who made sure that little profit went to the king, and most of the revenues from the benefices went to religious purposes.
In early summer 1165, Pope Alexander III wrote twice to Foliot, ordering him to intercede with the king and protest the royal injunction against appeals to the papacy. Foliot replied that the king respected the pope, heard his protests carefully, and that the archbishop had not been expelled, but had left of his own accord. Foliot wrote that the king had said Becket was free to return at any time, but would still have to answer to the charges he had faced at Northampton. Foliot then advised the pope not to impose any sentences of excommunication and to be patient and continue to negotiate. In 1166, Foliot accused Becket of simony, or the purchase of church offices, basing this on the alleged purchase Becket had made of the chancellorship, although there is no evidence that Becket bought the office. By 1166, the king had made Foliot the head of the English Church, in fact if not in law. The king and Foliot got along well, and it was probably Foliot's influence that kept the king from more violent measures against Becket.
On 10 June 1166, Becket excommunicated a number of his opponents, some specifically by name, as well as any who opposed his cause. Henry's response was to order the English bishops to appeal to the pope, which they did at a council that Foliot organised and led in London on 24 June. The appeal was written by Foliot, and a separate letter from the bishops, also written by Foliot, was sent to the archbishop. The bishops rested their case on the fact that those excommunicated had not been warned or allowed to defend themselves. They pointed out to the pope that the king had not escalated the conflict and had behaved reasonably to the last papal overtures in the summer of 1165. Becket replied to these moves with a letter written to Foliot that was full of resentment and reproaches. Foliot's reply, in a letter that is usually titled Multiplicem nobis, set forth his view of Becket's abilities as archbishop as well as giving reasons why Becket was wrong. He then suggested that the archbishop compromise and exercise some humility to reach his goals. By the end of 1166, Foliot managed to resign his custody of the confiscated Canterbury benefices, something he had been attempting to do for some time, thus removing one source of conflict between him and Becket.
In November 1167 Foliot was summoned to Normandy, then ruled by Henry II, to meet with papal legates and the king. Roger of York, Hilary of Chichester, and Roger of Worcester were also summoned to attend. After some discussion and argument, Henry appears to have agreed that the legates could judge both the king's case against Becket as well as the bishops' case. Henry also offered a compromise on the subject of the Constitutions of Clarendon, that the legates accepted. However, when the legates met with Becket on 18 November, it quickly became apparent that Becket would not accept negotiations with the king nor accept the legates as judges of either case against him. As the legates had no mandate to compel Becket to accept them as judges, the negotiations came to an end with the king and bishops still appealing to the papacy.
On 13 April 1169, Becket excommunicated Foliot, along with Hugh, Earl of Norfolk, Josceline de Bohun, and seven royal officials. Becket did this even though none of them had been warned, and despite the fact that the pope had asked that Becket not make any such sentences until after a pending embassy to King Henry had ended. Becket also warned a number of others that unless they made amends to him, they too would be excommunicated on 29 May, Ascension Day. In his excommunication, Becket called Foliot "that wolf in sheep's clothing". Although Foliot tried to enlist the help of his fellow bishops in an appeal, they were less than helpful. Foliot then prepared to appeal his sentence to the pope in person, and travelled to Normandy in late June or early July, where he met the king, but proceeded no further towards Rome, as the papacy was attempting once more to secure a negotiated settlement. In late August and early September serious but ultimately fruitless negotiations took place between the king and the archbishop.
Foliot then proceeded to Rome, but at Milan he received word that his envoy at the papal court had secured the right for him to be absolved by Rotrou, Archbishop of Rouen. Foliot then returned to Rouen, where he was absolved on 5 April and reinstated in his see on 1 May. The only requirement of this absolution was that Foliot accept a penance to be imposed by the pope. Much of Foliot's objections to Becket's excommunication stemmed from the lack of warning that Foliot and the others had received, contrary to the customary and normal procedures. Becket and his supporters pointed out that there were some situations in which it was possible to excommunicate without warning, but Foliot claimed that the present situation was not one of them. According to Foliot, Becket's habit was "to condemn first, judge second". Foliot's example of appealing excommunications to the papacy was an important step in the setting up of an appeal process for excommunication during the 12th century.
Death of Becket and aftermath
On 14 June 1170, Henry's son, Henry the Young King, was crowned King of England by the Archbishop of York, which infringed on the right of Becket as Archbishop of Canterbury to crown English monarchs. Although there is no definitive evidence that Foliot assisted in the coronation, it appears likely that he did so. The coronation drove the pope to allow Becket to lay an interdict, or decree prohibiting church rites, on England as punishment, and the threat of an interdict forced Henry to negotiate with Becket in July 1170. Becket and the king came to terms on 22 July 1170, allowing the archbishop to return to England, which he did in early December. However, shortly before he landed in England, he excommunicated Roger of York, Josceline of Salisbury, and Foliot. One possible reason for the excommunications was that the three ecclesiastics had electors from the various vacant bishoprics with them, and were escorting those electors to the king on the continent to reward a number of royal clerks with the long vacant bishoprics. Included among those royal clerks were some of Becket's most bitter foes during his exile. Although Becket offered to absolve Josceline and Foliot, he argued that only the pope could absolve Roger, as he was an archbishop. Roger persuaded the other two to appeal to the king, then in Normandy. When they did so, the royal anger at the timing of the excommunications was such that it led to Henry uttering the question often attributed to him "Will no one rid me of the turbulent priest". This inspired four knights to set off from the king's court in Normandy to Canterbury, where on 29 December 1170, they murdered Becket.
After Becket's death his sentences of excommunication were confirmed, as well as the suspensions from ecclesiastical office. The pope in his confirmation referred to Roger of York, Foliot, and Josceline of Salisbury, as the "Gilbertine trinity". The excommunication was absolved for Foliot on 1 August 1171, but he remained suspended from office. He secured his restoration to office on 1 May 1172, after clearing himself of any involvement in Becket's murder. The king performed a public act of penance on 12 July 1174 at Canterbury, when he publicly confessed his sins, and then allowed each bishop present, including Foliot, to give him five blows from a rod, then each of the 80 monks of Canterbury Cathedral gave the king three blows. The king then offered gifts to Becket's shrine and spent a vigil at Becket's tomb.
Foliot and Becket seem to have been on amicable terms until 1163, but their relationship seems to have soured after that date. Becket accused Foliot in 1167 with: "your aim has all along been to effect the downfall of the Church and ourself". After the pope absolved Foliot's excommunication in early 1170, Becket exclaimed to a cardinal that "Satan is unloosed for the destruction of the Church". A modern biographer of Becket, the historian Frank Barlow, feels that one reason for Becket's change in behaviour after his election as archbishop was due to his need to "out-bishop" the other bishops, and prevent Foliot from making any more jibes about his inadequacies as an ecclesiastic.
Foliot was mainly a force for moderation in the quarrel between the king and the archbishop, urging restraint on Becket and curbing the king's attempts to impose the Constitutions more rigorously. Foliot's rhetoric against the archbishop was pointed and effective. Foliot also developed the novel legal filing of ad cautelam, which was an appeal to the papacy against any future action by the archbishop. Although Foliot's tactic of ad cautelam was ridiculed by his opponents, the papacy did not challenge the technique.
During his time as bishop Foliot served for many years as a papal judge-delegate, especially in his later years. He was active in both of his dioceses in supporting his cathedral chapters and other religious houses of the dioceses. He kept in constant contact with his archdeacons and deans about the administration of the dioceses. He also gathered about himself a group of clerks who compiled a collection of decretals known as the Belvoir collection. This collection mainly relates to Foliot's activities at London, and probably dates to before 1175.
Writings
Foliot was well known as a letter writer, and his letters were later collected as a book. The main manuscript for this collection, now held at the Bodleian Library, is supposed to have originated in Foliot's own writing office. About 250 to 300 examples of Foliot's letters have survived, which together with his surviving charters gives a total of almost 500 items. The collection was printed in a modern edition edited by Adrian Morey and Christopher N. L. Brooke and published by the Cambridge University Press in 1967, under the title of The Letters and Charters of Gilbert Foliot. Some of the letters have appeared in volumes five through eight of Materials for the History of Thomas Becket, from the Rolls Series, published from 1875 to 1885. Older editions appeared in the Patres ecclesiae Anglicanae series from the 1840s, and in Migne's Patrologica from 1854. The letters cover most of the period of Foliot's public life, and are one of the main sources for the history of that period. The historian David Knowles said of the collection that "owing to its wealth of personal and local detail [it] is of the greatest value for the church historian". According to Knowles, Foliot's letters paint a picture of an active bishop and ecclesiastical leader who supported the Gregorian church reforms but did not meddle in politics beyond those of the church. His letters are typical of the educated letter writer of his time, refined and polished to an art form.
Foliot also wrote a number of sermons and commentaries on the Bible. Of the commentaries, only those on the Song of Songs and the Lord's Prayer still survive. The commentary on the Song of Songs was first printed in 1638, by Patrick Young, and again in the Patrologia Latina volume 202. The commentary on the Lord's Prayer was first published by David Bell in 1989. The commentary on the Song of Songs has been printed three times, the last in the middle of the 20th century. About 60 of his acta, or decisions, as Bishop of Hereford still survive, and from his time at London a further 150 or so are extant. A contemporary, Peter, the prior of Holy Trinity Priory in Aldgate, London, heard Foliot preach a sermon at a synod, and praised the sermon as "adorned with flowers of words and sentences and supported by a copious array of authorities. It ran backwards and forwards on its path from its starting-point back to the same starting point." The sermon so inspired Peter that he wrote a work entitled Pantheologus, which dealt with the distinctio method of exegesis, which was developing around this time. All of Foliot's surviving theological works are based on exegesis, and may include nine sermons on the subject of Saints Peter and Paul, which were dedicated to Aelred of Rivaulx. These sermons are dedicated to a "Gilbert, Bishop of London", which could mean either Foliot or an earlier bishop, Gilbert Universalis. However, the historian Richard Sharpe feels that the fact that the sermons are paired with a group of Aelred's sermons dedicated to Foliot makes their authorship by Foliot slightly more likely. These sermons survive in manuscript, now in the British Library as Royal 2 D.xxxii, but have not yet been printed. A further group of sermons which were dedicated to Haimo, the abbot of Bordesley, did not survive, but is known from the surviving dedication letter.
The antiquarian John Bale in the 1550s listed six works of Foliot known to him, five of which were letters. The sixth work known to Bale was the commentary on the Song of Songs, which survived in a single manuscript, now in the Bodleian Library. Young also recorded a Lundinensis Ecclesiae as being by Foliot. The scholar John Pits gave much the same list in 1619, adding one work, a Vitas aliquot sanctorum Angliae, Librum unun, but this work never appears in a medieval book catalogue and has not survived under this name so it is unclear if Foliot wrote such a work. The antiquary Thomas Tanner, writing in the early 18th century, listed Foliot as the author of the seven works given by Bale and Pits, adding an eighth, the Tractatus Gilberti, episcopi London: Super Istud "Sunt diuae olivae", citing John Leland, the 16th-century antiquary, as his source. This apparently is the collection of nine sermons on Saints Peter and Paul that has yet to be published and is still in manuscript at the Bodleian Library. Leland also listed another work by Foliot, the Omeliae Gileberti, episcopi Herefordensis, which he stated was held at Forde Abbey. This work, since lost, might have been the sermons mentioned above, or could have been a known collection of homilies, also lost. It is also possible that another Gilbert was the author. Lastly, Walter Map recorded that Foliot had begun work on a "the Old and the New Law" shortly before his death.
Death and legacy
Foliot died on 18 February 1187. The medieval chronicler Walter Map praised him as "a man most accomplished in the three languages, Latin, French and English, and eloquent and clear in each of them". The modern historian Frank Barlow says of him that "It was probably because he was so self-righteous that it could be suggested that his behaviour was sometimes devious." He went blind some time during the 1180s, but continued to work on his biblical writings.
Foliot sent his nephew Richard Foliot and another clerk of his household to Bologna to study law in the 1160s, exemplifying the growing emphasis laid on Roman law among his countrymen. Another nephew was Ralph Foliot, Archdeacon of Hereford and a royal justice during the reign of Richard I. During his time at both dioceses, he did much to promote his relatives, and all of the archdeacons he appointed while at London were either nephews or other relatives. A member of his household at Hereford was the scholar Roger of Hereford, who dedicated his computus, or treatise on calculating dates, to Foliot. Another work, the Ysagoge in Theologiam, was dedicated to him by a writer named Odo while Foliot was still a prior in France.
Notes
Citations
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Further reading
1110s births
1187 deaths
12th-century English writers
12th-century English Roman Catholic bishops
Abbots of Gloucester
Bishops of Hereford
Bishops of London
Cluniacs
People temporarily excommunicated by the Catholic Church
12th-century writers in Latin
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal%20audit
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Internal audit
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Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control and governance processes. Internal auditing might achieve this goal by providing insight and recommendations based on analyses and assessments of data and business processes. With commitment to integrity and accountability, internal auditing provides value to governing bodies and senior management as an objective source of independent advice. Professionals called internal auditors are employed by organizations to perform the internal auditing activity.
The scope of internal auditing within an organization may be broad and may involve topics such as an organization's governance, risk management and management controls over: efficiency/effectiveness of operations (including safeguarding of assets), the reliability of financial and management reporting, and compliance with laws and regulations. Internal auditing may also involve conducting proactive fraud audits to identify potentially fraudulent acts; participating in fraud investigations under the direction of fraud investigation professionals, and conducting post investigation fraud audits to identify control breakdowns and establish financial loss.
Internal auditors are not responsible for the execution of company activities; they advise management and the board of directors (or similar oversight body) regarding how to better execute their responsibilities. As a result of their broad scope of involvement, internal auditors may have a variety of higher educational and professional backgrounds.
The Institute of Internal Auditors (IIA) is the recognized international standard setting body for the internal audit profession and awards the Certified Internal Auditor designation internationally through rigorous written examination. Other designations are available in certain countries. In the United States the professional standards of the Institute of Internal Auditors have been codified in several states' statutes pertaining to the practice of internal auditing in government (New York State, Texas, and Florida being three examples). There are also a number of other international standard setting bodies.
Internal auditors work for government agencies (federal, state and local); for publicly traded companies; and for non-profit companies across all industries. Internal auditing departments are led by a chief audit executive (CAE) who generally reports to the audit committee of the board of directors, with administrative reporting to the chief executive officer (In the United States this reporting relationship is required by law for publicly traded companies).
History of internal auditing
The internal auditing profession evolved steadily with the progress of management science after World War II. It is conceptually similar in many ways to financial auditing by public accounting firms, quality assurance and banking compliance activities. While some of the audit technique underlying internal auditing is derived from management consulting and public accounting professions, the theory of internal auditing was conceived primarily by Lawrence Sawyer (1911–2002), often referred to as "the father of modern internal auditing"; and the current philosophy, theory and practice of modern internal auditing as defined by the International Professional Practices Framework (IPPF) of the Institute of Internal Auditors owes much to Sawyer's vision.
With the implementation in the United States of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002, the profession's exposure and value was enhanced, as many internal auditors possessed the skills required to help companies meet the requirements of the law . However, the focus by internal audit departments of publicly traded companies on SOX related financial policy and procedures derailed progress made by the profession in the late 20th century toward Larry Sawyer's vision for internal audit. Beginning in about 2010, the IIA once again began advocating for the broader role internal auditing should play in the corporate arena, in keeping with the IPPF's philosophy.
Organizational independence
While internal auditors are hired directly by their company, they can achieve independence through their reporting relationships. Independence and objectivity are a cornerstone of the IIA professional standards; and are discussed at length in the standards and the supporting practice guides and practice advisories. Professional internal auditors are mandated by the IIA standards to be independent of the business activities they audit. This independence and objectivity are achieved through the organizational placement and reporting lines of the internal audit department. Internal auditors of publicly traded companies in the United States are required to report functionally to the board of directors directly, or a sub-committee of the board of directors (typically the audit committee), and not to management except for administrative purposes.
The required organizational independence from management enables unrestricted evaluation of management activities and personnel and allows internal auditors to perform their role effectively. Although internal auditors are part of company management and paid by the company, the primary customer of internal audit activity is the entity charged with oversight of management's activities. This is typically the audit committee, a committee of the board of directors.
Organizational independence is effectively achieved when the chief audit executive reports functionally to the board. Examples of functional reporting to the board involve the board:
Approving the internal audit charter; Approving the risk based internal audit plan; Approving the internal audit budget and resource plan; Receiving communications from the chief audit executive on the internal audit activity's performance relative to its plan and other matters; Approving decisions regarding the appointment and removal of the chief audit executive; Approving the remuneration of the chief audit executive; and Making appropriate inquiries of management and the chief audit executive to determine whether there are inappropriate scope or resource limitations.
Role in internal control
Internal auditing activity is primarily directed at evaluating internal control. Under the COSO Internal Control Framework, internal control is broadly defined as a process, effected by an entity's board of directors, management, and other personnel, designed to provide reasonable assurance regarding the achievement of the following core objectives for which all businesses strive:
Effectiveness and efficiency of operations.
Reliability of financial and management reporting.
Compliance with laws and regulations.
Safeguarding of Assets
Management is responsible for internal control, which comprises five critical components: the control environment; risk assessment; risk focused control activities; information and communication; and monitoring activities. Managers establish policies, processes, and practices in these five components of management control to help the organization achieve the four specific objectives listed above. Internal auditors perform audits to evaluate whether the five components of management control are present and operating effectively, and if not, provide recommendations for improvement.
In the United States, the internal audit function independently assesses management's system of internal control and reports its results to top management and the company's audit committee of the board of directors.
Role in risk management
Internal auditing professional standards require the function to evaluate the effectiveness of the organization's Risk management activities. Risk management is the process by which an organization identifies, analyses, responds, gathers information about, and monitors strategic risks that could actually or potentially impact the organization's ability to achieve its mission and objectives.
Under the COSO enterprise risk management (ERM) Framework, an organization's strategy, operations, reporting, and compliance objectives all have associated strategic business risks – the negative outcomes resulting from internal and external events that inhibit the organization's ability to achieve its objectives. Management assesses risk as part of the ordinary course of business activities such as strategic planning, marketing planning, capital planning, budgeting, hedging, incentive payout structure, credit/lending practices, mergers and acquisitions, strategic partnerships, legislative changes, conducting business abroad, etc. Sarbanes–Oxley regulations require extensive risk assessment of financial reporting processes. Corporate legal counsel often prepares comprehensive assessments of the current and potential litigation a company faces. Internal auditors may evaluate each of these activities, or focus on the overarching process used to manage risks entity-wide. For example, internal auditors can advise management regarding the reporting of forward-looking operating measures to the board, to help identify emerging risks; or internal auditors can evaluate and report on whether the board and other stakeholders can have reasonable assurance the organization's management team has implemented an effective enterprise risk management program.
In larger organizations, major strategic initiatives are implemented to achieve objectives and drive changes. As a member of senior management, the chief audit executive (CAE) may participate in status updates on these major initiatives. This places the CAE in the position to report on many of the major risks the organization faces to the audit committee, or ensure management's reporting is effective for that purpose.
The internal audit function may help the organization address its risk of fraud via a fraud risk assessment, using principles of fraud deterrence. Internal auditors may help companies establish and maintain Enterprise Risk Management processes. This process is highly valued by many businesses for establishing and implementing effective management systems and ensuring quality is maintained & professional standards are met Internal auditors also play an important role in helping companies execute a SOX 404 top-down risk assessment. In these latter two areas, internal auditors typically are part of the risk assessment team in an advisory role.
Role in corporate governance
Internal auditing activity as it relates to corporate governance has in the past been generally informal, accomplished primarily through participation in meetings and discussions with members of the board of directors. According to COSO's ERM framework, governance is the policies, processes and structures used by the organization's leadership to direct activities, achieve objectives, and protect the interests of diverse stakeholder groups in a manner consistent with ethical standards. The internal auditor is often considered one of the "four pillars" of corporate governance, the other pillars being the board of directors, management, and the external auditor.
A primary focus area of internal auditing as it relates to corporate governance is helping the audit committee of the board of directors (or equivalent) perform its responsibilities effectively. This may include reporting critical management control issues, suggesting questions or topics for the audit committee's meeting agendas, and coordinating with the external auditor and management to ensure the committee receives effective information. In recent years, the IIA has advocated more formal evaluation of corporate governance, particularly in the areas of board oversight of enterprise risk, corporate ethics, and fraud.
See also below.
Audit project selection or "annual audit plan"
Based on the risk assessment of the organization, internal auditors, management and oversight boards determine where to focus internal auditing efforts. This focus or prioritization is part of the annual/ multi-year annual audit plan. The audit plan is typically proposed by the CAE (sometimes with several options or alternatives) for the review and approval of the audit committee or the board of directors. Internal auditing activity is generally conducted as one or more discrete assignments.
It should be adapted to the specific purpose of audit, and the selection of audit method must be adapted to its specific purpose. Otherwise, it will deviate from the purpose of the audit.
Internal audit execution
A typical internal audit assignment involves the following steps:
Establishing and communicating the scope and objectives of the audit to appropriate members of management.
Developing an understanding of the business area under review – this includes objectives, measurements & key transaction types and involves interviews and a review of documents – flowcharts and narratives may be created, if necessary.
Describing the key risks facing the business activities within the scope of the audit.
Identifying management practices in the five components of control used to ensure that each key risk is properly controlled and monitored. An internal audit checklist can be a helpful tool to identify common risks and desired controls in the specific process or specific industry being audited.
Developing and executing a risk-based sampling and testing approach to determine whether the most important management controls are operating as intended.
Reporting issues and challenges identified and negotiating action plans with the management to address these problems.
Following-up on reported findings at appropriate intervals. Internal audit departments maintain a follow-up database for this purpose.
Audit assignment length varies based on the complexity of the activity being audited and internal audit resources available. Many of the above steps are iterative and may not all occur in the sequence indicated.
In addition to assessing business processes, specialists called information technology (IT) auditors review information technology controls.
Internal audit reports
Internal auditors typically issue reports at the end of each audit that summarize their findings, recommendations, and any responses or action plans from management. An audit report may have an executive summary – a body that includes the specific issues or findings identified and related recommendations or action plans, and appendix information such as detailed graphs and charts or process information. Each audit finding within the body of the report may contain five elements, sometimes called the "5 C's":
Condition: What is the particular problem identified?
Criteria: What is the standard that was not met? The standard may be a company policy or other benchmark.
Cause: Why did the problem occur?
Consequence: What is the risk/negative outcome (or opportunity foregone) because of the finding?
Corrective action: What should management do about the finding? What have they agreed to do and by when?
The recommendations in an internal audit report are designed to help the organization achieve effective and efficient governance, risk and control processes associated with operations objectives, financial and management reporting objectives; and legal/regulatory compliance objectives.
Audit findings and recommendations may also relate to particular assertions about transactions, such as whether the transactions audited were valid or authorized, completely processed, accurately valued, processed in the correct time period, and properly disclosed in financial or operational reporting, among other elements.
Following are the steps about how continuous improvement can be achieved through audit findings.
Develop CAPAs to address quality issues.
Train users or employees to develop effective audit processes or procedures.
Maintain steady and healthy relation with suppliers, vendors, users, auditors and audit bodies.
Under the IIA standards, a critical component of the audit process is the preparation of a balanced report that provides executives and the board with the opportunity to evaluate and weigh the issues being reported in the proper context and perspective. In providing perspective, analysis and workable recommendations for business improvements in critical areas, auditors help the organization meet its objectives.
Quality of internal audit report
Objectivity – The comments and opinions expressed in the report should be objective and unbiased.
Clarity – The language used should be simple and straightforward.
Accuracy – The information contained in the report should be accurate.
Brevity – The report should be concise.
Timeliness – The report should be released promptly immediately after the audit is concluded, within a month.
Strategy
Internal audit functions may also develop functional strategies described in multi-year strategic plans. Professional guidance on building an Internal Audit strategic plan was issued by the Institute of Internal Auditors in July 2012 via a Practice Guide called Developing the Internal Audit Strategic Plan. A key aspect of developing IA strategy is understanding the expectations of stakeholders, such as the audit committee and top management. This helps guide the IA function in its mission of helping the organization address the risks it faces. Specific topics considered in IA strategic planning include:
Scope and emphasis: An IA function may be involved in addressing risks related to financial reporting, operations, legal and regulatory compliance, and the company strategy. There may also be special topics of interest to stakeholders that change considerably year-to-year.
Portfolio of services: IA functions may provide traditional audit assurance across the risk spectrum as well as consulting project support in a variety of areas such as project management, data analysis, and monitoring of major company initiatives. Larger audit functions may establish specialty areas to handle their service portfolio.
Competency development: The stakeholder expectations around scope and service portfolio determine what competencies the function needs, which drives decisions regarding hiring of specific skills and training programs. The internal audit function is often used as a "management training ground" to provide employees with a deeper knowledge of the company's operations before they are rotated into a management position.
Technology: IA functions use a variety of technology tools/software to support audit process workflow, statistical analysis, and obtaining data from systems.
Building the IA strategy may involve a variety of strategic management concepts and frameworks, such as strategic planning, strategic thinking, and SWOT analysis.
Other topics
Measuring the internal audit function
The measurement of the internal audit function can involve a balanced scorecard approach. Internal audit functions are primarily evaluated based on the quality of counsel and information provided to the audit committee and top management. However, this is primarily qualitative and therefore difficult to measure. "Customer surveys" sent to key managers after each audit engagement or report can be used to measure performance, with an annual survey to the audit committee. Scoring on dimensions such as professionalism, quality of counsel, timeliness of work product, utility of meetings, and quality of status updates are typical with such surveys. Understanding the expectations of senior management and the audit committee represent important steps in developing a performance measurement process, as well as how such measures help align the audit function with organizational priorities.
Independent peer reviews are part of the quality assurance process for many internal audit groups as they are often required by standards. The resulting peer review report is made available to the audit committee.
Reporting of critical findings
The chief audit executive (CAE) typically reports the most critical issues to the audit committee quarterly, along with management's progress towards resolving them. Critical issues typically have a reasonable likelihood of causing substantial financial or reputational damage to the company. For particularly complex issues, the responsible manager may participate in the discussion. Such reporting is critical to ensure the function is respected, that the proper "tone at the top" exists in the organization, and to expedite resolution of such issues. It is a matter of considerable judgment to select appropriate issues for the audit committee's attention and to describe them in the proper context.
Audit philosophy
Some of the philosophy and approach of internal auditing is derived from the work of Lawrence Sawyer. His philosophy and guidance on the role of internal audit was a forerunner of the current definition of internal auditing. It emphasized assisting management and the board in achieving the organization's objectives through well-reasoned audits, evaluations, and analyses of operational areas. He encouraged the modern internal auditor to act as a counsellor to management rather than as an adversary. Sawyer saw auditors as active players influencing events in the business rather than criticizing all degrees of errors and mistakes. He also foresaw a more desirable auditor future involving a stronger relationship with members of audit committee and the board and a divorce from direct reporting to the chief financial officer.
Sawyer often talked about "catching a manager doing something right" and providing recognition and positive reinforcement. Writing about positive observations in audit reports was rarely done until Sawyer started talking about the idea. He understood and forecast the benefits of providing more balanced reporting while simultaneously building better relationships. Sawyer understood the psychology of interpersonal dynamics and the need for all people to receive acknowledgment and validation for relationships to prosper.
Sawyer helped make internal auditing more relevant and more interesting through a sharp focus on operational or performance auditing. He strongly encouraged looking beyond financial statements and financial-related auditing into areas such as purchasing, warehousing and distribution, human resources, information technology, facilities management, customer service, field operations, and program management. This approach helped catapult the chief audit executive into the role of a respected and knowledgeable adviser who was thought to be reasonable, objective, and concerned about helping the organization achieve the stated goals.
Three lines of defence
The "Three Lines of Defence Model"
is a framework outlining the relationship between business functions, risk management, and internal audit, delineating how responsibilities should be divided; it is designed "to assure the effective and transparent management of risk", by making accountabilities clear. The terminology is analogized from the military "Line of defence" (and the concept of defence in depth).
Under the first line of defence, risks are managed and controlled day-to-day. Here customer-facing operational management has "ownership, responsibility and accountability for directly assessing, controlling and mitigating risks". Its value is that it comes "from those who know the business, culture and day-to-day challenges" (see also ); at the same time, however, this Line may lack independence.
The second line of defence consists of the independent functions of Risk Management, Compliance, and Operational Risk. This line of defence monitors and facilitates the implementation of effective risk management practices by the first line, providing "oversight and challenge"; and also assists the "risk owners" in producing and interpreting risk-related reporting. Although separate from those responsible for delivery, it is not independent of the management chain. (See, re banking, Middle office.)
The third line of defence is internal audit, reporting directly to the Board of directors. Internal audit reviews and reports on both the first and the second lines of defence, providing objective and independent assurance, per above.
Under later iterations of the model, assurance from "external independent bodies" is seen as a fourth line of defence; here the external auditor, and others, provide assurance and insights to the Board and are "clearly seen to be independent".
The "last line of defence" against risk is that of capital, as a sufficient quantum "ensures that a firm can continue as a going concern even if substantial and unexpected losses are incurred"; see Risk capital, Regulatory capital, Financial risk management, and .
Disruptive innovation
Internal audit plays a critical role maintaining effective control mitigating emerging risks. Businesses will increase risk or bypass opportunity if auditors do not address disruption-related risks. Michael G. Alles has discussed that Big Data is a disruptive innovation that auditors must incorporate in practice. A 2019 study, Internal Auditors' Response to Disruptive Innovation, reports on the evolution of internal audit to react to changes. Disruptions examined include data analytics, agile processes, cloud computing, robotic process automation, continuous auditing, regulatory change, and artificial intelligence.
See also
Certified Information Systems Auditor
Chartered Institute of Internal Auditors
Committee of Sponsoring Organizations of the Treadway Commission (COSO)
Fraud deterrence
Institute of Internal Auditors
International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board
International Register of Certificated Auditors
IS audit
Operational auditing
Risk-based internal audit
References
Auditing
Types of auditing
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Caguioa
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Mark Caguioa
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Mark Anthony Yu Caguioa (born November 19, 1979) is a Filipino professional basketball player who last played for the Barangay Ginebra San Miguel of the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA). Known as The Spark and as MC47 from his initials and his jersey number, he is also half of "The Fast and The Furious", along with his backcourt partner, Jayjay Helterbrand.
Early life
Caguioa was born and raised in San Juan. At eight years old, he scored 47 points in a barangay kids' league. When he was 10, he and his family moved to the US, where his father worked as a cable technician and his mother worked for a company that made heart pacemakers. He spent his adolescent years in Eagle Rock, Los Angeles, California. In 1997, Caguioa graduated from Eagle Rock High School. In his time there, he won two MVPs, averaged 26 points and 14 rebounds, and set a program record of 1,154 points in two years.
Collegiate career
Caguioa played collegiate basketball at Glendale Community College. He was named to the First Team All-Western State Conference after the 1999–2000 season. After that season, he was offered a scholarship to play for University of Hawaii at Hilo but turned it down to play in the PBA.
Professional career
Barangay Ginebra (2001–2020)
Rookie season
In 2001, Caguioa was drafted by the Barangay Ginebra Kings as the third overall pick. Expectations were not high as Caguioa started as a role player and backup for superstar Vergel Meneses. However, after showing strong performances and helping to lead the Kings to the 2001 All-Filipino Cup Finals, he became very popular. With his crossovers, drives to the basket, and penchant for making clutch plays, Caguioa earned the respect and admiration of the Filipino basketball fans. His exciting brand of play earned him the moniker "The Spark." He made his first All-Star team in his rookie season by getting the second-most votes, just behind Danny Seigle. At the end of his first season, Caguioa became the fourth Ginebra player, after Willie Generalao in 1980, Dondon Ampalayo in 1986 and Marlou Aquino in 1996, to win the Rookie of the Year award.
"Bandana Bros"
During his rookie season, Caguioa had bonded with backcourt partner Jayjay Helterbrand. They became known as the "Bandana Bros". In his sophomore season, he scored 10 of his 26 points in a 2002 All-Filipino Cup win over the Sta. Lucia Realtors. Ginebra also acquired Eric Menk that season, giving Caguioa a frontcourt partner who could consistently notch double-doubles. He then had 22 points against the Alaska Aces, but had back-to-back turnovers in the final minute of the game that led to the loss.
In the 2003 season, Helterbrand left the team as he and Ginebra failed to work on a contract together. Caguioa and Ginebra started off with three straight losses. They finally got their first win against the FedEx Express, in which he scored 24 points. During the Reinforced Conference, he got into a fight with Lordy Tugade of the Red Bull Thunder, and was fined P20,000. That conference, they qualified for the quarterfinals.
"The Fast and The Furious"
In the 2004–05 season, Caguioa and Helterbrand got back together, as Helterbrand returned from his hiatus. Before the season started, they won the 2004 Fiesta Conference, a transitional tournament. Their success together led to them being dubbed as "The Fast and The Furious". He also signed a contract worth P14.7 million for three and a half years. Caguioa then set what was his career high for points in a single game during that season, scoring 43 points in Game 4 of the Philippine Cup Finals against the Talk 'N Text Phone Pals. Despite losing that game, Ginebra won the next two games of the Finals to claim the title. During the 2005 Fiesta Conference, he scored 40 points in a win over the Realtors. The Realtors got their revenge on him the next time they met, as he was limited to just 11 points. That conference, they lost in the quarterfinals to Red Bull. He got into the Mythical Second Team that season.
In a win over Sta. Lucia during the 05–06 Fiesta Conference, he had 19 points, 10 rebounds, four assists and three steals while going up against fellow Eagle Rock HS alumnus Alex Cabagnot. That performance earned him Player of the Week honors. In a win over the Express, he didn't score much, as Helterbrand handled the offense with 15 points and nine assists, but limited Renren Ritualo to 14 points. In a Christmas match against Alaska, he had 25 points to send Ginebra to the playoffs. During the semifinals against Red Bull, he suffered a hamstring injury as Ginebra went down 3–1. Helterbrand also struggled in that series. Despite their struggles, they would rally Ginebra to forcing a Game 7, where they eventually lost the series. In the 2006 Philippine Cup, Caguioa earned Player of the Week honors three times. He had strong performances throughout the conference, which included 39 points in a win over the Talk 'N Text Phone Pals, 23 points and 10 rebounds in a win over Sta. Lucia, and a career-high 45 points in a win over the Express. He was also fined P80,000 that conference for not participating in that year's All-Star Weekend. He got Ginebra to the quarterfinals that conference, where they were eliminated by Red Bull. That season, he was on the Mythical Second Team once again.
To start the 2006–07 season, Caguioa scored 21 points in a win over the Welcoat Dragons. In the 2006–07 Philippine Cup, his conference-high in points was 35 points which he scored in a win over the Express. Helterbrand contributed 25 points in that win. During their series against Talk 'N Text in the semifinals, Caguioa scored 34, 31, 26, 35, and 31 points in five games as they returned to the Finals. Caguioa then won the PBA Best Player of the Conference Award, as he averaged 24.7 points, 4.9 rebounds, and 4.4 assists per game. He and Helterbrand piloted Ginebra to their seventh championship in franchise history by besting the San Miguel Beermen in six games, with Helterbrand winning Finals MVP. He also got to the 5,000 point milestone in the title-clinching game. He led the league in scoring at 24 points per game, becoming the first guard to finish a single season as the league's leading scorer since Allan Caidic in 1995. After the conference, he, Helterbrand and Rudy Hatfield were loaned to the RP National Team, and had to miss most of the following conference. This put him out of the running for MVP.
Caguioa once again led his team during the 2008 PBA Fiesta Conference, pulling Ginebra from the bottom of the standings with a 39-point performance against the Express. This got him another Player of the Week award. He then missed several games due to an ankle injury. He returned with 14 points, three rebounds and two steals as Ginebra (led by Helterbrand's 27 points on five three pointers) got its third straight win. Helterbrand had been stepping up since Caguioa's injury, as he won two Player of the Week awards in Caguioa's absence. Caguioa then won another Player of the Week award as Ginebra secured a spot in the quarterfinals. He shared this award with the Express's Gary David. In Game 1 of the quarterfinals, he scored 30 points to lead Ginebra to the win. Ginebra moved on to the semifinals, where they faced Red Bull. In that series, he and Helterbrand were the leading scorers as they swept Red Bull. The duo became the leading contenders for the Best Player of the Conference award, with Helterbrand claiming the award and their import teammate Chris Alexander winning the Best Import award. Their efforts culminated in winning the team's eighth championship against the Express. However, he was fined P5,000 for a flagrant foul penalty 1 on Arwind Santos. He lost the scoring title he held the previous season to James Yap.
In the 2008–09 season, Caguioa failed to suit up for Kings due to his therapy in the United States for tendinitis on both knees. Once again, Helterbrand stepped up as the leader of team in Caguioa's absence. Caguioa's return the following season was delayed due to a swollen knee.
Struggles and MVP season
Caguioa made his return in a win over Talk 'N Text during the 2009–10 Philippine Cup, in which he scored eight points in the fourth quarter. In that conference, they made it to the semifinals against Alaska, where in a Game 1 loss, he had a game-high 23 points. In a match against the Express during the 2010 Fiesta Conference, he hit a referee hard with the ball, resulting in him being given a flagrant foul penalty 2 and being ejected from the game before halftime. He was then suspended for one game. Later in the conference, he scored 20 points in a win over Alaska, while Menk led the team with 25 points. He then had 19 points in a win over the Barako Energy Coffee Masters. In that conference, Ginebra was eliminated by Alaska in the quarterfinals, as he struggled in that series.
Ginebra started the 2010–11 Philippine Cup with a 1–2 record. Caguioa then led Ginebra with 18 points and four rebounds in a win over Barako. This kickstarted a six-game winning streak which also saw him score 14 fourth quarter points in a rematch against Barako. Ginebra got into the quarterfinals where in two games he had back-to-back 20-point performances off the bench to lead Ginebra to the semis past Alaska. In the semis against San Miguel, Ginebra went down 2–0 but won Game 3 due to his 17 points and 12 rebounds as a starter. Ginebra still lost to San Miguel in six games. In the Commissioner's Cup, he led Ginebra back to the semis with 30 points and 11 rebounds in a do-or-die Game 3 against the Rain or Shine Elasto Painters. He then led them to the Finals, where they faced Talk 'N Text. In the Finals, they lost in six games. That season, he could have made his sixth All-Star appearance, but backed out due to a family emergency. During the Governors' Cup, he had 19 points, five rebounds, and six assists in a win over the B-Meg Llamados. This earned him a Player of the Week award. He and Helterbrand then scored the final four points in a clutch win over Rain or Shine. He then scored a season-high 33 points with nine rebounds in a win over B-Meg, and claimed his second Player of the Week award. At the end of the season, he was in the running for MVP, but lost to Jimmy Alapag. He did receive the PBA's Order of Merit for winning the most Best Player of the Week awards.
In the offseason, Caguioa signed a two-year contract worth P8.4 million. In a low-scoring game against the Powerade Tigers, Caguioa led Ginebra with 11 points, with his last four allowing Ginebra to win the game. He then had 22 points and three assists in a win over the Petron Blaze Boosters, with his last assist leading to the go-ahead basket by Willy Wilson. In the 2012 Commissioner's Cup, he had 31 points in a win over Powerade as Ginebra started with a record of 3–1. He then earned a Player of the Week award for a 25-point performance in a win over Barako. Ginebra got an automatic spot in the semifinals for that conference. On March 30, 2012, he suffered an eye injury, and he missed the semifinals, where they were eliminated by B-Meg. For leading Ginebra to the semis, he received a Best Player of the Conference for the Commissioner's Cup with averages of 16.9 points, 6.4 rebounds, 2.4 assists and a steal per game in 32.6 minutes. He made his return during the Governors' Cup in a win over the Express, in which he had 15 points. Against Petron, he finished a 15–2 run by Ginebra by making two clutch triples and three clutch free throws that led to Ginebra taking the win. He finished that game with 19 points and three rebounds. Against Alaska, he had 22 points, five rebounds, four assists and three steals to overcome a 16-point deficit and get the win. Once again, Ginebra automatically qualified for the semis, this time with a win over Barako in which he had 22 points. Against TNT, he scored 32 points, four rebounds and four steals but TNT still won. In a rematch against Petron, on the night Robert Jaworski's jersey was retired by Ginebra, he led with 25 points, and Ginebra won that game off a floater from Cedric Bozeman. Ginebra didn't make it to the finals, as they lost to B-Meg off a putback play from PJ Simon. That conference, he received his second of back to back Best Player of the Conference awards. For the 2011–2012 season, he won the Most Valuable Player award, despite not leading Ginebra to any Finals appearance that season. He also won the Comeback Player of the Year award for his performance after his eye injury.
New backcourt partner
Before the start of the 2012–13 season, Ginebra acquired veteran point guard LA Tenorio to join Caguioa in the backcourt, moving Helterbrand to the bench. Against Rain or Shine during the Philippine Cup, the new duo joined forces in the clutch to combine for 42 points and start Ginebra off 2–0. Caguioa then had 21 points against Barako, but lost as he and Tenorio missed shots in the clutch. This led to a five-game losing streak. They broke their losing streak in a win over the GlobalPort Batang Pier, in which he had 19 points, four assists and three steals. He then had a double-double of 22 points and 11 rebounds in a win over Talk 'N Text despite suffering a cut in his eye early in the first quarter. For his performances in Ginebra's last two wins, he got a Player of the Week award. The following week, he won it again, this time for his 13 fourth quarter points in a win over Alaska (he finished with 24 points). In the best-of-three quarterfinals against Rain or Shine, they lost their first game, as he and Tenorio only combined for 22 points. He bounced back the following game with 17 points, seven rebounds, and played good defense on Paul Lee in the final seconds of the game to tie the series. In Game 3, he shot poorly making as he was bothered by Rain or Shine's defense, and their campaign in that conference ended. In the Commissioner's Cup, Ginebra lost their first four games before they won against Barako. They got their second win of the conference against the San Mig Coffee Mixers, in which he had 25 points while Tenorio had a double-double of 12 points and 13 assists. Ginebra got its second straight win against Talk 'N Text, in which he had 28 points and Tenorio had 20. His play that conference led fans to give him a new nickname, "Pinoy Vino". In a game against the Meralco Bolts, he slipped and hurt his left knee, and had to leave the game. The injury was revealed to be a grade 1 MCL sprain. Despite his absence, Ginebra got to the semifinals. He made his return in Game 5 of the semis, in which Ginebra defeated Talk 'N Text to return to the Finals. There, they were swept by Alaska. In the Governors' Cup, Ginebra lost their first game, but bounced back with a win over Meralco in which he had 15 points while Tenorio had a career-high 34 points. After a loss to Alaska, he criticized the referees on his Twitter account for not calling certain fouls and travels. The league fined him P20,000 for his statements. In a win against Rain or Shine, he had a conference-high 32 points off the bench. In the quarterfinals against Petron, he slipped on the court and twisted his knee. The injury was revealed to be another MCL sprain.
With Ginebra eliminated by Petron, Caguioa recovered from his injury during the offseason. During the 2013–14 Philippine Cup, he scored 22 points on 9-of-12 shooting in a win over Rain or Shine. In a matchup against GlobalPort's rookie scorer Terrence Romeo, he exchanged baskets with Romeo in the clutch and outscored Romeo's 27 points with his own 29 (with 14 in the fourth quarter), giving Ginebra a 109–104 win. This performance earned him a Player of the Week award. That conference, Ginebra finished with the top seed. In Game 1 of their quarterfinals series against Alaska, he committed a flagrant foul penalty 1 on Calvin Abueva. He was fined P5,000 for his actions. He committed another flagrant foul on Abueva the following game, and was once again fined. Ginebra made it all the way to the semis, where they lost to San Mig in seven games. In a Commissioner's Cup win over GlobalPort, he had 15 points and 14 rebounds. He had another double-double of 14 points and 10 rebounds against TNT, but Ginebra lost. After a loss to Air21 which caused Ginebra to fall to eighth in the standings, he vented his frustrations about his team on Twitter. Ginebra won their next game after his rant. However, after Ginebra failed to make it past the quarterfinals, he ripped into his teammates once again on Twitter.
In a 2014–15 Philippine Cup win over the Blackwater Elite, Caguioa scored 10 of his 18 points in the fourth quarter. He then had 15 points and seven assists in a win over Barako. On November 21, 2014, against Meralco, he became only the 20th player to reach the 9,000 point milestone, but Ginebra lost that game. In a Commissioner's Cup win over SMB, he scored nine of his 17 points in the fourth quarter. He earned his eighth All-Star appearance that season, finishing in the top 10 in votes to become a starter for the North All-Stars team. However, a back injury forced him to back out of playing in the All-Star Game. During a Governors' Cup win over Rain or Shine, he and Tenorio combined for 38 points. He then hit the go-ahead jumper that gave Ginebra the lead in overtime and eventually the win against GlobalPort. A broken finger on his left finger however, ended his season early.
Final years of "Fast and Furious"
In 2015, Ginebra hired a new head coach Tim Cone, who had been the coach of Caguioa's rival James Yap. Ginebra also drafted guard Scottie Thompson, which meant he and Helterbrand had to take on mentorship roles. Against the GlobalPort duo of Romeo and Stanley Pringle during the Philippine Cup, he had 22 points, five steals, four boards, and two assists in 35 minutes, while Tenorio added 18 points, six assists, and four boards in 40 minutes. They also limited Romeo and Pringle to just 10 and 13 points respectively, leading to the win. In a Governors' Cup game against Meralco, he and Helterbrand started a 10–1 run in the third quarter that eventually led to a win. That conference, Ginebra won six of its first eight games as they were led by Tenorio, Thompson, Japeth Aguilar, Sol Mercado, and replacement import Justin Brownlee. However, despite his assists and rebounds increasing, his scoring went down. Ginebra then returned to the Finals by beating the Beermen in five games, with him and Helterbrand the only ones remaining from the last Ginebra team to win a championship. There, they faced the Bolts. In Game 1, he had 14 points, but the Bolts won the game in overtime. Ginebra bounced back with a win in Game 2. In the fourth quarter of Game 4, he and Helterbrand came off the bench to lead a 16-point comeback win as they combined to score 19 points. Ginebra's title drought ended in Game 6 when Brownlee made a buzzer-beating three-pointer. After they won, he encouraged the 40-year old Helterbrand not to retire just yet.
In the offseason, Caguioa signed a two-year contract to keep playing for Ginebra. Helterbrand also returned on a one-year contract. In a loss to the Phoenix Fuel Masters during the 2016–17 Philippine Cup, he led Ginebra with 15 points. In Game 3 of their semifinal series against the Star Hotshots, he had a crucial eight points off the bench that started a Ginebra 14–2 run that led to Ginebra taking control of the series. Ginebra eventually won the series in seven games to advance to the Finals. In the Finals, they lost to the Beermen in five games. Throughout the season, he continued to thrive in an off the bench role for Ginebra. In a Commissioner's Cup win over the Mahindra Enforcer, he had 13 points off the bench. Ginebra finished that conference as the first seed, their first time doing so in three years. They got as far as the semis during the playoffs. In a Governors' Cup win over the Kia Picanto, he had 16 points and missed only one of his nine attempts. In Game 1 of their semifinal series against TNT, he scored 13 points fourth quarter points with seven rebounds off the bench, leading to a win. Ginebra returned to the Finals against Meralco, where in Game 4, he and Helterbrand tried to shift the team's momentum like what they did last season, but this time Meralco won, tying the series. Still, Ginebra won back-to-back Governors' Cup titles. Several days after they won, Helterbrand retired, officially putting an end to "The Fast and the Furious" era.
Later career
Caguioa opened the 2017–18 season by making his 700th triple in a win over the Hotshots, becoming only the 18th player to do so. Later into the season, he overtook Freddie Hubalde on the all-time points scored leaderboard. Ginebra made the Commissioner's Cup Finals that season. In Game 1, he scored 11 points in 10 minutes as Ginebra took the first win. In Game 3, he had a conference-high 12 points, but Ginebra went down 2–1 in the series. Ginebra was able to overcome the series deficit, and Caguioa got his first Commissioner's Cup title. On October 5, 2018, against NLEX Road Warriors, he scored 16 points to join the PBA's 10,000 points club. He became just the 15th local player to do so.
During the 2019 season, Caguioa missed a game due to an Achilles injury. He then missed several more games due to food poisoning. Despite playing in only three games that season, coaches voted him into the 2019 All-Star Game. In their quarterfinal series against the Hotshots, he scored 12 points in 13 minutes off the bench to send Ginebra to the semis. He then got his first start in a while in the semis against TNT.
After the team won the 2019 Governors' Cup, Caguioa announced that he would play for one more season. However, the 2020 season was delayed and held in a bubble, with no fans watching them in person. When he made his season debut against Meralco, he officially marked his 18th season, giving him the record for most seasons played for one team. That season, he won his first Philippine Cup in 13 years.
For the 2021 season, Coach Cone was hopeful that Caguioa would play one more season. However, Caguioa wasn't able to play in the 2021 Philippine Cup due to family matters. He was set to play in the Governors' Cup, but due to a calf strain days before the conference started, he wasn't able to play. On June 2, 2022, Coach Cone announced that Caguioa had retired quietly.
PBA career statistics
Season-by-season averages
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 52 || 26.1 || .467 || .422 || .870 || 4.9 || 1.7 || 1.0 || .1 || 13.8
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 30 || 29.5 || .438 || .333 || .865 || 4.2 || 2.3 || .6 || .0 || 13.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 41 || 35.6 || .421 || .329 || .750 || 6.0 || 2.7 || 1.0 || .1 || 17.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 78 || 37.4 || .491 || .331 || .799 || 6.3 || 3.1 || 1.1 || .1 || 18.7
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 48 || 37.7 || .418 || .258 || .741 || 5.8 || 2.5 || 1.0 || .2 || 20.6
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 30 || 38.7 || .425 || .329 || .738 || 4.9 || 4.4 || .9 || .2 || 24.6
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 39 || 32.1 || .486 || .304 || .648 || 4.2 || 2.2 || .8 || .1 || 19.8
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 34 || 22.7 || .428 || .225 || .785 || 3.1 || 1.6 || .9 || .0 || 11.9
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 57 || 28.7 || .418 || .310 || .759 || 5.3 || 2.4 || .7 || .0 || 16.0
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 41 || 30.6 || .397 || .330 || .760 || 4.8 || 2.3 || .8 || .1 || 16.3
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 41 || 32.1 || .402 || .283 || .728 || 4.5 || 2.6 || .7 || .0 || 17.2
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 43 || 26.7 || .416 || .360 || .806 || 4.1 || 2.0 || .3 || .2 || 10.6
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 33 || 25.8 || .411 || .217 || .863 || 3.8 || 1.9 || .6 || .1 || 9.8
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 49 || 21.9 || .392 || .102 || .800 || 3.3 || 1.8 || .6 || .1 || 7.0
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 59 || 10.7 || .418 || .083 || .949 || 2.5 || .7 || .2 || .1 || 4.4
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 43 || 9.6 || .428 || .167 || .579 || 2.3 || .4 || .2 || .1 || 3.6
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 23 || 7.6 || .433 || .333 || .733 || 1.3 || .5 || .2 || .0 || 2.8
|-
| align=left |
| align=left | Barangay Ginebra
| 3 || 6.4 || .667 || — || — || 2.3 || .7 || .0 || .0 || 1.3
|-class=sortbottom
| align="center" colspan="2" | Career
| 744 || 27.1 || .434 || .307 || .765 || 4.4 || 2.1 || .7 || .1 || 13.5
|}
National team career
In 2005, Caguioa was named in the RP Training Pool. He participated in several exhibition games against the Iranian National Team and the NBL's Sydney Kings in mid-2005, where he impressed the latter team's coach by scoring 27 points. He has also played in the 2005 FIBA Asia Champions Cup held in the Philippines, in which his team finished fifth, the Philippines' highest finish since 1997. He averaged 19.8 points and 3.4 rebounds per game in that tournament.
In 2007, he joined the national team that won the SEABA Championship with a perfect record, won bronze in the William Jones Cup and finished ninth place with a record of 5–2 in the 2007 FIBA Asia Championship. He suffered a shoulder injury during the FIBA tournament, which delayed his return to Ginebra.
Caguioa was considered for the RP team in the 2009 FIBA Asia Championship, but an injury prevented him from joining the team. He was also considered for the 2013 FIBA Asia Championship, but due to San Miguel Corporation's strict policy of only loaning one player to the national team, LA Tenorio was chosen to represent Ginebra.
Legacy
As a nine-time PBA Champion, one-time MVP of the league in 2012, a 13-time All-Star, three-time scoring champion, and a member of the 10,000-point club, Caguioa is one of the most accomplished players in the PBA. He played for Ginebra for 18 years, the most seasons played for just one team. In 2014, he was named to the set of players known as the "40 Greatest Players in PBA History".
Several PBA players such as Chris Newsome and Terrence Romeo have cited Caguioa as their inspiration to become PBA players. Players such as Romeo and Kiefer Ravena have been compared to him when they entered the league.
Personal life
Caguioa is the eldest of three children. He is also related to Chino Trinidad, the former Philippine Basketball League (PBL) commissioner.
When he was a PBA rookie, Caguioa and his Thai girlfriend (who was born in the US) were in a long-distance relationship together. He then was in a relationship with Filipino actress Juliana Palermo. They broke up in 2004. He then started a relationship with Lauren Hudson, a Filipino-Australian print ad model. In 2016, 12 years later, he proposed to her right after he had just won the 2016 Governors' Cup.
Caguioa is a sneakerhead. He started collecting sneakers when he was signed by Reebok. Aside from Reebok, both he and Helterbrand were also signed by Accel, a Filipino sports company, and had signature shoes. In 2019, he, Tenorio and Scottie Thompson competed together on the CNN Philippines show "Off-Court Battle".
References
1979 births
Living people
Barangay Ginebra San Miguel draft picks
Barangay Ginebra San Miguel players
Basketball players from Metro Manila
Filipino emigrants to the United States
Filipino men's basketball players
Glendale Vaqueros men's basketball players
People from San Juan, Metro Manila
Philippine Basketball Association All-Stars
Philippines men's national basketball team players
Shooting guards
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5164876
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad%20Bellick
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Brad Bellick
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Bradley Bellick is a fictional character from the American television series, Prison Break. He is portrayed by Wade Williams. As one of the principal characters of Prison Break, he has been featured in the first four seasons of the series. The character was introduced in the series' pilot as Captain Brad Bellick, the leader of the correctional officers at Fox River State Penitentiary. Originally, he was the main antagonist of Michael Scofield and the escape team. In the second season, the character's role changes as the main plot moves away from the prison setting, which allows him to remain as one of the main characters in the series. While not possessing the educational rigour as Scofield or Agent Mahone, he has shown himself to be highly cunning and even been able to outsmart Scofield on numerous occasions and he must not be underestimated, and in Season 2 was able to track down several of the Fox River escapees and travel across America on a low budget. In season three, he is a prisoner in the Panamanian prison, Sona. In season four, Bellick became a member of Scofield's team dedicated to locating Scylla, but sacrificed his life to protect their mission.
Background
From a young age Brad Bellick had wanted to be a police officer, but being turned down by the police academy after trying and failing the entrance exam five times, he resorted to taking a job as a correctional officer. He was employed at Fox River shortly after graduating high school and remained there until his termination during the episode "Otis" in season 2. Due to his belief that punishment is the primary purpose of prison and not rehabilitation, he and Warden Henry Pope (played by Stacy Keach) do not always agree on several issues. Nevertheless, Warden Pope continues to give him more responsibility with the intention of having Bellick succeed him as warden when he retires. Bellick has a history of corruption and inmate abuse, and as described by his ex-colleague, Bellick is as "crooked as scoliosis", referring to his corruption as a guard at Fox River. Upon the incarceration of John Abruzzi (Peter Stormare), who was a mobster prior to his imprisonment, Bellick arranged a deal with him that in exchange for monthly payments, Abruzzi would have control of Prison Industries (PI). Additionally, it is revealed in the flashback episode, "Brother's Keeper", that Bellick is a recovering substance abuser and is infatuated with Sara Tancredi (Sarah Wayne Callies), the prison doctor. Bellick is about 40 years old, judging from his own words in "The Killing Box."
Appearances
Season 1
In the pilot episode of the show, Bellick forms an immediate dislike of the newly arrived inmate Michael Scofield (Wentworth Miller). Believing that he is a "smart ass", Bellick goes to great lengths to harass Michael or investigate his actions. Throughout the first season, Bellick serves as Michael's primary antagonist inside the prison, and constantly attempts to give him trouble at every chance he gets. Learning in the episode "Allen", that Michael has earned the favor of Warden Pope, Bellick is strengthened in his dislike of Michael and later arranges for a mentally unstable inmate called Haywire to become Scofield's cellmate. As the season unfolds, Bellick's relationship with Warden Pope becomes somewhat strained as well; following a major riot in "Riots, Drills and the Devil", Bellick disagrees with Pope's lenient methods and earns his boss’ ire after Bellick disrespects Pope in front of the Governor, Frank Tancredi. The character shows his first hint of humanity, however, in "The Old Head" where he is devastated over the death of a guard that was murdered in the riots. When Charles Westmoreland (Muse Watson), who knows who the murderer is, is too afraid to reveal it, Bellick is outraged and strangles Westmoreland's cat as revenge.
In a later episode, due to her visit to Fox River and her connection with Michael, Bellick goes to search for Nika Volek (Holly Valance) and finds her at a club he frequents. After finding out about Michael's deal with Nika, Bellick attempts to find the credit card she smuggled in but fails to find it and has to settle with trying to agitate Michael by insulting Nika. Bellick becomes increasingly curious about what Michael is up to as the season progresses. After he fails to find out anything further, Bellick approaches the inmate Tweener in the episode "Odd Man Out" and forces him to become an informant. Bellick role continues to revolve around Michael and his possible activities in the second half of the season. In "The Rat", he is able to sabotage Michael's efforts to postpone his brother's execution by tampering with the electric chair, and in the episode "J-Cat", Bellick uses Tweener to infiltrate the P.I. crew to spy on Michael and the others and report back any information that he discovers. When Tweener fails to come up with anything Bellick deems as useful, he punishes Tweener by transferring him to a cell with a known rapist and ignores his pleas for help.
On the day of the breakout team's escape, Bellick is informed by Tweener that Michael and the rest of the P.I. crew are planning an escape, causing Bellick to discover the hole dug by Michael Scofield and the P.I. crew during their initial escape attempt. Before he can tell anyone, however, he is attacked, tied and gagged by Westmoreland, who is a member of the escape team, though Westmoreland received an injury during the struggle that proved fatal in the end. Bellick is trapped in the tunnels under the guard's room and has to witness the escape; after he is found in the season finale, Bellick swears revenge on the escapees and set out to catch them along with a team of other correctional officers.
Season 2
Bellick continues to be a prominent character in the second season, but as his character adapts to the new format of the show he no longer only antagonizes Michael. With the main protagonists on the run and the plot shifting away from the prison, Bellick's central plotline becomes hunting the escapees in hopes of gaining reward money for their capture. In the premiere episode of the season, taking place in the morning after the escape, Bellick leads a manhunt of correctional officers in pursuit of the convicts. He is unsuccessful, however, and is soon called off the pursuit in favor of Special Agent Alexander Mahone and his team of FBI agents. In the next episode "Otis", a DOC conduct review board makes the decision to fire Bellick after his corruption is revealed. He prepares to commit suicide, but reconsiders after his mother informs him of the reward money for the escapees capture. He forms an unlikely alliance with former CO Roy Geary and becomes a bounty hunter. The next eleven episodes follow Bellick and Geary in their pursuit of the fugitives. Upon learning of the five million dollars Westmoreland buried in Utah, they set out to retrieve the money. They successfully track down Michael and his brother Lincoln Burrows by following Nika, but Bellick's stupidity allows him to be outwitted by the brothers in the next episode "First Down", in which Bellick's character plays a central role.
Bellick and Geary are absent for the next three episodes. They eventually re-appear in "Dead Fall", where they are able to surmise that T-Bag is in possession of Westmoreland's money. As T-Bag's subplot separates from the main plotline (which includes the protagonists fighting against the conspiracy) he begins to share scenes with Bellick and Geary in the next three episodes. After capturing T-bag in ”Rendezvous”, Bellick and Geary proceed to torture him to make him reveal the location of the money. In Bolshoi Booze, they discover a key hidden in his sock. The key leads them to a locker containing the five million dollars, but in one of the episode's twist endings Geary betrays Bellick, hitting him in the head with a meat tenderiser and steals the money. As Bellick recovers in the hospital in the next episode, he learns that T-Bag has killed Geary and taken back the money. Furthermore, Bellick himself becomes a suspect to Geary's murder, as T-bag manages to frame him. In the episode "Disconnect", Bellick appears in scenes with a female Kansas detective. After unsuccessfully trying to prove his innocence, Bellick is arrested for Geary's murder at the end of the episode. At the end of the fall finale, Bellick reluctantly accepts a deal of 25 years to avoid the death penalty and is sent to Fox River to begin serving his sentence. His last scene of the episode shows him in his cell in Gen Pop.
The character spends the next two episodes behind bars. As an inmate of Fox River, Bellick attempts to stay out of trouble but is bullied by the other inmates; in the episode "John Doe", an inmate called Banks forces Bellick to bring him his dessert after meals. Bellick does this, but Banks demands more from Bellick who subsequently attacks him and his entourage with a makeshift blackjack. He immediately is feared and respected by the other inmates because it appears that Banks is high up in the prison food chain. It is revealed in the episode ”The Message” that Banks and his crew have got their revenge on Bellick, because he has been brutally beaten overnight, he is also warned that there are many more beat downs to come. Bellick is deemed to be of some value to Agent Mahone, who secures his release from Fox River. Mahone, who is under blackmail by the sinister Company to ensure the deaths of the Fox River Eight, decides to use Bellick as his under-cover operative, without any paper-trail to connect him to Mahone. Bellick thus returns to his earlier subplot as a fugitive hunter. He immediately shows his worth by tracking down escapee Haywire in "Chicago." After being absent for one episode, Bellick then re-appears in "Wash" where he is assigned by Mahone to track down Sucre, which he does in the next episode. Learning that T-Bag still has the money, Bellick forces Sucre to help him track it down. Their plotline also intersects with Michael's in the penultimate episode "Fin Del Camino", as he also seeks to capture T-Bag. Bellick is later shot in the leg by T-Bag and then captured by Panama police. T-Bag again frames him for a murder, this time a Panamanian prostitute. In the season finale, Bellick is sent to the prison Penitenciaría Federal de Sona. In the last scene of the season, he is discovered by Michael at Sona prison, battered, and lying on the floor, under a bigger inmate.
Season 3
In Sona prison Bellick now finds himself on the lowest rung of prison society, forced to wear nothing but his underwear at all times and given the job to clean the prison's bathrooms and sewers. He eventually rises in the prison hierarchy, however, by informing Lechero, the ruler of the prison, of the mysterious Whistler's whereabouts. Convinced that Michael is planning another escape, Bellick then tries to force his way onto it. When this fails, he attempts to get Michael into trouble with Lechero. The plot backfires when Michael deflects Bellick's accusations, and Bellick ends up being scalded with hot coffée by Lechero as punishment for the "bad information."
Following the abuse, Bellick's character begins to show a more sympathetic side. In the episode "Interference", he tries to help the new outcast by giving him food. In the episode "Vamonos", he is deeply disturbed by the news of Sara's death, causing him to question his past actions. In the Episode "Boxed In" he is ordered to clean some vomit by one of Sammy's newly recruited goons. When he refuses the goon calls him to a chicken foot fight but Bellick defeats him by wrapping his hands in rags soaked in Acetone. When his adversary's senses are irritated because of the fumes, Bellick beats him to death. He consequently becomes very proud and popular in Sona and says he is Delta Force. When Sammy overthrows Lechero, T-Bag tells Bellick to chicken foot Sammy and in exchange he will be allowed to join the escape team. When Bellick discovers there is no more Acetone and Bellick is rapidly beaten by Sammy who was on the point of breaking his neck when he is called in by one of the goons. Despite his defeat he still joins the escape team. In ”Hell or High Water”, Bellick, T-Bag and Lechero are all tricked by Michael and get arrested by the guards while Michael and the rest of the team escape to safety. Following T-Bag's murder of Lechero and ascent to ruler of Sona in the episode ”The Art of the Deal”, a despairing Bellick is seen slumped down in defeat. The season ends with Bellick never getting out of Sona, sitting against a wall.
Season 4
In season 4, Bellick's character continues his redemption arc, and he now serves as an almost completely loyal ally to the protagonists. It is revealed in the first episode of season 4 that Sucre, T-Bag and Bellick have all broken out of Sona during a riot which led to the prison burning down. Later in the episode, Sucre and Bellick are both arrested when they arrive in Chicago. As Michael and Lincoln makes a deal with Homeland Security agent Don Self, Bellick and Sucre are recruited into Self's covert "A-Team" to bring down The Company. In the season's first eight episodes, Bellick has only a minor role, but provides crucial help in obtaining The Company's Scylla cards. He is often teamed up with Sucre, and the friendship the two developed while being in Sona is often referred to. In the ninth episode, Greatness Achieved, the character comes full circle. While digging their way to Scylla and trying to build a passage through a water conduct, the beam they are using to hold the pipe up breaks. Bellick, having stated earlier in the episode that his life has lacked purpose, decides to sacrifice himself to save the mission by climbing into the pipe and pulling the cylinder into place, trapping himself inside. He subsequently drowns. In "The Legend", his memory is honored by many of the other characters. Bellick is the fifth main character to be killed off in the series (after Veronica Donovan, John Abruzzi, Norman "Lechero" St. John, and James Whistler).
Personality and character transformation
In seasons 1 and 2, Bellick was mean spirited and obnoxious, however after being put into Sona, his character softened. Wade Williams, who plays Bellick, has mentioned that "Like all guys with a big ego, Bellick probably has very low self-esteem." His tough guy act is little more than a facade and the slightest bit of real threat will quickly turn him into a quivering coward. When he felt secure behind his position as Captain of Fox River's correctional officers, however, Bellick made it a frequent habit to harass, intimidate and even threaten the lives of others. But in season 3, Bellick finally begins to learn and grow from the bully he had been in season 1 and 2. As the lowest part of the Sona pecking order, he goes through hell as all other inmates spit on him. This experience seems to change him.
In "Orientacion" the first episode of the third season, Bellick befriends another prisoner who is also an outcast. Later the man attempts to escape because he is afraid of starving to death since the other prisoners won't give him food. As he runs across "No man's land" he is shot dead, and Bellick is seen screaming in considerable emotional agony. In season 3's last episode "The Art of the Deal", he was scared and visibly shaken as he watched T-Bag smother Lechero with a pillow. When T-Bag asked him to help him rescue the wounded Lechero, who was being beaten up by an angry mob of prisoners he initially refused saying that "he could go to hell." Bellick was later seen slumped up against a wall.
In season 4, the character became more benevolent, actually taking Fernando Sucre along with him after Sona burned down. Bellick still retains some of his previous personality traits. He is extremely pessimistic, and is always voicing doubts about how they are going to be able to get the information they need to bring the Company down. He has even considered abandoning the rest of the group and fleeing to Mexico, only offering to bring Sucre along because "it would be nice to have someone who can speak the language." In the episode "Eagles and Angels," Bellick saves Lincoln's life when he was held at gunpoint by a Company Body Guard. Bellick stabs the man in the side with a screw driver, allowing Lincoln to escape and kill the assailant. Lincoln thanks Bellick for the rescue at the end of the episode, while Bellick seems to be shaken from the experience. In a later episode Bellick dies, while saving the mission to get Scylla. Lincoln and Bellick were trying to bridge a pipe across a main water conduit, but it was too heavy. Bellick heaved the pipe into position, refusing Lincoln's pleas to save himself. The pipe was hauled into place, sealing Bellick inside as the water pressure resumed. He subsequently drowned. In the following episode several main characters reminisce and mourn Bellick, including T-Bag, Sara, and Sucre. T-Bag, still masquerading as Cole Pfeiffer, actually delivers an indirect eulogy for Bellick, coining the phrase 'the captivity of negativity', citing the time Bellick spent inside of Fox River as a correctional officer. This may suggest that Brad's transformation of character may have had to do with the effects of his surroundings, from being an officer dealing with criminals, until his time as a rogue on a mission with the protagonists. In the episode The Legend, Sucre reveals that during his time in Sona, Bellick not only befriended him before the destruction of the prison and the escape, but actually saved his life. Sucre says that when T-Bag ordered the burning of the prison, the mob of prisoners nearly trampled him to death, in their mad frenzy to escape. Bellick at great personal risk to himself dragged him to safety.
It was also stated that Bellick had tried and failed to pass the police academy entrance exam five times. Before his body was sent home to his mother, Mahone placed a badge on his suit which he had acquired from the ball during the episode "Eagles and Angels".
References
Prison Break characters
Fictional American prison officers and governors
Fictional bounty hunters
Fictional characters from Illinois
Police misconduct in fiction
Television characters introduced in 2005
Fictional prison escapees
Fictional prisoners and detainees in the United States
Fictional suicides
Fictional torturers
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5164982
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sens%20Cathedral
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Sens Cathedral
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Sens Cathedral () is a Catholic cathedral in Sens in Burgundy, eastern France. The cathedral, dedicated to Saint Stephen, is the seat of the Archbishop of Sens.
Sens was the first cathedral to be built in the Gothic architectural style (the Basilica of Saint Denis, the other pioneer Gothic building built at about the same time, was an Abbey, not a cathedral). The choir was begun between 1135 and 1140, shortly before Notre Dame de Paris. The sanctuary was consecrated in 1164, but work continued until 1176. It is a national monument of France. The structure was completed in the late 15th–early 16th century with Flamboyant style transepts and a new tower. The architecture of its choir influenced that of Canterbury Cathedral, rebuilt in Gothic style by the master mason William of Sens.
History
Sens was an important and prosperous town during the late Roman Empire, located at the meeting point of two rivers and at the intersection of two major Roman roads. During the Carolingian Empire it became a major center of the early French Christian church.
In 876 AD, Pope John VIII gave the Archbishop of Sens the title "Primate of the Gauls and Germans". He was placed at the head of six and later seven dioceses, including Paris, Chartres, Orleans, and Troyes. The religious jurisdiction was transferred Archbishop of Lyon in the 11th century, but the Archbishop of Sens still keeps the honorific title "Primate of the Gauls and Germans".
Construction (1130–1160)
The first cathedral of Sens described in medieval records was built sometime between the 6th and 9th centuries, probably on the same site. According to medieval records, it was composed of three separate buildings, a baptistry and two churches. The date of their construction is not recorded, but medieval chronicles report they were destroyed by fire between 958 and 967, and replaced by a single structure.
By the 12th century, Sens was flourishing economically and growing in population. In 1122, Henri Sanglier, a member of the court of Louis VI of France, was named archbishop of Sens and began the project of building a larger and grander cathedral. In 1128 the new bishop received a series of letters from Saint Bernard of Clairvaux, founder of the Cistercian order, urging him as an archbishop to live a less luxurious and more austere life, advice which the new archbishop followed, as he amassed the funds and resources needed for his cathedral.
Construction of the new cathedral began between 1130 and 1135. The vaulting over the nave and choir was revolutionary, composed of square six-part rib vaults, which distributed the weight downward to alternating columns and piers between the bays. These vaults had been used experimentally in one portion of Durham Cathedral in England and at Saint Denis Basilica near Paris, but Sens was the first cathedral to use them throughout the structure.
Above the arcades of pillars and columns on the ground floor was the triforium, which overlooked the lower roof, and above that the clerestory, or upper walls. Thanks to the new flying buttresses installed outside between the bays to the walls, the clerestory was later given large stained glass windows.
The ground floor of new cathedral had the traditional form of a basilica, with a long nave and a large choir, and no transepts. A walkway or disambulatory surrounded the outside of the nave and choir. There were two chapels flanking the choir. Excavations in the 20th century showed there had originally been a rectangular chapel in the apse at the east end, hidden by later modifications. The dimensions of the new cathedral were extraordinary for the time: 113.5 metres long, 27.5 metres wide, and with a height of 24.4 metres. The church is larger in overall scale than its contemporaries, the Saint Denis, Noyon or Senlis. The first phase of construction was completed by about 1160. It had an immediate influence on the construction of other churches, particularly the choir of the Abbey church of Saint-Germain-des-Pres in Paris, completed in 1163, and Vézelay Abbey (completed about 1180).
Pope Alexander III and Thomas Becket
Sens Cathedral immediately became a destination for important visitors. Pope Alexander III came to Sens with his court in September 1163, in the midst of a dispute with The Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, and remained for three years. At the end of 1164, Thomas Becket, the Archbishop of Canterbury, came to Sens as an exile, forced to leave because of his opposition to the seizure of church property by King Henry II of England. Becket remained in France until December 1170. He returned to England, where he was murdered by four knights in Canterbury Cathedral. A collection of personal effects belonging to Becket, including his church vestments, are on display in the treasury of Sens Cathedral. A major window on the north side of the choir of the cathedral, made in 1200–1210, illustrates the life of Becket.
The founder of the cathedral, Henri Sanglier, died in 1142, and the work was carried on by his successors, archbishops Hugues de Toucy (1142–1168) and then Guillaume de Champagne (1169–1176), before he became archbishop of Reims (1176–1202). The last part of the original cathedral to be completed was the west facade, with its three portals and original two towers.
A Royal Wedding and modifications (13th–16th century)
Under a new archbishop, Gauthier Cornut (1221–1241), the cathedral was the site of an important royal wedding, between King Louis IX and Marguerite of Provence on 27 May 1234, which solidified the alliance between France and Provence. The cathedral also briefly hosted the reputed Crown of Thorns from the Crucifixion, purchased by Louis IX from the Emperor of Constantinople, as it was handed over to the King with great ceremony, and then transported by boat to Paris for eventual placement in the Sainte-Chapelle.
Archbishop Cornut made a series of important modifications. To bring in more light, He raised the upper walls of the choir and installed larger stained glass windows, a process that also took place at Notre Dame de Paris at about the same time. This project was continued by Cornut's successors, and was not finished until 1309. He also began the construction of the Archbishops' palace adjoining the cathedral, the remodelling of the Saint Severin chapel, and the installation of an ornate jubé, or rood screen, between the choir and nave.
The works were interrupted by a disaster, the collapse on 5 April 1268 of the south tower, which caused several casualties and damaged the adjoining Archbishop's Palace. The rebuilding of the tower was long delayed for lack of funds, but was finally completed by a legacy in the will of the Archbishop Étienne Bécard de Penoul (1292–1309).
The same Archbishop also remade the Chapel of Saint Savinien. The original rectangular chapel was replaced by a more ornate polygonal structure with an eight-ribbed vault and five windows. This chapel introduced the High Gothic, or "Classic" style into the cathedral. The 14th century also saw the addition of series of new small chapels for private ceremonies along the aisles on either side of the choir and nave.
The other major 13th-century modification was the reconstruction of the early Gothic Chapel of the Virgin, built in 1150, into the Rayonnant style, with larger and more decorative windows. An even more ambitious project, a transept similar to that of Notre Dame de Paris, was started but, evidently because of a shortage of funds, was not built until between 1490 and 1518. It was finally made in the exuberant late Gothic Flamboyant style by the master mason Martin Chambiges, whose other works included the transept of Senlis Cathedral, of Beauvais Cathedral (1499), and the west front of Troyes Cathedral (1502–1531).
The money for the transept was raised by an ambitious fund-raising campaign, featuring displays of the cathedral relics and special sermons. The King also made a modest contribution from the taxes on his properties in the region. The portal of the new south transept, the portal of Moses, was built first, between 1491 and 1496, A new rose window was installed, along with a Tree of Jesse Window, between 1502 and 1503. Construction of the north transept was begun in about 1502 under a different master builder, Hugues Cuvelier, since Martin Chambiges was by then occupied building the transept of Beauvais Cathedral. The great south rose window, known as the Window of the Angel Musicians, was not put into place until 1515–1517. A few more additions were made in the 16th century. A belfry was added to the new tower (called the lead tower), but the new bells, the largest two of which weighed fourteen tons and twelve tons, were not cast in the foundry and put into place until 1560.
The work on the cathedral was delayed in the late 16th century by the Wars of Religion, opposing Protestants and Catholics. Sens was in the center of the war, not recognising the Protestant King Henry IV, and the city and was besieged without success by a Protestant army. In 1621, the new Archbishop of Paris, Henri de Gondi, persuaded the new King Louis XIII, and Pope Gregory XV to make the Archdiocese of Paris, rather than that of Sens, the principal diocese of France. Thereafter the new Archbishop of Sens, Octave de Belgrade, only had authority over the bishops of neighbouring Auxerre, Nevers and Troyes. Nonetheless, Sens remained an important religious center, attracting monastic communities of the Jesuits, Carmelites, Benedictines, and Ursulines.
Later years (17th–18th century)
Few important additions to the cathedral were made in the following decades. In 1638, the explosions of cannons firing to celebrate the birth of the future Louis XIV broke the stained glass windows installed over the west portal. They were replaced by plain glass. In 1644 a windstorm broke the stained glass window depicting the patron saints on the north transept. It was replaced with a new window designed by painter Antoine Soulignac in 1646.
The pace of change picked up in the 18th century. In 1760, King Louis XV ordered that the golden table, which served as the centerpiece of the altar, be melted down to help refill the royal treasury after a costly war. In the 1760s two new altars, one devoted to Saint Louis (on the left) and Saint Martin (on right) were put in place along with an ornate wrought iron grill and gateway, with the coat of arms of the Cardinal de Luynes. New stalls were installed in the choir in the 1780s. The stone floor of the cathedral was replaced in 1767–69, which destroyed the labyrinth, which had occupied the entire space of the floor at the entry of the nave. This also caused the removal of many medieval tombstones, which were replaced with simple names and dates. In 1785 A project was prepared for a new west portal of the Church, in the form of a classical portico with columns, designed by François Soufflot, nephew of the future architect of the Pantheon in Paris, but it was rejected too radical. A fund for a "Reconstruction in the Gothic style" was granted by Louis XVI in 1786, but the French Revolution intervened.
The Revolution and aftermath
The Outbreak of the French Revolution in Sens preceded that in Paris by a day: on 13 July 1789, peasants broke down the gates of the Palace of the Archbishop to seize the grain that had been confiscated and stored in the courtyard. The Archbishop himself, Lomenie de Brienne, took an oath to the new Constitution. The belongings of the cathedral were nationalised on 23 November 1790. In September 1792, the voting for the deputies to the new Convention took place within the cathedral. Archbishop de Brienne became a Constitutional Bishop, and, later in the month, the abolition of the monarchy and declaration of the Republic was announced in the cathedral.
In November 1793, the revolutionary army called the Marseillaises marched from Paris to put down a counter-Revolutionary outbreak in Lyon. They stopped in Sens for a few hours on November 7, 1793, and took the time to smash the sculpture on the central portal of the cathedral, sparing only the statue of Saint-Etienne, because a quick-thinking clergyman had put a Revolutionary cap on its head. Eight of the bells were taken down from the tower to be melted down for their bronze, though the two largest, the bourdons, remained in place. In February 1794 the Festival of Reason was celebrated in the cathedral, and on June 8 the cathedral was formally renamed the Temple of the Supreme Being.
With the end of the Terror, For a time the Catholic Church shared the structure with semi-religious cult called Theophilanthropy, but in October 1800 the cathedral was entirely returned to its former status. with the advent of the cathedral was gradually returned to the Catholic Church. Part of the church was occupied by s religious cult following a doctrine called Theophilanthropy. In October 1801, the cathedral came back entirely under the control of the Catholic Church, though Napoleon I refused to restore the special status of Sens having dominance over other cathedrals. Sens became an ordinary parish church.
The 19th century – restoration and conflict
Sens suffered more damage during the Napoleonic Wars. In February 1814 the town was bombarded by Russian artillery, which damaged some of the stained glass, and in the same month, Prussian soldiers used the cathedral as a barracks. Traces of their cooking fires can still be seen on the stone floors. After the fall of Napoleon, with the restoration of the royal government, in 1817 Sens again had an archbishop, governing churches in Troyes, Nevers and Moulins as well as Sens.
A major project of repair of years and neglect and damage took place from 1834 to 1848, under the direction of the diocese architect, Charles Robelin. Robelin served as the consultant on Gothic cathedrals to Victor Hugo, whose novel Notre Dame de Paris had appeared in 1831. Hugo came to Sens to see the cathedral in 1839 and wrote, "All the contrasts are mixed in this admirable church, and are resolved into harmonies...It is the complicated art of history, it is the religion of the spirit powerfully combined with the philosophy of facts." During the course of the restoration, many of the sculptures were replaced with new works.
In 1847, a new figure in restoration, Eugène Viollet-le-Duc visited the site, and declared that the restoration work of Robelin was "deplorable." He dismissed Robelin, and a new architect, Adolphe Lance, took charge, with a program of demolishing some of the 14th century and later additions and restoring the structure as much as possible to the plan of the 13th century. Old chapels that had been demolished were recreated. Modern panelling and other additions were stripped away, and the weak points of the structure were reinforced with iron. The painter Jean-Baptiste Corot visited the cathedral in 1874 and painted it at this stage of the restoration. Viollet-le-Duc added a gilded bronze armchair, modelled on 12th-century designs, placed in the center of the cathedral, to be the formal seat of the archbishop. Lance died his 1874, and his work was completed in 1898 by Charles Laisne.
20th and 21st century
At the beginning of the 20th century, the French church and state were formally separated; priests were no longer paid by the state, and the cathedral itself became the property of the French government. In 1907, the Archbishop had to abandon his palace, which had become state property, and find a different residence. His old residence is now the Museum of Sens.
In the First World War, the cathedral was far from the front lines, but in the Second War the German forces swept through Sens, which was captured on 15 June 1940. The stained glass windows had been taken out and replaced by boards. Five German shells struck the cathedral, causing minor damage. French prisoners of war were initially kept inside the cathedral; they included André Malraux, the future French author and Minister of Culture. In 2014, the cathedral celebrated the 850th anniversary of its consecration.
Towers and bells
The south tower, known as the stone tower, was finished along with the west facade in 1230. However, in 1268, over a period of three days, it collapsed. It was rebuilt, and in 1537 was capped with a campanile in the Renaissance style, which brought its height to . The north tower was originally topped by an octagonal bell tower, made of wood covered with lead. This structure, called the lead tower, was taken down during the reconstruction of the cathedral in 1848.
The cathedral has seven bells, four in the south bell tower, including the two massive bourdons, and three in the campanile above it. The oldest of the original bells was called Marie, made in 613 for the bishop, Saint Loup. During the French Revolution, Marie and the seven other original bells were taken to Paris to be melted down to be made into cannon.
The Bourdons are among the largest in France. They were forged in 1560. The largest, called the Savinienne, weighs 15,600 kilograms, while the smaller, the Potentienne, weighs 10,000 kilograms. The inscription in Latin on Savinienne translates: "I was forged in Sens, in the year one thousand five hundred sixty. By my sound, and the name of the first Saint-Bishop, the storms and winds do not disturb this climate. I convoke the services, and lament the deaths. Now Pious IV reigns in Rome, the Emperor Ferdinand governs the Germans, King Francis II the Gauls, and Jean, Cardinal Bertrand, the Archdiocese of Sens." Then in French, "Gaspard Mongin-Viard made me."
West portals
The west facade has three portals or doorways, which contain some of the oldest sculpture in the cathedral. Some of the sculpture was smashed during the French Revolution, and some original pieces, notably the column-statues and two bas-reliefs, have been moved to the museum within the Archbishop's palace, and replaced with copies. The portal on the north, dedicated to John the Baptist, is the oldest, made between 1190 and 1200, prior to the portals of Notre Dame de Paris and Chartres Cathedral. It is the best preserved, and is an exceptionally good example of the Early Gothic style. Its arched tympanum over the doorway is crowded with sculpted figures and events of the Saint's life. The central scene, just over the door, depicts Christ, in the water, being baptised by the Saint. Another scene depicts Salome, the nemesis of the Saint, carrying his head on a plate. Traces of paint were found on the sculpture, including red pigment on the neck of John the Baptist and gold on the cup of Salomé, indicating that, as with other Gothic cathedrals, the entire tympanum was brightly coloured.
The central portal is aligned with the altar, and is dedicated to Saint Stephen, the patron saint of the cathedral with events of his life. His statue occupies the column between the two doors, and was the only one of the statue-columns that survived the Revolutionary battering. (The statue in place is a copy – original is now inside the museum). Besides statuary representing Parable of the Ten Virgins and the story of St Stephen, it presents sculptures of animals, including ostriches, elephants and dolphins, as well as mythical beasts including basilisks and griffons. It also illustrates the typical activities of each of the twelve months, including harvesting crops and making wine. Many of these works were badly damaged during the Revolutionary vandalism. The sculpture on soubassements, or lower portions of the portal, contain sculptural figures illustrating the arts and sciences of the Middle Ages, including Grammar, Dialectics, Rhetoric, Music, Mathematics, Astronomy and Philosophy.
The South portal on the west facade is dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and the tympanum illustrates her life. It is the most recent, probably from the end of the 13th century. It replaced the original portal, which was destroyed in 1268 by the fall of the south tower.
Transept
The transept of the cathedral was constructed at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century in the Flamboyant style. It was the work of architect Martin Chambiges, who also designed the transepts of Senlis Cathedral, Beauvais Cathedral (1499), and the west front of Troyes Cathedral (1502–1531). The portal of the south transept was reserved for the Archbishop, whose residence faced it across the courtyard. The north portal was reserved for the clergy of the Chapter.
The Flamboyant style is most vividly expressed in the curving pointed archway over the portal of Moses, topped by a statue of Moses with the tablets of the Ten Commandments. Above is a group of narrow lancet windows, below the south rose window, which is filled with the flamboyant twists and counter-twists of stone tracery. This facade is flanked by two pinnacle-like towers, which contain stairways and are topped with elaborate spires. The stairways are marked with the fleur-de-lis emblem of Louis X of France and the ermine, symbol of his wife, Anne de Bretagne. There are many niches for sculpture above the doorway, but the statues were destroyed in the Revolution.
The north transept portal, called the Portal of Abraham, also designed by Martin Chambiges, had an even more elaborate flamboyant rose window and facade, it was as built between 1503 and 1507. The statuary here was also destroyed in the Revolution.
Stained glass
Sens Cathedral has an important collection of stained glass windows covering the periods from the Early Gothic to the Renaissance. The oldest stained glass, from the early 13th century, is found in the upper windows of the choir and in the apse. The best-known is the Thomas Becket window, celebrating his life and martyrdom. The others present the stories of the Good Samaritan, and the Prodigal Son These windows date from 1200 to 1205, and are located in the north collateral of the choir. They are composed of circular and triangular medallions of stained glass, illustrating episodes in the lives of their subjects.
The rose windows in the transept are from the 16th century and are good examples of the late Flamboyant Gothic style. The realism and use of three dimensions in the late windows shows the growing influence of the Renaissance.
Sculpture
The Virgin and Child sculpture is known particularly for her serene expression and the fine detail of the drapery. It was given to the church by the Canon Manuel de Jaulnes in 1334. Like most statues of the Virgin, it was spared destruction during the French Revolution, though the decoration of the crown was broken off, and later restored.
The Chapel of the Salazars was created by the Archbishop Tristan de Salazar (1474–1519) to honour his parents. It contains a baldaquin facing an altar of black marble, on four pillars, with a retable above it. The altar was made beginning in 1514 by Guillaume Chavelveau. The sculpture on the retable illustrates the religious history of Sens and of the Salazars. It includes sculpted images of John the Baptist, Saint Stephen, a Virgin and Child, and eight statues of prophets and sibyles. The intricate decoration and lace-like spires are in the Flamboyant Gothic style. The work was consecrated in 1516 by the donor himself.
The Martyrdom of Saint Severin was made in the 18th century by the sculptor Joseph Hermand, the royal sculptor for the King of Poland and Duke of Lorraine, Stanislas Leczinski. The dramatic scene of the martyrdom is set against a screen of pale yellow stucco, resembling drapery.
The tomb of the Louis, Dauphin of France (son of Louis XV), and his consort, Marie-Josèphe of Saxony, who died of tuberculosis in 1765 at the age of 36, is located in the cathedral. His wife died eighteen months later of the same disease. Though he was never King of France, he was the father of three French Kings: Louis XVI, Louis XVIII, and Charles X. The sculpture is by Guillaume Coustou the Younger.
Other Prominent works of sculpture and bas-relief represent scenes from the life of Cardinal Antoine Duprat, chancellor of France and archbishop of Sens from 1525 to 1535. The mausoleum from which they came was destroyed in the French Revolution.
Baldaquin and choir grill
In 1740 the Archbishop Jean-Joseph Languet de Gergy decided that the cathedral needed a grander altar and a baldaquin, a high canopy over the altar, to participate in the Artistic counter-Reformation campaign against the more austere Protestants. The function of the baldaquin was to attract the eyes to the altar. The new work was designed by the Chevalier Jean Nicolas Servandoni, architect of the King, and two sculptors, the Slodtz brothers. Servandoni was particularly known for designing opera scenery settings for the spectacles and festivities of the King, as well as a few church interiors.
The main elements of the Baldaquin are the four marble columns, each five meters high, which came from Rance. They originally were made to surround the statue of Louis XIV in Place des Victoires, but were removed in 1718. The old altar was demolished beginning in 1742, and the remains of the earlier Bishops and clergy, buried beneath the floor, were relocated. The columns were placed upon pedestals to make them even higher, and crowned with gilded bronze Corinthian capitals, which support the gilded canopy. The centerpiece of the canopy is a gilded sunburst design with a tetragramme, the four letters of the name of God in Hebrew, YHWH. The gilded crown at the top was inspired by that made by Bernini for the altar of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome.
The marble of the original altar, consecrated in 1332, was incorporated into the new altar. The altar originally had a celebrated golden table, which was removed and melted down to raise money during the reign of Louis XV. At the summit of the baldaquin is a bronze statue of an angel, two meters (six feet) high, holding a crucifix in one hand and a chain in the other, attached to a silver pavilion holding a chalice, or cup, a symbol of the ceremony of the Eucharist.
The nave, intended for the public, and the choir, intended for the clergy, were originally separated by a stone screen. with a single doorway. The choir was surrounded by an iron grill. The screen and old grill deteriorated, and in 1726 the Chapter decided to replace it with a new, more ornate screen, with the coat of arms of the Chapter and a crucifix. The work did not begin until 1760, with a new design and an abundance of gilding. The gateway to the choir was particularly ornamented with twisting sculpture resembling grapevines, the symbol of the Eucharist. On top of the gate is the coat of arms of the Cardinal de Luynes, composed of chains of gold and lions. The earlier, simpler grill, made in 1726, was moved to the Chapel of Saint Savinien, where it remains today.
Organ
The pipe organ at Sens Cathedral was used in Medieval times only play during interludes; the chanting by the clergy was unaccompanied. The earliest mention of an organ in the cathedral was in 1440. Records show a new organ with twelve pedals was installed in purchased 1560, and was enlarged in 1609. A new, larger instrument, more in keeping with changes in church music, was ordered in 1722, and installed for Easter 1734 near the entrance of the nave, on the inside face of the west facade. The new instrument could play 36 notes on its three keyboards, and an additional 29 notes with foot pedals, enlarged to 34 notes in 1774.
Following the Revolution, when the cathedral was secularised, the organ was used only rarely, for festivals celebrating the Supreme Being. In 1802 the cathedral was returned to Catholic Church. The organ was fragile and sensitive to humidity, and in need of restoration. The composer Charles Gounod came to the cathedral in 1886 and asked to see the organ, which was then hardly playable. He launched a campaign for its restoration, which was finally done in 1890. It underwent another restoration in 1978. Today it has 878 pipes from the 18th century, and an additional 24 from the 19th century, for a total of 2,906 pipes. A second, less powerful organ was installed in the choir in 1841 to accompany the singers.
The Treasury and the Sens Museum
The Archbishop's residence, adjoining the cathedral, now displays the cathedral treasury, and also houses the history museum of the city of Sens, with an important collection of Gallo-Roman antiquities. The Palace was built in the 13th century, with further additions made in the 16th and 17th centuries. It was restored by Viollet-le-Duc in the 19th century.
The treasury includes a large collection of objects used in celebrating mass in the cathedral, including crosses, reliquaries, chalices, rings, and a very ornate reliquary made for Charlemagne for a purported fragment of the true cross. It also includes clerical vestments, including a hat, robes and shoes worn by Saint Thomas Becket during his time in Sens.
The lower level of the Sens Museum features a reconstruction of a Roman thermal bath, with a large mosaic floor eleven meters by nine meters. The baths were discovered beneath the gardens of a nearby residence, and were excavated and reassembled in the museum in 1910. The central element is a depiction of the legend of the chariot of the sun, after the fall of Phaeton.
The museum has a very diverse collection, including a painting by Pieter Brueghel the Younger, a sculpture by Rodin, and Art Deco furniture from the workshop of , who provided furnishings for the ocean liner Normandie.
See also
French Gothic architecture
Gothic cathedrals and churches
French Gothic stained glass windows
Sources
Théodore Tarbé, Description de l'église métropolitaine de St-Etienne de Sens: recherches historiques et anecdotiques (Sens: The author, 1841).
Eugène Vaudin, La cathédrale de Sens et ses trésors d' art (Paris: Champion 1882).
G. Julliot, Trésor de la cathédrale de Sens (Sens: Ch. Duchemin 1886).
E. Chartraire, La cathédrale de Sens (Paris: Henri Laurensn n.d. but after 1914).
Lucien Bégule, La cathédrale de Sens (Lyon: Société anonyme de l'imprimerie A. Rey, 1929).
Denis Cailleaux, L'oeuvre de la croisée de la cathédrale de Sens (1490-1517): un grand chantier ecclésiastique à la fin du Moyen Âge d'après les sources comptables (Thèse de doctorat : Art et archéologie : Paris 1 : 1994).
References
External links
Cathédrale de Sens at Diocèse de Sens-Auxerre
Pictures of Sens Cathedral
The Ivory Casket of Sens, known as 'La Sainte Chasse' (in the treasury)
Sens
Churches in Yonne
Gothic architecture in France
Monuments historiques of Bourgogne-Franche-Comté
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WNKY
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WNKY
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WNKY (channel 40) is a television station in Bowling Green, Kentucky, United States, affiliated with NBC and CBS. Owned by Marquee Broadcasting, the station maintains studios on Chestnut Street in downtown Bowling Green, and its transmitter is located on Pilot Knob near Smiths Grove along U.S. Route 68 and I-65.
History
Construction of the station
The FCC granted a construction permit for channel 40 on October 21, 1983, to CMM Communications of Crossville, Tennessee. In 1984, the construction permit was bought by local businessman John M. Cunningham of Crossville. In 1988, Bob Rodgers, president of Word Broadcasting of Louisville, purchased the construction permit about two years after he successfully launched upstart station WBNA in that city.
As an independent station
The newly-licensed station began broadcasting as WQQB on December 17, 1989. At its first sign-on, the outlet operated as a religious independent station airing an analog signal on UHF channel 40. Early on, it struggled in a small market used to all-VHF stations, where ABC affiliate WBKO (channel 13) was all but dominant in Bowling Green proper, while stations from Nashville and to a lesser extent, Louisville, were easily received either over-the-air or via cable and had equal loyalty that WQQB struggled to overcome. In the rush to come to air, it also had a poor overall signal that wasn't easily received and regular technical problems, along with little to no coverage on cable systems outside the immediate Bowling Green area, as revised must-carry rules would not come into effect for another three years. In 1990, Storer Communications (later Insight Communications, now Charter/Spectrum cable) became the first local cable system to carry the station, assigning it to cable channel 27, replacing WXMT (now WUXP-TV) from Nashville; that station would return to area cable systems by the time it became a UPN affiliate when that network launched in 1995.
As a Fox affiliate
In November 1991, Word Broadcasting Network sold WQQB to Southeastern Communications for $1 million. This came as Word Broadcasting president Bob Rodgers assumed additional duties as church pastor and his decision to concentrate solely on operating WBNA in terms of the company's media efforts. The sale was approved by the FCC the following month.
For WQQB's first few months under Southeastern ownership, it switched to a general entertainment format with a mixture of low-budget syndicated programming, like old movies, sitcoms, and cartoons; this was done in preparation of becoming a network affiliate.
On January 10, 1992, WQQB changed its call letters to WKNT. The station's studios were relocated from the Smiths Grove transmission facility and tower to a facility on Campbell Lane shortly after the callsign change. On April 1st of that year, the station became the area's first Fox network affiliate with the then-new on-air branding as Fox 40; an episode of The Simpsons was its first network program. Between the callsign change and the beginning of the station's Fox affiliation, Storer Communications moved the station to cable channel 7 on its lineup. The following year, WKNT installed a new antenna at its transmission tower.
During its time as a Fox station in the 1990s, WKNT broadcast select Southeastern Conference football games via Jefferson Pilot Sports until 2002 when WBKO started to air those games to go with JP Sports (later Lincoln Financial Sports, then Raycom Sports) SEC basketball broadcasts. From 1994 to 1997, the station also aired the controversial ABC drama NYPD Blue for its second, third and fourth seasons due to WBKO's refusal to air that program; the first season of that program never aired in the Bowling Green market. The program moved to WBKO on February 4, 1997, after the new television ratings system was introduced at the beginning of that year. Except on Saturday, WKNT also aired programming from the Shop at Home Network from 1:00 a.m. to 5:00a.m. until that network's closure in 2005. Despite being a Fox affiliate, UPN's syndicated program block Disney's One Too aired on the station from 7:00 to 9:00 a.m. weekday mornings and from 5:00 to 7:00 a.m. Sunday mornings to cover the children's educational programming requirements. It was the only UPN programming that was ever available in the Bowling Green market besides WBKO's broadcasts of the first season of Star Trek: Voyager in 1995; all other UPN programming was only receivable via WUXP-TV (now a MyNetworkTV affiliate) in Nashville, as the de facto UPN affiliate for Bowling Green.
On January 1, 1997, the operation of WKNT was taken over by Crossroads Communications under a local marketing agreement (LMA). Crossroads, a subsidiary of Northwest Broadcasting, would buy the station outright on July 17, 2000.
Unexpected loss of Fox affiliation; switch to NBC
In March 2001, Fox announced that it had dropped its affiliation with WKNT because the station did not comply with the terms of the affiliation agreement; almost immediately, NBC agreed to affiliate with the station. On March 27, 2001, the affiliation switch to NBC occurred, and the station changed its call sign to WNKY. At the same time, the station boosted its power from 776,000 watts to 1,640,000 watts, directional with a null to the east. Previously, WBKO was the only station within the Bowling Green market that was affiliated with a Big Three network, and WSMV-TV in Nashville was NBC's affiliate of record in south-central Kentucky. After WNKY switched to NBC, WSMV's over-the-air signal was still available in parts of the Bowling Green market where WNKY could not reach, and some cable systems continued to carry WSMV. Following the loss of WNKY's Fox affiliation, Fox programming was provided to most of the Bowling Green market on cable via Nashville affiliate WZTV, which is also available over-the-air in the southern portion of the market; cable systems in Hart and Metcalfe counties carried Louisville Fox affiliate WDRB instead.
Max Media ownership
In November 2002, Northwest Broadcasting sold WNKY to Max Media for $7 million; the sale was approved by the FCC in March 2003. On December 12 of that year, it signed on a digital signal on UHF channel 16 from its transmitter tower and facility in Smiths Grove. WNKY-DT was then added alongside its analog counterpart to local digital cable systems, including Insight in Bowling Green and the Electric Plant Board in Glasgow.
On August 7, 2004, WNKY began airing NBC network programming in high definition just in time to broadcast the network's coverage of the 2004 Summer Olympics in Athens. WNKY also installed a Dolby model 569 AC-3 surround sound encoder to relay the 5.1 full surround audio from the network.
On June 3, 2010, as a result of the Satellite Television Extension and Localism Act of 2010, Dish Network began offering both of WNKY's NBC and CBS-affiliated digital subchannels, the latter of which was launched in 2007.
Misuse of the EAS tones
The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) fined the station's licensee, MMK License, $39,000 on November 5, 2013, due to a mid-June 2012 ad filmed and aired by WNKY which featured Emergency Alert System (EAS) tones used in a promotional and non-warning situation. WNKY was also required to launch a local campaign about the EAS, air additional emergency preparation public service announcements, and lease space on their tower for modernized warning equipment to the Warren County Emergency Management agency and the City of Bowling Green.
Cable carriage dispute in Glasgow
On January 1, 2015, the Glasgow Electric Plant Board dropped both of WNKY's digital subchannels from its lineup because of a 1,000 percent increase in cost. Both WNKY and WNKY-DT2 returned to the Electric Plant Board's cable lineup in February 2015 after agreeing to a 100 percent increase instead of 1,000. The digital subchannels were placed on different channels (WNKY on 16 and WNKY-DT2 on 23) without high definition service.
Marquee Broadcasting ownership
On April 5, 2017, Max Media announced that it would sell WNKY to Marquee Broadcasting for $5.6 million. The sale was completed on June 30.
In February 2021, the station relocated from its previous facility on Emmett Avenue on Bowling Green's west side to its current broadcasting facility on Chestnut Street in downtown Bowling Green.
Subchannel history
WNKY-DT2
WNKY-DT2 is the CBS-affiliated second digital subchannel of WNKY, broadcasting in high definition on channel 40.2.
On October 11, 2006, WNKY reached an agreement with CBS to air that network on a new digital subchannel. It was officially launched as WNKY-DT2 on February 1, 2007, which finally gave Bowling Green a locally-based CBS station. Prior to the launch of WNKY-DT2, the Bowling Green market was one of the few areas east of the Mississippi River without its own CBS affiliate, and most of the area was historically served by WTVF in Nashville as the de facto CBS affiliate, while some cable systems east of Bowling Green also carried WLKY (and prior to 1990, WHAS-TV) in Louisville as a backup CBS affiliate. In spite of the existence of WNKY-DT2, most cable providers still carried WTVF; it remains available to Mediacom cable customers in Butler and Edmonson counties, including Morgantown and Brownsville, as well as customers of Insight Communications (later Time Warner Cable, now Spectrum) in Bowling Green, and the South Central Rural Telephone Cooperative in the Glasgow area. In December 2017, WNKY claimed exclusivity of NBC and CBS affiliates on the Glasgow Electric Plant Board cable system. In January 2018, the CBS subchannel was upgraded to high definition, albeit in 720p rather than the network's recommended 1080i format to preserve bandwidth. A direct-to-cable full 1080i high definition feed of WNKY-DT2 is available on select cable providers.
WNKY-DT3
WNKY-DT3 is the MeTV-affiliated third digital subchannel of WNKY, broadcasting in standard definition on channel 40.3.
WNKY broadcast a testing loop on a new subchannel on December 20, 2017; the testing loop promoted MeTV programming, which became available on the third subchannel on January 1, 2018.
Programming
Sports programming
In 2016, WNKY and WNKY-DT2 began broadcasting Tennessee Titans preseason games not nationally televised, which originate from Nashville's ABC affiliate WKRN-TV, to complement the NFL on CBS package that includes most of the Titans' regular season games. This initially applied in non-Olympic years as WNKY-DT2 broadcast the first two preseason games when NBC covered the 2016 Summer Olympics. In 2018, WNKY announced that from then on, the station would carry all Titans preseason games on its MeTV-affiliated subchannel, WNKY-DT3. Other than those broadcasts, WNKY-DT3 clears the entire MeTV schedule.
News operation
As the first commercial television station to launch in Bowling Green, WBKO has been a longtime leader according to Nielsen ratings. Even after the sign-on of WQQB in 1989, WBKO has remained the dominant outlet for south central Kentucky. However, it has also competed with Nashville stations transmitting into parts of the Bowling Green area. As the area's original Fox affiliate, WKNT's first newscasts began during the 1993 fall season, when the station teamed up with Campbellsville-based WGRB (also a Fox affiliate at the time, later a WB/CW affiliate WBKI-TV, now a defunct station) to form a two-station cooperative local "network" to jointly produce a local newscast. This joint news department even employed local students from Western Kentucky University in varied aspects. By 1996. the newscasts ended due to low ratings on WKNT's part, due to WBKO's continued dominance in news ratings in the Bowling Green area, and financial difficulties, especially in 1995, when Associated Press filed a civil lawsuit against the station for back payments for the AP Newspower reports utilized by the station.
After the station's switch to NBC, newscasts returned to the station's schedule when WNKY began simulcasting WSMV's 10 p.m. newscasts in April 2001.These simulcasts lasted until the end of the 2002–03 television season, when they were replaced with syndicated programming. However, only the introduction originated from WNKY, and a WNKY logo covered WSMV's channel 4 logo. WNKY's commercials usually cover up the commercials run by WSMV.
On September 10, 2005, WNKY slowly re-entered the market with an unusual weather-only approach. Instead of full newscasts, it offers weekday morning and nightly local weather forecast cut-ins provided through AccuWeather. It began airing five-minute First Look AccuWeather forecasts on weeknights. In December of that year, weekend weather forecasts were added to the schedule.
In January 2006, local weather updates began airing during NBC's Today Show on weekday mornings from 7 a.m. until 11 a.m. The updates cover regular and severe weather events. The weather team consists of four employees—three human and one non-human member, "Radar the Weather Dog". Radar was a purebred Border Collie that was adopted from the Bowling Green/Warren County Humane Society in 2005. Radar began serving as the station's mascot when the weather show began with meteorologist Chris Sowers. Viewers would often see Radar interacting with one of the three meteorologists as they begin the weather updates. The weather dog idea may have been inspired by KPRC-TV in Houston which once had its own "Radar, the Weather Dog". WNKY's former sister station KYTX, in Tyler, Texas, took a similar approach with "Stormy, the Weather Dog." Radar died at age 16 in December 2017. He was replaced by his sister, "Soky", as the station's mascot.
In late January 2009, in a second attempt to compete with WBKO, WNKY launched a weekday morning show called Bowling Green Today produced in partnership with the Bowling Green Daily News. It aired for a half-hour at 6:30 a.m. The newspaper provides short local news updates and WNKY produces traditional weather segments. The show is replayed at 9 a.m. on WNKY's CBS-affiliated second subchannel. Weather forecasts from this station can be heard on radio stations WBGN-AM 1340, WBVR-FM 96.7, WUHU-FM 107.1, and WLYE-FM 94.1. WNKY did not produce newscasts in the traditional 5 p.m. and 10 p.m. slots or on weekends. During the summer of 2012, WNKY debuted a weekend news magazine program called In KY News, which included interviews and highlighted events in and around south central Kentucky.
On October 26, 2015, Bowling Green Today was renamed SoKY Sunrise, and was expanded to a one-hour program. On April 10, 2017, a new program titled SoKY at Noon made its debut on WNKY-DT2.
On February 19, 2018, WNKY began broadcasting live half-hour newscasts on weeknights at 5 p.m. on its main channel, and at 6 p.m. on WNKY-DT2. This marked the first time WNKY broadcast an eveming newscast in any timeslot since the station ended simulcasts of WSMV's 10 p.m. newscasts in 2003.
From November 6 to 13, 2020, the station's newscasts were temporarily suspended because some employees were possibly exposed to COVID-19. Newscasts resumed on November 16.
On July 19, 2021, WNKY debuted its 10 p.m. weeknight newscast on its main subchannel. On March 7, 2022, the station began to simulcast their 10 p.m. newscasts over WNKY and WNKY-DT2. The simulcast of SoKY Sunrise between the main channel and the DT2 subchannel began in January 2023. The station continued to produce the six-minute weather updates on Saturday and Sunday nights at 10 p.m. on the DT1 and DT2 subchannels until September 9, 2023, when the station began airing 10 p.m. newscasts on Saturdays and Sundays.
As of January 2023, the station produces a total of 16½ hours per week of news content. This includes 10 hours of news content on the main channel and five hours exclusively on WNKY-DT2; 3½ hours of news content is simulcast between the DT1 and DT2 subchannels.
Technical information
Subchannels
The station's digital signal is multiplexed:
Analog-to-digital transition
On June 12, 2009, WNKY turned off its analog transmitter in compliance with the FCC-mandated digital TV transition of 2009. The station's digital signal remained on its pre-transition channel assignment, UHF channel 16, using PSIP to see it displayed as virtual channel 40. WNKY was the last station within the Bowling Green market to make the transition.
Spectrum reallocation
After the FCC's 2016 spectrum auction, WNKY filed for a construction permit for its digital subchannel to relocate to UHF channel 24. WNKY changed to its current frequency at 12:01 a.m. on October 18, 2019.
WNKY-LD
In July 2023, the station began test broadcasts on translator WNKY-LD, which is broadcast on UHF channel 35. The 15,000 watt translator, purchased by Marquee Broadcasting from King Forward, Inc., on March 14, 2022, is expected to be on the air before the end of the year, simulcasting all three of WNKY's channels from the same tower as the full-power WNKY's signal.
Availability
WNKY is available over-the-air and on all cable television systems throughout the Bowling Green DMA, which includes Barren, Butler, Edmonson, Hart, Metcalfe and Warren Counties in southern Kentucky. In Bowling Green, the station is available on Spectrum Cable channels 7 (as NBC), 10 (as CBS), and 189 (as MeTV).
Out-of-market coverage
WNKY has limited out-of-market coverage due in part to the station's 90,000-watt signal (previously 120,000 watts before the spectrum repack in 2019) and its small coverage area, especially since the 2009 digital TV transition. However, the station's broadcast signal can be received in some of the northernmost areas of the Nashville media market, including the Kentucky counties of Allen, Monroe, Simpson, and much of Logan County in Kentucky, along with much of Macon and Sumner counties of northern middle Tennessee. Some areas in the southwestern portions of the Louisville market like Grayson and Green counties can also pick up WNKY's signal. Both WNKY and WNKY-DT2 are available to Mediacom subscribers in the Sonora and Upton area along Hardin County's boundary with Larue County.
Suddenlink cable systems in Logan County carried WNKY's primary channel on cable channel 15. The station's NBC and CBS subchannels were later dropped from all Suddenlink cable channel lineups in that county, including Russellville. Russellville Electric Power Board, a municipal electric power distributor in Russellville, carried WNKY's NBC- and CBS-affiliated subchannels until it discontinued carriage of the station in favor of WSMV and WTVF, respectively, on December 30, 2016.
References
External links
Marquee Broadcasting
Television channels and stations established in 1989
NKY
NBC network affiliates
MeTV affiliates
1989 establishments in Kentucky
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Book%20of%20the%20Thousand%20Nights%20and%20a%20Night
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The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night
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The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (1888), subtitled A Plain and Literal Translation of the Arabian Nights Entertainments, is the only complete English language translation of One Thousand and One Nights (the Arabian Nights) to date – a collection of Middle Eastern and South Asian stories and folk tales compiled in Arabic during the Islamic Golden Age (8th−13th centuries) – by the British explorer and Arabist Richard Francis Burton (1821–1890). It stands as the only complete translation of the Macnaghten or Calcutta II edition (Egyptian recension) of the "Arabian Nights".
Burton's translation was one of two unabridged and unexpurgated English translations done in the 1880s; the first was by John Payne, under the title The Book of the Thousand Nights and One Night (1882–1884, nine volumes). Burton's ten volume version was published almost immediately afterward with a slightly different title. This, along with the fact that Burton closely advised Payne and partially based his books on Payne's, led later to charges of plagiarism. Owing to the sexual imagery in the source texts (which Burton made a special study of, adding extensive footnotes and appendices on Oriental sexual mores) and to the strict Victorian laws on obscene material, both translations were printed as private editions for subscribers only, rather than being published in the usual manner. Burton's original ten volumes were followed by a further seven entitled The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night (1886–1888). Burton's 17 volumes, while boasting many prominent admirers, have been criticised for their "archaic language and extravagant idiom" and "obsessive focus on sexuality"; they have even been called an "eccentric ego-trip" and a "highly personal reworking of the text". His voluminous and obscurely detailed notes and appendices have been characterised as “obtrusive, kinky and highly personal”.
In 1982, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) began naming features on Saturn's moon Enceladus after characters and places in Burton's translation because “its surface is so strange and mysterious that it was given the Arabian Nights as a name bank, linking fantasy landscape with a literary fantasy”. (See List of geological features on Enceladus.)
Background
Burton – an accomplished geographer, explorer, orientalist, ethnologist, diplomat, polylinguist and author – was best known in his lifetime for travelling in disguise to Mecca (1853) and for journeying (with John Hanning Speke) as the first European to visit the Great Lakes of Africa in search of the source of the Nile (1857–58). One of the great Arabists of his day, he had long wanted to publish an unexpurgated version of the Arabian Nights stories. The first translations into English, notably that by Edward Lane (1840, 1859), were highly abridged and heavily bowdlerised, which irritated Burton.
In 1863 Burton co-founded the Anthropological Society of London with Dr. James Hunt. In Burton's own words, the main aim of the society (through the publication of the periodical Anthropologia) was "to supply travelers with an organ that would rescue their observations from the outer darkness of manuscript and print their curious information on social and sexual matters". Burton had written numerous travel books which invariably included sexual curiosa in extensive footnotes and appendices. His best-known contributions to literature were those considered risqué or even pornographic at the time and which were published under the auspices of the "Kama Shastra Society", a fictitious organisation created by Burton and Forster Fitzgerald Arbuthnot as a legal device to avoid the consequences of current obscenity laws. (Burton and Arbuthnot were the only members of the "Society".) These works included The Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana (1883), published just before his Nights, and The Perfumed Garden of the Shaykh Nefzawi (1886), published just after it.
Publication history
The volumes were printed by the Kama Shastra Society in a subscribers-only edition of one thousand with a guarantee that there would never be a larger printing of the books in this form. To confound possible litigation, the title pages claimed the printing had been done in "Benares", but this was a subterfuge. In reality, it was done by Miller & Richard (a Scottish firm) at Stoke Newington.
Contents
The stories
Sexology
The stories collected in the Nights are often sexual in content and were considered pornography at the time of Burton's publication. The Terminal Essay in volume 10 of Burton's Nights contains a 14,000-word section entitled "Pederasty" (Volume 10, section IV, D). Here Burton postulated that male homosexuality was prevalent in an area of the southern latitudes named by him the "Sotadic zone". (Rumors about Burton's own sexuality and experiences were already circulating and were further incited by this work.)
Plagiarism controversy
John Payne and Burton collaborated on their respective translations of the Nights for more than half a decade, and each respected the other's scholarship, but Payne believed that Burton had plagiarised his manuscripts when he sent them to Trieste to be checked. In 1906, a biographer of Burton, Thomas Wright, made the claim that Burton had plagiarised most of his translation from Payne. Burton's most recent biographer (1998) summarises the situation as follows.He [Wright] made a comparison of the respective versions of the Nights by Burton and Payne. We know, not only from Richard's and Isabel's writings but from the statements of people who met him through the years, that Burton had been collecting manuscripts of the Nights stories and translating them, on and off, for over twenty-five years before he met Payne. So Wright's claim that Burton had not done his own translation, but had "taken from Payne at least three-quarters of his entire work", is extraordinary.
Norman Mosley Penzer, in his 1923 Annotated Bibliography of Burton's works, takes great umbrage at "Wright's futile efforts to glorify Payne and scoff at Burton", contradicting several of his examples point by point. In Burton's defence, Penzer asserts that it is usual for translators to study and follow in the footsteps of earlier translators and cites examples of similarities in the stories Payne translated Burton had published his version.
The "plagiarism" allegation is also examined in detail in an appendix to Fawn Brodie’s 1967 biography of Burton, The Devil Drives.
Style
In translating the Nights, Burton attempted to invent an English equivalent of medieval Arabic. In doing so, he drew upon Chaucerian English, Elizabethan English, and the 1653 English translation by Sir Thomas Urquhart of the first three books of Rabelais's Gargantua and Pantagruel (1532-1546).
According to British historian and Arabist Robert Irwin: Burton shared [John] Payne's enthusiasm for archaic and forgotten words. The style Burton achieved can be described as a sort of composite mock-Gothic, combining elements from Middle English, the Authorized Version of the Bible and Jacobean drama. Most modern readers will also find Burton's Victorian vulgarisms jarring, for example ‘regular Joe Millers’, ‘Charleys’, and ‘red cent’. Burton's translation of the Nights can certainly be recommended to anyone wishing to increase their word-power: ‘chevisance’, ‘fortalice’, ‘kemperly’, ‘cark’, ‘foison’, ‘soothfast’, ‘perlection’, ‘wittol’, ‘parergon’, ‘brewis’, ‘bles’, ‘fadaise’, ‘coelebs’, ‘vivisepulture’, and so on. ‘Whilome’ and ‘anent’ are standard in Burton's vocabulary. The range of vocabulary is wider and stranger than Payne's, lurching between the erudite and the plain earthy, so that Harun al-Rashid and Sinbad walk and talk in a linguistic Never Never Land.
Reception
Many early commentators on Burton's Nights criticised his eccentric "mixture of obsolete words, mediaeval phrases, modern slang, Americanisms, and foreign words and expressions". Jorge Luis Borges, however, wrote a celebrated essay on “The Translators of The Thousand and One Nights” in which – while he chastises Burton for his distortions and "indulgent loitering" — he allows that “the problems that Burton resolved are innumerable” and delights in his careful use of an extravagantly exotic vocabulary in which each word "is indubitably the mot juste." In summarising his use of language, Borges concluded that “In some way, the almost inexhaustible process of English is adumbrated in Burton – John Donne’s hard obscenity, the gigantic vocabularies of Shakespeare and Cyril Tourneur, Swinburne’s affinity for the archaic, the crass erudition of the authors of 17th century chapbooks, the energy and imprecision, the love of tempests and magic.”
Editions
Original publication
A Plain and Literal Translation of the Arabian Nights' Entertainments, Now Entituled [sic] The Book of The Thousand Nights and a Night; With Introduction Explanatory Notes on the Manners and Customs of Moslem Men and a Terminal Essay upon the History of the Nights by Richard F. Burton; Benares: MDCCCLXXXV: Printed by the Kamashastra Society for Private Subscribers Only.
First series of 1885 in ten volumes. With illustrations.
Supplemental series of 1886–1888 in seven volumes. With illustrations.
Volumes
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (01 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (02 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (03 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (04 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (05 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (06 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (07 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (08 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (09 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (10 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (11 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (12 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (13 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (14 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (15 of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (16 of 17) Project Gutenberg
Lady Burton's edition
Lady Burton's Edition of Her Husband's Arabian Nights Translated Literally from the Arabic (1886-1887); Prepared for Household Reading by Justin Huntly McCarthy, M.P.; 6 vols.; London: Waterlow & Sons, Limited, London Wall.
This edition is ostensibly the “family” version of Burton's translation. (In her "Preface", Lady Burton guarantees that "no mother shall regret her girl's reading this Arabian Nights".) It is a much bowdlerized version of the original edition and was not a commercial success. It excises 215 of the original 3,215 pages, including Burton's defense of turpiloquium in his "Foreword", all sexually explicit commentary, and the two final essays on "Pornography" and "Pederasty." Lady Burton merely lent her name to this expurgated edition. As she stated before his death, "I have never read, nor do I intend to read, at his own request, and to be true to my promise to him, my husband's 'Arabian Nights' ".
Nichols/Smithers reprints
1894 H.S. Nichols & Co, London, edition by Leonard C. Smithers, 12 Volumes; this reprint "omits given passages in dreadful taste, whose elimination will be mourned by no one".
1897 H.S. Nichols & Co, London, "Illustrated Library Edition", 12 Volumes (142 original illustrations, including a portrait of Burton, reproduced from the original pictures in oils specially painted by Albert Letchford with one set of the original 71 illustrations presented as included by the publisher and another set individually hand-coloured.)
Nichols' second printing is a scarce and handsome edition, the first to include the illustrations by Letchford. In 1896, two years after their first edition of Burton's Nights, the Nichols-Smithers duo commissioned Burton's close friend, Albert Letchford, to paint 65 illustrations for another edition as well as a portrait of Burton, and soon after commissioned for five more. Burton and Letchford had met several years before when the latter was 18 and in Florence beginning his art education. They discussed the possibility of illustrating the Nights. Burton's suggestion of illustrating the Nights had appealed greatly to Letchford on account of the unlimited scope such a subject would give to an artist who loved the East and had a boundless imagination. Letchford commenced study of Eastern images for his paintings, though only one of the illustrations was painted in Burton's lifetime.
American editions
“Burton Society” edition:
Alf Laylah Wa Laylah, The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, by Richard F. Burton; Press of the Carson-Harper Company, Denver, Colo., 1900–01. “For private subscribers only.” Includes 100 illustrations by Stanley L. Wood. (This was the first reprint of the original unexpurgated edition and the best reprint for many decades. This edition is the one used by the IAU for naming features on Enceladus. Only the last three volumes (4, 5, and 6 of the Supplemental Nights) are dated 1901. The edition was a commercial failure.)
“Burton Club” editions:
The electros from the "Burton Society" edition were acquired by the "Burton Club" — “the nom de plume of a certain Boston publisher”, according to N.C. Penzer. This very successful series of editions probably began in 1903 (none of the volumes bear dates) and continued for many decades. There are 114 illustrations by various (at least 13) English and French artists. Many of these are uncredited and many are from other (some pre-Burton) editions of the Nights, some even having nothing to do with the Nights or even the Middle East. (All of Letchford's works from the Nichols/Smithers edition are there, except the portrait of Burton.). Penzer's bibliography lists nine different Burton Club editions; after about 1905 each was named after a city (Benares, Mecca, Medinah, Aden, Baghdad, Samara, Bassorah, Shammar, and Luristan), a new one appearing about every two years. Penzer called these the "Catch Word" editions and there are known to be at least 6 others (Teheran, Baroda, Bombay, etc). These editions were made semi-surreptitiously up through the 1920s and many may have been printed in the US, but bound in the UK. There exists no definitive list of all "Burton Club" editions or their sequence. According to Penzer, the "Illustrated Benares" edition was the first.
Volumes
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 1 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 2 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 3 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 4 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 5 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 6 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 7 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 8 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 9 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night, Volume 10 (of 17) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 01 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 02 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 03 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 03 Part 2 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 04 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 05 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night — Volume 06 (Supplement) Project Gutenberg
Later reprint editions
In 1932, a Modern Library version edited by Bennett Cerf reprinted selected portions of Smithers' bowdlerised version (claiming it to be an "unabridged" and "unexpurgated" edition). "Illustrations and decorations" by Steele Savage. Versions of this reprint with and without Savage's artwork have had a long and varied life:
The ’'Arabian Nights’' Entertainments, Or The Book of a Thousand Nights and a Night: A Selection of the Most Famous and Representative of These Tales from the Plain and Literal Translations by Richard F. Burton (1932), Modern Library #201; "The Stories Have Been Chosen and Arranged by Bennett A. Cerf and are Printed Complete and Unabridged with Many of Burton's Notes"; Introductory Essay by Ben Ray Redman.
Selections From The Arabian Nights, Sir Richard Burton's famous translation of The Thousand Nights and a Night, with modernised… (1938), With new illustrations and decorations by Steele Savage; Garden City, NY: De Luxe Editions Club, 400 pages.
The Arabian Nights: Unexpurgated Edition, A Complete and Unabridged Selection from the Literal Translation of...Burton; Blue Ribbon Books (1941).
Unexpurgated Selections from The Arabian Nights; Sir Richard Burton's Famous Translation ...; Halcyon House (1948); Illustrations and decorations by Steele Savage
Selections from the Arabian Nights Sir Richard Burton's Translation (1992); Univ Pub House; 390 pages
The Arabian Nights, Tales from a Thousand and One Nights (2001), Translated, with a Preface and Notes, by Sir Richard F. Burton; Introduction by A.S. Byatt; New York: The Modern Library; 872 pp. (Paperback only; no illustrations; includes commentary by Burton, Lady Burton, John Addington Symonds, Algernon Charles Swinburne, and an anonymous reviewer for The Nation.) A 2004 reprint had 1049 pp.
The Arabian Nights, Barnes & Noble (2009); 744 pages.
Other reprints of the Cerf/Savage edition by The Book League of America, Communication & Studies Inc. Georgia, etc
1934 Limited Editions Club edition: The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night: The Complete Burton Translation with the Complete Burton Notes, the Terminal Index, and 1001 Decorations by Valenti Angelo, 6 Volumes in slipcase (reprinted in 3 double-sized volumes by The Heritage Press, 1962)
1962: Arabian Miniatures: The Most Beautiful Nights, Astra-Club; 12 mounted color plates (reprinted in France by Editions Du Sud, 1968)
1954: Arabian Nights Entertainments, 4 Volumes in 2 slipcases; 65 stories; 60 illustrations by Arthur Szyk; England: Limited Editions Club; Limited to 1,500 copies edition
1991 A Signet Classic edition: Zipes, Jack, Arabian Nights, the Marvels and Wonders of the Thousand and One Nights, Adapted from Richard F. Burton's Unexpurgated Translation, Penguin Books; paperback, 595 pages.
1994 The Easton Press edition (Norwalk, Conn): The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night: With Introduction Explanatory Notes on the Manners and Customs of Moslem Men and a Terminal Essay Upon The History of the Nights; 17 Volumes (Morocco leather binding, with elaborate gilt gold and silver tooling on the spine and on the front and back covers; Moiré silk used for the front and end pieces and satin for the sewn-in place-marker.)
1996 Maxfield Parrish artists edition The Easton Press Collectors Art edition (Norwalk, Conn): The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night Best Known Tales : Original text and artwork reissue of Wiggin, K. D. - The Arabian Nights, Scribner & Sons, 1909 edition (Leather bound, gold inlaid spine on front and back covers; Moiré silk front and end pieces and satin for the sewn-in place-marker.) Single Volume collecting 10 tales and 12 illustrations 344 pages.
References
Further reading
External links
The Thousand Nights and a Night in several classic translations, including unexpurgated version by Sir Richard Francis Burton, and John Payne translation, with additional material.
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (ten volumes 1885)
The Supplemental Nights to the Thousand Nights and a Night (six volumes 1886 – 1888)
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night (illustrated)
The Book of the Thousand Nights and a Night at Project Gutenberg
One Thousand and One Nights
Arabian mythology
Books by Richard Francis Burton
1885 short story collections
Books involved in plagiarism controversies
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav%20National%20Movement
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Yugoslav National Movement
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The Yugoslav National Movement (, ), also known as the United Militant Labour Organization ( / , or Zbor / ), was a Yugoslav fascist movement and organization led by politician Dimitrije Ljotić. Founded in 1935, it received considerable German financial and political assistance during the interwar period and participated in the 1935 and 1938 Yugoslav parliamentary elections, in which it never received more than 1 percent of the popular vote.
Following the Axis invasion and occupation of Yugoslavia in April 1941, the Germans selected several Zbor members to join the Serbian puppet government of Milan Nedić. The Serbian Volunteer Corps (SDK) was established as Zbor's party army. Ljotić had no control over the SDK, which was commanded by Colonel Kosta Mušicki. In late 1944, Ljotić and his followers retreated to Slovenia with the Germans and other collaborationist formations. In March, Ljotić and Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović agreed on a last-ditch alliance against the Yugoslav Partisans. Ljotić's followers were placed under the command of Chetnik commander Miodrag Damjanović. Ljotić was killed in an automobile accident in late April 1945. His followers later fled to Italy alongside the Chetniks. The Western Allies extradited many back to Yugoslavia following the war, where they were summarily executed and buried in mass graves. Those who were not extradited immigrated to western countries and established émigré organizations intended to promote Zbor's political agenda.
Background
Dimitrije Ljotić was a right-wing politician in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia during the interwar period. As a loyalist to the Karađorđević dynasty, on 16 February 1931 he was appointed Yugoslav Minister of Justice by King Alexander. In June of that year, Ljotić suggested to Alexander that the Yugoslav political system be structured on the Italian fascist model. He presented him with a draft constitution that proposed "an organic constitutional hereditary monarchy, undemocratic and non-parliamentary, based on the mobilization of popular forces, gathered around economic, professional, cultural and charity organizations, that would be politically accountable to the king." The king rejected Ljotić's constitution as being too authoritarian. On 17 August, Ljotić resigned from his post after the government decided to create a single government-backed political party in Yugoslavia.
Formation
In 1934, Alexander was assassinated in Marseille. That year, Ljotić made contact with three pro-fascist movements and the publishers of their respective newspapers—Otadžbina (Fatherland), published in Belgrade; the monthly Zbor (Rally), published in Herzegovina; and the weekly Buđenje (Awakening), published in Petrovgrad (modern Zrenjanin). Ljotić contributed to all three publications and became most influential with the Otadžbina movement. He subsequently founded the Yugoslav National Movement (), which was also known as the United Active Labour Organization (Združena borbena organizacija rada, or Zbor). Zbor was created by the merger of three fascist movements—Yugoslav Action, the "Fighters" from Ljubljana, and Buđenje from Petrovgrad. It was officially established in Belgrade on 6 January 1935, the sixth anniversary of King Alexander's dictatorship proclamation. Its members elected Ljotić as its president, Juraj Korenić its vice-president, Fran Kandare as second vice-president and Velibor Jonić as its secretary-general. Ljotić was chosen because of his previous stint as Minister of Justice and because of his connections with the royal court.
Zbor's official stated goal was the imposition of a planned economy and "the racial and biological defense of the national life force and the family". Otadžbina became its official newspaper. The party was declared illegal upon establishment since virtually all political parties in Yugoslavia had been banned since the declaration of King Alexander's dictatorship in 1929. On 2 September 1935, Jonić and attorney Milan Aćimović petitioned the Yugoslav Ministry of the Interior to legalize Zbor. On 8 November, the Ministry of the Interior conceded and recognized Zbor as an official political party. German officials in Yugoslavia quickly took notice of the movement, with the German envoy to Yugoslavia, Viktor von Heeren, providing it with financial assistance and infiltrating it with German agents. A German observer noted: "The movement Zbor represents a kind of national socialist party. Its principles are the struggle against Freemasons, against Jews, against Communists and against western capitalism." German industrial firms provided Zbor with further financial aid, as did German intelligence services. Most of the support that Zbor received in Serbia came from members of the urban middle class, right-wing students, and the armed forces. The majority of Zbor's members were ethnic Serbs, with some Croats and Slovenes joining the party in small numbers. Its membership fluctuated often due to disagreements over Ljotić's authoritarianism and lack of popularity and political power in Serbia. Ljotić was unpopular in Serbia due to his pro-German sympathies and religious fanaticism. The limited amount of support received by Zbor itself stemmed from the fact that radical right-wing sentiment was not strong amongst the Serbian population. This was because far right-wing politics were associated with Germany. Being extremely anti-German, the majority of ethnic Serbs rejected fascist and Nazi ideas outright. Zbor never had more than 10,000 active members at any given time, with most of its support coming from Smederevo and from the ethnic German (Volksdeutsche) minority in Vojvodina that had been exposed to Nazi propaganda since 1933.
During Milan Stojadinović's premiership, many members of Zbor left the party and joined Stojadinović's Yugoslav Radical Union (, JRZ). Nevertheless, the movement continued to advocate the abandonment of individualism and parliamentary democracy. Ljotić called for Yugoslavia to unite around a single ruler and return to its religious and cultural traditions, embracing the teachings of Christianity, traditional values and corporatism. He advocated a centrally organized state, stating that the unification of South Slavs was a historical and political inevitability and that Serbs, Croats and Slovenes shared "blood kinship and feeling of common fate." At the same time, the Yugoslavia that Ljotić envisioned was to be dominated by Serbia. Zbor openly promoted antisemitism, being the only party in Yugoslavia to openly do so, as well as xenophobia.
1935 and 1938 elections
Despite its opposition to parliamentary democracy, Zbor participated in the 1935 Yugoslav parliamentary elections. It offered 8,100 candidates throughout Yugoslavia. On 5 May, the Yugoslav government first announced the results of the elections, which showed that 72.6 percent of the eligible electorate had cast a total of 2,778,172 ballots. The party of Bogoljub Jevtić had received 1,738,390 (62.6%) votes and 320 seats in parliament, and the Opposition Bloc led by Vladko Maček had received 983,248 (35.4%) votes and 48 seats. Zbor finished last in the polls, with 23,814 (0.8%) votes, and had acquired no seats in parliament. Of all the votes it had received, 13,635 came from the Danube Banovina, in which Ljotić's home district of Smederevo was located. The election results initially published by authorities caused an upheaval amongst the public, forcing the government to publish the results of a recount on 22 May. The recount showed that 100,000 additional ballots that had not been recorded on 5 May had been cast and that Jevtić's party had received 1,746,982 (60.6%) votes and 303 seats, the Opposition Bloc had received 1,076,345 (37.4%) and 67 seats, and that Zbor had received 24,008 (0.8%) votes and again no seats.
In 1937, Ljotić began attacking Stojadinović through Zbor publications and accused him of complicity in King Alexander's assassination three years earlier. Stojadinović's government responded by exposing Ljotić as having been funded by the Germans and provided with financial resources by them to spread Nazi propaganda and promote German economic interests in Serbia. The incriminating material linking Ljotić with the Germans was given to Yugoslav authorities by German Luftwaffe commander Hermann Göring, a supporter of Stojadinović. Stojadinović used these revelations to his benefit in the following year's parliamentary elections, presenting his opponents, including Ljotić, as "disloyal agitators". Ljotić responded by attacking Stojadinović through issues of Otadžbina, many of which were subsequently banned. The Stojadinović government went on to prohibit all Zbor rallies and newspapers, confiscated Zbor propaganda material, and arrested Zbor leaders. In September 1938, Ljotić was arrested after the Yugoslav gendarmerie opened fire on a crowd of Zbor supporters, killing at least one person. A frequent churchgoer, he was charged with religious mania and briefly sent to an insane asylum before being released. On 10 October, Stojadinović dissolved the Parliament of Yugoslavia, proclaimed new elections and arranged further arrests of Zbor members. Ljotić responded by publicly stating that Zbor supporters were being arrested in order to prevent them from participating in the forthcoming elections. The parliamentary elections of December 1938 offered three candidates—Stojadinović, Maček, and Ljotić. During voting itself, members of opposition parties, including Zbor, were arrested and subjected to police intimidation, and voting registers were allegedly falsified in Stojadinović's favour. Zbor finished last in the elections, receiving 30,734 (1.01%) votes and again winning no seats in parliament. 17,573 of the votes in favour of Zbor were cast in the Danube Banovina, while the number of votes in the Dalmatian Littoral Banovina increased from 974 in May 1935 to 2,427 in December 1938.
World War II
1939–1941
In August 1939, Ljotić's cousin, Milan Nedić, was appointed Yugoslav Minister of Defense. Later that year, almost all Zbor publications, including Otadžbina, Buđenje, Zbor, Naš put (Our Path) and Vihor (Whirlwind), were prohibited. Ljotić exploited the connections he had with Nedić to ensure that the banned Zbor-published journal Bilten (Bulletin) was distributed to members of the Royal Yugoslav Army. The journal was published illegally in a military printing house and distributed throughout the country by military couriers. Ljotić was the journal's main contributor and editor-in-chief. Fifty-eight issues of Bilten were published from March 1939 until October 1940, in which Ljotić advocated a pro-Axis Yugoslav foreign policy and criticized Belgrade's tolerance of Jews. As many as 20,000 copies each were printed of later issues of the journal. Ljotić was particularly pleased with being able to exert his ideological influence over young military academy trainees as well as older officers.
With the outbreak of World War II, Ljotić supported Yugoslavia's policy of neutrality in the conflict while promoting the position that Yugoslav diplomacy should focus on relations with Berlin. He vehemently opposed the August 1939 Cvetković–Maček Agreement and repeatedly wrote letters to Prince Paul urging him to annul it. In these letters, he advocated an immediate re-organization of the government according to Zbor ideology, the abolishment of Croatian autonomy, the division of the Royal Yugoslav Army into contingents of ethnic Serbs and some Croat and Slovene volunteers, who would be armed, and contingents of most Croats and Slovenes in the armed forces, who would serve as labour units and would be unarmed. Effectively, the purpose of all these points was to reduce non-Serbs in Yugoslavia to the status of second-class citizens. By this point, Zbor was infiltrated by the German Gestapo, the Abwehr (German military intelligence), and the Schutzstaffel (SS). In 1940, the Royal Yugoslav Army purged its pro-German elements and Ljotić lost much of the influence he held over the armed forces.
Ljotić's followers responded to the Cvetković–Maček Agreement with violence, clashing with the youth wing of the Communist Party of Yugoslavia (KPJ). These incidents attracted as many as 5,000 new members to Zbor and led to the formation of a Zbor student wing known as the White Eagles (). In July 1940, Ljotić expressed his bitter opposition to the diplomatic recognition of the Soviet Union by Belgrade, which was meant to strengthen Yugoslavia internally in the case of war.
On 23 October 1940, White Eagles members massed outside the campus of the University of Belgrade. University president Petar Micić was a Zbor sympathizer. The Belgrade police, who were alleged to have had foreknowledge of the riots, withdrew from the area before violence erupted. The White Eagles members then threatened faculty and students with pistols and knives, stabbed some of them, hailed Adolf Hitler and Benito Mussolini as their heroes and shouted: "down with the Jews!" Members of Slovenski Jug (Slavic South), a Serbian nationalist movement, also participated in the riots, which were orchestrated by Ljotić in the hope that violence would provoke martial law and thus bring about a more centralized system of control in the university. The Serbian public responded to the riots with outrage. On 24 October, the Yugoslav government revoked Zbor's legal status. On 2 November, the Ministry of Interior sent a list of Zbor members to all municipal administrators in Serbia. The government cracked down on Zbor by detaining several hundred members, forcing Ljotić into hiding. One of the only public figures in Serbia to speak in favour of Ljotić during this period was Serbian Orthodox Bishop Nikolaj Velimirović, who praised his "faith in God" and "good character". Although a government investigation found that Zbor was guilty of high treason for accepting German funds, the authorities were careful not to arrest Ljotić in order not to provoke the Germans. Ljotić was placed under government surveillance, but authorities quickly lost track of him. He hid with friends in Belgrade and remained in contact with Nedić and Velimirović. On 6 November, Nedić resigned from his post to protest the government crackdown on Zbor. Additional issues of Bilten continued to be printed despite his resignation. These supported a pro-Axis Yugoslav foreign policy, criticized the government's tolerance of Jews and Freemasons and attacked pro-British members of the government for their opposition to Yugoslavia, signing the Tripartite Pact. Ljotić remained in hiding until April 1941.
1941–1945
On 6 April 1941, Axis forces invaded Yugoslavia. Poorly equipped and poorly trained, the Royal Yugoslav Army was quickly defeated. Several dozen Royal Yugoslav Army officers affiliated with Zbor were captured by the Wehrmacht during the invasion but were quickly released. The Germans sent Ljotić a written notice assuring his freedom of movement in German-occupied Serbia. Not long after German forces entered Belgrade, Ljotić's followers were given the task of selecting an estimated 1,200 Jews from the city's non-Jewish population.
Upon occupying Serbia, the Germans prohibited the activity of all political parties except Zbor. Although they originally intended to make Ljotić the head of a Serbian puppet government, both Ljotić and the Germans realized that his unpopularity would make any government led by him a failure. The Germans soon invited Ljotić to join the initial Serbian puppet government, the Commissioner Administration of Milan Aćimović. Ljotić was offered the position of economic commissioner but never took office, partly because he disliked the idea of playing a secondary role in the administration and partly because of his unpopularity. He resorted to indirectly exerting his influence over the Serbian puppet government through two of his closest associates, Zbor members Stevan Ivanić and Miloslav Vasiljević, whom the Germans had selected as commissioners. The Germans trusted Ljotić more than any other ethnic Serb in occupied Yugoslavia. In need of a reliable collaborationist force to combat the Communist uprising that had erupted in the aftermath of the German occupation of Serbia, they gave him permission to form the Serbian Volunteer Detachments in September 1941.
In October, Zbor organized the Grand Anti-Masonic Exhibition in Belgrade with German financial support. The exhibition sought to expose an alleged Judeo-Masonic and Communist conspiracy for world domination through several displays featuring antisemitic propaganda. In December, the Serbian Volunteer Detachments were renamed the Serbian Volunteer Corps (, SDK) and placed under the command of General der Artillerie (lieutenant general) Paul Bader. Although it was not formally part of the Wehrmacht, the SDK received arms, ammunition, food and clothing from the Germans. Its units were not allowed to move from their assigned territory without German authorization. Ljotić himself had no control over the SDK, which was directly commanded by Colonel Kosta Mušicki. Like the Serbian State Guard, it was under the direct command of the Higher SS and Police Leader August Meyszner and the Commanding General in Serbia. During operations, its units were put under the tactical command of German divisions. It was the only group of armed Serbs that the Germans ever trusted during the war, its units often being praised for valour in action by German commanders. The SDK often helped the Gestapo track down and round up Jewish civilians who had managed to evade capture by the Germans and was involved in sending Jewish prisoners to the Banjica concentration camp.
On 15 July 1942, Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović sent a telegram to the Yugoslav government-in-exile asking them to publicly denounce Ljotić, Nedić and the openly collaborationist Chetnik leader Kosta Pećanac as traitors. The Yugoslav government-in-exile responded by doing so publicly over BBC Radio. On 4 October 1944, Ljotić, along with Nedić and about 300 Serbian government officials, escaped from Belgrade with German officials. Ljotić and the SDK arrived in Osijek by the end of October, where German official Hermann Neubacher agreed to arrange their safe passage towards the Slovenian coast. In early 1945, Chetnik leader Pavle Đurišić decided to move to the Ljubljana Gap independent of Mihailović and arranged for Ljotić's forces already in Slovenia to meet him near Bihać in western Bosnia to assist his movement. Between March and April, Ljotić and Mihailović exchanged messages concerning a last-ditch alliance against the Partisans. Although the agreement was reached too late to be of any practical use, the forces of Ljotić and Mihailović came together under the command of Chetnik General Miodrag Damjanović on 27 March.
Ljotić did not live to see the end of the war. He was killed in a car accident in Slovenia on 23 April 1945. In early May, Damjanović led most of the troops under his command into northwestern Italy, where they surrendered to the British and were placed in detention camps. Many were extradited to Yugoslavia, where an estimated 1,500–3,100 were executed by the Partisans and buried in mass graves in the Kočevski Rog plateau. Others immigrated to western countries, where they established émigré organizations intended to promote Zbor's political agenda. Many of Ljotić's followers settled in Munich, where they ran their own publishing house and printed a newspaper called Iskra (Spark). In 1974, Ljotić's brother was shot and killed by agents of the Yugoslav State Security Service (Uprava državne bezbednosti, UDBA). The antagonism between pro-Ljotić groups and those affiliated with the Chetniks continued in exile.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Christian nationalism
Fascist parties
Political parties in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia
Serbia under German occupation
1935 establishments in Yugoslavia
Political parties established in 1935
Political parties disestablished in 1945
Yugoslavism
Germany–Yugoslavia relations
Eastern Orthodoxy and antisemitism
Right-wing antisemitism
Fascism in Yugoslavia
Collaboration with Fascist Italy
Collaboration with Nazi Germany
Anti-communist parties
Monarchist parties
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pattern%20hair%20loss
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Pattern hair loss
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Pattern hair loss (also known as androgenetic alopecia (AGA)) is a hair loss condition that primarily affects the top and front of the scalp. In male-pattern hair loss (MPHL), the hair loss typically presents itself as either a receding front hairline, loss of hair on the crown (vertex) of the scalp, or a combination of both. Female-pattern hair loss (FPHL) typically presents as a diffuse thinning of the hair across the entire scalp.
Male pattern hair loss seems to be due to a combination of oxidative stress, the microbiome of the scalp, genetics, and circulating androgens; particularly dihydrotestosterone (DHT). Men with early onset androgenic alopecia (before the age of 35) have been deemed the male phenotypic equivalent for polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). As an early clinical expression of insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome, AGA is related to being an increased risk factor for cardiovascular diseases, glucose metabolism disorders, type 2 diabetes, and enlargement of the prostate.
The cause in female pattern hair loss remains unclear; androgenetic alopecia for women is associated with an increased risk of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS).
Management may include simply accepting the condition or shaving one's head to improve the aesthetic aspect of the condition. Otherwise, common medical treatments include minoxidil, finasteride, dutasteride, or hair transplant surgery. Use of finasteride and dutasteride in women is not well-studied and may result in birth defects if taken during pregnancy.
Pattern hair loss by the age of 50 affects about half of males and a quarter of females. It is the most common cause of hair loss. Both males aged 40–91 and younger male patients of early onset AGA (before the age of 35), had a higher likelihood of metabolic syndrome (MetS) and insulin resistance. With younger males, studies found metabolic syndrome to be at approximately a 4× increased frequency which is clinically deemed significant. Abdominal obesity, hypertension and lowered high density lipoprotein were also significantly higher for younger groups.
Signs and symptoms
Pattern hair loss is classified as a form of non-scarring hair loss.
Male-pattern hair loss begins above the temples and at the vertex (calvaria) of the scalp. As it progresses, a rim of hair at the sides and rear of the head remains. This has been referred to as a "Hippocratic wreath", and rarely progresses to complete baldness.
Female-pattern hair loss more often causes diffuse thinning without hairline recession; similar to its male counterpart, female androgenic alopecia rarely leads to total hair loss. The Ludwig scale grades severity of female-pattern hair loss. These include Grades 1, 2, 3 of balding in women based on their scalp showing in the front due to thinning of hair.
In most cases, receding hairline is the first starting point; the hairline starts moving backwards from the front of the head and the sides.
Causes
Hormones and genes
KRT37 is the only keratin that is regulated by androgens. This sensitivity to androgens was acquired by Homo sapiens and is not shared with their great ape cousins. Although Winter et al. found that KRT37 is expressed in all the hair follices of chimpanzees, it was not detected in the head hair of modern humans. As androgens are known to grow hair on the body, but decrease it on the scalp, this lack of scalp KRT37 may help explain the paradoxical nature of Androgenic alopecia as well as the fact that head hair anagen cycles are extremely long.
The initial programming of pilosebaceous units of hair follicles begins in utero. The physiology is primarily androgenic, with dihydrotestosterone (DHT) being the major contributor at the dermal papillae. Men with premature androgenic alopecia tend to have lower than normal values of sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), testosterone, and epitestosterone when compared to men without pattern hair loss. Although hair follicles were previously thought to be permanently gone in areas of complete hair loss, they are more likely dormant, as recent studies have shown the scalp contains the stem cell progenitor cells from which the follicles arose.
Transgenic studies have shown that growth and dormancy of hair follicles are related to the activity of insulin-like growth factor (IGF) at the dermal papillae, which is affected by DHT. Androgens are important in male sexual development around birth and at puberty. They regulate sebaceous glands, apocrine hair growth, and libido. With increasing age, androgens stimulate hair growth on the face, but can suppress it at the temples and scalp vertex, a condition that has been referred to as the 'androgen paradox'.
Men with androgenic alopecia typically have higher 5α-reductase, higher total testosterone, higher unbound/free testosterone, and higher free androgens, including DHT. 5-alpha-reductase converts free testosterone into DHT, and is highest in the scalp and prostate gland. DHT is most commonly formed at the tissue level by 5α-reduction of testosterone. The genetic corollary that codes for this enzyme has been discovered. Prolactin has also been suggested to have different effects on the hair follicle across gender.
Also, crosstalk occurs between androgens and the Wnt-beta-catenin signaling pathway that leads to hair loss. At the level of the somatic stem cell, androgens promote differentiation of facial hair dermal papillae, but inhibit it at the scalp. Other research suggests the enzyme prostaglandin D2 synthase and its product prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) in hair follicles as contributive.
These observations have led to study at the level of the mesenchymal dermal papillae. Types 1 and 2 5α reductase enzymes are present at pilosebaceous units in papillae of individual hair follicles. They catalyze formation of the androgen dihydrotestosterone from testosterone, which in turn regulate hair growth. Androgens have different effects at different follicles: they stimulate IGF-1 at facial hair, leading to growth, but can also stimulate TGF β1, TGF β2, dickkopf1, and IL-6 at the scalp, leading to catagenic miniaturization. Hair follicles in anaphase express four different caspases. Significant levels of inflammatory infiltrate have been found in transitional hair follicles. Interleukin 1 is suspected to be a cytokine mediator that promotes hair loss.
The fact that hair loss is cumulative with age while androgen levels fall as well as the fact that finasteride does not reverse advanced stages of androgenetic alopecia remains a mystery, but possible explanations are higher conversion of testosterone to DHT locally with age as higher levels of 5-alpha reductase are noted in balding scalp, and higher levels of DNA damage in the dermal papilla as well as senescence of the dermal papilla due to androgen receptor activation and environmental stress. The mechanism by which the androgen receptor triggers dermal papilla permanent senescence is not known, but may involve IL6, TGFB-1 and oxidative stress. Senescence of the dermal papilla is measured by lack of mobility, different size and shape, lower replication and altered output of molecules and different expression of markers. The dermal papilla is the primary location of androgen action and its migration towards the hair bulge and subsequent signaling and size increase are required to maintain the hair follicle so senescence via the androgen receptor explains much of the physiology.
Inheritance
Male pattern baldness is a complex genetic condition with "particularly strong signals on the X chromosome".
Metabolic syndrome
Multiple cross-sectional studies have found associations between early androgenic alopecia, insulin resistance, and metabolic syndrome, with low HDL being the component of metabolic syndrome with highest association. Linolenic and linoleic acids, two major dietary sources of HDL, are 5 alpha reductase inhibitors. Premature androgenic alopecia and insulin resistance may be a clinical constellation that represents the male homologue, or phenotype, of polycystic ovary syndrome. Others have found a higher rate of hyperinsulinemia in family members of women with polycystic ovarian syndrome. With early-onset AGA having an increased risk of metabolic syndrome, poorer metabolic profiles are noticed in those with AGA, including metrics for body mass index, waist circumference, fasting glucose, blood lipids, and blood pressure.
In support of the association, finasteride improves glucose metabolism and decreases glycated hemoglobin HbA1c, a surrogate marker for diabetes mellitus. The low SHBG seen with premature androgenic alopecia is also associated with, and likely contributory to, insulin resistance, and for which it still is used as an assay for pediatric diabetes mellitus.
Obesity leads to upregulation of insulin production and decrease in SHBG. Further reinforcing the relationship, SHBG is downregulated by insulin in vitro, although SHBG levels do not appear to affect insulin production. In vivo, insulin stimulates both testosterone production and SHBG inhibition in normal and obese men. The relationship between SHBG and insulin resistance has been known for some time; decades prior, ratios of SHBG and adiponectin were used before glucose to predict insulin resistance. Patients with Laron syndrome, with resultant deficient IGF, demonstrate varying degrees of alopecia and structural defects in hair follicles when examined microscopically.
Because of its association with metabolic syndrome and altered glucose metabolism, both men and women with early androgenic hair loss should be screened for impaired glucose tolerance and diabetes mellitus II. Measurement of subcutaneous and visceral adipose stores by MRI, demonstrated inverse association between visceral adipose tissue and testosterone/DHT, while subcutaneous adipose correlated negatively with SHBG and positively with estrogen. SHBG association with fasting blood glucose is most dependent on intrahepatic fat, which can be measured by MRI in and out of phase imaging sequences. Serum indices of hepatic function and surrogate markers for diabetes, previously used, show less correlation with SHBG by comparison.
Female patients with mineralocorticoid resistance present with androgenic alopecia.
IGF levels have been found lower in those with metabolic syndrome. Circulating serum levels of IGF-1 are increased with vertex balding, although this study did not look at mRNA expression at the follicle itself. Locally, IGF is mitogenic at the dermal papillae and promotes elongation of hair follicles. The major site of production of IGF is the liver, although local mRNA expression at hair follicles correlates with increase in hair growth. IGF release is stimulated by growth hormone (GH). Methods of increasing IGF include exercise, hypoglycemia, low fatty acids, deep sleep (stage IV REM), estrogens, and consumption of amino acids such as arginine and leucine. Obesity and hyperglycemia inhibit its release. IGF also circulates in the blood bound to a large protein whose production is also dependent on GH. GH release is dependent on normal thyroid hormone. During the sixth decade of life, GH decreases in production. Because growth hormone is pulsatile and peaks during sleep, serum IGF is used as an index of overall growth hormone secretion. The surge of androgens at puberty drives an accompanying surge in growth hormone.
Age
A number of hormonal changes occur with aging:
Decrease in testosterone
Decrease in serum DHT and 5-alpha reductase
Decrease 3AAG, a peripheral marker of DHT metabolism
Increase in SHBG
Decrease in androgen receptors, 5-alpha reductase type I and II activity, and aromatase in the scalp
This decrease in androgens and androgen receptors, and the increase in SHBG are opposite the increase in androgenic alopecia with aging. This is not intuitive, as testosterone and its peripheral metabolite, DHT, accelerate hair loss, and SHBG is thought to be protective. The ratio of T/SHBG, DHT/SHBG decreases by as much as 80% by age 80, in numeric parallel to hair loss, and approximates the pharmacology of antiandrogens such as finasteride.
Free testosterone decreases in men by age 80 to levels double that of a woman at age 20. About 30% of normal male testosterone level, the approximate level in females, is not enough to induce alopecia; 60%, closer to the amount found in elderly men, is sufficient. The testicular secretion of testosterone perhaps "sets the stage" for androgenic alopecia as a multifactorial diathesis stress model, related to hormonal predisposition, environment, and age. Supplementing eunuchs with testosterone during their second decade, for example, causes slow progression of androgenic alopecia over many years, while testosterone late in life causes rapid hair loss within a month.
An example of premature age effect is Werner's syndrome, a condition of accelerated aging from low-fidelity copying of mRNA. Affected children display premature androgenic alopecia.
Permanent hair-loss is a result of reduction of the number of living hair matrixes. Long-term of insufficiency of nutrition is an important cause for the death of hair matrixes. Misrepair-accumulation aging theory suggests that dermal fibrosis is associated with the progressive hair-loss and hair-whitening in old people. With age, the dermal layer of the skin has progressive deposition of collagen fibers, and this is a result of accumulation of Misrepairs of derma. Fibrosis makes the derma stiff and makes the tissue have increased resistance to the walls of blood vessels. The tissue resistance to arteries will lead to the reduction of blood supply to the local tissue including the papillas. Dermal fibrosis is progressive; thus the insufficiency of nutrition to papillas is permanent. Senile hair-loss and hair-whitening are partially a consequence of the fibrosis of the skin.
Diagnosis
The diagnosis of androgenic alopecia can be usually established based on clinical presentation in men. In women, the diagnosis usually requires more complex diagnostic evaluation. Further evaluation of the differential requires exclusion of other causes of hair loss, and assessing for the typical progressive hair loss pattern of androgenic alopecia. Trichoscopy can be used for further evaluation. Biopsy may be needed to exclude other causes of hair loss, and histology would demonstrate perifollicular fibrosis. The Hamilton–Norwood scale has been developed to grade androgenic alopecia in males by severity.
Treatment
Combination therapy
Combinations of finasteride, minoxidil and ketoconazole are more effective than individual use.
Combination therapy of LLLT or microneedling with finasteride or minoxidil demonstrated substantive increases in hair count.
Androgen-dependent
Finasteride is a medication of the 5α-reductase inhibitors (5-ARIs) class. By inhibiting type II 5-AR, finasteride prevents the conversion of testosterone to dihydrotestosterone in various tissues including the scalp. Increased hair on the scalp can be seen within three months of starting finasteride treatment and longer-term studies have demonstrated increased hair on the scalp at 24 and 48 months with continued use. Treatment with finasteride more effectively treats male-pattern hair loss at the crown than male-pattern hair loss at the front of the head and temples.
Dutasteride is a medication in the same class as finasteride but inhibits both type I and type II 5-alpha reductase. Dutasteride is approved for the treatment of male-pattern hair loss in Korea and Japan, but not in the United States. However, it is commonly used off-label to treat male-pattern hair loss.
Androgen-independent
Minoxidil dilates small blood vessels; it is not clear how this causes hair to grow. Other treatments include tretinoin combined with minoxidil, ketoconazole shampoo, dermarolling (Collagen induction therapy), spironolactone, alfatradiol, topilutamide (fluridil), topical melatonin, and intradermal and intramuscular botulinum toxin injections to the scalp.
Female pattern
There is evidence supporting the use of minoxidil as a safe and effective treatment for female pattern hair loss, and there is no significant difference in efficiency between 2% and 5% formulations. Finasteride was shown to be no more effective than placebo based on low-quality studies. The effectiveness of laser-based therapies is unclear. Bicalutamide, an antiandrogen, is another option for the treatment of female pattern hair loss.
Procedures
More advanced cases may be resistant or unresponsive to medical therapy and require hair transplantation. Naturally occurring units of one to four hairs, called follicular units, are excised and moved to areas of hair restoration. These follicular units are surgically implanted in the scalp in close proximity and in large numbers. The grafts are obtained from either follicular unit transplantation (FUT) or follicular unit extraction (FUE). In the former, a strip of skin with follicular units is extracted and dissected into individual follicular unit grafts, and in the latter individual hairs are extracted manually or robotically. The surgeon then implants the grafts into small incisions, called recipient sites. Cosmetic scalp tattoos can also mimic the appearance of a short, buzzed haircut.
Technological treatments
Low-level laser therapy (LLLT)
Low-level laser therapy or photobiomodulation is also referred to as red light therapy and cold laser therapy. It is a non-invasive treatment option.
LLLT is shown to increase hair density and growth in both genders. The types of devices (hat, comb, helmet) and duration did not alter the effectiveness, with more emphasis to be placed on lasers compared to LEDs. Ultraviolet and infrared light are more effective for alopecia areata, while red light and infrared light is more effective for androgenetic alopecia.
Medical reviews suggest that LLLT is as effective or potentially more than other non invasive and traditional therapies like minoxidil and finasteride but further studies such as RCTs, long term follow up studies, and larger double blinded trials need to be conducted to confirm the initial findings.
Platelet-rich plasma (PRP)
Using ones own cells and tissues and without harsh side effects, PRP is beneficial for alopecia areata and androgenetic alopecia and can be used as an alternative to minoxidil or finasteride. It has been documented to improve hair density and thickness in both genders. A minimum of 3 treatments, once a month for 3 months are recommended, and afterwards a 3-6 month period of continual appointments for maintenance. Factors that determine efficacy include amount of sessions, double versus single centrifugation, age and gender, and where the PRP is inserted.
Future larger randomized controlled trials and other high quality studies are still recommended to be carried out and published for a stronger consensus. Further development of a standardized practice for procedure is also recommended.
Alternative therapies
Many people use unproven treatments. Regarding female pattern alopecia, there is no evidence for vitamins, minerals, or other dietary supplements. As of 2008, there is little evidence to support the use of lasers to treat male-pattern hair loss. The same applies to special lights. Dietary supplements are not typically recommended. A 2015 review found a growing number of papers in which plant extracts were studied but only one randomized controlled clinical trial, namely a study in 10 people of saw palmetto extract.
Research
A 2023 study on genetically engineered mice published in the journal PNAS found that increasing production of a particular microRNA in hair follicle stem cells, which naturally harden with age, softened the cells and stimulated hair growth. The authors of the study said the next research step is to introduce the microRNA into the stem cells using nanoparticles applied directly to the skin, with the goal of developing a similar topical application for humans.
Prognosis
Androgenic alopecia is typically experienced as a "moderately stressful condition that diminishes body image satisfaction". However, although most men regard baldness as an unwanted and distressing experience, they usually are able to cope and retain integrity of personality.
Although baldness is not as common in women as in men, the psychological effects of hair loss tend to be much greater. Typically, the frontal hairline is preserved, but the density of hair is decreased on all areas of the scalp. Previously, it was believed to be caused by testosterone just as in male baldness, but most women who lose hair have normal testosterone levels.
Epidemiology
Female androgenic alopecia has become a growing problem that, according to the American Academy of Dermatology, affects around 30 million women in the United States. Although hair loss in females normally occurs after the age of 50 or even later when it does not follow events like pregnancy, chronic illness, crash diets, and stress among others, it is now occurring at earlier ages with reported cases in women as young as 15 or 16.
For male androgenic alopecia, by the age of 50 30-50% of men have it, hereditarily there is an 80% predisposition. Notably, the link between androgenetic alopecia and metabolic syndrome is strongest in non-obese men.
Society and culture
Studies have been inconsistent across cultures regarding how balding men rate on the attraction scale. While a 2001 South Korean study showed that most people rated balding men as less attractive, a 2002 survey of Welsh women found that they rated bald and gray-haired men quite desirable. One of the proposed social theories for male pattern hair loss is that men who embraced complete baldness by shaving their heads subsequently signaled dominance, high social status, and/or longevity.
Biologists have hypothesized the larger sunlight-exposed area would allow more vitamin D to be synthesized, which might have been a "finely tuned mechanism to prevent prostate cancer" as the malignancy itself is also associated with higher levels of DHT.
Myths
Many myths exist regarding the possible causes of baldness and its relationship with one's virility, intelligence, ethnicity, job, social class, wealth, and many other characteristics.
Weight training and other types of physical activity cause baldness
Because it increases testosterone levels, many Internet forums have put forward the idea that weight training and other forms of exercise increase hair loss in predisposed individuals. Although scientific studies do support a correlation between exercise and testosterone, no direct study has found a link between exercise and baldness. However, a few have found a relationship between a sedentary life and baldness, suggesting exercise is causally relevant. The type or quantity of exercise may influence hair loss.
Testosterone levels are not a good marker of baldness, and many studies actually show paradoxical low testosterone in balding persons, although research on the implications is limited.
Baldness can be caused by emotional stress, sleep deprivation, etc.
Emotional stress has been shown to accelerate baldness in genetically susceptible individuals.
Stress due to sleep deprivation in military recruits lowered testosterone levels, but is not noted to have affected SHBG. Thus, stress due to sleep deprivation in fit males is unlikely to elevate DHT, which is one cause of male pattern baldness. Whether sleep deprivation can cause hair loss by some other mechanism is not clear.
Bald men are more 'virile' or sexually active than others
Levels of free testosterone are strongly linked to libido and DHT levels, but unless free testosterone is virtually nonexistent, levels have not been shown to affect virility. Men with androgenic alopecia are more likely to have a higher baseline of free androgens. However, sexual activity is multifactoral, and androgenic profile is not the only determining factor in baldness. Additionally, because hair loss is progressive and free testosterone declines with age, a male's hairline may be more indicative of his past than his present disposition.
Frequent ejaculation causes baldness
Many misconceptions exist about what can help prevent hair loss, one of these being that lack of sexual activity will automatically prevent hair loss. While a proven direct correlation exists between increased frequency of ejaculation and increased levels of DHT, as shown in a recent study by Harvard Medical School, the study suggests that ejaculation frequency may be a sign, rather than a cause, of higher DHT levels. Another study shows that although sexual arousal and masturbation-induced orgasm increase testosterone concentration around orgasm, they reduce testosterone concentration on average, and because about 5% of testosterone is converted to DHT, ejaculation does not elevate DHT levels.
The only published study to test correlation between ejaculation frequency and baldness was probably large enough to detect an association (1,390 subjects) and found no correlation, although persons with only vertex androgenetic alopecia had fewer female sexual partners than those of other androgenetic alopecia categories (such as frontal or both frontal and vertex). One study may not be enough, especially in baldness, where there is a complex with age.
Other animals
Animal models of androgenic alopecia occur naturally and have been developed in transgenic mice; chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes); bald uakaris (Cacajao rubicundus); and stump-tailed macaques (Macaca speciosa and M. arctoides). Of these, macaques have demonstrated the greatest incidence and most prominent degrees of hair loss.
Baldness is not a trait unique to human beings. One possible case study is about a maneless male lion in the Tsavo area. The Tsavo lion prides are unique in that they frequently have only a single male lion with usually seven or eight adult females, as opposed to four females in other lion prides. Male lions may have heightened levels of testosterone, which could explain their reputation for aggression and dominance, indicating that lack of mane may at one time have had an alpha correlation.
Although nonhuman primates do not go bald, their hairlines do undergo recession. In infancy the hairline starts at the top of the supraorbital ridge, but slowly recedes after puberty to create the appearance of a small forehead.
References
External links
NLM- Genetics Home Reference
Ailments of unknown cause
Conditions of the skin appendages
Genetic disorders with no OMIM
Hair diseases
Human hair
Testosterone
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5165379
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penal%20laws%20%28Ireland%29
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Penal laws (Ireland)
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In Ireland, the penal laws () were a series of legal disabilities imposed in the seventeenth, and early eighteenth, centuries on the kingdom's Roman Catholic majority and, to a lesser degree, on Protestant "Dissenters". Enacted by the Irish Parliament, they secured the Protestant Ascendancy by further concentrating property and public office in the hands of those who, as communicants of the established Church of Ireland, subscribed to the Oath of Supremacy. The Oath acknowledged the British monarch as the "supreme governor" of matters both spiritual and temporal, and abjured "all foreign jurisdictions [and] powers"—by implication both the Pope in Rome and the Stuart "Pretender" in the court of the King of France.
The laws included the Education Act 1695, the Banishment Act 1697, the Registration Act 1704, the Popery Acts 1704 and 1709, and the Disenfranchising Act 1728. Under pressure from British government, which in its rivalry with France sought Catholic alliances abroad and Catholic loyalty at home, the laws were repealed through a series of relief acts beginning in 1771. The last significant disability, the requirement that Members of Parliament take the Oath of Supremacy, was removed in 1829, after Ireland had been incorporated by the 1800 Acts of Union into a United Kingdom with Great Britain. The Government of Ireland Act 1920 (coming into force during the Irish War of Independence) contained an all-purpose provision in section 5 removing any that might technically still then be in existence.
Stuart and Cromwellian rule
The penal laws were, according to Edmund Burke, "a machine of wise and elaborate contrivance, as well fitted for the oppression, impoverishment and degradation of a people, and the debasement in them of human nature itself, as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenuity of man." Burke long counselled kinder relations by London with its American and Irish cousins, fearing that the punitive spirit fostered by the British was destroying English character, and would spur violent revolt.
Initially, the dual monarchs of England and Ireland were cautious about applying penal laws to Ireland because they needed the support of the Catholic upper classes to put down the Gaelic Irish rebellion in the Nine Years War (1594–1603). In addition, a significant section of the Catholic aristocracy was composed of Old English, who had traditionally been loyal to English rule in Ireland. However, the ascent of James VI of Scotland to both the English and Irish thrones as James I in 1603 and the eventual victory in the Nine Years War saw a series of coercive new laws put into force. In 1605 the 'Gunpowder Plot' was planned by a group of English Catholics, who were disappointed in their hopes that James would relieve laws against Catholics. This provided a further impetus and justification for restrictive laws on Catholics in Ireland, Scotland and England. In 1607 the Flight of the Earls seeking Catholic help in Europe for a further revolt set the scene for a wholesale Plantation of Ulster by the Lowland Scots and Northern English.
From 1607, Catholics were barred from holding public office or serving in the Irish Army. This meant that the Irish Privy Council and the Lords Justice who, along with the Lord Deputy of Ireland, constituted the government of the country, would in future be Anglicans. In 1613, the constituencies of the Irish House of Commons were altered to give plantation settlers a majority. In addition, Catholics in all three Kingdoms had to pay 'recusant fines' for non-attendance at Anglican services. Catholic churches were transferred to the Anglican Church of Ireland. Catholic services, however, were generally tacitly tolerated as long as they were conducted in private. Catholic priests were also tolerated, but bishops were forced to operate clandestinely. In 1634 the issue of the "Graces" arose; generous taxation for Charles I (whose Queen Henrietta Maria was Catholic) was supported by Irish Catholic landlords on the understanding that the laws would be reformed, but once the tax was passed, Charles' viceroy refused two of the 51 Graces, and subsequent bills were blocked by the Catholic majority in the Irish House of Lords.
Catholic resentment was a factor in starting the Irish Rebellion of 1641 and the establishment of Confederate Ireland from 1642 with Papal support, that was eventually put down in the Cromwellian conquest of Ireland in 1649–53. The Act of Settlement 1652 barred Catholics from membership of Parliament and the major landholders had most of their lands confiscated under the Adventurers' Act 1640. They were also banned from living in towns for a short period. Catholic clergy were expelled from the country and were liable to instant execution when found. Many recusants had to worship in secret at gathering places (such as Mass rocks) in the countryside. In 1666 forty nine Catholics from hiding places in the woods in county Roscommon signed a letter in support of the Pope and protesting the loss of their 'due liberties'. Seventeen Catholic martyrs from this period were beatified in 1992.
1660–1693
Much of this legislation was rescinded after the Restoration in Ireland by Charles II (1660–1685), under the Declaration of Breda in 1660, in terms of worship and property-owning, but also the first Test Act became law from 1673. Louis XIV of France increased Protestant paranoia in Europe when he expelled the Huguenots from France in 1685, and took his policy from the hard-line Bishop Bossuet. Following the flight from England to Ireland by James II caused by the English Glorious Revolution in 1688, the decisions of the Catholic-majority Patriot Parliament of 1688–9 in Dublin included a complete repeal of the 1660s land settlements. These were reversed after the largely Roman Catholic Jacobites that sided with King James then lost the Williamite war in Ireland in 1689–91. His opponents William III and Mary II were grandchildren of King Charles I, and so the war ultimately decided whether Catholic or Protestant Stuarts would reign.
The war ended with the Treaty of Limerick agreed by Sarsfield and Ginkel in October 1691. This provided in article 1 that:
The Roman Catholics of this kingdom shall enjoy such privileges in the exercise of their religion as are consistent with the laws of Ireland, or as they did enjoy in the reign of king Charles the second: and their majesties, as soon as their affairs will permit them to summon a parliament in this kingdom, will endeavour to procure the said Roman Catholics such farther security in that particular, as may preserve them from any disturbance upon the account of their said religion.
The quid pro quo to attain these privileges involved swearing an oath of loyalty to William and Mary. Many Catholics found this oath repugnant when the Papacy started to support the Jacobites in 1693. A small number of Catholic landlords had sworn this loyalty oath in 1691–3 and their families remained protected. Previous Jacobite garrison surrenders, particularly the agreement at Galway earlier in 1691, specifically provided that the Catholic gentry of counties Galway and Mayo were protected from the property restrictions, though they would be excluded from direct involvement in politics.
Articles 2 and 9 required that:
At the European level, this war was a part of the War of the Grand Alliance, in which the Holy See supported William III's alliance against France, and on the news of the Battle of the Boyne a Te Deum was sung in thanksgiving at the Vatican. But from 1693 the Papacy changed its policy and supported James against William, and William's policy also moved from a degree of toleration for Catholics to greater hostility. By then, King James was based in France at Saint Germain, and was supported politically and financially by Louis XIV, the long-standing enemy of William and Mary. Religion eventually became an issue in defining a notable family's loyalty to the crown.
Ascendancy rule 1691–1778
With the defeat of Catholic attempts to regain power and lands in Ireland, a ruling class which became known later as the Protestant Ascendancy sought to ensure dominance with the passing of a number of laws to restrict the religious, political and economic activities of Catholics and Protestant Dissenters. Harsher laws were introduced for political reasons during the long War of the Spanish Succession that ended in 1714. James Stuart, the son of James II, the "Old Pretender", was recognised by the Holy See as the legitimate King of Great Britain and Ireland until his death in 1766, and Catholics were obliged to support him. He also approved the appointments of all the Irish Catholic hierarchy, who were drawn from his most fervent supporters. These aspects provided the political basis for the new laws passed for several decades after 1695. Interdicts faced by Catholics and Dissenters under the penal laws were:
Exclusion of Catholics from most public offices (since 1607), Presbyterians were also barred from public office from 1707.
Ban on intermarriage with Protestants; repealed 1778
Presbyterian marriages were not legally recognised by the state
Catholics barred from holding firearms or serving in the armed forces, rescinded by Militia Act of 1793.
Oath of Supremacy required for membership of the Parliament of Ireland from 1652; rescinded 1662–1691; renewed 1691–1829; also applying to the successive parliaments of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland until the Catholic Relief Act of 1829.
Disenfranchising Act 1728, exclusion from the parliamentary franchise until the Relief Act of 1793;
Exclusion from the legal professions and the judiciary; repealed (respectively) 1793 and 1829.
Education Act 1695 – ban on foreign education; repealed 1782.
Bar to Catholics and Protestant Dissenters entering Trinity College Dublin; repealed 1793.
On a death by a Catholic, his legatee could benefit by conversion to the Church of Ireland;
Popery Act – Catholic inheritances of land were to be equally subdivided between all an owner's sons with the exception that if the eldest son and heir converted to Protestantism that he would become the one and only tenant of estate and portions for other children not to exceed one third of the estate. This "Gavelkind" system had previously been abolished by 1600.
Ban on converting from Protestantism to Roman Catholicism on pain of Praemunire: forfeiting all property estates and legacy to the monarch of the time and remaining in prison at the monarch's pleasure. In addition, forfeiting the monarch's protection. No injury however atrocious could have any action brought against it or any reparation for such.
Ban on Catholics buying land under a lease of more than 31 years; repealed 1778.
Ban on custody of orphans being granted to Catholics on pain of a £500 fine that was to be donated to the Blue Coat hospital in Dublin.
Ban on Catholics inheriting Protestant land
Prohibition on Catholics owning a horse valued at over £5 (to keep horses suitable for military activity out of the majority's hands)
Roman Catholic lay priests had to register to preach under the Registration Act 1704, but seminary priests and Bishops were not able to do so until 1778.
When allowed, new Catholic churches were to be built from wood, not stone, and away from main roads.
'No person of the popish religion shall publicly or in private houses teach school, or instruct youth in learning within this realm' upon pain of a £20 fine and three months in prison for every such offence. Repealed in 1782.
Any and all rewards not paid by the crown for alerting authorities of offences to be levied upon the Catholic populace within parish and county.
Historians disagree on how rigorously these laws were enforced. The consensus view is that enforcement depended on the attitudes of local magistrates bringing or hearing particular cases; some of whom were rigorous, others more liberal.
As a continuing reminder of their defeat in the Williamite War, the Whig historian Lord Macaulay suggested that the Penal-Law regime helps account for the failure of Irish Roman Catholics to heed the Jacobite call when the Scottish army of the Young Pretender marched on London in 1745. Their submission was the effect of "the habit of daily enduring insult and oppression" and of a "brokenness of heart". The systematic discrimination and exclusion from favour kept their "natural chiefs" abroad.There were indeed Irish Roman Catholics of great ability, energy and ambition; but they were to be found every where except in Ireland, at Versailles and at Saint Ilfonso, in the armies of Frederic and Maria Theresa,. One in exile became a Marshal of France. Another became Prime Minister of Spain. If he had staid [sic] in his native land, he would have been regarded as inferior by all the ignorant and worthless squireens who had signed the Declaration against Transubstantiation.
Catholic relief 1771–1800
From 1758, before the death of the Old Pretender, who styled himself James III, ad-hoc groups of the remaining Catholic nobility and merchants worked towards repeal of the penal laws and an accommodation within the Hanoverian system. These were based locally on county lines. An earlier attempt in 1727 had met with strong opposition from the Jacobite movement, which resisted any negotiations with the Hanoverians, being usurpers. By 1760 eminent Catholics such as Lord Trimlestown, Lord Kenmare and Charles O'Conor of Belanagare persuaded the more liberal Protestants that they presented no political threat, and that reforms must follow. Events abroad in the 1760s, such as the outcome of the Seven Years' War, the death of the Old Pretender (1766), the emerging "Age of Enlightenment", and the Suppression of the Society of Jesus by Europe's Catholic monarchs, all seemed to confirm their position.
On the death of the Old Pretender in January 1766, the Holy See recognised the Hanoverian dynasty as legitimate, and so the main political basis for the laws was removed and the slow process of Catholic emancipation began, with the repeal of some of the penal laws by the Catholic Relief Acts of 1771, 1778 and 1793. However, the long drawn-out pace of reform ensured that the question of religious discrimination dominated Irish life and was a constant source of division.
Visitors from abroad such as Arthur Young in the late 1770s also deplored the penal laws as being contrary to the spirit of the Age of Enlightenment, and illogical as they were unenforced. In his Tour in Ireland (1780), that was sponsored by many landlords, Young mentioned the laws twice:
.. the cruel laws against the Roman Catholics of this country, remain the marks of illiberal barbarism. Why should not the industrious man have a spur to his industry, whatever be his religion..?
Talking with Chief Baron Foster, Young commented:
In conversation on the Popery laws, I expressed my surprise at their severity; he said they were severe in the letter, but never executed. .. His Lordship did justice to the merits of the Roman Catholics, by observing that they were in general a very sober, honest and industrious people. This .. brought to my mind an admirable expression of Mr Burke's in the English House of Commons: Connivance is the relaxation of slavery, not the definition of Liberty.
The Catholic Committee and the Back Lane Parliament
In 1773, Kenmare convened a meeting of prominent Catholics in Dublin, representatives of the surviving Catholic gentry and senior bishops. While pleading for penal laws relief, their Catholic Committee foreswore any intention of overturning the Williamite Settlement. They also demonstrated their loyalty by helping to recruit the soldiers in Ireland to fight for the Crown in the American Colonies in the 1770s and, later, by supporting the authorities as they suppressed Whiteboy agrarian protest in the 1780s.
Assisted by Edmund Burke, who in 1764 had drafted a critical commentary on the penal laws that was widely circulated at Westminster, the pro-government policy appeared to pay dividends. The Irish Act of 1774 allowed any subject of George III "of whatever persuasion to testify their allegiance to him", and the Catholic Relief Act of 1778 allowed Catholics, on taking a modified oath that abjured the temporal, but not the spiritual, authority of the Pope, to purchase land and join the army. A further measure followed in 1782: the Irish Parliament, acknowledging the tolerated practice of the Catholic faith, repealed the laws that compelled Catholic bishops to quit the kingdom, and binding those who had assisted at Mass to identify the celebrant. In addition, Catholics might now own a horse worth £5, and, with the consent of their local Protestant bishop, open their own schools.
In February 1791 elections to the Committee from the counties and from the five Dublin parishes brought a dramatic change in its composition. The gentry and bishops were now outnumbered by representatives of those Burke described as the "new race of Catholics": the emergent Catholic mercantile and professional middle class. Stirred by news of revolution and reform in France and dissatisfied with the lack of progress since 1782, they demanded an immediate repeal of the remaining penal laws. This caused a split in the Committee with Kenmare leading a withdrawal of the more cautious gentry and bishops.
Under the chairmanship of the Dublin merchant, John Keogh, the Committee signalled a new departure by dismissing Edmund Burke's son, Richard Burke, as assistant secretary and replacing him with Theobald Wolfe Tone, another Protestant but a known democrat. In Dublin Tone was a leading member of the Society of United Irishmen first formed in October 1791 by his Presbyterian ("Dissenter") friends in Belfast, in the midst of the town's enthusiasm for the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and its defence by Thomas Paine.
In the 1792 Irish Parliamentary session, further petitions in favour of a Catholic relief bill, introduced at London's behest to secure Catholic loyalty in the impending confrontation with the new French Republic, were met with contempt. In response the Committee organised a country-wide election, open all male communicants in each parish, to a national convention. The Committee's insistence that it did not intend to "disturb" or "weaken" the establishment in Ireland of the Protestant religion or the security of the Protestant crown, did not reassure the authorities, who saw the hand of the United irishmen. The Viceroy, Lord Westmorland, called on London for additional troops.
Moved by parallels with the election to the National Constituent Assembly in France, the democratic exercise also caused alarm in the Catholic hierarchy. At the opening the Convention, assembled in the Tailor's Hall in Back Lane, Dublin, in December 1792, Keogh was careful to place two prelates seated on either side of the chairmen. But the petition, as finally approved and signed by the delegates, was presented to the bishops as a fait accompli, with no implication that their sanction was sought or obtained.
1793 Catholic Relief Act
Appealing over the heads of the Dublin Parliament and Castle administration, in January 1793 this petition was presented to the King, George III, who, persuaded by his ministers, gave audience to a delegation that included both Keogh and Tone. In April, at London's direction Dublin Castle put its weight behind Henry Grattan in the passage of the Catholic Relief Act. Catholics were admitted to the parliamentary franchise on the same limited and idiosyncratic terms as Protestants. They could take degrees on Trinity College, be called as barristers and serve as army officers and, under the terms of the accompanying Militia Act, most controversially of all, could carry arms.
However, these concessions were "permissive rather than obligatory and a newly awakened Protestant Ascendancy chose as often as not to withhold them". Moreover the retention of the Oath of Supremacy which continued to bar Catholics from parliament, from the judicial bench and from the higher offices of state, when all else was conceded, seemed petty, and was "interpreted by the newly politicised Catholic populace as final proof that the existing government was their natural enemy"
France declared war on Britain and Ireland in February 1793, and while the British government could rely on the revulsion within Catholic hierarchy against the aggressive anti-clericalism of the French Republic, it saw no need to hazard further reform. In February 1795, hopes that the Oath of Supremacy might be amended were dashed when, having declared in favour of admitting Catholics to Parliament, Earl William Fitzwilliam was recalled as Viceroy after just 6 months in post. Some former Committee members and convention delegates were content to focus their efforts elsewhere: in June 1795 they helped secure government the establishment of St. Patrick's seminary in Maynooth. Others, despite the threat of excommunication by their bishops, leaned toward the United Irishmen who, despairing of representative parliamentary reform, now moved to draw the agrarian Catholic Defenders with them toward a French-assisted republican insurrection.
1798 rebellion and the 1800 Act of Union
In calling people to arms, the United Irishmen promised complete civil and religious equality, and with this the abolition of the hated system whereby the "landlords' church" (the established Church of Ireland) assessed tithes atop the rack rents of Catholics and Dissenters. Following the suppression of the rebellion in the summer of 1798, British Prime Minister William Pitt and his Chief Secretary for Ireland, Robert Stewart (Lord Castlereagh) moved to incorporate Ireland in a united kingdom with Great Britain. They believed that reduced to minority within a united kingdom, the Catholics could be safely relieved of their remaining disabilities and the country pacified. But they were unable overcome opposition in England, including that of the King, George III. Provision for Catholic emancipation was dropped from the Act of Union that Stewart pushed through a resisting Dublin parliament. A separate Irish executive in Dublin was retained, but representation, still wholly Protestant, was transferred to Westminster constituted as the Parliament of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.
It took the Union thirty years to deliver on the promise of completing Catholic emancipation—to admit Catholics to Parliament—and permit an erosion of the Protestant monopoly on position and influence. An opportunity to integrate Catholics through their re-emerging propertied and professional classes as a minority within the United Kingdom may have passed.
Final "emancipation" 1808-1829
Daniel O'Connell and the Catholic Association
In 1808 "friends of emancipation", Henry Grattan among them, proposed that fears of Popery might be allayed if the Crown were accorded the same right exercised by continental monarchs, a veto on the confirmation of Catholic bishops. Yet even when, in 1814, the Curia itself (then in a silent alliance with Britain against Napoleon) proposed that bishops be "personally acceptable to the king", the emergent leader of the popular campaign for emancipation in Ireland, Daniel O'Connell, was unyielding in his opposition. Refusing any instruction from Rome as to "the manner of their emancipation", O'Connell declared that Irish Catholics should be content to "remain for ever without emancipation" rather than allow the king and his ministers "to interfere" with the Pope's appointment of their senior clergy.
For O'Connell any compromising of the independence of the Catholic clergy was potentially fatal to a strategy of campaign, organised from 1823 in the Catholic Association, that relied on the local priest—in most districts of the country, the sole figure, with standing independent of the Protestant landlords and magistrates—to secure the confidence of the people. Typically, it was local priest collected the a "Catholic rent" of a penny a month, a rate that opened the Association to the poorest tenants. This enabled O'Connell to mount "monster" rallies (crowds of over 100,000) that stayed the hands of authorities, and emboldened larger enfranchised tenants (the forty-shilling freeholders) to vote for pro-Emancipation candidates in defiance of their landlords.
1829 Catholic Relief Act
In 1828, O'Connell defeated a member of the British cabinet in a parliamentary by-election in County Clare. His triumph, as the first Catholic to be returned in a parliamentary election since 1688, made a clear issue of the Oath of Supremacy—the requirement that MPs acknowledge the King as "Supreme Governor" of the Church and thus forswear the Roman communion. Fearful of the widespread disturbances that might follow from continuing to insist on the letter of the oath, the government finally relented. With the Prime Minister, the Duke of Wellington, invoking the spectre of civil war, the Catholic Relief Act became law in 1829.
Entry to parliament did not come without a price. Bringing the Irish franchise into line with England's, the 1829 Act raised the property threshold for voting in county seats five-fold to ten pounds, disenfranchising the "forty-shilling freeholders" who had risked much in defying their landlords on O'Connell's behalf. The measure reduced the Catholic electorate in Ireland from 216,000 voters to just 37,000.
Perhaps trying to rationalise the sacrifice of his freeholders, O'Connell wrote privately in March 1829 that the new ten-pound franchise might actually "give more power to Catholics by concentrating it in more reliable and less democratically dangerous hands". The Young Irelander John Mitchel believed that this was the intent: to detach propertied Catholics from the increasingly agitated rural masses.
In a pattern that had been intensifying from the 1820s as landlords cleared land to meet the growing livestock demand from England, tenants had been banding together to oppose evictions, and to attack tithe and process servers. Alexis De Tocqueville, in his visit to Ireland in 1835, recorded these Whiteboys and Ribbonmen protesting:The law does nothing for us. We must save ourselves. We have a little land which we need for ourselves and our families to live on, and they drive us out of it. To whom should we address ourselves?... Emancipation has done nothing for us. Mr. O'Connell and the rich Catholics go to Parliament. We die of starvation just the same."Emancipation" did not bring the promised relief from Church of Ireland tithes. Fearful of embarrassing his Whig allies (who in government had brutally suppressed tithe and poor law protests in England), in 1838 O'Connell rejected the call of the Protestant tenant-righter William Sharman Crawford for the complete elimination of the Anglican levy. In its stead, he accepted the Tithe Commutation Act, which offered some reductions and debt forgiveness while incorporating the charge in the rents landlords remained free to set at will. The obligation remained until the disestablishment by the Irish Church Act 1869.
Government of Ireland Act 1920
Section 5(2) of the Government of Ireland Act 1920 stated:
Any existing enactment by which any penalty, disadvantage, or disability is imposed on account of religious belief or on a member of any religious order as such shall ... cease to have effect in Ireland.
This did not affect the Act of Settlement 1701, which prohibited those married to Catholics from succeeding to the throne; these were later repealed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 (between 1920 and 2013 there was no Catholic heir to the throne).
As a result of sections 5(2) and 37(1) of the 1920 Act, Catholics once again became eligible to occupy the office of Lord Lieutenant of Ireland, the British monarch's representative in Ireland. Within months of the enactment of this legislation, Viscount FitzAlan of Derwent became in April 1921 the first Catholic Lord Lieutenant of Ireland since the penal laws forbade such appointments in 1685. Because of the establishment of the Irish Free State in 1922 and the altered constitutional relationship between Ireland and the United Kingdom, FitzAlan was also the last Lord Lieutenant of Ireland.
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
Laws in Ireland for the suppression of Popery
Bills 1692–1800 with subject "Popery" Irish Legislation Database
History of Christianity in Ireland
History of Christianity in the United Kingdom
Christianity and law in the 17th century
Anti-Catholicism in Ireland
Legal history of Ireland
Social history of Ireland
Religion in the British Empire
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/23rd%20Fighter%20Group
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23rd Fighter Group
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The 23rd Fighter Group (23 FG) is a United States Air Force unit. It is assigned to the 23rd Wing and stationed at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia.
The 23rd Fighter Group was established in World War II as the 23rd Pursuit Group of the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF). Redesignated the 23rd Fighter Group before its activation, the group was formed in China on 4 July 1942, as a component of the China Air Task Force and received a small cadre of volunteer personnel from the simultaneously disbanded 1st American Volunteer Group (AVG) – the "Flying Tigers" of the Chinese Air Force.
To carry on the traditions and commemorate the history of the AVG, aircraft of the USAF 23rd Fighter Group carry the same "Shark Teeth" nose art of the AVG's Curtiss P-40 Warhawks, along with the "FT" (Flying Tiger) tail code. The 23rd Fighter Group's aircraft are the only United States Air Force aircraft currently authorized to carry this distinctive and historical aircraft marking.
Overview
Currently based at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia, the group is assigned as one of two operations groups of the 23rd Wing at Moody. The other group at Moody is the 347th Rescue Group. Both organizations serve as part of the Fifteenth Air Force and Air Combat Command. The 23rd Fighter Group's primary missions are forward air control, close air support, air interdiction and combat search and rescue operations.
The group has two operational squadrons assigned: the 74th and the 75th Fighter Squadrons both flying A-10 Thunderbolt II attack aircraft.
History
World War II
By 15 June 1942, under orders from Tenth Air Force, an advance cadre of pilots and aircraft had proceeded over the Hump to Kunming, China, for combat familiarization. Without ceremony, the 23rd Fighter Group was activated 4 July 1942, marking the first such activation of a United States fighter unit on a field of battle in World War II.
Claire L. Chennault, meanwhile, had been recalled to active duty with the rank of brigadier general and placed at the head of the China Air Task Force (later to grow into Fourteenth Air Force). The 23rd Fighter Group became a component of the Task Force and was assigned three squadrons, the 74th, 75th, and 76th Fighter Squadrons.
The group inherited the mission of the American Volunteer Group "Flying Tigers" (AVG). Five of Chennault's staff officers, five pilots and 19 ground crewmen entered the United States Army Air Forces and became members of the 23rd Fighter Group. Approximately 25 Flying Tiger pilots, still in civilian status, volunteered to extend their contracts for two weeks to train the new group following the disbanding of their organization. The original aircraft of the group were a mixture of Curtiss P-40 Warhawks from a batch of 50 sent to China for the AVG between January and June 1942, and a follow-up shipment of 68 P-40Es transferred from the 51st Fighter Group in India and flown over the Hump by personnel to be assigned to the 23rd, also mostly from the 51st Group.
Others from the ranks of the original Flying Tigers left China when their contracts expired, although some returned to duty later with the Army Air Forces in the China-Burma-India Theater. In addition to inheriting operational responsibilities from the AVG, the 23rd Fighter Group also benefited from the knowledge and experience of the AVG pilots, and took on the nickname of the disbanded unit.
Col. Robert L. Scott Jr., already in India as a commander of the Hump operation, became the first commander of the 23rd Fighter Group. He would later author the military classic, "God Is My Co-Pilot." On the very first day of its activation, the 23rd Fighter Group engaged three successive waves of enemy aircraft and promptly recorded the destruction of five enemy aircraft with no losses to itself.
The next three years saw the 23rd Fighter Group involved in much of the action over southeast and southwest Asia. It provided air defense for the Chinese terminus of the Hump route, but its operations extended beyond China to Burma, French Indochina and as far as Taiwan. The unit helped pioneer a number of innovative fighter and fighter-bomber tactics. The group used its so-called "B-40" (P-40's carrying 1,000-pound bombs) to destroy Japanese bridges and kill bridge repair crews, sometimes demolishing their target with a single bomb. The unit gained another increase in capability with its conversion to the North American P-51 Mustang aircraft in November 1943.
Representative of the encounters undertaken by this small and often ill-equipped group was the defense against a major Japanese push down the Hsiang Valley in Hunan 17–25 June 1944. Ignoring inhibiting weather conditions and heavy ground fire, the 23rd Fighter Group provided air support for Chinese land forces and repeatedly struck at enemy troops and transportation. Its efforts in this instance earned it the Distinguished Unit Citation. In 1945 it help turn the Japanese spring offensive and harassed the retreating Japanese by strafing and bombing their columns.
Before the 23rd Fighter Group returned to the United States in December 1945, it was credited with destroying 621 enemy planes in air combat, plus 320 more on the ground; with sinking more than 131,000 tons of enemy shipping and damaging another 250,000 tons; and with causing an estimated enemy troop loss of more than 20,000. These statistics were compiled through a total of more than 24,000 combat sorties, requiring more than 53,000 flying hours, and at a cost of 110 aircraft lost in aerial combat, 90 shot down by surface defenses, and 28 bombed while on the ground. Thirty-two pilots of the group achieved ace status by shooting down five or more enemy aircraft.
The 23rd Fighter Group left the theater in December 1945 and was inactivated 5 January 1946, at Fort Lewis, Washington.
Postwar Era
The 23rd Fighter Group was reactivated 10 October 1946, in Guam and assigned to the Twentieth Air Force, equipped with the long-range Republic P-47N Thunderbolt, replacing the 21st Fighter Group and assuming its equipment, personnel, and mission. While stationed in Guam, the 23rd became a part of the United States Air Force (USAF) when it became a separate military service on 18 September 1947. In 1948 it was assigned to the 23rd Fighter Wing as part of the USAF Wing/Base Reorganization, which was intended to unify command and control on air bases by assigning operational and support groups to a single headquarters. In April 1949, the group moved with the wing to Howard Air Force Base in the Panama Canal Zone, where it assumed the air defense mission of the Panama Canal, taking over the personnel and equipment of the 5600th Composite Group. It was inactivated along with the wing a few months later when the Air Force consolidated its operations in the Panama Canal Zone at Albrook Air Force Base.
Air Defense Command
The group was redesignated as the 23rd Fighter-Interceptor Group (FIG), activated once again and assigned to the 23rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing (FIW) at Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine as part of Air Defense Command (ADC), with the 74th and 75th Fighter-Interceptor Squadrons (FIS) assigned, flying North American F-86E Sabre aircraft. Before the year was over, both squadrons had converted to older F-86As. In February 1952, the wing and group were inactivated, in a major reorganization of Air Defense Command (ADC) responding to ADC's difficulty under the existing wing base organizational structure in deploying fighter squadrons to best advantage.
In August 1955, ADC implemented Project Arrow, which was designed to bring back on the active list the fighter units which had compiled memorable records in the two world wars. As a result of this project, the group, now designated the 23rd Fighter Group (Air Defense), replaced the 528th Air Defense Group at Presque Isle and once again assumed command of the 75th and 76 FIS, which also returned to Presque Isle to replace the 82nd and 319th FIS, because Project Arrow was also designed to reunite wartime squadrons with their traditional headquarters. However, the two squadrons were now operating Northrop F-89 Scorpions In addition, the group assumed USAF host responsibility for Presque Isle and was assigned the 23rd USAF Infirmary (later USAF Dispensary), 23rd Air Base Squadron, 23rd Materiel Squadron, and in 1957, the 23rd Consolidated Aircraft Maintenance Squadron to carry out these duties. In 1957, the group converted from the F-89D to the nuclear capable F-89H armed with AIR-2 Genie rockets. In 1958, the 76th FIS moved to McCoy Air Force Base, Florida and was assigned away from the group. The 75th FIS was in the process of converting to F-101 Voodoos, when the group was inactivated in 1959 as Presque Isle was being transferred to Strategic Air Command as host base for the SM-62 Snark Missile and the 702nd Strategic Missile Wing.
Modern era
23rd Operations Group
On 1 June 1992, the 23rd Tactical Fighter Group was redesignated the 23rd Operations Group and activated at Pope Air Force Base, North Carolina under the redesignated 23rd Wing under the USAF Objective Wing plan. It was given the mission of controlling the flying components of the parent 23rd Wing. These included both fighters providing close air support and theater airlift aircraft.
In December 1992, Lockheed C-130 Hercules aircraft from the group's 2nd Airlift Squadron deployed to Mombasa, Kenya, to participate in Operation Provide Relief. The aircraft and crews delivered tons of food and other relief supplies to small airstrips throughout Somalia. 23rd Wing C-130s were also tasked to assist in other humanitarian relief efforts, to include Hurricane Andrew in Florida. They also airdropped relief supplies into Bosnia and Herzegovina and flew relief missions into Sarajevo for more than 28 months.
In September 1994, its C-130s participated in what was to be the largest combat personnel drop since World War II, Operation Uphold Democracy. They were to assist in dropping more than 3,000 paratroopers from the 82nd Airborne Division onto Port au Prince Airport, Haiti. The invasion force was recalled at the last minute after word that the Haitian president had resigned upon hearing that the aircraft were on their way. The 75th Fighter Squadron's A-10s deployed their aircraft to Shaw Air Force Base, South Carolina, where they were scheduled to launch close air support operations for the invasion force before recovering in Puerto Rico.
The first operational deployment of a composite wing happened in October 1994, when Iraqi troops began massing near the Kuwaiti Border. Within 72 hours, 56 aircraft and 1,500 personnel deployed to the Persian Gulf region for Operation Vigilant Warrior. Eventually, the 75th Fighter Squadron redeployed to Al Jaber Air Base, Kuwait, becoming the first U.S. fixed-wing aircraft to be stationed in that country since the end of the Gulf War.
On 1 July 1996, the 74th Fighter Squadron's F-16C/D Fighting Falcons were transferred to the 27th Fighter Wing's 524th Fighter Squadron at Cannon Air Force Base, New Mexico, and the squadron transitioned to Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II received from the 20th Fighter Wing's 55th Fighter Squadron at Shaw. This gave the 23rd Group a second A-10 squadron.
23rd Fighter Group
On 1 April 1997, the 23rd Operations Group was inactivated and replaced by the downsized 23rd Wing, which was redesignated as the 23rd Fighter Group. The 23rd Fighter Group was assigned to the 347th Wing of Air Combat Command at Moody Air Force Base, Georgia but the group remained at Pope as a Geographically Separated Unit (GSU). Its C-130s and Pope Air Force Base were realigned to Air Mobility Command and assigned to the 43rd Airlift Wing.
Moody Air Force Base
On 1 October 2006, the 347th Rescue Wing at Moody redesignated as the 347th Rescue Group, while the 23rd Fighter Group was expanded and redesignated the 23rd Wing. Along with the 347th Rescue Group, the original 23rd Fighter Group was reactivated, this time at Moody Air Force Base, for only the second time in over fifty years. The 23rd Fighter Group was then assigned as one of the 23rd Wing's operations groups, although retaining the designation of "Fighter Group".
Both the 23rd Wing and 23rd Fighter Group are charged with carrying on the historic Flying Tiger's heritage.
Lineage
Constituted as the 23rd Pursuit Group (Interceptor) on 17 December 1941
Redesignated 23rd Fighter Group on 15 May 1942
Activated on 4 July 1942
Inactivated on 5 January 1946
Redesignated 23rd Fighter Group, Single Engine in 1946
Activated on 10 October 1946
Redesignated 23rd Fighter Group, Jet on 3 May 1949
Inactivated on 24 September 1949
Redesignated 23rd Fighter-Interceptor Group on 19 December 1950
Activated on 12 January 1951
Inactivated on 6 February 1952
Redesignated 23rd Fighter Group (Air Defense) on 20 June 1955
Activated on 18 August 1955
Inactivated on 1 July 1959
Redesignated 23rd Tactical Fighter Group on 31 July 1985 (remained inactive)
Redesignated 23rd Operations Group, and activated, on 1 June 1992
Inactivated on 1 April 1997
Redesignated: 23rd Fighter Group on 26 September 2006
Activated on 1 October 2006
Assignments
Tenth Air Force China Air Task Force, 4 July 1942
Fourteenth Air Force, 10 March 1943 – 5 January 1946
20th Fighter Wing (later 46th Fighter Wing), 10 October 1946
23rd Fighter Wing, 16 August 1948 – 24 September 1949
23rd Fighter-Interceptor Wing, 12 January 1951 – 6 February 1952
4711th Air Defense Wing, 18 August 1955
32nd Air Division (Defense), 1 March 1956
Bangor Air Defense Sector, 1 August 1958 – 1 July 1959
23rd Wing, 1 June 1992 – 1 April 1997
23rd Wing, 1 October 2006 – present
Components
2nd Airlift Squadron: 1 June 1992 – 1 April 1997
16th Fighter Squadron: attached, 4 July 1942 – 19 October 1943
41st Airlift Squadron: 16 July 1993 – 1 April 1997
74th Fighter Squadron: 4 July 1942 – 5 January 1946; 10 October 1946 – 24 September 1949; 12 January 1951 – 6 February 1952; 15 June 1993 – 1 April 1997; 1 October 2006 – present
75th Fighter Squadron (later 75th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron, 75th Fighter Squadron): 4 July 1942 – 5 January 1946; 10 October 1946 – 24 September 1949; 12 January 1951 – 6 February 1952; 18 August 1955 – 1 July 1959; 1 June 1992 – 1 April 1997; 1 October 2006 – present
76th Fighter Squadron (later, 76th Fighter-Interceptor Squadron): 4 July 1942 – 5 January 1946; 10 October 1946 – 24 September 1949; 18 August 1955 – 9 November 1957
118th Tactical Reconnaissance Squadron: attached, May 1945 – Aug 1945
132nd Fighter-Interceptor Squadron: attached, 21 July 1951 – 2 August 1951
134th Fighter Interception Squadron: attached, Jan 1951 -2 August 1951
449th Fighter Squadron: attached, Jul 1943–19 October 1943
598th Range Squadron: 22 Sep 2015–present
Stations
Kunming Airport, China, 4 July 1942
Kweilin Airfield, China, c. Sept 1943
Liuchow Airfield, China, 8 September 1944
Luliang Airfield, China, 14 September 1944
Liuchow Airfield, China, Aug 1945
Hanchow Airfield, China, c. 10 October – 12 December 1945
Fort Lewis, Washington, 3 – 5 January 1946
Northwest Field (later, Northwest Guam Air Force Base), Guam, 10 October 1946 – 3 April 1949
Howard Air Force Base, Canal Zone, 25 April – 24 September 1949
Presque Isle Air Force Base, Maine, 12 January 1951 – 6 February 1952; 18 August 1955 – 1 July 1959
Pope Air Force Base, North Carolina, 1 June 1992 – 30 July 2007
Moody Air Force Base, Georgia, 30 July 2007 – present
Awards and campaigns
See also
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Buss, Lydus H.(ed), Sturm, Thomas A., Volan, Denys, and McMullen, Richard F., History of Continental Air Defense Command and Air Defense Command July to December 1955, Directorate of Historical Services, Air Defense Command, Ent AFB, CO, (1956)
(Extracts online at Google Books. Retrieved 2 November 2012)
Further reading
Donald, David (2004) Century Jets: USAF Frontline Fighters of the Cold War. AIRtime
Endicott, Judy G. (1999) Active Air Force wings as of 1 October 1995; USAF active flying, space, and missile squadrons as of 1 October 1995. Maxwell AFB, Alabama: Office of Air Force History. CD-ROM
External links
Global Security site about the 23rd Fighter Group
Annals of the Flying Tigers (American Volunteer Group)
Flying Tiger Association Website
Military units and formations established in 1941
023
023
0023
Military units and formations in Georgia (U.S. state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YFZ%20Ranch
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YFZ Ranch
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The Yearning for Zion Ranch, or the YFZ Ranch, was a Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (FLDS) community of as many as 700 people, located near Eldorado in Schleicher County, Texas, United States. In April 2014, the State of Texas took physical and legal possession of the property.
Background
The YFZ Ranch was situated southwest of San Angelo and northeast of Eldorado. The Ranch was settled by members of the FLDS Church who left Hildale, Utah and Colorado City, Arizona under increasing scrutiny from the media, anti-polygamy activists and law enforcement officials.
Creation of property
Speaking in Sunday church services on August 10, 2003, Warren Jeffs declared that the blessings of the priesthood had been removed from the community of Short Creek (Colorado City and Hildale). Following the sermon, Jeffs suspended all further religious meetings but continued to allow his followers to pay their tithes and offerings to him. He then turned his focus to what he called "lands of refuge": secret communities that he had started to build up. Jeffs referred to Yearning for Zion Ranch, one of the lands of refuge, by the code name R17.
The YFZ Land LLC, through its president, David S. Allred, purchased the ranch in 2003 for $700,000 and quickly began development on the property. When he purchased the property, he declared that the buildings would be a corporate hunting retreat. Allred stuck with that story even after William Benjamin Johnson, a Hildale man, was alleged to be shooting all the white-tail deer on the ranch and, after an investigation, was fined for hunting without a license. Later, ranch officials disclosed that the hunting retreat description was inaccurate; the buildings were part of the FLDS Church's residential area.
The ranch was home to approximately 500 people who relocated from Arizona and Utah communities. It housed a temple, a waste treatment facility, a house for FLDS Church president Warren Jeffs, a meeting house, and several large log and concrete homes. There were generators, gardens, a grain silo, and a large stone quarry that was cut for the temple. According to preliminary tax assessments, about $3 million worth of buildings had been built. The sect was fined over $34,000 for environmental violations in connection with buildings on the ranch, mainly due to its failure to obtain the required permits for its concrete-mixing operations.
The temple foundation was dedicated January 1, 2005, by Jeffs.
April 2008 raid
On March 29, 2008, a local domestic violence shelter hotline took a call from a female, identifying herself as "Sarah", and claiming to be a 16-year-old victim of physical and sexual abuse at the church's YFZ Ranch. Investigators eventually established by tracing the calls that they were placed by a much older woman, Rozita Swinton, who had been arrested for previous hoax calls posing as abused and victimized girls. The call triggered a large-scale operation at YFZ Ranch by Texas law enforcement and child welfare officials, beginning with cordoning off of the ranch on April 3. Law enforcement officers were armed with automatic weapons, SWAT teams with snipers, helicopters, and Midland County provided an M113 armored personnel carrier as backup, but they were met with no armed resistance. Authorities believed the children "had been abused or were at immediate risk of future abuse", a state spokesman said. Troopers and child welfare officials searched the ranch, including the temple's safes, vaults, locked desk drawers, and beds. They found evidence leading them to believe that the beds were "in a part of the temple where 'males over the age of 17 engage in sexual activity' with underage girls". A religious scholar later testified in court that he does not think sexual activity occurs in the temples of FLDS sects, and that temple service "lasts a couple of hours, so all the temples will have a place where someone can lie down". Child Protective Services (CPS) officials conceded that there was no evidence that the youngest children were abused (about 130 of the children were under 5), and evidence later presented in a custody hearing suggested that teenage boys were not physically or sexually abused.
CPS spokesman Darrell Azar stated, "There was a systematic process going on to groom these young girls to become brides", and that the children could not be protected from possible future abuse on the ranch. Interviews with the children "revealed that several underage girls were forced into 'spiritual marriage' with much older men as soon as they reached puberty and were then made pregnant". After Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st District Court issued an order authorizing officials to remove all children, including boys, 17 years old and under, from the ranch, eventually a total of 462 children went into the temporary custody of the State of Texas. The children were held by the Child Protective Services at Fort Concho and the Wells Fargo Pavilion in San Angelo. Over a hundred adult women chose to leave the ranch to accompany the children. Children under the age of four were allowed to stay with their mothers until DNA testing to identify family relations was finished; once DNA testing was completed, only children under 18 months were allowed to stay with their mothers indefinitely.
A former member of the FLDS Church, Carolyn Jessop, arrived on-site April 6 in hopes of reuniting two of her daughters with their half siblings. She stated that the actions in Texas were unlike the 1953 Short Creek raid in Arizona. Jessop had been in Texas the prior month at a speaking engagement, where she said, "[i]n Eldorado, the crimes went to a whole new level. They thought they could get away with more" but "Texas is not going to be a state that's as tolerant of these crimes as Arizona and Utah have been." By April 8, authorities had removed as many as 533 women and children from the ranch. On April 10, law enforcement completed their search of the ranch, returning control of the property to the FLDS Church.
Mandamus of Judge Walther
Represented by Texas RioGrande Legal Aid, mothers of the removed children sought a writ of mandamus against Judge Walther for her rulings because parents in Texas cannot simply appeal an emergency removal. Mandamus is available only when it is abundantly clear a state official abused his or her power.
On May 22, 2008, an appeals court issued a writ of mandamus to Judge Walther and found that there was not nearly enough evidence at the original hearing that the children were in immediate danger to justify keeping them in state custody. The court added that Judge Walther had abused her discretion by keeping the children in state care. The court ruled, "The department did not present any evidence of danger to the physical health and safety of any male children or any female children who had not reached puberty." The children were to be returned to their families in 10 days. CPS announced they would seek to overturn the decision. On May 29, the Texas Supreme Court declined to issue a mandamus to the Appeals Court, with a result that CPS was required to return all of the children. The court stated, "On the record before us, removal of the children was not warranted." The court also noted that although the children must be returned, "it need not do so without granting other appropriate relief to protect the children".
On May 12–15, 2009, a hearing was held in Tom Green County, Texas regarding the constitutionality and legality of search warrants executed in April 2008 on the YFZ Ranch in Schleicher County, Texas. On October 2, 2009, Judge Barbara Walther issued a ruling denying a defense motion to suppress the evidence seized from the YFZ Ranch, stating:
On November 10, 2009, Raymond Jessop was sentenced to 10 years in prison and fined $8,000 for sexually assaulting a 16-year-old girl on or about November 19, 2004. On December 18, 2009, Allan Keate was sentenced to 33 years in prison. He fathered a child with a 15-year-old girl.
On January 22, 2010, Michael George Emack pleaded no contest to sexual assault charges and was sentenced to seven years in prison. He married a 16-year-old girl at YFZ Ranch on August 5, 2004. She gave birth to a son less than a year later. On April 14, 2010, Emack also pleaded no contest on a bigamy charge and received a seven-year sentence that will run concurrently with the sentence he received for sexually assaulting a 16-year-old girl.
On February 5, 2010, Arizona Judge Steven F. Conn approved a stipulation from the previous day between Mohave County prosecutor Matt Smith and Warren Jeffs' defense attorney, Michael Piccarreta, that evidence seized from the YFZ Ranch in Texas would not be used in any manner in Warren Jeffs' two criminal trials in Arizona. Based on the agreement of the attorneys, Judge Conn issued an order adopting the stipulation. A Utah court found Jeffs guilty of two counts of rape as an accomplice in September 2007. He was sentenced to imprisonment for 10 years to life but while serving this sentence at the Utah State Prison, Jeffs' conviction was reversed by Utah's Supreme Court on July 27, 2010 because of a flaw in the jury instructions. Jeffs was extradited to Texas, to face trial on charges facing him there. The Texas jury found him guilty of sexual assault and aggravated sexual assault of children. He was sentenced to life in prison plus twenty years, to be served consecutively, and a $10,000 fine, for sexual assault of both 12 and 15-year-old girls.
On March 19, 2010, Merril Leroy Jessop was sentenced to 75 years in prison for one count of sexual assault of a child. Jessop was convicted of illegally marrying and then fathering a child with a 15-year-old female.
On April 15, 2010, Lehi Barlow Jeffs pleaded no contest to bigamy and sexual assault of a child, avoiding a trial that had been set for April 26. He was sentenced to eight years in prison.
On June 22, 2010, Abram Harker Jeffs was found guilty of sexual assault of a child.
On August 9, 2011, leader Warren Steed Jeffs was found guilty of one count of aggravated sexual assault of a child and one count of sexual assault of a child and sentenced to life in prison plus 20 years to be served consecutively.
Controversy
Rozita Swinton
Rozita Swinton of Colorado Springs had previously made calls pretending to be a young girl. She was under investigation for posing as the caller "Sarah" who complained of abuse, but she could not be found. FLDS women did not know of any such girl and assumed that it was a prank call. Sarah was considered a real person by CPS until May when her court case was dropped, effectively acknowledging that she does not actually exist. Swinton has previously been responsible for hoax calls to authorities in multiple jurisdictions, setting off large emergency responses that sometimes involved dozens of police officers. Flora Jessop recorded nearly 40 hours of Swinton's phone calls, both before and after the raid on the YFZ ranch. Swinton posed alternately as "Sarah Barlow" and her sister Laura. She claimed that her 50-year-old husband beat and raped her and that his other wives tried to poison her. Swinton herself was 33 at the time, unmarried, and childless.
The Associated Press reported that Texas Ranger Brooks Long called Colorado officials about two phone numbers, one of which "was possibly related to the reporting party for the YFZ Ranch incident". However, the CPS acted on additional evidence gathered while investigating this complaint, and Flora Jessop and some commentators have expressed gratitude to Swinton that her tip, even if false, allowed exposure of alleged child abuses.
Age dispute and Child Protective Services
CPS has acknowledged that some ranch residents who were removed because they appeared to be minors may be older than first assumed. On May 13, Louisa Bradshaw Jessop gave birth to a son. Louisa Jessop had been classified as 17 by CPS, although her husband had previously provided a birth certificate and driver's license to demonstrate that she was 22. A CPS lawyer explained, "We can't just look at people and say, 'You're of age, you can go. A spokesman for FLDS believed that CPS "just wanted to keep the mother in custody until they could get the baby". Jessop was one of 27 "disputed minors", or ranch residents about whom the CPS has inaccurate or conflicting information regarding age. Child Protective Services lawyers on May 13 told Judge Walther that Louisa and the mother of a boy born April 29 were no longer considered to be minors. On May 22, CPS declared half of the alleged teen mothers to be adults, some as old as 27. One who had been listed as an underage mother had never been pregnant.
Other criticism
Many FLDS members and supporters see the raid and the seizure of the children from their family as religious persecution and have likened it to a witch-hunt.
In May 2008, FLDS spokesperson Willie Jessop wrote a letter to President George W. Bush, asking him to intervene, and outlining the harsh conditions that Jessop believed that the children and mothers were subjected to. In the letter Jessop claimed that, contrary to statements from authorities that the children were being placed in a safe and secure environment, the mothers and children were actually crowded by the hundreds into Fort Concho, a military facility without adequate toilets, bathing facilities, or privacy.
Mental health workers who worked at the shelter testified similarly to state officials, also citing lack of privacy, only military cots for sleeping and poor-quality food, with no communications and threatened arrest if mothers waved to friends. "The CPS workers were openly rude to the mothers and children, yelled at them for trying to wave to friends ... threatened them with arrest if they did not stop waving" Workers took notes on everything the "guests" said. In many of the testimonies it was compared to a prison or concentration camp. Others testified the children were "amazingly clean, happy, healthy, energetic, well behaved and self-confident", while the mothers were "consistently calm, patient and loving with their children".
The Christian legal group Liberty Legal Institute believes the state of Texas should be required to prove that the children taken from the ranch were actually abused or were in imminent danger. Liberty Legal warned of possible damage to religious liberties and the rights of all Texas parents. Home-schooling families were also fearful that opponents could file similarly false complaints against families to force attendance in government-run schools.
Utah Attorney General Mark Shurtleff disagreed with the removal:
Let's say you're a 6-month-old girl, no evidence whatsoever of any abuse. They're simply saying, "You, in this culture, may grow up to be a child bride when you're 14. Therefore we're going to remove you now when you're 6 months old" ... Or, "You're a 6-month-old boy; 25, 30 years, 40 years from now you're going to be a predator, so we're going to take you away now."
Texas requires public education for children not in private or home schooling. Although the children had not been schooled while in state custody, a Texas Education Agency spokesman has stated that "there's a point at which their educational input is secondary" to their emotional well-being. CPS anticipates that the children will continue their education on the campus of their foster placement. There were no plans for the children to attend classes on any public school campus.
The ACLU maintains that the raid was prompted by a single, unsubstantiated allegation of abuse, and they allege that all children at the ranch were believed at risk solely because of exposure to FLDS beliefs regarding underage marriage. But, the ACLU contends, "exposure to a religion's beliefs, however unorthodox, is not itself abuse and may not constitutionally be labeled abuse". The ACLU pointed out that parents were separated from their children without individual hearings and without particularized evidence of abuse, and that DNA testing was ordered without evidence that parentage was in dispute. Such actions, the ACLU asserts, "should not be indiscriminately targeted against a group as a whole – particularly when the group is perceived as being different or unusual".
Commentary
At the beginning of May, National Review columnist John Derbyshire called the raid the "atrocity of the [previous] month", but said he had seen only one editorial critical of the removals. The Los Angeles Times editorially endorsed the appeals court decision, saying CPS "was overzealous in its efforts".
Several commentators compared the raid with the Short Creek raid of 1953, which was also a government raid on an FLDS community, and which led to a popular backlash against the raid.
Post-raid events
On April 14, 2008, the women and children were moved out of Fort Concho to San Angelo Coliseum, where the CPS reported that the children were playing and smiling. Mothers had complained about the living conditions inside Fort Concho, sending a letter to the Texas Governor asking him to investigate the conditions. In the letter, obtained by the Associated Press, the mothers claim that their children became sick and required hospitalization. They wrote "Our innocent children are continually being questioned on things they know nothing about. The physical examinations were horrifying to the children. The exposure to these conditions is traumatizing." FLDS and mental health workers complained about subjecting children to interrogation sessions, invasive physical examinations, pregnancy tests and complete body X-rays. Women staying at Fort Concho shelter told the press that the temporary housing was "cramped, with cots, cribs, and playpens lined up side by side, and that the children were frightened".
The FLDS described the separation of mothers from their children as "inhumane". When the children under 5 realized their mothers would be taken away, the children started crying and screaming, requiring CPS workers to pry many from their mothers.
The children were placed in 16 group shelters and foster homes. Minors with children were sent to the Seton Home in San Antonio, older boys to Cal Farley's Boys Ranch in Amarillo. Some parents stated on the Today Show that they were unable to visit their boys due to a shortage of CPS staff. Newspapers released names of facilities caring for the FLDS children that have requested donations of specific items, help or cash.
On April 16, 2008, several of the mothers appeared on Larry King Live to ask for their children and tell their story from their own viewpoint. The program included a guided tour of the ranch by one of the mothers, showing where the children and families sleep and eat and stressing the loss felt with the children all now gone. The mothers declined to discuss the pending allegations of child abuse. On the 17th, a custody hearing began in the Tom Green County Courthouse to determine whether the children would remain in state custody. Judge Barbara Walther heard testimony from State officials, experts called in by the State and witnesses for ranch members over a period of 2 days while hundreds of lawyers representing the children looked on and offered objections. State officials alleged a pattern of abuse by adults, including marriages between young girls and older men, while ranch residents insisted that no abuse had taken place.
On April 18, 2008, after 21 hours of testimony, Judge Walther ordered that all 416 children seized be held in protective custody and that the DNA of the children and adults be tested to establish family relationships. Children younger than 4 were to be separated from their mothers over 18 after DNA samples were taken; older children had already been separated. Children were to be given individual hearings to determine whether they must be moved to permanent foster care or returned to their parents. DNA testing of children and adults began on the 21st.
On April 24, 2008, authorities stated that they believed 25 mothers from the YFZ Ranch were under 18. On the 28th, authorities announced that of the 53 girls aged 14–17, 31 have children or were pregnant.
After the women regained custody of the children, one half of the families left the Yearning for Zion ranch and moved to another FLDS location.
Carey Cockerell, representing Texas CPS investigators, said on April 30 that they have identified 41 children with past diagnoses of fractured bones. FLDS spokesman Rod Parker attributes the fractures to hereditary bone disease and believes that the fracture rate was low, considering the children's physically active lifestyle. Additionally, two children broke bones while they were removed from the ranch, and one girl broke a bone while in custody. CPS investigators also made new allegations of possible sexual abuse of boys, citing their diary notes.
On May 13, 2008, a San Antonio judge allowed a couple from the ranch to have daily visits with their children, and granted them a hearing in 10 days to decide their children's custody. Other challenges to the blanket order by Judge Walther were filed in courts in San Antonio, Austin, and San Angelo.
In November 2008, 12 FLDS men were charged with offenses related to underage marriages.
On December 22, 2008, The Texas Department of Family and Protective Services issued a 21-page final report on the raid entitled "El Dorado Investigation". The report found that "12 girls were 'spiritually' married at ages ranging from 12 to 15, and seven of these girls have had one or more children. The 12 confirmed victims of sexual abuse were among 43 girls removed from the ranch from the ages of 12 to 17, which means that more than one out of every four pubescent girls on the ranch was in an underage marriage."
Resolution
A year after the raid, two thirds of the families were back at the ranch and sect leaders had promised to end underaged marriages. Twelve men, not all apparently from the ranch, had been indicted on a variety of sex charges, including assault and bigamy. One child, a 14-year-old girl who was married to jailed leader Warren Jeffs when she was 12, remained in foster care. The following summer, 2009, she was sent to live with a relative and ordered not to have contact with Jeffs.
Seizure
In November 2012, the Texas Attorney General's Office began legal proceeding in an attempt to seize the ranch. In a 91-page affidavit filed with the 51st District Court of Texas, the Attorney General argues that Warren Jeffs authorized the purchase of the ranch property as "... a rural location where the systemic sexual assault of children would be tolerated without interference from law enforcement authorities", therefore, the property was contraband and subject to seizure. Under Texas law, property that was used to commit or facilitate certain criminal conduct can be seized by law enforcement authorities. In 2012 the property was appraised to have a value of $19.96 million, according to county tax rolls.
On January 6, 2014, Judge Walther ruled that the state could seize the property, and that they could "enter the property and take an inventory." The FLDS Church had 30 days to appeal. On February 6, 2014, at the close of the courthouse day, the opportunity to appeal the seizure expired; since no one had filed an appeal challenging the seizure by that time, the state of Texas became the legal owner of the YFZ Ranch. Officials did not release details about their future plans for the ranch at that time. On April 16, 2014, officials met with two representatives of the remaining eight adult residents and discussed arrangements for them to vacate the premises, and the following day (April 17) the State of Texas took physical possession of the property.
See also
Under the Banner of Heaven: A Story of Violent Faith, a book of investigative non-fiction published in 2003 which documents incidents of violence and abuse connected with the FLDS.
Lost boys, young men who have been excommunicated or pressured to leave polygamous groups such as the FLDS, though no documented cases were related to the YFZ Ranch.
References
Further reading
Bistline, Benjamin G. Colorado City Polygamists: An Inside Look for the Outsider (2004). A Colorado City historian presents the beginnings of the group and its original religious doctrine.
Bistline, Benjamin G. The Polygamists: A History of Colorado City, Arizona (2004).
Jessop, Carolyn, "Escape" (2008) Seventeen years after being forced into a polygamous marriage, Jessop escaped from the cultlike Fundamentalist Church of Latter Day Saints with her eight children.
"The Primer" – Helping Victims of Domestic Violence and Child Abuse in Polygamous Communities. A joint report from the offices of the Attorneys General of Arizona and Utah. (2006)
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Main Street Church. Lifting the Veil of Polygamy (2007). A documentary film on the history and modern-day expressions of Mormon polygamy, including numerous testimonials.
Wright, Stuart A. and James T. Richardson. (2011). Saints under Siege: The Texas State Raid on the Fundamentalist Latter Day Saints. New York: New York University Press.
External links
CPS websites
Texas DFPS Eldorado information page
. A documentary on FLDS life while Warren Jeffs was a fugitive.
Court Documents
Affidavit for Search and Arrest Warrant
CPS Petition for Protection of Children in an Emergency
Texas Court Of Appeals: In re Sara Steed, et al.
Supreme Court Of Texas: In re Texas Department of Family and Protective Services, Relator
Supreme Court Of Texas: In re Texas Department ... (Minority Opinion)
Asset forfeiture
Buildings and structures in Schleicher County, Texas
Civil detention in the United States
Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
History of women in Texas
Intentional communities in the United States
Latter Day Saint movement in Texas
Law enforcement operations in the United States
Mormon fundamentalism
Child sexual abuse scandals in Mormonism
Mormonism-related controversies
Child marriage in the United States
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S.%20Route%2020%20in%20New%20York
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U.S. Route 20 in New York
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U.S. Route 20 (US 20) is a part of the United States Numbered Highway System that runs from Newport, Oregon, to Boston, Massachusetts. In the U.S. state of New York, US 20 extends from the Pennsylvania state line at Ripley to the Massachusetts state line in the Berkshires. US 20 is the longest surface road in New York. It runs near the Lake Erie shore from Ripley to Buffalo and passes through the southern suburbs of Buffalo, the Finger Lakes, the glacial moraines of Central New York, and the city of Albany before crossing into Massachusetts. US 20 connects to all three major north–south Interstate Highways in Upstate New York: Interstate 390 (I-390) near Avon, I-81 south of Syracuse, and I-87 in Albany by way of Fuller Road Alternate.
With the exception of Albany, it passes directly through no major cities of the state, bypassing Syracuse and Utica by great distances to the south while the New York State Thruway and New York State Route 5 (NY 5), which share its corridor, pass right through or close to them. It skirts the southern and eastern suburbs of Buffalo. It is, however, a major artery in many of the outlying areas it passes through in the hilly fringes of the Allegheny Plateau, often expanding to four lanes (it has no limited-access sections, although many intersecting roads are grade-separated) with extensive commercial strip development. One of these sections, the easterly of two concurrencies with NY 5 across the northern Finger Lakes, is the second-longest surface-road concurrency in New York, behind only the concurrency of I-86 and NY 17 in the Southern Tier, extending from Avon to Auburn.
From Oneida County to Albany, the road follows the historic Cherry Valley Turnpike, built at the beginning of the 19th century to connect Albany and, at the time, the important villages of Duanesburg, Cherry Valley, Richfield Springs, Cazenovia, and Skaneateles. US 20 itself was assigned in 1926 and was the state's main east–west route from that time until the Thruway was completed in the 1950s.
Route description
US 20 enters Western New York closely paralleling the Lake Erie shoreline, the Thruway and NY 5. Passing through the southeastern suburbs of Buffalo, it assumes a due-east heading at Depew, taking it to the NY 5 overlap in Avon. The two roads pass through many of the communities at the north ends of the larger Finger Lakes, splitting in Auburn. Through Central New York and the Central New York Region to its east, US 20 drifts south into the rugged upper reaches of the Allegheny Plateau, distancing itself from the Thruway and NY 5 by as much as at some points.
In the Capital District, the three routes all converge again, and US 20 goes right through downtown Albany, the largest city along its route in New York. Just before crossing the Hudson River, US 20 is joined again by US 9 for its second-longest concurrency, which ends just before the Thruway's Berkshire section in Schodack Center. From there, it drifts southward into the Berkshires, crossing the Massachusetts state line west of Pittsfield.
All but of US 20's alignment in New York is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT). In Cayuga County, the section of US 20 in Auburn between NY 38A and the eastern city line is maintained by the city of Auburn. To the east in Albany County, the of US 20 in Albany from the western city line to the north end of the NY 32 overlap is also city-maintained.
Western New York
From the state line to the Buffalo suburbs, US 20 is largely a two-lane through road on the same northeastern heading it has followed most of the way from Cleveland. It serves as the main street of the few communities it passes directly through. In the Buffalo area, US 20 begins to head more east, widening to four lanes and becoming a busy regional artery that intersects many other roads of major and minor importance. For the leading into Depew, it runs due north along with NY 78 as part of Transit Road, a busy commercial strip east of the city. At Depew, US 20 leaves Transit Road and begins its journey east across the state. The surrounding countryside returns to farmland by the Genesee County line.
Lake Erie
US 20 enters New York immediately after passing through State Line, Pennsylvania. It remains on the northeasterly course it has been following as I-90, now the New York State Thruway, veers between it and what is now NY 5 in order to remain on level ground. This section of US 20 hugs the foot of the beach ridge to the south of Lake Erie, which is sometimes visible from sections of the highway, in Chautauqua County. A mile and a half () east of the state line, Shortman Road (unsigned NY 950D) leaves to the left for exit 61, the westernmost interchange on the Thruway. Shortly afterward, US 20 reaches its first settlement in New York, the hamlet of Ripley, where it intersects NY 76, the first touring route along US 20 in the state.
Another of two-lane rural road, crossed at its midpoint by the onetime New York Central Railroad and now CSX Transportation mainline, brings US 20 into its first incorporated community, the village of Westfield. Here, NY 394 intersects US 20 in the middle of town on its way to the Thruway's next exit and the hamlet of Barcelona, where it encounters NY 5 and the lake. Beyond Westfield, US 20 begins to drift south, coming further inland as it heads northeast. to the east, it reaches Fredonia, the largest village along its route so far. 20 intersects with NY 60 at Reed Corners at the eastern edge of Fredonia, which heads north to the neighboring city of Dunkirk. east, NY 39 becomes the first state route to end at US 20. It makes a loop of nearly through the interior of the state to return to US 20 in the Finger Lakes.
Past this junction, the Thruway and US 20 begin to converge in flatter country until they cross as US 20 veers northward south of Silver Creek. US 20 Truck splits off from US 20 in the center of town and rejoins its parent northeast of the village. This portion of the truck route is cosigned as NY 5, and the first of two overlaps between US 20 and NY 5 begins here. The road resumes its northeasterly course to an access road to the Thruway's exit 58 at Irving. After crossing Cattaraugus Creek into Erie County, the concurrency ends, with NY 5 staying close to the lake and US 20 closely paralleling the Thruway. NY 438 leaves this junction to the east, following the creek into Cattaraugus Reservation.
US 20, which is now Southwestern Boulevard, remains straight when paralleling the Thruway, intersecting only one other state highway, NY 249, just east of the village of Farnham, in an stretch that brings it to the outer fringes of the Buffalo–Niagara Falls metropolitan area at Hamburg. Within of the junction with NY 75, which provides access to the Thruway, US 20 intersects US 62, the first U.S. Highway that it encounters in New York. Continuing on, US 20 crosses the Thruway to reach Big Tree. This hamlet was once home to a six-way intersection featuring US 20A, but a late 2000s reconstruction project moved the west end of US 20A to a new junction to the northeast. Like NY 39, US 20A makes a long loop through Wyoming and Livingston counties to return to US 20 in the Finger Lakes.
Buffalo area
After the US 20A split, US 20 begins moving away from the lake and trends more to the east-northeast. The road becomes more developed, and, ahead, a major Buffalo landmark looms to the south—Highmark Stadium, home of the Buffalo Bills. On home game days in the fall, traffic clogs the highway as it crosses over the US 219 expressway and curves northeast to reach the eastern terminus of NY 179 at Mile Strip Road. NY 179 offers access to US 219 via an interchange to the west. A half-mile () beyond, the four-lane US 20 intersects the concurrent routes of NY 240 and NY 277, the main route to the village of Orchard Park off to the south.
At the West Seneca town line, US 20 turns due east when Reserve Road merges in from the west. After another mile (), the road makes a 90-degree left turn at NY 187's northern terminus. It is now headed due north as Transit Road, a busy regional route that continues north as far as Lockport. After yet another mile (), NY 16 and NY 78 come in from East Aurora to the southeast. NY 16 continues west to downtown Buffalo while NY 78 turns north to join US 20. Just north of the junction, Transit Road connects to the entrance ramps for an interchange with the NY 400 freeway, US 20's first interchange with a limited-access highway since meeting the Thruway in Irving.
Shops and stores line busy Transit Road on both sides as it divides the towns of West Seneca and Elma. north of NY 400, US 20 and NY 78 reach another state highway, NY 354, near Ebenezer. Not far from that intersection, Cheektowaga and Lancaster replace West Seneca and Elma as the towns on either side of the road. Increasing development and traffic heralds Transit Road's entry into the village of Depew, and, at NY 130, US 20 turns east, ending the overlap and taking the direction it will follow for most of the rest of its crossing of the state.
East of Buffalo
Taking the name Broadway, which NY 130 had retained from the city of Buffalo, US 20 goes through downtown Depew before it proceeds into the neighboring village of Lancaster. It returns to a rural two-lane road beyond Lancaster, passing through a traffic light only at the small village of Alden before crossing into Genesee County. In the town of Darien, US 20 continues straight past Darien Lakes State Park to the junction with NY 77 at Darien Center, where much summertime traffic turns north toward nearby Six Flags Darien Lake. NY 238 forks off to the southeast towards Attica at a junction to the east of Darien Center.
Past the junction with NY 238, which forks off to the southeast toward Attica, the highway begins going straight up and down into the creek valleys here at the northern fringe of the Allegheny Plateau. Passing lanes are sometimes available on the downhill sections, particularly in the next community to the east, Alexander, where another route to Attica, NY 98 crosses via an overpass. This allows traffic to continue at a high speed through the surrounding dairy and sod farms up the other side and into Bethany, the next town, whose four four-way intersections offer only blinking yellow lights and no stop or yield traffic control devices to slow down drivers.
This unbroken stretch ends with a new light shortly into the next town, Pavilion, where NY 63 crosses at an angle. Here, traffic bound for the Southern Tier and further turn right to eventually connect to I-390 at Mount Morris. The four-lane US 20 straightaway continues across the town, with NY 19 also on an overpass at Pavilion Center. US 20 goes on past the Livingston County line to the east, where it finally drops the Broadway name. After another , the route enters the hamlet of Fraser, where the north–south NY 36 crosses US 20 on its way from Mount Morris to Caledonia. US 20 continues on to the community of Canawaugus to the east, where NY 5 enters from the village of Caledonia to the northwest and rejoins US 20. The two routes continue east from here to the village of Avon.
NY 5 concurrency and Finger Lakes
The concurrency that begins here is the longest in the state, and it carries the two routes across the northern Finger Lakes region, a section of the plateau where glaciers carved deep valleys only to fill them with their meltwater. The land around the road is gently hilly, often wide open and heavily farmed, on the outermost fringes of the Rochester area. NY 39 is the first highway that intersects the concurrency, ending its loop just west of the traffic circle at Avon's center. About east of Avon, NY 5 and US 20 intersect NY 15, followed shortly by I-390, a north–south highway connecting US 20 and NY 5 to Rochester in the north and Corning in the south. In the village of Lima ahead, NY 5 and US 20 meet NY 15A, the eastern alternate route of NY 15. Just east of the village, the road crosses Honeoye Creek and enters Ontario County.
Across the county line, US 20 and NY 5 pass through the town and hamlet of West Bloomfield, where NY 65 comes to an end from the left. Next, in neighboring East Bloomfield, NY 444 leaves to the north for Victor and NY 64 joins the concurrency. NY 64 leaves later at the eastern end of US 20A in South Bloomfield. The highway continues through the open, rolling lake country to a junction with West Avenue west of the city of Canandaigua. At this point, NY 5 and US 20 turn southward to follow a bypass around the western and southern edge of the city. At Bristol Road, the first highway that the bypass crosses, NY 21 joins US 20 and NY 5 and follows both routes to Canandaigua, where a hill west of downtown offers a view to Canandaigua Lake, the first of the lakes it passes in this region.
In downtown Canandaigua, NY 21 leaves to join NY 332, a prime route from Canandaigua and the lake region to the eastern suburbs of Rochester via I-490. Past NY 332, the highway runs past the lowlands abutting the lakes to a junction with NY 364, which heads south down the east side of the lake. Now named Eastern Boulevard, the routes continue past Finger Lakes Community College to the next southbound highway, NY 247. Roughly of open road climb the gentle rise dividing Canandaigua and Seneca lakes, the latter of which is the largest of the Finger Lakes. This ascent is subsequently met by a descent as the highway heads toward Geneva.
Just outside the city in the Lenox Park neighborhood of the town of Geneva, another pair of routes, NY 14A and NY 245, come to their northern end. After entering the city and passing the campus of Hobart and William Smith Colleges, NY 5 and US 20 cross under NY 14A's parent route, NY 14, just before the lake shore. US 20 and NY 5 continue along the water as a four-lane road with a median and cross into Seneca County at the lake's outlet. As at Canandaigua, a southbound route, NY 96A, leaves just past the lake. NY 5 and US 20 continue on, following the northern edge of the Cayuga–Seneca Canal toward the village of Waterloo.
About east of NY 96A, US 20 and NY 5 reach that route's parent route, NY 96, in the center of Waterloo. Just outside the village, NY 414, a major north–south highway, creates another three-route concurrency when it joins from the north. It lasts for just to the center of Seneca Falls, home to Women's Rights National Historical Park and the National Women's Hall of Fame. Here, NY 414 departs to the south to follow the lake down to Watkins Glen while NY 5 and US 20 turn to the northeast at Van Cleef Lake.
This heading lasts for until NY 318 ends to the west right before a four-way intersection at NY 89. From here, the road runs straight in a slightly more easterly direction south of Montezuma National Wildlife Refuge, where the Thruway is briefly visible to the north, before entering Cayuga County as it crosses over the Cayuga–Seneca Canal. In Cayuga County, the highway briefly returns to the east before a junction with NY 90. The highway subsequently turns southeast and back east over the next as it approaches Auburn. NY 326 departs to the south at the western city limits. Roughly into the city, the roadway briefly splits as NY 34 and NY 38 briefly join. At NY 38A, the overlap between NY 5 and US 20 comes to an end as the two routes go their separate ways.
Central New York
While NY 5 heads north from the split toward Syracuse and the Thruway, US 20 keeps to its easterly heading, following East Genesee Street out of the city, proceeding past Auburn Correctional Facility to the Onondaga County line. Here, NY 41A comes in from the south at the western end of the village of Skaneateles, a community at the north end of the eponymous lake, the last Finger Lake along US 20. NY 321 leaves to the north in the center of town, and NY 41A's parent route, NY 41, begins its long journey to the Southern Tier on the other side of Skaneateles. US 20 continues east for another out of the village to the south end of NY 175, after which it starts trending southward, returning to two lanes.
The landscape starts to grow hillier as it begins to cross the glacial moraines of the less populated reaches of southern Onondaga County. About east of NY 175, US 20 is briefly joined by NY 174, which goes to Otisco Lake, the easternmost Finger Lake. The southward trend continues for another to an intersection with NY 80, a signed east–west route running north–south at this point. East of NY 80, it drops into the Onondaga Creek valley to connect to the northern terminus of NY 11A to the east before climbing the next ridge to LaFayette, where it intersects I-81 at exit 15 and meets its paralleling surface route, US 11 at junctions apart. At this point, US 20 is south of the Thruway.
From LaFayette, it drops into another deep valley, curving around an area known as Big Bend, prior to climbing back up towards the crest of the ridge at Pompey. Here, US 20 and NY 91 intersect at an elevation of above sea level. After another , the road drops down into the Limestone Creek valley and crosses into Madison County as it curves back up into higher ground. Another brings US 20 to the eastern terminus of NY 92, the south end of Cazenovia Lake and the village of Cazenovia itself. Its main street is marked by a brief concurrency with NY 13, a long, curving north–south route that comes from the cities of Ithaca and Cortland to the south.
East of Cazenovia, US 20 resumes its southward drift as it climbs into the high ground again and expands to four lanes, passing the small village of Morrisville in the process. It descends from there to its next state highway, NY 46, where it reverts to two lanes for a brief concurrency, after which NY 46 leaves for isolated Hamilton. The southern trend reverses itself after this junction, with first NY 26 and later NY 12B joining US 20 to create another three-route overlap. This persists for until both leave to the north in the town of Madison. After another , the highway crosses into Oneida County.
The major intersection here is NY 12, another long north–south route, into the county at Sangerfield, south of Waterville. From this intersection, US 20 takes the name Cherry Valley Turnpike from the historic road it follows towards Albany. US 20 climbs back into the high ground afterward and veers further southward to the next intersection with a major north–south highway, NY 8, at Bridgewater. Like NY 12, it leads northward to the city of Utica. After NY 8, the road crosses the headwaters of the Unadilla River into Otsego County.
Leatherstocking Region
US 20 enters Otsego County only for , where it intersects County Route 18 (CR 18) which is the northern terminus of former NY 413, then enters Herkimer County next to the point where Herkimer, Otsego, and Oneida county lines converge. The highway is briefly in Herkimer County for about , before entering into Oneida County. US 20 continues for about before entering back into Herkimer County, which brings it into the Leatherstocking Region, where James Fenimore Cooper set his Leatherstocking Tales. This section of the highway keeps trending south as it skirts the northern edge of the Catskill Mountains, offering scenic valley vistas to the south. To the north the land levels to the Mohawk Valley. Through much of this stretch, the road expands to four lanes as the region's main east–west artery.
As it enters the county, it enters West Winfield and begins to overlap NY 51 which comes in from the south. This overlap lasts for to Birmingham Corners, where NY 51 turns north toward Ilion, as US 20 continues east and soon reenters Otsego County. Trending southeast in the town of Richfield, pass before NY 28 briefly overlaps US 20 just west of Richfield Springs, a popular local shopping destination, on its long curve across the state from the Catskill Mountains to the Adirondack Mountains. NY 167 begins a few blocks further east, and US 20 returns to Herkimer County beyond that, intersecting only county roads over the next several miles.
after returning to Otsego County, NY 80 again intersects on its way from Cooperstown and Otsego Lake to the south to Fort Plain to the north. The next of US 20 swing around the north end of the east ridge of Cherry Valley into the town of that name, where NY 166 leaves at a partial interchange to follow the valley south to Milford. After another swing around the valley's other ridge, US 20 crosses into Schoharie County. About from the county line, the highway intersects another long north–south route, NY 10, south of Sharon Springs. US 20 proceeds for another to Sharon, where NY 145 provides a route to Cobleskill to the south. Shortly after this junction, US 20 straightens out and follows an almost due-east heading for to its intersection with NY 30A and the southern terminus of NY 162 at Sloansville. The route continues east to Esperance, where it crosses Schoharie Creek to enter Schenectady County.
Capital District
The crossing of the Schoharie Creek brings US 20 into the first of three counties that make up the Capital District area. Here, development along the road increases and the road itself is often four lanes. The region is divided by the Hudson River, where US 20 begins its second-longest concurrency with US 9, the state's longest north–south U.S. Highway.
West of the Hudson River and Albany
Just past the county line, another Catskills-to-Canada highway, NY 30, intersects with US 20. About beyond that is the northern terminus of short NY 395, which runs south to the ever-closer NY 7. US 20 veers closer to NY 7 before finally intersecting the highway from NY 395. Not far to the east is an interchange with I-88, NY 7's paralleling freeway between Binghamton and Schenectady. Access to I-88 is via a shared access road from both routes due to the oblique angle of the intersection. From here, the highway, now known as Western Turnpike, continues to trend to the south for another to the southern terminus of NY 406 at the hamlet of Gifford. Shortly afterward, US 20 enters Albany County as the Helderberg Escarpment looms to the south.
It stays straight to its first major intersection, the northern terminus of NY 397 later, which is followed later by a junction with NY 158 just east of Watervliet Reservoir. After another , CSX Transportation's main line crosses over the highway again. Development begins to pick up where NY 146 comes in from the north for a short overlap that ends at Hartmans Corners and Tawasentha Park. The road reaches the Albany suburbs to the east, where NY 155 intersects US 20 in Westmere. Just beyond the community is Crossgates Mall, a major Albany-area destination. Immediately east of the mall is US 20's first crossing of the Thruway, now I-87, since the southern Buffalo suburbs, and the southern end of Fuller Road Alternate, an extension of the Adirondack Northway, in an area known as McKownville.
A half-mile () later, the busy four-lane route passes the south side of the State University of New York at Albany's highly modernistic campus. It continues into the city of Albany itself as Western Avenue. Commercial developments line both sides of US 20 to the interchange with NY 85, a truncated freeway that connects to US 20 via the adjacent Dayton and Ormond streets. The neighborhoods around the road become primarily residential at this point. Roughly from NY 85, US 20 forks right onto Madison Avenue and passes the College of Saint Rose.
After Washington Park on the north side, downtown Albany draws nearer, with Erastus Corning Tower, the tallest building in the state outside of New York City, rising ahead. US 9W crosses Madison from Delaware Avenue to Lark Street, with its concurrent NY 443 terminating on the southern side of the intersection where Delaware ends at Madison. Shortly afterward, US 20 runs along the south side of Empire State Plaza, the modern complex that houses the offices of state legislators and many executive branch agencies. A few blocks further is South Pearl Street, also NY 32, a long route from the lower Hudson Valley to Glens Falls. US 20 follows two blocks of South Pearl Street and NY 32 to reach an interchange with the South Mall Arterial. US 20 leaves NY 32 here, following an eastern extension of the arterial to the complex interchange connecting I-787 with US 9 and US 20. US 9 joins US 20 amid the junction, and both routes crosses the Hudson via the Dunn Memorial Bridge, the southernmost free crossing of the Hudson.
East of the Hudson River: US 9 and the Berkshires
At the east end of the bridge, US 9 and US 20, now in the city and county of Rensselaer, follow the offramps past the stubs built for the canceled South Mall Expressway and assume a southeastern course along a busy four-lane strip containing a center turn lane. Near the city limit, NY 9J leaves to the south to follow the river's east bank down to Stockport. The road subsequently goes up a hill with a panoramic view of the Albany skyline behind it and proceeds into the town of East Greenbush, where NY 151 heads off to the northeast. After with heavy commercial development on either side of the road, US 4 begins and leaves to the north at a busy intersection. The center of town follows, after which the concurrency enters Schodack.
In Schodack, development along the road begins to ease as the center turn lane gives way to a double yellow line. At Schodack Center, located from East Greenbush, I-90 and US 20 meet again for the first time in . Just after the interchange, NY 150 comes to its southern end and US 9 and US 20 split at junctions less than apart. While US 9 heads south for Poughkeepsie and the city of New York, US 20 reverts to two lanes and maintains its southeastern course for another before turns more to the east for another . In Nassau, it connects to the north end of NY 203. East of the village, the terrain becomes hillier, indicating that US 20 has reached the edge of the Berkshires.
About outside of the village of Nassau, NY 66 joins the road. This overlap ends just before the Columbia County line, with NY 66 following a southerly course toward Chatham. US 20, meanwhile follows Kinderhook and Wyomanock creeks, through narrow, wooded valleys to New Lebanon, passing Mount Lebanon Shaker Society, a National Historic Landmark as the second-oldest Shaker settlement in the country. In the center of this small town, US 20 meets NY 22, the longest north–south route in the state, and the two form a overlap, US 20's last concurrency in New York. After the split, US 20 makes a wide turn and heads almost south up a mountainside, climbing into Massachusetts near Pittsfield State Forest later.
History
Origins
The road from Albany heading west was first constructed as a toll road or turnpike at the end of the 18th century. The First Great Western Turnpike Corporation was chartered in 1799 to build a road from Albany, the capital of New York, to the Revolutionary War frontier town of Cherry Valley. In 1803, a second corporation, the Third Great Western Turnpike, was chartered to further extend the road to Cazenovia. The Third Great Western Turnpike was completed as planned by 1811 and was heavily used by people trying to establish new settlements in central New York. The two turnpikes, collectively known as the Cherry Valley Turnpike, became a stagecoach route in 1816. The Cherry Valley Turnpike name was also later applied to an untolled extension of the road west to Skaneateles.
The establishment of the Erie Canal and the Utica and Schenectady Railroad slowly ate away at the revenues of the Cherry Valley Turnpike. The turnpike stopped being a toll road in 1857. A similar turnpike east of the Hudson River, connecting Rensselaer to the Massachusetts state line was also established in 1799 as the Rensselaer and Columbia Turnpike. This turnpike remained in operation as late as 1896, but it eventually folded around the turn of the 20th century. The state took over the maintenance of highways at the beginning of the 20th century and began paving many roads across the state. In 1908, the legislature created a statewide system of unsigned legislative routes that used these new state highways and other, yet-to-be improved roads.
Early designations
Several parts of the former Cherry Valley and Rensselaer and Columbia turnpikes were included in the new route system. East of the Hudson River, the Rensselaer and Columbia Turnpike became part of Route 1 from Schodack Center to Rensselaer and part of Route 21 from Nassau east to the Massachusetts state line. West of Albany, the Cherry Valley Turnpike was designated as part of Route 9 from Cazenovia to Bouckville and as part of Route 8 from there to a point south of Oriskany Falls. Another section, from Bridgewater to East Winfield, was included in Route 23. In 1912, the segment of the turnpike between Sharon and Sharon Springs became part of the new Route 38-a.
Farther west, Route 6 and Route 18 were assigned in 1908 to two major east–west roads connecting Buffalo to Albany and the Pennsylvania state line, respectively. West of modern-day Utica, Route 6 followed the old Genesee Road, a highway that passed through Auburn, Geneva, Avon, and Batavia on its way to Buffalo. The easternmost leg of Route 6 in Guilderland and Albany used a portion of the Cherry Valley Turnpike. Route 18, meanwhile, utilized a series of highways that ran either along or slightly inland from Lake Erie. All of Route 18 and most of Route 6—including all of the route west of Auburn—later became part of the Yellowstone Trail, an early cross-country auto trail established in 1912. East of Albany, the trail utilized the old Rensselaer and Columbia Turnpike.
On March 1, 1921, the legislature redefined the legislative route system, altering or removing several routes and adding others. Routes 6 and Route 18 were left virtually unchanged, as was the portion of Route 1 north of Schodack Center. Route 21, however, was altered to follow modern NY 66 between Averill Park and East Nassau. In the Central New York Region, Route 38-a was redesignated as Route 39 and extended west along the Cherry Valley Turnpike to meet Route 8 near Oriskany Falls. From Bridgewater to Oriskany Falls, Route 39 overlapped with Route 23. The legislative route system remained New York's primary route numbering system until the mid-1920s.
Assignment
Highways were first publicly numbered in New York in 1924. One of the handful of routes assigned at this time was NY 5, a cross-state route that extended from the Pennsylvania line in the west to the Massachusetts line in the east. From Auburn west, it initially utilized all of legislative Route 18 and the portion of Route 6 east of Avon. In between Buffalo and Avon, NY 5 used a linear, previously unnumbered east–west road to the south that bypassed the communities along Route 6. Continuing east from Auburn, NY 5 followed the Cherry Valley Turnpike (partially Route 6, Route 8, Route 9, Route 23, and Route 39) to Albany and the Rensselaer and Columbia Turnpike (partially Route 1 and Route 21) to Massachusetts.
One or two years later, however, the portion of NY 5 from Buffalo to Albany was shifted north to its modern alignment—mostly old legislative Route 6—and the former, more southerly route was designated as New York State Route 7 (NY 7). Around the same time, a parallel route to the south, from Buffalo through East Aurora and Geneseo to near Avon, was designated as NY 35. NY 7 and NY 35 were both short-lived designations as US 20 was assigned on November 11, 1926, as part of the establishment of the U.S. Numbered Highway System. When the U.S. Highway was first posted in New York in 1927, it was assigned to then-NY 5 from the Pennsylvania line to near Hamburg, a previously unnumbered but state-maintained highway between Hamburg and East Aurora, NY 35 from East Aurora to Geneseo, NY 7 between Skaneateles and Albany, and NY 5 from Albany to the Massachusetts line. US 20 overlapped with NY 5 between Avon and Skaneateles. The old NY 7 from Buffalo to Avon was renumbered to NY 35.
Realignments
In the 1930 state highway renumbering, an alternate route of US 20 between Irving and Hamburg became NY 20B. While US 20 ran along the shore of Lake Erie between the two locations, NY 20B followed a more inland alignment that took it east of Angola. US 20 was realigned to follow NY 20B between the two locations. The former lakeside routing of US 20 became part of an extended NY 5. Around the same time, the portion of Southwestern Boulevard between US 20 and NY 78 (now NY 187) in the towns of Hamburg and Orchard Park was designated as part of NY 18C. This segment of NY 18C was renumbered to NY 278 . Farther east, US 20 was realigned to pass through Lakeville on its way from Geneseo to East Avon.
The most substantial realignment in US 20's New York history occurred when it was shifted north onto its current alignment between Hamburg and East Avon, replacing NY 278 and NY 35. Most of the previous route via East Aurora and Geneseo initially became NY 20A; however, that route was partially redesignated as US 20A by the following year. In the mid-1950s, a new four-lane roadway, Eastern Boulevard, was built north of Lake Shore Drive between South Main Street in Canandaigua and the modern-day intersection of Lake Shore and Eastern Boulevard in Hopewell. US 20 and NY 5 were moved from Lake Shore Drive to the new highway upon completion. The remainder of the bypass around the southwestern extents of the city was built in the late 1970s and early 1980s.
In Canandaigua, the former routing of US 20 on South Main Street remains state maintained as NY 942T; until 1996, the portion of West Avenue between the west end of the bypass and the Canandaigua city line (also old US 20) was also maintained by NYSDOT as NY 942W. Even though maintenance of the road was transferred to the town of Canandaigua on September 1, 1996, the designation remained in NYSDOT documents until 2007. In Hamburg, the section of old US 20 between Athol Springs and Big Tree that did not become part of NY 5 is now CR 576 from NY 5 to Bayview Road and NY 951E, an unsigned reference route, from US 62 to US 20A.
In Geneva, US 20 was initially routed on East North Street and Border City Road, overlapping with NY 14 through the city and rejoining its modern routing in East Geneva. The overlap was eliminated when US 20 was moved onto a new roadway located along the edge of Seneca Lake. US 20 was realigned again in the 1960s to use a new divided highway built midway between the lake shore road and Border City Road. Border City Road is now maintained by Seneca County as CR 110.
Construction and legacy
While most of US 20 was constructed in the early 20th century as part of the legislative route system, many sections of the highway were left unimproved or unbuilt until well into the 1930s. Two substantial sections of the route—from Alexander (NY 98) to Avon and from Auburn to Cazenovia—were unimproved or unbuilt as late as 1926. The portion from Auburn to Skaneateles was brought up to state highway standards while the section connecting LaFayette (US 11) to Pompey (NY 91) was built by the following year. The last section of the Skaneateles–Cazenovia segment to open was the piece between Pompey and Cazenovia, which opened to traffic in mid-September 1934. Meanwhile, the highway was brought up to standards from Alexander to Bethany , from Bethany to Pavilion (NY 19) , between Pavilion and NY 36 , and from NY 36 to Avon .
The now-complete US 20 was the major thoroughfare across New York for several decades. During the early days, there were no motels around and only major cities—such as Auburn and Albany—had hotels. Around the late 1940s, automobiles became much more reliable and US 20 grew into a strong touring road. The road was one of the most traveled up until the New York State Thruway was created in the 1950s. Much of traffic and progress along US 20 were halted as a result. The US 20 is lined with historical places, including Sharon Springs, Cherry Valley, Bouckville, Cazenovia, Skaneateles, Auburn, Geneva, and East Aurora. The length of US 20 from LaFayette to Duanesburg was designated as a New York State Scenic Byway on August 10, 2005.
Major intersections
Suffixed routes
US 20 has had seven suffixed routes in New York; one U.S. Highway (US 20A) and six New York state routes. All six state routes have been removed or redesignated; US 20A, however, still exists.
US 20A () is an alternate route of US 20 between Hamburg, Erie County, and East Bloomfield, Ontario County. It was assigned .
The NY 20A designation has been used for two distinct highways:
The first NY 20A was an alternate route of US 20 between the Pennsylvania state line at Ripley and Silver Creek in Chautauqua County. It was assigned as part of the 1930 state highway renumbering and supplanted by NY 5 .
The second NY 20A was a short-lived alternate route of US 20 between Hamburg and Avon. It was assigned and largely replaced by US 20A by the following year.
NY 20B was an alternate route of US 20 between Irving and Orchard Park in Erie County. It was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering and supplanted by a realigned US 20 .
NY 20C was a loop route connecting US 20 to the then-village of Holcomb (now part of Bloomfield) in Ontario County. The route was assigned and partially replaced by NY 444 in 1997.
NY 20D was a connector between then-US 20 in Geneseo and NY 5 in Avon. It was assigned and supplanted by NY 20A . The route is now the northeasternmost portion of NY 39.
NY 20N was an alternate route of US 20 between Marcellus, Onondaga County, and Cazenovia, Madison County. The route overlapped other, preexisting routes for its entire length. It was assigned and removed , leaving just the routes it overlapped.
NY 20SY was an alternate route of US 20 between Skaneateles and Cazenovia in Onondaga and Madison counties. Like NY 20N, NY 20SY was concurrent with other, preexisting routes for most of its length. It was assigned in the early 1950s and removed , leaving just the routes it overlapped.
US 20 Truck
U.S. Route 20 Truck (US 20 Truck) is a short truck route of US 20 in Silver Creek. The road begins at an intersection with US 20 in Silver Creek, goes along Central Avenue for as NY 952H and merges in with NY 5. The two become concurrent for another mile () on Howard Street where US 20 Truck ends at an intersection with US 20.
In the village of Silver Creek, commercial truck traffic is not allowed to use US 20 east unless said traffic is making deliveries to local businesses in either the village or the South Dayton, Perrysburg, and Cherry Creek areas southeast of Silver Creek. All other commercial truck traffic per New York state vehicle and traffic laws must use US 20 Truck through the village.
See also
List of county routes in Seneca County, New York
References
External links
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate%20basal%20ganglia
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Primate basal ganglia
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The basal ganglia form a major brain system in all species of vertebrates, but in primates (including humans) there are special features that justify a separate consideration. As in other vertebrates, the primate basal ganglia can be divided into striatal, pallidal, nigral, and subthalamic components. In primates, however, there are two pallidal subdivisions called the external globus pallidus (GPe) and internal globus pallidus (GPi). Also in primates, the dorsal striatum is divided by a large tract called the internal capsule into two masses named the caudate nucleus and the putamen—in most other species no such division exists, and only the striatum as a whole is recognized. Beyond this, there is a complex circuitry of connections between the striatum and cortex that is specific to primates. This complexity reflects the difference in functioning of different cortical areas in the primate brain.
Functional imaging studies have been performed mainly using human subjects. Also, several major degenerative diseases of the basal ganglia, including Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease, are specific to humans, although "models" of them have been proposed for other species.
Corticostriatal connection
A major output from the cortex, with axons from most of the cortical regions connecting to the striatum, is called the corticostriatal connection, part of the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop. In the primate most of these axons are thin and unbranched. The striatum does not receive axons from the primary olfactory, visual or auditory cortices. The corticostriatal connection is an excitatory glutamatergic pathway. One small cortical site can project many axon branches to several parts of the striatum.
Striatum
The striatum is the largest structure of the basal ganglia.
Structure
Neuronal constitution
Medium spiny neurons (MSN)s, account for up to 95 per cent of the striatal neurons. There are two populations of these projection neurons, MSN1 and MSN2, both of which are inhibitory GABAergic. There are also various groups of GABAergic interneurons and a single group of cholinergic interneurons. These few types are responsible for the reception, processing, and relaying of all the cortical input.
Most of the dendritic spines on the medium spiny neurons synapse with cortical afferents and their axons project numerous collaterals to other neurons. The cholinergic interneurons of the primate, are very different from those of non-primates. These are said to be tonically active.
The dorsal striatum and the ventral striatum have different populations of the cholinergic interneurons showing a marked difference in shape.
Physiology
Unless stimulated by cortical input the striatal neurons are usually inactive.
Levels of organisation
The striatum is one mass of grey matter that has two different parts, a ventral and a dorsal part. The dorsal striatum contains the caudate nucleus and the putamen, and the ventral striatum contains the nucleus accumbens and the olfactory tubercle. The internal capsule is seen as dividing the two parts of the dorsal striatum. Sensorimotor input is mostly to the putamen. An associative input goes to the caudate nucleus and possibly to the nucleus accumbens.
There are two different components of the striatum differentiated by staining – striosomes and a matrix. Striosomes are located in the matrix of the striatum and these contain μ-opioid receptors and dopamine receptor D1 binding sites.
The striatopallidal fibers give a connection from the putamen to the globus pallidus and substantia nigra.
Connectomics
Unlike the inhibitory GABAergic neurons in the neocortex that only send local connections, in the striatum these neurons send long axons to targets in the pallidum and substantia nigra. A study in macaques showed that the medium spiny neurons have several targets. Most striatal axons first target the GPe, some of these also target the GPi and both parts of the substantia nigra. There are no single axon projections to either the GPi, or to the SN, or to both of these areas; only connecting as continuing targets via axon collaterals from the striatum to the GPe.
The only difference between the axonal connectomes of the striosomes and the axons of those neurons in the matrix, is in the numbers of their branching axons. Striosomal axons cross the extent of the SN, and in macaques emit 4 to 6 vertical collaterals that form vertical columns which enter deep into the SN pars compacta (SNpc); the axons from those in the matrix are more sparsely branched. This pattern of connectivity is problematic. The main mediator of the striatopallidonigral system is GABA and there are also cotransmitters. The GPe stains for met-enkephalin, the GPi stains for either substance P or dynorphin or both, and the SN stains for both. This probably means that a single axon is able to concentrate different co-mediators in different subtrees, depending on the target.
Selectivity of striatal territories for targets
A study of the percentage of striatal axons from the sensorimotor (dorsolateral putamen) and associative striatum (caudate nucleus and ventromedial putamen) to the globus pallidus found important differences. The GPe for instance receives a large input of axons from the associative areas. The GPi is strongly sensorimotor connected. The SN is at first associative. This is confirmed by the effects of striatal stimulations.
All the projections from the primary somatosensory cortex to the putamen, avoid the striosomes and innervate areas within the matrix.
Pallidonigral set and pacemaker
Constitution
The pallidonigral set comprises the direct targets of the striatal axons: the two nuclei of the pallidum, and the pars compacta (SNpc) and pars reticulata (SNpr) of the substantia nigra. One character of this ensemble is given by the very dense striato-pallidonigral bundle giving it its whitish aspect (pallidus means pale). After Foix and Nicolesco (1925) and some others, Cécile and Oskar Vogt (1941) suggested the term pallidum - also used by the Terminologia Anatomica (1998). They also proposed the term nigrum for replacing nigra, which is indeed not a substance; but this is generally not followed. The whole pallidonigral set is made up the same neuronal components. The majority is made up of very large neurons, poorly branched, strongly stained for parvalbumin, having very large dendritic arborisations (much larger in primates than in rodents) with straight and thick dendrites. Only the shape and direction of the dendritic arborizations differ between the pallidum and the SN neurons. The pallidal dendritic arborisations are very large flat and disc-shaped. Their principal plane is parallel to the others and also parallel to the lateral border of the pallidum; thus perpendicular to the axis of the afferences. Since the pallidal discs are thin, they are crossed only for a short distance by striatal axons. However, since they are wide, they are crossed by many striatal axons from wide striatal parts. Since they are loose, the chances of contact are not very high. Striatal arborisations emit perpendicular branches participating in flat bands parallel to the lateral border, which increases the density of synapses in this direction. This is true for not only for the striatal afferent but also for the subthalamic (see below).
The synaptology of the set is uncommon and characteristic. The dendrites of the pallidal or nigral axons are entirely covered by synapses, without any apposition of glia. More than 90% of synapses are of striatal origin. One noticeable property of this ensemble is that not one of its elements receives cortical afferents.
Initial collaterals are present. However, in addition to the presence of various appendages at the distal extremity of the pallidal neurons that could act as elements of local circuitry, there are weak or no functional interrelations between pallidal neurons.
External globus pallidus
The external globus pallidus (GPe) or lateral globus pallidus, is flat, curved and extended in depth and width. The branching dendritic trees are disc-shaped, flat, run parallel to each other and to the pallidum border, and are perpendicular to those axons coming from the striatum. The GPe also receives input from the subthalamic nucleus, and dopaminergic input from the SNpc. The GPe does not give output to the thalamus only intrasystemically connecting to the other basal ganglia structures. It can be seen as a GABA inhibitory mediator regulating the basal ganglia. Its firing activity is very fast and exhibits long intervals of up to several seconds of silence.
In monkeys an initial inhibition was seen in response to striatal input, followed by a regulated excitation. In the study this suggested that the excitation was used temporarily to control the magnitude of the incoming signal and to spatially focus this into a limited number of pallidal neurons. GPe neurons are often multi-targeted and may respond to a number of neuron types. In macaques, axons from the GPe to the striatum account for about 15%; those to the GPi, SNpr and subthalamic nucleus are about 84%. The subthalamic nucleus was seen to be the preferred target which also sends most of its axons to the GPe.
Internal globus pallidus
The internal globus pallidus (GPi) or medial globus pallidus is only found in the primate brain and so is a younger portion of the globus pallidus. Like the GPe and the substantia nigra the GPi is a fast-spiking pacemaker but its activity does not show the long intervals of silence seen in the others. In addition to the striatal input there is also dopaminergic input from the SNpc. Unlike the GPe the GPi does have a thalamic output and a smaller output towards the habenula. It also gives output to other areas including the pedunculopontine nucleus and to the area behind the red nucleus. The evolutionary increase of the internal pallidus also brought an associated increase in the pallidothalamic tracts, and the appearance of the ventral lateral nucleus in the thalamus. The mediator is GABA.
Substantia nigra
The substantia nigra is made up of two parts, the pars compacta (SNpc) and the pars reticulata (SNpr), sometimes there is a reference to the pars lateralis but that is usually included as part of the pars reticulata. The ‘’black substance’’ that the term translates as, refers to the neuromelanin found in the dopaminergic neurons. These are found in a darker region of the SNpc. The SNpr is a lighter coloured region. There are similar cells in the substantia nigra and the globus pallidus. Both parts receive input from the striatopallidal fibres.
Pars compacta
The pars compacta is the most lateral part of the substantia nigra and sends axons to the superior colliculus. The neurons have high firing rates which make them a fast-spiking pacemaker and they are involved in ocular saccades.
Pars reticulata
The border between the SNpc and SNpr is highly convoluted with deep fringes. Its neuronal genus is the same as that of the pallidum, with the same thick and long dendritic trees. It receives its synapses from the striatum in the same way as the pallidum. Striatonigral axons from the striosomes may form columns vertically oriented entering deeply in the SNpr. The ventral dendrites of the SNpc from the reverse direction go also deeply in it. The SN also send axons to the pedunculopontine nucleus. and to the parafascicular part of the central complex. The SNpr is another "fast-spiking pacemaker" Stimulations provoke no movements. Confirming anatomical data, few neurons respond to passive and active movements (there is no sensorimotor map) "but a large proportion shows responses that may be related to memory, attention or movement preparation" that would correspond to a more elaborate level than that of the medial pallidum. In addition to the massive striatopallidal connection, the SNpr receives a dopamine innervation from the SNpc and glutamatergic axons from the pars parafascicularis of the central complex. It sends nigro-thalamic axons. There is no conspicuous nigro-thalamic bundle. Axons arrive medially to the pallidal afferences at the anterior and most medial part of the lateral region of the thalamus: the ventral anterior nucleus (VA) differentiated from the ventral lateral nucleus (VL) receiving pallidal afferences. The mediator is GABA.
Striatopallidonigral connection
The striatopallidonigral connection is a very particular one. It engages the totality of spiny striatal axons. Estimated numbers are 110 million in man, 40 in chimpanzees and 12 in macaques. The striato-pallido-nigral bundle is made up of thin, poorly myelinated axons from the striatal spiny neurons grouped into pencils "converging like the spokes of a wheel" (Papez, 1941). It gives its "pale" aspect to the receiving areas. The bundle strongly stains for iron using Perls' Prussian blue (in addition to iron it contains many heavy metals including cobalt, copper, magnesium and lead).
Convergence and focusing
After the huge reduction in number of neurons between the cortex and the striatum (see corticostriate connection), the striatopallido-nigral connection is a further reduction in the number of transmitting compared to receiving neurons. Numbers indicate that, for 31 million striatal spiny neurons in macaques, there are only 166000 lateral pallidal neurons, 63000 medial pallidal, 18000 lateral nigral and 35000 in the pars reticulata. If the number of striatal neurons is divided by their total number, as an average, each target neuron may receive information from 117 striatal neurons. (Numbers in man lead to about the same ratio). A different approach starts from the mean surface of the pallidonigral target neurons and the number of synapses that they may receive. Each pallidonigral neuron may receive 70000 synapses. Each striatal neuron may contribute 680 synapses. This leads again to an approximation of 100 striatal neurons for one target neuron. This represents a huge, infrequent, reduction in neuronal connections. The consecutive compression of maps cannot preserve finely distributed maps (as in the case for instance of sensory systems). The fact that a strong anatomical possibility of convergence exists does not means that this is constantly used. A recent modeling study starting from entirely 3-d reconstructed pallidal neurons showed that their morphology alone is able to create a center-surround pattern of activity. Physiological analyses have shown a central inhibition/peripheral excitation pattern, able of focusing the pallidal response in normal conditions. Percheron and Filion (1991) thus argued for a "dynamically focused convergence". Disease, is able to alter the normal focusing. In monkeys intoxicated by MPTP, striatal stimulations lead to a large convergence on pallidal neurons and a less precise mapping.
Focusing is not a property of the striatopallidal system. But, the very particular and contrasted geometry of the connection between striatal axons and pallidonigral dendrites offers particular conditions (the possibility for a very large number of combinations through local additions of simultaneous inputs to one tree or to several distant foci for instance). The disfocusing of the system is thought to be responsible for most of the parkinsonian series symptoms. The mechanism of focusing is not known yet. The structure of the dopaminergic innervation does not seem to allow it to operate for this function. More likely focusing is regulated by the upstream striatopallidal and corticostriatal systems.
Synaptology and combinatory
The synaptology of the striato- pallidonigral connection is so peculiar as to be recognized easily. Pallidonigral dendrites are entirely covered with synapses without any apposition of glia. This gives in sections characteristic images of "pallissades" or of "rosettes". More than 90% of these synapses are of striatal origin. The few other synapses such as the dopaminergic or the cholinergic are interspersed among the GABAergic striatonigral synapses. The way striatal axons distribute their synapses is a disputed point. The fact that striatal axons are seen parallel to dendrites as "woolly fibers" has led to exaggerate the distances along which dendrites and axons are parallel. Striatal axons may in fact simply cross the dendrite and give a single synapse. More frequently the striatal axon curves its course and follow the dendrite forming "parallel contacts" for a rather short distance. The average length of parallel contacts was found to be 55 micrometres with 3 to 10 boutons (synapses). In another type of axonal pattern the afferent axon bifurcates and gives two or more branches, parallel to the dendrite, thus increasing the number of synapses given by one striatal axon. The same axon may reach other parts of the same dendritic arborisation (forming "random cascades") With this pattern, it is more than likely that 1 or even 5 striatal axons are not able to influence (to inhibit) the activity of one pallidal neuron. Certain spatio-temporal conditions would be necessary for this, implying more afferent axons.
Pallidonigral outmaps
What is described above concerned the input map or "inmap" (corresponding to the spatial distribution of the afferent axons from one source to one target). This does not correspond necessarily to the output map or outmap (corresponding to the distribution of the neurons in relation to their axonal targets). Physiological studies and transsynaptic viral markers have shown that islands of pallidal neurons (only their cell bodies or somata, or trigger points) sending their axons through their particular thalamic territories (or nuclei) to one determined cortical target are organized into radial bands. These were assessed to be totally representative of the pallidal organisation. This is certainly not the case. Pallidum is precisely one cerebral place where there is a dramatic change between one afferent geometry and a completely different efferent one. The inmap and the outmap are totally different. This is an indication of the fundamental role of the pallidonigral set: the spatial reorganisation of information for a particular "function", which is predictably a particular reorganisation within the thalamus preparing a distribution to the cortex.
The outmap of the nigra (lateralis reticulata) is less differentiated.
Pars compacta and nearby dopaminergic elements
In strict sense, the pars compacta is a part of the core of basal ganglia core since it directly receives synapses from striatal axons through the striatopallidonigral bundle. The long ventral dendrites of the pars compacta indeed plunge deep in the pars reticulata where they receive synapses from the bundle. However, its constitution, physiology and mediator contrast with the rest of the nigra. This explains why it is analysed here between the elements of the core and the regulators. Ageing leads to the blackening of its cell bodies, by deposit of melanin, visible by naked eye. This is the origin of the name of the ensemble, first "locus niger" (Vicq d'Azyr), meaning black place, and then "substantia nigra" (Sömmerring), meaning black substance.
Structure
The densely distributed neurons of the pars compacta have larger and thicker dendritic arborizations than those of the pars reticulata and lateralis.
The ventral dendrites descending in the pars reticulata receives inhibitory synapses from the initial axonal collaterals of pars reticulata neurons (Hajos and Greefield, 1994). Groups of dopaminergic neurons located more dorsally and posteriorly in the tegmentum are of the same type without forming true nuclei. The "cell groups A8 and A10" are spread inside the cerebral peduncule. They are not known to receive striatal afferences and are not in a topographical position to do so. The dopaminergic ensemble is thus also on this point inhomogeneous. This is another major difference with the pallidonigral ensemble. The axons of the dopaminergic neurons, that are thin and varicose, leave the nigra dorsally. They turn round the medial border of the subthalamic nucleus, enter the H2 field above the subthalamic nucleus, then cross the internal capsule to reach the upper part of the medial pallidum where they enter the pallidal laminae, from which they enter the striatum. They end intensively but inhomogeneously in the striatum, rather in the matrix of the anterior part and rather in the striosomes dorsalwards. These authors insit on the extrastriatal dopaminergic innervation of other elements of the basal ganglia system: pallidum and subthalamic nucleus.
Physiology
Contrarily to the neurons of the pars reticulata-lateralis, dopaminergic neurons are "low-spiking pacemakers", spiking at low frequency (0,2 to 10 Hz) (below 8, Schultz). The role of the dopaminergic neurons has been the source of a considerable literature. As the pathological disappearance of the black neurons was linked to the appearance of Parkinson's disease, their activity was thought to be "motor" . A major discovery has been that the stimulation of the black neurons had no motor effect. Their activity is in fact linked to reward and prediction of reward. In a recent review (Schultz 2007), it is demonstrated that phasic responses to reward-related events, notably reward-prediction errors, ...lead to ..dopamine release..." While it is thought that there could be different behavioral processes including long time regulation. Due to its widespread distribution, the dopaminergic system may regulate the basal ganglia system in many places.
Regulators of the basal ganglia core
Subthalamic nucleus
As indicated by its name, the subthalamic nucleus is located below the thalamus; dorsally to the substantia nigra and medial to the internal capsule. The subthalamic nucleus is lenticular in form and of homogeneous aspect. It is made up of a particular neuronal species having rather long ellipsoid dendritic arborisations, devoid of spines, mimicking the shape of the whole nucleus. The subthalamic neurons are "fast-spiking pacemakers" spiking at 80 to 90 Hz. There are also about 7,5% of GABA microneurons participating in the local circuitry. The subthalamic nucleus receives its main afference from the lateral pallidum. Another afference comes from the cerebral cortex (glutamatergic), particularly from the motor cortex, which is too much neglected in models. A cortical excitation, via the subthalamic nucleus provokes an early short latency excitation leading to an inhibition in pallidal neurons. Subthalamic axons leave the nucleus dorsally. Except for the connection to the striatum (17.3% in macaques), most of the principal neurons are multitargets and feed axons to the other elements of the core of the basal ganglia. Some send axons to the substantia nigra medially and the medial and lateral nuclei of the pallidum laterally (3-target 21.3%). Some are 2-target with the lateral pallidum and the substantia nigra (2.7%) or the lateral pallidum and the medial(48%). Fewer are single target for the lateral pallidum. If one adds all those reaching this target, the main afference of the subthalamic nucleus is, in 82.7% of the cases, the lateral pallidum (external segment of the globus pallidus. While striatopallidal and the pallido-subthalamic connections are inhibitory (GABA), the subthalamic nucleus utilises the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate.
Its lesion resulting in hemiballismus is known for long. Deep brain stimulation of the nucleus suppress most of the symptoms of the Parkinson' syndrome, particularly dyskinesia induced by dopamine therapy.
Subthalamo-lateropallidal pacemaker
As said before, the lateral pallidum has purely intrinsic basal ganglia targets. It is particularly linked to the subthalamic nucleus by two-way connections. Contrary to the two output sources (medial pallidum and nigra reticulata), neither the lateral pallidum nor the subthalmic nucleus send axons to the thalamus. The subthalamic nucleus and lateral pallidum are both fast-firing pacemakers. Together they constitute the "central pacemaker of the basal ganglia" with synchronous bursts. The pallido-subthalamic connection is inhibitory, the subthalamo-pallidal is excitatory. They are coupled regulators or coupled autonomous oscillators, the analysis of which has been insufficiently deepened. The lateral pallidum receives a lot of striatal axons, the subthalamic nucleus not. The subthalamic nucleus receives cortical axons, the pallidum not. The subsystem they make with their inputs and outputs corresponds to a classical systemic feedback circuit but it is evidently more complex.
Central region of the thalamus
The centromedian nucleus is in the central region of the thalamus. In upper primates it has three parts instead of two, with their own types of neuron. Output from here goes to the subthalamic nucleus and the putamen. Its input includes fibers from the cortex and globus pallidus.
Pedunculopontine complex
The pedunculopontine nucleus is a part of the reticular formation in the brainstem and a main component of the reticular activating system, and gives a major input to the basal ganglia. As indicated by its name, it is located at the junction between the pons and the cerebral peduncle, and near the substantia nigra. The axons are either excitatory or inhibitory and mainly target the substantia nigra. Another strong input is to the subthalamic nucleus. Other targets are the GPi and the striatum. The complex receives direct afferences from the cortex and above all abundant direct afferences from the medial pallidum (inhibitory). It sends axons to the pallidal territory of the VL. The activity of the neurons is modified by movement, and precede it. All this led Mena-Segovia et al. (2004) to propose that the complex be linked in a way or another to the basal ganglia system. A review on its role in the system and in diseases is given by Pahapill and Lozano (2000). It plays an important role in awakeness and sleep. It has a dual role as a regulator of, and of being regulated by the basal ganglia.
Outputs of the basal ganglia system
In the cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loop the basal ganglia are interconnected, with little output to external targets. One target is the superior colliculus, from the pars reticulata. The two other major output subsystems are to the thalamus and from there to the cortex. In the thalamus the GPimedial fibers are separated from the nigral as their terminal arborisations do not mix. The thalamus relays the nigral output to the premotor and to the frontal cortices.
Medial pallidum to thalamic VL and from there to cortex
The thalamic fasciculus (H1 field) consists of fibers from the ansa lenticularis and from the lenticular fasciculus (H2 field), coming from different portions of the GPi. These tracts are collectively the pallidothalamic tracts and join before they enter the ventral anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
Pallidal axons have their own territory in the ventral lateral nucleus (VL); separated from the cerebellar and nigral territories. The VL is stained for calbindin and acetylcholinesterase. The axons ascend in the nucleus where they branch profusely. The VL output goes preferentially to the supplementary motor cortex (SMA), to the preSMA and to a lesser extent to the motor cortex. The pallidothalamic axons give branches to the pars media of the central complex which sends axons to the premotor and accessory motor cortex.
SNpr to thalamic VA and from there to cortex
The ventral anterior nucleus (VA) output targets the premotor cortex, the anterior cingulate cortex and the oculomotor cortex, without significant connection to the motor cortex.
See also
Motor systems
Nervous system
Telencephalon
References
Sources
Bar-Gad, I, Morris, G., Bergman, H. (2003) Information processing, dimensionality, reduction and reinforcement in the basal ganglia. Progr. Neurobiol. 71: 439–477.
Beckstead, R.M. and Frankfurter, A. (1982) The distribution and some morphological features of substantia nigra neurons that project to the thalamus, superior colliculus and pedunculopontine nucleus in monkey. Neuroscience. 7
DeLong, M.R. and Georgopoulos, A.P. (1980) Motor function of the basal ganglia. In Handbook of Physiology. I-Nervous system. Vol. II Motor control. Part 2. Ch.21. pp. 1017–1061
Haber, S. and Elde, R. (1981) Correlation between Met-enkephalin and substance P immunoreactivity in the primate globus pallidus. Neurosci. 6: 1291–1297.
Hikosaka, O. and Wurtz, R.H. (1989) The basal ganglia. in Wurtz and Goldberg (eds) The neurobiology of saccadic eye movements. Elsevier. Amsterdam.pp. 257–281
Künzle, H. (1975) Bilateral projections from precentral motor cortex to the putamen and other parts of the basal ganglia. an autoradiographic studyin Macaca fascicularis. Brain. Res. 88: 195–209.
Lavoie, B. and Parent, A. (1994) Pedunculopontine nucleus in the squirrel monkey: projection to the basal ganglia as revealed by anterograde track tracing. J. Comp. Neurol.
Levesque, M., Bédard, A., Cossette, M., Parent, A. (2003) Novel aspects of the chemical anatomy of the striatum and its efferent projections. Chem. Neuroanat. 26: 271–281.
Olszewski, J. and Baxter, D. (1954, 2d ed 1982) Cytoarchitecture of the human brain stem. Karger. Basel.
Parent, M. and Parent, M. (2004) The pallidofugal motor fiber system in primates. Park. Relat. Disord. 10: 203–211.
Parent, M. and Parent, M. (2005) Single-axon tracing and three dimensional reconstruction of centre median-parafascicular thalamic neurons in primates. J. Comp. Neurol.
Paxinos, G., Huang, X.F. and Toga, A.W. (2000) The rhesus monkey brain. Academic Press. San Diego
Percheron, G. (1991) The spatial organization of information processing in the striato-pallido-nigral system. In Basal Ganglia and Movement disorders. Bignami. A. (ed).NINS Vol. III. Thieme. Stuttgart pp. 211–234.
Percheron, G. (2003) Thalamus. In The human nervous system. Paxinos, G. and Mai, J. eds) Elsevier, Amsterdam
Percheron, G., François, C, Parent, A.Sadikot, A.F., Fenelon, G. and Yelnik, J. (1991) The primate central complex as one of the basal ganglia. In The Basal Ganglia III Bernardi, G. et al. (eds) pp. 177–186. Plenum . New York
Percheron, G., François, C., Yelnik, J., Fenelon, G. (1989) The primate nigro-striato-pallido-nigral system . Not a mere loop. In Crossman, A.R and Sambrook, M.A (eds)Neural mechanisms in disorders of movements. Libey, London
Percheron, G., François, C. and Yelnik, J. and Fenelon, G. (1994) The basal ganglia related system of primates: definition, description and informational analysis. In Percheron, G., McKenzie, J.S., Feger, J. (eds) The basal ganglia IV. Plenum Press New York pp. 3–20
Sömmerring, T (1800). Hirn- und Nervenlehre, second edition, p. 31
Terminologia anatomica (1998) Thieme, Stuttgart
Vicq d'Azyr, (1786). Traité d'anatomie et de physiologie. Paris. p. 96
Vogt, C. and O. (1941).Thalamusstudien I-III J Psychol Neurol 50 (1-2): 32-154.
Animal nervous system
Primate anatomy
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%20Wimbledon%20Championships
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2007 Wimbledon Championships
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The 2007 Wimbledon Championships was a tennis tournament played on grass courts at the All England Lawn Tennis and Croquet Club in Wimbledon, London in the United Kingdom. It was the 121st edition of the Wimbledon Championships and were held from 25 June to 8 July 2007. It was the third Grand Slam tennis event of the year.
Reconstruction work on Centre Court was in progress and thus it had no roof. The Wimbledon Championships adopted Hawk-Eye technology for the first time on Centre Court and Court 1. The Cyclops system was still used on other courts.
The Gentlemen's final was won by Roger Federer for the fifth consecutive time, a feat only before achieved in the Open Era by Björn Borg. It was the third longest men's singles final of all time at 3 hours and 45 minutes. Venus Williams claimed the Ladies' title by defeating Frenchwoman Marion Bartoli, a surprise finalist who had defeated world number one at the time Justine Henin. For the first time in twenty years, the Championships saw a home player win a senior title as Jamie Murray won the mixed doubles with Serbian partner Jelena Janković.
Point and prize money distribution
Point distribution
Below are the tables with the point distribution for each discipline of the tournament.
Senior points
Prize distribution
On 24 April 2007, Wimbledon announced that the prize money would increase to £700,000 (US$1.4 million) for men and women singles champions. The total prize fund would be £11,282,710 (US$22,565,420), the highest any tennis tournament has ever offered.
* per team
Champions
Seniors
Men's singles
Roger Federer defeated Rafael Nadal, 7–6(9–7), 4–6, 7–6(7–3), 2–6, 6–2
Federer won his fifth consecutive title, equalling the modern-era record set by Björn Borg. It was also the first time that Federer had played five sets in the final of a Grand Slam.
Women's singles
Venus Williams defeated Marion Bartoli, 6–4, 6–1
The final was fought between the two lowest seeds ever to appear in a Wimbledon final, with Williams starting the tournament as the no. 23 seed and Bartoli as the no. 18 seed.
Men's doubles
Arnaud Clément / Michaël Llodra defeated Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan, 6–7(5–7), 6–3, 6–4, 6–4
It was Clément's 1st and only career Grand Slam doubles title. It was Llodra's 3rd career Grand Slam doubles title and his 1st at Wimbledon.
Women's doubles
Cara Black / Liezel Huber defeated Katarina Srebotnik / Ai Sugiyama, 3–6, 6–3, 6–2
It was Black's 4th career Grand Slam doubles title and her 3rd at Wimbledon. It was Huber's 3rd career Grand Slam doubles title and her 2nd at Wimbledon.
Mixed doubles
Jamie Murray / Jelena Janković defeated Jonas Björkman / Alicia Molik, 6–4, 3–6, 6–1
This marked the first grand slam win of both Jamie Murray and Jelena Janković.
Juniors
Boys' singles
Donald Young defeated Vladimir Ignatic, 7–5, 6–1
Girls' singles
Urszula Radwańska defeated Madison Brengle, 2–6, 6–3, 6–0
Boys' doubles
Daniel Alejandro López / Matteo Trevisan defeated Roman Jebavý / Martin Kližan, 7–6(5), 4–6, [10–8]
Girls' doubles
Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova / Urszula Radwańska defeated Misaki Doi / Kurumi Nara, 6–4, 2–6, [10–7]
Other events
Gentlemen's invitation doubles
Jacco Eltingh / Paul Haarhuis defeated Mark Petchey / Chris Wilkinson, 6–2, 6–2
Ladies' invitation doubles
Jana Novotná / Helena Suková defeated Ilana Kloss / Rosalyn Nideffer, 6–3, 6–3
Senior gentlemen's invitation doubles
Jeremy Bates / Anders Järryd defeated Kevin Curren / Johan Kriek, 6–3, 6–3
Wheelchair men's doubles
Robin Ammerlaan / Ronald Vink defeated Shingo Kunieda / Satoshi Saida, 4–6, 7–5, 6–2
Tournament timeline
Notable stories
Comebacks
Martina Hingis had to save two match points against British wild card Naomi Cavaday on Day 1, almost repeating her first-round exit from the 2001 championships. Hingis eventually went on to win the match 6–7, 7–5, 6–0.
Janko Tipsarević beat Fernando González 6–3, 3–6, 6–3, 4–6, 8–6 to advance to the fourth round. Tipsarević was ranked 64 and González was seeded 5 but ranked 6, and saved a match point over González.
Tim Henman defeated Carlos Moyá in round 1 after going down two sets to one in a match that lasted two days with a 5th set scoreline of 13–11. Henman failed to convert 6 match points before capitalizing from a double fault by Moya on the 7th match point.
Juan Carlos Ferrero also came back, this time from two sets to none down in a match suspended for 2 days, 7–5 in the 5th set against Jan Hájek.
Nikolay Davydenko made a remarkable comeback against Chris Guccione in round 2, losing the first 2 sets before winning 3–6, 5–7, 7–6, 6–4, 6–2. It was a special comeback because Davydenko, who had a previous horrific record on grass, made it into round 3 of Wimbledon for the first time.
Serena Williams made an unbelievable comeback against Daniela Hantuchová in the fourth round. Williams cramped in the second set at 5–5, 30–15 with Hantuchová serving. She was treated and played to a tiebreak when a rain delay halted play for almost 2 hours. Both players came back and finished the tiebreak, which Hantuchová won. Then in the third set, Williams started off slow but powered to a 6–2, 6–7, 6–2 win to advance to the quarterfinals against Justine Henin.
Venus Williams was almost knocked out by Alla Kudryavtseva in her first round match, when she won 2–6, 6–3, 7–5. She was down a set and possible break points before finally winning her match in three sets.
Venus Williams came back from one set all to win a match tightly against Akiko Morigami 6–2, 3–6, 7–5. Morigami had been a game away from victory, but Venus was able to take control and dismiss Morigami.
Nicole Vaidišová knocked out defending champion Amélie Mauresmo in the fourth round to reach her first Wimbledon quarterfinal. After narrowly winning a first set tie-break and losing the second set to the title holder, Vaidišová came back to win 6–1 in the third set.
Marion Bartoli beat world number one Justine Henin in the women's singles semi-final after losing the first set 6–1 and being a break down in the second. She won the final set 6–1.
Ai Sugiyama and Katarina Srebotnik beat the top seeds Lisa Raymond and Samantha Stosur 1–6, 6–3, 6–2 after being down 6–1, 3–0 in the ladies' doubles semifinal. This was Srebotnik's first Wimbledon final and Sugiyama's fifth.
Ana Ivanovic defeated Nicole Vaidišová 4–6, 6–2, 7–5 having been down a break in the second set and saving three match points at 3–5 down in the third set.
Day-by-day summaries
Day 1
Many matches were cancelled by rain, an ominous precursor to the entire tournament. Top seeds Roger Federer and Justine Henin managed to defeat their opponents easily. Philipp Kohlschreiber became the first seeded player to exit the tournament. Seeded players Martina Hingis and Patty Schnyder were pushed by their opponents, each playing 3 sets with Hingis saving 2 match points. Serena Williams, Marion Bartoli and Shahar Pe'er won their games simply.
Seeded players out: Philipp Kohlschreiber
Day 2
Daniela Hantuchová easily dispatched Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. Favourites such as Jelena Janković, Maria Sharapova, Amélie Mauresmo, Novak Djokovic, James Blake and Rafael Nadal won their matches with ease. However, Venus Williams was almost knocked out by Alla Kudryavtseva, when she won 2–6, 6–3, 7–5.
Seeded players out: Dominik Hrbatý, Carlos Moyá, Filippo Volandri, Juan Mónaco and Olga Puchkova
Day 3
Andy Roddick and Richard Gasquet advanced towards third round, true to expectations. Justine Henin, Ana Ivanovic, Martina Hingis and Serena Williams also beat their opponents with little difficulty. Lucky loser Alizé Cornet defeated ranked number 42 Maria Kirilenko. Unfortunately the evening matches were delayed due to the rain.
Seeded players out: Samantha Stosur, Anabel Medina Garrigues and Sybille Bammer
Day 4
Dinara Safina became today's highest-ranked woman to lose, while Tommy Robredo the highest-ranked man to lose on day 4. However, other seeded players like Ana Ivanovic, Elena Dementieva, Roger Federer and Marat Safin have done their jobs well and advanced towards third round. Also, Serena and Venus Williams returned to their doubles competitions by beating Anne Keothavong and Claire Curran in the first round.
Seeded players out: Tatiana Golovin, Francesca Schiavone, Tathiana Garbin, Martina Müller, Dinara Safina, Juan Ignacio Chela, David Ferrer, Tommy Robredo and Agustín Calleri
Doubles seeds out: Jeff Coetzee / Rogier Wassen, Yves Allegro / Jim Thomas; Vania King / Jelena Kostanić Tošić
Day 5
The players who began their games at 11 o'clock were delayed by rain, but it did not affect Justine Henin, Jelena Janković and Patty Schnyder who all hastily completed their matches. Anna Chakvetadze is the highest-ranked woman to lose so far, while Fernando González became the highest-seeded man to lose so far.
Seeded players out: Alona Bondarenko, Lucie Šafářová, Anna Chakvetadze, Shahar Pe'er, Martina Hingis, Katarina Srebotnik, Fernando González, Ivan Ljubičić, Dmitry Tursunov, James Blake and Marat Safin
Doubles seeds out: Simon Aspelin / Julian Knowle, Jonas Björkman / Max Mirnyi, Ashley Fisher / Tripp Phillips, Jonathan Erlich / Andy Ram; Dinara Safina / Roberta Vinci, Maria Elena Camerin / Gisela Dulko, Vera Dushevina / Tatiana Perebiynis, Tathiana Garbin / Paola Suárez
Day 6
The tournament suffered massive rain disruptions, with Amélie Mauresmo and Maria Sharapova being the only singles players to complete (and win) their matches. The afternoon matches were also delayed by rain. Fans on Centre and Court 2 received full refunds; because they saw less than an hour of play, with Mauresmo's win lasting 57 minutes.
Seeded players out: Mara Santangelo and Ai Sugiyama
Middle Sunday
Seeded player out: Tommy Haas (injury)
Day 7
There was a little bit of rain and a few surprises too. Although there was more rain, Justine Henin found time to advance to the quarterfinals, while Elena Dementieva surprised everyone by losing to an unseeded Tamira Paszek. Agnieszka Radwańska, after sending seeded Martina Müller out in the second round a few days earlier, couldn't do the same thing to Svetlana Kuznetsova. In a highly intense match, Serena Williams cramped against Daniela Hantuchová late in a second set. Serena battled the injury, losing the second set tie-break but winning after a rain delay.
Seeded players out: Patty Schnyder, Elena Dementieva, Daniela Hantuchová, David Nalbandian and Jarkko Nieminen
Doubles seeds out: Mariusz Fyrstenberg / Marcin Matkowski, Martín García / Sebastián Prieto
Day 8
Most of the women's 4th round matches were delayed by rain, however, some matches were completed; Svetlana Kuznetsova ended Tamira Paszek's dazzling run; 3rd seed and in-form Serb Jelena Janković was defeated by Marion Bartoli; and 2006 champion and 4th seed Amélie Mauresmo fell to Nicole Vaidišová.
Seeded players out: Amélie Mauresmo, Nadia Petrova, Jelena Janković and Guillermo Cañas
Day 9
Rafael Nadal finally won his match against Robin Söderling, which had lasted since Saturday. Other winners today included Novak Djokovic, who advanced into 4th round and Andy Roddick, who is already in the quarterfinals. Richard Gasquet won his match against Jo-Wilfried Tsonga. Maria Sharapova lost to Venus Williams in straight sets 6–1, 6–3 in one of the biggest upsets of the tournament. Justine Henin and Marion Bartoli became the first female semifinalists. The second round doubles match between Brazilians André Sá and Marcelo Melo against Paul Hanley and Kevin Ullyett set two Wimbledon records, one of most games played in a match (102) and the longest fifth set ever (28–26). This was the second longest match in the history of The Championships, at 5 hours and 58 minutes. The Brazilian duo won.
Seeded players out: Maria Sharapova, Michaëlla Krajicek, Serena Williams and Robin Söderling
Doubles seeds out: Jaroslav Levinský / David Škoch, Paul Hanley / Kevin Ullyett; Chan Yung-jan / Chuang Chia-jung, Maria Kirilenko / Elena Vesnina, Sania Mirza / Shahar Pe'er; Mike Bryan / Lisa Raymond, Simon Aspelin / Mara Santangelo, Jonathan Erlich / Elena Vesnina, Kevin Ullyett / Liezel Huber
Day 10
Venus Williams became another semifinalist after her victory over Svetlana Kuznetsova in straight sets again. Ana Ivanovic joined her when she won the match with Nicole Vaidišová, who could not take advantage of three match points she had in the final set, with Ivanovic eventually triumphing 7–5. Novak Djokovic, Marcos Baghdatis, Tomáš Berdych and Rafael Nadal qualified into quarterfinals today. Nadal battled through another 5-set match, although he completed this one on its scheduled day, without any suspensions due to rain.
Seeded players out: Svetlana Kuznetsova, Nicole Vaidišová, Nikolay Davydenko, Jonas Björkman, Mikhail Youzhny and Lleyton Hewitt
Doubles seeds out: Anabel Medina Garrigues / Virginia Ruano Pascual; Rogier Wassen / Chan Yung-jan, Bob Bryan / Samantha Stosur, Mark Knowles / Yan Zi
Day 11
Rafael Nadal became the first male semifinalist, and was soon followed by defending champion Roger Federer and by fourth seed Novak Djokovic. Venus Williams is through to the ladies' singles final and Frenchwoman Marion Bartoli joins her making the biggest upset in the tournament, sending number one seeded Justine Henin out. Richard Gasquet, another French player, pulled off the biggest upset of the men's in taking out #3 seed and ranked Roddick. Roddick had a two-set lead before Gasquet won the final 3 sets to book a semifinal spot.
Seeded players out: Ana Ivanovic, Justine Henin, Tomáš Berdych, Juan Carlos Ferrero, Marcos Baghdatis and Andy Roddick
Doubles seeds out: Lukáš Dlouhý / Pavel Vízner, Mark Knowles / Daniel Nestor, Martin Damm / Leander Paes; Janette Husárová / Meghann Shaughnessy, Květa Peschke / Rennae Stubbs, Elena Likhovtseva / Sun Tiantian; Andy Ram / Nathalie Dechy, Paul Hanley / Tatiana Perebiynis, Todd Perry / Chia-Jung Chuang, Julian Knowle / Sun Tiantian
Day 12
The final of the men's singles was determined, Roger Federer vs. Rafael Nadal, a repeat of the 2006 final and French Open final. Federer won in straight sets against Richard Gasquet, whilst Nadal's opponent, Novak Djokovic, was forced to retire with the match balanced at one set all. Venus Williams won another Wimbledon title against Bartoli in straight sets (6–4, 6–1).
Seeded players out: Marion Bartoli, Richard Gasquet and Novak Djokovic
Doubles seeds out: Fabrice Santoro / Nenad Zimonjić; Lisa Raymond / Samantha Stosur, Alicia Molik / Mara Santangelo; Leander Paes / Meghann Shaughnessy, Daniel Nestor / Elena Likhovtseva, Marcin Matkowski / Cara Black, Pavel Vízner / Květa Peschke
Day 13
Roger Federer won his fifth consecutive Wimbledon title after a five-set battle against Rafael Nadal, 3 sets to 2. Federer's supremacy on grass met a strong challenge from Nadal and the victory did not come easily for the Swiss. But Federer came through by winning the tiebreak in the first and third sets, and faced four break points before victory in the final set. Arnaud Clément and Michaël Llodra, beating number one seeded Bryan brothers, became the Gentlemen's doubles champions, while Cara Black and Liezel Huber were victorious in the Ladies' doubles final. Jamie Murray became the first British player to win a senior Wimbledon title in 20 years by winning the Mixed doubles with Serbian partner Jelena Janković, beating Jonas Björkman and Alicia Molik in 3 sets. Urszula Radwańska maintained the family tradition winning the Girls' singles title like her sister Agnieszka in 2005 and they became the first sisters to win it. Urszula also became the Girls' doubles champion, playing with Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova. The victor of Boys' singles was Donald Young and the best boys' doubles team was Daniel Lopez and Matteo Trevisan.
Seeded player out: Rafael Nadal
Doubles seeds out: Bob Bryan / Mike Bryan; Katarina Srebotnik / Ai Sugiyama; Jonas Björkman / Alicia Molik
Singles seeds
Men's singles
Roger Federer (champion)
Rafael Nadal (final, lost to Roger Federer)
Andy Roddick (quarterfinals, lost to Richard Gasquet)
Novak Djokovic (semifinals, retired against Rafael Nadal due to foot injury)
Fernando González (third round, lost to Janko Tipsarević)
Nikolay Davydenko (fourth round, lost to Marcos Baghdatis)
Tomáš Berdych (quarterfinals, lost to Rafael Nadal)
Andy Murray (withdrew due to wrist injury)
James Blake (third round, lost to Juan Carlos Ferrero)
Marcos Baghdatis (quarterfinals, lost to Novak Djokovic)
Tommy Robredo (second round, lost to Wayne Arthurs)
Richard Gasquet (semifinals, lost to Roger Federer)
Tommy Haas (fourth round, withdrew due to injury)
Mikhail Youzhny (fourth round, lost to Rafael Nadal)
Ivan Ljubičić (third round, lost to Paul-Henri Mathieu)
Lleyton Hewitt (fourth round, lost to Novak Djokovic)
David Ferrer (second round, lost to Paul-Henri Mathieu)
Jarkko Nieminen (third round, lost to Mikhail Youzhny)
Jonas Björkman (fourth round, lost to Tomáš Berdych)
Juan Carlos Ferrero (quarterfinals, lost to Roger Federer)
Dmitry Tursunov (third round, lost to Tommy Haas)
Guillermo Cañas (third round, lost to Lleyton Hewitt)
David Nalbandian (third round, lost to Marcos Baghdatis)
Juan Ignacio Chela (second round, lost to Édouard Roger-Vasselin)
Carlos Moyá (first round, lost to Tim Henman)
Marat Safin (third round, lost to Roger Federer)
Philipp Kohlschreiber (first round, lost to Florent Serra)
Robin Söderling (third round, lost to Rafael Nadal)
Agustín Calleri (second round, lost to Lee Hyung-taik)
Filippo Volandri (first round, lost to Nicolas Kiefer)
Dominik Hrbatý (first round, lost to Andreas Seppi)
Juan Mónaco (first round, lost to Kristof Vliegen)
Women's singles
Justine Henin (semifinals, lost to Marion Bartoli)
Maria Sharapova (fourth round, lost to Venus Williams)
Jelena Janković (fourth round, lost to Marion Bartoli)
Amélie Mauresmo (fourth round, lost to Nicole Vaidišová)
Svetlana Kuznetsova (quarterfinals, lost to Venus Williams)
Ana Ivanovic (semifinals, lost to Venus Williams)
Serena Williams (quarterfinals, lost to Justine Henin)
Anna Chakvetadze (third round, lost to Michaëlla Krajicek)
Martina Hingis (third round, lost to Laura Granville)
Daniela Hantuchová (fourth round, lost to Serena Williams)
Nadia Petrova (fourth round, lost to Ana Ivanovic)
Elena Dementieva (third round, lost to Tamira Paszek)
Dinara Safina (second round, lost to Akiko Morigami)
Nicole Vaidišová (quarterfinals, lost to Ana Ivanovic)
Patty Schnyder (fourth round, lost to Justine Henin)
Shahar Pe'er (third round, lost to Marion Bartoli)
Tatiana Golovin (second round, lost to Tamira Paszek)
Marion Bartoli (final, lost to Venus Williams)
Katarina Srebotnik (third round, lost to Daniela Hantuchová)
Sybille Bammer (second round, lost to Laura Granville)
Tathiana Garbin (second round, lost to Victoria Azarenka)
Anabel Medina Garrigues (first round, lost to Virginia Ruano Pascual)
Venus Williams (champion)
Alona Bondarenko (third round, lost to Patty Schnyder)
Lucie Šafářová (third round, lost to Jelena Janković)
Ai Sugiyama (third round, lost to Maria Sharapova)
Samantha Stosur (second round, lost to Milagros Sequera)
Mara Santangelo (third round, lost to Amélie Mauresmo)
Francesca Schiavone (second round, lost to Aravane Rezaï)
Olga Puchkova (first round, lost to Elena Vesnina)
Michaëlla Krajicek (quarterfinals, lost to Marion Bartoli)
Martina Müller (second round, lost to Agnieszka Radwańska)
Wild card entries
The following players received wild cards into the main draw senior events.
Men's singles
Jamie Baker
Richard Bloomfield
Alex Bogdanovic
Marin Čilić
Thiemo de Bakker
Josh Goodall
Jonathan Marray
Jo-Wilfried Tsonga
Women's singles
Elena Baltacha
Naomi Cavaday
Anne Keothavong
Viktoriya Kutuzova
Katie O'Brien
Anastasia Pavlyuchenkova
Melanie South
Caroline Wozniacki
Men's doubles
Jamie Baker / Alex Bogdanovic
Neil Bamford / Jim May
Richard Bloomfield / Jonathan Marray
Lee Childs / Jamie Delgado
Josh Goodall / Ross Hutchins
Women's doubles
Elena Baltacha / Naomi Cavaday
Sarah Borwell / Jade Curtis
Claire Curran / Anne Keothavong
Karen Paterson / Melanie South
Serena Williams / Venus Williams
Mixed doubles
James Auckland / Claire Curran
Alex Bogdanovic / Melanie South
Richard Bloomfield / Sarah Borwell
Lee Childs / Katie O'Brien
Jamie Delgado / Anne Keothavong
Qualifier entries
Men's singles
Wang Yeu-tzuoo
Nicolas Mahut
Édouard Roger-Vasselin
Aisam-ul-Haq Qureshi
Bobby Reynolds
Bohdan Ulihrach
Sam Warburg
Zack Fleishman
Lee Childs
Alejandro Falla
Gilles Müller
Rik de Voest
Wayne Arthurs
Mischa Zverev
Fernando Vicente
Tomáš Zíb
The following players received entry into the lucky loser spot:
Frank Dancevic
Kevin Kim
Women's singles
Ágnes Szávay
Kristina Brandi
Casey Dellacqua
Nika Ožegović
Jorgelina Cravero
Ayumi Morita
Olga Govortsova
Hsieh Su-wei
Tatiana Perebiynis
Hana Šromová
Yan Zi
Barbora Záhlavová-Strýcová
The following player received entry into the lucky loser spot:
Alizé Cornet
Men's doubles
Scott Lipsky / David Martin
Harel Levy / Rajeev Ram
Ilija Bozoljac / Dick Norman
Alex Kuznetsov / Mischa Zverev
The following teams received entry into the lucky loser spot:
Lars Burgsmüller / Orest Tereshchuk
Sanchai Ratiwatana / Sonchat Ratiwatana
Kevin Kim / Robert Smeets
Women's doubles
Hsieh Su-wei / Alla Kudryavtseva
Julie Ditty / Raquel Kops-Jones
Stéphanie Foretz / Selima Sfar
Sofia Arvidsson / Lilia Osterloh
The following teams received entry into the lucky loser spot:
Andrea Hlaváčková / Sandra Klösel
Hana Šromová / Klára Zakopalová
Anna Fitzpatrick / Emily Webley-Smith
Protected ranking
The following players were accepted directly into the main draw using a protected ranking:
Men's singles
Igor Andreev
Justin Gimelstob
Nicolas Kiefer
Withdrawn players
Men's singles
José Acasuso → replaced by Lu Yen-hsun
Mario Ančić → replaced by Frank Dancevic
Gastón Gaudio → replaced by Juan Pablo Guzmán
Xavier Malisse → replaced by Michael Berrer
Jürgen Melzer → replaced by Iván Navarro
Andy Murray → replaced by Kevin Kim
Paradorn Srichaphan → replaced by Davide Sanguinetti
Women's singles
Li Na → replaced by Alizé Cornet
Anastasia Myskina → replaced by Anna Smashnova
Romina Oprandi → replaced by Melinda Czink
Zheng Jie → replaced by Catalina Castaño
Vera Zvonareva → replaced by Aleksandra Wozniak
Media coverage
Broadcasters of the 2007 Wimbledon Championships were as follows:
Europe
Belgium – VRT, RTL-TVI
Bosnia and Herzegovina – OBN
Bulgaria – Diema Vision Plc
Croatia – HRT TV
Czech Republic – ČT4
Denmark – TV 2 Sport
Finland – MTV3, MTV3 MAX
France – Canal+ (Sport Plus)
Georgia – First Channel
Germany – DSF, Premiere
Greece – Supersport
Hungary – Sport1
Ireland – TG4
Italy – Sky Sport
Macedonia – MKRTV
Malta – Melita Cable
Montenegro – TVCG
Netherlands – RTL 7
Norway – NRK, Sport Expressen
Poland – Polsat
Portugal – Sport TV
Romania – Sport.ro
Russia – NTV Plus
Serbia – RTS, Sport Klub, TV Koha
Slovenia – RTV
Spain – Canal+ (Sogecable)
Sweden – Sport Expressen
Switzerland – SRG/SSR TV
Turkey – Media Eye
United Kingdom – BBC
Worldwide
Australia – Nine Network, Fox Sports (Fox Sports 1, Fox Sports 2)
Canada – Global, TSN, RDS
Japan – NHK, Gaora
New Zealand – Sky Network, Prime
South Africa – SuperSport
United States – ESPN (ESPN2), NBC, Tapesh
Israel – Sport 5 (including Sport 5+ and Sport 5+ Live)
Iran – IRIB
Asia – ESPN Star Sports, BBTV Thailand
Latin America – ESPN Sur, ESPN 2
Middle East – ART
South America – Globosat (Brazil)
Other – Fiji TV
See also
2007 in tennis
References
External links
Official Wimbledon Championships website
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed%20Forces%20Retirement%20Home
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Armed Forces Retirement Home
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The Armed Forces Retirement Home refers to one of two facilities, one in Gulfport, Mississippi, the other in Washington, D.C., that house veterans and active duty members of the United States Armed Forces.
Current status
In 1991 Congress incorporated the U.S. Naval Home (opened in 1834) and U. S. Soldiers' and Airmen's Home (founded in 1851) into an independent establishment of the Executive Branch of the Federal Government named the Armed Forces Retirement Home (AFRH) Agency. In 2002, the names of the two homes were officially changed to The Armed Forces Retirement Home – Gulfport and The Armed Forces Retirement Home – Washington.
Both Homes are model retirement centers, where residents can maintain an independent lifestyle in an environment designed for safety, comfort and personal enrichment. Military veterans from all service branches can live at either Home. A few less than 900 men and women, with an average age in the eighties, currently reside at the homes. Residents are free to come and go as they please. Meals are served in the Dining Halls three times daily. The Wellness Center offers medical, dental, optometric and podiatry service on site. Extensive on-site recreational facilities (swimming pool, gym, movie theatre, computer game room, etc,) are available. While residents are welcome to park and use private vehicles and RVs at the Homes, in-house transportation is offered to local hospitals, military commissaries, exchanges and shopping. As residents age, "Independent Living Plus," "Assisted Living", "Memory Support" and "Long Term Custodial Care" are available in-house when necessary. Complete eligibility rules for entrance to the Armed Forces Retirement Home can be found at www.afrh.gov . Career military personnel have priority. Enlisted, Warrant Officers, and Limited Duty Officers with a minimum of twenty years of service at age 60, veterans incapable of earning a livelihood because of a service-connected disability incurred in the line of duty, veterans who served in a War Zone or Hostile Fire Zone and are later found to be incapable of earning a livelihood, and women veterans who served before 12 June 1948, may be eligible.
History
English roots
The colonial settlers brought with them from Britain ideas about the responsibilities of the individual towards his community, and of the community towards the volunteer soldier:
It was in the reign of Elizabeth, not long before the beginning of English colonization in America ... What to do with ... soldiers returning from her wars ... Able bodied and unemployed were given to riot, violence, theft. The disabled and maimed became vagabonds and beggars. The feudal system had been destroyed. Parliament passed the first statute ... for relief of Souldiours in the 1592–93 session. ... The Honor of our Nation, that such as have since the 25th day of March 1588, adventured their lives and lost their limbs ... be relieved and rewarded ... that others may be encouraged to perform the like.
During the 1680s the restored Monarchy introduced a standing army of professional regiments. Rather than pay these troops a service pension upon retirement, King Charles II had erected an invalids home in 1690, now called the Royal Hospital Chelsea .
Throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries from New England to the Carolinas, laws were passed by the colonies to provide for the injured and wounded volunteer colonial soldiers back from the Indian Wars on the frontier. During the American Revolution, both the states and the Continental Congress made provision for disability pensions, but Congress was reluctant to fund so-called half-pay-for-life service pensions for commissioned officers, because they wanted no part of "Standing Armies," or "Career Soldiers" and had no money in any event. In the end, Congress agreed to pay the Officers the equivalent of five years pay at the end of their service, and enlisted people got $80 dollars.
From that time until 1885 there were no retirement pensions for either commissioned officers or enlisted personnel. Finally, in 1885, retirement plans were provided for enlisted Army and enlisted Marines. Navy enlisted had to wait until 1899 for a retirement pension. The absence of retirement pensions drove efforts to establish homes for the disabled and decrepit soldiers and sailors.
Naval Home timeline
In response to attacks by Barbary Pirates in the Mediterranean the new Federal Congress passed legislation in 1794 to build a small Navy, and then as part of responding to French Privateer attacks on U.S. Merchant Marine shipping during the Quasi-War of 1798–1800 Congress passed a bill in 1798 for the establishment of doctors and marine hospitals at port cities to care for merchant sailors. This Merchant Marine doctor & hospital service eventually evolved into the U.S. Public Health Service. The following year, 2 March 1799, an act of Congress authorized U.S. Navy Seamen admission to the Merchant Marine hospitals. Twenty cents per month was deducted from the Seamen's pay and paid to what was then the "Naval Hospital Fund" for the purpose of medical care and hospitals for U.S. Naval personnel. In addition, all proceeds from fines or forfeitures charged misbehaving sailors and officers were added to the Naval Hospital Fund. Today, all active duty personnel contribute Fifty cents a month to the "Armed Forces Retirement Home Trust Fund," and fines and forfeitures are still deposited to the Trust Fund.
On 26 February 1811 Congress passed an act authorizing construction of U.S. Naval Hospitals which included the phrase "...to provide a permanent asylum for disabled and decrepit navy officers, seamen, and marines." The addition of an "Asylum" (meaning "refuge" in 18th Century English) was in lieu of a retirement or service pension for naval personnel. This act eventually resulted in the purchase of the Pemberton Estate in 1826 for $17,000, which came with a large mansion to be used as a hospital, and the decision to construct a new building for an asylum. William Strickland was selected as Architect and Contractor to build the Philadelphia Naval Asylum. What was to become Biddle Hall was completed in 1834. "The entire cost of the building, excluding the finishing of the attics, was $195,600: about four-ninths of which came from the Treasury directly, the remainder from the Hospital Fund." These Treasury funds were required because the Hospital Fund had gotten into trouble in the 1820s when the Trustee's elected to invest fund assets in private equities rather than Treasury Bonds. From that time to the present, Naval Home Trust Funds have only invested with the U.S. Treasury. When the U.S. Soldiers' Home and Trust Fund was created in 1851, some of its funds were invested in bonds issued by the states of Virginia and Missouri, from which little or no interest was received during the Civil War, and in the future the Soldiers' Home Trust Fund would also only be invested with Treasury.
Biddle Hall was used to house not only the home for pensioners, but the Asylum staff, a Naval Hospital, an insane asylum and a School for Naval Midshipmen, the predecessor of the Naval Academy at Annapolis. Some of the residents of the Asylum were buried on the grounds of the Asylum, and then reburied at Mount Moriah Cemetery following the Civil War. The number of "Inmates" varied over the long history of the Philadelphia Home, beginning with five in 1834, going to 220 in 1885, and 204 on 1 July 1921. Residents were provided with a small private room, furnished with simple furniture, to which they could add their own furniture. Structural defects noted by Lieutenant Commander George Stockton in his 1886 paper on the Naval Home included the home basement, described as "low and damp" with insufficient drainage, The rooms in the attic were too hot for comfort, and asking the old and decrepit to climb up and down three flights of stairs from attic to the improperly placed dining commons in the basement was difficult for some of the inmates.
Soldiers Home timeline
The United States Soldiers' Homes was authorized by Congress in 1851. In 1827, while the Naval Asylum was under construction, Secretary of War James Barbour recommended that an Army Asylum be constructed for soldiers. For the next twenty years people like Major Robert Anderson (of Fort Sumter fame) promoted the idea of homes for retired soldiers, without success. The problem was to develop a system of funding a Soldiers' Home that would not involve any expenditure of public money. In 1846, he wrote to all the regiments in the active army, asking for information on fines and forfeitures from Courts Martial. He got answers from about half the regiments, added the twenty cents a month for the hospital fund received from the 9,438 enlisted soldiers then on active duty, and was able to estimate the annual revenue from both sources at $42,642, which turned out to be on the low side. "He computed the annual cost of each member, using the Army clothing allowance of that year of $15.36, and the annual cost of one year's ration at the prevailing rate of ten cents a day, to arrive at an annual cost for each member for these two items, of $51.86." He also went to the trouble of obtaining per annum inmate costs at five different East Coast insane asylums, and five different East Coast poor houses, which he reckoned at $43.80 per inmate, and sent the results, along with signed petitions from many of the Officer's Corps as the Army marched off to Mexico. Congress noted that "it does not ask for any contribution from the Treasury."
On 14 September 1847 General Winfield Scott received the surrender of Mexico City, and accepted a "contribution" of $150,000 in gold from the Mexico City fathers "in lieu of pillage." General Scott spent part of this on shoes and blankets for his troops. Another portion went to a "Spy Company" he employed on the march from Vera Cruz to Mexico City. The remaining $118,791.19 he had deposited in a New York bank with the notation "for Army Asylum." This action outraged the Secretary of War: he accused Gen. Scott of larceny under Art. 58 of the Articles of War, but Scott refused to turn the money over to the Treasury, and in the end he won.
Article 58 of Articles of War, 1806: All public stores taken in the enemy's camp towns forts or magazines whether of artillery ammunition clothing forage or provisions shall be secured for the service of the United States for the neglect of which the commanding officer is to be answerable.
In 1851, Senator Jefferson Davis of Mississippi sponsored a bill to establish "at a suitable place or places, a site or sites for the Military Asylum." The bill passed both Houses and was signed into law by President Millard Fillmore the same day. The new Board of Commissioners decided to establish four homes, one each in New Orleans, Louisiana; East Pascagoula, Mississippi; Harrodsburg, Kentucky; and Washington, D.C.
Quality of life
During the 19th and most of the 20th centuries the U.S. Naval Home and the U.S. Soldiers' Home, while having identical purpose for being (the welfare of the old and decrepit soldier or sailor), were not identical in regulation, funding, administration or tradition.
1834
The 1834 Naval Regulation for governing the Philadelphia Naval Asylum set forth living conditions for the inmates. The asylum will provide a chaplain and medical care, living quarters, clothing, and food similar to a naval ration at sea, except that the "grog" ration would be replaced by tea, tobacco and pickles. The inmates would surrender any disability Navy pension to the home. They would also work at the asylum "as much as they are able". The inmates would be subject to "all the laws and rules of the naval service" and "shall be under the general government of the officers placed over them".
1851
"Military Asylums" were created (the name was changed to U.S. Soldier's Home in 1859). Disabled or wounded veterans from the War of 1812 forward would be admitted. US Marines who served in Mexico and were otherwise qualified by wound or disability would be admitted. The rules at the U.S. Soldier's Home were similar but not identical to the Naval Home. Inmates would surrender any disability pension, work when able, and obey the orders of those appointed above them. Like the sailors, they were "paid" a dollar a month for spending money. The inmates referred to this as "the monthly dollar". General David Twiggs wrote that as soon as the men got their dollar they got drunk and stayed drunk until their money was gone, usually a week later, "as whiskey of a sort could be gotten for a ten cents a quart". A "Guard House" (the Navy calls them "Brigs") was built at the Soldiers' Home to confine inmates "absent without leave".
Homicide at the Naval Home
I.G. ReportOld Soldiers Home
Today
Alcoholism: In 1951 the Governor of the Soldier's Home adopted a policy requiring proof of good "dry" behavior by men identified as alcoholics. After two failures, men were disallowed reentry to the home. Today applicants with an alcoholic history must show evidence of a long period without alcohol. The homes have open bars that sell beer and hard liquor, but "public intoxication" is prohibited. The smoking of tobacco inside buildings on the grounds of the homes is prohibited. Outside smoking is allowed.
Many work positions, both paid and volunteer, are open to residents. For example, residents run the home libraries under the supervision of a professional Librarian. Many positions, such as the wood shop and bicycle shop, are run entirely by residents.
Below are recreational activities available without cost:
Gulfport
Outdoor swimming pool (lap swimming and water aerobics), professionally equipped fitness center and physical fitness programs, library (print, audio and video), individual work areas for arts & crafts, woodworking, painting and other hobbies, bike shop, bowling and bocce center, card, game, and recreation rooms, computer classroom and computer center, fully equipped media room for movies and presentations, multi-purpose area for live entertainment and dances, spacious grounds with basketball, horse shoes and walking paths, bicycling, bus tours to area attractions.
Washington
Nine-hole golf course and driving range (carts provided for residents), two fishing ponds for crappie, bass, bream and catfish, professionally equipped fitness center and physical fitness programs, walking trails, two extensive print, audio and video libraries, individual work areas for ceramics, woodworking, painting and other hobbies, auto hobby shop, bowling, card, game, and recreation rooms, computer center, garden plots, fully equipped 667-seat theater for movies and live entertainment, bus tours to area attractions.
Funding
The current legal basis for funding of the Armed Forces Retirement Home Agency is contained in 24 USC § 419 – Armed Forces Retirement Home Trust Fund
Such amounts as may be transferred to the Fund.
Moneys deposited in the Fund by the Chief Operating Officer realized from gifts or from the disposition of property and facilities.
Amounts deposited in the Fund as monthly fees paid by residents of the Retirement Home under section 414 of this title.
Amounts of fines and forfeitures deposited in the Fund under section 2772 of title 10.
Amounts deposited in the Fund as deductions from the pay of enlisted members, warrant officers, and limited duty officers under section 1007(i) of title 37.
Interest from investments made under subsection (c) of this section.
Other sources of income have been used in the past. At one time a small percentage of the Prize Money awarded for the capture of enemy war ships and pirate vessels, was awarded to the Naval Home Trust Fund. A notation in the "Congressional Record for the Navy Affairs Committee" in 1907–09 notes that the Naval Home Trust still had a balance of $14 million partly from the capture of Prize Vessels, per an Act of 1870, and from suits for depredation of timber belonging to the United States. It is plain the Navy had an interest in the nation's timberlands when the Navy was still equipped with wooden sailing ships, but why this was true in the 20th Century is unclear.
Funding for the Armed Forces retirement homes has always been based upon the principle of no cost to the public. But when wars happen or economic calamities happen or natural disasters happen, the funding system has failed. That is why the first item of the list above ("...Such amounts as may be transferred to the Fund") is included. This refers to the expenditure of public monies appropriated by Congress. The original Naval Asylum required public monies for construction following an adventure by the trustees of the Naval Hospital Fund into private equity Investment. They invested in private bank stock, intending to get a higher rate of return, but in the 1820s the bank lost money, and so did the trust fund committee of the Secretaries of War, Navy, and Treasury. The Gulfport home required public funding for a new home after Hurricane Katrina destroyed the old home. The Washington home is receiving public help to rebuild after the earthquake of 2011 damaged the Sherman building. But in general and for most of the time the system of self funding has worked.
AFRH and the Department of Veterans Affairs
"When the Civil War began on April 12, 1861, it is estimated America had 80,000 Veterans from previous conflicts, some of whom were treated at a handful of Veterans homes scattered across the nation. The Civil War added more than 1.9 million Soldiers, Sailors, and Marines to the rolls." The U.S. Soldiers Home and the Philadelphia Naval Home were completely inadequate to this challenge: thus the "National Asylum for Disabled Volunteer Soldiers," a system of eleven homes with attached hospitals that were built across the country between 1865 and 1930. These institutions, the foundation of the Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), today have the mission of "hospitalization and rehabilitation and return, as soon as possible, of veterans to civilian life ..." The VA provides representatives to sit on the "Armed Forces Home Trust Fund." Otherwise, the Armed Forces Retirement Home, an agency of the Department of Defense, has no connection whatever to the VA, beyond the historical one, and is today primarily a retirement home.
Notable buildings
The Soldiers' Home occupies a campus in N.W. Washington, D.C. It sits adjacent to two historic cemeteries, Rock Creek Cemetery and United States Soldiers' and Airmen's Home National Cemetery (the forerunner of Arlington National Cemetery).
The Soldiers' Home has had many interesting historic buildings, some of which survive to the present day. Four of them date to the home's earliest days before the Civil War, and have been designated a National Historic Landmark.
Anderson Cottage
Built in 1843 by the banker George Washington Riggs as a summer cottage for his family, it was a part of the first parcel acquired by the U.S. Military Asylum. Renamed Anderson Cottage for co-founder Major Robert Anderson it housed the first residents of the home. It is now known as President Lincoln's Cottage, and has been a National Monument since 2000. The brick house has a stucco exterior.
Scott Building
Begun in 1852 and completed in the 1890s, Scott Building is named for General Winfield Scott. The initial design for the building was in the Norman Gothic style. It housed 100–200 residents. Its castellated clock tower was used as a watch tower during the American Civil War, especially during General Jubal Early's raid on nearby Fort Stevens. The building is currently closed due to damage from the 2011 earthquake. The clocktower will require extensive repairs; the U.S. Congress has appropriated partial funds for the needed work.
Sherman Building
Built to a design by Barton S. Alexander in the 1850s, the Sherman Building is connected to the Scott Building by a central annex. Its exterior is unfinished white marble.
Stanley Hall
Built in 1834, this was a recreation center and is now the Home's Chapel.
Sheridan Building
This building, begun in 1883, was built as a dormitory. It has three stories and is built of red brick.
Grant Building
Begun in 1911, the Grant Building was built as a barracks, mess hall, and recreation center.
Community engagementFriends of the Soldiers Home
In November 2011, the Armed Forces Retirement Home in Washington and surrounding community held a meeting about ending years of neglect in relating to one another. What blossomed was Friends of the Soldiers Home.
Starting with a Jingo volunteer night in December 2011, Friends went on to partner with the Home to conduct 158 volunteer events through the end of 2015. About 225 people collectively gave more than 1,500 hours of volunteer time in 2015 alone.
Regular events include monthly Jingo, Happy Hour, Saloon Night With Friends and Bowling With Friends. Each spring, the Home and Friends pairs community volunteers with veteran residents to tend vegetable plots together in the Friends Garden Project.
Friends also holds annual community celebrations with the Home, including Spring Fling, which occurs the first Saturday in May, July 4 Fireworks, and Fall Fun Fest, which happens on the first Sunday in October. In December, the Friends and Home residents gather together for the annual holiday tree lighting, and Friends also joins with residents at their holiday dance that month. Thousands of people from the community attended these events to better connect the residents and historic campus with the surrounding nation's capital.
Volunteer opportunities are available every week of the year and details can be found on the Friends of the Soldiers Home website.
Notes
References
American Institute of Architects, A Guide to the Architecture of Washington. New York: Frederick A. Praeger, 1965.
Forman, Stephen M., A Guide to Civil War Washington. Washington, D.C.: Elliott and Clark, 1995.
Truett, Randall Bond, editor. Washington, D.C.: The A Guide to the Nation's Capital, Revised edition, New York: Hastings House, 1968.
Toll, Ian, Six Frigates: The Epic History of the Founding of the U.S. Navy [Kindle Edition] , W.W. Norton & Company (March 17, 2008)
Goode, Paul R., The United States Soldiers' Home, A History of its First Hundred Years, Privately Published, 1956,
Glasson, William H, Ph.D. Federal Military Pensions In the United States, Oxford University Press, New York, 1918
Kelly, Patrick J. Creating A National Home, Building the Veterans Welfare State, Harvard University Press, Cambridge MA. 1997
Hatch, Louis C., The Administration of the Revolutionary Army, New York, Longman Green & Co, 1904
Laws Relating to the Navy and the Marine Corps, and The Navy Department, July 1, 1865, NAPU Public Domain Reprint, {{ISBN]978-1146069601}}
Stockton, Chas H. LCDR, USN, "The Naval Asylum and Service Pensions for Enlisted Men," Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute, Vol. XII, 1886, pp. 51–67
Clark, Robert L., et al, "Privatization of Public-Sector Pensions," accessed 20 Oct 2012
Mansfield, Edward D., "Life and Services of Gen Winfield Scott," AS Barnes & Co. New York, 1852 (Note: a digitized Google Book – this appears to be a campaign biography for Gen Scott in the 1852 election)
Eisenhower, John S. D., So Far From God: The U.S. War with Mexico, 1846–1848, Univ. of Oklahoma, 2000
Davis, George B. BG, U.S. Army JAG, "A Treatise on Military Law of the United States," New York, John Wiley & Sons, 1908
Opinions of the judge advocate general of the army: April 1, 1917, to December 31, 1917, Volume 1 By United States Army Judge Advocate General's Dept. United States. Judge-Advocate General's Dept. (Army), United States. Army. Office of the Judge Advocate General, Washington, GPO, 1919.
Military Compensation Background Papers, Sixth Edition, May 2005, DOD, https://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/mil-comp.html accessed 23 Oct 2012
External links
AFRH website
Gulf Coast News Sep 2006 article on the future for the Gulfport MS AFRH
Friends of the Soldiers Home website
1991 establishments in the United States
American military personnel
Buildings and structures in Gulfport, Mississippi
Government agencies established in 1991
National Historic Landmarks in Washington, D.C.
Old soldiers' homes in the United States
United States federal boards, commissions, and committees
Veterans' affairs in the United States
Housing in Washington, D.C.
Housing in Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Courtenay%2C%201st%20Earl%20of%20Devon
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Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon
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Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (c. 1527 – 18 September 1556) was an English nobleman during the rule of the Tudor dynasty. Born into a family with close royal connections, he was at various times considered a possible match for the two daughters of Henry VIII, both of whom became queens regnant of England. He was a second cousin to Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I through King Edward IV.
Origins
He was the only son of Henry Courtenay, 1st Marquess of Exeter (c.1498–1539) by his second wife, Gertrude Blount, daughter of William Blount, 4th Baron Mountjoy. Edward's paternal grandmother was Princess Catherine of York (1479–1527), a daughter of King Edward IV and thus a sister to King Edward V, a niece to King Richard III, and a sister of Elizabeth of York who was the wife of King Henry VII and the mother of King Henry VIII. Edward Courtenay was thus a first cousin once removed of King Henry VIII and of Queen Margaret of Scotland, and a second cousin to Queen Mary I, Queen Elizabeth I, King Edward VI, King James V of Scotland and Henry Brandon, 1st Earl of Lincoln.
Career
The first decade of Edward's life was relatively peaceful. His early years were spent in the household of Mary Tudor, duchess of Suffolk and dowager queen of France, but following her death in 1533, he returned to his own family; he got private tutoring from Robert Taylor of Oxford. While Exeter was a close companion of Henry VIII in the 1520s, he came under greater suspicion during the annulment crisis due to his wife's continued backing for Catherine of Aragon and his connection with dissatisfied Poles and Nevilles. In view of his son's future goals, it's worth noting that the marquess was accused of intending to marry his son to Princess Mary. His father was a prominent figure at the royal court and his mother enjoyed the friendship of Queen Catherine of Aragon even after the annulment of her marriage to King Henry VIII.
Imprisonment
In early November 1538, Edward Courtenay and his parents were arrested and incarcerated in the Tower of London. His father was accused of conspiring with the self-exiled Cardinal Reginald Pole to lead a Roman Catholic uprising in the so-called Exeter conspiracy and was executed on 9 January 1539. Both Edward and his mother were attainted and unable to inherit his titles and lands.
His mother was released from prison in 1540 and for the rest of her life maintained a friendship with Mary Tudor, eldest daughter of Henry VIII and future queen. However, as a great-grandson of King Edward IV and a possible heir of the House of York, Edward was considered too much of a threat to the rule of the House of Tudor to be released.
In 1547, Henry VIII died and was succeeded by his only surviving legitimate son, Edward VI. The new King declared a general amnesty, but his incarcerated cousin Edward Courtenay was among the few exceptions.
While still incarcerated, Edward translated Benefizio di Cristo ("The Benefit of Christ's Death") into the English language and dedicated the manuscript to Anne Stanhope, wife of the Lord Protector Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, uncle of King Edward VI. The Cambridge University Library contains a copy autographed by Edward VI himself. Courtenay may have intended this work as a gift of reconciliation to his royal cousin. Whatever benefits the translation may have brought him, release from the Tower of London was not among them.
King Edward VI died on 6 July 1553. His designated heir, Lady Jane Grey, ascended briefly to the throne, but Mary Tudor, the king's elder half-sister, fortified at Framlingham Castle, was declared queen instead by the Privy Council on 19 July. Gertrude Blount was still her close friend and secured the release of her son Edward on 3 August 1553, after 15 years of incarceration in the Tower.
Life after release
Courtenay soon became a favourite of his royal cousin Queen Mary, who greatly benefited the young man. Mary created him Earl of Devon on 3 September 1553 and Knight of the Bath on 29 September 1553. On 1 October 1553, Mary was crowned, and the new Earl of Devon carried the Sword of State in the coronation ceremony. On 10 October 1553, Edward was acknowledged as the proper heir to the lands and titles of his father, but was not allowed to succeed him as Marquess of Exeter.
On 2 January 1554, the new ambassadors of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor arrived in England, and the new Earl of Devon was assigned to receive them. He also served as a special commissioner at the trial of Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester, Jane Grey's brother-in-law.
Mary showed her young cousin considerable affection. Courtenay considered he might be the Queen's future husband, and Bishop Stephen Gardiner reportedly encouraged Devon to consider himself a likely suitor for her. Spanish ambassadors reported that there was "much talk here to the effect that he will be married to the Queen, as he is of the blood royal". His household was organised as a minor court, and several courtiers already knelt before him. However, Mary rejected him in favour of the Roman Catholic King Philip II of Spain.
Courtenay still entertained hopes for the throne and turned his attentions to Mary's younger half-sister, Elizabeth. As Mary was childless, Elizabeth was the heir presumptive to the throne. Mary and Philip's marriage was extremely unpopular with the English. Some prominent persons, including William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, advocated their replacement on the throne by Elizabeth and the Earl of Devon. But then came Wyatt's rebellion in late January 1554. Thomas Wyatt the Younger was among those Protestants who feared Catholic persecution under Mary and Philip. He rose in rebellion to prevent this marriage and declared his intentions to place Mary under his charge. The rebellion was short-lived and was crushed by early March 1554. There were rumours that Courtenay had negotiated with Wyatt and was preparing similar revolts in Devonshire and Cornwall.
Courtenay and Elizabeth were implicated as being responsible for the rebellion, and were both incarcerated at the Tower of London while awaiting trial. Courtenay was moved to Fotheringhay Castle in May 1554. On Holy Saturday, Simon Renard, the Spanish ambassador to England, advised Queen Mary that the continued survival of the two "great persons" posed a threat to both her and her consort Philip. He informed the Queen that he would not recommend the arrival of Philip in England until every necessary step had been taken to secure his safety, and until Courtenay and Elizabeth were put on trial. Renard had therefore effectively informed her that Philip would not set foot on English ground until both prisoners were executed or otherwise rendered harmless.
Mary agreed to hasten the trials, but the collection of evidence had not been completed. There were many rumours implicating Courtenay and Elizabeth with the failed rebellion but no solid evidence that either of them took part in organising it. Neither of them ever marched with the rebels, and both were non-combatants for its duration. Mary and Philip were married on 25 July 1554.
No conviction could be secured for the prisoners. Elizabeth was at first placed under house arrest in the care of Sir Henry Bedingfield. She was released and allowed to return to court by the end of the year. At Easter, 1555, Courtenay was also released; he was exiled to Continental Europe. He was next heard of in November 1555, when he wrote a letter from Brussels pleading for permission to return to England to pay his respects to Queen Mary and to his mother. The two women were still close friends, but Courtenay had lost his former protector's trust, and his request was denied.
He was still the Earl of Devon and retained his rights and property, but not the right to set foot in England. Both Mary and Elizabeth refused to have any further association with him. Elizabeth considered him partly responsible for her incarceration and reportedly despised any mention of him. Thus, Courtenay had lost any chance of marrying either one of the two royal women.
Exile in Venice
Courtenay left England in 1555 for exile in the Republic of Venice, where he became the focus of the several English Protestant "Marian exiles" who had opposed Mary's accession. Many of them had been supporters of Wyatt's and of Northumberland's plots to crown Lady Jane Grey. The Venetians too, although Catholic, were opposed to Mary's marriage with the Spanish prince, whose expanding European Empire threatened Venice's trade. The exiles' plan, namely to arrange a marriage between Courtenay and Elizabeth and to place both on the throne as secure Protestants, was cut short by Courtenay's sudden death in 1556 at Padua, then a member of the Venetian Republic. His place as the focus for the English malcontents in Venice was taken by Francis Russell, 2nd Earl of Bedford.
Death
The exact circumstances of Courtenay's death are not known. Peter Vannes, Queen Mary's ambassador to the Republic of Venice, wrote her a report, but he was not a direct witness or a physician.
According to his account, Courtenay was engaged in falconry for recreational reasons. He and his falcons were in the countryside and away from any building when caught in a violent storm. He failed to protect himself from the elements and refused to change his wet clothing even after returning home. Several days later, Courtenay had a burning fever, which lasted to his final hours. He was reportedly unable to open his mouth even to receive the Eucharist. (Fever and trismus are symptoms of tetanus). He was buried in the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua, where a monument to him with verse was erected.
It was reported that Vannes suspected poison. Later theorists suggested that he had died of syphilis, but both suggestions remain unconfirmed. Another account has Courtenay on a gondola ride to the Isle of Lio, when a storm stranded him there and forced him to wait it out, all the while becoming soaked and suffering from exposure, until a ship rescued him. Three days later he was supposedly suffering from malaria, yet insisted on travelling to Padua and, there, was treated by medical doctors of the university. Upon leaving his lodgings in Padua, he fell down a flight of stairs and his journey home was made all the more uncomfortable. As reported by Vannes, over the next two weeks Courtenay's condition worsened and he died on 18 September 1556.
Monument at Padua
He was buried in a temporary tomb in the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua in Padua, and in the Chapel of the Crucifix of that building survived in 1869 the inscription: ODOARDO COURTENAI 1556. His remains were removed from the Basilica at some unknown date to a location unknown. However an elaborate epitaph in Latin verse "in print only and not in marble" was written by Bernardo Giorgio, Podestà of Padua, who shared the suspicion that he had been poisoned, and was published in 1560 by Bernardo Scardeoni, a Canon of Padua. The epitaph was repeated by Camden (d. 1623) in his Remains Concerning Britain, "more for his (i.e. the Earl's) honour than the elegancy of the verse" and by other authors including Prince in his Worthies of Devon. It was deemed by Lodge (1823) to "afford from a somewhat singular source a corroboration of some of the most important circumstances of a story involved in much uncertainty and frequently disfigured by wilful misrepresentation".
Anglia quem genuit fueratque habitura patronum,
CORTONEUM celsa haec continet arca ducem.
Credita causa necis regni affectata cupido,
Reginae optatum tunc quoque connubium.
Cui regni proceres non-consensere Philippo
Reginam regi jungere posse rati.
Europam unde fuit juveni peragrare necesse,
Ex quo mors misero contigit ante diem.
Anglia si plorat defuncto principe tanto,
Nil mirum domino deficit illa pio.
Sed jam CORTONEUM caelo fruiturque beatis,
Cum doleant Angli cum sine fine gemant.
Cortonei probitas igitur praestantia nomen,
Dum stabit hoc templum vivida semper erunt;
Angliaque hinc etiam stabit stabuntque Britanni,
Conjugii optati fama perennis erit.
Improba Naturae leges Libitina rescindens,
Ex aequo juvenes praecipitatque senes".
Which was partly translated as follows by Horace Walpole in his Reminiscences (1788):
"This high chest contains the duke of Courtenay, born in England, of which country he had a prospect of becoming the master. The supposed cause of his death was his ambition to seize the throne, by marrying the queen; but the peers would not consent, preferring Philip, a royal husband. Hence it became necessary for the youth to travel through Europe; and, in consequence, he perished by a premature death. It is not surprising that England should lament the fate of such a prince, and droop as for the death of her pious lord. But Courtenay now enjoys the happy society of Heaven, while the English lament and groan without end... etc."
The last 6 lines untranslated by him may be continued thus:
"While the name of Courtenay stands in this temple probity and excellence will always be animated. And England stands and the British will stand ... shall be lasting of the desired union ... the fame will be lasting. Wicked Libitina (goddess of corpses) repealing the laws of Nature, casts down likewise the young and old"
Succession
He was unmarried and childless at the time of his death. The manor and Castle of Tiverton and his other numerous estates devolved to his distant cousins, descended from the four sisters of his great-grandfather Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon (d.1509), all children of Sir Hugh Courtenay (d.1471) of Boconnoc in Cornwall and his wife, Margaret Carminow. These four sisters were as follows:
Elizabeth Courtenay, wife of John Trethurffe of Trethurffe in the parish of Ladock, Cornwall.
Maud Courtenay, wife of John Arundell of Talvern
Isabel/Elizabeth Courtenay, wife of William Mohun of Hall in the parish of Lanteglos-by-Fowey in Cornwall, a descendant of John Mohun (d.1322) of Dunster Castle in Somerset, feudal baron of Dunster by his wife Anne Tiptoft. In 1628 her descendant John Mohun (1595–1641) was created by King Charles I Baron Mohun of Okehampton, his ancestor having inherited as his share Okehampton Castle and remnants of the feudal barony of Okehampton, one of the earliest possessions of the Courtenays. The Mohuns' held the manor of Boconnoc not (as might be expected) as a share of the Courtenay inheritance, but by lease from the Russell Earl of Bedford.
Florence Courtenay, wife of John Trelawny
Thus the Courtenay estates were divided into four parts. On the death of Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon, in 1556, the actual heirs to his estates were the following descendants of the four sisters above:
Reginald Mohun (1507/8-67) of Hall in the parish of Lanteglos-by-Fowey in Cornwall, who inherited Okehampton Castle and Boconnoc. His descendant was John Mohun, 1st Baron Mohun of Okehampton (1595–1641) who was elevated to the peerage by King Charles I as Baron Mohun of Okehampton, in recognition of his ancestor having inherited Okehampton Castle as his share of the Courtenay inheritance.
Margaret Buller;
John Vivian;
John Trelawny;
The Courtenay Faggot
The Courtenay Faggot was a mysterious naturally misshapen piece of wood split at the ends into four sticks, one of which again split into two, supposedly kept as a valued possession by the Courtenay Earls of Devon. It was later interpreted as an omen of the end of the line of Courtenay Earls of Devon via four heiresses. It was seen by the Cornish historian Richard Carew (d.1620) when visiting Hall, then the dower house of Margaret Reskimer, the widow of Sir William Mohun (d.1588), MP, of Hall, the great-grandson of Elizabeth Courtenay, who described it in his Survey of Cornwall as follows:
"A farre truer foretoken touching the Earle of Devon's progeny I have seen at this place of Hall, to wit, a kind of faggot, whose age and painting approveth the credited tradition that it was carefully preserved by those noble men. But whether upon that prescience or no, there mine author fails me. This faggot being all one peece of wood, and that naturally growen, is wrapped about the middle part with a bond and parted at the ends into foure sticks, one of which is againe sub-divided into other twayne. And in semblable maner the last Erle's inheritance accrued unto 4 Cornish gent(lemen): Mohun, Trelawny, Arundell of Talverne and Trethurffe. And Trethurffe's portion Courtenay of Ladocke and Vivian do enjoy, as descended from his two daughters and heires".
Portraits
Sr. Antonio More. The best known portrait of Courtenay, bearded and in doublet and hose, standing before a semi-ruined castle, copied many times in oil and engravings, is by "Sr. Antonio More", at one time in the collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey. Such information is inscribed on the 1762 engraving of this picture by Thomas Chambers at the National Portrait Gallery in London, (NPG D24892) which records further the original inscription visible on the masonry to the left:
En! puer ac insons et adhuc juvenilibus annis,
Annos bis septem carcere clausus eram,
Me pater his tenuit vinclis quae filia solvit,
Sors mea sic tandem vertitur a superis.
("Behold! a guiltless boy and still in his youthful years, during twice-seven years had I been shut in prison, the father held me in these chains which the daughter released, thus at last is my fate being changed by the gods above".)
Van Der Meulen. A portrait is said to exist of Edward Courtenay (d.1556) by Steven Van Der Meulen (c1543-1564). This however is identical to that engraved by Thomas Chambers in 1762 and described by him as by "Sr. Antonio More", then in the collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey. A copy of this "Van Der Meulen" made circa 1800, measuring 42"x31¾", was offered for sale at £4,500 on 23 February 2013 by Timothy Langston Fine Art & Antiques of London at the Powderham Castle Antiques and Fine Art Fair. Several other copies exist.
Pastorino de Pastorini. The National Portrait Gallery in London owns a plaster cast of a lead commemorative medal made in Italy dated 1556, in the style of Pastorino de Pastorini, showing the head of Courtenay in profile circumscribed in capital letters in Italian spelling: Edoardo Cortneio. (National Portrait Gallery, London, NPG 2085a, 2 1/4 in. (57 mm) diameter).
Further reading
The Shadow of the White Rose, Edward Courtenay, Earl of Devon 1526–1556. James D. Taylor Jr., Algora publishing 2006. . 248 pages.
See also
Nicodemite
References
1526 births
1556 deaths
Edward Courtenay, 1st Earl of Devon
Earls of Devon (1553 creation)
Peers of England created by Mary I
16th-century English nobility
Burials at the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua
16th-century English landowners
Court of Mary I of England
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5167559
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage%20stamps%20of%20Ireland
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Postage stamps of Ireland
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The postage stamps of Ireland are issued by the postal operator of the independent Irish state. Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland when the world's first postage stamps were issued in 1840. These stamps, and all subsequent British issues, were used in Ireland until the new Irish Government assumed power in 1922. Beginning on 17 February 1922, existing British stamps were overprinted with Irish text to provide some definitives until separate Irish issues became available. Following the overprints, a regular series of definitive stamps was produced by the new Department of Posts and Telegraphs, using domestic designs. These definitives were issued on 6 December 1922; the first was a 2d stamp, depicting a map of Ireland (including Northern Ireland, which remained a part of the United Kingdom). Since then new images, and additional values as needed, have produced nine definitive series of different designs.
These were the major stamp productions for everyday use. Commemorative stamps first appeared in 1929, and these now appear several times a year, celebrating many aspects of Irish life, such as notable events and anniversaries, Irish life and culture, and many famous Irish people. Some definitive and commemorative stamps have been produced in miniature sheet, booklet and coil configurations in addition to the common sheet layout. Postage dues and airmails complete the stamp issues of the two, sequential, Irish stamp-issuing authorities. Two styles of watermark were used though the overprinted issues came with the watermarks of the British stamps provided for overprinting by the British Post Office.
Oifig an Phoist, the Irish Post Office, was the section of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs which issued all Irish stamps up to 1984. After the division of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs into two semi-state organisations in 1984, An Post took over the responsibility for all Irish postal services including the issuing of postage stamps.
Background
British stamps used in Ireland
To identify postage stamps used in Ireland between 1840 and 1922, it is necessary to identify the postmark cancelling the stamp as being from an Irish town. Stamps used during this period are referred to as Great Britain used in Ireland.
From 1840 to 1844, the Penny Black, and other stamps issued, were obliterated with the Maltese Cross cancellation. There was no text or numeral to help identify any of these cancels as Irish, but some Maltese Crosses are uniquely identifiable with certain Irish towns, including Belfast, Eyrecourt, Cork, Hollymount, Limerick and Mullingar. From 1844 on, the cancels used included text or numerals that identified the post town. Cancels of both types are easier to identify if the stamp is still affixed to a cover, since this makes the complete postmark visible, but a stamp no longer affixed to a cover may still permit identification of the town of use if enough of the postmark can be seen on the stamp itself. Numerals of Irish town cancels were uniquely set in a 4 pointed diamond shape whereas town cancels in England and Wales used an oval shape and Scotland used a rectangular form.
Stamp issuing authorities
Between 1922 and 1983 Oifig an Phoist, the Irish Post Office, a section of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs (P&T), issued all postage stamps in the 26 counties of Ireland. During this time they employed some of the following companies to overprint or print the stamps: Dollard, Thom, Irish Government Printers, Waterlow and Sons (London), De La Rue and Co., Bradbury Wilkinson and Co., Ltd., (London), Harrison and Sons Ltd., (London) and Irish Security Stamp Printing Ltd. Since 1984, An Post has issued all Irish postage stamps. Most have been printed by Irish Security Stamp Printing Ltd., though a small number were printed by Harrison and Sons Ltd., (London), Questa, Walsall Security Printing, Prinset Pty Ltd., (Australia) and SNP Cambec (Sprintpak) (Australia).
Forerunners
In stamp collecting circles, the word forerunner usually describes a postage stamp used during the time period before a region or territory issues stamps of its own. However, in Irish reference books, such as Handbook of Irish Philately, the term forerunners usually refers to political and propaganda labels. These often resemble stamps, but few of them were used on Irish mail and they had no legal standing for mail in Ireland. Four values, 1c, 3c, 24c (deep-green), and 24c (mauve-purple) were produced in New York by the Irish veterans of the US Civil War and are known as the 1865–67 Fenian issue. The 1893 colonial design are unofficial essays and are classed as bogus.
Between 1907 and 1916, Sinn Féin, one of the nationalist organisations of the time, issued propaganda labels symbolising Irish nationhood. Their use as stamps was forbidden by Post Office regulations. The first design was a Celtic Cross, similar to one later adopted for two definitive stamps of 1923, and the second depicts a female figure and harp in an oval frame. In 1912, labels inscribed "Imperial Union" appeared, with a design of a larger harp and female figure. These labels, expressing unionist sentiments, are believed to have been printed in Manchester as a counter to the Sinn Féin labels. After the Home Rule Bill for Ireland was passed in parliament, an Irish Republican body issued labels in 1916 with the portraits of three nationalist heroes known as The Manchester Martyrs against an Irish tricolour background. Forgeries of these labels are common. Following the Easter Rising of 1916, American sympathisers printed eight ERIE PUIST labels showing portraits of seven prominent leaders and a harp and shamrock label. The misspelling ERIE for ÉIRE could have been because of hasty preparation.
The Irish Republican Army, that controlled much of the southern part of the country during the Irish civil war, issued a 1d, 2d and 6d label, mainly because of a stamp shortage. These were printed in Cork and were to be put on sale in August 1922, but in the meantime the Irish Free State army landed near Cork and the IRA set fire to their own barracks before they retreated from Cork, destroying most of the labels.
Essays
The Postmaster General of the Irish Free State issued an invitation to firms in Dublin and London on 1 February 1922 for the submission of designs for a permanent definitive stamp issue,and by March several designs had been submitted. The following companies and printers provided essays: Dollard Printing House Ltd., Hely Ltd., Perkins Bacon & Co., and O'Loughlin, Murphy & Boland.
Postage stamps
Overprints
In 1922, as an interim measure before the first specially designed definitives were ready, a series of contemporary stamps of King George V were overprinted. The unoverprinted stamps were issued and in use in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland between 1912 and 1922 and continued in use in Great Britain and Northern Ireland until 1936. Three printing firms held overprinting contracts: Dollard Printing House Ltd., Alex. Thom & Co Ltd., and Harrison & Sons. In June 1925 the Government Printers, Dublin Castle, obtained the contract and completed all overprinting until 1937, when the final, high-value stamps were issued. Unoverprinted postal stationery and labels remained on sale until 1925.
Collecting and identifying the overprints can be an arduous task as there are numerous variations in the overprint settings. Feldman states "the complex details of plating, shading, overprint colours, accurate measurements, to mention a few, often discourage even the most enthusiastic collector". Three specialised books, or catalogue chapters, (Freeman & Stubbs, Munk and Meredith), issued within five years of issue have concentrated on this topic and Meredith is regarded as unequalled.
Two distinct overprints were made, before and after the formal independence of the state on 6 December 1922. The Provisional Government of Ireland (Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann) overprints were initially issued on 17 February 1922, with eight low-value and three high-value stamps overprinted by Dollard and four by Thom. This overprint is composed of the four words Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann and the numeral date 1922 arranged in five lines of seriffed text. The unoverprinted stamps remained valid for postage in Ireland until 31 March 1922.
The Irish Free State (Saorstát Éireann) overprints debuted on 11 December 1922. This is a three-line overprint using a sans-serif typeface and was done by Thom, Harrison and the Government Printers. The last overprinted stamps were the Waterlow & Sons re-engraved King George V 2/6, 5/- and 10/- values that appeared in 1934 and were overprinted in 1937 for use in Ireland.
Name of state
On stamps, the name of the state has always been written in Irish and seldom written in English. The overprints were stamped first Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann ("Provisional Government of Ireland") and later Saorstát Éireann ("Irish Free State"). Subsequent stamps nearly all used the name Éire ("Ireland"), even though this was not the official name of the state until the 1937 Constitution took effect. The exceptions were issued in 1949 and 1950, and used POBLAĊT NA hÉIREANN or Poblacht na h-Éireann ("Republic of Ireland"). This phrase is the official description of the state specified in the Republic of Ireland Act, which came into force in April 1949; the state's official name was not changed by the Act. Fianna Fáil defeated the outgoing government in the 1951 election and abandoned the use of the description, reverting to the name on stamps and elsewhere. Originally, Éire was written in Gaelic type; from 1952 to 1979, many stamps had the name of the state in Roman type, usually in all caps, and often written EIRE rather than ÉIRE, omitting the síneadh fada accent over the initial 'E'. In 1981 the Department of Posts and Telegraphs recommended the inclusion of the word "Ireland" along with "Éire" on stamps but the Department of the Taoiseach vetoed the idea on the basis it could cause "constitutional and political repercussions" and that "the change could be unwelcome."
Definitives
Since 1922, nine Irish definitive stamp series have been released. Besides different designs, there were changes involving the watermark and eventually doing away with watermarked paper, changes in currency were also reflected on the stamps: decimalisation in 1971, and Euro changeover in 2002.
The first twelve stamps, the low values up to 1 shilling, were issued during 1922–1923, while the three high values, 2/6, 5/- and 10/-, did not appear until 8 September 1937. Designs included: Sword of Light, Map of Ireland, Celtic Cross, Arms of the Four Provinces and St. Patrick. Watermark and extra values were made until new designs, known as the Gerl definitives, using early Irish art motifs, were produced in 1968. These were the first new designs in 31 years for the high values and 46 years for the low values. The Gerl series was denominated initially in pre-decimal Irish pounds and later in decimal currency (both watermarked issues). It latterly appeared as unwatermarked stamps.
Between 1982 and 1988 a series based on Irish architecture through the ages was released, with line drawings by Michael Craig and graphics by Peter Wildbur. It contained twenty-eight stamps, with values ranging from 1p to £5. Stamps based on Irish cultural heritage followed between 1990 and 1995. Irish birds feature in the 1997 series that span the conversion of currency from the Irish pound, through dual currency to the introduction of the Euro. These were the first definitives where all values were printed in full colour. On 9 September 2004 new stamps, featuring flowers native to the woodlands and hedgerows of Ireland, become available. These were replaced in September 2010 by a seventh series featuring animals and marine life using photographic images.
For the centenary of the 1916 Easter Rising an eighth series of definitive stamps were issued on 21 January 2016 and will only be on sale for a period of one year. There are sixteen stamps divided into four groups of four categories named as: Leaders and Icons, Participants, Easter Week and The Aftermath.
Following the withdrawal of the limited edition 1916 commemoration definitives, the ninth series made its debut on 13 January 2017 with an initial twelve designs based on objects described in A History of Ireland in 100 Objects, a book by Fintan O'Toole. The introduction included eight different SOAR stamps (Stamps on a Roll), a range of coil stamps, and a domestic and a foreign rate stamp booklet that each illustrate different objects. Some of the objects illustrated are the Tara Torcs, Broighter Boat and Old Croghan Man Armlet. The balance of the series were to be issued over the next five years and in July 2020 Phase IV of the ninth series were made available as eight new stamps illustrated the following objects: the Ballinderry Sword, the four-metre long Waterford Charter Roll, dating from 1215 to 1373, an original 15th or 16th century Gallowglass gravestone (extant in Clonca, County Donegal), the 1790s Robert Emmet’s Ring, a 19th century cooking pot from the National Museum of Ireland, a 1911 Titanic launch ticket, a washing machine and a Pentium processor.
Several Irish definitives have been issued in booklet and coil formats in addition to the normal sheet configuration.
Commemoratives
Irish postage stamps have been released to commemorate a wide variety of Irish topics, such as Irish notable events and anniversaries, aspects of Irish life and culture, famous Irish people (statesmen, religious, literary and cultural figures, athletes, etc.), fauna and flora, works of art, and Christmas. Europa postage stamps have been issued since 1960 to celebrate membership of the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations (CEPT), and international events have also been commemorated, such as the Constitution of the United States in 1939 or more recently, in 2016, the World War I, Battle of the Somme.
The first commemorative, a set of three Daniel O'Connell stamps, appeared on 22 June 1929. Until the mid-1990s, with only three exceptions in 1943, 1977 and 1979 for Douglas Hyde, Louis le Brocquy and Pope John Paul II respectively, it was policy to not depict living persons. This policy has been put aside and since 1995 there have been several such issues, mainly depicting athletes; for instance 30 stamps were issued showing living Irish sportsmen for the Millennium and several golfers are shown on three 2006 Ryder Cup stamps. More recently, stamps have featured U2, Thin Lizzy and Irish rugby players and coach, such as Johnny Sexton and Joe Schmidt.
Miniature sheets
Some stamps were issued in the form of a miniature sheet comprising from one to fours stamps of a single, or multiple, design from one issue printed on the same sheet and sold in that format and up to July 2019, 114 miniature sheets had been issued. Larger sheets of up to sixteen are known as souvenir sheets. The miniature and souvenir sheets are most often produced in addition to the same designs issued as single stamps. The first miniature sheet of four stamp on stamp postage stamps was issued in 1972 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first Irish postage stamp. This was followed by a four-stamp sheet to commemorate the bicentenary of the United States Declaration of Independence; the stamps in this sheet were also available as single stamps. A set of four stamps showing Irish wildlife was issued in sheet form and also as single stamps in 1980. Since 1983 miniature sheets have been produced with increasing frequency, from an initial issue of one per year to multiple sheets more recently.
Airmails
Seven Irish airmail stamps were issued between 1948 and 1965 in the 1d, 3d, 6d, 8d, 1/-, 1/3 and 1/5 values. In 1968 they were withdrawn with the issuance of the second definitive stamp series. No specific airmail rate existed for the 1d and 3d stamps; all others paid a contemporaneous rate when first produced. These were the only airmail stamps ever issued but many definitives and commemoratives have been produced in values that paid the postage rate for airmail service. The stamps were designed by Richard J. King and recess printed by Waterlow and Sons, London, until 1961, and thereafter by De La Rue & Co, Dublin. The designs feature the Flight of the Angel Victor – Messenger of St. Patrick – carrying the Voice of the Irish 'Vox Hiberniæ' over the world flying over four well-known Irish historical landmarks, one from each of the four provinces of Ireland: Lough Derg (3d and 8d values), Rock of Cashel (1d, 1/3 and 1/5 values), Glendalough (1/- value) and Croagh Patrick (6d value). These were printed in sheets of 60 stamps with an 'e' watermark.
Postage dues
Surcharges imposed by the Irish post office on mail bearing insufficient pre-paid postage had the postage due collected by the use of these labels. Since 1925 there have been six series printed, with the design remaining the same until 1980, though the colour and watermarks have changed. The Irish word pingin, for penny, is used in both £.s.d and decimal currency, but because it has the same meaning in each, the value on the label does not indicate whether the label was issued before or after decimalisation. Hence, identifying the issue of a label requires further information: if collectors knows the date of use, the existence of a watermark and if so which type, and the specific colour, identification will be easier. For example, the 3d value was blue between 1940 and 1969, and stone colour from 1971 until 1980; it changed from a watermarked to a non-watermark paper in 1978. Additionally, the 1, 5 and 8 pence values are seen in two different colours depending on the issue, while the d, 1d, 2d and 6d are seen with both watermark varieties. Except for the sixth issue, which has the word Éire in the design, there is no explicit country identity on any of the others. The first four series use only Irish words.
Sterling issues
The first issue consisted of four values released on 20 February 1925; d, 1d, 2d and 6d. Typographed by the Government Printers in Dublin Castle on 'se' watermarked paper. The sheets were printed in larger sheets of 180 divided into three panes of 60 labels. The second issue had ten values: d, 1d, 1d, 2d, 3d, 5d, 6d, 8d, 10d and 1/-, and were printed on 'e' watermarked paper between 1940 and 1969. Other details are the same.
Decimal issues
A third issue was made up of seven labels and issued in decimal currency in the following values: 1p, 1p, 3p, 4p, 5p, 7p and 8p. In the fourth issue the 3p, 4p and 5p values were reissued in non-watermarked paper on 20 March 1978. A new design, printed by photogravure, and appeared on 20 June 1980 in ten values: 1p, 2p, 4p, 6p, 8p, 18p, 20p, 24p, 30p and 50p made up the fifth issue. The sheet format was two panes of 100 divided by a gutter margin. The sixth issue consisted of ten newly designed labels by Q Design and lithographically printed by ISSP on non-watermarked paper on 6 October 1988: the values were: 1p, 2p, 3p, 4p, 5p, 17p, 20p, 24p, 30p, 50p and £1. In 1993 an experimental franking machine was used as a short-lived replacement but no more postage dues or Euro denominated postage dues have been produced though between 1993 and 1997 though few such machine produced labels have been recorded in commercial usage.
Booklets
Stamp booklets were first put on sale on 21 August 1931. Booklet construction was a lightweight cardboard cover stitched on the left-hand side with panes of stamps (usually four panes), advertising panes and interleaving bound in. Until 1956 most booklets had half of the front cover devoted to advertising, and until 1963 booklets also had serial numbers on the front cover: two numbers indicated the year of issue and serial number (in that order on the early issues but with the order reversed for later issues), until 1963 when the serial numbers ceased.
Since 1983, most booklets are no longer stitched; the stamp pane, or panes, are glued into a folded card cover.
Until 1988, when the Dublin Millennium booklet containing commemorative stamps was issued, all booklets contained only definitive stamps. Since then, An Post has issued both commemorative and definitive booklets, with three times as many commemorative booklets issued. In 1990 An Post issued the first booklet mixing definitive and commemorative stamps in one booklet and also on a single pane.
Many booklet stamps can be identified by one non-perforated edge, though a few are perforated on all edges. On booklets up to 1977, the printing plate construction enabled both upright and inverted watermarks in equal quantities owing to a gutter dividing rows 6 and 7 in the sheets of 12 × 10 stamps. The gutter was used for stitching during assembly, requiring rows 4–6 and 10–12 to be turned through 180 degrees so those panes could be stitched on the left of the booklet.
Watermarks
The Irish overprinted stamps came, as supplied from the printers in London, with a watermark of the Royal Cypher of George V. The first Irish watermark was a stylised design of the two overlapping letters 's' and 'e' making an 'se' watermark representing the name of the country Saorstát Éireann. This watermark was discontinued around 1940 when the country's name changed to Éire (Ireland); it was replaced with e watermark paper to represent Éire. Stamps of the period may have the watermark in any of several states of inversion and rotation attributable to the way the paper was fed into the printing machines. Around 1971, the use of watermarks was discontinued by the Irish stamp-issuing authority, with the 4th definitive series and the stamps commemorating the 50th death anniversary of Kevin Barry in 1970 except for the Gerard Dillon contemporary art stamp in 1972.
Postal stationery
Postal stationery have been produced in the form of registered envelopes, postal cards, envelopes, letter cards, newspaper wrappers, airletters and telegram forms with different designs of impressed stamp applied to show that postage had been pre-paid. Except for limited early usage of previously issued British postal stationery, which were not overprinted like the postage stamps, all post-paid impressed stamps before 1984 were based on variations of a design showing the country's name in Irish, Éire, with appropriate values in text and numeral tablets centred around an Irish harp motif. This was initially superseded by a shamrock design that later became loosely based on the logo of wavy lines and the word POST used by An Post from 1984. An Post has also used some designs based on postage stamps as post-paid impressed stamps on Irish postal stationery.
A few early issued items were embossed but generally the post-paid impressed stamps were typographed. The Revenue Stamping Branch, Dublin Castle, applied the impressed indicia until 1984, when An Post employed the lithographic printing method.
Official
At independence, a King George V 5-pence registered envelope and 1-shilling telegram form were printed in green for use in Ireland until domestic products became available. Irish telegram forms were only produced in 1/- and 1/6 values. Registered envelopes have appeared in many values and sizes. The printed (but non-stamped) registered envelopes were produced by private firms and stored by the Irish post office until needed, so envelopes from former periods, showing outdated fees in the text, often received an impressed stamp for the current postal rate, creating many subtypes for collectors. Other products have carried post-paid imprint, such as commemorative and special issue postcards, including a series of St. Patrick's Day cards issued annually since 1984.
Up to 1987, airletters (also known as aerogrammes) were produced without any fee applied and were available free from post offices upon payment of the appropriate rate in force for the postage stamp purchased to mail the airletter. Most airletters with a pre-paid indicia have been sold at a small premium over the then-current aerogramme postal rate.
Stamped-to-order
Known as the stamping privilege, companies, associations and individuals were permitted to submit their own designed and pre-printed envelopes, cards, letter sheets, etc., to the Irish Post Office for impressing with an official post-paid indicia. Window envelopes were popular for printed matter rate mail. The most prolific user was the Electricity Supply Board which used meter reading and appointment cards for over forty years.
Stamped-to-order postal stationery users included Blackrock College, Córas Iompair Éireann, Esso, Great Northern Railway, and John Player & Sons, Dublin. No stamped-to-order registered envelopes are recorded by Jung. Apparently An Post have withdrawn the stamping privilege without any public notice, because stamped-to-order postal stationery has seldom been seen since An Post took control of the Irish Post Office in 1984, with only five users recorded by Jung. Between 1963 and 2000 a few philatelically influenced items are known produced by only six users.
Collecting Irish stamps
Newly issued Irish postage stamps are available from the Philatelic Bureau of An Post in the Dublin, General Post Office. Commemorative and special issue stamps are usually available for one year from the date of issue. Until the mid-1960s the Irish stamp-issuing policy was very conservative, with only a few new ones each year; up to four or five commemoratives, usually of two values, plus the occasional updated, or new, definitives. During the late 1960s and beyond, the issue quantity produced rose considerably as many as eighteen in 2018. There are two specialised publications that quote quantities printed that were available from the issuing authority. Five issues had low printing numbers from 850,320–940,140 and the 1961 St. Patrick 8d value only lists 500,160 copies. Many collectors concentrate on one type of stamp, such as definitives or commemoratives, or even one issue, such as Gerl definitives, confirmed by three definitive issue specialty publications. The First Day covers, especially commemoratives with full sets affixed, are popular though the older issues are harder to find because less than a million of the high value stamps were printed in the early years (1929–1940s) for several issues, a far lower number than the 20-plus millions printed for most of the low values during the same period.
The overprints, which proved very popular during their early years, are a complex topic giving an advanced collector a great philatelic challenge.
Numbering systems
The Irish Post Office has never publicised an official stamp numbering system for the postage stamps they issued, so collectors use a stamp numbering system from one of the most popular stamp catalogues, such as Stanley Gibbons, Scott, MacDonnell Whyte, MDW (last edition 1991), Hibernian or Michel. There are differences between these numbering systems that result in a varying sequence of stamps in each listing, with some stamps included on some lists but not on others—usually varieties that the publishers think do not belong in a general catalogue. For instance, Ireland's first postage stamp, the 2d Map of Ireland, issued in 1922 is numbered 68 by Scott, 43 by Michel, D4 by Hibernian and MacDonnell Whyte and 74 by Stanley Gibbons.
Collectors tend to use the catalogues produced in their own region and language, so in the United States, Scott is used most often as evidenced by the use of Scott numbers in American stamp auction catalogues. In contrast, SG numbers are used in England and Ireland because Stanley Gibbons (a British publisher) produces the catalogue of choice in those countries. Advanced and more specialist collectors have used the David Feldman, later called MacDonnell/Feldman, and later again called MacDonnellWhyte, catalogues between 1978 and 1991, and Hibernian catalogues (1972, 1976, 1980, 1983, 1985, 1986, 2002, 2009 and 2020 editions).
Stamp societies
Local societies
DSS, Dublin Stamp Society, founded in 1948.
IPS, Irish Philatelic Society, is more than a century old, having started as the Irish Philatelic Club following a meeting in Dublin on 12 February 1901, of nineteen people who responded to a notice in the Irish Times.
International societies
ÉPA, Éire Philatelic Association, is a US-based Irish philatelic society.
IPC, Irish Philatelic Circle, is a British-based Irish philatelic society.
FAI, Forschungs- und Arbeitsgemeinschaft Irland e.V., is a German-based Irish philatelic society.
See also
Joint issues
King George V Seahorses
Richard King (artist)
List of people on stamps of Ireland
Revenue stamps of Ireland
Timeline of postal history
References and sources
Notes
Sources
Dulin, Cyril I. (1992). Ireland's Transition: The Postal History of the Transitional Period 1922–1925. MacDonnell Whyte Ltd, Dublin, Ireland.
Related reading
Mackay, James A. (1982). Irish Postmarks Since 1840. Dumfries, Scotland: James A. Mackey.
Munk, Herbert (1941). Kohl's Briefmarken Handbuch und grosser katalog: Irish Free State (section) (English translation by H.G. Zervas ed.). Berlin: Collectors Club of New York.
Summers, Howard (2020). Bibliography of the Philately and Postal History of the British Isles. Howcom Services, Borehamwood, UK. .
External links
An Post Irish Post Office
Dr Charles Wolf's collection of Irish postage stamps Forerunners Overprints
Effects of the Partition of Ireland on the postal service (1920–1922) (archive version)
IPTA, Irish Philatelic Traders Association Irish stamp dealer's trade group (archive version)
Primary and secondary sources relating to stamps in Ireland (National Library of Ireland)
Philatelic societies
ÉPA, Éire Philatelic Association US based Irish philatelic society
FAI, Forschungs- und Arbeitsgemeinschaft Irland e.V. German based Irish philatelic society
Irish Airmail Society specialises in Irish Aerophilately
Irish Philatelic Circle British based Irish philatelic society
Republic of Ireland postal system
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5167583
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz%20Joubert%20Duquesne
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Fritz Joubert Duquesne
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Frederick "Fritz" Joubert Duquesne ( ; sometimes Du Quesne; 21 September 187724 May 1956) was a South African Boer and German soldier, big-game hunter, journalist, and spy. Many of the claims Duquesne made about himself are in dispute; over his lifetime he used multiple identities, reinvented his past at will, claimed family ties to aristocratic clans and famous people and even asserted the right to military titles and medals with no third-party verification.
Duquesne fought on the side of the Boers in the Second Boer War and as a secret agent for Germany during both World Wars. He gathered human intelligence, led spy rings and carried out sabotage missions as a covert field asset in South Africa, the United Kingdom, Central and South America, and the United States. Duquesne went by many aliases, fictionalized his identity and background on multiple occasions, and operated as a con man. As a Boer spy he was known as the "Black Panther", in World War II he operated under the code name DUNN, and in FBI files he is frequently referred to as "The Duke". He was captured, convicted, and escaped several prisons.
During the Second Boer War, Duquesne was captured and imprisoned three times by the British and once by the Portuguese, and each time he escaped. On one occasion he infiltrated the British Army, became a British officer and led an attempt to sabotage Cape Town and to assassinate the commander of the British forces, Lord Kitchener. His team was given up by an informant and all were captured and sentenced to death. He later became known as "the man who killed Kitchener" since he claimed to have guided a German U-boat to sink HMS Hampshire on which Lord Kitchener was en route to Russia in 1916, although forensics of the ship do not support this claim.
After a failed attempt to escape prison in Cape Town, Duquesne was sent to prison in Bermuda, but he escaped to the US and became an American citizen. In World War I, he became a spy and ring leader for Imperial Germany, sabotaging and destroying British merchant ships in South America with concealed bombs. After he was caught by federal agents in New York in 1917, Duquesne feigned paralysis for two years and cut the bars of his cell to make his escape, thereby avoiding deportation to the UK where he faced execution for the deaths of British sailors.
In 1932, Duquesne was again captured in New York by federal agents and charged with both homicide and for being an escaped prisoner, only this time he was set free after British authorities declined to pursue the wartime crimes. The last time Duquesne was captured and imprisoned was in 1941, when he and thirty-two other members of the Duquesne Spy Ring working for Nazi Germany were caught by William G. Sebold, a double agent with the FBI and spying for the Germans. Duquesne was later convicted in the largest espionage conviction in American history.
Between wars, Duquesne served as an adviser on big-game hunting to US President Theodore Roosevelt, as a publicist in the movie business, as a journalist, as a fictional Australian war hero and as head of the New Food Society in New York. During the Second Boer War he had been under orders to kill Frederick Russell Burnham, Chief of Scouts in the British Army, but in 1910 he worked with both Burnham and then Rep. Robert Broussard to lobby the United States Congress to fund the importation of hippopotamuses into the Louisiana bayous to solve a severe meat shortage.
Early life
Frederick Joubert Duquesne was born to a Boer family of French Huguenot origin in East London, Cape Colony, in 1877. He later moved with his parents, Abraham Duquesne and Minna Joubert, to Nylstroom in the South African Republic, where they started a farm. Abraham made his living as a hunter who also frequently traveled to sell skins, tusks and horns, and he hired local indigenous peoples to work the farm. He had two younger siblings, his sister Elsbet and his brother Pedro. He was a descendant of the French Huguenot naval commander Abraham Duquesne (1610–1688) and claimed his uncle was Piet Joubert (1831–1900), a hero in the First Boer War and Commandant-General of the South African Republic, although his family relationship is disputed.
As a youth, Duquesne became a hunter like his father. His hunting skills proved useful not only in the African veld, but also later in life when he would publish articles about and give lectures on big-game hunting. It was during one of his early hunting trips that Duquesne became interested in panthers. He observed a black panther patiently waiting motionless for the perfect time to strike while a cautious African buffalo approached and drank from a nearby water hole. The panther became his totem and its hunting style also became his. In the Second Boer War, Duquesne became known as the "Black Panther", and as a spy in the 1930s he stamped "all of his communiques to Germany with the figure of a cat, back arched and fur raised in anger."
At age 12, Duquesne killed a Zulu who attacked his mother. He used the man's assegai short sword to stab him in the stomach. Not long after the killing, a war party from a Bantu-speaking tribe attacked the area near Nylstroom, and the Duquesne family was forced to retreat to the nearby river. The family, along with six other settler families, fought a long gun battle against the Impi and Duquesne shot and killed several. When the fighting ended, his uncle Koos, his wife and their baby were all dead.
When he was aged 13, Duquesne was sent to school in England. After graduation, biographer Clement Wood states that Duquesne went to Oxford University for a year and then attended the Académie Militaire Royale in Brussels; however, his attendance records at these two institutions have never been found. Also, Duquesne himself writes that after he finished school in England he was sent to Europe to study engineering, but on the ship he met an embezzler named Christian de Vries and the two decided to take a trip around the world.
Second Anglo-Boer War
After the British invaded South Africa in 1899, Duquesne returned home to join the Boer commandos as a lieutenant attached to the staff of Commandant General Piet Joubert in Pretoria. He was wounded with a bullet through his right shoulder at the Siege of Ladysmith, but was promoted to the rank of captain in the artillery. Duquesne was captured by the English at the Battle of Colenso, but escaped in Durban.
During the British invasion of Pretoria, some of the gold from the central bank was sent by train to the small town of Machadodorp, then by road to the neutral harbor of Lourenço Marques in Portuguese East Africa (now Maputo, Mozambique) to be shipped to the Netherlands for the use of President Paul Kruger and other Boer exiles fleeing the Transvaal. A final tally showed about 1.5 million pounds (680,000 kilos) of gold bullion was removed from the South African Mint and National Bank between 29 May and 4 June 1900. Duquesne was in command of one of these large shipments of gold sent by wagon; however, this gold never made it to its destination. While in the bushveld of Portuguese East Africa, a violent disagreement broke out among the Boers. After the struggle, only two wounded Boers, Duquesne and the tottys (indigenous porters) remained alive. Duquesne ordered the tottys to hide the gold in the Caves of Leopards for safekeeping, to burn the wagons and kill the wounded. He gave the tottys all the oxen, except for one which he rode away. Historian Art Ronnie writes that the buried gold, commonly referred to as "Kruger's Millions" is only a legend; however, recently, there are reports about discoveries in South Africa of this missing gold.
Duquesne joined the Boer forces again for the Battle of Bergendal, but his unit had to fall back to Portuguese East Africa. Many were captured by the Portuguese and sent to an internment camp in Caldas da Rainha near Lisbon. For Duquesne, this would become the watershed event, as Ronnie states, "life would never be the same for him ... In a few months, he would be launched on a forty-year career as a professional spy and counterfeit hero – a man who would constantly reinvent himself to suit the needs of the moment."
At Caldas da Rainha, Duquesne charmed the daughter of one of the guards; she helped him escape to Paris, and to Aldershot in Britain. He infiltrated the British Army, then was posted to South Africa in 1901 as an officer. During this period, he marched through his hometown of Nylstroom, discovering that his parents' farm had been destroyed under Lord Kitchener's scorched earth policy. Duquesne also discovered that his sister had been raped and murdered by British troops, and his mother was interned in the Nylstroom concentration camp operated as part of Kitchener's policy. Ronnie writes: "the fate of his country and of his family would breed in him an all-consuming hatred of England" and "would turn him into what (a biographer of Duquesne) Clement Wood called: a walking living breathing searing killing destroying torch of hate".
As a British officer, Duquesne returned to Cape Town with secret plans to sabotage British installations and to assassinate Kitchener. He recruited twenty Boer men, but the group were betrayed by the wife of one. On 11 October 1901, while attending a dinner for Sir Walter Hely-Hutchinson, the Cape Colony governor, Duquesne was arrested in dress uniform for "conspiracy against the English and on (the charge of) espionage." He was court-martialled as a lieutenant in the British Army and sentenced to be shot along with his co-conspirators. The other twenty members of his team were quickly executed, but as a plea bargain, Duquesne's sentence was reduced to life in prison. In exchange, Duquesne agreed to divulge secret Boer codes and to translate several Boer dispatches. According to Ronnie, "for the rest of his life he swore he never betrayed the Boer cause but created new codes to mislead the English."
Duquesne was imprisoned in Cape Town in the Castle of Good Hope, a fortification built by the Dutch in 1666. The walls of the castle were extremely thick, yet night after night, Duquesne dug away the cement around the stones with an iron spoon. He nearly escaped one night, but a large stone slipped and pinned him in his tunnel. The next morning, a guard found him unconscious but uninjured.
Duquesne was one of many Boer prisoners sent to the Imperial fortress colony of Bermuda, an archipelago known for its frequent storm-wracked conditions, shark infested waters and dangerous reefs. According to Ronnie, Bermuda was an "impossible, hopeless, and impregnable prison of pink beaches and sunlit waters from which no prisoner could escape – or so believed the English." Duquesne escaped from several other prisoner-of-war camps, and on the night of 25 June 1902, he slipped out of his tent, climbed a barbed-wire fence, and swam 1.5 miles (2.4 km) past patrol boats and bright spot lights. He used a distant lighthouse for navigation until he arrived on the main island. He then went to the home of Anna Maria Outerbridge, a leader of a Boer Relief Committee. Outerbridge helped him escape to the port of St. George's. Another Boer Relief Committee member, Captain W. E. Meyer, arranged for his transportation off the island. Within the week, Duquesne was a passenger on a ship heading to the United States.
In the United States
After entering the country in Baltimore, Duquesne proceeded to New York City. He found employment as a journalist for the New York Herald and other newspapers by writing adventure stories. The Second Boer War ended in 1902 with the Boers signing the Treaty of Vereeniging, but with his family dead, Duquesne never returned to South Africa. While in New York, he published a novel in the French newspaper Le Petit Bleu, and two other novels published in South Africa. In 1908, he was written up in Men of America as a travelling correspondent sent to locations such as Port Arthur (now the Chinese Lüshunkou District) to report on the Russo-Japanese War, Morocco to report on the Riff Rebellion and to the Belgian Congo (now the Democratic Republic of the Congo) to accompany Sir Arthur Jones on an expedition. In June 1910 he married Alice Wortley, an American, but their marriage ended in divorce eight years later.
During the Second Boer War, Duquesne was under orders to assassinate Frederick Russell Burnham, the American acting as Chief of Scouts for the British Army. After the war, Burnham remained active in counter-espionage for the British, and much of it involved keeping track of Duquesne. In 1910 he and Representative Robert Broussard founded the New Food Supply Society to import useful African wildlife into the US as a solution to a serious American meat shortage, and Broussard selected Duquesne as an expert. In support of this plan, Broussard introduced H.R. 23261, also known as the American Hippo Bill, attempting the appropriation of $250,000 to import hippopotamus into the Louisiana bayous as a food source and to control the water hyacinth then clogging Southern river systems. Former US President Theodore Roosevelt backed the plan, as did the US Department of Agriculture, as well as editorial writers in The Washington Post and The New York Times, which praised the taste of hippopotamus as "lake cow bacon". Duquesne's expert testimony on this subject before the House Committee on Agriculture is recorded in the Congressional Record. The bill fell just short of passing, and the New Foods organization was disbanded.
During this time, Duquesne became former President Roosevelt's personal shooting instructor and accompanied him on a hunting expedition. He published several newspaper articles on Roosevelt's hunting trip to Africa, safari big game hunting in general and the heroic accomplishments of Caucasian people to bring civilization to black Africans. Duquesne became a naturalized American citizen in December 1913.
First World War
After meeting a German-American industrialist in the Midwest around 1914, Duquesne became a spy for Imperial Germany. He was sent to Brazil as "Frederick Fredericks" under the disguise of "doing scientific research on rubber plants". As an agent for German naval intelligence in South America, he was assigned to disrupt commercial traffic to countries at war with Germany. Duquesne received and delivered communiques through German embassies, and he was responsible for numerous bombings of British merchant ships. From his base in Bahia, he planted time bombs disguised as cases of mineral samples on British ships and he was credited with sinking twenty-two of them; among them were the Salvador and the Pembrokeshire. Additionally, one of his bombs killed three British sailors and nearly sank the in February 1916, and another started a fire on the Vauban.
After bombing Tennyson, MI5 (British intelligence) operating in Brazil arrested an accomplice named Bauer who identified Duquesne as both the perpetrator of the crime and the ring leader. Bauer further revealed that Duquesne was operating under his own name and two aliases, George Fordam and Piet Niacud. Niacud is the pronunciation of Duquesne reversed. British intelligence confirmed that Duquesne was "a German intelligence officer ... involved in a series of acts of sabotage against British shipping in South American waters during the war". His cover now blown, Duquesne moved to Buenos Aires, Argentina, and several weeks later placed an article in a newspaper reporting his own death in Bolivia at the hands of Amazonian natives.
Duquesne evaded British intelligence in South America and returned to New York around May 1916. Using the aliases George Fordam and Frederick Fredericks, he had taken out insurance policies for the cargo he shipped and he now filed claims for the "films" and "mineral samples" lost with the ships he sank off the coast of Brazil, including Tennyson. The insurance companies were reluctant to pay and began their own investigations, which would go on for another year.
In his book The Man Who Killed Kitchener, biographer Clement Wood states that Duquesne left for Europe in June 1916 under orders from German intelligence. Duquesne posed as the Russian Duke Boris Zakrevsky and joined Lord Kitchener on HMS Hampshire in Scotland. Once on board, Duquesne signaled the German U-boat that sank the cruiser, thus killing Lord Kitchener. Duquesne made his own escape using a life raft before the ship was torpedoed and he was rescued by the U-boat. Duquesne was awarded the Iron Cross for this act, and he appears in several pictures in German uniform wearing an Iron Cross in addition to other medals. Captain Louis Botha, son of the former prime minister of South Africa General Louis Botha, further writes that "Duquesne was a great friend of the Botha family" and that Duquesne "rose from the status of a Private in the German Army to the rank of Colonel, and received the Iron Cross during the great war." The authenticity of several of these claims has been challenged by modern biographers, and the German records that would confirm or deny at least parts of these accounts are now missing and presumed destroyed during the war. According to the official story, Hamsphire was lost in a force 9 gale after striking a mine laid by the U-75, a German U-boat.
The next confirmed appearance of Duquesne is in Washington, D.C., in July 1917, not long after the US declared war on Germany. He had contacted Broussard, who by now was a United States Senator. Unaware that Duquesne was now a German spy, Broussard attempted to help him obtain a position with General George Washington Goethals, the acting US Army Quartermaster and former chief engineer of the Panama Canal, but he was not successful. Additionally, Duquesne filed patents for an underwater electromagnetic mine which he then attempted to sell to the United States Navy.
As a covert spy, it was necessary for Duquesne to manipulate people, assuming new identities and cover stories. It is known that he was handsome, charismatic, intelligent, fluent in several languages and as FBI Agent Raymond Newkirk observed, "the Duke was a very interesting talker but he always had to be the center of attention." Duquesne also sometimes took his deceptions further than seems necessary.
With the advent of World War I, Duquesne's stories of great white hunters and African safaris no longer fascinated the American public, and when he returned to New York he was dropped from the lecture circuit. To get back on stage he needed new material, so with the help of German intelligence he re-invented himself and pretended to be an Allied war hero, Captain Claude Stoughton of the Western Australian Light Horse regiment, a man who claimed to have "seen more war than any man at present" and claimed to have been "bayoneted three times, gassed four times, and stuck once with a hook." Duquesne appeared before New York audiences dressed in uniform as Stoughton to tell them war stories, promote the sale of Liberty Bonds and to make patriotic speeches for organizations such as the Red Cross. As historian Jon Mooallem explains it, "Captain Stoughton's career took off. His talks made decent money, his heroism earned him respect, and ladies found him alluring", and "the Black Panther was an adrenaline junkie ... his invented persona had such magnetism and such possibility, in fact, that he began deploying his alter-ego in a wide variety of personal appearances ... it is possible that Duquesne simply liked attention, the performance."
Duquesne was arrested in New York on 17 November 1917 on charges of fraud for insurance claims. At the time of his arrest, he had in his possession a large file of news clippings related to the bombing of ships, as well as a letter from the Assistant German Vice Consul at Managua in Nicaragua. The letter indicated that Duquesne was "one who has rendered considerable service to the German cause." British authorities were also looking at Duquesne as the agent responsible for "murder on the high seas, arson, faking Admiralty documents and conspiring against the Crown", and the American authorities agreed that they would extradite Duquesne to Britain, if the British sent him back afterward to serve his sentence for fraud.
1919 to 1939
After his arrest in New York, and while awaiting extradition to Britain on murder charges, Duquesne pretended to be paralyzed. He was sent to the prison ward at Bellevue Hospital. On 25 May 1919, after nearly two years of feigning paralysis and just days before his extradition, he disguised himself as a woman and escaped by cutting the bars of his cell and climbing over the barrier walls to freedom. Police Commissioner Richard E. Enright sent out the following bulletin:
This man is partly paralysed in the right leg and always carries a cane. May apply for treatment at a hospital or private physician. He also has a skin disease which is a form of eczema. If located, arrest, hold and wire, Detective Division, Police Headquarters, New York City, and an officer will be sent for him with necessary papers.
The London Daily Mail published the following on 27 May 1919:
Col. Fritz du Quesne, a fugitive from justice, is wanted by His Majesty's government for trial on the following charges: Murder on the high seas; the sinking and burning of British ships; the burning of military stores, warehouses, coaling stations, conspiracy, and the falsification of Admiralty documents.
Duquesne fled to Mexico and Europe, but in 1926 he moved back to New York and assumed a new identity as Frank de Trafford Craven. He worked for Joseph P. Kennedy's Film Booking Offices of America (FBO Pictures), and later RKO Pictures, as part of the publicity staff. As part of this job he moved back to Manhattan, where he was well-known under his real name. In 1930, Duquesne moved to the Quigley Publishing Company, a producer of movie magazines, and called himself Major Craven.
On 23 May 1932, police arrested Duquesne in the Quigley Building in New York. He was brutally interrogated by police and charged with murder on the high seas. Duquesne claimed it was a case of mistaken identity and that his name really was Major Craven. Wood had recently published The Man Who Killed Kitchener, so the police asked Wood to identify the man in custody. Wood insisted that the man was not Duquesne but rather Major Craven, whom he had known for five years. Police did not believe Wood and Agent Thomas J. Tunney was brought in to positively identify Craven as Duquesne, the same man he had arrested in 1917. Duquesne was charged with homicide and as an escaped prisoner. He was defended by Arthur Garfield Hays. After Britain declined to pursue his war crimes, noting that the statute of limitations had expired, the judge threw out the only remaining charge of escape from prison and released Duquesne.
After his release, Duquesne remained associated with the Quigley family, and he talked for hours about the methods he used to blow up ships. To verify the stories, Quigley had Duquesne meet with several experts, the most prominent of whom was Fr. Wilfrid Parsons, SJ, editor of the Jesuit magazine, America. The experts verified his command of languages, that he was widely traveled and a skilled impersonator. While the chronology was imprecise, everything Duquesne told Quigley that could be verified proved to be correct.
In the spring of 1934, Duquesne became an intelligence officer for the Order of 76, an American pro-Nazi organization, and in January 1935 he began working for the US government's Works Progress Administration. Admiral Wilhelm Canaris, head of the Abwehr (German military intelligence), knew Duquesne from his work in World War I and instructed his new chief of operations in the US, Col. Nikolaus Ritter, to make contact with Duquesne. Ritter had been friends with Duquesne back in 1931, and the two spies reconnected in New York on 3 December 1937. Ritter employed several other successful agents across the US, most notably Herman Lang, who delivered to the Germans the blueprints for the Norden bombsight, but he also made the mistake of recruiting a man who would later become a double agent, William Sebold. On 8 February 1940, Ritter sent Sebold to New York under the alias of Harry Sawyer and instructed him to set up a shortwave radio-transmitting station to establish contact with the German shortwave station abroad. Sebold was also instructed to use the code name TRAMP and to contact a fellow agent code named DUNN, who was Duquesne.
Second World War – Duquesne Spy Ring
Once the FBI discovered through Sebold that Duquesne was again in New York operating as a German spy, FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover provided a background briefing to US President Franklin Roosevelt. The dossier from that time gave a summary of Duquesne's prior history and stated that, "no information, whatsoever, concerning the whereabouts and activities of Duquesne since June 6, 1932, is possessed by the Federal Bureau of Investigation." FBI Agent Newkirk, using the name Ray McManus, was now assigned to DUNN and rented a room immediately above Duquesne's apartment near Central Park, using a hidden microphone to record his conversations. However, monitoring Duquesne's activities proved to be difficult. As Newkirk described it, "The Duke had been a spy all of his life and automatically used all of the tricks in the book to avoid anyone following him ... He would take a local train, change to an express, change back to a local, go through a revolving door and keep going on right around, take an elevator up a floor, get off, walk back to the ground, and take off in a different entrance of the building." Duquesne also informed Sebold that he was certain he was under surveillance, and he even confronted one FBI agent and demanded that he stop tracking him, a story confirmed by Newkirk.
The FBI leased three adjacent rooms in Times Square. One room would serve as Sebold's office from which he would receive intelligence reports from German spies that would later be censored by the FBI and partially transmitted by Sebold to Germany. The other two rooms were used by German-speaking FBI agents who would listen in with headphones and record the meetings using a motion picture camera behind a two-way wall mirror. The first time Duquesne arrived at Sebold's office, he surprised the FBI agents by conducting an examination of the office, opening chests, looking in corners and around mirrors, and pointedly asking Sebold, "Where are the mics?" Once he believed he was safe, Duquesne raised his pants leg and removed documents from his sock, such as: a sketch and photo of the M1 Garand semi-automatic rifle, a drawing of a new light tank design, a photo of a US Navy Mosquito boat, a photo of a grenade launcher, and reports on US tanks he had observed at bases at West Point and in Tennessee. Duquesne also described sabotage techniques he had used in earlier wars such as small bombs with slow fuses he could drop through a hole in his pants pocket, and he commented on where he might use these devices again.
Arrest and conviction
On 28 June 1941, following a two-year investigation, the FBI arrested Duquesne and thirty-two German spies on charges of relaying secret information on US weaponry and shipping movements to Germany. On 2 January 1942, less than a month after the US entered the war, all members of the Duquesne Spy Ring were sentenced to serve a total of more than 300 years in prison. They were found guilty in what historian Peter Duffy said in 2014 is "still to this day the largest espionage case in the history of the United States." One German spymaster later commented that the ring's roundup delivered 'the death blow' to their espionage efforts in the US. Hoover called his FBI swoop on Duquesne's ring the greatest spy roundup in US history. In a 1942 memo to his superiors, Admiral Canaris of the Abwehr reported on the importance of several of his captured spies by noting their valued contributions, and he writes that Duquesne "delivered valuable reports and important technical material in the original, including US gas masks, radio-controlled apparatus, leak-proof fuel tanks, television instruments, small bombs for airplanes versus airplanes, air separator, and propeller-driving mechanisms. Items delivered were labeled 'valuable', and several 'good' and 'very good'."
The 64-year-old Duquesne did not escape this time. He was sentenced to eighteen years in prison, with a two-year concurrent sentence and $2,000 fine for violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act. He began his sentence in Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas, along with fellow German spy Herman Lang. During his time in prison, he was mistreated and beaten by other inmates. In 1945, Duquesne was transferred to the Medical Center for Federal Prisoners in Springfield, Missouri, due to his failing physical and mental health. In 1954 he was released owing to ill health, having served fourteen years. His last known lecture was in 1954 at the Adventurers' Club of New York, titled "My Life – in and out of Prison".
Death
Duquesne died at City Hospital on Welfare Island (now Roosevelt Island), in New York City on 24 May 1956, at the age of 78. Cremated at Fresh Pond Crematory and Columbarium 29 May 1956, Case #110916, he was buried in New York's Potters Field.
Film Accounts
Life of Fritz Duquesne, 1920, by Flint Saturday night publishing company.
Unseen Enemy, released in 1942, is a feature film based on Duquesne and his life as a German secret agent living in the U.S. in the 1930s. Arthur D. Howden, an acquaintance and fencing opponent of Duquesne, wrote the original script in 1939, two years before Duquesne's arrest and conviction by the FBI.
The House on 92nd Street, which won screenwriter Charles G. Booth an Academy Award for the best original motion picture story in 1945. Based on the FBI Duquesne Spy Ring case with major changes story and characters. Duquesne was the inspiration for the part of Col. Hammershon, played by Leo G. Carroll.
Duquesne Case: Secret. (public domain) J Edgar Hoover narrates this 1941 documentary in which the members of the Duquesne Spy Ring are secretly filmed talking with Harry Sawyer (FBI Agent William Sebold) while exchanging money and blueprints. Duquesne looks around the room before removing military diagrams hidden in his sock. Hoover narrates: "Colonel Duquesne", "the most cautious of them all."
The Duquesne Case, Deutsche Welle Newsreel, c. 1950. (German; also translated into English, albeit poorly, and posted to YouTube).
The Man Who Would Kill Kitchener, by François Verster, a 26-minute documentary film on the life of Fritz Joubert Duquesne that won six Stone awards in 1999, and is actively being extended to 52 minutes for international audiences.
In the television episode Myth Hunters: Legend of Kruger's Millions (Season 2, Episode 9, 2014), Duquesne is played by the actor Charlie Richards.
In June 2014, RatPac Entertainment and Class 5 Films acquired the non-fiction article American Hippopotamus, by Jon Mooallem, about the meat shortage in the U.S. in 1910 and the attempts made by Duquesne, Burnham, and Congressman Robert Broussard to import hippopotamuses into the Louisiana bayous and to convince Americans to eat them. The movie will highlight the Burnham – Duquesne rivalry. Edward Norton, William Migliore and Brett Ratner will produce this feature film.
In the 2021 film The King's Man, the character of Maximillian Morton (Matthew Goode) also known as the Shepherd is based on Frederick Duquesne himself.
Works
Duquesne authored the following works:
"Why Vote for Roosevelt?", a pamphlet by: "A Democrat Capt. Fritz Duquesne", 1912. LC call number: JK2388 1912 .D8
"The Bullmoosers", sheet music by: "Captain Fritz Duquesne"
Notes
Footnotes
Source notes
References
Author
Other references
External links
FBI files on Frederick "Fritz" Duquesne
1877 births
1956 deaths
Afrikaner people
American spies for Imperial Germany
American people convicted of spying for Nazi Germany
American reporters and correspondents
British Army personnel who were court-martialled
Escapees from British military detention
Escapees from United States federal government detention
People from East London, South Africa
People from Roosevelt Island
Prisoners sentenced to death by the British military
South African collaborators with Nazi Germany
South African emigrants to the United States
South African escapees
South African hunters
South African fraudsters
South African Republic military personnel of the Second Boer War
South African prisoners sentenced to death
South African spies
Stockbrokers
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch%20conjugation
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Dutch conjugation
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This article explains the conjugation of Dutch verbs.
Classification of verbs
There are two different ways in which Dutch verbs can be grouped: by conjugational class and by derivation. These two categorizations describe different aspects of a verb's conjugation and therefore are complementary to each other.
By conjugational class
Dutch verbs can be grouped by their conjugational class, as follows:
Weak verbs: past tense and past participle formed with a dental suffix
Weak verbs with past in -de
Weak verbs with past in -te
Strong verbs: past tense formed by changing the vowel of the stem, past participle in -en
Class 1: pattern ij-ee-ee
Class 2: pattern ie-oo-oo or ui-oo-oo
Class 3: pattern i-o-o or e-o-o
Class 4: pattern ee-a/aa-oo
Class 5: pattern ee-a/aa-ee or i-a/aa-ee
Class 6: pattern aa-oe-aa
Class 7: pattern X-ie-X (specifically, oo-ie-oo, a-ie-a, a-i-a, ou-iel-ou, aa-ie-aa or oe-ie-oe)
Other strong verbs, which do not follow any of the above patterns
Mixed verbs
Weak past tense (-de or -te), but strong past participle (-en)
Strong past tense (vowel change), but weak past participle (-d or -t)
Irregular verbs: verbs that do not clearly conjugate as any of the above
Preterite-present verbs: verbs that originally had present tense forms identical to the past of a strong verb
Weak verbs with past in -cht
Other irregular verbs
By derivation
Another way to group verbs is by the type of derivation. The following can be distinguished:
Basic: underived, compounded, or derived without prefixation
Prefixed: with an unstressed prefix
Separable: with a stressed adverbial (or rarely object-like) prefix
Most of this article shows the conjugation of basic verbs. The differences in prefixed and separable verbs are described here, and can be applied to any verb regardless of conjugation.
Prefixed verbs
Prefixed verbs are verbs whose stem begins with an unstressed prefix. The prefix is usually one of be-, ge-, her-, ont-, ver-, but others are also possible, often derived from adverbs or prepositions. Prefixed verbs are conjugated like basic verbs, except in the past participle. In the past participle, the inflectional prefix ge- is replaced by the verb's own prefix, and it is not added on. The past participle of her-openen ("to reopen") is her-opend (not *ge-her-opend), and for be-talen ("to pay") it is be-taald (not *ge-be-taald).
In some cases, two verbs exist that are spelled identically, but with one treating an adverb as a prefix, while the other treats it as separable. Such pairs are stressed and thus pronounced differently, and accent marks are sometimes written when there is a chance of confusion: voorkómen ("to prevent", prefixed) versus vóórkomen ("to occur", separable), or onder-gáán ("to undergo", prefixed) versus ónder-gaan ("to go under, to set", separable).
Prefixed verbs can be derived from basic verbs or from another prefixed verb. With the prefix her- ("again, re-"), it is also possible to derive prefixed verbs from separable verbs, but such verbs are often defective, with the separated (V2-affected) forms often being avoided by speakers. For example, the verb her-in-richten ("to rearrange, to redecorate") is a combination of the prefix her- and the separable verb in-richten. According to the syntactical rules, this must become Ik richt de kamer herin. ("I redecorate the room"), but using herin as a separable particle is often avoided as it is not an independent word (unlike the separable particles of most other verbs). Many speakers choose to rephrase it using the adverb opnieuw ("again, anew"): Ik richt de kamer opnieuw in. In subordinate clauses or with a non-finite verb, there is less objection: Mijn vriend keek toe, terwijl ik de kamer herinrichtte. ("My friend looked on, while I redecorated the room.") or Ik heb de kamer heringericht. ("I have redecorated the room.").
Separable verbs
Separable verbs are combinations of a main verb (which can be basic or prefixed) and a particle. This particle is usually an adverb, but sometimes it can be a direct object or adjective instead. The particle is stressed more strongly than the main verb, which distinguishes separable verbs from prefixed verbs in pronunciation. The main verb of a separable verb is conjugated like it otherwise would, and can be basic (with ge- in the past participle) or prefixed (without ge-).
The particle is treated syntactically as a separate verb, and is placed before or after the main verb as syntax dictates:
When the V2 rule is in effect (in main clauses with a finite verb), the particle is placed after the main verb and separated from it with a space. It can also be separated from it by other words, just like in a sentence with multiple distinct verbs.
When the V2 rule is not applied (in subordinate clauses or with a non-finite verb), the particle is placed directly before the main verb and is attached to it without a space.
The following table shows some examples of this in practice:
{| class="wikitable"
! Infinitive
! With V2
! Without V2(subordinate clause)
! Without V2(non-finite verb)
|-
| om-vallen ("to fall over")basic main verb, strong class 7
| Ik val om.I fall over.
| Hij ziet niet dat ik om-val.He doesn't see that I fall over.
| Ik ben om-ge-vallen.I have fallen over.
|-
| uit-komen ("to come true")basic main verb, strong class 4
| Mijn wens kwam vandaag uit.My wish came true today.
| Het is ongelooflijk dat mijn wens vandaag uit-kwam.It is unbelievable that my wish came true today.
| Mijn wens is vandaag uit-ge-komen.My wish has come true today.
|-
| uit-betalen ("to pay out")prefixed main verb, weak in -d| Gisteren betaalde zij het geld uit.Yesterday she paid out the money.
| Ik weet niet of zij het geld gisteren uit-betaalde.I don't know if she paid out the money yesterday.
| Zij heeft het geld uit-betaald.She has paid out the money.
|}
Forms and endings
Dutch verbs conjugate for tense in present and past, and for mood in indicative, subjunctive and imperative. The subjunctive mood in Dutch is archaic or formal, and is rarely used. There are two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical persons. However, many forms are identical to others, so the conjugation does not have distinct forms for all possible combinations of these factors (that is, there is considerable syncretism). In particular, there is always just one form for the plural, and only in the present indicative is there a clear distinction among the different singular persons.
Each second-person pronoun may have its own form. The following can be distinguished:
singular informal jij singular and plural formal u singular and plural southern gij plural informal jullieAll regular verbs, whether weak, strong or mixed, form the present tense in the same way. This also includes the infinitive and present participle. Only the formation of the past tense differs among regular verbs, depending on whether the verb is strong, weak or mixed. The endings are as follows:
Notes:
When the stem of a verb ends in -t already, the ending -t is not added on as a word cannot end in -tt. Similarly, when the stem ends in -d the additional -d in the weak past participle is not added.
When the second-person jij-form is followed immediately by the subject pronoun itself (jij or je), it loses its -t: Jij werkt → Werk jij? ("You work" → "Do you work?"). The -t is present in all other cases.
The additional -t of the second-person gij-form is optional in the past tense for weak verbs and is usually considered archaic. For strong verbs, the -t is always required.
The prefix ge- of the past participle is not added when the verb is a prefixed verb. See above for more information.
All forms of a given regular verb can be predicted from just three forms, or sometimes four. These are the principal parts of a verb.
The infinitive, which represents the present tense.
The past singular, which represents the past tense (except the past participle).
The past plural, for some strong verbs. Normally, the past plural can be predicted from the past singular, but in class 4 and 5 strong verbs, the past singular has a short vowel while it is long in the plural. The past subjunctive singular, and the past indicative second-person singular gij form have the same long vowel as the past plural, if it is distinct.
The past participle, by itself.
In the sections that follow, only the principal parts of each verb are given when this is sufficient to describe the full conjugation of the verb.
Present tense
As noted above, the present tense of all regular verbs is formed the same, and follows the same rules. The following table shows the conjugation of two verbs in the present tense:
If the stem ends in -v or -z, then these are spelled -f and -s at the end of a syllable.
If the stem ends in -t, then no additional -t ending is added when this would otherwise be required, as a word cannot end in a double consonant (-tt in this case) in Dutch spelling. This makes all present singular forms identical.
Past tense
The past tense is formed differently depending on whether the verb is weak, strong or mixed.
Weak verbs
Weak verbs are the most common type of verb in Dutch, and the only productive type (all newly created verbs are weak). They form their past tense with an ending containing a dental consonant, -d- or -t-.
Whether -d- or -t- is used depends on the final consonant of the verb stem. If the stem ends in a voiceless consonant, then -t- is used, otherwise -d-. It is often summarised with the mnemonic "'t kofschip": if the verb stem ends with one of the consonants of 't kofschip (t, k, f, s, ch, p), then the past tense will have -t-. However, it also applies for c, q and x and any other letter that is voiceless in pronunciation.
The following tables show the past tense forms of a weak verb with a past tense in -d- (stem does not end in voiceless consonant), and with a past tense in -t- (stem ends in voiceless consonant).
If the stem ends in -v or -z, then these are spelled -f and -s at the end of a syllable, as in the present tense. However, they are still pronounced as voiced and when the past tense ending is added, so the stem is still considered voiced, and the past endings have -d-:
leven, leefde, geleefd ("to live")
blozen, bloosde, gebloosd ("to blush")
If the stem ends in -d or -t, then no ending is added in the past participle, as a word cannot end in a double consonant (-dd- or -tt in this case) in Dutch spelling. The past tense stem will be pronounced the same as the present, but it is still spelled with -dd- or -tt-, even when the spelling rules would allow this to be simplified. Thus:
baden, baadde, gebaad ("to bathe").
redden, redde, gered ("to save, to rescue").
praten, praatte, gepraat ("to talk").
zetten, zette, gezet ("to set, to place").
Compare this to English set, which has a similar homophony between present and past.
Strong verbs
Strong verbs form their past tenses by changing the vowel of the stem, a process known as ablaut. There are far fewer strong verbs than weak verbs in Dutch, but many of the most commonly used verbs are strong, so they are encountered frequently. There are about 200 strong roots, giving rise to about 1500 strong verbs in total, if all derived verbs with separable and inseparable prefixes are included.
Strong verbs use a different set of endings from weak verbs. However, the same rules for final -t, -v, -z apply.
The vowels that occur in present and past are not random, but follow clear patterns. These patterns can be divided into seven "classes", some with subgroups. Some verbs are a mixture of two classes or belong to none of the existing classes.
In the following subsections, the vowel patterns of each class are described. For clarity, long vowels are always written doubled in the patterns. In the actual conjugated verb, they will be single or double according to normal Dutch spelling rules.
Class 1
Class 1 follows the vowel pattern ij-ee-ee:
schijnen, scheen, geschenen ("to shine").
blijven, bleef, gebleven ("to stay, to remain").
Class 2
Class 2 is divided into two subclasses.
Class 2a follows the vowel pattern ie-oo-oo:
bieden, bood, geboden ("to offer").
schieten, schoot, geschoten ("to shoot").
Class 2b follows the vowel pattern ui-oo-oo:
sluiten, sloot, gesloten ("to close").
buigen, boog, gebogen ("to bend").
The verbs vriezen and verliezen show grammatischer Wechsel, with s/z changing to r in the past tense:
vriezen, vroor, gevroren ("to freeze").
verliezen, verloor, verloren ("to lose"; a prefixed verb, so no ge- in the past participle).
Class 3
Class 3 is divided into two subclasses.
Class 3a follows the vowel pattern i-o-o:
drinken, dronk, gedronken ("to drink").
binden, bond, gebonden ("to bind").
The vowel is usually followed by m or n and another consonant.
Class 3b follows e-o-o:
smelten, smolt, gesmolten ("to melt").
vechten, vocht, gevochten ("to fight").
The vowel is usually followed by l or r and another consonant.
Class 4
Class 4 follows the vowel pattern ee-a/aa-oo:
stelen, stal/stalen, gestolen ("to steal").
nemen, nam/namen, genomen ("to take").
The vowel in these verbs is usually followed by l, r, m or n and no other consonant.
The verb komen has an irregular pattern with short o in the present singular, long oo in the remaining present tense, and an additional w in the past:
kom/komen, kwam/kwamen, gekomen ("to come").
Class 5
Class 5 follows the vowel pattern ee-a/aa-ee, with the same change in length as in class 4:
geven, gaf/gaven, gegeven ("to give").
lezen, las/lazen, gelezen ("to read").
The vowel is usually followed by an obstruent consonant.
The verbs bidden, liggen and zitten follow the pattern i-a/aa-ee instead:
bidden, bad/baden, gebeden ("to pray").
liggen, lag/lagen, gelegen ("to lie (down)").
zitten, zat/zaten, gezeten ("to sit").
These three verbs are descended from the old Germanic j-present verbs, which had an additional suffix -j- before the endings in the present tense. This suffix caused doubling of the preceding consonant (the West Germanic gemination) and changed the preceding vowel from e to i.
The verb eten is regular but has an extra -g- in the past participle:
eten, at/aten, gegeten ("to eat").
Originally, it was simply geten, contracted from earlier ge-eten. An additional ge- was added on later. Compare German essen, gegessen, which shows the same development.
Class 6
Class 6 follows the vowel pattern aa-oe-aa. It is the smallest of the strong verb classes, with only a few verbs.
graven, groef, gegraven ("to dig").
dragen, droeg, gedragen ("to carry").
Class 7
Class 7 follows the vowel pattern X-ie-X, where the two X's are identical. There were originally five subgroups depending on the vowel of the present tense. Class 7a (with ee or ei in the present) has disappeared in Dutch, so only four subgroups remain.
Class 7b has oo in the present tense:
lopen, liep, gelopen ("to walk, to run").
Class 7c has a in the present tense:
vallen, viel, gevallen ("to fall").
Two verbs have shortened the past tense vowel to i:
hangen, hing, gehangen ("to hang").
vangen, ving, gevangen ("to catch").
In present tense of the verb houden, the original combination -ald- underwent L-vocalization, and became -oud-.
houden, hield, gehouden ("to hold, to keep").
It also has an alternative form which lacks -d when it occurs at the end: hou alongside the regular houd.
Class 7d has aa in the present tense:
laten, liet, gelaten ("to let, to allow").
Class 7e has oe in the present tense:
roepen, riep, geroepen ("to call").
Other strong verbs
Several strong verbs have vowel patterns that do not fit with any of the above types.
A number of class 3b strong verbs have replaced their original past tense vowel with the -ie- of class 7, creating a "hybrid" class. The past participle vowel o of class 3 remains.
helpen, hielp, geholpen ("to help")
sterven, stierf, gestorven ("to die")
werpen, wierp, geworpen ("to throw")
werven, wierf, geworven ("to recruit")
zwerven, zwierf, gezworven ("to wander, to roam")
The verb worden also belonged to class 3b, but the past and present vowels appear to have been swapped:
worden, werd, geworden ("to become").
Contrast this with German werden, which kept the older vowel.
Class 6 originally had three j-present verbs, like liggen of class 5. These verbs originally followed the pattern e-oe-aa. All three have changed this in one way or another in modern Dutch:
heffen, hief, geheven ("to lift, to raise"). This now has a class 7 past, and its past participle vowel was changed to ee.
scheppen, schiep, geschapen ("to create"). This now has a class 7 past.
zweren, zwoer, gezworen ("to swear, (an oath)"). This kept its class 6 past, but replaced the past participle vowel with the oo of class 4.
Three verbs appear to follow a class 3b pattern, but have a long vowel instead of a short one:
wegen, woog, gewogen ("to weigh"). Originally class 5.
scheren, schoor, geschoren ("to shave, to shear"). Originally class 4.
zweren, zwoor, gezworen ("to fester"). Originally class 4.
The verb uitscheiden is the only remaining class 7a verb, but it now has a class 1 past (note that ei and ij are pronounced the same):
uitscheiden, scheed uit, uitgescheiden ("to excrete"; this is a separable verb).
Even the form scheed uit is falling out of use, and is being replaced with a weak past scheidde uit, making it a mixed verb.
Mixed verbs
Some verbs have a mixture of strong and weak forms. These are called "mixed verbs" and are relatively common in Dutch. Most mixed verbs are originally strong verbs that have replaced some strong forms with weak forms. However, a few were originally weak but have become strong by analogy.
The most common type of mixed verb has a weak past tense, but a strong past participle in -en. Most mixed verbs of this type have the same vowel in the present and in the past participle, and therefore appear to be original class 6 and 7 verbs. A few still have the older strong past as an archaic form.
Mixed verbs that originally had class 6 pasts:
("to bake").
("to laugh"). The strong past still exists, but is archaic.
("to load").
("to grind").
("to fare"). The sense "to travel by boat" has a class 6 past voer.
Mixed verbs that originally had class 7 pasts:
bannen, bande, gebannen ("to ban").
brouwen, brouwde, gebrouwen ("to brew").
houwen, houwde, gehouwen ("to hew"). The strong past hieuw still exists, but is archaic.
raden, raadde, geraden ("to guess"). The strong past ried still exists.
scheiden, scheidde, gescheiden ("to separate"). But note uitscheiden has the alternative past scheed uit.
spannen, spande, gespannen ("to span, to stretch").
stoten, stootte, gestoten ("to bump, to knock"). The strong past stiet still exists, but is archaic.
vouwen, vouwde, gevouwen ("to fold"). From older vouden with loss of -d- as is common in Dutch; the past originally had like houden.
wassen, waste, gewassen ("to wash"). The strong past wies still exists, but is archaic.
zouten, zoutte, gezouten ("to salt"). The past originally had -ielt-, like houden.
Mixed verbs from other classes:
barsten, barstte, gebarsten ("to burst, to crack"). Originally class 3; the older vowels e and o changed to a in standard Dutch, but are still found in some dialects.
wreken, wreekte, gewroken ("to take revenge"). Originally class 4, like breken.
weven, weefde, geweven ("to weave"). Originally class 5, like geven.
A smaller group of verbs, all belonging to class 6, has the reverse situation. The past tense is strong, but the past participle is weak.
jagen, joeg, gejaagd ("to hunt"). The weak past jaagde also occurs.
vragen, vroeg, gevraagd ("to ask"). The weak past vraagde also occurs, rarely.
waaien, woei, gewaaid ("to blow (of the wind)"). The weak past waaide also occurs.
Irregular verbs
The following verbs are very irregular, and may not fit neatly into the strong-weak split.
An important subset of these verbs are the preterite-present verbs, which are shared by all Germanic languages. In the present tense, they originally conjugated like the past tense of a strong verb. In Dutch, this means that they lack the -t in the third-person singular present indicative, much like their English equivalents which lack the -s. Their past tense forms are weak, but irregularly so. Most of these verbs have become auxiliary verbs, so they may be missing imperative forms, and perhaps the participles as well.
zijn
The verb zijn "to be" is suppletive, and uses a different root in the present and past. Its present tense is highly irregular, and the past shows grammatischer Wechsel like the strong verb vriezen (s/z becomes r). The subjunctive mood is generally considered archaic.
hebben
The verb hebben "to have" is weak in origin, but has many other irregularities.
weten
The verb weten is regular in the present. The past ends in -st.
moeten
The verb moeten is very similar to weten.
mogen
The verb mogen is relatively regular. It has a vowel change in the present between singular and plural, reflecting the original vowel change between the singular and plural strong past. The past ends in -cht.
kunnen
The verb kunnen also has a vowel change in the present, and a variety of alternative forms. In the past tense, it has both a vowel change and, in the plural, the weak dental suffix. With 'u' and 'jij' both 'kunt' and 'kan' are possible. While 'kan' is usually used in speech, in writing 'kunt' is preferred in the Netherlands. 'Kan' is considered to be more informal.
zullen
The verb zullen is the most irregular of the preterite-presents. In the present, the forms strongly resemble those of kunnen. The past is different, and has changed earlier -old- to -oud-, and then dropped the -d- in many forms.
Like its English equivalent would, the past tense zou does not literally indicate past time. Instead, the distinction is one of certainty: the present indicates certain future time, while the past indicates a conditional event. Compare:
Zonder eten zal ik niet kunnen slapen. "Without food, I will not be able to sleep." (The speaker knows this for sure.)
Zonder eten zou ik niet kunnen slapen. "Without food, I would not be able to sleep." (The speaker expects this, hypothetically.)
willen
The verb is not a preterite-present verb in origin, but nowadays it inflects much the same.
There are two different past tense forms. The original form has a change of -old- to -oud-, like in , but this form is now considered colloquial or dialectal. The newer, regular form is considered more standard.
Contracted vowel stems
A handful of common verbs have a stem ending in a vowel in the present tense. The endings contract with the stem, losing any -e- in the ending. The following table shows an example.
The verbs have a variety of past tense forms, reflecting their differing origins:
zien, zag/zagen, gezien ("to see"). This is a class 5 strong verb that originally had -h- in the stem, which disappeared. Grammatischer Wechsel occurred in the past.
slaan, sloeg, geslagen ("to hit, to beat"). As zien, but class 6.
doen, deed, gedaan ("to do, to put"). The past looks like it's weak, but actually shows the remnants of older reduplication.
gaan, ging, gegaan ("to go"). The past comes from a different, extended form of the stem (gang-), which was class 7 like vangen and hangen.
staan, stond, gestaan ("to stand"). The past comes from a different, extended form of the stem (stand-, like the English verb).
Weak verbs with past in -cht
A few verbs form their past with irregularly because of an early Germanic development called the "Germanic spirant law". Both the vowel and the consonant change, sometimes in rather unexpected ways. However, these verbs are still weak even though the vowel changes, because the past tense and participle have a dental suffix (-t-). The vowel change is not caused by ablaut (which is the origin of the vowel changes in strong verbs), but by an entirely different phenomenon called Rückumlaut.
Six verbs have this type of conjugation. Note that their English equivalents often have similar changes.
brengen, bracht/brachten, gebracht ("to bring").
denken, dacht/dachten, gedacht ("to think").
dunken, docht/dochten, gedocht ("to seem, to be considered"). The irregular past is rare and archaic, the regular weak dunkte is more common.
kopen, kocht/kochten, gekocht ("to buy"). In this case the -cht is from earlier -ft (a regular change in Dutch).
plegen, placht/plachten, geplacht ("to do habitually"). Rarely used.
zoeken, zocht/zochten, gezocht ("to seek, to look for")
zeggen
The verb zeggen ("to say") is weak, but is often conjugated irregularly in the past. There is also a regular conjugation, which is more common in the south. In some dialects, a similar conjugation is followed for leggen'' ("to lay").
Irregular: , /, . The irregular form of the past is .
Regular: , /, . The regular form of the past is .
References
Conjugation
Indo-European verbs
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney%20Allard
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Sydney Allard
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Sydney Herbert Allard (19 June 1910 – 12 April 1966) was the founder of the Allard car company and a successful rally driver and hillclimb driver in cars of his own manufacture.
Trials, hillclimbs, rallies, and road racing
Born in London, England, Sydney grew up a member of a family owning a substantial Ford dealership, Adlard Motor, in Acre Lane Clapham.<ref group=note>Adlard Motor Group Holdings Limited, Company number 00247141 inc. 1930 (not Allard) [https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/archive/article/may-1938/36/four-seater-production-model-allard-special Motor Sport May 1938]</ref> Educated at Ardingly College in Sussex he became a staunch member of the Streatham & District Motor Cycle Club followed by his brothers Leslie and Dennis and their sister Mary. He was appointed a director of Adlard's on leaving school. He married Eleanor May in 1936. Their son, Alan, drove Allard's first British-designed dragster with such success Sydney was made first president of the British Drag Racing Association.
"Allard commenced racing in 1929 with a Morgan three-wheeler, later converted to four wheels," which he ran at Brooklands and elsewhere. On 31 August 1929 the new Cyclecar Club held a meeting at Brooklands where: "the first race was won by Sidney (sic) Allard's Morgan, at 73.37 m.p.h. from a couple of Austins." By 1933 he was competing in trials, retiring from the London-Exeter Trial that year in his Allard special, the Morgan converted by Allard to four wheels. He also retired in the London to Land's End trial.
In 1935 he won his class, for unlimited unsupercharged sports cars, at the Brighton Speed Trials in a Ford V-8. In April 1936 he won a 50-mile handicap race on the sand at Southport in his Allard V8. The Allard Special was put into limited production with Ford V8 and Lincoln V12 motors. A Ford-based special was supplied to a Mr. Gilson in 1937, while a four-seater was offered the following year. In 1937 Allard attempted to climb Ben Nevis, a mountain in Scotland, in his Allard car. The car crashed and rolled but Allard emerged with only bruising. Sydney Allard set the sports car record at the inaugural Prescott Hill Climb on 15 May 1938, driving Hutchison's V12 Lincoln-engined Allard Special in a time of 54.35 seconds. That year Allard, with Ken Hutchison and Guy Warburton in the "Tailwaggers" Allard-Special team, competed successfully in trials, sprints, rallies and races. On 15 July 1939, Allard took a class win at the Lewes Speed Trials in a time of 22.12 secs. Allard won the last speed event to be held in England prior to World War Two. Having set the fastest time at the Horndean Speed Trials, his car overturned past the finish line. Both he and his passenger, Bill Boddy, were thrown clear and uninjured.
During the Second World War Sydney Allard operated under the Ministry of Supply for the Army Auxiliary Adlards Motors' large repair shop in Fulham fixing army vehicles, including Ford trucks and Jeeps. During the bombing in 1941: "Sydney and his family had a very narrow escape recently during a raid." In 1943 he had 225 employees and was renovating more than 30 vehicles a week.
At the end of the war Allard soon returned to competition, taking part in the Filton Speed Trials on 28 October 1945. He restarted his car company, coping with petrol rationing, material shortages and export quotas. A 1947 Allard-dealer advertisement stated: "Vacancies still exist on the 1947 quota-list for early delivery of Open Two-Seater and Tourer models."
Allard won the 1949 British Hill Climb Championship at the wheel of the self-built Steyr-Allard, fitted with a war surplus air-cooled V8 engine. He was third in the Championship in 1947 and 1948, winning in 1949, second in 1950, and third again in 1951, when the Steyr-Allard was converted to four-wheel-drive.
In 1949 Allard cars won the team prize in the Monte Carlo Rally (L. Potter 4th overall, A.A.C. Godsall 8th, A.G. Imhof 11th) with Sydney Allard finishing in 24th place. In 1950 Allard finished eighth in the Monte Carlo Rally, then raced in the Targa Florio in Sicily where his Allard car crashed and burned. He bounced back with a third place at the 24 Hours of Le Mans that year, partnered with Tom Cole Jr. A gearbox failure left Allard and Cole driving for hours with top gear only. "Allard's determination and fearless driving captured the imagination of the huge crowd. The high-pitched whine of his engine earned him the nickname of 'The hissing madman.'"
An advertisement from 1950 for the Allard J2 stated: "Some overseas purchasers have preferred to fit the more powerful engines suitable for this chassis such as American Ford, Mercury, Cadillac, Ardun, Grancor etc." Sydney Allard raced an Allard J2 Chrysler in the Tourist Trophy at Dundrod Circuit in 1951. Allards were exported to the United States as rolling chassis to be fitted with a motor on arrival. In the austerity period after the Second World War Allard struggled to source the raw materials for car construction, where the emphasis was on 'export or die.' It made no sense to import American engines and gearboxes only to turn round and export them again to the United States. Allard preparations for Le Mans in 1951 were delayed as Cadillac engines were in short supply, due to GM concentrating on production for the Korean War.
Sydney Allard achieved international recognition by winning the 1952 Monte Carlo Rally in an Allard P1, with co-driver Guy Warburton and navigator Tom Lush. Starting from Glasgow he narrowly defeated Stirling Moss, in a Sunbeam-Talbot 90, who finished second overall while competing in his first rally. The P1 was powered by a 4,375 c.c. Ford V8 side-valve motor. Mrs. Eleanor Allard, Sydney's wife, also competed in this event, accompanied by her sisters Edna and Hilda, but retired.
Allard competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans in 1951, 1952 and 1953 but did not finish. In 1951 he shared a works J2 with the American driver Tom Cole and retired with gearbox failure. In 1952 he and Jack Fairman drove the works J2X, chassis number 3055, fitted with a Chrysler hemi engine, where the car retired at 6.30 a.m. having thrown a rod. In 1953 he shared a Cadillac-engined Allard J2R with Philip Fotheringham-Parker, leading the race at the end of the first lap, but on lap four he was the first to retire with collapsed rear suspension and a severed brake pipe. In 1952 and 1953 a sister car was driven at Le Mans by Zora Arkus-Duntov, a one-time Allard employee. Carroll Shelby also raced an Allard-Cadillac J2 in the United States early in his driving career. Thus the successful Allard formula of an American V8 engine in a light chassis inspired the development of the Chevrolet Corvette and the A.C. Shelby Cobra.
An article on page 140 of the book Eagle Special Investigator by Macdonald Hastings, features Sydney Allard in "Special Investigator Drives a Racing Car", published by Michael Joseph in 1953.
In 1958 Allard built a Steyr-engined sports car for sprints and hillclimbs, the motor purchased from Dennis Poore: "This Allard Special can certainly step off. It covered the top section of the Brighton kilometre at 125 m.p.h. and won its class at Shelsley Walsh and Prescott, and two classes at Stapleford." He finished third in the unlimited sports car class at the Brighton Speed Trials that year, covering the standing kilometre in 25.99 sec. "Allard's air-cooled Steyr-Allard with Lotus front wheels and very compact body was third - although a sports car, it was started by means of an external battery." The car appeared at the Prescott Hill Climb on 13 September 1959, but is believed to have been broken up.
Allard then turned his attention to a twin-engined Steyr four-wheel-drive prototype, of great complexity. "All this leads to 9 litres of motor car and a very brave Sydney Allard surrounded by chains, shafts and engines." The car featured a solidly-mounted rear axle to which he planned to mount American-type dragster slick tyres. This was an early indication of the influence of American drag racing on his designs. The car was never successfully run and soon abandoned.
The 1960s: rallying, drag racing
In the sixties Sydney Allard continued to compete in rallies mostly accompanied by Australian navigator Tom Fisk. They won their class in the 1963 Monte Carlo Rally in a Ford Allardette. Starting from Glasgow they reached Monte Carlo unpenalised. In the 1964 Monte Allard hit a level-crossing in Czechoslovakia in his Ford Cortina and retired. Allard's final outing in the Monte Carlo Rally came in 1965.
In 1961 Sydney Allard, considered by many to be the father of British drag racing, built the Allard dragster, a supercharged Chrysler-powered slingshot. Constructed in 23 weeks between January and June 1961 at Adlards Garage, Clapham, in London, the car featured a 354-cubic inch Chrysler motor with front-mounted 6-71 GMC blower. Some speed equipment for the car was imported from Dean Moon in California.
The dragster was first shown at Brands Hatch in July 1961 and then demonstrated on 24 July on the straight of the club circuit at Silverstone, sans bodywork. The gearbox failed on this occasion. The first competitive appearance was at the Brighton Speed Trials on 2 September 1961. There was talk of a new track record over the kilometre from the Allard dragster with excitement reaching fever pitch. This only led to a huge disappointment when the fuel line ruptured on the line, completing the course on four cylinders in a time of 37.91 secs. The car continued to misfire on the second attempt. This was a blow from which the reputation of the car never fully recovered. Bill Boddy, editor of Motor Sport, called it a fiasco, saying the mechanical problems had also occurred in testing at Boreham. The Autocar described the Allard dragster as a "gallant failure."
The car was then invited to appear over the standing start quarter mile at an N.S.A. record meeting at Wellesbourne Aerodrome, near Stratford-Upon-Avon, on 14 October 1961. Denis Jenkinson writing in Motor Sport said:"Sydney Allard pointed the sleek blue dragster down the quarter-mile, let in the clutch, opened up and with a sound like a large bomber going down the runway disappeared through the timing traps. Time : 10.841 sec., which made the motorcycle riders whistle a bit.
There were no arguments about the dragster's performance this time and "sack-cloth and ashes" were handed out to all dis-believers and certain Editors! [Congratulations, Sydney Allard- but a kilometre is a long quarter-mile and I still maintain that the dragster didn't live up to Allard high pressure pre-Brighton publicity.-ED.]"
Sadly few spectators witnessed this achievement. According to Jenkinson: "Allard's temperamental machine eventually did 10.48 sec on its best run," for the standing-start quarter mile, which took place at Debden, Essex on 14 April 1962. This was the fastest quarter-mile time ever recorded in the U.K.
The car was demonstrated at the Festival of Motoring at Goodwood on 14 July 1962. At Brighton on 15 September 1962 the Allard dragster clocked two runs at 22.30 and 22.04 seconds. A respectable performance but no outright win or record. Motor Sport reported: "It appears that before the end of the Brighton kilometre the Allard dragster had burst the pipe between supercharger and engine, a common problem with such an installation and the reason why the Americans bolt their blowers on the engine, eliminating a long induction pipe." Allard then went to Church Fenton "setting up the fastest s.s. kilometre achieved by a four-wheeled vehicle in this country" - 20.86 secs. "Allard also did a s.s. ¼-mile in 11.54 sec, and he crossed the line at 147.77 m.p.h. at the end of the longer distance, which rather disposes of previous claims in the 170-190 m.p.h. bracket."
In 1963 the Allard put two rods through the block on Madeira Drive in Brighton. The car turned out to be a fifties-style dragster at a time when dragster design was rapidly evolving. Tire technology, with wider purpose-built drag slicks, was pushing speeds ever higher in the U.S. By the time Mickey Thompson showed up at Brighton in 1963 with his Ford-powered Harvey Aluminum Special the Allard dragster was looking distinctly dated. But this charismatic car was the true pioneer of British drag racing and a game-changer as UK racers adopted American methods and style. Allard was instrumental in bringing Dante Duce and Mickey Thompson to England in 1963 to demonstrate their dragsters. Duce appeared at Silverstone on 10 September (press demonstration); with Thompson joining in at the Brighton Speed Trials on 14 September; Church Lawford, near Rugby, on 21 September and Debden, Essex, 22 September 1963. Sydney Allard was awarded the SEMA trophy for his performances at the races.
In January 1964 Sydney Allard launched the Dragstar Dragon, a low-cost dragster designed by John Hume, powered by a Shorrock-supercharged 1,500 c.c. Ford engine, costing under £500 in kit form. Several cars of this type were produced. Among the drivers were his son Alan Allard, Gerry Belton and Denis Jenkinson. Alan Allard and Belton demonstrated their dragsters at the 1964 Italian Grand Prix at Monza on 6 September.
Allard founded the British Drag Racing Association, launched in June 1964, and served as its President. He followed this with the International Drag Festivals held in England in 1964 and 1965, featuring US dragsters and drivers. In 1964 Don Garlits, Tommy Ivo, Tony Nancy and Dante Duce participated in the First International Drag Festival, a six-event series that did much to promote the sport of drag racing in the UK. The 1964 Drag Festival was held at the following venues: Blackbushe Airport, nr Camberley, Surrey, (twice: Sat 19 Sep, Sun 4 Oct), which was still an operational airport; RAF Chelveston, Northants, (Sun 20 September); RAF Woodvale, nr Southport, Lancashire (Sat 26 September); RAF Church Fenton, nr Tadcaster, Yorkshire, (Sun 27 September); RAF Kemble, nr Cirencester, Gloucestershire, (Sat 3 October).
The Second International Drag Festival was held at Blackbushe Airport, Sat/Sun 25/26 September 1965, and RAF Woodvale, Sun 3 October 1965. The Blackbushe event was affected by torrential rain: "Unfortunately, the Blackbushe weekend was a financial catastrophe, and though Woodvale reduced the losses considerably, it was not enough to save Drag Festivals Ltd., who were forced to go into liquidation." A second Allard-Chrysler dragster "was constructed for the 1965 Drag Festival. At the Woodvale event Alan Allard covered the standing ¼ mile in 9.30 secs-160 m.p.h. but in the qualifying run the Allard-Chrysler had reached 168 m.p.h."
Sydney Allard died at his home Blackhills, Esher, Surrey on 12 April 1966. "He had been ill for several months. The cause of death was not disclosed."
Legacy
The Hissing Madman.
That there was keen interest in drag racing was beyond doubt as hundreds turned up at Blackbushe Airport on 25 September 1966, to see a non-existent race.
In 1991 Sydney Allard was posthumously inducted into the International Drag Racing Hall of Fame.
In 2007 Sydney Allard was posthumously inducted into the British Drag Racing Hall of Fame.
There is a part of the course at Prescott Hill Climb known as Allard's Gap, sometimes shortened to Allard's. This resulted from an incident at the Bugatti Owners' Club meeting on 15 June 1947, when Sydney: "shot through the hedge at the semi-circle and landed well out in the field in the single-seater Allard."
There is an Allard bend on the Craigantlet hill climb course, near Belfast.
There is a corner named Allard just after the start at Thruxton Circuit in Hampshire.
Note
Footnotes
Bibliography
John Bolster, Specials, Pages 33–34, 39-40, G.T. Foulis & Co Ltd, Reprinted 1971.
Tom Lush, foreword by Bill Boddy, Allard, the inside story, Motor Racing Publications (Croydon), pub 1977, 207 pages,
Brian Taylor, foreword by Don Garlits, Crazy horses: the history of British drag racing'', Haynes Pub., 2009,
See also
Archie Butterworth
External links
Steyr-Allard, later run by Aussie Kerry Horan
The Allard dragster
The Allard dragster at the Brighton Speed Trials, 1963
The Allard dragster is in the National Motor Museum, Beaulieu, Hampshire, England.
1910 births
1966 deaths
People educated at Ardingly College
British hillclimb drivers
24 Hours of Le Mans drivers
Brighton Speed Trials people
World Sportscar Championship drivers
Racing drivers from London
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evelyn%20Gandy
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Evelyn Gandy
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Edythe Evelyn Gandy (September 4, 1920 – December 23, 2007) was an American attorney and politician who served as Lieutenant Governor of Mississippi from 1976 to 1980. A Democrat who held several public offices throughout her career, she was the first woman elected to a statewide constitutional office in Mississippi. Born in Hattiesburg, she attended the University of Mississippi School of Law as the only woman in her class. Following graduation, she took a job as a research assistant for United States Senator Theodore Bilbo. She briefly practiced law before being elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives, where she served from 1948 to 1952. Defeated for re-election, she worked as director of the Division of Legal Services in the State Department of Public Welfare and Assistant Attorney General of Mississippi until she was elected State Treasurer of Mississippi in 1959.
Following an unsuccessful campaign for the office of lieutenant governor in 1963, Gandy was appointed State Welfare Board Commissioner. She was re-elected State Treasurer and served again in that role from 1968 to 1972. She subsequently became insurance commissioner, and in that capacity she investigated false advertising, lobbied for the passage of a no-fault insurance law, pushed for stronger licensing requirements for insurance agents, and restructured the Mississippi Insurance Department. In 1975 she ran a successful campaign to be elected lieutenant governor, thus becoming the first woman to serve in that role in Mississippi and in the Southern United States. Following unsuccessful gubernatorial campaigns in 1979 and 1983, Gandy returned to the practice of law. She remained publicly active in women's organizations and state Democratic politics until her death in 2007.
Early life
Edythe Evelyn Gandy was born on September 4, 1920, to Kearney C. Gandy and Abbie Whigham Gandy in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, United States. Her parents encouraged her from a young age to pursue what interests she had without regard for her gender. She later credited her father, who had supported the women's suffrage movement, with being particularly supportive of her ambitions. She attended Hattiesburg High School, and in her senior year served as president of the debate club and edited the school yearbook and newspaper. Graduating from high school in 1938, she attended Mississippi Southern College before studying law at the University of Mississippi School of Law in Oxford. The only woman in her 1943 law school class, she won a state women's oratorical contest in 1941 and was the first woman to be elected president of the law school student body. She was also the first woman to edit the Mississippi Law Journal.
Following graduation from law school, Gandy sought to join the United States armed forces during World War II, but was disqualified due to nearsightedness. She then took a job as a research assistant in the office of Mississippi United States Senator Theodore Bilbo in Washington, D.C., as Bilbo was a family friend. During her employment Bilbo published a book detailing his views on racial segregation, entitled Take Your Choice: Separation or Mongrelization. Gandy was widely suspected to be the ghost writer of the work, and she later admitted to conducting most of the research for the book. In 1947, she opened a law practice. The following year she was elected treasurer of the Mississippi State Bar Association. She served as second vice president of the Hattiesburg chapter of the National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs from 1951 to 1952 and second vice president of the state chapter in 1951 before becoming first vice president the following year. She was appointed to a two-year term on the Mississippi Congress of Parents and Teachers board of managers.
Political career
Early activities
A Democrat, Gandy worked in the speaker's bureau of Paul B. Johnson Sr.'s 1939 gubernatorial campaign. She campaigned in 1947 to be elected to the Mississippi House of Representatives for the seat from Forrest County. She advocated for increased support for education, welfare, and the elderly. Billing herself as a racial segregationist, she supported the "Preservation of the customs and traditions of the South and enactment of the necessary legislation to preserve the white Democratic primary." One of her opponents, Lawrence D. Arrington, published an ad which asked "Do you believe that the legislative affairs of Forrest County can best be handled by a man or a woman?" The ad continued by suggesting that some elements of political activity would be inappropriate for a "young girl". She defeated Arrington in a primary runoff and was sworn-in in early 1948, working in the legislature for one four-year term. She closed her law practice to focus on her legislative duties but in September became a legal researcher for the State Department of Public Welfare.
In the House, Gandy was assigned to the ways and means, judiciary, eleemosynary institutions, colleges and universities, and claims committees. She introduced a successful bill to raise bond money for Hattiesburg city school construction and proposed another bill that would authorize Mississippi Southern College to establish its own nursing and law schools. She proposed other bills to establish a state department of labor and a state cosmetology board. After losing a bid for re-election to her House seat in the 1951 Democratic primary to Donald Colmer, Gandy became director of the Division of Legal Services in the Department of Public Welfare, where she served until she announced her resignation in February 1959, effective March 31.
State offices
In 1959 Gandy campaigned for election to the office of State Treasurer. Her main opponent was former Jackson mayor and investment banker Leland S. Speed. She attacked his credibility, arguing that his business connections disqualified him from handling public funds. She won, making her the first woman to be elected to a Mississippi statewide constitutional office and the second elected to a statewide office overall (after State Tax Collector Nellah Massey Bailey). On September 1, 1959, Gandy was appointed Assistant Attorney General of Mississippi by State Attorney General Joe Patterson. Serving in only a temporary capacity pending her swearing-in as State Treasurer in January 1960, she was the first woman to hold the office. She served as State Treasurer from 1960 to 1964, leaving office as state law at the time did not allow the treasurer to run for consecutive terms.
In 1963 Gandy ran for the office of Lieutenant Governor. Facing four opponents, she campaigned on her experience in government, pledging to focus on economic issues and education. She promised to treat the position as a "full time job". Framing herself as a segregationist, she supported states' rights, urging Mississippians to not support President John F. Kennedy and saying "We are now engaged in the greatest clash of Federal-State power which has occurred since the War Between the States one hundred years ago." Placing second in the first primary, she entered a runoff with the leading candidate, incumbent Carroll Gartin. He attacked her gender, with his campaign ads calling on voters to "elect a man". He won, taking 52 percent of the vote.
In 1964 Governor Paul B. Johnson Jr. appointed Gandy as State Welfare Board Commissioner. During her tenure the federal government passed the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which required that all programs which received federal funds could not discriminate based on race. Despite her own segregationist views, Gandy signed a pledge affirming that the welfare board would not discriminate and integrated the reception areas of state welfare offices. In 1965, she oversaw the launch of a monthly newsletter for the State Department of Public Welfare, The Observer. That year Johnson appointed her to the new Commission on the Status of Women. She resigned effective April 30, 1967, to prepare for a second campaign for state treasurer.
Facing no opposition in the Democratic primary or general election, Gandy was re-elected as State Treasurer and served again from 1968 to 1972. During that time, she lobbied for changes to the State Depository Act and implemented new policies which allowed public funds deposited in private banks to earn interest, enabling the state to make an additional $4 million within a year of the new measure. She also implemented a program to deposit state funds equally across banks in the state. A fiscal conservative, she opposed an attempt to amend the state constitution to allow the state to borrow more money through bond issues.
In 1971 Gandy ran for the office of insurance commissioner. Appealing more openly to women voters, her campaign distributed special emery boards. She defeated insurance salesman Truett Smith in the Democratic primary, taking the largest number of votes among any candidate for any office in the primary, and was unopposed in the general election. Upon taking office on January 17, 1972, she initiated an investigation into false advertising, lobbied for the passage of a no-fault insurance law, and pushed for enhanced advertising regulations and stronger licensing requirements for insurance agents. During her tenure the department released a training guide for agents to familiarize them with state standards. She also restructured the Mississippi Insurance Department into three divisions: one to manage insurance claims, one to conduct industry oversight, and another to handle complaints. In 1974 she introduced new fire safety rules for mobile home construction. That year declared her support for the ratification of the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA). Since she was the highest-ranking woman politician in the state, the media frequently asked her about the ERA, and she told The Clarion Ledger, "I personally favor it. But I don't believe it is a priority item for Mississippi women. There are other matters of more importance [...] such as education and health care." She held the insurance commissionership until 1976.
Lieutenant governor
With her term as insurance commissioner coming to a close, Gandy declared herself a candidate for the office of lieutenant governor in 1975. Her platform focused on improving job opportunities, particularly by expanding vocational training. She repeated her promise from 1963 that she would treat the position as "full time" and also called for government restructuring and campaign finance reform. Unlike in previous years, her campaign literature omitted any mention of her employment under Senator Bilbo. She led the first Democratic primary and won the runoff, against Brad Dye, with 52 percent of the vote. In the general election she faced Republican Bill Patrick, whom she defeated with 70 percent of the vote, thus becoming the first woman to serve as lieutenant governor in Mississippi and in the Southern United States. She was sworn-in on January 14, 1976.
As lieutenant governor, Gandy presided over the Mississippi State Senate, which during her tenure comprised 52 male members. She was responsible for appointing the body's committees and mostly reappointed past committee chairs to leadership positions. Under internal party pressure, she reappointed William G. Burgin as chairman of the Senate Appropriations Committee despite suspicions that he was misappropriating funds. She removed Burgin from his chair in September 1978 after he was indicted on federal corruption charges. The action was unprecedented and provoked the ire of other senior senators, though the issue faded after Burgin was convicted a year later. Gandy otherwise maintained good relationships with committee chairmen during her tenure, though her critics attacked her as a defender of the status quo. To pass legislation she favored, she enlisted the assistance of a group of supportive senators known as "The Gandy Boys". She guided the passage of a bill to establish the State Ethics Commission and the passage of the Sixteenth Section Reform Act of 1978, which reformed the leasing of public school lands (she cast a tie-breaking vote in favor of the latter measure). She and Aaron Henry co-chaired the state's delegation to the 1976 Democratic National Convention and supported the nomination of Jimmy Carter as the party's presidential candidate. She also served as acting governor of Mississippi for a cumulative total of 248 days when Governor Cliff Finch was out of the state. She left office on January 16, 1980.
Gubernatorial campaigns
Gandy sought the office of Governor of Mississippi in the 1979 election, campaigning on a platform of economic growth and government reform. In the Democratic primary she faced William F. Winter, John Arthur Eaves, and three other candidates. Winter denounced the "corruption and mismanagement" of Governor Finch's administration and linked Finch's troubles with Gandy. In the first primary Gandy earned about 30 percent of the vote, while Winter received 25 percent. Winter was buoyed by his image as a moderate, professional, experienced public official which stood in sharp contrast to the public's perception of Finch's time in office as haphazard. Gandy's standing was harmed by her association with Finch and the fact that she was a woman. To capitalize on the latter factor, Winter's campaign organization attempted to craft an image of "toughness" for him, and released television commercials that showed him posing with tanks at Camp Shelby and firing a gun at a Mississippi Highway Patrol weapons range. She also refused an offer to debate Winter, citing schedule conflicts, creating doubts about her political abilities. Winter won the runoff with 57 percent of the vote. Gandy subsequently rejected an offer from Winter to take a position in his administration, but several months later was hired as the director of the Office of Human Resources Planning in the Department of Mental Health. By 1981 she was Deputy for Human Resources with the Department of Health.
Gandy ran again for gubernatorial office in 1983, facing Attorney General William Allain, businessman Mike Sturdivant, and two other candidates in the Democratic primary. She made more effort to appear charismatic and friendly, altering her appearance and hiring a professional campaign strategist for the first time in her political career. She also broadcast advertisements which described her as "tough". Her platform included education reform, controlling unemployment, expanding the National Guard, improved benefits for the elderly and disabled, and opposition to in-state radioactive waste disposal. Her opponents attacked her by linking her to her previous segregationist positions, with leaflets and a reprint of a 1963 ad showing her connections to Senator Bilbo distributed. Gandy initially reacted by expressing dismay at the strategy, before saying in a press conference that "[d]efense of segregation 20, 30, or 40 years ago was wrong" and that her previous statements "certainly do not reflect" her current views on race. She attempted to garner sympathy from black voters by pointing to discrimination she had faced because of her sex. Sturdivant aired television commercials which questioned whether a woman should lead the state, leading Gandy to denounce them as "insulting the women of Mississippi and the voters of Mississippi." She led in the first Democratic primary with 38 percent of the vote. In her runoff with Allain she authorized the broadcasting of attack ads against Allain, characterizing him as unlikely to cooperate with the legislature, a misogynist, and a "one issue candidate". He won with 52.3 percent of the vote. Journalist Bill Minor later said of Gandy, "She was a victim of the syndrome in Mississippi that women would not be elevated to high political office. Apparently, lieutenant governor is the ceiling."
Later life
Following her loss in 1983, Gandy returned to legal practice, joining the firm of her friend Carroll Ingram in Hattiesburg in 1984. She rejected a suggestion from her friends that she seek gubernatorial office again in 1987 but remained publicly active in women's organizations and openly encouraged women to pursue careers as they saw fit. In 1994 she was hired as the director of legal services for Central Euro Telekom, a telecommunications company. In 1997 the American Bar Association bestowed on her the Margaret Brent Award for expanding opportunities for female attorneys. She remained involved in Mississippi Democratic politics until her death.
Gandy never married, instead enjoying the companionship of her sister, Frances. She was a distant cousin of politician Edwin L. Pittman. Gandy died on December 23, 2007, at her home near Hattiesburg after suffering from a lengthy bout of progressive supranuclear palsy. Her body lay in state in the rotunda of the Mississippi State Capitol, the first time such an honor had been granted to a woman. A memorial service was held for her in the rotunda on December 27 and a funeral was held the following day at Main Street United Methodist Church in Hattiesburg. She was buried at the city's Roseland Park Cemetery.
Legacy
In 2002 the state of Mississippi declared that it would name a portion of State Highway 42 around Hattiesburg the Evelyn Gandy Parkway. It opened in 2006. The McCain Library and Archives maintains a collection of press clippings, speeches, photographs, and personal effects spanning her career. A bust of her is on display in a Senate committee room at the Mississippi State Capitol. Her death in 2007 spawned numerous laudatory obituaries which praised her as the first woman to serve in several offices and framed her as a public servant "committed to the common people". Mississippi Governor Haley Barbour credited her with "[breaking] the glass ceiling for women in politics and government". Historian Martha Swain described the passage of the Sixteenth Section Reform Act of 1978 as "her most important legacy". An equal pay bill named in her honor, the Evelyn Gandy Fair Pay Act, was introduced in the Mississippi State Legislature in 2019 but died in committee.
See also
List of female lieutenant governors in the United States
References
Works cited
1920 births
2007 deaths
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American politicians
20th-century American women politicians
21st-century American women
Deaths from progressive supranuclear palsy
Democratic Party members of the Mississippi House of Representatives
Lieutenant Governors of Mississippi
Mississippi lawyers
People from Hattiesburg, Mississippi
State insurance commissioners of the United States
State treasurers of Mississippi
University of Southern Mississippi alumni
Women in Mississippi politics
Women state legislators in Mississippi
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History%20of%20Sheffield%20Wednesday%20F.C.
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History of Sheffield Wednesday F.C.
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The history of Sheffield Wednesday F.C., an English football club from Sheffield, dates back to the club's establishment in 1867. The club would see early regional success followed by a rocky transition to professionalism. Although it has spent the majority of its Football League years in the top flight, its position within the league has varied from the very top to almost slipping to the fourth tier.
The club has won four English League titles, three FA Cups, one League Cup and one FA Community Shield.
The 19th century
The early years
The club was initially a cricket team named The Wednesday Cricket Club after the day of the week on which they played their matches. The footballing side of the club was established to keep the team together and fit during the winter months. SWFC was born on the evening of Wednesday 4 September 1867 at a meeting at the Adelphi Hotel in Sheffield. The formation was announced two days later with the following statement in the Sheffield Independent newspaper:
SHEFFIELD WEDNESDAY CRICKET CLUB AND FOOTBALL CLUB. – At a general meeting held on Wednesday last, at the Adelphi Hotel, it was decided to form a football club in connection with the above influential cricket club, with the object of keeping together during the winter season the members of this cricket club. From the great unanimity which prevailed as to the desirability of forming the club, there is every reason to expect that it will take first rank. The office bearers were elected as follows: – President, Mr. B. Chatterton; vice-president and treasurer, Mr. F. S. Chambers; hon. Secretary, Mr. Jno. Marsh; assistant, Mr. Castleton. Committee: Messrs Jno. Rodgers, Jno. White, C. Stokes, and H. Bocking. About sixty were enrolled without any canvas, some of them being the best players of the town.
Even at this first meeting it became apparent that football would soon come to eclipse the cricketing side of the club. The formation of the football club came within a decade of the first football club in the world, Sheffield F.C., being formed. Hallam F.C. was set up shortly afterwards and by 1867 Association football was becoming very popular. The Wednesday played their first football match in October 1867 against the Mechanics Club at Norfolk Park, a game which they won by three goals and four rouges to nil.
By 1 February 1868 Wednesday were playing their first competitive football match as they entered the Cromwell Cup, a four-team competition for newly formed clubs sponsored by Oliver Cromwell, the manager of the local Theatre Royal. They went on to win the cup, beating Cromwell's own team, The Garrick Club 1–0 after extra time in the final at Bramall Lane. The match has its own place in history with Wednesday being the scorers in the first recorded instance of a "golden goal" although the term was not used at the time.
Wednesday were joined by the Clegg brothers, Charles and William in 1870. Charles became the club's first international player when he played in the very first international on 30 November 1872. William represented the Wednesday in the next international on 8 March 1873. Both players would go on to be associated with the club for the rest of their lives. Although it would be Charles who became most heavily involved in football eventually rising to become president and chairman of the Football Association. Both the Cleggs received knighthoods in later life.
In 1876 Wednesday were joined by James Lang. The directors of the club had seen him playing for Glasgow against the Sheffield FA representative side. He was subsequently invited to come to Sheffield and play for the club and given a job, working in a silversmiths owned by one of the directors, which involved no formal duties. This is now acknowledged as the first case of professionalism in the game.
Sheffield's first annual tournament, the Sheffield FA Challenge Cup, was inaugurated in 1876 and won by Wednesday who beat Heeley, their chief rivals at the time, in the final 4–3 after extra time. They would go on to also win the first Wharncliffe Cup in 1879. By this time Wednesday had become the dominant force in local football.
Rocky road to professionalism
In 1879 a number of Wednesday players were involved in a team referred to as The Zulus. The team was set up to raise funds for the families of victims of the Zulu War. They toured the north of England and Scotland but after allegations that the players were being paid, a practice that was illegal at the time, the team was forced to disband by the Sheffield FA in 1882.
In the summer of 1882, after a season in which The Wednesday reached the semifinals of the FA Cup, the cricket and football teams split permanently, and by the end of 1925 the cricket team had disbanded. In the 1880s Wednesday became a permanent fixture in the FA Cup as they attempted to move away from local competitions, however in the 1886–87 season Wednesday did not meet the deadline for entry and a revolt by several of their most skilful players followed.
Several players, all involved in the earlier Zulus controversy, temporarily left the club to play for a local works team which had managed to submit its entry on time. Later in the season the same players threatened to walk out permanently and set up a professional club called Sheffield Rovers. Wednesday's president at the time, John Holmes, was against the club turning professional, but under the immense pressure of the possibility of losing his star players he entered into talks with the rebels, eventually offering professional terms. At the meeting called to set up Sheffield Rovers, one of the rebel players, Tom Cawley, argued that Wednesday should be given one final chance and the football club duly turned professional on 22 April 1887. The initial wages were five shillings for home fixtures and seven shillings and sixpence for away games.
The Olive Grove years
The move to professionalism led to the team building their own stadium rather than playing at venues such as Bramall Lane or Sheaf House whose owners took a share of the "gate". They leased some land by the railway tracks near Queen's Road from the Duke of Norfolk and in 1887 built the Olive Grove ground. They named it so because an olive farm was bulldozed in order to build it
In 1889, when their first application to join the Football League was rejected, the club became founder members of the Football Alliance of which they were the first champions in a season that they also reached the 1890 FA Cup Final, losing 6–1 to Blackburn Rovers at The Oval. They finished the following season bottom of the Alliance but recovered to finish in fourth place in the final Alliance season. The following season they were elected to Division 1 of the Football League when it was increased from 14 to 16 clubs, topping the poll with 10 votes. They won the FA Cup in 1896, beating Wolverhampton Wanderers by a 2–1 scoreline at Crystal Palace.
The 20th century
Pre-war success
In a strong decade Wednesday won the league twice in the 1902–03 and 1903–04 seasons and the FA Cup again in 1907, beating Everton, again at Crystal Palace by two goals to one. After this a relatively fallow period was to be suffered for another two decades.
In 1929 the club officially changed its name from The Wednesday Football Club to Sheffield Wednesday Football Club under the stewardship of manager Robert Brown. However the name Sheffield Wednesday dates back as far as 1883: the former ground at Olive Grove had the name Sheffield Wednesday painted on the stand roof.
The team rose to the top of English football once again in the 1928–29 season. They had almost been relegated in the previous season but with 17 points in the last 10 matches the team pulled off the great escape, rising from bottom to 14th. Consecutive titles in the next two seasons started a run that would see the team finishing lower than third only once until 1935. The period was topped off with the team winning the FA cup for the third time in the club's history in 1935 under manager Billy Walker.
Post-war turmoil
The 50s saw Wednesday unable to consistently hold on to a position in the top flight. After being promoted back up in 1950, they were relegated a total of three times. Each time would see them bounce back up by winning the Second Division the following season. The decade ended on a high note with the team finally finishing in the top half of the First Division for the first time since World War 2. In 1958, they were the first team to play Manchester United after the Munich Air Disaster, an FA cup tie, which they lost 0–3.
This led to a decade of successfully remaining in the First Division, which included a cup run to the FA cup final in 1966. Off the field the club was embroiled in the British betting scandal of 1964 where three of their players, Peter Swan, David Layne and Tony Kay, were accused of match fixing and betting against their own team. The three were subsequently convicted and, on release from prison, banned from football for life.
Wednesday were relegated at the end of the 1969–70 season, starting arguably the darkest period in the club's history. After going into freefall they spent 5 seasons in the Third Division and the club almost suffered relegation to the Fourth Division in 1976, but a revival over the next few seasons under first, Jack Charlton and then, Howard Wilkinson, saw them reach the First Division in 1984.
The 1980s: Resurgence
Under the management of Wilkinson, Sheffield Wednesday won promotion to the First Division at the end of the 1983–84 season and would remain at this level for all but one of the next sixteen seasons. They finished fifth in the league at the end of the 1985–86 season and only missed out on a UEFA Cup place because English teams were banned from European competitions due to the Heysel Stadium disaster at this time.
Wednesday's lack of ambition at that time resulted in Wilkinson leaving in September 1988 to take charge of Leeds United who were a Second Division club at the time. Within four seasons, he had taken them to the league title. No English manager has won the top English division since.
Meanwhile, Sheffield Wednesday replaced Wilkinson with his former assistant Peter Eustace in what proved to be a disastrous appointment. He was at the helm for just four months before being sacked to make way for former West Bromwich Albion manager Ron Atkinson, who had lifted two FA Cups with Manchester United.
Wednesday's on field woes paled into insignificance in April 1989 when 97 Liverpool supporters were unlawfully killed in a crush at the Leppings Lane end of the ground in an FA Cup semi-final hosted by the club. The Hillsborough disaster remains an indelible stain on the club's history and to this day is a source of deep shame for older supporters.
The 1990s: Life at the top
Under the stewardship of chairman Dave Richards, the 1990s were to become the most successful and exciting period in Wednesday's history since the 1930s.
In Atkinson's first full season as manager, 1989–90, Sheffield Wednesday finished 18th in the First Division and were relegated on goal difference, despite the acquisition of the talented John Sheridan and the fact they had pulled towards mid-table at one stage of the season. They regained promotion at the first attempt but the real highlight of the season was a League Cup final victory over Atkinson's old club Manchester United. Midfielder Sheridan scored the only goal of the game, which delivered the club's first major trophy since their FA Cup success of 1935. Atkinson moved to Aston Villa shortly after promotion was achieved, and handed over the reins to 37-year-old striker Trevor Francis.
Wednesday finished third in the First Division at the end of the 1991–92 season, booking their place in the following season's UEFA Cup and becoming a founder member of the new FA Premier League.
1992–93 was one of the most eventful seasons in the history of Sheffield Wednesday football club. They finished seventh in the Premier League and reached the finals of both the FA Cup and the League Cup, but were on the losing side to Arsenal in both games, the FA Cup final going to a replay and only settled in the last minute of extra time. This prevented the Owls from making another appearance in European competition. Still, the 1992–93 season established Sheffield Wednesday as a top club. Midfielder Chris Waddle was voted Football Writers' Association Footballer of the Year, and the strike partnership of David Hirst and Mark Bright was one of the most feared in the country. Francis was unable to achieve further success at the club, and two seasons later he was sacked, despite the club never having finished lower than 13th during his tenure. His successor was former Luton, Leicester and Tottenham manager David Pleat.
David Pleat's first season as Sheffield Wednesday manager was frustrating, as they finished 15th in the Premiership despite an expensively-assembled line-up which included the likes of Marc Degryse, Dejan Stefanovic and Darko Kovacevic – who all had disappointing and short-lived tenures at the club. An excellent start to the 1996–97 season saw the Owls top the Premiership after winning their first four games, and David Pleat was credited Manager of the Month for August 1996. But the club failed to mount a serious title challenge and they faded away to finish seventh in the final table. Pleat was sacked the following November with the club struggling at the wrong end of the Premiership, and Ron Atkinson briefly returned to steer the Owls clear of relegation.
At the end of the 1997–98 season, Ron Atkinson's short-term contract was not renewed and Sheffield Wednesday turned to the Barnsley boss Danny Wilson as their new manager after being given the backword by both Gerard Houllier and Walter Smith who joined Liverpool and Everton respectively. Wilson's first season at the helm brought a slight improvement as they finished 12th in the Premiership. An expensively assembled squad including Paolo Di Canio, Benito Carbone and Wim Jonk failed to live up to its massive wage bill and things eventually came to a head when Italian firebrand Di Canio was sent off in a match against Arsenal and proceeded to push the referee to the ground on his way off, resulting in an eleven match ban from which he never returned. Danny Wilson was sacked the following March with relegation looking a certainty for the Hillsborough club, following a disastrous season where they had been hammered 8–0 by Newcastle United as early as September. His assistant Peter Shreeves took temporary charge but was unable to stave off relegation.
The 21st century
Relegation to League One
Peter Shreeves remained at Sheffield Wednesday for the 2000–01 season as assistant to their new manager Paul Jewell. But Jewell was unable to mount a promotion challenge and he was sacked the following February with the Owls hovering just above the Division One relegation zone. Shreeves was given a permanent contract to take charge of the first team and he guided them to a 17th-place finish. After another bad start in 2001–02, he handed the reins over to assistant Terry Yorath. Wednesday finished just two places above the Division One relegation zone and the only bright spot of the season was a run to the semifinals of the League Cup.
Yorath resigned in October 2002 after Wednesday made a terrible start to the 2002–03 season, and in came Hartlepool manager Chris Turner – a former Owls goalkeeper – as his successor. Turner made a big effort to rejuvenate the side and there were some impressive results during the final weeks of the season, but a failure to beat Brighton in the penultimate game of the season condemned them to relegation.
Before the start of season 2003–04, local nightclub and casino owner, Dave Allen swapped his directorship role with Geoff Hulley to become chairman. Turner was optimistic of an immediate return to Division One, but this was not to be. Wednesday finished 2003–04 in 16th place in Division Two, with the lowest goals tally in the division (48). It was the lowest ebb of the club's history, rivalled only by the 1975–76 season, where Wednesday finished in 20th place in the same division with the same number of points as in the 2003–04 season. Turner was sacked after a poor start to the 2004–05 Coca-Cola League One campaign, and replaced by former Plymouth and Southampton manager Paul Sturrock.
Return to the Championship
Sturrock revitalised Sheffield Wednesday's fortunes and they finished fifth in League One at the end of the 2004–05 season, qualifying for the promotion playoffs. They defeated Brentford 3–1 on aggregate in the semifinals, moving them into the playoff final on 29 May 2005 at the Millennium Stadium. 41,000 Wednesdayites descended on Cardiff for what was the biggest game in twelve years for the club. They weren't to be disappointed as the Owls took a 1–0 lead through Jon-Paul McGovern on the stroke of halftime. However, Hartlepool fought back and took a 2–1 lead with 20 minutes of the game remaining. Sturrock made a brave triple substitution bringing on 18-year-old striker Drew Talbot and the Owls' top scorer of the season, Steve MacLean (who had been out injured for the previous three months and had not kicked a ball). They combined with 10 minutes left as the Owls levelled the game 2–2. Talbot was adjudged to have been pushed down inside the box and Sheffield Wednesday were awarded a controversial penalty, which also resulted in the dismissal of Hartlepool player Westwood. MacLean duly slotted home the resultant penalty. They went on to win 4–2 after extra time, goals from Glenn Whelan and Drew Talbot, achieving promotion to the Championship.
On 17 April 2006, Sheffield Wednesday retained their place in the Championship with two matches remaining, with a 2–0 away win at Brighton, condemning Brighton, Millwall and Crewe to the drop in the process. Wednesday went on to finish the season in 19th place, 10 points clear of the relegation zone. They were statistically the best supported team in the Championship; their average home league attendance of 24,853 marginally beat newly relegated Norwich with 24,833.
Brian Laws and Alan Irvine
Despite having been awarded a new four-year contract just five weeks earlier, Sturrock was sacked after a slow start to the 2006–07 season. His replacement was the former Scunthorpe United boss Brian Laws. Wednesday finished the season ninth in the Football League Championship, just four points short of the playoffs.
On 25 June 2007, the River Don burst its bank during a period of severe weather in the area, and the whole ground was flooded with several feet of water. The changing rooms, restaurants and kitchens and boardroom were all flooded, as well as the shop; many local houses were also affected. The club and ground remained closed for the rest of June. On 6 July, the club issued a statement confirming that the pitch would be ready in time for a pre-season friendly match against Birmingham City on 4 August.
A disastrous start of six consecutive league defeats meant the club spent the 2007–08 season battling against relegation and went into the final match of the season against Norwich City knowing that defeat could send them down. After conceding first, a 4–1 victory in front of 36,208 spectators brought much needed relief. This was the Football League's highest attendance of the season and provided a fitting stage for Dion Dublin's final game. He received a standing ovation from all parts of the ground when substituted in the 66th minute.
Season 2008–09 saw Wednesday's first Sheffield derby win double in 95 years and a mid-table finish brought fresh hope for the coming season. But after a run of poor results, Laws left the club by mutual consent in December 2009. He was replaced in January by the former Preston North End boss Alan Irvine. Irvine won the January Championship Manager of the Month award, but the form was not sustained and the club was relegated after failing to beat Crystal Palace in front of 37,121 on the final day of the season.
Change of ownership structure
The relegation triggered the resignation of chairman Lee Strafford. Stepping into the breach was former Wednesday player and manager Howard Wilkinson, making it clear that this would be an interim measure.
In July and September 2010 winding up petitions instigated by HMRC were successfully fought off but in November 2010 a third winding up order threatened the club's existence. The High Court's patience was clearly wearing thin but CEO Nick Parker succeeded in securing a stay of execution after Deputy Prime Minister and Sheffield Hallam MP, Nick Clegg, helped persuade the club's main creditor, the Co-operative Bank, to grant more time to find a buyer.
Shortly afterwards, Leicester City chairman Milan Mandarić agreed to purchase the club. The purchase was completed the following month after an Extraordinary General Meeting of Wednesday's shareholders during which 99.7% of shareholders voted to sell the company to Mandarić's UK Football Investments for £1. Mandarić agreed to settle the club's outstanding debts as part of the deal and stepped down as chairman of Leicester City. For the first time in the club's history, the whole of the share base was now controlled by a single entity.
The Milan Mandarić Era
On the field, the club was failing to make its mark in League One and Irvine was replaced by Gary Megson, son of former Owls captain Don Megson, and twice previously a player for the club. Megson failed to salvage the season and the club ended in a disappointing 15th place, lower than when he had taken over.
Season 2011–12 marked the start of a change in the club's fortunes but, after a late dip in form, Megson was controversially replaced by former Cardiff City manager Dave Jones despite having just led Wednesday to what proved to be a season defining Sheffield derby win and with the club lying in third place. Jones carried on Megson's good work and completed the season unbeaten with ten wins and two draws, picking up two consecutive League One Manager of the Month awards. The final match of the season against Wycombe Wanderers attracted 38,082 spectators to Hillsborough to watch Wednesday achieve the victory needed to finish second in the division, clinching promotion at the expense of local rivals Sheffield United who subsequently lost an epic penalty shoot-out in the promotion playoff final to Huddersfield Town at Wembley.
With one of the lowest playing budgets in the Championship, 2012–13 season was one of survival and, with judicious loan signings, Jones steered the club to an 18th-place finish in one of the toughest Championship seasons in history with fourth bottom club Barnsley needing 55 points to survive.
With no appreciable improvement in the budget, 2013–14 season was again proving to be a struggle and, with only one league win and the club second bottom, Jones was sacked at the start of December. Coach Stuart Gray was named caretaker manager and, after a good run of results, was finally given the job permanently. The length of contract remained confidential and, with a departure from club tradition, Gray was given the job title of head coach. For the third consecutive season Wednesday finished in a higher league position than the previous season.
Season 2014–15 was preceded by a story in the French newspaper, L'Equipe, of the imminent takeover of Wednesday by Hafiz Mammadov, an Azerbaijani industrialist and effective owner of RC Lens. With the Sheffield public hungry for news, Mandarić, perhaps unwisely, confirmed the takeover before its completion and announced a shirt sponsorship deal with the supposed new ownership. Mammadov subsequently failed to fulfil his legal obligations within the terms of the takeover agreement and Mandarić called time on the deal, instructing the club's lawyers accordingly. Embarrassingly, shirts had already been sold with the logo 'Azerbaijan Land of Fire' and the club decided to continue with the shirt sponsorship deal for the season, insisting that the deal was independent of the failed takeover.
Enter Dejphon Chansiri
On 29 January 2015 the club announced that an agreement had been reached between Mr Mandarić's UKFI Limited and Thai businessman Mr Dejphon Chansiri to acquire 100% of the club's shareholding. At a press conference on 2 March 2015 Mr Chansiri, whose family has a controlling interest in the Thai Union Frozen Group, announced that he had purchased the club for £37.5m and was aiming for promotion to the Premier League by 2017, the club's 150th anniversary.
Season 2014–15 ended with the club improving its league position for the fourth consecutive season despite a very poor home campaign in which only 16 league goals were scored. The final home game of the season saw a wretched defeat at the hands of Yorkshire rivals Leeds United, contrasting sharply with the previous season's 6–0 victory. Many felt that the home form was the catalyst for Stuart Gray's departure from the club in June 2015 and the appointment of Carlos Carvalhal, a widely travelled but largely unknown Portuguese coach. Carvalhal became Wednesday's first ever overseas manager/coach.
After a patchy start, season 2015–16 culminated in a creditable 6th-place finish which represented a fifth consecutive improvement in league position. Wednesday somewhat luckily defeated the playoff favourites Brighton & Hove Albion in the two legged semi-final but suffered a 1–0 defeat at the hands of Yorkshire rivals Hull City in the final, the club's first visit to the new Wembley.
Season 2016–17 ended in disappointment despite Wednesday improving their league position for the sixth consecutive season. Defeat in the playoffs at the semifinal stage by eventual winners Huddersfield Town signalled criticism in some quarters of the marked change in playing style from the previous season. After much confusion over Carlos Carvalhal's future due to conflicting press reports it was announced that he would remain in charge for the coming season although the length of his contract was not disclosed.
A disappointing start to season 2017–18 led to Carlos Carvalhal leaving the club on Christmas Eve, reviving painful memories of Derek Dooley's departure 44 years earlier. Carvalhal's replacement was Jos Luhukay, a Dutchman of Indonesian heritage who had achieved three promotions in Germany. His first match in charge was a derby at Bramall Lane against high flying Sheffield United, but against all expectations and despite having a man sent off, the team achieved its first clean sheet of the season.
Results were mixed under Luhukay and in season 2018–19, after a particularly poor run, he was sacked in December. His replacement was the experienced Steve Bruce with four promotions to the Premier League as manager under his belt. After Wednesday agreed to allow Bruce to conclude a family holiday, he eventually took over the reins in February 2019 after sterling work by Lee Bullen as caretaker, his second spell in the role. This time, Bruce's job title was team manager, a welcome change which hinted at more control over signings than that enjoyed by his immediate predecessors. Wednesday finished the season strongly and the new season was keenly anticipated, but the club was rocked by the resignation of Bruce and his coaching staff days before its start.
Yet again, Bullen successfully stepped into the breach as caretaker, and former Swansea City and Birmingham City manager, Garry Monk was next to take the hot seat in September 2019. Wednesday entered the second half of season 2019–20 in the play-off positions but facing a possible points deduction after being charged by the EFL with financial irregularities over the purchase of the stadium by Mr Chansiri. The club's form dipped significantly as 2020 progressed, with only 2 wins in 14 games before the suspension of the season in March 2020, due to the ongoing coronavirus pandemic. The season restarted in June, and the team's form didn't improve, with Wednesday losing 5 of their last 7 games to finish a disappointing 16th, down from 3rd on Christmas Day.
The threat of the points deduction hanging over the club finally materialised, as on 31 July 2020, the EFL stated that the club would start the upcoming 2020–21 season with a 12-point deficit. This was later reduced on appeal to 6 points on 4 November but with the club still second bottom of the division, Garry Monk was sacked on 9 November and replaced by the former Stoke City manager, Welshman Tony Pulis, five days later. After only ten games in charge, Pulis was replaced by the Doncaster Rovers manager Darren Moore on 1 March 2021. However, the 6 points deduction proved decisive, and Wednesday were relegated to League One after failing to beat Derby County on the last day of the season.
Despite a mixed start, a strong second half to the 2021–22 season saw Moore guide the Owls to the League One playoffs only to be eliminated by Sunderland who went on to secure promotion to the Championship after a four-year absence.
In 2022–23 Wednesday set club records in the season proper for number of points (96), longest unbeaten run (23 games) and number of clean sheets (24). They also set an EFL record in the playoff semifinal by overcoming the largest first leg deficit (four goals) to win on penalties and secured promotion at Wembley Stadium by beating South Yorkshire rivals Barnsley 1–0 in front of 74,292.
References
Sheffield Wednesday F.C.
Sheffield Wednesday F.C.
Sheffield Wednesday F.C.
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposed%20expansion%20of%20the%20Buffalo%20Metro%20Rail
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Proposed expansion of the Buffalo Metro Rail
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Since the Buffalo Metro Rail light rail was proposed in the 1970s, there have been multiple proposals for expanding the system, which is currently a single long line. Public officials, agencies and advocacy groups have created plans, with the most recent and extensive being an extension to the town of Amherst. Groups have formed on both sides of the issue.
Overview
The Citizens Regional Transportation Corporation (CRTC) promotes the implementation and expansions of light-rail service for the City of Buffalo and the surrounding Buffalo/Niagara region in New York State. The CRTC recommended construction of an "Airport Corridor" and a "Tonawandas Corridor". The two proposals mentioned are a small part of the massive multi-line system, with proposals to go as far south as Hamburg and Orchard Park, as far east as Lancaster and as far north as Niagara Falls, New York. Many of the proposed extensions would be built on abandoned railroad rights-of-way (ROW).
The existing Main Line operates as a surface line in Downtown Buffalo on an exclusive transit mall, and underground (like a subway) from the north end of Downtown to the University at Buffalo's South Campus. The CRTC used ridership on the Main Line to support its proposals for rail extensions. Early 2008 ridership levels showed double-digit increases in weekday ridership levels.
Three primary corridors are proposed, in addition to the current Main Line, with service to the north, east and south of the city. With these three corridors proposed, up to ten branches are also proposed, further penetrating the heaviest populated and heaviest travelled areas.
Stop The Metro (STM) was formed in June 2023 based in Erie County, New York and is a cooperative of community members comprised from neighboring townships Amherst, New York and Tonawanda (town), New York. They are citizens intent on bringing awareness and leading opposition to the expansion proposal currently published by the Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority.
Airport Corridor
The Airport Corridor would include the Airport Line and the Lancaster Branch.
The line would serve the region east of the City of Buffalo and is proposed to operate as far east as the Town and Village of Lancaster.
Facts and figures
Airport Line
The Airport Line is a leading candidate for expansion to the present day Metro Rail system, providing a high-speed light rail transit connection between Downtown Buffalo and the Buffalo Niagara International Airport
The original airport plans had room provided in the southwest corner of the terminal for this light rail connection to stop at the airport.
A number of potential alignments were provided, but the most common has Metro Rail trains originate behind the Buffalo City Hall on Elmwood Avenue, continuing towards Church Street, and following Church Street to Main Street. A second plan had rail cars originating at Erie Canal Harbor Station (like current Main Line trains) and following the Main Line to Church Street, where rail cars would switch to a trackbed along the north side of South Division Street. Rail cars continue along the separated trackbed along South Division Street, an abandoned railroad track bed toward the Central Terminal, and available trackage between Walden and Broadway, towards the Thruway Plaza Transit Center. From the Thruway Plaza, trains would cross Walden Avenue, and follow an abandoned trackbed, coming within a close distance of the Walden Galleria Mall, north passing the Union/George Urban shopping plaza, and onto the hotels across from the airport, and then north into the airport itself.
Later plans show an extension to this trunk line to continue across the airport grounds to terminate at the presently open Holtz Road Park & Ride lot. Due to this being added after 1995, the figures do not reflect the cost of the extension into the estimates.
In 2019, following approval of a new station on the main line at the NFTA Rail Maintenance Yard, the CTRC suggested extending the main line to serve along the Airport line, connecting to Buffalo RiverWorks, Larkinville, Buffalo Central Terminal and Walden Galleria before reaching the airport. A cost for this revised 13-mile extension was estimated at $1.4 billion.
Lancaster Branch
The Lancaster Branch is proposed to complement the Airport Line and continue further east, into the Town and Village of Lancaster.
A number of places would be served by the Lancaster Branch, most notably the Village of Depew's new Amtrak station, situated a short distance east of the present station. This move would facilitate passengers from either modes of transportation to connect with the other. NFTA Metro does not offer such a connection, using the bus system, and can prove to be an attractive opportunity to passengers that may not live close to a commercial airport, but still have access to intercity rail.
The Lancaster Line would add seven new stations to the station network, stopping at Holtz Road Park & Ride, George Urban Boulevard, Dick Road/Amtrak (Depew), Transit Road, Penora Street, Lancaster Village/Central Avenue, and Walter Winter Road (Lancaster Village Industrial Park).
Starting from the Buffalo Niagara International Airport Terminal, the Lancaster Branch would continue east, to Holtz Road, head south on Holtz (crossing Genesee Street) and then onto its own ROW until crossing Walden Avenue, in which the line would operate into the new Amtrak-Depew Station, and then east, joining the Erie County maintained Depew-Lancaster and Western Railway track bed to Lancaster's village/town line (Walter Winter Road).
Richmond Corridor
A 1973 report from the NFTA included a Richmond Cirridor. This was slated to run on the city's West Side as the Orange Line, and would terminate at the Tonawandas Corridor.
Tonawanda Corridor
The Tonawandas Corridor includes the Tonawanda Line the North Buffalo Branch, the Niagara River Line, the Belt Line East Branch and the Youngmann Branch.
The line is proposed to serve the region north of the City of Buffalo and is proposed to operate as far north as the City of Niagara Falls.
Facts and figures
Tonawanda Line
The Tonawanda Line would begin as a spur of the present Main Line, continuing from LaSalle Station in a north-western trajectory into the city of Tonawanda using the abandoned Erie Railroad trackbed through the Town of Tonawanda.
The Tonawanda Line would add eleven new stations to the network, making stops at LaSalle, Merrimac, Kenilworth (Kenmore Av.), Lincoln Park, Ellwood, Sheridan East (Belmont), Brighton, Embassy Square Park & Ride, Youngs, Cranbrook, Ives Pond, and the Tonawanda Transit Center.
Some points of interest along the way would include Embassy Square for Park and Ride services, and the BJ's/Sam's Club plaza (Twin Cities Station) near Colvin and the Twin Cities Highway.
North Buffalo Branch
The North Buffalo Branch is proposed to split from the Tonawandas Line near Merrimac Street (one stop north-west of LaSalle Station), and continue in a westerly direction on an abandoned railroad right-of-way (ROW) to as far as Elmwood Avenue.
The North Buffalo Branch would add only four stops to the station network, as the line shares a few stations with the Tonawanda Line from LaSalle Station. Stops on this line would be made at Starin, Colvin, Kenmore South (Delaware Avenue), and Elmwood (near the Home Depot plaza).
The ridership from the line would allow North Buffalo Branch riders a one-seat ride into Downtown Buffalo utilizing the Main Street line, and an easier transfer at LaSalle Station for service to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport.
The majority of the North Buffalo Line passes through a mainly residential area of North Buffalo, however the line would attract shoppers at the Kenmore South and Elmwood stations serving the highly successful Delaware Consumer Square shopping center.
Niagara River Line
The Niagara River Line is treated separately from the Tonawandas Line and the Niagara Falls Shuttle.
This extension would add a total of sixteen new stations and would share eleven stations of the Tonawanda Line and eleven stations of the Niagara Falls Shuttle for a total of thirty-eight stations.
The stations of the Niagara River Line would be expected to open at Shredded Wheat, Fort Schlosser, Electra, Echota, Occidental, LaSalle Bridge (Grand Island Bridges), 71st Street, Parkvue, Cayuga Island, Lynch Park, Green Acres, Wheatfield, Riverside Park, Gratwick, Roblin, Little River, Twin Cities (new Amtrak connection could be made here) and Tonawanda Transit Center.
This proposed section is expected to carry the fewest riders of the proposals, resulting in a very high cost per passenger for the service to run.
The benefits from having this line, however, are of particular interest to Niagara County residents and the visitors to the Niagara Falls area.
It was also envisioned that an express service could be created, utilizing the Niagara River Line and the Belt Line East Line, creating a one line travel route between Niagara Falls and the Buffalo Niagara International Airport. This alternative route would be attractive for tourists to use between the many Niagara Falls attractions and the Buffalo Niagara International Airport. Preliminary ideas also had these Niagara Falls to Airport trains able to operate "express" on the available tracks with very limited stops, usually at high boarding stops along the way (such as Downtown Niagara Falls stops and the Amtrak stop at the newly created Twin Cities station).
Belt Line East Branch
The Belt Line East Line is proposed to tie in with the Niagara Falls Shuttle, the Niagara River Line, the Tonawandas Line, and the Airport Line; in efforts to allow passengers and visitors from the Niagara County region to have a one-seat ride from their boarding stop to the Buffalo Niagara International Airport.
If built, however, intermediate stops would be made on non-express rail cars from either the North Buffalo Line, the Youngmann Line or Tonawanda Line destined for Downtown Buffalo on the Airport Line.
The Belt Line East line would add five new stations to the network.
Intermediate stops would be made at East Amherst Street, East Delavan Avenue (near the American Axle Plant), East Ferry Street, Genesee Street, Emerson Park (near the old Emerson Vocational Technical High School) and at Wildroot (known in some literature also as Scheu Park).
The construction of this line is dependent on whether the Niagara River Line is constructed. Much of the ridership would be generated from the Niagara River Line, making it a likelier candidate for expansion.
Youngmann Branch
The Youngmann Branch is proposed as an alternate to the original light rail metro extension plan to the current Main Line to continue as the Amherst Completion. This proposal minimized the need to dig additional tunnels, and use ground level and elevated rail tracks in its place.
Sharing tracks on the Tonawanda Line from LaSalle Station, the Youngmann Branch would continue in a northwestern direction until it arrived at Embassy Square, a short distance south of the Youngmann Memorial Highway (Interstate 290). From the Embassy Square Station, the Youngmann Branch would continue east along the Youngmann Highway and the Lockport Expressway (Interstate 990) until arriving at the north campus of the University at Buffalo, serving three stations while on the campus. After serving the university, it could continue to Getzville and the Audubon Business Park as in the original plans for the Main Street Line (Amherst Completion).
From Embassy Square, the Youngmann Branch would add four to eight new stations, stopping at Parker, Niagara Falls Boulevard, Sweet Home Road; at Flint Loop, Clemens Hall and the Ellicott Complex at UB; then the Audubon Industrial Park and Getzville West on extension.
Southtowns Corridor
The Southtowns Corridor would include the Southtowns Line, the Orchard Park Branch, the Hamburg South Branch, and the Fairgrounds Spur.
The line is proposed to serve the region south of the City of Buffalo and is planned to operate as far south as the Town of Hamburg.
Out of the three corridors proposed, this corridor would operate primarily as a line for residents of the area to commute to and from the City of Buffalo. Reverse commutes are beginning to be noticeable with the addition of a number of industrial parks being opened and built in the long dormant field of the past Bethlehem Steel and other steel manufacturing plants.
The Southtowns Corridor would also benefit the public in taking a number of vehicles off of the busy NYS route 5 corridor, also known as the Hamburg Turnpike. In the winter months, the Buffalo Skyway is frequently known to close down during severe ice conditions and high winds, due to its close proximity to Lake Erie terminating at the start of the Niagara River.
Facts and figures
Southtowns Line
The only light rail corridor serving the Southtowns, the Southtowns Corridor would begin in Downtown Buffalo near Lafayette Square on the current Metro Rail Tracks. The line would continue southward on Main Street, enters/exits the Cobblestone District at South Park Avenue or Perry Street, and would continue south-eastward from Louisiana Street on South Park Avenue.
Once arriving near Lee Street (South Park lift bridge), the line would turn south along the Buffalo River to a trackway near current NYS Route 5. The line would continue southward along this trackway to Rush Creek and the Athol Springs Park and Ride Station.
Once arriving at Rush Creek/Athol Springs, the train could divert to two branches; the Hamburg South Branch to the Village of Hamburg, or the Orchard Park Branch, towards Orchard Park. A spur, known in records as the Fairgrounds Spur, would operate off of the Hamburg South Branch to the Erie County Fairgrounds. The Fairgrounds Spur would be in operation during the summer season, to serve the Hamburg Fairgrounds.
New rail stations along the Southtowns Line would be located at Cobblestone, Perry, Hydraulics (Larkin Building), Ridge Road (Lackawanna), Smokes Creek, Blasdell (Roland Street), Milestrip and Rush Creek/Athol Springs.
Orchard Park Branch
Likely to be heavily used during events at Ralph Wilson Stadium, the Orchard Park Branch is within close distance to a number of the Southtowns regional shopping destinations, and to the south campus of Erie Community College.
Hamburg South Branch
Fairgrounds Branch
Other CRTC recommendations
Amherst Completion
When proposed, this was one of the lower priority lines that had the least support because of a host of factors.
The Amherst Completion section of the current Main Line was proposed to begin at the University (Metro Rail) and continue underneath Main Street and North Bailey Avenue, to continue as an elevated line near Bailey Avenue and Bettina Street in Amherst. The line would then loosely follow Eggert, continuing across the parking lots of Century Mall, Amherst Plaza, Boulevard Mall, and then take a diagonal turn, crossing Maple, descend to become a surface line and then operate along a diagonal path north of Maple to the Youngmann Expressway on its way to the University at Buffalo's North Campus.
Cost restraints due to the need for new tunneling below Main Street and a portion of Bailey Avenue and construction schedules had placed this extension in jeopardy as the least likely to be built with the CTRC proposal.
An alternate proposal, called the Youngmann Branch of the Tonawanda Corridor was proposed in its place. However, the drawback of the Youngmann Branch is that the service would not serve the south campus of the University at Buffalo, instead, requiring a transfer at LaSalle (Metro Rail).
In recent years, the NFTA, as well as the state, county, and local businesses have deemed the extension of the main line from its current northern terminus to Amherst a top priority, and funding has now been secured for an environmental study. The current NFTA proposal will implement a light-rail route along Niagara Falls Boulevard that differs from this proposal.
Facts & figures (1995 est.)
Version: Transitional Analysis
5.61 miles in length (University Station to Getzville West stations)
$207,490,000 capital cost
18,634 average weekday riders (includes traffic between North and South Campuses)
Cobblestone Loop
Proposed early in 2008, the Cobblestone Loop would be a continuation of the current Metro Rail line so that it would operate through the Cobblestone District in Downtown Buffalo and effectively serve a number of new areas.
Current design plans have trains continuing down Main Street from Erie Canal Harbor Station, and turning east onto South Park Avenue, north onto Louisiana Street and west on Perry Street to Main Street and its current route.
Stations
The extension would also add four new stations to the line:
South Park & Michigan
South Park nr. Louisiana
Perry nr. Louisiana
Perry & Michigan.
Niagara Falls Shuttle
Proposed to supplement the Niagara River Corridor's service near Downtown Niagara Falls, the Niagara Falls Shuttle is designed to service residents and tourists with safe and economical transportation, allowing passengers to park their vehicles at remote or satellite locations and use the rail line to get into Downtown Niagara Falls.
The line would be able to operate separated from the rest of the Metro Rail system, benefiting tourists and citizens alike.
An additional extension is also proposed that would continue rail cars further north, onto a section of the old Great Gorge line, made popular in early 1900s as a tourist attraction for those visiting the Niagara Falls area.
Facts and figures
Waterfront Line (Heritage Trolley)
See also
Buffalo Metro Rail
DL&W station
Niagara Frontier Transportation Authority
References
External links
Citizens Regional Transit Corporation
NFTA Metro (local public transportation)
Transportation in Buffalo, New York
Proposed public transportation in New York (state)
Light rail in New York (state)
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloth
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Sloth
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Sloths are a Neotropical group of xenarthran mammals constituting the suborder Folivora, including the extant arboreal tree sloths and extinct terrestrial ground sloths. Noted for their slowness of movement, tree sloths spend most of their lives hanging upside down in the trees of the tropical rainforests of South America and Central America. Sloths are considered to be most closely related to anteaters, together making up the xenarthran order Pilosa.
There are six extant sloth species in two genera – Bradypus (three–toed sloths) and Choloepus (two–toed sloths). Despite this traditional naming, all sloths have three toes on each rear limb-- although two-toed sloths have only two digits on each forelimb. The two groups of sloths are from different, distantly related families, and are thought to have evolved their morphology via parallel evolution from terrestrial ancestors. Besides the extant species, many species of ground sloths ranging up to the size of elephants (like Megatherium) inhabited both North and South America during the Pleistocene Epoch. However, they became extinct during the Quaternary extinction event around 12,000 years ago, along with most large bodied animals in the New World. The extinction correlates in time with the arrival of humans, but climate change has also been suggested to have contributed. Members of an endemic radiation of Caribbean sloths also formerly lived in the Greater Antilles but became extinct after humans settled the archipelago in the mid-Holocene, around 6,000 years ago.
Sloths are so named because of their very low metabolism and deliberate movements. Sloth, related to slow, literally means "laziness," and their common names in several other languages (e.g. , ) also mean "lazy" or similar. Their slowness permits their low-energy diet of leaves and avoids detection by predatory hawks and cats that hunt by sight. Sloths are almost helpless on the ground, but are able to swim. The shaggy coat has grooved hair that is host to symbiotic green algae which camouflage the animal in the trees and provide it nutrients. The algae also nourish sloth moths, some species of which exist solely on sloths.
Taxonomy and evolution
Sloths belong to the superorder Xenarthra, a group of placental mammals believed to have evolved in the continent of South America around 60 million years ago. One study found that xenarthrans broke off from other placental mammals around 100 million years ago. Anteaters and armadillos are also included among Xenarthra. The earliest xenarthrans were arboreal herbivores with sturdy vertebral columns, fused pelvises, stubby teeth, and small brains. Sloths are in the taxonomic suborder Folivora of the order Pilosa. These names are from the Latin 'leaf eater' and 'hairy', respectively. Pilosa is one of the smallest of the orders of the mammal class; its only other suborder contains the anteaters.
The Folivora are divided into at least eight families, only two of which have living species; the remainder are entirely extinct (†):
†Megalocnidae: the Greater Antilles sloths, a basal group that arose about 32 million years ago and became extinct about 5,000 years ago.
Superfamily Megatherioidea
Bradypodidae, the three-toed sloths, contains four extant species:
The brown-throated three-toed sloth is the most common of the extant species of sloth, which inhabits the Neotropical realm in the forests of South and Central America.
The pale-throated three-toed sloth, which inhabits tropical rainforests in northern South America. It is similar in appearance to, and often confused with, the brown-throated three-toed sloth, which has a much wider distribution. Genetic evidence indicates the two species diverged around 6 million years ago.
The maned three-toed sloth, now found only in the Atlantic Forest of southeastern Brazil.
The critically endangered pygmy three-toed sloth which is endemic to the small island of Isla Escudo de Veraguas off the coast of Panama.
†Megalonychidae: ground sloths that existed for about 35 million years and went extinct about 11,000 years ago. This group was formerly thought to include both the two-toed sloths and the extinct Greater Antilles sloths.
†Megatheriidae: ground sloths that existed for about 23 million years and went extinct about 11,000 years ago; this family included the largest sloths.
†Nothrotheriidae: ground sloths that lived from approximately 11.6 million to 11,000 years ago. As well as ground sloths, this family included Thalassocnus, a genus of either semiaquatic or fully aquatic sloths.
Superfamily Mylodontoidea
Choloepodidae, the two-toed sloths, contains two extant species:
Linnaeus's two-toed sloth found in Venezuela, the Guianas, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Brazil north of the Amazon River.
Hoffmann's two-toed sloth which inhabits tropical forests. It has two separate ranges, split by the Andes. One population is found from eastern Honduras in the north to western Ecuador in the south, and the other in eastern Peru, western Brazil, and northern Bolivia.
†Mylodontidae: ground sloths that existed for about 23 million years and went extinct about 11,000 years ago.
†Scelidotheriidae: collagen sequence data indicates this group is more distant from Mylodon than Choloepus is, so it has been elevated back to full family status.
Evolution
The common ancestor of the two existing sloth genera dates to about 28 million years ago, with similarities between the two- and three- toed sloths an example of convergent evolution to an arboreal lifestyle, "one of the most striking examples of convergent evolution known among mammals". The ancient Xenarthra included a significantly greater variety of species, with a wider distribution, than those of today. Ancient sloths were mostly terrestrial, and some reached sizes that rival those of elephants, as was the case for Megatherium.
Sloths arose in South America during a long period of isolation and eventually spread to a number of the Caribbean islands as well as North America. It is thought that swimming led to oceanic dispersal of pilosans to the Greater Antilles by the Oligocene, and that the megalonychid Pliometanastes and the mylodontid Thinobadistes were able to colonise North America about 9 million years ago, well before the formation of the Isthmus of Panama. The latter development, about 3 million years ago, allowed megatheriids and nothrotheriids to also invade North America as part of the Great American Interchange. Additionally, the nothrotheriid Thalassocnus of the west coast of South America became adapted to a semiaquatic and, eventually, perhaps fully aquatic marine lifestyle. In Peru and Chile, Thalassocnus entered the coastal habitat beginning in the late Miocene. Initially they just stood in the water, but over a span of 4 million years they eventually evolved into swimming creatures, becoming specialist bottom feeders of seagrasses, similar to extant marine sirenians.
Both types of extant tree sloth tend to occupy the same forests; in most areas, a particular species of the somewhat smaller and generally slower-moving three-toed sloth (Bradypus) and a single species of the two-toed type will jointly predominate. Based on morphological comparisons, it was thought the two-toed sloths nested phylogenetically within one of the divisions of the extinct Greater Antilles sloths. Though data has been collected on over 33 different species of sloths by analyzing bone structures, many of the relationships between clades on a phylogenetic tree were unclear. Much of the morphological evidence collected to support the hypothesis of diphyly has been based on the structure of the inner ear.
Recently obtained molecular data from collagen and mitochondrial DNA sequences fall in line with the diphyly (convergent evolution) hypothesis, but have overturned some of the other conclusions obtained from morphology. These investigations consistently place two-toed sloths close to mylodontids and three-toed sloths within Megatherioidea, close to Megalonyx, megatheriids and nothrotheriids. They make the previously recognized family Megalonychidae polyphyletic, with both two-toed sloths and Greater Antilles sloths being moved away from Megalonyx. Greater Antilles sloths are now placed in a separate, basal branch of the sloth evolutionary tree.
Phylogeny
The following sloth family phylogenetic tree is based on collagen and mitochondrial DNA sequence data.
Extinctions
The marine sloths of South America's Pacific coast became extinct at the end of the Pliocene following the closing of the Central American Seaway; the closing caused a cooling trend in the coastal waters which killed off much of the area's seagrass (and which would have also made thermoregulation difficult for the sloths, with their slow metabolism).
Ground sloths disappeared from both North and South America shortly after the appearance of humans about 11,000 years ago. Evidence suggests human hunting contributed to the extinction of the American megafauna. Ground sloth remains found in both North and South America indicate that they were killed, cooked, and eaten by humans. Climate change that came with the end of the last ice age may have also played a role, although previous similar glacial retreats were not associated with similar extinction rates.
Megalocnus and some other Caribbean sloths survived until about 5,000 years ago, long after ground sloths had died out on the mainland, but then went extinct when humans finally colonized the Greater Antilles.
Biology
Morphology and anatomy
Sloths can be long and, depending on the species, weigh from . Two-toed sloths are slightly larger than three-toed sloths. Sloths have long limbs and rounded heads with tiny ears. Three-toed sloths also have stubby tails about long.
Sloths are unusual among mammals in not having seven cervical vertebrae. Two-toed sloths have five to seven, while three-toed sloths have eight or nine. The other mammals not having seven are the manatees, with six.
Physiology
Sloths have colour vision, but have poor visual acuity. They also have poor hearing. Thus, they rely on their sense of smell and touch to find food.
Sloths have very low metabolic rates (less than half of that expected for a mammal of their size), and low body temperatures: when active, and still lower when resting. Sloths are heterothermic, meaning their body temperature may vary according to the environment, normally ranging from , but able to drop to as low as , inducing torpor.
The outer hairs of sloth fur grow in a direction opposite from that of other mammals. In most mammals, hairs grow toward the extremities, but because sloths spend so much time with their limbs above their bodies, their hairs grow away from the extremities to provide protection from the elements while they hang upside down. In most conditions, the fur hosts symbiotic algae, which provide camouflage from predatory jaguars, ocelots, and harpy eagles. Because of the algae, sloth fur is a small ecosystem of its own, hosting many species of commensal and parasitic arthropods. There are a large number of arthropods associated with sloths. These include biting and blood-sucking flies such as mosquitoes and sandflies, triatomine bugs, lice, ticks and mites. Sloths have a highly specific community of commensal beetles, mites and moths. The species of sloths recorded to host arthropods include the pale-throated three-toed sloth, the brown-throated three-toed sloth, and Linnaeus's two-toed sloth. Sloths benefit from their relationship with moths because the moths are responsible for fertilizing algae on the sloth, which provides them with nutrients.
Activity
Their limbs are adapted for hanging and grasping, not for supporting their weight. Muscle mass makes up only 25 to 30 percent of their total body weight. Most other mammals have a muscle mass that makes up 40 to 45 percent of their total body weight. Their specialised hands and feet have long, curved claws to allow them to hang upside down from branches without effort, and are used to drag themselves along the ground, since they cannot walk. On three-toed sloths, the arms are 50 percent longer than the legs.
Sloths move only when necessary and even then very slowly. They usually move at an average speed of per minute, but can move at a marginally higher speed of per minute if they are in immediate danger from a predator. While they sometimes sit on top of branches, they usually eat, sleep, and even give birth hanging from branches. They sometimes remain hanging from branches even after death. On the ground, the maximum speed of sloths is per minute. Two-toed sloths are generally better able than three-toed sloths to disperse between clumps of trees on the ground.
Sloths are surprisingly strong swimmers and can reach speeds of per minute. They use their long arms to paddle through the water and can cross rivers and swim between islands. Sloths can reduce their already slow metabolism even further and slow their heart rate to less than a third of normal, allowing them to hold their breath underwater for up to 40 minutes.
Wild brown-throated three-toed sloths sleep on average 9.6 hours a day. Two-toed sloths are nocturnal. Three-toed sloths are mostly nocturnal, but can be active in the day. They spend 90 per cent of their time motionless.
Behavior
Sloths are solitary animals that rarely interact with one another except during breeding season, though female sloths do sometimes congregate, more so than do males.
Sloths descend about once every eight days to defecate on the ground. The reason and mechanism behind this behavior have long been debated among scientists. There are at least five hypotheses: 1) fertilize trees when feces are deposited at the base of the tree; 2) cover feces and avoid predation; 3) chemical communication between individuals; 4) pick up trace nutrients in their claws, that are then ingested; and 5) favor a mutualistic relationship with populations of fur moths. More recently, a new hypothesis has emerged, which presents evidence against the previous ones and proposes that all current sloths are descendants from species that defecated on the ground, and there simply has not been enough selective pressure to abandon this behavior, since cases of predation during defecation are actually very rare.
Diet
Baby sloths learn what to eat by licking the lips of their mother. All sloths eat the leaves of Cecropia.
Two-toed sloths are omnivorous, with a diverse diet of insects, carrion, fruits, leaves and small lizards, ranging over up to . Three-toed sloths, on the other hand, are almost entirely herbivorous (plant eaters), with a limited diet of leaves from only a few trees, and no other mammal digests its food as slowly.
They have made adaptations to arboreal browsing. Leaves, their main food source, provide very little energy or nutrients, and do not digest easily, so sloths have large, slow-acting, multi-chambered stomachs in which symbiotic bacteria break down the tough leaves. As much as two-thirds of a well-fed sloth's body weight consists of the contents of its stomach, and the digestive process can take a month or more to complete.
Three-toed sloths go to the ground to urinate and defecate about once a week, digging a hole and covering it afterwards. They go to the same spot each time and are vulnerable to predation while doing so. Considering the large energy expenditure and dangers involved in the journey to the ground, this behaviour has been described as a mystery. Recent research shows that moths, which live in the sloth's fur, lay eggs in the sloth's feces. When they hatch, the larvae feed on the feces, and when mature fly up onto the sloth above. These moths may have a symbiotic relationship with sloths, as they live in the fur and promote growth of algae, which the sloths eat. Individual sloths tend to spend the bulk of their time feeding on a single "modal" tree; by burying their excreta near the trunk of that tree, they may also help nourish it.
Reproduction
The pale- and brown-throated three-toed sloths mate seasonally, while the maned three-toed sloth breeds at any time of the year. The reproduction of pygmy three-toed sloths is currently unknown. Litters are of one newborn only, after six months' gestation for three-toed, and 12 months' for two-toed. Newborns stay with their mother for about five months. In some cases, young sloths die from a fall indirectly because the mothers prove unwilling to leave the safety of the trees to retrieve the young. Females normally bear one baby every year, but sometimes sloths' low level of movement actually keeps females from finding males for longer than one year. Sloths are not particularly sexually dimorphic and several zoos have received sloths of the wrong sex.
The average lifespan of two-toed sloths in the wild is currently unknown due to a lack of full-lifespan studies in a natural environment. Median life expectancy in human care is about 16 years, with one individual at the Smithsonian Institution's National Zoo reaching an age of 49 years before her death.
Distribution
Although habitat is limited to the tropical rainforests of Central and South America, in that environment sloths are successful. On Barro Colorado Island in Panama, sloths have been estimated to constitute 70% of the biomass of arboreal mammals. Four of the six living species are currently rated "least concern"; the maned three-toed sloth (Bradypus torquatus), which inhabits Brazil's dwindling Atlantic Forest, is classified as "vulnerable", while the island-dwelling pygmy three-toed sloth (B. pygmaeus) is critically endangered. Sloths' lower metabolism confines them to the tropics and they adopt thermoregulation behaviors of cold-blooded animals such as sunning themselves.
Human relations
The majority of recorded sloth deaths in Costa Rica are due to contact with electrical lines and poachers. Their claws also provide another, unexpected deterrent to human hunters; when hanging upside-down in a tree, they are held in place by the claws themselves and often do not fall down even if shot from below.
Sloths are victims of animal trafficking where they are sold as pets. However, they make very poor pets, as they have such a specialized ecology.
The Sloth Institute Costa Rica is known for caring, rehabilitating and releasing sloths back into the wild. Also in Costa Rica, the Aviarios Sloth Sanctuary cares for sloths. It has rehabilitated and returned about 130 individuals to the wild. However, a report in May 2016 featured two former veterinarians from the facility who were critical of the sanctuary's efforts, accusing it of mistreating the animals.
References
External links
Clawed herbivores
Folivores
Pilosans
Extant Rupelian first appearances
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scarborough%20Castle
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Scarborough Castle
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Scarborough Castle is a former medieval royal fortress situated on a rocky promontory overlooking the North Sea and Scarborough, North Yorkshire, England. The site of the castle, encompassing the Iron Age settlement, Roman signal station, an Anglo-Scandinavian settlement and chapel, the 12th-century enclosure castle and 18th-century battery, is a scheduled monument of national importance.
Fortifications for a wooden castle were built in the 1130s, but the present stone castle dates from the 1150s. Over the centuries, several other structures were added, with medieval monarchs investing heavily in what was then an important fortress that guarded the Yorkshire coastline, Scarborough's port trade, and the north of England from Scottish or continental invasion. It was fortified and defended during various civil wars, sieges and conflicts, as kings fought with rival barons, faced rebellion and clashed with republican forces, though peace with Scotland and the conclusion of civil and continental wars in the 17th century led to its decline in importance.
Once occupied by garrisons and governors who often menaced the town, the castle has been a ruin since the sieges of the English Civil War, but attracts many visitors to climb the battlements, take in the views and enjoy the accompanying interactive exhibition and special events run by English Heritage.
History
Early history of the site
Archaeological excavations in the 1920s produced evidence which suggests a hill fort was built on the headland where the castle now stands. Finds were dated to between 900–500 BC, part of the late Bronze Age/early Iron Age. Among finds dating back about 3,000 years, a Bronze Age sword, thought to have been a ritual offering, is on display in the castle exhibition.
A 4th-century Roman signal station, one of several on the Yorkshire coast, was built on the headland at the cliff top. The station was to warn of approaching hostile vessels, and took advantage of a natural source of fresh water which became known as the "Well of Our Lady". The remains of the signal tower were excavated in the 1920s revealing it to be square in plan around a small courtyard. It measured about 33 metres across and was built of wood on stone foundations with a gatehouse and an outer ditch.
The Anglo-Saxons built a chapel on the station site around the year 1000, the remains of which are still visible. This is reputed to have been destroyed during the invasion of Harald Hardrada in 1066. A much later Icelandic poem claims that a Viking settlement around the harbour was burnt down in 1066 by Hardrada's forces, who built a large bonfire on the headland to supply burning brands to hurl at the villagers below. However, there is no archaeological evidence of such an event, nor any of the Viking presence. The first evidence of the harbour settlement coincides with the establishment of the stone castle around 1157–1164. This grew from a small settlement around a wooden fortress which the stone castle replaced.
Development and decline
William le Gros, Count of Aumale, a powerful Anglo-Norman baron and grand-nephew of William the Conqueror, built a wooden fortification after his receipt of the Earldom of York, from King Stephen in 1138, granted as reward for his victory at the Battle of the Standard. Aumale may have re-founded the town of "Scardeburg", though there is little evidence of this. As with other castles, there would have been at least a small settlement nearby. Some information on the establishment of the castle has survived in the chronicle of William of Newburgh, a monk who in the 1190s wrote about its foundation. The castle had a gate tower, curtain wall, dry moat and chapel. This motte and bailey castle subsequently disappeared, with only the small, raised mound of the motte visible in the inner bailey today.
The fate of the original fortifications is unclear. Henry II ordered that all royal castles be returned to the Crown. He had a policy of destroying adulterine castles, built without royal permission, during Stephen's chaotic reign. Initially, Aumale resisted the call to hand over Scarborough, which he had built on a royal manor, until Henry's forces arrived at York. The wooden castle vanished – William of Newburgh, writing near the time, claimed that the structure had decayed through age and the elements, battered beyond repair on the windswept headland. Later interpretations view this as implausible and argue that Henry wanted to stamp his mark on Scarborough, by demolishing William's fort and creating a much stronger stone complex.
From about 1157, Henry II rebuilt the castle using stone. Much of the building work occurred between 1159 and 1169, when the three-storey keep was built and a stone wall replaced the wooden palisade protecting the inner bailey. By the end of Henry's reign in 1189, a total of £682, 15 shillings and threepence had been spent on the castle, of which £532 was spent between 1157 and 1164. Henry's average annual income during his reign was about £10,000. The castle became a strategic northern stronghold for The Crown. Henry II granted the town that had grown up beneath the fortress, the title of Royal Borough.
While Richard I (reigned 1189–1199) had spent nothing on the castle, his brother King John (reigned 1199–1216) ensured that it was a comfortable residence for himself and his retinue. John's rule was strongly opposed by the northern barons, so the castle at Scarborough was fortified as a strategic stronghold. John visited the castle four times during his reign, and spent a considerable sum on the castle. He built the curtain wall on the west and south sides during 1202–1212, and a new hall called the "King's Chambers", later Mosdale Hall. In total, John spent £2,291, three shillings and fourpence on the castle. This included £780 that was earmarked for repairing the roof of the keep in 1211–1212; John spent more on the castle than any other monarch. The Pipe Rolls, records of royal expenditure, show that John spent over £17,000 on 95 castles during his reign spread, and Scarborough received the most investment.
Improvements continued under Henry III (reigned 1216–1272). By this time, Scarborough was a thriving port, and though he never visited the castle, Henry spent a considerable sum on its upkeep. Around 1240–1250, he installed a new barbican consisting of two towers flanking the gateway, with another two towers protecting the approach. These were completed in 1343, although have been much-modified since. At this time, the castle was a powerful base which an unscrupulous governor could abuse: Geoffrey de Neville, who was governor for 20 years in the 13th century, used the garrison to seize port goods. Since governors were not required to reside in the castle, they often pocketed funds rather than used them for repairs. By the mid-to-late 13th century, the defences were decaying, floorboards rotted, roof tiles were missing and armouries bare of weaponry. Corruption continued among the castle's custodians, who acted with impunity as the castle was outside the jurisdiction of the borough. In the 1270s, governor William de Percy blocked the main road into Scarborough and imposed illegal tolls.
Despite its decline, in 1265 the castle was committed to Prince Edward, later Edward I (reigned 1272–1307), who held court there in 1275 and 1280. In 1295, hostages from his campaigns to subjugate Wales were held at the castle.
Piers Gaveston besieged, 1312
Henry de Percy, who occupied the castle from 1308, had a bakehouse, brewhouse and kitchens built in the inner bailey. and the castle was once again made into a major fortification. Edward II (reigned 1307–1327) imprisoned some of his Scottish enemies there in 1311. In 1312 he gave Isabella de Vesci the castles of Bamburgh and Scarborough. The castle was considered to be the natural place for the king's favourite knight, the Gascon Piers Gaveston, to seek sanctuary when pursued by the barons who had imposed the Ordinances of 1311. The Ordinances were imposed to curb the King's power, and the barons saw Gaveston as a threat to their interests. Sir Robert Felton was governor of Scarborough Castle in 1311 and was slain at Stirling in 1314. In April 1312, Edward made Gaveston the governor of Scarborough Castle, but his tenure would be brief. In May, the Earls of Pembroke and Warenne, together with Henry de Percy, besieged and took the castle. Despite its strong defences, it fell quickly due to lack of provisions. Gaveston was promised safe escort from the castle, but on the journey south was captured by the Earl of Warwick and killed. Scarborough fared little better; Edward punished the town for not supporting Gaveston by revoking its royal privileges and placing it under the direct rule of appointed governors.
Further assaults and decay, 1318–1635
At the time of the Hundred Years War (1337–1453), Scarborough was an important port for the wool trade, so was attacked several times by enemy forces. With rumours of a French invasion, a 1393 inquiry into the state of the castle led to repairs being carried out in 1396 and 1400. Henry VI (reigned 1422–1461; 1470–1471) ordered major repairs between 1424 and 1429. Richard III (reigned 1483–1485) was the last monarch to enter its grounds. He resided at the castle in 1484 while forming a fleet to fight the Tudors, a struggle he lost along with his life the following year.
After assaults by forces from France and Scotland in the early 16th century, in 1536 Robert Aske unsuccessfully tried to take the castle during the Pilgrimage of Grace, a revolt against the Dissolution of the Monasteries and Henry VIII's (reigned 1509–1547) break with the Roman Catholic Church. Repairs were made in 1537, and in 1538 some of the lead of the towers was used by the keeper, Sir Ralph Eure (Evers), to make a brewing vessel; Eure reported that some of the walls had fallen down. In 1557, forces loyal to Thomas Wyatt the younger, who opposed Mary I (reigned 1553–1558) and Catholicism, took the castle by entering disguised as peasants. Their leader, Thomas Stafford, held the castle for three days, and was subsequently executed for high treason on Tower Hill.
Civil War sieges, 1642–1648
In September 1642, at the outbreak of the English Civil War (1642–1651), Sir Hugh Cholmley occupied the castle as a Parliamentarian loyal to Oliver Cromwell but swapped sides in March 1643. The castle was refortified on Cholmley's orders, including the establishment of the South Steel Battery for artillery. After Cholmeley's defection, the castle, with its garrison of 700 Royalist soldiers, the town and its strategic supply port were on the side of Charles I. (reigned 1625–1649) The Parliamentarians saw Scarborough as a valuable Royalist target because it was the only port not under their dominion.
On 18 February 1645, Sir John Meldrum took the town from the Royalists, cutting off any escape routes by land or sea and delivering the port for Parliament. The same day, Cholmley retreated into the castle and refused to give in, so the Parliamentarians prepared for what would be a five-month siege – one of the most bloody of the Civil War, with almost continuous fighting. The Parliamentary forces set up what was then the largest cannon in the country, the Cannon Royal, in the 12th-century St. Mary's Church below the castle, and proceeded to fire cannonballs that pounded the castle's defences. In turn, the church was extensively damaged over the three days of fighting. The bombardment partially destroyed the castle keep, but the outer walls were not breached. The Parliamentary forces were unable to take the castle and there followed a period of particularly bloody hand-to-hand fighting around the barbican gateway in which Sir John Meldrum was killed.
By July the tide was turning in the Parliamentarians' favour: bombardment, scurvy, lack of water, perhaps a shortage of gunpowder and the threat of starvation and only 25 men fit to fight meant that the castle surrendered on 25 July 1645. Only about half of the original 500 defenders emerged alive. Subsequently the castle was repaired and rearmed for Parliament with a company of 160. Matthew Boynton, the castle's new governor, declared for the king on 27 July 1648 when the soldiers went unpaid. This led to a second siege which brought the castle back under Parliamentary control on 19 December, when the garrison was defeated as much by the oncoming winter as by the Parliamentary forces. The castle changed hands seven times between 1642 and 1648. The castle was later used as a prison for those who were deemed to be enemies of the Commonwealth of England, the country's brief period of republicanism; the shell of the keep survives, minus the west wall, which was destroyed in the bombardment. The castle was returned to the Crown following the restoration of the monarchy in 1660.
From 1660
The castle was used as a prison from the 1650s, and the garrison increased in 1658, and in 1662 it returned to the Crown. George Fox (1624–1691), founder of the Religious Society of Friends was imprisoned there from April 1665 to September 1666 for religious activities viewed as troublesome for Charles II (reigned 1660–1685). The castle declined again: James II (reigned 1685–1688) did not garrison it, he gambled that its defences would be sufficient to resist any Dutch invasion, but the town was seized for William of Orange during the Glorious Revolution that ousted James.
The Jacobite Rebellion of 1745, a series of uprising aimed at restoring the Catholic House of Stuart to the throne, saw the castle refortified with gun batteries and barracks for 120 officers and men by 1746. The keep was used as a powder magazine, storing gunpowder, and the South Steel Battery was rebuilt. A barracks, containing twelve apartments accommodated 120 soldiers. Three batteries were built to protect the town and harbour. Two faced south and the other was on the north side of the castle yard. In 1748, the Master Gunner's house was constructed and served as accommodation until the early 20th century and today hosts the exhibition on the castle. The castle saw no action during this time. Later still, the threat of French invasion during the Napoleonic Wars led to the permanent establishment of a garrison, which remained until the mid-19th century; French prisoners were held at the castle during 1796.
During the First World War, Scarborough was used for British propaganda purposes after the bombardment of the town by two warships of the German Empire, SMS Derfflinger and SMS Von der Tann, on 16 December 1914. The raid killed 19 people and damaged the castle's keep, barracks and curtain walls. The castle was severely damaged by the hail of 500 shells directed at it and the town. The barracks were demolished due to the extensive damage wrought by the bombardment. In the Second World War, the castle served as a secret listening post.
Features
The castle's location takes advantage of a naturally defensive site on a headland with steep cliffs, high, on three seaward sides. The promontory is joined to the mainland by an isthmus, where a ditch or moat was cut, and a wall or palisade with a gatehouse built on the southwest landward side. The stone curtain wall dates from the late 12th and early 13th centuries when it was strengthened by the addition of twelve round towers at intervals on its length. The wall does not surround the inner buildings of the castle. The entrance consists of a barbican, or fortifications to protect the gateway, completed in the 14th century and flanked by two half-circular towers on high ground. Modifications to the barbican have removed evidence of a portcullis and its grooves. The barbican stands in the place of a 12th-century fortification built close to the remains of an 11th-century Anglo-Saxon chapel.
Beyond the main gateway, a stone bridge, built between 1337 and 1338, to replace two drawbridges, leads to the baileys or courtyards. It leads to the inner bailey, which was used for workshops, offices, a kitchen, and a storage area. Usually a castle's inner bailey is accessed through the outer bailey. However, the opposite is the case at Scarborough.
The 12th-century keep and the castle's well lie within the inner bailey. The keep, with its entrance on the first floor, survives as a shell, with the west wall, interior floors and roof missing, as a result of bombardment in the 17th century. With its sloping plinth to aid defence, flat roof and four turrets, this square four-storey building was over . The walls range from in thickness, the west wall being strongest, and there are several windows, some blocked up along its length. The corners have decorative rounded mouldings. There are the remains of a hearth in the west wall on the first floor, which comprised a single Great Hall, where the occupants ate and often slept. The second and third floors were each divided into two rooms for important visitors or the governor, and the basement was a storage area. Late 20th-century resistivity surveys of the inner bailey have traced the outlines of more 12th-century buildings.
The baileys are separated by a stone wall, ditch and bank, with two defended gateways.
The larger outer bailey would have seen entertaining events staged, vegetables grown, and animals kept; there was a graveyard and St. Mary's Chapel, which has completely disappeared, though the remains of the old Anglo-Saxon chapel on the site of an old Roman signal station can still be seen. A 12th-century medieval building, in length, stood in the outer bailey to accommodate royal visitors. It consisted of a long hall and private chamber with a fireplace used by the monarch, and rooms for preparing and storing food. The building was demolished sometime before a survey of 1538, which makes no mention of it: only the foundations, excavated in 1888, remain.
In the outer bailey, a building named the "King's Chambers" or Mosdale Hall, after a 14th-century governor responsible for upgrading it, is an example of how the castle has been altered over the years. Originally built in the 13th century and upgraded by Mosdale after 1397, the two-storey building adjoining the curtain wall was converted to red-brick barracks in the 18th century. After being badly damaged by German shelling in 1914, the building was demolished. The red brickwork is clearly visible next to the much earlier outer stone wall, as viewed from Scarborough's South Bay. The 13th-century Queen's Tower, in the wall nearby, also had different uses: initially luxurious accommodation with private latrines, a porch and large windows with bay views were added in 1320. Two of these windows were later blocked up and one was changed to a cupboard with a rubbish chute. The Master Gunner's House, built in 1748, served as accommodation until the last on site caretaker, Hudson Rewcroft, retired in 1965. His nephew, Ted Temple shares his story of being the last resident of The Master Gunner's House in the Scarborough Review of June 2017, page 12.
Development as a tourist attraction
During the second half of the 19th century the castle became a tourist attraction. The foundations of a medieval hall were excavated in 1888, and an 1890 photograph shows visitors using the grounds to practice archery. By 1920, the site was taken into public ownership by the Ministry of Works. The demolition of the 18th-century barracks exposed the medieval foundations of Mosdale Hall, which can still be seen.
The castle site, a scheduled ancient monument managed by English Heritage since 1984, is host to various events, usually in summertime, such as pirate and Robin Hood-themed activities and an annual Kite Festival. The castle grounds are reputed to be haunted – by three ghosts, among them a Roman soldier. The 18th-century Master Gunner's House, now a museum, has an exhibition whose centrepiece is a Bronze Age sword discovered in 1980. English Heritage invested £250,000 in making the site a tourist attraction. A visitor centre provides admission to all extant remains, and has an exhibition of artefacts from the site and viewing platforms.
Notable Governors
1270–: Geoffrey de Neville
1311–: Sir Robert de Felton (killed at Battle of Bannockburn, 1314)
1312: Piers Gaveston, 1st Earl of Cornwall (assassinated, 1312)
1312–: Isabella de Beaumont (died 1334)
1322–: Henry de Percy, 2nd Baron Percy
1537–: Sir Ralph Eure (died 1545)
1644–1645: Sir Hugh Cholmeley (Royalist)
1645–: Sir Matthew Boynton (died 1647) (Parliamentarian)
1648–: Colonel Matthew Boynton (Parliamentarian turned Royalist) (killed Wigan, 1651)
1729: William Thomson
1791: Hugh Palliser
1796–: Henry Phipps, 1st Earl of Mulgrave
See also
Castles in Great Britain and Ireland
List of castles in England
Notes
References
External links
Official webpage from English Heritage
Scarborough Castle – a medieval history project website, by Claudia J. Richardson. Contains photographs, maps and a detailed history of the Castle.
Buildings and structures completed in the 12th century
Castles in North Yorkshire
English Heritage sites in North Yorkshire
History of North Yorkshire
History of Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Ruins in North Yorkshire
Buildings and structures in Scarborough, North Yorkshire
Robin Hood
Reportedly haunted locations in North East England
De Vesci family
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